Comparison of Quantitative and Qualilative Research Methods

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CHAPTER – 9 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Topics Covered 9.1 Concept of Data Collection 9.2 Types of Data 9.3 Issues to be Considered for
Data Collection 9.4 Methods of Primary Data Collection 9.4.1 Questionnaire Method 9.4.2
Interviews Method 9.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 9.4.4 Participatory Rural Appraisal/
Assessment (PRA) 9.4.5 Rapid Rural Appraisal/ Assessment (RRA) 9.4.6 Observation Method 9.4.7
Survey Method 9.4.8 Case Study Method 9.4.9 Diaries Method 9.4.10 Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) 9.4.11 Activity Sampling Technique 9.4.12 Memo Motion Study 9.4.13 Process Analysis 9.4.14
Link Analysis 9.4.15 Time and Motion Study 9.4.16 Experimental Method 9.4.17 Statistical Method
9.5 Methods of Secondary Data Collection 9.6 Methods of Legal Research
Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

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9.1 CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component
of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities,
business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then
translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to
questions that have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data
(quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of
research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly
developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors
occurring. Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can
have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not
be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough
planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully.
Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a
sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the
data from the selected sample.
9.2 TYPES OF DATA Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in
nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always),
such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something. Qualitative
approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructured methods
of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative questions are open-ended. Qualitative
methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good
for further exploring the effects and unintended consequences of a program. They are, however,
expensive and time consuming to implement. Additionally the findings cannot be generalized to
participants outside of the program and are only indicative of the group involved. Qualitative data
collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to
understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of
their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-
based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design
of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods
are characterized by the following attributes -  they tend to be open-ended and have less
structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or
dropping techniques or informants);  they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents
may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the
reliability of data;  they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results);

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 generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study
produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different
studies of the same issue. Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative
study takes a great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data
thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and
other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories -  In-depth interview  Observation methods  Document review. Quantitative Data:
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed. Quantitative data
measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale
and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes measurements of something. Quantitative
approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic standardized approach and
employ methods such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage
that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the
size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their
capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences. It is
important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection approaches often prove
to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous
implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow up rates
are commonly experienced factors. The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random
sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined
response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If
the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will
employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies
include -  Experiments/clinical trials.  Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting
the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).  Obtaining relevant
data from management information systems.  Administering surveys with closed-ended questions
(e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).  In quantitative research (survey
research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the
researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a
distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and
therefore gain their cooperation.  Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of
people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are
anonymous. Mixed Methods: Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and
quantitative research data, techniques and methods within a single research framework. Mixed
methods approaches may mean a number of things, i.e. a number of different types of methods in a
study or at different points within a study or using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.
Mixed

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methods encompass multifaceted approaches that combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce
weaknesses that stem from using a single research design. Using this approach to gather and
evaluate data may assist to increase the validity and reliability of the research. Some of the common
areas in which mixed-method approaches may be used include –  Initiating, designing, developing
and expanding interventions;  Evaluation;  Improving research design; and  Corroborating
findings, data triangulation or convergence. Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods
approach include –  Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions; 
Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and  Decisions regarding which research methods to
combine. Mixed methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in
health and can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized
populations or research which involves community participation. Using a mixed-methods approach
is one way to develop creative options to traditional or single design approaches to research and
evaluation. There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based upon who
collected the data. PRIMARY DATA Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is
known as primary data. Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and
objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity is
greater than secondary data. Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get
information from primary sources and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of
female population in a country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources.
A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on only secondary data is
least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by human
beings. One of such sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well as they can
be misleading and biased. Sources of Primary Data: Sources for primary data are limited and at
times it becomes difficult to obtain data from primary source because of either scarcity of
population or lack of cooperation. Following are some of the sources of primary data. Experiments:
Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical study to collect data.
Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies, nutrition and for other scientific
studies. In experiments the experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any extraneous
variable on the results. Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences,
management, marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different
methods. Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of
questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire
can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic mail
or through fax and other methods. Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the
respondent. In interview the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides
information otherwise it is an in depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record
the statements the interviewee speaks

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but he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions to the questions too. This
enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily. Observations: Observation can be done while
letting the observing person know that s/he is being observed or without letting him know.
Observations can also be made in natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data  The investigator collects data specific to the problem under
study.  There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).  If required,
it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period. Disadvantages of Using Primary
Data 1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-  deciding why,
what, how, when to collect;  getting the data collected (personally or through others);  getting
funding and dealing with funding agencies;  ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.). 2.
Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-  all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the
format it is required in;  there is no fake/ cooked up data;  unnecessary/ useless data has not been
included. 3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies. SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary data.
The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is collected by someone else
for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for another purpose). For examples,
Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and earning. Common
sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational records and data
collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research. Secondary data is essential,
since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or
developments. Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary data
–  Books  Records  Biographies  Newspapers  Published censuses or other statistical data 
Data archives  Internet articles  Research articles by other researchers (journals)  Databases, etc.
Importance of Secondary Data: Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there.
Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information from secondary
sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to
confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are
not willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on
the psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may

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not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books or
other published sources. A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background
work needed has already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have
been carried out, published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media
promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized. This wealth of background work means
that secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need
not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Furthermore, secondary data can
also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline
with which the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to
begin any research activity with a review of the secondary data. Advantages of Using Secondary
Data  No hassles of data collection.  It is less expensive.  The investigator is not personally
responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’). Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data  The
data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and accuracy of data go
down.  Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.  With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old. 
Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data a special
care is required to amend or modify for use.  Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity
and copyright. Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of
the research study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have been
selected. These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.
9.3 ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR DATA COLLECTION/ NORMS IN RESEARCH There are several
reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of
research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against
fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second,
since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different
people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are
essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For
example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect
intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive
credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the
public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People more
likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally, many of
the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For
example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm

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or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to
radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff
and students. Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no
surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have
adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. The following is a rough and
general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address - Honesty: Strive for honesty
in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues,
granting agencies, or the public. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data
analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and
other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research. Integrity: Keep your
promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work
and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection,
research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. Openness: Share data, results,
ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor
patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods,
or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or
credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. Confidentiality: Protect confidential
communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or
military secrets, and patient records. Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research
and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own decisions. Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat
them fairly. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms
through research, public education, and advocacy. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against
colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to
their scientific competence and integrity. Competence: Maintain and improve your own
professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to
promote competence in science as a whole. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional
and governmental policies. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using
them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

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Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and
risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions
with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Training in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple with ethical dilemmas by
introducing researchers to important concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in
resolving these dilemmas. In fact, the issues have become so important for training in research.
9.4 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION In primary data collection, you collect the data
yourself using qualitative and quantitative methods. The key point here is that the data you collect is
unique to you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it. There are many
methods of collecting primary data. The main methods include –  Questionnaires  Interviews 
Focus Group Interviews  Observation  Survey  Case-studies  Diaries  Activity Sampling
Technique  Memo Motion Study  Process Analysis  Link Analysis  Time and Motion Study 
Experimental Method  Statistical Method etc.
9.4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of

questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although
they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The
questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have advantages
over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the
questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple
to compile data. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating
to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls. Types: A distinction
can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, and
questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index. Questionnaires within
the former category are commonly part of surveys, whereas questionnaires in the latter category are
commonly part of tests. Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, could for
instance include questions on –  preferences (e.g. political party)  behaviors (e.g. food
consumption)  facts (e.g. gender).

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Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index, include for instance
questions that measure -  latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)  attitudes (e.g.
towards immigration)  an index (e.g. Social Economic Status). Question Types: Usually, a
questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A
distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks
the respondent to formulate his/her own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the
respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-
ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for
closed-ended questions are distinguished –  Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
 Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options.  Ordinal-
polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options.  Continuous (Bounded),
where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale. A respondent’s answer to an open-
ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is
a question where the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item). Question
Sequence: In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the best
response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the factual
and behavioral to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific. There typically is a
flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the order that the
questions are asked. The order is as follows -  Screens  Warm-ups  Transitions  Skips  Difficult 
Changing Formula Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not
someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest
in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to
make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to ‘If yes, then answer
question 3. If no, then continue to question 5’. Difficult questions are towards the end because the
respondent is in ‘response mode’. Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress bars
lets the respondent know that they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more
difficult questions. Classification or demographic question should be at the end because typically
they can feel like personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to
finish survey. Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are -  Use
statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the
population of interest.  Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will
give different answers.  Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers. 
Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.

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 Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.  Do not make assumptions
about the respondent.  Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all
educational levels.  Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.  Avoid items that contain
more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?).  Question should
not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer. Questionnaire Administration
Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -  Face-to-face questionnaire
administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally.  Paper-and-pencil questionnaire
administration, where the items are presented on paper.  Computerized questionnaire
administration, where the items are presented on the computer.  Adaptive computerized
questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based
on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee’s
estimated ability or trait. Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in
which questions are presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or
sexual activity, should be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust
before asking questions that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting
routine questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Double-
barreled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An example of
a double barreled question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following
statement - ‘I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along well with others at work’. This
question is problematic because survey respondents are asked to give one response for two
questions. Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases.
Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are -  Large amounts of
information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a
relatively cost effective way.  Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability.  The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly
and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package.  Can be
analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.  When data has been
quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure
change.  Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test
existing hypotheses.

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Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -  To be inadequate to

understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior, feelings etc. 
Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher,
as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation.  There is no way to tell
how truthful a respondent is being.  There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has
put in.  The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation. 
People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else,
therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged. Questionnaires are not among the
most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to
respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses,
especially as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal
interview. Though the information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example,
where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a
questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of interest.
9.4.2 INTERVIEWS METHOD Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from
participants in a study. Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face
interviews and face-to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of questions can be
mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers). Interviews can be – A.
Structured, B. Semi-structure or C. Unstructured. Face to face interviews are advantageous since
detailed questions can be asked; further probing can be done to provide rich data; literacy
requirements of participants is not an issue; non verbal data can be collected through observation;
complex and unknown issues can be explored; response rates are usually higher than for self-
administered questionnaires. Disadvantages of face to face interviews include: they can be
expensive and time consuming; training of interviewers is necessary to reduce interviewer bias and
are administered in a standardized why they are prone to interviewer bias and interpreter bias (if
interpreters are used); sensitive issues maybe challenging. Telephone interviews yield just as
accurate data as face to face interviews. Telephone interviews are advantageous as they: are
cheaper and faster than face to face interviews to conduct; use less resources than face to face
interviews; allow to clarify questions; do not require literacy skills. Disadvantages of telephone
interviews include: having to make repeated calls as calls may not be answered the first time;
potential bias if call backs are not made so bias is towards those who are at home; only suitable for
short surveys; only accessible to the population with a telephone; not appropriate for exploring
sensitive issues. Structured Interviews Char acteristics of the Structured Interview  The interviewer
asks each respondent the same series of questions.  The questions are created prior to the
interview, and often have a limited set of response categories.  There is generally little room for
variation in responses and there are few open-ended questions included in the interview guide.

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 Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept consistent
from interview to interview.  The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but
does not insert his or her opinion in the interview.  Self-administered questionnaires are a type of
structured interview. When to Use a Structured Interview: Development of a structured interview
guide or questionnaire requires a clear topical focus and well-developed understanding of the topic
at hand. A welldeveloped understanding of a topic allows researchers to create a highly structured
interview guide or questionnaire that provides respondents with relevant, meaningful and
appropriate response categories to choose from for each question. Structured interviews are,
therefore, best used when the literature in a topical area is highly developed or following the use of
observational and other less structured interviewing approaches that provide the researcher with
adequate understanding of a topic to construct meaningful and relevant close-ended questions.
Recording Interviews: There are a range of ways to collect and record structured interview data.
Data collections methods include, but are not limited to - paper-based and self-report (mail, faceto-
face); telephone interviews where the interviewer fills in participants’ responses; web-based and
self-report. Benefits: Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only
to follow the instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire. Structured interviews do not
require the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they can produce
consistent data that can be compared across a number of respondents. Semi-structured Interviews
Characteristics of Semi - structured Interviews  The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal
interview.  The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions and
topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order.  The
interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the conversation that may
stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate. W h e n t o U s e S e mi - s t r u c t u r e d I
n t e r vie w s : Semi-structured interviewing, according to Bernard (1988), is best used when you
won’t get more than one chance to interview someone and when you will be sending several
interviewers out into the field to collect data. The semi-structured interview guide provides a clear
set of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data. Semi-
structured interviews are often preceded by observation, informal and unstructured interviewing in
order to allow the researchers to develop a keen understanding of the topic of interest necessary for
developing relevant and meaningful semi-structured questions. The inclusion of open-ended
questions and training of interviewers to follow relevant topics that may stray from the interview
guide does, however, still provide the opportunity for identifying new ways of seeing and
understanding the topic at hand. Recording Semi - Structured Interviews: Typically, the interviewer
has a paper-based interview guide that s/he follows. Since semi-structured interviews often contain
open-ended questions and discussions may diverge from the interview guide, it is generally best to
tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis. While it is possible to try to jot
notes to capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on conducting an interview and jotting
notes. This approach will result in poor notes and also detract for the development of rapport
between interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in
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interviews. If tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker

present during the interview. Benefits: Many researchers like to use semi-structured interviews
because questions can be prepared ahead of time. This allows the interviewer to be prepared and
appear competent during the interview. Semi-structured interviews also allow informants the
freedom to express their views in their own terms. Semi-structure interviews can provide reliable,
comparable qualitative data. Unstructured Interviews Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews 
The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a scheduled time to
sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to be an interview.  The interviewer
has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of the interview. This guides the discussion. 
There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds rapport with respondents,
getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way.  Questions tend to be
open-ended and express little control over informants’ responses.  Ethnographic, in depth
interviews are unstructured. Fontana and Frey (1994) identify three types of in depth, ethnographic
unstructured interviews – oral history, creative interviews and postmodern interviews. W h e n t o
U s e U n s t r u c t u r e d I n t e r vie w s : Unstructured interviewing is recommended when the
researcher has developed enough of an understanding of a setting and his/her topic of interest to
have a clear agenda for the discussion with the informant, but still remains open to having his/her
understanding of the area of inquiry open to revision by respondents. Because these interviews are
not highly structured and because the researcher’s understanding is still evolving, it is helpful to
anticipate the need to speak with informants on multiple occasions. R e c o r din g U n s t r u c t u r
e d I n t e r vie w s : Since unstructured interviews often contain open-ended questions and
discussions may develop in unanticipated directions, it is generally best to tape-record interviews
and later transcript these tapes for analysis. This allows the interviewer to focus on interacting with
the participant and follow the discussion. While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture
respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on conducting an interview and jotting notes. This
approach will result in poor notes and also detract from the development of rapport between
interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured
interviews. If tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker
present during the interview. Benefits: Unstructured interviews are an extremely useful method for
developing an understanding of an as-of-yet not fully understood or appreciated culture, experience,
or setting. Unstructured interviews allow researchers to focus the respondents’ talk on a particular
topic of interest, and may allow researchers the opportunity to test out his/her preliminary
understanding, while still allowing for ample opportunity for new ways of seeing and understanding
to develop. Unstructured interviews can be an important preliminary step toward the development
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Informal Interviewing Characteristics of Informal interviewing  The interviewer talks with people in
the field informally, without use of a structured interview guide of any kind.  The researcher tries
to remember his/her conversations with informants, and uses jottings or brief notes taken in the
field to help in the recall and writing of notes from experiences in the field.  Informal interviewing
goes hand-in-hand with participant observation.  While in the field as an observer, informal
interviews are casual conversations one might have with the people the researcher is observing.
When to Use Informal Interviews: Informal interviewing is typically done as part of the process of
observing a social setting of interest. These may be best used in the early stages of the development
of an area of inquiry, where there is little literature describing the setting, experience, culture or
issue of interest. The researcher engages in fieldwork - observation and informal interviewing - to
develop an understanding of the setting and to build rapport. Informal interviewing may also be
used to uncover new topics of interest that may have been overlooked by previous research.
Recording Informal Intervi ews: Since informal interviews occur 'on the fly,' it is difficult to
taperecord this type of interview. Additionally, it is likely that informal interviews will occur during
the process of observing a setting. The researcher should participate in the conversation. As soon as
possible, s/he should make jottings or notes of the conversation. These jottings should be developed
into a more complete account of the informal interview. This type of account would tend to be
included in the researcher's field notes. Developing field notes soon after an informal interview is
recommended. Even with good field jottings the details of an informal interview are quickly lost from
memory. Benefits: Interviews can be done informally, and ‘on the fly’ and, therefore, do not require
scheduling time with respondents. In fact, respondents may just see this as ‘conversation’. Informal
interviews may, therefore, foster 'low pressure' interactions and allow respondents to speak more
freely and openly. Informal interviewing can be helpful in building rapport with respondents and in
gaining their trust as well as their understanding of a topic, situation, setting, etc. Informal
interviews, like unstructured interviews, are an essential part of gaining an understanding of a
setting and its members' ways of seeing. It can provide the foundation for developing and
conducting more structured interviews. Interviewing, when considered as a method for conducting
qualitative research, is a technique used to understand the experiences of others. Characteristics of
qualitative research interviews –  Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the
interviewee says.  Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.  In the
personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.  Unlike with mail surveys,
the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.  Interviews are generally
easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.

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Types of Interviews Informal, Conversational interview: No predetermined questions are asked, in

order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during
the interview the interviewer ‘goes with the flow’. General interview guide approach: Intended to
ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this
provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee. Standardized, open - ended interview:
The same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster
interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared. Closed, fixed - response interview: All
interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set
of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This type of interview is
also referred to as structured. I n t e r vie w e r’s j u d g m ents: According to Hackman and Oldman
several factors can bias an interviewer’s judgment about a job applicant. However these factors can
be reduced or minimized by training interviews to recognized them. Some examples are - Prior
Information: Interviewers generally have some prior information about job candidates, such as
recruiter evaluations, application blanks, online screening results, or the results of psychological
tests. This can cause the interviewer to have a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward an applicant
before meeting them. The Contrast Effect: How the interviewers evaluate a particular applicant may
depend on their standards of comparison, that is, the characteristics of the applicants they
interviewed previously. I terviewers’ Prejudic es: This can be done when the interviewers’ judgment
is their personal likes and dislikes. These may include but are not limited to racial and ethnic
background, applicants who display certain qualities or traits and refuse to consider their abilities or
characteristics. Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews Interviews are among the most
challenging and rewarding forms of measurement. They require a personal sensitivity and
adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the bounds of the designed protocol. The followings
describe the preparation need to do for an interview study and then the process of conducting the
interview itself.  Preparation Role of the Interviewer: The interviewer is really the ‘jack-of-all-
trades’ in survey research. The interviewer’s role is complex and multifaceted. It includes the
following tasks – Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents: The interviewer has to find the
respondent. In doorto-door surveys, this means being able to locate specific addresses. Often, the
interviewer has to work at the least desirable times (like immediately after dinner or on weekends)
because that’s when respondents are most readily available. Motivate respondents to do good job:
If the interviewer does not take the work seriously, why would the respondent? The interviewer has
to be motivated and has to be able to communicate that motivation to the respondent. Often, this
means that the interviewer has to be convinced of the importance of the research. Clarify any
confusion/concerns: Interviewers have to be able to think on their feet. Respondents may raise
objections or concerns that were not anticipated. The interviewer has to be able to respond candidly
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Observe quality of responses: Whether the interview is personal or over the phone, the interviewer
is in the best position to judge the quality of the information that is being received. Even a verbatim
transcript will not adequately convey how seriously the respondent took the task, or any gestures or
body language that were evident. Conduct a good interview: Last, and certainly not least, the
interviewer has to conduct a good interview! Every interview has a life of its own. Some respondents
are motivated and attentive, others are distracted or disinterested. The interviewer also has good or
bad days. Assuring a consistently high-quality interview is a challenge that requires constant effort.
Training the Interviewers: Here are some of the major topics that should be included in interviewer
training – Describe the entire study: Interviewers need to know more than simply how to conduct
the interview itself. They should learn about the background for the study, previous work that has
been done, and why the study is important. State who is sponsor of research: Interviewers need to
know who they are working for. They and their respondents have a right to know not just what
agency or company is conducting the research, but also, who is paying for the research. Teach
enough about survey research: While you seldom have the time to teach a full course on survey
research methods, the interviewers need to know enough that they respect the survey method and
are motivated. Sometimes it may not be apparent why a question or set of questions was asked in a
particular way. The interviewers will need to understand the rationale for how the instrument was
constructed. Explain the sampling logic and process: Naive interviewers may not understand why
sampling is so important. They may wonder why you go through all the difficulties of selecting the
sample so carefully. You will have to explain that sampling is the basis for the conclusions that will be
reached and for the degree to which your study will be useful. Explain interviewer bias: Interviewers
need to know the many ways that they can inadvertently bias the results. And, they need to
understand why it is important that they not bias the study. This is especially a problem when you
are investigating political or moral issues on which people have strongly held convictions. While the
interviewer may think they are doing good for society by slanting results in favor of what they
believe, they need to recognize that doing so could jeopardize the entire study in the eyes of others.
‘Walk through’ the Interview: When you first introduce the interview, it’s a good idea to walk
through the entire protocol so the interviewers can get an idea of the various parts or phases and
how they interrelate. Explain respondent selection procedures, including – Reading maps: It’s
astonishing how many adults don’t know how to follow directions on a map. In personal interviews,
the interviewer may need to locate respondents who are spread over a wide geographic area. And,
they often have to navigate by night (respondents tend to be most available in evening hours) in
neighborhoods they’re not familiar with. Teaching basic map reading skills and confirming that the
interviewers can follow maps is essential. Identifying households: In many studies it is impossible in
advance to say whether every sample household meets the sampling requirements for the study. In
your study, you may want to interview only people who live in single family homes. It may be
impossible to distinguish townhouses and apartment buildings in your sampling frame. The
interviewer must know how to identify the appropriate target household.

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Identify respondents: Just as with households, many studies require respondents who meet specific
criteria. For instance, your study may require that you speak with a male head-of-household
between the ages of 30 and 40 who has children under 18 living in the same household. It may be
impossible to obtain statistics in advance to target such respondents. The interviewer may have to
ask a series of filtering questions before determining whether the respondent meets the sampling
needs. Rehearse interview: You should probably have several rehearsal sessions with the
interviewer team. You might even videotape rehearsal interviews to discuss how the trainees
responded in difficult situations. The interviewers should be very familiar with the entire interview
before ever facing a respondent. Explain supervision: In most interview studies, the interviewers will
work under the direction of a supervisor. In some contexts, the supervisor may be a faculty advisor;
in others, they may be the ‘boss’. In order to assure the quality of the responses, the supervisor may
have to observe a subsample of interviews, listen in on phone interviews, or conduct follow-up
assessments of interviews with the respondents. This can be very threatening to the interviewers.
You need to develop an atmosphere where everyone on the research team - interviewers and
supervisors - feel like they're working together towards a common end. Explain scheduling: The
interviewers have to understand the demands being made on their schedules and why these are
important to the study. In some studies it will be imperative to conduct the entire set of interviews
within a certain time period. In most studies, it's important to have the interviewers available when
it's convenient for the respondents, not necessarily the interviewer. Interviewer’s Kit: It’s important
that interviewers have all of the materials they need to do a professional job. Usually, you will want
to assemble an interviewer kit that can be easily carried and includes all of the important materials
such as –  a ‘professional-looking’ notebook (this might even have the logo of the company or
organization conducting the interviews);  maps;  sufficient copies of the survey instrument; 
official identification (preferable a picture ID);  a cover letter from the Principal Investigator or
Sponsor; and  a phone number the respondent can call to verify the interviewer’s authenticity. 
Process So all the preparation is complete, the training done, the interviewers ready to proceed,
their ‘kits’ in hand. It’s finally time to do an actual interview. Each interview is unique, like a small
work of art (and sometimes the art may not be very good). Each interview has its own ebb and flow -
its own pace. To the outsider, an interview looks like a fairly standard, simple, prosaic effort. But to
the interviewer, it can be filled with special nuances and interpretations that aren’t often
immediately apparent. Every interview includes some common components. There’s the opening,
where the interviewer gains entry and establishes the rapport and tone for what follows. There’s the
middle game, the heart of the process, that consists of the protocol of questions and the
improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the endgame, the wrap-up, where the interviewer
and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it’s a two-minute phone interview or a
personal interview that spans hours, the interview is a bit of theater, a mini-drama that involves real
lives in real time. Opening Remarks: In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that
a salesperson has. You have to get the respondent's attention initially for a long enough period that
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on the idea of participating in the study. Many of the remarks here assume an interview that is being
conducted at a respondent's residence. But the analogies to other interview contexts should be
straightforward. Gaining entry: The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors
can enhance the prospects. Probably the most important factor is your initial appearance. The
interviewer needs to dress professionally and in a manner that will be comfortable to the
respondent. In some contexts a business suit and briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it may
intimidate. The way the interviewer appears initially to the respondent has to communicate some
simple messages - that you're trustworthy, honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a manner of
professional confidence, the sense that the respondent has nothing to worry about because you
know what you’re doing - is a difficult skill to teach and an indispensable skill for achieving initial
entry. Doorstep technique: You’re standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door,
even if only halfway. You need to smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there and suggest
what you would like the respondent to do. Don’t ask suggest what you want. Instead of saying ‘May I
come in to do an interview?’, you might try a more imperative approach like ‘I’d like to take a few
minutes of your time to interview you for a very important study’. Introduction: If you’ve gotten this
far without having the door slammed in your face, chances are you will be able to get an interview.
Without waiting for the respondent to ask questions, you should move to introducing yourself. You
should have this part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential information in 20-30
seconds at most. State your name and the name of the organization you represent. Show your
identification badge and the letter that introduces you. You want to have as legitimate an
appearance as possible. If you have a three-ring binder or clipboard with the logo of your
organization, you should have it out and visible. You should assume that the respondent will be
interested in participating in your important study - assume that you will be doing an interview here.
Explaining the study: At this point, you’ve been invited to come in. Or, the respondent has continued
to listen long enough that you need to move onto explaining the study. There are three rules to this
critical explanation - (1) Keep it short; (2) Keep it short; and (3) Keep it short! The respondent doesn't
have to or want to know all of the neat nuances of this study, how it came about, how you
convinced your thesis committee to buy into it, and so on. You should have a one or two sentence
description of the study memorized. No big words. No jargon. No detail. There will be more than
enough time for that later (and you should bring some written materials you can leave at the end for
that purpose). This is the ‘25 words or less’ description. What you should spend some time on is
assuring the respondent that you are interviewing them confidentially, and that their participation is
voluntary. Asking the Questions: You’ve gotten in. The respondent has asked you to sit down and
make yourself comfortable. It may be that the respondent was in the middle of doing something
when you arrived and you may need to allow them a few minutes to finish the phone call or send
the kids off to do homework. Now, you’re ready to begin the interview itself. Use questionnaire
carefully, but informally: The questionnaire is your friend. It was developed with a lot of care and
thoughtfulness. While you have to be ready to adapt to the needs of the setting, your first instinct
should always be to trust the instrument that was designed. But you also need to establish a rapport
with the respondent. If you have your face in the instrument and you read the questions, you'll
appear unprofessional and disinterested. Even though you may be nervous, you need to recognize
that your respondent is most likely even more nervous. If you memorize the first few

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questions, you can refer to the instrument only occasionally, using eye contact and a confident
manner to set the tone for the interview and help the respondent get comfortable. Ask questions
exactly as written: Sometimes an interviewer will think that they could improve on the tone of a
question by altering a few words to make it simpler or more ‘friendly’ – don’t. You should ask the
questions as they are on the instrument. If you had a problem with a question, the time to raise it
was during the training and rehearsals, not during the actual interview. It is important that the
interview be as standardized as possible across respondents (this is true except in certain types of
exploratory or interpretivist research where the explicit goal is to avoid any standardizing). You may
think the change you made was inconsequential when, in fact, it may change the entire meaning of
the question or response. Follow the order given: Once you know an interview well, you may see a
respondent bring up a topic that you know will come up later in the interview. You may be tempted
to jump to that section of the interview while you're on the topic – don’t. You are more likely to lose
your place. You may omit questions that build a foundation for later questions. Ask every question:
Sometimes you’ll be tempted to omit a question because you thought you already heard what the
respondent will say. Don't assume that. If you hadn’t asked the question, you would never have
discovered the detail. Obtaining Adequate Responses - The Probe: OK, you’ve asked a question. The
respondent gives a brief, cursory answer. How do you elicit a more thoughtful, thorough response?
You probe. Silent probe: The most effective way to encourage someone to elaborate is to do
nothing at all - just pause and wait. This is referred to as the ‘silent’ probe. It works (at least in
certain cultures) because the respondent is uncomfortable with pauses or silence. It suggests to the
respondent that you are waiting, listening for what they will say next. Overt encouragement: At
times, you can encourage the respondent directly. Try to do so in a way that does not imply approval
or disapproval of what they said (that could bias their subsequent results). Overt encouragement
could be as simple as saying ‘Uh-huh’ or ‘OK’ after the respondent completes a thought.
Elaboration: You can encourage more information by asking for elaboration. For instance, it is
appropriate to ask questions like ‘Would you like to elaborate on that?’ or ‘Is there anything else you
would like to add?’ Ask for clarification : Sometimes, you can elicit greater detail by asking the
respondent to clarify something that was said earlier. You might say, ‘A minute ago you were talking
about the experience you had in high school. Could you tell me more about that?’ Repetition: This is
the old psychotherapist trick. You say something without really saying anything new. For instance,
the respondent just described a traumatic experience they had in childhood. You might say ‘What
I’m hearing you say is that you found that experience very traumatic’. Then, you should pause. The
respondent is likely to say something like ‘Well, yes, and it affected the rest of my family as well. In
fact, my younger sister...’ Recording the Response: Although we have the capability to record a
respondent in audio and/or video, most interview methodologists don’t think it’s a good idea.
Respondents are often uncomfortable when they know their remarks will be recorded word-for-
word. They may strain to only say things in a socially acceptable way. Although you would get a
more detailed and accurate record, it is likely to be distorted by the very process of obtaining it. This
may be more of a problem in some situations than in others. It is increasingly common to be told
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conversation may be recorded during a phone interview. And most focus group methodologies use
unobtrusive recording equipment to capture what’s being said. But, in general, personal interviews
are still best when recorded by the interviewer using pen and paper. Record responses immed
iately: The interviewer should record responses as they are being stated. This conveys the idea that
you are interested enough in what the respondent is saying to write it down. You don’t have to write
down every single word – you’re not taking stenography. But you may want to record certain key
phrases or quotes verbatim. You need to develop a system for distinguishing what the respondent
says verbatim from what you are characterizing. Include all probes: You need to indicate every
single probe that you use. Develop a shorthand for different standard probes. Use a clear form for
writing them in (e.g., place probes in the left margin). Use abbreviations where possible:
Abbreviations will help you to capture more of the discussion. Develop a standardized system (e.g.,
R=respondent; DK=don’t know). If you create an abbreviation on the fly, have a way of indicating its
origin. For instance, if you decide to abbreviate Spouse with an ‘S’, you might make a notation in the
right margin saying ‘S=Spouse’. Conclud ing the Interview: When you've gone through the entire
interview, you need to bring the interview to closure. Some important things to remember Thank
the respondent - Don’t forget to do this. Even if the respondent was troublesome or uninformative,
it is important for you to be polite and thank them for their time. Tell them when you expect to
send results - You owe it to your respondent to show them what you learned. Now, they may not
want your entire 300-page dissertation. It’s common practice to prepare a short, readable, jargon-
free summary of interviews that you can send to the respondents. Don’t be brusque or hasty - Allow
for a few minutes of winding down conversation. The respondent may want to know a little bit
about you or how much you like doing this kind of work. They may be interested in how the results
will be used. Use these kinds of interests as a way to wrap up the conversation. As you’re putting
away your materials and packing up to go, engage the respondent. You don’t want the respondent
to feel as though you completed the interview and then rushed out on them - they may wonder
what they said that was wrong. On the other hand, you have to be careful here. Some respondents
may want to keep on talking long after the interview is over. You have to find a way to politely cut
off the conversation and make your exit. Immediately after leaving write down any notes about how
the interview went Sometimes you will have observations about the interview that you didn’t want
to write down while you were with the respondent. You may have noticed them get upset at a
question, or you may have detected hostility in a response. Immediately after the interview you
should go over your notes and make any other comments and observations - but be sure to
distinguish these from the notes made during the interview (you might use a different color pen, for
instance). Strengths and Weaknesses Possibly the greatest advantage of interviewing is the depth of
detail from the interviewee. Interviewing participants can paint a picture of what happened in a
specific event, tell us their perspective of such event, as well as give other social cues. Social cues,
such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of
extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question. This
level of detailed description, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, can show an otherwise hidden
interrelatedness between emotions, people, objects unlike many quantitative methods of research.
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advantage in its specific form. Researchers can tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in
order to get rich, full stories and the information they need for their project. They can make it clear
to the respondent when they need more examples or explanations. Not only can researchers also
learn about specific events, they can also gain insight into people’s interior experiences, specifically
how people perceive and how they interpreted their perceptions. How events affected their
thoughts and feelings. In this, researchers can understand the process of an event instead of what
just happened and how they reacted to it. Interviewing is not a perfect method for all types of
research. It does have its disadvantages. First, there can be complications with the planning of the
interview. Not only is recruiting people for interviews hard, due to the typically personal nature of
the interview, planning where to meet them and when can be difficult. Participants can cancel or
change the meeting place at the last minute. During the actual interview, a possible weakness is
missing some information. This can arise from the immense multitasking that the interviewer must
do. Not only do they have to make the respondent feel very comfortable, they have to keep as much
eye contact as possible, write down as much as they can, and think of follow up questions. After the
interview, the process of coding begins and with this comes its own set of disadvantages. Second,
coding can be extremely time consuming. This process typically requires multiple people, which can
also become expensive. Third, the nature of qualitative research itself, doesn’t lend itself very well to
quantitative analysis. Some researchers report more missing data in interview research than survey
research, therefore it can be difficult to compare populations.
9.4.3 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method
that brings together a small homogeneous group (usually six to twelve persons) to discuss topics on
a study agenda. The purpose of this discussion is to use the social dynamics of the group, with the
help of a moderator/ facilitator, to stimulate participants to reveal underlying opinions, attitudes,
and reasons for their behavior. In short, a well facilitated group can be helpful in finding out the
‘how’ and ‘why’ of human behavior. Focus group discussions are a data collection method. Data is
collected through a semi-structured group interview process. Focus groups are generally used to
collect data on a specific topic. Focus group methods emerged in the 1940s with the work of Merton
and Fiske who used focus groups to conduct consumer satisfaction. The discussion is conducted in a
relaxed atmosphere to enable participants to express themselves without any personal inhibitions.
Participants usually share a common characteristic such as age, sex, or socio-economic status that
defines them as a member of a target subgroup. This encourages a group to speak more freely about
the subject without fear of being judged by others thought to be superior. The discussion is led by a
trained moderator/facilitator (preferably experienced), assisted by an observer who takes notes and
arranges any tape recording. The moderator uses a prepared guide to ask very general questions of
the group. Usually more than one group session is needed to assure good coverage of responses to a
set of topics. Each session usually lasts between one and two hours but ideally 60 to 90 minutes.
The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants’ feelings, perceptions and opinions. This
method requires the researcher to use a range of skills - group skills; facilitating; moderating;
listening/observing; analysis. Focus groups or group discussions are useful to further explore a topic,
providing a broader understanding of why the target group may behave or think in a particular

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way, and assist in determining the reason for attitudes and beliefs. They are conducted with a small
sample of the target group and are used to stimulate discussion and gain greater insights. The
design of focus group research will vary based on the research question being studied. Below,
highlight some general principles to consider -  Standardization of questions - focus groups can vary
in the extent to which they follow a structured protocol or permit discussion to emerge.  Number
of focus groups conducted - or sampling will depend on the ‘segmentation’ or different
stratifications (e.g. age, sex, socioeconomic status, health status) that the researcher identifies as
important to the research topic.  Number of participants per group - the rule of thumb has been 6-
10 homogeneous strangers, but as Morgan (1996) points out there may be reasons to have smaller
or slightly larger groups.  Level of moderator involvement - can vary from high to low degree of
control exercised during focus groups (e.g. extent to which structured questions are asked and group
dynamics are actively managed). Focus group interviews typically have the characteristics - 
Identify the target market (people who possess certain characteristics).  Provide a short
introduction and background on the issue to be discussed.  Have focus group members write their
responses to the issue(s).  Facilitate group discussion.  Recommended size of the sample group is
6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the potential on the amount of information collected, and
more may make it difficult for all participants to participate and interact and for the interviewer to
be able to make sense of the information given.  Several focus groups should be used in order to
get a more objective and macro view of the investigation, i.e. focusing on one group may give you
idiosyncratic results. The use of several groups will add to the breadth and depth of information. A
minimum of three focus groups is recommended for best practice approaches.  Members of the
focus group should have something in common which is important to the investigation.  Groups can
either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the group dynamics of
both situations.  Provide a summary of the focus group issues at the end of the meeting. The
purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the
group. An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. In combination with other
methods, focus groups might be used to -  explore new research areas;  explore a topic that is
difficult to observe (not easy to gain access);  explore a topic that does not lend itself to
observational techniques (e.g. attitudes and decisionmaking);  explore sensitive topics;  collect a
concentrated set of observations in a short time span;  ascertain perspectives and experiences from
people on a topic, particularly when these are people who might otherwise be marginalized; 
gather preliminary data;  aid in the development of surveys and interview guides;

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 clarify research findings from another method;  explore the range of opinions/views on a topic of
interest;  collect a wide variety of local terms and expressions used to describe a disease (e.g.,
diarrhea) or an act (e.g., defecation);  explore meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained
statistically. Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD) The steps in using FGDs to study a problem are
summarized below. The extent to which these steps must be followed varies, however, depending
on the training and experience of those involved in the data collection. STEP 1: Plan the entire FGD 
What activities need to be planned?  Is there the need for a resource person.  Role of resource
person in training field staff. STEP 2: Decide what types of groups are needed  Method of sampling
(selection criteria)  Composition of groups  Number of groups  Group size  Contacting and
informing participants. STEP 3: Select moderator and field team  Field staff requirements 
Moderator  Observer/recorder  Other staff. STEP 4: Develop moderator’s guide and format for
recording responses  Structure and sequence of topics  Wording of guide  Number of topics 
Example of an FGD guide. STEP 5: Train field team and conduct pilot test  Training hints  Training
package  Theory sessions  Practice sessions  On-going revision of FGD guide. STEP 6: Prepare for
the individual FGDs  Site selection and location for FGD  Date and time  Plan for supporting
materials or FGD checklist. STEP 7: Conduct the FGD  Conducting the Discussion  Introduction 
Warm-up  Discussion

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 Wrap-up summary  Debriefing  Collecting and managing information in FGD. STEP 8: Analyze
and interpret FGD results  How much analysis is required  Debriefing;  Notes;  Transcripts; and
log book  Writing the report  Interpretation of findings  Example of format of an FGD report.
Identify suitable discussion participants and invite a small group to a meeting at an agreed place and
time. The ideal number of participants is six to eight, but be flexible about numbers - do not turn
away participants after they had arrived at the meeting and do not pressure people to come to the
meeting. Be psychologically prepared for the session; you will need to remain alert to be able to
observe, listen, and keep the discussion on track for a period of one to two hours. Make sure you
arrive at the agreed place before the participants, and be ready to greet them. Maintain a neutral
attitude and appearance, and do not start talking about the topic of interest before the official
opening of the group discussion. Begin by introducing yourself and your team (even if the
participants have already met them individually), and ask participants to introduce themselves.
Explain clearly that the purpose of the discussion is to find out what people think about the practices
or activities depicted by the pictures. Tell them that you are not looking for any right or wrong
answer but that you want to learn what each participant's views are. It must be made clear to all
participants that their views will be valued. Bring the discussion to a close when you feel the topic
has been exhausted, and do nor let the group discussion degenerate into smaller discussions. Be
sincere in expressing your thanks to the participants for their contributions. Refreshments may be
served at the end of the meeting as a way of thanking the participants and maintaining good rapport
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Conducting FGD The following guideline may be provided for conducting FGD. Preparation Selection
of topic: It is appropriate to define and clarify the concepts to be discussed. The basic idea is to lay
out a set of issues for the group to discuss. It is important to bear in mind that the moderator will
mostly be improvising comments and questions within the framework set by the guidelines. By
keeping the questions open-ended, the moderator can stimulates useful trains of thought in the
participants that were not anticipated. Selecting the study participants: Given a clear idea of the
issues to be discussed, the next critical step in designing a focus group study is to decide on the
characteristics of the individuals who are to be targeted for sessions. It is often important to ensure
that the groups all share some common characteristics in relation to the issue under investigation. If
you need to obtain information on a topic from several different categories of informants who are
likely to discuss the issue from different perspectives, you should organize a focus group for each
major category. For example a group for men and a group for women, or a group for older women
and group for younger women. The selection of the participants can be on the basis of purposive or
convenience sampling. The participants should receive the invitations at least one or two days
before the exercise. The invitations should explain the general purpose of the FGD. Physical
arrangements: Communication and interaction during the FGD should be encouraged in every way
possible. Arrange the chairs in a circle. Make sure the area will be quite, adequately lighted, etc., and
that there will be no disturbances. Try to hold the FGD in a neutral setting that encourages
participants to freely express their views. A health center, for example, is not a good place to discuss
traditional medical beliefs or preferences for other types of treatment. Neutral setting could also be
from the perspective of a place where the participants feel comfortable to come over and above
their party factions. Conducting the Session  One of the members of the research team should act
as a ‘facilitator’ or ‘moderator’ for the focus group. One should serve as ‘recorder’.  Functions of
the Facilitator: The facilitator should not act as an expert on the topic. His/her role is to stimulate
and support discussion. S/he should perform the following functions - Introduce the session S/he
should introduce himself/herself as facilitator and introduce the recorder. Introduce the participants
by name or ask them to introduce themselves (or develop some new interesting way of
introduction). Put the participants at ease and explain the purpose of the FGD, the kind of
information needed, and how the information will be used (e.g., for planning of a health program, an
education program, et.). Encourage discussion The facilitator should be enthusiastic, lively, and
humorous and show his/her interest in the group’s ideas. Formulate questions and encourage as
many participants as possible to express their views. Remember there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’
answers. Facilitator should react neutrally to both verbal and nonverbal responses. Encourage
involvement Avoid a question and answer session. Some useful techniques include asking for
clarification (can you tell me more?); reorienting the discussion when it goes off the track (Saying -
wait, how does this relate to the issue? Using one participant’s remarks to direct a question to
another); bringing in reluctant participants (Using person’s name, requesting his/her opinion, making
more frequent eye contact to encourage participation); dealing with

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dominant participants (Avoiding eye contact or turning slightly away to discourage the person from
speaking, or thanking the person and changing the subject). Avoid being placed in the role of expert -
When the facilitator is asked for his/her opinion by a respondent, remember that s/he is not there to
educate of inform. Direct the question back to the group by saying ‘What do you think?’ ‘What
would you do?’ Set aside time, if necessary, after the session to give participants the information
they have asked. Do not try to give comments on everything that is being said. Do not feel you have
to say Something during every pause in the discussion. Wait a little and see what happens. Control
the timing of the meeting but unobtrusively - Listen carefully and move the discussion from topic to
topic. Subtly control the time allocated to various topics so as to maintain interest. If the participants
spontaneously jump from one topic to the other, let the discussion continue for a while because
useful additional information may surface and then summarize the points brought up and reorient
the discussion.  Take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and thank
the participants: Summarize the main issues brought up, check whether all agree and ask for
additional comments. Thank the participants and let them know that their ideas had been valuable
contribution and will be used for planning the proposed research/intervention/or whatever the
purpose of FGD was. Listen to the additional comments made after the meeting. Sometime some
valuable information surfaces, which otherwise may remain hidden. Advantages and Disvantages of
FGD Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -  Are useful when exploring
cultural values and health beliefs;  Can be used to examine how and why people think in a
particular way and how is influences their beliefs and values;  Can be used to explore complex
issues;  Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;  Do not require participants to be
literate. Disadvantages of focus groups include -  Lack of privacy/anonymity;  Having to carefully
balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender appropriate (i.e. gender may be an
issue);  Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs etc.); 
Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;  Group leader needs to be skilled at
conducting focus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing out passive participants and creating a
relaxed, welcoming environment;  Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time
consuming to analyze.
9.4.4 PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (PRA) Participatory rural appraisal/

assessment (PRA) is a set of participatory and largely visual techniques for assessing group and
community resources, identifying and prioritizing problems and appraising strategies for solving
them. During the 1980s, PRA was firstly developed in India and Kenya, mainly supported by NGOs
operating at grass-roots level. Until today PRA evolved so fast in terms of the methodology, the
creation of new tools and specifically in the different ways it is applied. It is a research/planning
methodology in which a local community (with or without the assistance of outsiders) studies an
issue that concerns the population, prioritizes problems, evaluates options for

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solving the problem(s) and comes up with a Community Action Plan to address the concerns that
have been raised. PRA is particularly concerned that the multiple perspectives that exist in any
community are represented in the analysis and that the community itself takes the lead in evaluating
its situation and finding solutions. Outsiders may participate as facilitators or in providing technical
information but they should not ‘take charge’ of the process. In PRA, a number of different tools are
used to gather and analyze information. These tools encourage participation, make it easier for
people to express their views and help to organize information in a way that makes it more useful
and more accessible to the group that is trying to analyze a given situation. It is also called
‘Participatory Learning for Action (PLA)’, is a methodological approach that is used to enable farmers
to analyze their own situation and to develop a common perspective on natural resource
management and agriculture at village level. Key Tenets / Principles of PRA  Participation: Local
people’s input into PRA activities is essential to its value as a research and planning method and as a
means for diffusing the participatory approach to development.  Teamwork: To the extent that the
validity of PRA data relies on informal interaction and brainstorming among those involved, it is best
done by a team that includes local people with perspective and knowledge of the area’s conditions,
traditions, and social structure and either nationals or expatriates with a complementary mix of
disciplinary backgrounds and experience. A well-balanced team will represent the diversity of
socioeconomic, cultural, gender, and generational perspectives.  Flexibility: PRA does not provide
blueprints for its practitioners. The combination of techniques that is appropriate in a particular
development context will be determined by such variables as the size and skill mix of the PRA team,
the time and resources available, and the topic and location of the work.  Optimal Ignorance: To be
efficient in terms of both time and money, PRA work intends to gather just enough information to
make the necessary recommendations and decisions.  Triangulation: PRA works with qualitative
data. To ensure that information is valid and reliable, PRA teams follow the rule of thumb that at
least three sources must be consulted or techniques must be used to investigate the same topics.
Organizing PRA A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working for two to three weeks on
workshop discussions, analyses, and fieldwork. Several organizational aspects should be considered
–  Logistical arrangements should consider nearby accommodations, arrangements for lunch for
fieldwork days, sufficient vehicles, portable computers, funds to purchase refreshments for
community meetings during the PRA, and supplies such as flip chart paper and markers.  Training of
team members may be required, particularly if the PRA has the second objective of training in
addition to data collection.  PRA results are influenced by the length of time allowed to conduct the
exercise, scheduling and assignment of report writing, and critical analysis of all data, conclusions,
and recommendations.  A PRA covering relatively few topics in a small area (perhaps two to four
communities) should take between ten days and four weeks, but a PRA with a wider scope over a
larger area can take several months. Allow five days for an introductory workshop if training is
involved. Reports are best written immediately after the fieldwork period, based on notes from PRA
team members. A preliminary report should be available within a week or so of the fieldwork, and
the final report should be made available to all participants and the local institutions that were
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PRA Tools PRA is an exercise in communication and transfer of knowledge. Regardless of whether it
is carried out as part of project identification or appraisal or as part of country economic and sector
work, the learning-by-doing and teamwork spirit of PRA requires transparent procedures. For that
reason, a series of open meetings (an initial open meeting, final meeting, and follow-up meeting)
generally frame the sequence of PRA activities. Common tools in PRA are – Mapping: Making a
community map is probably the best approach for you to get started, and for a community to get
started. Take a group on a walk through the community, and let them draw a map of the area. Let
the map include communal facilities, personal and family buildings, assets and liabilities. Do not
draw the map for them. One method is for individuals or small groups to each make a separate map,
then, as a group exercise later, all the small groups of individuals prepare a large map (e.g. using
newsprint or flip chart paper) combining and synthesizing what is included on all the maps. Valuable
information over and above that shown on scientifically produced maps can be obtained from maps
drawn by local people. These maps show the perspective of the drawer and reveal much about local
knowledge of resources, land use and settlement patterns, or household characteristics. You can
encourage community members to draw their map on the ground, using sticks to draw lines.
Drawing the map on the ground, like drawing a large map on the wall, gives you and the participants
a chance to easily make the drawing process a group process. Models: If the community members
add sticks and stones to a map scratched onto the ground, they are making a simple model - a three
dimensional map. Do not draw the map or construct the model for the participants; encourage them
to all contribute. As you watch them, note if some facilities are made before others, if some are
larger in proportion than others. This will give you some insight into what issues may be more
important than others to the participants. Make notes; these will contribute to your sociological
understanding of the community. Make a copy on paper of the map or model as a permanent
record. Maps and models can later lead to transect walks, in which greater detail is recorded
Creating a Community Inventory: The inventory, and especially the process of making it, is the most
important and central element of participatory appraisal. The process of making the community
inventory is sometimes called semi structured interviewing. If it were perfectly unstructured, then it
would be a loose conversation that goes nowhere. A ‘Brainstorm’ session, in contrast, is highly
structured (The brainstorm has its uses, especially in the project design phase of community
empowering). Making the inventory is somewhere in between these two. You also allow the
discussion to be a little bit free, especially in allowing participants to analyze their contributions to
making the inventory. You do not work with a set of specific questions, but you might best prepare a
check list of topics to cover and work from that so that you cover all topics. When you prepare your
check list, remember that you should include both assets and liabilities in the community. Include
available facilities, including how well they are working, or not working. Include potentials and
opportunities as well as threats and hindrances, both possible and current. Remember that this is an
assessment. Aim for an inventory that assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the community.
Your job is not to create the inventory, but to guide the community members to construct it as a
group. Focus Group Discussions: There may be a range of experiences and opinions among
members of the community or there may be sensitivity in divulging information to outsiders or to
others within the community. This is where a focus group discussion can be useful. It is best here if
you do not work alone, but as a facilitation team of two or three facilitators, one leading the
discussion and another making a record. The discussion topics chosen should be fewer than for the
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inventory. First conduct separate sessions for the different interest groups, record their
contributions carefully, and then bring them together to share as groups their special concerns. It is
important to be careful here. While you recognize the different interest groups in the community,
you do not want to increase the differences between the groups - to widen the schism. You are not
trying to make all the different groups the same as each other, but to increase the tolerance,
understanding and co-operation between them. Special focus groups gives you the opportunity to
work separately with different groups that may find it difficult at first to work together; but you must
work towards bringing them together. Preference Ranking: When you are working with a
community with different interest groups, you may wish to list preference rankings of the different
groups, and then look at them together with the groups together. Preference ranking is a good ice-
breaker at the beginning of a group interview, and helps focus the discussion. Wealth Ranking: This
is a particularly useful method of (1) discovering how the community members define poverty, (2) to
find who the really poor people are, and (3) to stratify samples of wealth. This is best done once you
have built up some rapport with the community members. A good method here is to make a card
the name of each of the households in the community on it. Select some members of the
community. Ask them to put these cards into groups according to various measures of wealth and to
give their rationale (reasons) for the groupings. How they categorize members of the community,
and the reasons they give for making those categories and for putting different households into each
category, are very revealing about the socio-economic makeup of the community. Seasonal and
Historical Diagramming: Seasonal and historical variations and trends can be easy to miss during a
short visit to the field. You can attempt various diagramming techniques can help explore changes in
- rainfall, labor demand, farming (fishing, hunting, herding) activities, wood supply for fuel, disease
incidence, migration for employment, food stocks and many other elements that change over time.
The diagrams you produce can be used as a basis for discussions for the reasons behind changes and
implications for the people involved. Institutional Mapping: Information about the social
organization of the community and the nature of social groups is difficult to get in a short visit.
Complex relationships between rich and poor segments of the community, family ties and feuds, and
political groups cannot be untangled in a few weeks. Using participatory appraisal methods can be
useful here. One way to understand the less sensitive aspects of social interaction in a community is
to ask key informants to construct a ‘Venn diagram’. This technique is simply a collection of circles,
each of which represents a different group or organization active in the community. The size of each
circle reflects the relative importance of the group represented-the smaller the circle, the less
influential the group. The amount of overlap between two circles represents the amount of
collaboration or joint decision making between two groups. Participatory Mapping: Create a wall or
ground map with group participation. Members should do the marking, drawing and coloring with a
minimum of interference and instruction by outsiders. Using pencils, pens or local materials (e.g.
small rocks, different colored sands or powders, plant material) members should draw maps that
depict/illustrate certain things. Each group member is then asked ‘to hold the stick’ to explain the
map or to criticize it or revise it. Create resource maps showing the location of houses, resources,
infrastructure and terrain features-useful for analyzing certain community-level problems. Create
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Seasonal Calendars: These charts show monthly changes in climate (rainfall or temperature) or
agricultural activities (agricultural hours worked, different activities undertaken, crop cycles). The
calendars are useful in identifying planting and harvesting times, labor constraints and marketing
opportunities. Matrices: These are grid formats used to illustrate links between different activities
or factors. They are useful in information gathering and analysis. Important Techniques of
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Village Transect: A transect is constructed with the help of local
inhabitants by walking through the village. The major objective of a transect is to identify the types
of land-use, opportunities and constraints to the agricultural or rural development. The application
of a transect is to identify and explain the cause and effect relationships between topography, soils,
natural vegetation, cultivation and other production activities and human settlement patterns.
Procedure - Draw an outline map of the village. Ask villagers to select one or more routes which
cover the main variations in topography. Ask two or more people to accompany you to the edge of
the village. Stop when you arrive at the edge of a new topography zone; record the characteristics
and distance covered by the last zone. When the transect is completed prepare a chart summarizing
the major features encountered. When more than one transects has been completed, prepare a
combined chart, compare results and generate questions and hypothesis for latter enquires. Social
and Physical Maps: The social and resource map is used to show the relative location of different
households, resource points, roads, canals, crop fields, residential areas, markets, educational
institutions, co-operative societies, etc. The villagers are asked to draw a social map of the village
usually on the ground using a pointed stick. A social map drawn by villagers should encourage
maximum participation and interaction of the villagers. Procedure - Select a suitable space. Mark
paths and other landmarks from the residential part of the village on the ground. Sub-divide the
village into para or other units to enable the available informants to provide accurate information.
Ask the informant to identify the position of each household, and write the name on a strip of paper,
which can then be placed on the map. Use appropriate symbols and materials to build on any further
information, which may be required about assets, group membership, etc. Start recording on a
separate sheet of paper as soon as the locations of the households have been identified. Seasonality
Exercise: To identify the times of year at which people suffer from particular hardship like
unemployment, diseases, rainfall, draught and some other allied aspects of the rural life. To take
appropriate safety nets or other remedial action. Procedure - Consider all the months in a year
either in Bangla or in English year. Lay out the matrix on the ground considering months along one
axis and the items of a particular phenomenon along the other axis. To get information with degree
of differentiation by the villagers use sticks, seeds and other locally available materials. Count the
number of seeds or sticks by row and column. Consider this number as score of the respective item.
Assign rank according to score. Chapati or Venn Diagrams: To identify the institutions in a
community. To show how the various external institutions involved in the delivery of services. To
show how they relate to each other. Procedure - Cut a large circle of paper to represent the major
institutions with which you are concerned (Village or Para). Cut or draw oval shapes to represent
outside institutions with linkages in the village and place these overlapping with the outer edges of
the circle (size can be used to indicate relative importance). Cut or draw further circles of
appropriate sizes to represent institutions wholly contained within the village. Relate these to each
other through overlaps where these exist, through incorporation where one institution lies entirely
within another and through separate location where there is no overlap. Check that the basic
diagram is correct before reproducing a clean version on another sheet of paper. Wealth Ranking:
Means of dividing households into different economic categories. This can be used to identify target
group members before an activity is launched or to determine the extent to which targeting has
proved successful after the event. Procedure - List each household name on a card together with
other information. Identify the criteria which they use in distinguishing between the better and less
well off households. Keeping the criteria in mind request the participants to place the cards in a
small number of piles. The category of each household to be recorded at the bottom of the card.
Finally, count the number of households in each pile and record accordingly. Preference Ranking:
Ranking means placing something in sequential order. Preference ranking is a tool that helps us
prioritizing the problems. Procedure- Organize one focus group representing relevant stakeholders.
Make a list of all the problems to be prioritized. Identify criteria on which problems are to be
prioritized. Criteria can be identified through comparing the problems by pair wise. Define all of the
criteria positively. For example ‘tastes good’, ‘not tasted bad’, or ‘easy to cook’, ‘not hard to cook’,
then select a suitable symbol for each one. Decide whether you will ask the informant to rank items
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basis, or whether you want to assign scores (say from one to three). Lay out the matrix on the
ground with the problems along one axis and the criteria along the other. Ask the informant to rank
or score each item against each criterion, using seeds or available material. This can be done on a
scale of 1-3 or by allocating a fixed number of seeds for each criterion. When the exercise is
completed verify the results with the participants. Put the most favored items at the top; the least
favored at the bottom, the most powerful criteria on the left, and the weakest on the right.
Sequence of Techniques PRA techniques can be combined in a number of different ways, depending
on the topic under investigation. Some general rules of thumb, however, are useful. Mapping and
modeling are good techniques to start with because they involve several people, stimulate much
discussion and enthusiasm, provide the PRA team with an overview of the area, and deal with
noncontroversial information. Maps and models may lead to transect walks, perhaps accompanied
by some of the people who have constructed the map. Wealth ranking is best done later in a PRA,
once a degree of rapport has been established, given the relative sensitivity of this information.
Preference ranking is a good icebreaker at the beginning of a group interview and helps focus the
discussion. Later, individual interviews can follow up on the different preferences among the group
members and the reasons for these differences. Seven major techniques used in PRA 1. Secondary
data reviews - books, files, reports, news, articles, maps, etc. 2. Observation - direct and participant
observation, wandering, DIY (do-it-yourself) activities. 3. Semi-structured interviews - this is an
informal, guided interview session, where only some of the questions are pre-determined and new
questions arise during the interview, in response to answers from those interviewed. 4. Analytical
game - this is a quick game to find out a group’s list of priorities, performances, ranking, scoring, or
stratification. 5. Stories and portraits - colorful description of the local situation, local history, trend
analysis, etc. 6. Diagrams - maps, aerial photos, transects, seasonal calendars, Venn diagram, flow
diagram, historical profiles, ethno-history, timelines, etc. 7. Workshop - local and outsiders are
brought together to discuss the information and ideas intensively. Modified PRA Tools: Resource
Map; Social Map; Wealth Ranking Objectives; Local Perceptions of Malnutrition Mapping Objectives;
Venn Diagram on Institutions; Resource Cards; Seasonal Calendar; Income and Expenditure Matrix;
Daily Activity Clocks; Focus Group Discussion; Semi Structured Interview; Community Workshop;
Daily Evaluation and Planning Meeting. Resource Map: It is a tool that helps us to learn about a
community and its resource base. The primary concern is not to develop an accurate map but to get
useful information about local perceptions of resources. The participants should develop the content
of the map according to what is important to them. The objective is to learn the villagers’
perceptions of what natural resources are found in the community and how they are used. Social
Map: It is a map that is drawn by the residents and which shows the social structures and institutions
found in an area. It also helps us to learn about social and economic differences between the
households. The objectives are – to learn about the social structures and the differences among the
households by ethnicity, religion and wealth; to learn about who is living where; to learn about the
social institutions and the different views local people might have regarding those institutions.
Wealth Ranking Objectives: To investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in a
community; to identify and understand local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being; to map
the relative position of households in a community. Ranking and mapping methods are used. Carry
out the exercise with a few key informants who know the community well. Local Perceptions of
Malnutrition Mapping Objectives: To identify various forms of malnutrition prevalent in the
community; to understand the local perceptions of malnutrition; to map nutritionally vulnerable
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methods are used. Carry out the interview with one or more key informants (Community Health
Worker; Traditional Birth Attendant; Home Agent; Traditional Healer; Teacher etc.). Venn Diagram
on Institutions: It shows institutions, organizations, groups and important individuals found in the
village (Kushet), as well as the villagers view of their importance in the community. Additionally the
Diagram explains who participates in these groups in terms of gender and wealth. The Institutional
Relationship Diagram also indicates how close the contact and cooperation between those
organizations and groups is. The objectives are – to identify external and internal
organizations/groups/important persons active in the community; to identify who participates in
local organizations/ institutions by gender and wealth; to find out how the different organizations
and groups relate to each other in terms of contact, co-operation, flow of information and provision
of services. Resource Cards: Resource picture cards are useful for facilitating a discussion about who
uses and controls resources in a fun and non-threatening way. They show very clearly the resource
base of both men and women. This can lead to discussions about differences between men’s and
women’s priorities and their need for resources. The objective is to learn about differences between
men and women in use and control over resources. Seasonal Calendar: A seasonal calendar is a
participatory tool to explore seasonal changes (e.g. gender-specific workload, diseases, income,
expenditure etc.). The objective is to learn about changes in livelihoods over the year and to show
the seasonality of agricultural and non agricultural workload, food availability, human diseases,
gender-specific income and expenditure, water, forage, credit and holidays. Income and
Expenditure Matrix: It is a tool that helps us to identify and quantify the relative importance of
different sources of income and expenditures. The tool also helps us to understand how secure or
how vulnerable certain groups of people incomes are. In the Expenditures matrix, we can see if all,
most or only some of people's total income is spent to meet basic needs - food, water, clothing,
shelter, health care, education. We can also ask whether people have any money left over to save or
to invest in tools, fertilizer, or other important items that could help them in their work. The
objective is to learn about sources of income (cash and kind) and how income is proportionality
spent by gender and wealth. Daily Activity Clocks: Daily activity clocks illustrate all of the different
kinds of activities carried out in one day. They are particularly useful for looking at relative work-
loads between different groups in the community. Comparisons between clocks show who works
the longest hours, who concentrates on a few activities and who does a number of tasks in a day,
and who has the most leisure time and sleep. The objective is to learn what different people do
during one day and how heavy their workloads are. Focus Group Discussion: Semi-structured group
interview, ranking and matrix methods are used. The objectives are – understand local perceptions
of nutrition and household food security; identify and understand constraints in the household and
community to achieving nutrition and household food security; identify and understand mechanisms
in the household and the community to cope with nutrition and household food insecurity; identify
what community, household and individual resources are required to obtain nutrition and household
food security. Semi Structured Interview: Semi-structured group interview, ranking and observation
methods are used. The objectives are – understand why members of a household (that was mapped
as being affected by malnutrition) have nutrition-related health problems and why other households
are not affected; identify constraints and opportunities in the household and community for
household members to achieve nutrition security. Community Workshop: ‘Group Discussion’ and
‘Presentation’ are used as methods. The objectives are – to present the main findings and
conclusions of the appraisal to the community at large; to provide an opportunity to the community
for discussion of the main findings of the appraisal; to reach a consensus on the way forward and the
roles and responsibilities of the community, the community support staff and the project. Organize a
meeting with the community at large, ensuring that men and women are equally represented, as
well as people from different socio-economic groups and ages. Daily Evaluation and Planning
Meeting: Every afternoon the PRA team comes together to reflect the process of day, to present the
results gathered, to evaluate the results and to plan for the next day. The objectives are – to present
the results of the day; to summarize and structure the results according to the key questions and
according to related ‘Strength and Weaknesses’ inside the community and according to
‘Opportunities and Threats’ identified outside the community; to compare the results of the
different groups and to identify differences and correspondences; to enable the PRA team to
elaborate new relevant key questions and a program for the next day.

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Using of PRA PRA supports the direct participation of communities, with rural people themselves
becoming the main investigators and analysts. Rural people set the priorities; determine needs;
select and train community workers; collect, document, and analyze data; and plan and implement
solutions based on their findings. Actions stemming from this research tend to serve the local
community. Outsiders are there to facilitate the process but do not direct it. PRA uses group
animation and exercises to facilitate information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders.
PRA is an exercise in communication and transfer of knowledge. Regardless of whether it is carried
out as part of project identification or appraisal or as part of country economic and sector work, the
learning-by-doing and teamwork spirit of PRA requires transparent procedures. For that reason, a
series of open meetings (an initial open meeting, final meeting, and follow-up meeting) generally
frame the sequence of PRA activities. A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working for
two to three weeks on workshop discussions, analyses, and fieldwork. Scope of PRA PRA is used – 
To ascertain needs;  To establish priorities for development activities;  Within the scope of
feasibility studies;  During the implementation phase of projects;  Within the scope of monitoring
and evaluation of projects;  For studies of specific topics;  For focusing formal surveys on essential
aspects, and identifying conflicting group interests. Areas of Application  Natural resource
management  Agriculture  Poverty alleviation/women in development programs  Health and
nutrition  Preliminary and primary education  Village and district-level planning  Institutional and
policy analysis. Advantages of PRA  Identification of genuine priorities for target group. PRA allows
local people to present their own priorities for development and get them incorporated into
development plans.  Devolution of management responsibilities. An important goal of PRA is to
encourage self-reliant development with as much of the responsibility for the management and
implementation of development activities devolved to local people themselves. This can greatly
improve the efficiency of development work and eliminate many of the problems regarding
proprietorship of development activities at the community level.  M o tiv a tio n a n d m o biliz a tio
n o f lo c al d e v elo p m e n t w o r k e r s. Participation in PRA by local development workers,
whether from NGOs, government or other agencies can greatly increase the motivation and level of
mobilization in support of the project or program of which it is part. Where changes in development
approaches are being introduced, such as a shift to a more integrated development planning
mechanism, a PRA-type activity which illustrates how these new mechanisms will work on the
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local workers. This is one reason why involvement of people from different administrative and
organizational levels can be vital so that commitment is built up right through the chain.
Forming better linkages between communities and development institutions. PRA can assist in
forming better links between communities and the agencies and institutions concerned with rural
development. A PRA which encourages a better understanding of the environmental issues at stake
in local communities and develops activities which enable them to benefit from better management
could also lead to better monitoring of mangrove exploitation by the communities themselves. PRAs
involve intensive interaction between communities and outsiders which can have lasting effects in
breaking down the barriers of reticence and suspicion which often characterize these relationships.
Us e of local resources. Where local people have had more say in the design of projects they are also
more likely to design activities which make full use of existing resources.

Mobilization of community resources. Greater commitment from the community can also mean
greater mobilization of community resources for development and less reliance on outside inputs.
This can take the form of labor inputs, savings or time devoted to management functions.
More sustainable development activities. This combination of effects will generally lead to more
sustainable development activities which are less reliant on support from outside agencies and is
technically, environmentally and socially appropriate to local conditions. These benefits from
participation can only be realized where the full implications of participation for the development
agencies which are encouraging it have been taken into account and accommodated and the
institutions involved are willing to support the sort of long-term changes in social, political and
institutional frameworks which proper participation, and PRA, can set in motion. Where this is not
the case, many of the following disadvantages can come into play. Weaknesses of PRA  The term
PRA itself can cause difficulties. PRA need not be rural, and sometimes is not even participatory, and
is frequently used as a trendy label for standard RRA techniques.  R aisin g e x p e c t a tio n s w hic
h c a n n o t b e r e aliz e d. One of the most immediate and frequently encountered risks in PRA is
that it raises a complex set of expectations in communities which frequently cannot be realized
given the institutional or political context of the area. This can be due to the political situation, the
local power and social structure or simply too bureaucratic inertia in institutions which are supposed
to be supporting development. In some cases the intended aim of the PRA may be to deliberately
raise expectations ‘at the grassroots’ so as to put pressure on the institutional and political
structures above to change. However, not all development agencies are in a position to support such
activities and there is a risk that agencies which are not properly equipped to respond to PRA-type
planning may use the approach inappropriately.  Hijacking. If PRA becomes part of the global
development agenda, there are risks of hijacking When this occurs, the PRA agenda is externally
driven, and used to create legitimacy for projects, agencies and NGOs.  Disappointment. Local
expectations can easily be raised. If nothing tangible emerges, local communities may come to see
the process as a transient external development phenomenon. Lack of feedback to the community
adds to the sense of disappointment.  Failure to take account of stratification in communities. The
fact that PRA is often carried out with the community as a whole can mean that stratification within
the community, whether by wealth, social status, gender or ethnic group, can often be obscured and
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Threats. The empowerment implications of PRA, and the power of its social analysis, can create
threats to local vested interests, although less so than with PAR (Participatory Action Research).
9.4.5 RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (RRA) Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged in the late
1970s in response to some of the problems with large-scale, structured questionnaire surveys. It
provided an alternative technique for outsiders – often scientists carrying out research into
agriculture – to quickly learn from local people about their realities and challenges. RRA practitioners
worked in multi-disciplinary teams and pioneered the use a suite of visual methods and semi-
structured interviews to learn from respondents. While it was largely about data collection, usually
analyzed by outsiders, RRA contained the seeds from which other primary methods grew in the
1980s. Reflections on RRA led to the development of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), which
focused more strongly on facilitation, empowerment, behavior change, local knowledge and
sustainable action. It was developed in response to the disadvantages of more traditional research
methods, including - the time taken to produce results, the high cost of formal surveys and the low
levels of data reliability due to non-sampling errors. RRA is a bridge between formal surveys and
unstructured research methods such as depth interviews, focus groups and observation studies. In
developing countries, it is sometimes difficult to apply the standard marketing research techniques
employed elsewhere. There is often a paucity of baseline data, poor facilities for marketing research
(e.g. no sampling frames, relatively low literacy among many populations of interest and few trained
enumerators) as well as the lack of appreciation of the need for marketing research. The nature of
RRA is such that it holds the promise of overcoming these and other limitations of marketing
research. Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted definition of RRA. RRA is more commonly
described as a systematic but semi-structured activity out in the field by a multidisciplinary team and
is designed to obtain new information and to formulate new hypotheses about rural life. A central
characteristic of RRA is that its research teams are multidisciplinary. Beyond that, the distinction
between RRA and other research methodologies dependents upon its multidisciplinary approach
and the particular combination of tools that in employs. A core concept of RRA is that research
should be carried out not by individuals, but by a team comprised of members drawn from a variety
of appropriate disciplines. Such teams are intended to be comprised of some members with relevant
technical backgrounds and others with social science skills, including marketing research skills. In this
way, it is thought that the varying perspectives of RRA research team members will provide a more
balanced picture. The techniques of RRA include – interview and question design techniques for
individual, household and key informant interviews; methods of cross-checking information from
different sources; sampling techniques that can be adapted to a particular objective; methods of
obtaining quantitative data in a short time frame; group interview techniques, including focus-group
interviewing; methods of direct observation at site level, and use of secondary data sources. RRA is
an approach for conducting action-oriented research in developing countries.

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Many ‘definitions’ of RRA have been offered by different people who have worked on it, but there
are always others who object to those definitions because they are not what they think RRA is or
should be. The fact that it is difficult to give a precise definition to RRA is a reflection of the fact that
it is very flexible - it is a tool which can be used in a lot of different situations to achieve very
different objectives. Not surprisingly everybody seems to think RRA is what they have used it for. So
it is probably best to avoid ‘definitions’ and just describe the features which most RRAs seem to have
in common. RRA essentially consists of the following –  an activity carried out by a group of people
from different professional fields or disciplines which usually aims to learn about a particular topic,
area, situation, group of people or whatever else is of concern to those organizing the RRA  it
usually involves collecting information by talking directly to people ‘on the ground’  it uses a set of
guidelines on how to approach the collection of information, learning from that information and the
involvement of local people in its interpretation and presentation  it uses a set of tools - these
consist of exercises and techniques for collecting information, means of organizing that information
so that it is easily understood by a wide range of people, techniques for stimulating interaction with
community members and methods for quickly analyzing and reporting findings and suggesting
appropriate action. These features are just about the ‘bottom line’ with RRA but everything else is
fairly flexible within the guidelines described below. RRA Guidelines  S t r u c t u r e d b u t fle xible :
RRA is a structured activity requiring careful planning, clear objectives, the right balance of people
involved and a good choice of tools and techniques for use in the field. At the same time, it is flexible
enough to respond to local conditions and unexpected circumstances. Progress is reviewed
constantly so that new information can be understood and the focus of the RRA redirected. 
Integrated and interdisciplinary: RRA helps ‘outsiders’ to learn about rural conditions by looking at
them from many points of view. This means having people participating with a variety of different
technical and scientific skills and a balance of different institutional outlooks. This requires an
integrated development approach which cuts across institutional and disciplinary boundaries. 
Awareness of bias: Researchers and development workers who are trying to understand rural
conditions can be biased by their urban attitudes, their own professional and personal priorities, the
type of transport they use, the language they speak. The people researchers talk to can be biased as
well by their limited experience, their customs and beliefs and their own interests and those of their
families. RRA seeks to avoid biases by being aware of them and by being systematic in taking into
account different points of view and different sets of interests.  Accelerating the planning process:
RRA tries to shorten the time it takes to get from knowing nothing about an area or a situation to
deciding what development interventions might be best for that area by using key informants,
careful observation and by exploiting the knowledge and experience of local people. The information
produced is analyzed ‘on the spot’ and presented in a form which is more easily used by planners
and which can be discussed and understood by local people themselves.  Interaction with and
learning from local people: Whatever the purpose of the RRA it must involve the people who are the
intended ‘beneficiaries’ of any eventual development activities. RRA should give them the
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out an RRA must be prepared to listen to local people and learn from them. Participation by local
people can take many forms but any RRA will involve intense interaction between researchers,
planners, traditional and formal authorities and local people.
Combination of different tools: The RRA approach uses a combination of communication and
learning tools. These tools help outsiders to observe conditions in a concise but systematic way.
They also allow local people to present their knowledge, concerns and priorities to outsiders. The
combination of different tools and techniques builds up a more complete picture where different
viewpoints can be compared and contrasted. The systematic cross-checking of information collected
in different ways by different people from different sources can increases accuracy and
comprehensiveness.
Iterative: During an RRA, what has been learnt is constantly reviewed and analyzed in the field. This
is usually done in workshops carried out at regular intervals. This means the focus of the RRA, the
tools used and the people talked to can be adjusted constantly. Obviously, these guidelines leave
plenty of room for the people using RRA to decide exactly what they want to do with it. For example,
if the most important thing for the people organizing the RRA is to collect information quickly, they
might want to structure the activity more carefully so that things move faster. If one of the principal
concerns is to get local people involved as much as possible, the structure of the RRA would
probably have to be looser and more time allowed for getting to know the people and putting them
at ease. RRA Teams The composition of the team which carries out an RRA is extremely important in
determining the outcome of an RRA. Obviously, the composition of an RRA team depends very much
on the objectives of the RRA and the particular concerns which it is addressing.  G e n d e r C o n sid
e r a tio n s : Gender bias is particularly important for RRA teams. For male researchers, women in
many rural communities are difficult to contact and talk to and may remain almost invisible to
anyone visiting the community for a short time. However all aspects of rural conditions studied by an
RRA team will have gender dimensions which need to be taken into consideration. 
Multidisciplinary: The composition of teams carrying out RRAs should be dictated by a careful
consideration of the objectives of the appraisal, the issues which are thought to be of importance in
the area and the need to have a balanced set of disciplinary, institutional and gender viewpoints
represented on the team. As a minimum requirement, there should be a balance between specialists
in the biological and physical sciences and specialists in the social sciences. However, the need for
different formal backgrounds should not be overemphasized. The important point is to have people
who can contribute different ways of looking at rural conditions - so, when organizing an RRA, it
might be possible for people to ‘cover’ different disciplines at the same time if they have the
relevant experience.  L e v els o f E x p e r tis e : One of the risks of RRA is that it tends to rely on the
knowledge, experience and ‘sensitivity’ of team members to come to conclusions about rural
conditions. These conclusions cannot then be tested or checked against ‘hard data’. This means that
a great deal depends on the skills of team members. As a result, it has always been regarded as
important to have experienced and skilled people on RRA teams. Obviously this is preferable, but
RRA does not depend only on the skills and experience of its team members to overcome the risks of
coming to faulty conclusions due to lack of hard data. It is the combination of different viewpoints
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than individual skills. The presence on the team of ‘authoritative’ experts, with a wide range and
depth of experience in their fields, can be an advantage as they bring new knowledge and
experience to bear on local problems. However, such ‘experts’ also have to be willing to listen and
learn from the activity. Frequently, those who are most qualified are also most likely to impose their
own biases and interpretations on the work of the team. Experts who are not willing to learn
something new during an appraisal can create more problems than they solve. In such circumstances
it can be better to have a less experienced specialist who is willing to learn something new than a
highly experienced expert who is sure that s/he knows everything already.
RRA Experience: At least one member of the team should have experience in carrying out RRAs. This
person can act as trainer in RRA techniques and as facilitator, guiding the rest of the team through
the process of carrying out the RRA and making sure that the activity keeps on track.

Mix of Institutions: The involvement of people from the institutions and agencies which will
implement RRA recommendations is important. It can ensure that the subsequent involvement of
different agencies is based on the same understanding of the local situation and a similar
interpretation of local needs and priorities. Where many agencies are involved a few key personnel
have to be selected either because of their skills or because they are likely to play a leading role in
the future. Team members from different agencies can also contribute a range of perspectives to the
RRA and improve the depth of understanding achieved. RRAs can provide an opportunity for people
from different levels of the hierarchy of development agencies and institutions to work together.
Involvement of such a range of people in an RRA can lead to a better understanding both of the
conditions of ‘target’ communities and of the different priorities and problems of workers at
different administrative and organizational levels i.e. regional planners and village extension
workers.
Language Ability: As many of the team as possible should be able to communicate directly with local
people in their normal language. Use of translators and interpreters is clumsy and risky. Advantages
of RRA  The approach is responsive and flexible to new learning and conditions on the ground. 
Achieves a complex understanding of processes and dynamics and connections between different
disciplines, activities and sets of conditions.  The analysis and interpretation of findings is carried
out during the appraisal providing opportunities for cross-checking. Weaknesses of RRA  The
findings will not be statistically ‘sound’, even if RRA teams can use ‘quick and dirty’ sampling
methods to make sure that they cover a reasonable number of people or households in a particular
area.  Risk that the information gathered by an RRA is not very ‘representative’ but is a collection of
‘particular cases’ which do not tell researchers very much about general conditions.  RRA is very
dependent on the skills of the people carrying it out and having the right combination of experience
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Some Principles that are shared by PRA and RRA  Offsetting biases through different perspectives,
methods and tools, sources of information, people from different background and places,
background of team members - spatial, person, gender, age groups, interest groups, key informants,
wealth groups, seasonal, professionals, disciplines.  Rapid and progressive learning - flexible,
interactive.  Be gender sensitive at all times.  Reversal of roles - learning from, with and by local
people, eliciting and using their symbols, criteria, categories and indicators; and finding,
understanding and appreciating local people’s knowledge.  Focused learning - not finding out more
that is needed and not measuring when comparing is enough. We are often trained to make
absolute measurements and to give exact numbers, but often relative proportions, trends, scores or
ranking are all that is needed for decision making and planning of activities.  Seeking for diversity
and differences - people often have different perceptions of the same situation.  Attitude - in order
to make the PRA or RRA workshops as success, it is most important build a positive relationship with
local women and men. Outsiders must have an attitude of respect, humility and patience, and a
willingness to learn from the local people. Potential Differences between RRA and PRS RRA PRA
Responding to needs of development workers and agencies Responding to needs of communities
and target groups More emphasis on efficient use of time & achievement of objectives More
emphasis on flexibility to adapt to time frame of community Communication and learning tools used
to help outsiders analyze conditions and understand local people Communication and learning tools
used to help local people analyze their own conditions and communicate with outsiders Focus of
RRA decided by outsiders Focus of PRA decided by communities End product mainly used by
development agencies and outsiders End product mainly used by community Enables development
agencies and institutions to be more ‘participatory’ Enables (empowers) communities to make
demands on development agencies and institutions Can be used purely for ‘research’ purposes
without necessarily linking to subsequent action or intervention Closely linked to action or
intervention and requiring immediate availability of support for decisions and conclusion s reached
by communities as a result of the PRA

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9.4.6 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world
around us. As human beings, we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information about our
environment through our senses. However, as a method of data collection for research purposes,
observation is more than just looking or listening. Research, simply defined, is ‘systematic enquiry
made public’ (Stenhouse, 1975). Firstly, in order to become systematic, observation must in some
way be selective. We are constantly bombarded by huge amounts of sensory information. Human
beings are good at selectively attending to what is perceived as most useful to us. Observation
harnesses this ability; systematic observation entails careful planning of what we want to observe.
Secondly, in order to make observation ‘public’, what we see or hear has to be recorded in some
way to allow the information to be analysed and interpreted. Observation is a systematic data
collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or
naturally occurring situations. Observation of a field setting involves -  prolonged engagement in a
setting or social situation;  clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how observing is done; 
methodical and tactical improvisation in order to develop a full understanding of the setting of
interest;  imparting attention in ways that is in some sense ‘standardized’;  recording one’s
observations. Use of Observational Method There are a variety of reasons for collecting
observational data. Some of these reasons include -  When the nature of the research question to
be answered is focused on answering a how- or what-type question.  When the topic is relatively
unexplored and little is known to explain the behavior of people in a particular setting.  When
understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable.  When it is important to study
a phenomenon in its natural setting.  When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to
be different from actual behavior (what people actually do). One example of this seen in the
difference between selfreported versus observed preventive service delivery in health care settings.
 When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in conjunction
with other quantitative data collection techniques. Observational data can help researchers evaluate
the fidelity of an intervention across settings and identify when 'stasis' has been achieved.
Classification of Observational Method Observational methods can be classified as follows – Casual
and Scientific Observation: An observation can be sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may
act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the right thing at the
right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific
observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be kept
in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in nature. Natural Observation: Natural
observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal setting and in this type of observation, no
efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the
collection of the information and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be
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Subjective and Objective Observation: All the observations consist of the two main components, the
subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers to the activity or
any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of the
one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer as an entity apart
from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective observation. Objective observation is
also called as the retrospection. Direct and Indirect Observation: With the help of the direct method
of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation
is he present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of
observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means
like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to
the indirect observation. Participant and Non Participant Observation: Participation by the
observers with the various types of operations of the group under study refers to the participant
type of observation. In participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by
the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands. But
in the non participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the
group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.
Undisguised participant observation is often used to understand the culture and behavior of groups
of individuals. Disguised participant observation is often used when researchers believe individuals
would change their behavior if they knew it was being recorded. Participant observation allows
researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually open to scientific observation.
Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity or may unduly influence the individuals
whose behavior they are recording. Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured
observation works according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be
observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be
observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance.
Such observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that are
also structured in nature. But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically
against the structured observation. In such observation, observer has the freedom to note down
what s/he feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and also this approach of observation is
very suitable in the case of exploratory research. Structured observations are set up to record
behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation. Clinical and developmental
psychologists often use structured observations. Problems in interpreting structured observations
can occur when the same observation procedures are not followed across observations or observers,
or when important variables are not controlled. Structured observation is more likely to be carried
out by those operating from a ‘positivist’ perspective, or who at least believe it is possible to clearly
define and quantify behaviors. Unstructured observation is more likely to be carried out by those
operating from an ‘interpretive’ or ‘critical’ perspective where the focus is on understanding the
meanings participants, in the contexts observed, attribute to events and actions. Positivist and
critical researchers are likely to be operating from a ‘realist’ perspective, namely that there is a ‘real
world’ with ‘real impact’ on people’s lives and this can best be studied by looking at social settings
directly. Controlled and Un-controlled Observation: Controlled observations are the observations
made under the influence of some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to
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the precision of the research results. But these observations can be very effective in the working if
these are made to work in the coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording
etc. Un-controlled observations are made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled
observation these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force.
Covert and Overt Observation: Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an
ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception
and consent with this particular method of observation. Overt observations are when the researcher
tells the group s/he is conducting research (i.e. they know they are being observed). Type of Obser-
vational Method Advantages Disadvantages Naturalistic Observation  Particularly good for
observing specific subjects.  Provides ecologically valid recordings of natural behavior. 
Spontaneous behaviors are more likely to happen.  Ethics: Where research is undisclosed consent
will not be obtained, where consent is not obtained - details may be used which infringe
confidentiality. Structured Observation  Allows control of extraneous variables.  Reliability of
results can be tested by repeating the study.  Provides a safe environment to study contentious
concepts such as infant attachment.  The implementation of controls may have an effect on
behavior.  Lack of ecological validity.  Observer effect.  Observer bias. Unstructured Observation
 Gives a broad overview of a situation.  Useful where situation/subject matter to be studied is
unclear.  Only really appropriate as a ‘first step’ to give an overview of a situation / concept / idea.
Participant Observation  Gives an ‘insiders’ view.  Behaviors are less prone to misinterpretation
because researcher was a participant.  Opportunity for researcher to become an ‘accepted’ part of
the environment.  Observer effect.  Possible lack of objectivity on the part of the observer. Non-
Participant Observation  Avoidance of observer effect  Observer is detached from situation so
relies on their perception which may be inaccurate Recording Behavior in Observational Method
The goals of observational research determine whether researchers seek a comprehensive
description of behavior record or a description of only selected behaviors. How the results of a study
are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are
initially recorded. Fieldnotes: Participant observers may use multiple methods to gather data. One
primary approach involves writing fieldnotes. There are several guides for learning how to prepare
fieldnotes -  Researchers may be interested in creating or using a template to guide a researchers’
observations.  Templates or observational coding sheets can be useful when data is collected by
inexperienced observers.  Templates or observational coding sheets should only be developed after
observation in the field that is not inhibited by such a template.  Theories and concepts can be
driven by templates and result in focused data collection.  Templates can deflect attention from
unnamed categories, unimagined and unanticipated activities that can be very important to
understanding a phenomenon and a setting.
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Qualitative Records of Behavior: Observation can provide rich qualitative data, sometimes described
as ‘thick description’ (Geertz, 1973), for example, where the relevant phenomena have been
carefully observed and detailed field notes have been recorded. Typically, the researcher would not
approach the observation with pre-determined categories or questions in mind. Because of this
openness, observation in qualitative research is often referred to as unstructured. Quantitative
Measures of Behavior: Researchers often obtain quantitative measures such as frequency or
duration of occurrence when they seek to describe specific behaviors or events. Quantitative
measures of behavior use one of the four levels of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio. The term ‘systematic’ observation is usually associated with observation undertaken from
the perspective of quantitative research where the purpose is to provide reliable, quantifiable data.
This usually involves the use of some kind of formal, structured observation instrument or schedule.
The observation method being used will clearly identify - the variables to be observed, perhaps by
means of some kind of behavioral checklist; who or what will be observed; how the observation is to
be conducted; and when and where the observations will take place. Analysis of Observational Data
Data Reduction: Observational data are summarized through the process of data reduction.
Researchers quantify the data in narrative records by coding behaviors according to specified
criteria, for example, by categorizing behaviors. Data are summarized using descriptive measures
such as frequency counts, means, and standard deviations. Observer Reliability: Inter-observer
reliability refers to the extent to which independent observers agree in their observations. Inter-
observer reliability is increased by providing clear definitions about behaviors and events to be
recorded, by training observers, and by providing feedback about discrepancies. High inter-observer
reliability increases researchers' confidence that observations about behavior are accurate (valid).
Inter-observer reliability is assessed by calculating percentage of agreement or correlations,
depending on how the behaviors were measured and recorded. Influence of the Observer: If
individuals change their behavior when they know they are being observed (reactivity), their
behavior may no longer be representative of their normal behavior. Research participants may
respond to demand characteristics in the research situation to guide their behavior. Methods to
control reactivity include unobtrusive (non-reactive) measurement, adaptation (habituation,
desensitization), and indirect observations of behavior. Researchers must consider ethical issues
when attempting to control reactivity. Observer Bias: Observer bias occurs when observers’ biases
determine which behaviors they choose to observe and when observers’ expectations about
behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording behavior. Expectancy effects can
occur when observers are aware of hypotheses for the outcome of the study or the outcome of
previous studies. The first step in controlling observer bias is to recognize that it may be present.
Observer bias may be reduced by keeping observers unaware (blind) of the goals and hypotheses of
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Method What and how you observe depends very
much on your subject of study. Researchers who prefer more security from the beginning might
consider systematic observation. This involves using an observation schedule whereby teacher
and/or pupil behavior is coded according to certain predetermined categories at regular intervals.
The strengths of systematic observation are –  It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish
frequencies, and is strong on objective measures which involve low inference on the part of the
observer.  Reliability can be strong. Where teams of researchers have used this approach, 80%
reliability has been established among them.  Generalisability. Once you have devised your
instrument, large samples can be covered.  It is precise. There is no ‘hanging around’ or ‘muddling
through’.  It provides a structure for the research. The weaknesses are –  There is a measure of
unreliability. Qualitative material might be misrepresented through the use of measurement
techniques.  Much of the interaction is missed.  It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context
in which the data is collected.  It is not good for generating fresh insights.  The pre-specification of
categories predetermines what is to be discovered and allows only partial description.  It ignores
process, flux, development, and change. There has been lively debate about the pros and cons of
systematic and unsystematic observation. In general, systematic observation is a useful technique
and can be particularly strong where used in conjunction with more purely qualitative techniques.
9.4.7 SURVEY METHOD Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings.
Survey research can be specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today,
survey research is used by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use
survey research to analyze behavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the
media, such as, in evaluating political candidates, public health officials, professional organizations,
and advertising and marketing directors. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that
is given to a sample. With a representative sample, that is, one that is representative of the larger
population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from which the sample was
drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as look for changes in
attitudes over time. A good sample selection is key as it allows one to generalize the findings from
the sample to the population, which is the whole purpose of survey research. Surveys provide a
means of measuring a population’s characteristics, self-reported and observed behavior, awareness
of programs, attitudes or opinions, and needs. Repeating surveys at regular intervals can assist in the
measurement of changes over time. These types of information are invaluable in planning and
evaluating government policies and programs. Unlike a census, where all members of a population
are studied, sample surveys gather information from only a portion of a population of interest. The
size of the sample depends on the purpose of the study. In a statistically valid survey, the sample is
objectively chosen so that each member of the population will have a known non - zero chance of
selection . Only then can the results be reliably projected from the sample

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to the population. The sample should not be selected haphazardly or only from those who volunteer
to participate. Surveys are a good way of gathering a large amount of data, providing a broad
perspective. Surveys can be administered electronically, by telephone, by mail or face to face. Mail
and electronically administered surveys have a wide reach, are relatively cheap to administer,
information is standardized and privacy can be maintained. They do, however, have a low response
rate, are unable to investigate issues to any great depth, require that the target group is literate and
do not allow for any observation. As surveys are self-reported by participants, there is a possibility
that responses may be biased particularly if the issues involved are sensitive or require some
measure of disclosure on trust by the participant. It is therefore vital that surveys used are designed
and tested for validity and reliability with the target groups who will be completing the surveys.
Careful attention must be given to the design of the survey. If possible the use of an already
designed and validated survey instrument will ensure that the data being collected is accurate. If you
design your own survey it is necessary to pilot test the survey on a sample of your target group to
ensure that the survey instrument is measuring what it intends to measure and is appropriate for
the target group. Questions within the survey can be asked in several ways and include: closed
questions, open-ended and scaled questions, and multiple choice questions. Closed questions are
usually in the format of yes/no or true/false options. Open-ended questions on the other hand leave
the answer entirely up to the respondent and therefore provide a greater range of responses.
Additionally, the use of scales is useful when assessing participants’ attitudes. A multiple choice
question may ask respondents to indicate their favorite topic covered in the program, or most
preferred activity. Other considerations when developing a survey instrument include - question
sequence, layout and appearance, length, language, and an introduction and cover letter. Sensitive
questions should be placed near the end of a survey rather than at the beginning. Use of Survey
When determining the need for a survey, departments/agencies should first check that the required
information is not already available. The option of collecting the required information using existing
administrative records should also be explored. Using existing data or records provides considerable
advantages in terms of cost, time and the absence of respondent burden. The major disadvantage is
the lack of control over the data collected. If existing data are not available or suitable, a number of
factors must then be considered when determining which type of survey, if any, is appropriate. For
example - Practicality  Can the information be collected cost effectively and accurately via a survey?
 How complex and how sensitive is the topic?  Do respondents have access to the required
information?  Will they be willing to supply the information?  Will their responses to the questions
be valid? Resources  Are the necessary financial, staff, computer or other resources available?

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Timing  When is the information required?  Is enough time available to ensure that data of
sufficient quality can be collected and analysed?  When is the best time to conduct the survey? (For
example, need to allow for seasonality, impact of school holiday periods etc). Survey requirements 
Do you want to use this information to target program improvements? If so, you may need to
identify the key sub-groups you wish to report on (for example, geographic areas, age groups, sex,
industry and size of business) and obtain sufficient responses for each group to ensure results are
accurate enough for your needs. Accuracy  What level of error can be tolerated? This depends on
how and for what purposes you intend to use the survey results. Frequency  Is the survey to be
repeated? How often? Legislative powers  Does the department/agency have authority to collect
the information through either a compulsory or voluntary survey? Ethical consideration Ethical
considerations must be observed during the survey exercise. This includes that data, where
appropriate, are treated confidentially, and that where information is sought on the understanding
that the respondent cannot be identified, that such anonymity is preserved. Other ethical
considerations include -  Do you need identifiable information (for example, names, addresses,
telephone numbers) relating to respondents for follow-up research or matching with other data? If
so, you need to clearly explain why you need such details and obtain the respondents’ consent. 
Will respondents be adversely affected or harmed as a direct result of participating in the survey? 
Are procedures in place for respondents to check the identity and bonafides of the researchers?  Is
the survey being conducted on a voluntary basis? If so, respondents must not be misled to believe it
is compulsory when being asked for their co-operation.  Is it necessary to interview children under
14 years? If so, the consent of their parents / guardians / responsible adults must be obtained.
These factors must all be taken into consideration when developing an appropriate sample design
(that is, sample size, selection method, etc.) and survey method. Survey Process The following is an
outline of the general process to be followed once the need for a survey has been determined. Some
steps will not be necessary in all cases and some processes can be carried out at the same time (for
example, data collection and preparation for data entry and processing). A sample survey is cheaper
and timelier than a census but still requires significant resources, effort and time. The survey process
is complex and the stages are not necessarily sequential. Pilot testing of, at least, key elements such
as the questionnaire and survey operations is an essential part of the development stage. It may be
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evaluation and modification before a satisfactory solution is reached. The entire process should be
planned ahead, including all critical dates. The time required from initial planning to the completion
of a report or publication may vary from several weeks to several months according to the size and
type of survey. Key steps in the survey process include – Planning and Designing 1. Define the
purpose, objectives and the output required. Experience has shown that well-defined output
requirements at the outset minimize the risk of the survey producing invalid results. 2. Design
collection methodology and sample selection method. 3. Develop survey procedures. Design and
print test questionnaires and any other documentation (for example, instructions for interviewers
and introductory letters). Testing and Modifying 4. Pilot test all aspects of the survey if possible. As a
minimum, a small-scale pre-test of questionnaires can reveal problems with question wording,
layout, understanding or respondent reaction. 5. Analyze test results (completed questionnaires,
response/consent rate etc). Obtain feedback from respondents and/or interviewers. 6. Modify
procedures, questionnaires and documentation according to test evaluation. 7. Repeat steps 1–6 if
necessary. Conducting the Survey 8. Finalize procedures, questionnaires and documentation. 9.
Select sample. 10. Train interviewers (if interviewer-based). 11. Conduct the survey (that is, mail out
questionnaires or commence interviewing) including followup of refusals and non-contacts,
supervision and checks of interviewers’ work. Processing and Analyzing 12. Prepare data entry,
estimation and tabulation systems. 13. Code, enter and edit data. 14. Process data - calculate
population estimates and standard errors, prepare tables. 15. Prepare report of survey results. 16.
Prepare technical report. Evaluate and document all aspects of the survey for use when designing
future surveys. Data Collection Method in Survey Commonly used methods for collecting
quantitative data include telephone and face-to-face interviews, self-completion questionnaires
(such as mail, email, web-based or SMS) or combinations of these. Each has advantages and
disadvantages in terms of the cost, time, response/consent rate and the type of information that can
be collected. Self - completion Surveys via mail, email, the internet or SMS are generally the least
expensive, particularly for a widespread sample. They allow respondents time to consider their
answers, refer to records or consult with others (which can be helpful or unhelpful, depending on
the survey’s objectives). They also eliminate interviewer errors and reduce the incidence of selected
people (or units) being unable to be contacted. A major disadvantage of self-completion surveys is
the potentially high non-response. In such cases, substantial bias can result if people who do not
complete the survey have different characteristics from those who do. However, response can be
improved using techniques such as well-written introductory letters, incentives for timely return of
questionnaires and follow-up for those initially not responding. In self-completion surveys there is
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opportunity to clarify answers or supplement the survey with observational data. In mail surveys the
questionnaire usually has to be simple and reasonably short, particularly when surveying the general
community. Internet and email-based surveys are commonly used for surveying clients or staff
within organizations and allow more complex questionnaires to be used than mail surveys do.
Interviewer - based Surveys such as face-to-face or telephone surveys generally allow more data to
be gathered than self-completion surveys and can include the use of more complex questionnaires.
Interviewers can reduce non-response by answering respondents’ queries or concerns. They can
often pick up and resolve respondent errors. Face-to-face surveys are usually more expensive than
other methodologies. Poor interviewers can introduce additional errors and, in some cases, the
faceto-face approach is unsuitable for sensitive topics. Telephone surveys are generally cheaper and
quicker than face-to-face surveys, and are well suited to situations where timely results are needed.
However, non-response may be higher than for face-to-face surveys as it is harder for interviewers
to prove their identity, assure confidentiality and establish rapport. Telephone surveys are not suited
for situations where the respondents need to refer to records extensively. Also, the questionnaires
must be simpler and shorter than for face-to-face surveys and prompt cards cannot be used.
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is a particular type of telephone survey technique
that helps to resolve some of the limitations of general telephone-based surveying. With CATI,
interviewers use a computer terminal. The questions appear on the computer screen and the
interviewers enter responses directly into the computer. The interviewer’s screen is programmed to
show questions in the planned order. Interviewers cannot inadvertently omit questions or ask them
out of sequence. Online messages warn interviewers if they enter invalid values or unusual values.
Most CATI systems also allow many aspects of survey operations to be automated, e.g. rescheduling
of call-backs, engaged numbers and ‘no answers’, and allow automatic dialing and remote
supervision of interviewer/respondent interaction. A survey frame or list which contains telephone
numbers is required to conduct a telephone survey. For general population surveys, such lists are
not readily available or they have limitations that can lead to biased results. If the Electronic White
Pages list is used to select a sample of households then the sample will not include households with
silent numbers. In addition, it may exclude households with recent new connections or recent
changes to existing numbers. Electoral rolls exclude respondents aged less than 18 years of age,
migrants not yet naturalised and others ineligible to vote. Random Digit Dialing may address some of
the undercoverage associated with an Electronic White Pages or electoral role list, but it is inefficient
for sampling at a low geographic level and does not allow for communicating (via pre-approach
letter, for example) with households prior to the commencement of telephone interviewing.
Combinations of Collection Methods such as interviewers dropping off a questionnaire to be mailed
back or returning to pick it up, a mail survey with telephone follow-up, or an initial telephone call to
obtain cooperation or name of a suitable respondent followed by a mail survey – are sometimes
used to obtain higher response/consent rates to a survey. If in-depth or purely qualitative
information is required, alternative research methods should be considered. Focus groups,
observation and in - depth interviewing are all useful when developing a survey or initially exploring
areas of interest. They can also be a valuable supplement to survey data. However, results from such
studies should not be considered representative of the entire population of interest. Sources of
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Whether a survey is being conducted by departmental/agency staff or by consultants, it is important

to be aware of potential sources of error and strategies to minimize them. Errors arising in the
collection of survey data can be divided into two types - sampling error and non - sampling error .
Sampling error occurs when data are collected from a sample rather than the entire population. The
sampling error associated with survey results for a particular sub-group of interest depends mainly
on the number of achieved responses for that sub-group rather than on the percentage of units
sampled. Estimates of sampling error, such as standard errors, can be calculated mathematically.
They are affected by factors such as -  sample size - increasing the sample size will decrease the
sampling error.  population variability - a larger sampling error will be present if the items of
interest vary greatly within the population.  sample design - standard errors cannot be calculated if
the probability of selection is not known (for example, quota sampling). All other errors associated
with collecting survey data are called non - sampling errors . Although they cannot be measured in
the same way as sampling errors, they are just as important. The following table lists common
sources of non-sampling error and some strategies to minimize them. Table 9.1 Common Sources of
Non - sampling Error and Strategies to Minimize Them Source of error Examples Strategies to
minimize error Planning and interpretation Inadequate definitions of concepts, terms or populations.
Ensure all concepts, terms and populations are defined precisely through consultation between data
users and survey designers. Sample selection Inadequate list from which sample is selected; biased
sample selection. Check list for accuracy, duplicates and missing units; use appropriate selection
procedures. Survey methods Inappropriate method (e.g., mail survey for a very complicated topic).
Choose an appropriate method and test thoroughly. Questionnaire Loaded, misleading or
ambiguous questions, poor layout or sequencing. Use plain English, clear questions and logical
layout; test thoroughly. Interviewers Leading respondents, making assumptions, misunderstanding
or misreporting answers. Provide clear interviewer instructions and appropriate training, including
exercises and field supervision. Respondents Refusals, memory problems, rounding answers,
protecting personal interests or integrity. Promote survey through public media; ensure
confidentiality; if interviewer-based, use well-trained, impartial interviewers and probing
techniques; if mail-based, use a well-written introductory letter. Processing Errors in data entry,
coding or editing. Adequately train and supervise processing staff; check a sample of each person’s
work. Estimation Incorrect weighting, errors in calculation of estimates. Ensure that skilled
statisticians undertake estimation. Non-response occurs in virtually all surveys through factors such
as refusals, non-contact and language difficulties. It is of particular importance if the characteristics
of non-respondents differ from respondents. For example, if high-income earners are more likely to
refuse to participate in an income survey, the results will obviously be biased towards lower
incomes. For this reason, all surveys should aim for the maximum possible response/consent rate,
within cost and time constraints, by using techniques such as call-backs to non-contacts and follow-
up of refusals. The level of non-response should always be measured. Bias can also arise from
inadequate sampling frames , the lists from which respondents are selected. Household and
business telephone listings and electoral rolls are often used as sampling frames, but they all have
limitations. Telephone listings exclude respondents who do not have telephones and can

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exclude those with ‘silent’ or unlisted numbers. Electoral rolls exclude respondents aged less than 18
years of age, migrants not yet naturalized and others ineligible to vote. Issues for Selecting Survey
Methods Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical decisions in
many social research contexts. There are very few simple rules that will make the decision to balance
the advantages and disadvantages of different survey types. Here, is a number of questions which
can be asked for decision.  Population Issues The first set of considerations has to do with the
population and its accessibility. Can the population be enumerated? For some populations, you
have a complete listing of the units that will be sampled. For others, such a list is difficult or
impossible to compile. For instance, there are complete listings of registered voters or person with
active driver’s licenses. But no one keeps a complete list of homeless people. If you are doing a study
that requires input from homeless persons, you are very likely going to need to go and find the
respondents personally. In such contexts, you can pretty much rule out the idea of mail surveys or
telephone interviews. Is the population literate? Questionnaires require that your respondents can
read. While this might seem initially like a reasonable assumption for many adult populations, we
know from recent research that the instance of adult illiteracy is alarmingly high. And, even if your
respondents can read to some degree, your questionnaire may contain difficult or technical
vocabulary. Clearly, there are some populations that you would expect to be illiterate. Young
children would not be good targets for questionnaires. Are there language issues? We live in a
multilingual world. Virtually every society has members who speak other than the predominant
language. Some countries (like Canada) are officially multilingual. And, our increasingly global
economy requires us to do research that spans countries and language groups. Can you produce
multiple versions of your questionnaire? For mail instruments, can you know in advance the
language your respondent speaks, or do you send multiple translations of your instrument? Can you
be confident that important connotations in your instrument are not culturally specific? Could some
of the important nuances get lost in the process of translating your questions? Will t h e p o p ula tio
n c o o p e r a t e ? People who do research on immigration issues have a difficult methodological
problem. They often need to speak with undocumented immigrants or people who may be able to
identify others who are. Why would we expect those respondents to cooperate? Although the
researcher may mean no harm, the respondents are at considerable risk legally if information they
divulge should get into the hand of the authorities. The same can be said for any target group that is
engaging in illegal or unpopular activities. What are the geographic restrictions? Is your population
of interest dispersed over too broad a geographic range for you to study feasibly with a personal
interview? It may be possible for you to send a mail instrument to a nationwide sample. You may be
able to conduct phone interviews with them. But it will almost certainly be less feasible to do
research that requires interviewers to visit directly with respondents if they are widely dispersed. 
Sampling Issues The sample is the actual group you will have to contact in some way. There are
several important sampling issues you need to consider when doing survey research. What data is
available? What information do you have about your sample? Do you know their current addresses?
What are their current phone numbers? Are your contact lists up to date?

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Can respondents be found? Can your respondents be located? Some people are very busy. Some
travel a lot. Some work the night shift. Even if you have an accurate phone or address, you may not
be able to locate or make contact with your sample. Who is the respondent? Who is the respondent
in your study? Let’s say you draw a sample of households in a small city. A household is not a
respondent. Do you want to interview a specific individual? Do you want to talk only to the ‘head of
household’ (and how is that person defined)? Are you willing to talk to any member of the
household? Do you state that you will speak to the first adult member of the household who opens
the door? What if that person is unwilling to be interviewed but someone else in the house is
willing? How do you deal with multi-family households? Similar problems arise when you sample
groups, agencies, or companies. Can you survey any member of the organization? Or, do you only
want to speak to the Director of Human Resources? What if the person you would like to interview is
unwilling or unable to participate? Do you use another member of the organization? Can all
members of population be sampled? If you have an incomplete list of the population (i.e., sampling
frame) you may not be able to sample every member of the population. Lists of various groups are
extremely hard to keep up to date. People move or change their names. Even though they are on
your sampling frame listing, you may not be able to get to them. And, it’s possible they are not even
on the list. Are response rates likely to be a problem? Even if you are able to solve all of the other
population and sampling problems, you still have to deal with the issue of response rates. Some
members of your sample will simply refuse to respond. Others have the best of intentions, but can’t
seem to find the time to send in your questionnaire by the due date. Still others misplace the
instrument or forget about the appointment for an interview. Low response rates are among the
most difficult of problems in survey research. They can ruin an otherwise well-designed survey
effort.  Question Issues Sometimes the nature of what you want to ask respondents will determine
the type of survey you select. What types of questions can be asked? Are you going to be asking
personal questions? Are you going to need to get lots of detail in the responses? Can you anticipate
the most frequent or important types of responses and develop reasonable closed-ended questions?
How complex will the questions be? Sometimes you are dealing with a complex subject or topic. The
questions you want to ask are going to have multiple parts. You may need to branch to sub-
questions. Will screening questions be needed? A screening question may be needed to determine
whether the respondent is qualified to answer your question of interest. For instance, you wouldn’t
want to ask someone their opinions about a specific computer program without first ‘screening’
them to find out whether they have any experience using the program. Sometimes you have to
screen on several variables (e.g., age, gender, experience). The more complicated the screening, the
less likely it is that you can rely on paper-and-pencil instruments without confusing the respondent.
Can question sequence be controlled? Is your survey one where you can construct in advance a
reasonable sequence of questions? Or, are you doing an initial exploratory study where you may
need to ask lots of follow-up questions that you can’t easily anticipate? Will lengthy questions be
asked? If your subject matter is complicated, you may need to give the respondent some detailed
background for a question. Can you reasonably expect your respondent to sit still long enough in a
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Will long response scales be used? If you are asking people about the different computer equipment
they use, you may have to have a lengthy response list (CD-ROM drive, floppy drive, mouse, touch
pad, modem, network connection, external speakers, etc.). Clearly, it may be difficult to ask about
each of these in a short phone interview.  Content Issues The content of your study can also pose
challenges for the different survey types you might utilize. Can the respondents be expected to know
about the issue? If the respondent does not keep up with the news (e.g., by reading the newspaper,
watching television news, or talking with others), they may not even know about the news issue you
want to ask them about. Or, if you want to do a study of family finances and you are talking to the
spouse who doesn’t pay the bills on a regular basis, they may not have the information to answer
your questions. Will respondent need to consult records? Even if the respondent understands what
you’re asking about, you may need to allow them to consult their records in order to get an accurate
answer. For instance, if you ask them how much money they spent on food in the past month, they
may need to look up their personal check and credit card records. In this case, you don’t want to be
involved in an interview where they would have to go look things up while they keep you waiting
(they wouldn't be comfortable with that).  Bias Issues People come to the research endeavor with
their own sets of biases and prejudices. Sometimes, these biases will be less of a problem with
certain types of survey approaches. Can social desirability be avoided? Respondents generally want
to ‘look good’ in the eyes of others. None of us likes to look like we don’t know an answer. We don’t
want to say anything that would be embarrassing. If you ask people about information that may put
them in this kind of position, they may not tell you the truth, or they may ‘spin’ the response so that
it makes them look better. This may be more of a problem in an interview situation where they are
face-to face or on the phone with a live interviewer. Can interviewer distortion and subversion be
controlled? Interviewers may distort an interview as well. They may not ask questions that make
them uncomfortable. They may not listen carefully to respondents on topics for which they have
strong opinions. They may make the judgment that they already know what the respondent would
say to a question based on their prior responses, even though that may not be true. Can false
respondents be avoided? With mail surveys it may be difficult to know who actually responded. Did
the head of household complete the survey or someone else? Did the CEO actually give the
responses or instead pass the task off to a subordinate? Is the person you're speaking with on the
phone actually who they say they are? At least with personal interviews, you have a reasonable
chance of knowing who you are speaking with. In mail surveys or phone interviews, this may not be
the case.  Administrative Issues Last, but certainly not least, you have to consider the feasibility of
the survey method for your study. Costs: Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting
survey type. You might prefer to do personal interviews, but can’t justify the high cost of training
and paying for the interviewers. You may prefer to send out an extensive mailing but can't afford the
postage to do so. Facilities: Do you have the facilities (or access to them) to process and manage
your study? In phone interviews, do you have well-equipped phone surveying facilities? For focus
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comfortable and accessible room to host the group? Do you have the equipment needed to record
and transcribe responses? Time: Some types of surveys take longer than others. Do you need
responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Have you budgeted enough time for
your study to send out mail surveys and follow-up reminders, and to get the responses back by mail?
Have you allowed for enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify that approach?
Personnel: Different types of surveys make different demands of personnel. Interviews require
interviewers who are motivated and well-trained. Group administered surveys require people who
are trained in group facilitation. Some studies may be in a technical area that requires some degree
of expertise in the interviewer. Clearly, there are lots of issues to consider when you are selecting
which type of survey you wish to use in your study. And there is no clear and easy way to make this
decision in many contexts.
9.4.8 CASE STUDY METHOD Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event
or community. Typically data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different
methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical
medicine (the case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history). The case study method often involves
simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or
group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach.
Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they
were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim
of ‘averaging’. The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of
data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies such as qualitative
techniques (unstructured interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters,
photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). The data
collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative
phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches
mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their
approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group. Case
studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Freud’s most famous case
studies include ‘Little Hans’ (1909a) and ‘The Rat Man’ (1909b). Even today case histories are one of
the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these
disciplines they can give a vivid insight into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to
endure. Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting
descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school. In
psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is
mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to
significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life. In order to produce a
fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist may use various types of
accessible data, such as medical records, employer’s reports, school reports or psychological test
results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an
individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer,
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work mates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from
the person him or herself. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history is
analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying
one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective
and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population. Characteristics of Case Study Method 
Case study research is not sampling research. Selecting cases must be done so as to maximize what
can be learned in the period of time available for the study.  The unit of analysis is a critical factor
in the case study. It is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of individuals.
Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to
understanding the system being examined.  Case studies are multi-perspectives analyses. This
means that the researcher considers not just the voice and perspective of the actors, but also of the
relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in the
characteristic that case studies possess. They give a voice to the powerless and voiceless.  Case
study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (1991) asserted that
triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake (1995)
stated that the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations are called
triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the validity of the
processes. In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984). The
problem in case studies is to establish meaning rather than location. Denzin (1984) identified four
types of triangulation: Data source triangulation, when the researcher looks for the data to remain
the same in different contexts; Investigator triangulation, when several investigators examine the
same phenomenon; Theory triangulation, when investigators with different viewpoints interpret the
same results; and Methodological triangulation, when one approach is followed by another, to
increase confidence in the interpretation. Characteristics of the case study method in legal research
can be described shortly as follows -  Any researcher can hold research into one single or more
social unit such as a person, family, society and so on for the accomplishment of the aim of his/her
study under this method. He/she can hold comprehensive and intensive study in different aspects of
the unit so selected. Under this method, he/she can give the weight and consideration towards all
the aspects of a person, group or society so selected for study. All aspects can be deeply and
intensively studied.  Any researcher does not only hold the study to find out how many crimes
have been committed by a man but also deeply hold study into causes that forces or abets him to
commit such crimes. In this example, one of the main objectives of the researcher could be to give
suggestion to referring the criminals.  Under this method, any researcher can endeavor to know
the relationship of causal factors interlinked.  Under this method, all the related aspects of the
unit, which is in subject to study, can be directly or indirectly studied.  Case study method helps to
find out the useful data and enables to generalize the knowledge also.

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 The main characteristics of the case study method includes continuing, completeness, validity, and
data as it deals with the life of social unit or units or society as whole. Application of Case Study
Model Yin (1994) presented at least four applications for a case study model. To…  explain complex
causal links in real-life interventions;  describe the real-life context in which the intervention has
occurred;  describe the intervention itself; and  explore those situations in which the intervention
being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. Sources of Information in Case Study There are a
number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an
individual or group. The six major sources that have been identified by researchers (Yin, 1994; Stake,
1995) are – Direct Observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural
setting. While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of
observers. Interviews: One of the most important methods for gathering information in case
studies. An interview can involve structured survey-type questions, or more open-ended questions.
Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc. Archival Records: Census
records, survey records, name lists, etc. Physical Artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments and other
artifacts often observed during a direct observation of the subject. Participant Observation: Involves
the researcher actually serving as a participant in events and observing the actions and outcomes.
Category of Case Study There are several categories of case study. Prospective: A type of case study
in which an individual or group of people is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example,
a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression
of a particular disease. Retrospective: A type of case study that involves looking at historical
information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then
backwards at information about the individuals life to determine risk factors that may have
contributed to the onset of the illness. Explanatory: Explanatory case studies examine the data
closely both at a surface and deep level in order to explain the phenomena in the data. On the basis
of the data, the researcher may then form a theory and set to test this theory (McDonough and
McDonough, 1997). Furthermore, explanatory cases are also deployed for causal studies where
pattern-matching can be used to investigate certain phenomena in very complex and multivariate
cases. Yin and Moore (1987) note that these complex and multivariate cases can be explained by
three rival theories - a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction
theory. The knowledge-driven theory stipulates that eventual commercial products are the results of
ideas and discoveries from basic research. Similar notions can be said for the problem-solving
theory. However, in this theory, products are derived from external sources rather than from
research. The social-interaction theory, on the other hand, suggests that overlapping professional
network causes researchers and users to communicate frequently with each other.

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Exploratory: A case study that is sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research.
This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and
hypotheses. A pilot study is considered an example of an exploratory case study (Yin, 1984;
McDonough and McDonough, 1997) and is crucial in determining the protocol that will be used.
Descriptive: Descriptive case studies set to describe the natural phenomena which occur within the
data in question. The goal set by the researcher is to describe the data as they occur. McDonough
and McDonough (1997) suggest that descriptive case studies may be in a narrative form. An example
of a descriptive case study is the journalistic description of the Watergate scandal by two reporters
(Yin, 1984). The challenge of a descriptive case study is that the researcher must begin with a
descriptive theory to support the description of the phenomenon or story. If this fails there is the
possibility that the description lacks rigor and that problems may occur during the project. Intrinsic:
A type of case study in which the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Collective: Involves
studying a group of cases. Instrumental: Occurs when the individual or group allows researchers to
understand more than what is initially obvious to observers. According to McDonough and
McDonough (1997) other categories include interpretive and evaluative case studies. Through
interpretive case studies, the researcher aims to interpret the data by developing conceptual
categories, supporting or challenging the assumptions made regarding them. In evaluative case
studies, the researcher goes further by adding their judgment to the phenomena found in the data.
Intrinsic - when the researcher has an interest in the case; Instrumental - when the case is used to
understand more than what is obvious to the observer; Collective - when a group of cases is studied.
Exploratory cases are sometimes considered as a prelude to social research. Explanatory case studies
may be used for doing causal investigations. Descriptive cases require a descriptive theory to be
developed before starting the project. In all of the above types of case studies, there can be single-
case or multiple-case applications.

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Procedure of Case Study Method In short, for the case study, the researchers recommend the above
procedures in study –  Design the case study protocol  Determine the required skills  Develop
and review the protocol  Conduct the case study  Prepare for data collection  Distribute
questionnaire  Conduct interview  Analyze case study evidence  Analytic strategy  Develop
conclusions, recommendations, and implications based on the evidence. Each section begins with
the procedures recommended in the literature, followed by the application of the recommended
procedure in the study. Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Studies A good case study should
always make clear which information is factual description and which is inference or the opinion of
the researcher. The strengths of case studies are - Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information;
Provides insight for further research; Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical)
situations. Merits of case study method can be described briefly as follows -  The case study helps
to study and understand the human nature and conducts very intensively. As a result, any researcher
can formulate a valid hypothesis.  Any researcher can get actual and exemplary records of
experience that may be useful as guidelines to others life as this method carries out intensive study
of all aspects of a unit or a problem selected for research.  This case study method is very useful in
sampling as it efficiently and orderly classifies the units selected for research based on data and
information so collected.  Under the case study, any researcher can undertake one or more
research method(s) under the existing circumstances. S/he can use various methods as interviews,
questionnaires, report, sampling and similar other methods.  As this method emphasizes historical
analysis, this method is taken as a means of knowing and understanding the past life of a social unit.
That is why; it can suggest the possible measures to be taken for having improvements in present
life by the lesson of past life. In other words, it is said that the old is gold and morning show the day.
 Under this case study method, any researcher can find out new helpful things as it holds perfect
study of sociological materials that can represent real image of experience.  Under this case study
method, any research may increase his/her analytical ability and skill of the study of practical
experiences.  This method makes possible the study, to bring positive changes in the society. As this
method holds overall study of life of a social unit, the researcher can know and understand the
changes occurred in our society and can suggest to make corrections in human behavior for the
welfare, as well.  As this case study method holds study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of past,
present and future time, it gives the matured knowledge that could also be useful to his/her
personal and public life.

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 This case study method is also taken as indispensable and significant as regards to taking decision
on many management issues. Case data are also very useful for diagnosis and thereby of practical
case issues. It can be taken as an example to be followed in future. Case studies can help us
generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of
illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each
other. The method is therefore important for a holistic point of view. Despite its merits as referred
to in above, demerits of the case study method can be described shortly as follows –  This case
study method is a very vague process. There is no mechanism to control researcher. Generalization
is almost impossible to a larger similar population.  Under this case study method, letters and other
documents can be used. A write up is generally prepared to impress and give undue influence to
personal matters. It always depends on the personal feeling and thought. As a result, the study of
the researcher may be worthless and meaningless by virtue of possible occurrence of distortion. 
Under this case study method, there is no limitation of study. The researcher always finds difficulties
in deciding when s/he should stop to collect data for his/her study. He/she may find all things to be
pertinent.  This case study method is always based on several assumptions. However, sometimes,
they may not be realistic. Under such circumstances, such data should be tested.  Under this case
study method, the result is drawn up on the basis of all post experiences. Collection of much data
and information may lead to confusion to find out pertinent and specific information.  This case
study method is based on comparison with the post life. However, human value, attitude, behavior,
reactions, circumstance are very wide and differ with each other. It is difficult to compare from one
another.  This case study method always collects post information and data of the society.
However, there is no system of checking. Difficult to replicate.  This case study method is time
consuming, expensive and complex.
9.4.9 DIARIES METHOD A diary is a type of self-administered questionnaire often used to record
frequent or contemporaneous events or experiences. In diary surveys, respondents are given the
selfadministered form and asked to fill in the required information when events occur (event-based
diaries) or at specified times or time intervals (time-based diaries). Data from diary studies can be
used to make cross-sectional comparisons across people, track an individual over time, or study
processes within individuals or families. The main advantages of diary methods are that they allow
events to be recorded in their natural setting and, in theory, minimize the delay between the event
and the time it is recorded. Diaries are used in a variety of domains. These include studies of
expenditure, nutrition, time use, travel, media exposure, health, and mental health. Diary studies in
user research are a longitudinal technique used in anthropology, psychology, and ‘User Experience’
research, primarily to capture data from participants as they live through certain experiences. There
are two types of diary studies –  Elicitation studies, where participants capture media that are then
used as prompts for discussion in interviews. The method is a way to trigger the participant’s
memory.  Feedback studies, where participants answer predefined questions about events. This is a
way of getting immediate answers from the participants.

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Using Diaries in Research Biographers, historians and literary scholars have long considered diary
documents to be of major importance for telling history. More recently, sociologists have taken
seriously the idea of using personal documents to construct pictures of social reality from the actors’
perspective. In contrast to these ‘journal’ type of accounts, diaries are used as research instruments
to collect detailed information about behavior, events and other aspects of individuals’ daily lives.
Self-completion diaries have a number of advantages over other data collections methods. First,
diaries can provide a reliable alternative to the traditional interview method for events that are
difficult to recall accurately or that are easily forgotten. Second, like other self-completion methods,
diaries can help to overcome the problems associated with collecting sensitive information by
personal interview. Finally, they can be used to supplement interview data to provide a rich source
of information on respondents’ behavior and experiences on a daily basis. Two other major areas
where diaries are often used are consumer expenditure and transport planning research. For
example, the UK Family Expenditure Survey (OPCS) uses diaries to collect data for the National
Accounts and to provide weights for the Retail Price Index. In the National Travel Survey (OPCS)
respondents record information about all journeys made over a specified time period in a diary.
Other topics covered using diary methods are social networks, health, illness and associated
behavior, diet and nutrition, social work and other areas of social policy, clinical psychology and
family therapy, crime behavior, alcohol consumption and drug usage, and sexual behavior. Diaries
are also increasingly being used in market research. Diary surveys often use a personal interview to
collect additional background information about the household and sometimes about behavior or
events of interest that the diary will not capture. A placing interview is important for explaining the
diary keeping procedures to the respondent and a concluding interview may be used to check on the
completeness of the recorded entries. Often retrospective estimates of the behavior occurring over
the diary period are collected at the final interview. Diary Design and Format Diaries may be open
format, allowing respondents to record activities and events in their own words, or they can be
highly structured where all activities are pre-categorized. An obvious advantage of the free format is
that it allows for greater opportunity to recode and analyze the data. However, the labor intensive
work required to prepare and make sense of the data may render it unrealistic for projects lacking
time and resources, or where the sample is large. Although the design of a diary will depend on the
detailed requirement of the topic under study, there are certain design aspects which are common
to most. Below are a set of guidelines recommended for anyone thinking about designing a diary. 
An A4 booklet of about 5 to 20 pages is desirable, depending on the nature of the diary.  The inside
cover page should contain a clear set of instructions on how to complete the diary. This should stress
the importance of recording events as soon as possible after they occur and how the respondent
should try not to let the diary keeping influence their behavior.  Depending on how long a period
the diary will cover, each page denoting either a week, a day of the week or a 24 hour period or less.
Pages should be clearly ruled up as a calendar with prominent headings and enough space to enter
all the desired information (such as what the respondent was doing, at what time, where, who with
and how they felt at the time, and so on).  Checklists of the items, events or behavior to help jog
the diary keeper’s memory should be printed somewhere fairly prominent. Very long lists should be
avoided since they may be offputting and confusing to respondents. For a structured time budget
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all possible relevant activities should be listed together with the appropriate codes. Where more
than one type of activity is to be entered, that is, primary and secondary (or background) activities,
guidance should be given on how to deal with competing or multiple activities.  There should be an
explanation of what is meant by the unit of observation, such as a ‘session’, an ‘event’ or a ‘fixed
time block’. Where respondents are given more freedom in naming their activities and the activities
are to be coded later, it is important to give strict guidelines on what type of behavior to include,
what definitely to exclude and the level of detail required. Time budget diaries without fixed time
blocks should include columns for start and finish times for activities.  Appropriate terminology or
lists of activities should be designed to meet the needs of the sample under study, and if necessary,
different versions of the diary should be used for different groups.  Following the diary pages it is
useful to include a simple set of questions for the respondent to complete, asking, among other
things, whether the diary keeping period was atypical in any way compared to usual daily life. It is
also good practice to include a page at the end asking for the respondents' own comments and
clarifications of any peculiarities relating to their entries. Even if these remarks will not be
systematically analyzed, they may prove helpful at the editing or coding stage. Data Quality and
Response Rates: In addition to the types of errors encountered in all survey methods, diaries are
especially prone to errors arising from respondent conditioning, incomplete recording of information
and under-reporting, inadequate recall, insufficient cooperation and sample selection bias. Diary
keeping period: The period over which a diary is to be kept needs to be long enough to capture the
behavior or events of interest without jeopardizing successful completion by imposing an overly
burdensome task. For collecting time-use data, anything from one to three day diaries may be used.
Household expenditure surveys usually place diaries on specific days to ensure an even coverage
across the week and distribute their field work over the year to ensure seasonal variation in earnings
and spending is captured. Reporting errors: In household expenditure surveys it is routinely found
that the first day and first week of diary keeping shows higher reporting of expenditure than the
following days. This is also observed for other types of behavior and the effects are generally termed
‘first day effects’. They may be due to respondents changing their behavior as a result of keeping the
diary (conditioning), or becoming less conscientious than when they started the diary. Recall errors
may also extend to ‘tomorrow’ diaries. Respondents often write down their entries at the end of a
day and only a small minority are diligent diary keepers who carry their diary with them at all times.
Expenditure surveys find that an intermediate visit from an interviewer during the diary keeping
period helps preserve ‘good’ diary keeping to the end of the period. Literacy: All methods that
involve self-completion of information demand that the respondent has a reasonable standard of
literacy. Thus the diary sample and the data may be biased towards the population of competent
diary keepers. Participation: The best response rates for diary surveys are achieved when diary
keepers are recruited on a face-to-face basis, rather than by post. Personal collection of diaries also
allows any problems in the completed diary to be sorted out on the spot. Success may also depend
on the quality of interviewing staff who should be highly motivated, competent and well-briefed.
Appealing
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to respondent’s altruistic nature, reassuring them of confidentiality and offering incentives are
thought to influence co-operation in diary surveys. Coding, Editing and Processing: The amount of
work required to process a diary depends largely on how structured it is. For many large scale diary
surveys, part of the editing and coding process is done by the interviewer while still in the field.
Following this is an intensive editing procedure which includes checking entries against information
collected in the personal interview. For unstructured diaries, involving coding of verbatim entries,
the processing can be very labor intensive, in much the same way as it is for processing qualitative
interview transcripts. Using highly trained coders and a rigorous unambiguous coding scheme is very
important particularly where there is no clear demarcation of events or behavior in the diary entries.
Clearly, a well designed diary with a coherent pre-coding system should cut down on the degree of
editing and coding. Relative Cost of Diary Surveys: The diary method is generally more expensive
than the personal interview, and personal placement and pick-up visits are more costly than postal
administration. If the diary is unstructured, intensive editing and coding will push up the costs.
However, these costs must be balanced against the superiority of the diary method in obtaining
more accurate data, particularly where the recall method gives poor results. Computer Software for
Processing and Analysis: Although computer assisted methods may help to reduce the amount of
manual preparatory work, there are few packages and most of them are custom built to suit the
specifics of a particular project. Time-budget researchers are probably the most advanced group of
users of machine readable diary data and the structure of these data allows them to use traditional
statistical packages for analysis. More recently, methods of analysis based on algorithms for
searching for patterns of behavior in diary data are being used (Coxon 1991). Software development
is certainly an area which merits future attention. For textual diaries, qualitative software packages
such as the ‘Ethnograph’ can be used to code them in the same way as interview transcripts (Fielding
& Lee 1991). Archiving Diary Data: In spite of the abundance of data derived from diary surveys
across a wide range of disciplines, little is available to other researchers for secondary analysis
(further analysis of data already collected). This is perhaps not surprising given that the budget for
many diary surveys does not extend to systematic processing of the data. Many diary surveys are
small scale investigative studies that have been carried out with very specific aims in mind. For these
less structured diaries, for which a common coding scheme is neither feasible, nor possibly desirable,
an answer to public access is to deposit the original survey documents in an archive. This kind of
data bank gives the researcher access to original diary documents allowing them to make use of the
data in ways to suit their own research strategy. However, the ethics of making personal documents
public (even if in the limited academic sense) have to be considered.

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Advantages and Criticism of Diary Studies Advantages of diary studies are numerous. They allow – 
collecting longitudinal and temporal information;  reporting events and experiences in context; 
determining the antecedents, correlates and consequences of daily experiences. The criticism of
diary studies are as - diary studies might generate inaccurate recall, especially if using the elicitation
type of diary studies, because of the use of memory triggers, like for example taking a photo and
then write about it later. There is low control, low participation and there is a risk of disturbing the
action. In feedback studies there is also low control, and it can be troubling and disturbing to write
everything down.
9.4.10 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA) Principal component analysis (PCA) is a procedure
for identifying a smaller number of uncorrelated variables, called ‘principal components’, from a
large set of data. PCA was invented in 1901 by Karl Pearson, as an analogue of the principal axis
theorem in mechanics; it was later independently developed (and named) by Harold Hotelling in the
1930s. The goal of principal components analysis is to explain the maximum amount of variance with
the fewest number of principal components. Principal components analysis is commonly used in the
social sciences, market research, and other industries that use large data sets. Principal component
analysis is appropriate when you have obtained measures on a number of observed variables and
wish to develop a smaller number of artificial variables (called principal components) that will
account for most of the variance in the observed variables. The principal components may then be
used as predictor or criterion variables in subsequent analyses. It is a variable reduction procedure.
It is useful when you have obtained data on a number of variables (possibly a large number of
variables), and believe that there is some redundancy in those variables. In this case, redundancy
means that some of the variables are correlated with one another, possibly because they are
measuring the same construct. Because of this redundancy, you believe that it should be possible to
reduce the observed variables into a smaller number of principal components (artificial variables)
that will account for most of the variance in the observed variables. Because it is a variable
reduction procedure, principal component analysis is similar in many respects to exploratory factor
analysis. In fact, the steps followed when conducting a principal component analysis are virtually
identical to those followed when conducting an exploratory factor analysis. However, there are
significant conceptual differences between the two procedures, and it is important that you do not
mistakenly claim that you are performing factor analysis when you are actually performing principal
component analysis. Principal components analysis is commonly used as one step in a series of
analyses. You can use principal components analysis to reduce the number of variables and avoid
multicollinearity, or when you have too many predictors relative to the number of observations. A
consumer products company wants to analyze customer responses to several characteristics of a
new shampoo: color, smell, texture, cleanliness, shine, volume, amount needed to lather, and price.
They perform a principal components analysis to determine whether they can form a smaller
number of uncorrelated variables that are easier to interpret and analyze. The results identify the
following patterns –  Color, smell, and texture form a ‘Shampoo quality’ component.  Cleanliness,
shine, and volume form an ‘Effect on hair’ component.  Amount needed to lather and price form a
‘Value’ component.

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Objectives of principal component analysis are –  To discover or to reduce the dimensionality of the
data set.  To identify new meaningful underlying variables. Traditionally, principal component
analysis is performed on the symmetric Covariance matrix or on the symmetric Correlation matrix.
These matrices can be calculated from the data matrix. The covariance matrix contains scaled sums
of squares and cross products. A correlation matrix is like a covariance matrix but first the variables,
i.e. the columns, have been standardized. We will have to standardize the data first if the variances
of variables differ much, or if the units of measurement of the variables differ. To perform the
analysis, we select the ‘Table of Real’ data matrix in the list of objects and choose to PCA.
9.4.11 ACTIVITY SAMPLING Activity sampling is a technique whereby a number of successive

observations are made over a period of time of one or a group of workers, machines or processes.
Each observation records what is happening at that instant, with a rating if necessary. And the
percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the percentage
of time during which that activity occurs. The activity sampling technique was devised for the
purpose of getting information on the time spent by groups of workers or machines on various
activities or delays. For this purpose the sample can be very useful, and in many cases it has been
found most valuable as a method of reconnaissance prior to the use of more detailed work study
techniques. Among the many applications of activity sampling are numbered the investigating work
necessary in- 1. Improving the arrangement of duties and general organisation of work. 2. Indicating
the directions in which improvements in methods and equipment should be sought, and assessing
the vaue of the proposed changes. 3. Assessing the value of introducing group incentive schemes. 4.
Assessing labour requirements to machine utilisation. 5. Examining the causes of unsatisfactory
performance/efficiency figures or machine utilisation figures. The activity sampling technique is
conducted over a representative period of work by taking samples of activity of the operators and
machines to be included and then analysed using statistical tolerance procedures. Certain types of
work may be difficult to study using standard work measurement techniques, for example
warehouses. A full production study would be time consuming and expensive. This technique,
developed on statistical work by Tippett, allows ‘snap’ observations to be built into a picture of
the whole. It is an ideal system for assessing machine efficiency in a large department, and can easily
demonstrate the average stoppage rate. The technique is very similar to statistical quality control,
where large numbers of products are inspected to give an expected confidence level of defect
expectation. Obviously, the accuracy of activity sampling will depend on the number of
observations. Few and infrequent observations will provide a low level of accuracy, whilst many
and frequent observations will give highly accurate but more expensive information. It is, therefore,
particularly important that the observer knows the optimum number of observations necessary for
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This number can be calculated quite simply once an approximate picture of the situation is
established, using the following formula. N = 4P(100-P) L2 Where, N = Number of
observations; P = Approximate occurrence of factor as a percentage of N; L = Acceptable accuracy in
occurrence of factor being studied. This formula will give the accuracy of the study within 95%
confidence limits. For exmple, a worker is studied using activity sampling, and 32 observations are
noted. Of these 75% showed that the worker was performing useful work. If we assume that we
would like to check that the worker is performing at this level continuously, plus or minus 10%, ie.
between 67.5% and 82.5%, how many observations would we need to provide 95% confidence in
the result. Solution: Here, P = 75%; L = 10% Hence, N = 4 x 75(100-75) 10 * 10 N =
300 * 25 100 N = 75 However, after performing 75 checks, the value of P was found to be only
70% so the extra data could be used to assess the new requirement for the number of checks. N =
4 * 70(100-70) 10 * 10 N = 280 * 30 100 N = 28 * 3 = 84 Hence more checks would
be required, ie. a total of 9. Once these checks had been completed, a final calculation should be
done to ensure that the number required had not changed. It is normally used for collecting
information on the percentages of time spent on activities, without the need to devote the time that
would otherwise be required for any continuous observation. One of the great advantages of this
technique is that it enables lengthy activities or groups of activities to be studied economically and in
a way that produces statistically accurate data. Activity sampling can be carried out at random
intervals or fixed intervals. Random activity sampling is where the intervals between observations
are selected at random e.g. from a table of random numbers. Fixed interval activity sampling is
where the same interval exists between observations. A decision will need to be made on which of
these two approaches is to be chosen. A fixed interval is usually chosen where activities are
performed by a person or group of people who have a degree of control over what they do and
when they do it. Random intervals will normally be used where there are a series of automated tasks
or activities as part of a process, that are have to be performed in a pre established regular pattern.
If fixed interval sampling were to be used in this situation there is a danger that the sampling point
would continue to occur at the same point in the activity cycle.
9.4.12 MEMO MOTION STUDY Memo motion or spaced-shot photography is a tool of time and
motion study that analyzes long

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operations by using a camera. It was developed 1946 by Marvin E. Mundel at Purdue University, who
was first to save film material while planning studies on kitchen work. Mundel published the
method in 1947 with several studies in his textbook ‘Systematic Motion and Time Study’. A study
showed the following advantages of Memo-Motion in regard to other forms of time and motion
study –  Single operator repetition work.  Area studies, the study of a group of men or machines. 
Team studies.  Utilisation studies.  Work measurement. As a versatile tool of work study it was
used in the US to some extent, but rarely in Europe and other industrial countries mainly because of
difficulties procuring the required cameras. Today Memo-Motion could have a comeback because
more and more workplaces have conditions which it can explore.
9.4.13 PROCESS ANALYSIS A step-by-step breakdown of the phases of a process, used to convey the
inputs, outputs, and operations that take place during each phase. A process analysis can be used to
improve understanding of how the process operates, and to determine potential targets for process
improvement through removing waste and increasing efficiency. Inputs may be materials, labor,
energy, and capital equipment. Outputs may be a physical product (possibly used as an input to
another process) or a service. Processes can have a significant impact on the performance of a
business, and process improvement can improve a firm’s competitiveness. The first step to
improving a process is to analyze it in order to understand the activities, their relationships, and the
values of relevant metrics. Process analysis generally involves the following tasks-  Define the
process boundaries that mark the entry points of the process inputs and the exit points of the
process outputs.  Construct a process flow diagram that illustrates the various process activities and
their interrelationships.  Determine the capacity of each step in the process. Calculate other
measures of interest.  Identify the bottleneck, that is, the step having the lowest capacity. 
Evaluate further limitations in order to quantify the impact of the bottleneck.  Use the analysis to
make operating decisions and to improve the process. Process Analysis Tools When you want to
understand a work process or some part of a process, these tools can help -  Flowchart: A picture of
the separate steps of a process in sequential order, including materials or services entering or
leaving the process (inputs and outputs), decisions that must be made, people who become
involved, time involved at each step and/or process measurements.  Failure Mode Effects Analysis
(FMEA): A step-by-step approach for identifying all possible failures in a design, a manufacturing or
assembly process, or a product or service; studying the consequences, or effects, of those failures;
and eliminating or reducing failures, starting with the highest-priority ones.  Mistake-proofing: The
use of any automatic device or method that either makes it impossible for an error to occur or
makes the error immediately obvious once it has occurred.  Spaghetti Diagram: A spaghetti diagram
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tracing the path of an item or activity through a process. The continuous flow line enables process
teams to identify redundancies in the work flow and opportunities to expedite process flow. Process
Flow Diagram The process boundaries are defined by the entry and exit points of inputs and outputs
of the process. Once the boundaries are defined, the process flow diagram (or process flowchart ) is
a valuable tool for understanding the process using graphic elements to represent tasks, flows, and
storage. The following is a flow diagram for a simple process having three sequential activities-
The symbols in a process flow diagram are defined as follows-  Rectangles - represent tasks. 
Arrows - represent flows. Flows include the flow of material and the flow of information. The flow of
information may include production orders and instructions. The information flow may take the
form of a slip of paper that follows the material, or it may be routed separately, possibly ahead of
the material in order to ready the equipment. Material flow usually is represented by a solid line and
information flow by a dashed line.  Inverted triangles - represent storage (inventory). Storage bins
commonly are used to represent raw material inventory, work in process inventory, and finished
goods inventory.  Circles - represent storage of information (not shown in the above diagram) . In a
process flow diagram, tasks drawn one after the other in series are performed sequentially. Tasks
drawn in parallel are performed simultaneously. In the above diagram, raw material is held in a
storage bin at the beginning of the process. After the last task, the output also is stored in a storage
bin. When constructing a flow diagram, care should be taken to avoid pitfalls that might cause the
flow diagram not to represent reality. For example, if the diagram is constructed using information
obtained from employees, the employees may be reluctant to disclose rework loops and other
potentially embarrassing aspects of the process. Similarly, if there are illogical aspects of the process
flow, employees may tend to portray it as it should be and not as it is. Even if they portray the
process as they perceive it, their perception may differ from the actual process. For example, they
may leave out important activities that they deem to be insignificant. Process Performance
Measures Operations managers are interested in process aspects such as cost, quality, flexibility, and
speed. Some of the process performance measures that communicate these aspects include- 
Process capacity - the capacity of the process is its maximum output rate, measured in units
produced per unit of time. The capacity of a series of tasks is determined by the lowest capacity task
in the string. The capacity of parallel strings of tasks is the sum of the capacities of the two strings,
except for cases in which the two strings have different outputs that are combined. In such cases,
the capacity of the two parallel strings of tasks is that of the lowest capacity parallel string. 
Capacity utilization - the percentage of the process capacity that actually is being used.  Throughput
rate (also known as flow rate ) - the average rate at which units flow past a specific point in the
process. The maximum throughput rate is the process capacity.  Flow time (also known as
throughput time or lead time ) - the average time that a unit requires to flow through the process
from the entry point to the exit point. The flow time is the length of

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the longest path through the process. Flow time includes both processing time and any time the unit
spends between steps.  Cycle time - the time between successive units as they are output from the
process. Cycle time for the process is equal to the inverse of the throughput rate. Cycle time can be
thought of as the time required for a task to repeat itself. Each series task in a process must have a
cycle time less than or equal to the cycle time for the process. Put another way, the cycle time of the
process is equal to the longest task cycle time. The process is said to be in balance if the cycle times
are equal for each activity in the process. Such balance rarely is achieved.  Process time - the
average time that a unit is worked on. Process time is flow time less idle time.  Idle time - time
when no activity is being performed, for example, when an activity is waiting for work to arrive from
the previous activity. The term can be used to describe both machine idle time and worker idle time.
 Work In process - the amount of inventory in the process.  Set-up time - the time required to
prepare the equipment to perform an activity on a batch of units. Set-up time usually does not
depend strongly on the batch size and therefore can be reduced on a per unit basis by increasing the
batch size.  Direct labor content - the amount of labor (in units of time) actually contained in the
product. Excludes idle time when workers are not working directly on the product. Also excludes
time spent maintaining machines, transporting materials, etc.  Direct labor utilization - the fraction
of labor capacity that actually is utilized as direct labor. Process Bottleneck The process capacity is
determined by the slowest series task in the process; that is, having the slowest throughput rate or
longest cycle time. This slowest task is known as the bottlenec k . Identification of the bottleneck is a
critical aspect of process analysis since it not only determines the process capacity, but also provides
the opportunity to increase that capacity. Saving time in the bottleneck activity saves time for the
entire process. Saving time in a non-bottleneck activity does not help the process since the
throughput rate is limited by the bottleneck. It is only when the bottleneck is eliminated that
another activity will become the new bottleneck and presents a new opportunity to improve the
process. If the next slowest task is much faster than the bottleneck, then the bottleneck is having a
major impact on the process capacity. If the next slowest task is only slightly faster than the
bottleneck, then increasing the throughput of the bottleneck will have a limited impact on the
process capacity. Starvation and Blocking Starvation occurs when a downstream activity is idle with
no inputs to process because of upstream delays. Blocking occurs when an activity becomes idle
because the next downstream activity is not ready to take it. Both starvation and blocking can be
reduced by adding buffers that hold inventory between activities. Process Improvement
Improvements in cost, quality, flexibility, and speed are commonly sought. The following lists some
of the ways that processes can be improved.  Reduce work-in-process inventory - reduces lead
time.  Add additional resources to increase capacity of the bottleneck. For example, an additional
machine can be added in parallel to increase the capacity.  Improve the efficiency of the bottleneck
activity - increases process capacity.  Move work away from bottleneck resources where possible -
increases process capacity.

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 Increase availability of bottleneck resources, for example, by adding an additional shift - increases
process capacity.  Minimize non-value adding activities - decreases cost, reduces lead time. Non-
value adding activities include transport, rework, waiting, testing and inspecting, and support
activities.  Redesign the product for better manufacturability - can improve several or all process
performance measures.  Flexibility can be improved by outsourcing certain activities. Flexibility also
can be enhanced by postponement, which shifts customizing activities to the end of the process. In
some cases, dramatic improvements can be made at minimal cost when the bottleneck activity is
severely limiting the process capacity. On the other hand, in well-optimized processes, significant
investment may be required to achieve a marginal operational improvement. Because of the large
investment, the operational gain may not generate a sufficient rate of return. A cost-benefit analysis
should be performed to determine if a process change is worth the investment. Ultimately, net
present value will determine whether a process ‘improvement’ really is an improvement.
9.4.14 LINK ANALYSIS Link analysis is a data analysis technique used in network theory that is used to
evaluate the relationships or connections between network nodes. These relationships can be
between various types of objects (nodes), including people, organizations and even transactions.
Link analysis is essentially a kind of knowledge discovery that can be used to visualize data to allow
for better analysis, especially in the context of links, whether Web links or relationship links between
people or between different entities. Link analysis has been used for investigation of criminal activity
(fraud detection, counterterrorism, and intelligence), computer security analysis, search engine
optimization, market research and medical research. Link analysis is literally about analyzing the
links between objects, whether they are physical, digital or relational. This requires diligent data
gathering. For example, in the case of a website where all of the links and backlinks that are present
must be analyzed, a tool has to sift through all of the HTML codes and various scripts in the page and
then follow all the links it finds in order to determine what sort of links are present and whether
they are active or dead. This information can be very important for search engine optimization, as it
allows the analyst to determine whether the search engine is actually able to find and index the
website. In networking, link analysis may involve determining the integrity of the connection
between each network node by analyzing the data that passes through the physical or virtual links.
With the data, analysts can find bottlenecks and possible fault areas and are able to patch them up
more quickly or even help with network optimization. Link analysis has three primary purposes – 
Find matches for known patterns of interests between linked objects.  Find anomalies by detecting
violated known patterns.  Find new patterns of interest (for example, in social networking and
marketing and business intelligence).
9.4.15 TIME AND MOTION STUDY Time and motion study, or motion and time study, is a basic set of
tools used by industrial engineers to increase operational efficiency through work simplification and
the setting of standards, usually in combination with a wage-incentive system designed to increase
worker motivation. Originally
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developed to drive productivity improvement in manufacturing plants, motion and time study is also
now used in service industries. Motion and time study is associated with the so-called scientific
management movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century’s in the United States,
primarily with the work of industrial engineers Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915), Frank B.
Gilbreth (1868– 1924), and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972). Some time studies had been conducted
before Taylor, particularly by French engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794) and English
economist Charles Babbage (1791–1871), both analyzing pin manufacturing. However, modern
motion and time study was developed as part of the scientific management movement championed
by Taylor and eventually became known as Taylorism . The foundation of Taylorism is a system of
task management in which responsibilities are clearly divided between managers and workers.
Managers and engineers engage in planning and task optimization, primarily through motion and
time study, while workers are responsible for carrying out discrete tasks as directed. The Gilbreths
sought to find the best method to perform an operation and reduce fatigue by studying body
motions, attempting to eliminate unnecessary ones and simplify necessary ones to discover the
optimal sequence of motions. The Gilbreths developed the technique of micromotion study, in
which motions are filmed and then watched in slow motion. Taylor incorporated early research from
the Gilbreths in his ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’ (1911), and subsequent industrial
engineers further developed the Taylorist system. Taylorism played a key role in the continuous
productivity improvement generated by the Fordist model of work organization. The Fordist model,
which is based on the supply-driven, mass production of standardized goods using semiskilled
workers, achieved efficiency improvements via scale economies and detailed division of labor, both
accomplished through the Taylorist separation of conception from execution, in which managers
plan tasks that workers execute. Taylor argued that such a division of labor between management
and workers was a form of ‘harmonious cooperation’ that ultimately removed antagonisms from the
workplace and benefited both managers and workers. However, this process of separating
conception from execution is often understood as a form of deskilling, and Taylorism has been
rejected by unions, who have denounced it as a form of speedup that harms workers and hence
quality and productivity. Debates about the effect of motion and time study on workers continue
today in discussions of post-Fordism, particularly lean production, which employs motion and time
study to set standards and achieve continuous improvement in work processes, but in a context of
demand-driven production without large buffers of in process inventory. Some workers and
commentators argue that motion and time study under lean production is simply a form of work
intensification that is detrimental to workers, while others argue that under lean production workers
are able to contribute to problem solving and standard setting and thus prefer motion and time
study under lean production to that under Fordism. Underlying each system is a theory of worker
motivation - that workers need to be coerced (in the Fordist model) or that workers want to do their
best and are interested in more intellectual activity (in the post-Fordist model). In reality, there is
more likely a distribution of different motivations across workers, and worker well-being is likely to
depend more on the interaction between individual orientations toward work and how a given set of
methods such as motion and time study are applied in a particular work context. Because it’s the
method that determines the time needed for any activity, the whole emphasis has changed over the
years. The 21st century equivalent of the time and motion study is more literally a method and time
study. This is a more far-reaching philosophy and approach to managing a business. When everyone
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methods improve, time is reduced and more value is added. This - with continuous improvement -
means activities become more streamlined and Lean. Lean means that anything wasteful is shown
the bin (movement, time, materials, space). When improvements and Lean initiatives are identified
and implemented, workers can often benefit from less stressful working conditions, less fatigue -
potentially better rewards, maybe in the form of different hours, increased pay and job satisfaction.
It can be a win-win situation. Time and Motion Study Basics In summary, it goes like this –  Look
closely at what you’re doing.  Spot opportunities to be more efficient.  Make a change to the way
you work to do it.  See if it produces the expected results.  Rinse and repeat.  Small changes, big
benefits - Small savings quickly mount up. At the same time, we spend a lot of time in our lives doing
stuff that is not very useful.  Pay attention - Pay attention to what you do and how you do it.  Start
by thinking, in broad terms, about how you spend your time over the course of a typical working
week.  Rescue Time, which tracks the applications and websites you use, may give you more
objective data about how you spend your time. Simply writing things down may be enough.  Spot
opportunities for improvement - You already have data about the amount of time spent from your
observations.  Make a positive change.  Evaluate results. Productivity is often linked with ‘time
and motion’. The evidence of time and motion studies was used to put pressure on workers to
perform faster. Not surprisingly these studies had a bad press as far as workers were concerned.
Productivity is about the effective and efficient use of all resources. To manage the resources of a
business it is essential that you –  understand exactly what needs to be done to meet customer
demand;  establish a plan that clearly identifies the work to be carried out;  define and implement
the methodologies that need to be used to complete all activities and tasks efficiently;  establish
how long it will actually take to complete each activity and task;  determine what resources you
need to meet the plan;  provide the necessary resources and initiate the plan;  constantly monitor
what is actually happening against the plan; and  identify variances and take the relevant actions to
correct them or modify the plan.

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9.4.16 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The prime method of inquiry in science is the experiment. The key
features are control over variables, careful measurement, and establishing cause and effect
relationships. An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the dependent variable (the
effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled. An advantage is that experiments
should be objective. The views and opinions of the researcher should not affect the results of a
study. This is good as it makes the data more valid, and less bias. There are three types of
experiments need to know – 1. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments: This type of experiment is
conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore accurate
measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what
time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. Strength: It is easier to
replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardized procedure is used. They
allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a cause and effect
relationship to be established. Limitation: The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural
behavior that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be
possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting. Demand characteristics or experimenter
effects may bias the results and become confounding variables. 2. Field Experiments: Field
experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The
experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really
control extraneous variables). Strength: Behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real
life because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment. There is less
likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are
being studied. This occurs when the study is covert. Limitation: There is less control over extraneous
variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the
study in exactly the same way. 3. Natural Experiments: Natural experiments are conducted in the
everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no control
over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life. Strength: Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely
to reflect real life because of its natural setting, i.e. very high ecological validity. There is less
likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are
being studied. Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate
the independent variable, e.g. researching stress. Limitation: They may be more expensive and time
consuming than lab experiments. There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the
results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

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Experiment Terminology  Ecological validity: The degree to which an investigation represents real-
life experiences.  Experimenter effects: These are the ways that the experimenter can accidentally
influence the participant through their appearance or behavior.  Demand characteristics: The clues
in an experiment that lead the participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for
(e.g. experimenter’s body language).  Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter
manipulates (i.e. changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. 
Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures.  Extraneous variables (EV):
Variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results (DV) of the
experiment. EVs should be controlled where possible.  Confounding variables: Variable(s) that have
affected the results (DV), apart from the IV. A confounding variable could be an extraneous variable
that has not been controlled. Research Biases We have got a hypothesis which is the first step in
doing an experiment. Before we can continue, we need to be aware of some aspects of research that
can contaminate our results. In other words, what could get in the way of our results in this study
being accurate. These aspects are called research biases, and there are basically three main biases
we need to be concerned with.  Selection Bias – occurs when differences between groups are
present at the beginning of the experiment.  Placebo Effect – involves the influencing of
performance due to the subject’s belief about the results. In other words, if I believe the new
medication will help me feel better, I may feel better even if the new medication is only a sugar pill.
This demonstrates the power of the mind to change a person’s perceptions of reality. 
Experimenter Bias – the same way a person’s belief’s can influence his/her perception, so can the
belief of the experimenter. If I’m doing an experiment, and really believe my treatment works, or I
really want the treatment to work because it will mean big bucks for me, I might behave in a manner
that will influence the subject. Controlling for Biases After carefully reviewing our study and
determining what might effect our results that are not part of the experiment, we need to control
for these biases. To control for selection bias, most experiments use what’s called ‘Random
Assignment’, which means assigning the subjects to each group based on chance rather than human
decision. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are often not informed of the purpose of the
experiment. This is called a ‘Blind’ study, because the subjects are blind to the expected results. To
control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a ‘Double-Blind’ study, which means that both the
experimenter and the subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipated results of the study. We
have our hypothesis, and we know what our subject pool is, the next thing we have to do is
standardize the experiment. Standardization refers to a specific set of instructions. The reason we
want the experiment to be standardized is twofold. First, we want to make sure all subjects are given
the same instructions, presented with the experiment in the same manner, and that all of the data is
collected exactly the same or all subjects. Second, single experiments cannot typically stand on their
own. To really show that are results are valid, experiments need to be replicated by other
experimenters with different subjects. To do this, the experimenters need to know exactly what we
did so they can replicate it.
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Statistical methods are the methods of collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting
variable(s) in numerical data. Statistical methods can be contrasted with deterministic methods,
which are appropriate where observations are exactly reproducable or are assumed to be so. Data
collection involves deciding what to observe in order to obtain information relevant to the questions
whose answers are required, and then making the observations. Sampling involves choice of a
sufficient number of observations representing an appropriate population. Experiments with
variable outcomes should be conducted according to principles of experimental design. Data
summarization is the calculation of appropriate statistics and the display of such information in the
form of tables, graphs, or charts. Data may also be adjusted to make different samples more
comparable, using ratios, compensating factors, etc. Statistical analysis relates observed statistical
data to theoretical models, such as probability distributions or models used in regression analysis. By
estimating parameters in the proposed model and testing hypotheses about rival models, one can
assess the value of the information collected and the extent to which the information can be applied
to similar situations. Statistical prediction is the application of the model thought to be most
appropriate, using the estimated values of the parameters. More recently, less formal methods of
looking at data have been proposed, including exploratory data analysis.
9.5 METHODS OF SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION Secondary data is the data that is collected from
the primary sources which can be used in the current research study. Collecting secondary data
often takes considerably less time than collecting primary data where you would have to gather
every information from scratch. It is thus possible to gather more data this way. Secondary data can
be obtained from two different research strands –  Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as
well as electoral statistics and other related databases.  Qualitative: Semi-structured and
structured interviews, focus groups transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal,
research-related documents. Secondary data is often readily available. After the expense of
electronic media and internet the availability of secondary data has become much easier. P u blis h e
d P r in t e d S o u r c e s : There are varieties of published printed sources. Their credibility depends
on many factors. For example, on the writer, publishing company and time and date when
published. New sources are preferred and old sources should be avoided as new technology and
researches bring new facts into light. Books: Books are available today on any topic that you want to
research. The use of books start before even you have selected the topic. After selection of topics
books provide insight on how much work has already been done on the same topic and you can
prepare your literature review. Books are secondary source but most authentic one in secondary
sources. Journals/periodicals: Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as far as data
collection is concerned. The reason is that journals provide up-to-date information which at times
books cannot and secondly, journals can give information on the very specific topic on which you are
researching rather talking about more general topics. Magazines/Newspapers: Magazines are also
effective but not very reliable. Newspapers on the other hand are more reliable and in some cases
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Published Electronic Sources: As internet is becoming more advance, fast and reachable to the
masses; it has been seen that much information that is not available in printed form is available on
internet. In the past the credibility of internet was questionable but today it is not. The reason is that
in the past journals and books were seldom published on internet but today almost every journal
and book is available online. Some are free and for others you have to pay the price. e - journals: e-
journals are more commonly available than printed journals. Latest journals are difficult to retrieve
without subscription but if your university has an e-library you can view any journal, print it and
those that are not available you can make an order for them. General Websites: Generally websites
do not contain very reliable information so their content should be checked for the reliability before
quoting from them. Weblogs: Weblogs are also becoming common. They are actually diaries written
by different people. These diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries. Unpublished
Personal Records: Some unpublished data may also be useful in some cases. Diaries: Diaries are
personal records and are rarely available but if you are conducting a descriptive research then they
might be very useful. The Anne Frank’s diary is the most famous example of this. That diary
contained the most accurate records of Nazi wars. Letters: Letters like diaries are also a rich source
but should be checked for their reliability before using them. G o v e r n m e n t R e c o r d s :
Government records are very important for marketing, management, humanities and social science
research. Census Data/population statistics: Health records; Educational institutes’ records etc.
Public Sector Records: NGOs’ survey data; Other private companies records.
9.6 METHODS OF LEGAL RESEARCH In pursuing research for disclosing facts or proving a hypothesis
true or false, various kinds of methods can be applied for the successful research. The following
research methods collectively or individually can be applied for the successful research as the main
methods. Observation: Information can be received by observing, visiting and viewing the place,
society, events or the things pertinent to the study or research. Observation can be taken as primary
and reliable source of information. If a researcher is careful, s/he can get the points that may play
the significant role in his/her research or study. Observation is a method that is common in the
research of legal and social science. Observation should be guided by a specific research purpose,
the information receive from the observation should be recorded and subjected to checks on the
trail of reliability. Questionnaire: In questionnaire method, a researcher develops a form containing
such questions pertinent to his/her study. Generally, the researcher prepares yes/ no questions or
short answer questions. In questionnaire method, researcher distributes such forms to the people to
whom s/he deems appropriate. The people, to whom the questionnaires have been distributed,
should answer that what they have known by filling out the form and return it to researcher.
Sampling: When the subject of research is vague, comprehensive and when each indicator cannot be
taken by virtue of financial constraint, time and complexity, etc. then the researcher can randomly
collect data/sample depending on the reason. This is called as sampling method. For instance, in a
demographic research, part of population represent various groups can be taken into consideration.
That is why, it is said that sample is a method that saves time and money.

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Interviews: A researcher can receive information sought by him/her asking people concerned
through interview. It is a direct method of receiving information. Interview can be generally held
asking questions in face-to-face contact to the person or persons and sometimes through telephone
conversation. This method is common in the research of legal and social science. In this method, the
researcher has to use less skill and knowledge to receive information s/he had sought. Interview is
known as an art of receiving pertinent information. Interview can be taken as a systematic method
by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of a stranger. Case Study: Case
study is taken as one of the important and reliable methods for legal research. Case study can be
defined as a method of research where facts and grounds of each legal issue are dealt with by taking
individual case. Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing of life of a social unit such as a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even entire community. Case study is a way of
organizing social data so as to preserve the utility character of the social object being studied.
Keeping in view to the matters as referred to in above, we can state here that the case study is a
method of legal research to explore and analyze the fact and data of a social unit and to organize
social data for prescription of useful character and society. References Kabir, S.M.S. (2016). Basic
Guidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN:
978-984-33-9565-8, Chittagong-4203, Bangladesh. Kabir, S.M.S. (2017). Essentials of Counseling.
Abosar Prokashana Sangstha, ISBN: 978-984- 8798-22-5, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100. Kabir, S.M.S.,
Mostafa, M.R., Chowdhury, A.H., & Salim, M.A.A. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of
Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794-69-2, Dhaka-1100. Kabir, S.M.S. (2018).
Psychological health challenges of the hill-tracts region for climate change in Bangladesh. Asian
Journal of Psychiatry, Elsevier,34, 74–77. Kabir, S.M.S., Aziz, M.A., & Jahan, A.K.M.S. (2018). Women
Empowerment and Governance in Bangladesh. ANTYAJAA: Indian journal of Women and Social
Change, SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd, 3(1), 1-12. Alam, S.S. & Kabir, S.M.S. (2015). Classroom
Management in Secondary Level: Bangladesh Context. International Journal of Scientific and
Research Publications, 5(8), 1-4, ISSN 2250-3153, www.ijsrp.org. Alam, S.S., Kabir, S.M.S., & Aktar,
R. (2015). General Observation, Cognition, Emotion, Social, Communication, Sensory Deficiency of
Autistic Children. Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing, 6(7), 663-666, ISSN-p-2229-5356,e-2321-
3698.

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Kabir, S.M.S. (2013). Positive Attitude Can Change Life. Journal of Chittagong University Teachers’
Association, 7, 55-63. Kabir, S.M.S. & Mahtab, N. (2013). Gender, Poverty and Governance Nexus:
Challenges and Strategies in Bangladesh. Empowerment a Journal of Women for Women, Vol. 20, 1-
12. Kabir, S.M.S. & Jahan, A.K.M.S. (2013). Household Decision Making Process of Rural Women in
Bangladesh. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), ISSN: 2279-0845,Vol,10,
Issue 6 (May. - Jun. 2013), 69-78. ISSN (Online): 2279-0837. Jahan, A.K.M.S., Mannan, S.M., & Kabir,
S.M.S. (2013). Designing a Plan for Resource Sharing among the Selected Special Libraries in
Bangladesh, International Journal of Library Science and Research (IJLSR), ISSN 2250-2351, Vol. 3,
Issue 3, Aug 2013, 1-20, ISSN: 2321-0079. Kabir, S.M.S. & Jahan, I. (2009). Anxiety Level between
Mothers of Premature Born Babies and Those of Normal Born Babies. The Chittagong University
Journal of Biological Science, 4(1&2), 131-140. Kabir, S.M.S., Amanullah, A.S.M., & Karim, S.F.
(2008). Self-esteem and Life Satisfaction of Public and Private Bank Managers. The Dhaka University
Journal of Psychology, 32, 920. Kabir, S.M.S., Amanullah, A.S.M., Karim, S.F., & Shafiqul, I. (2008).
Mental Health and Self- esteem: Public Vs. Private University Students in Bangladesh. Journal of
Business and Technology, 3, 96-108. Kabir, S.M.S., Shahid, S.F.B., & Karim, S.F. (2007). Personality
between Housewives and Working Women in Bangladesh. The Dhaka University Journal of
Psychology, 31, 7384. Kabir, S.M.S. & Karim, S.F. (2005). Influence of Type of Bank and Sex on Self-
esteem, Life Satisfaction and Job Satisfaction. The Dhaka University Journal of Psychology, 29, 4152.
Kabir, S.M.S. & Rashid, U.K. (2017). Interpersonal Values, Inferiority Complex, and Psychological
Well-Being of Teenage Students. Jagannath University Journal of Life and Earth Sciences,
3(1&2),127-135. --------------------------
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846997 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

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CHAPTER – 9 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

9.4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -  To be inadequate to

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

interviews. If tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Types of Interviews Informal, Conversational interview: No predetermined questions are asked, in

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection

Basic Guidelines for Research

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection