Basic Guidelines for

Introduction Filming and Editing

By
Karol Cioma
(Consultant)

2004

This Basic Guidelines for Filming and Trainig is part

of Aljazeera Media Training & Development Center's

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 efforts to present journalism to its trainees in a
principle-based way and to raise awareness of the
media's role in the many areas of life. This Guide is
prepared by the British consultant Karol Cioma as
part of his course on the TV Journalism for
Beginners, which was held at the Center in Doha.

Karol Cioma studied film and television at

Wrexham College of Art and Bournemouth Film
School. This was between 1982 and 1986. He
worked as an Assistant Film Editor with HTV Ltd.
During his time there he moved from film editing
into videotape editing where he worked on
documentaries, current affairs, light entertainment,
.news and sport

He joined BBC Wales, Bangor as a Videotape

Editor. In 1997 he was asked to set up a new system
of working for newsgathering in Wales by being one
of the first people in the BBC to be trained on
camera, to work as a shoot/edit person in a mobile
editing facility.

Karol also set up an external business unit for BBC

Resources in Wales. This saw him move into
writing, producing and directing programmes for
external business clients of BBC Resources. The
clients included Sony, the Driving Standards
Agency, the Drivers Vehicle Licensing Agency, the
Down’s Syndrome Association, and University of
.Wales
His training sessions have taken place in
Russia, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Serbia, Palestine,
.Portugal, France and Nigeria

Linear & Non-Linear Editing

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Linear or analogue editing is also known as machine to machine editing. The basic
principle is that you can place filmed material into a "player" that is the same format as
the camera and you can begin viewing and editing immediately onto a "record"
machine. This is generally acknowledged as the quickest form of editing when using
the straightforward front of panel edit controller, and is most used in a news
environment.
However, linear editing does have limitations, in that if you make copies then quality
can be lost through the duplication process. Also if mistakes are made or amendments
needed in an edited package then this may mean having to make copies of the
programme which is time consuming and also causes generation loss.
It is also limited in that, if you require provision of special effects or graphics then a
special edit control unit and extra play-in machines are needed. However, for speed,
simplicity and understanding the basic principles of editing there is no better tool than a
two-machine linear system.

Non-Linear Editing:

Non-linear editing is also known as digital editing and can also be known through the
brand name of software used in the editing process; i.e. Avid or Final Cut Pro. It is
digital format whereby editing takes place inside a computer. The source material is
generated on videotape, the tape is placed in a "player" machine and the footage is
imported and digitised into a computer.
Most non-linear editing systems provide a post production suite inside one software
package and as such is a powerful and relatively inexpensive tool. The flexibility within
the system is enormous, allowing amendments to be made at the click of a mouse or
by dragging and dropping material into your project. Multiple copies of the same
programme or sequence can be made without loss of quality.
However, the limitations are that material has to be digitised into a computer before the
editing process can begin. The use and management of the footage is crucial to
ensuring a trouble-free edit, and therefore requires a different discipline to linear
editing. Non-linear editing generally needs more time for loading material but
technology is catching up and soon direct access to rushes will be the norm. You can
also be limited to the amount of material you can load into the computer depending on
the size of the hard drive you have for storage.

Consider the viewer:

The average television viewer likes to have news and documentary information
delivered in a clear, straightforward manner. They like to gather information easily, and
for some stories experience what it must be like to be at that particular location or
event.
If there are mistakes in your work, then they will be seen by the audience.
If you confuse the viewer, with too much information, or boring pictures and sound,
then they will switch off or change channel.

"Keep it simple" is a good rule to work by.

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Clear, concise storytelling is essential to good TV reports - the pictures, commentary
and natural sound working together to provide a narrative.
In most TV news stories you do not need continuous commentary to tell a story, you
need to allow the viewer time to absorb the information being carried in the picture.

Team work:
Good television is about team work.
Making news stories needs the journalist, cameraman and picture editor to understand
each other's role and the problems each other face.

We are in the communication business - communicate to one another.

A cameraman must know how to provide pictures that can be easily edited.
The cameraman must provide "cutting points" and the picture editor must use them.

Tips for filming

• Use the tripod, when appropriate.
• Record actuality sound.
• Keep the story in mind.
• Ask the journalist "What is the story? It's easy to change subject and
drift away from the theme.
• Keep microphones out of shot, but make sure you have good sound levels.
• Get closer to the action, not just for better pictures but also for better
quality sound.
• Move the camera closer to the action, don't just use the zoom.
• Hold every shot for at least 10 seconds. Very important.
• Think about your key light source.
• Limit the use of camera moves: pans, zooms, tilts etc. 2 - 4 seconds is
usually enough time for a camera move in a news story.
• Camera moves must have a reason, the must have a motivation.
• The zoom function is to help you frame and compose your pictures.
• Shots must be well framed. Composition is interesting and adds dynamics
• Do not change framing during interview. Keep framing on interviewee
(not reporter)
• Take interviewees away from walls and flat backgrounds.
• Always record the audio of questions as well as the answers during interviews
• Interviewees must be looking to the reporter and the reporter must be
standing as close to the camera as possible. Alternate the eye line (left to right,
right to left between interviews). Make sure you frame the interviewee looking
INTO the frame.
• Think about the background for interviews and stand-uppers.
• Record setup shots, two shots and cutaway questions etc. if required,
• Record a variety of shots: Close ups mid shots and wide shots. Don't
forget the cutaways.
• Think about cutaways having a relevance to the story.
• Get as much material from your location or position at any one time
before moving to another.
• Pictures must have a relevance to the story.
• More pictures are better than few pictures, but beware over-shooting as
this can create it's own problems.

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 • Long pans, tilts or zooms does not necessarily provide picture variety.
• Look for the unusual shot and the big close ups.
• Let the viewers eye see what it doesn't do usually.
• Whenever you see action, don't just film the wide shot - but film the
action in "sequence".
• People make interesting pictures. People make interesting subject matter.
• Think about what people are looking at and film the subject from their
"point of view".
• Think about action and movement WITHIN the frame.
• Direct and repeat the action if necessary.
• Provide the picture editor with "cutting points"
• Let people walk into frame and out of frame.
• Remember to have hands coming into and out of frame.
• Do not allow people to talk around the camera.
• Get feedback from your journalists and picture editors on how your pictures
worked and if there's anything that may be done to improve the rushes.

Tips for editing:

• Be disciplined and objective in your approach to editing.

• Ask the journalist "What is the story?" and know your story
• Look at your pictures before beginning the editing process.
• Log or note the timecode of pictures.
• Be prepared for the journalist. If you think you need library/archive
footage have it ready and cued on the tape.
• Which comes first the pictures or the commentary? Television is a visual
medium and not radio. The pictures should tell the story and the commentary
should support the pictures.
• Be disciplined when labeling your material. Tapes can easily be
misplaced. Bad labeling of tapes can lead to anxious moments in the editing
room
• Every story has a beginning, middle and end, think about the
construction of your news package with this in mind. What is a good opening
shot, what is the story about and how do we end it visually. Likewise, every
sequence has a beginning middle and end. Approach your editing this way and
you will work quicker and be more descriptive.
• The opening shot of your news story should be the shot that tells the
story - the strongest shot.
• Allow two seconds at the beginning of your news story before editing in
commentary. This allows the studio director to get a clean cut, avoiding clipping
the commentary, when transmitting the tape. Likewise, leave at least two
seconds of pictures at the end of your story, allowing the director to "clean cut"
back to the studio.
• Avoid "wall to wall" commentary. Too much information cannot be
absorbed by the viewer. Let the pictures and sound help to tell the story.
• In certain instances you can use pictures to keep the viewer guessing as
to what is coming next. Strong pictures surprise the viewer and make them want
to watch what is coming next.

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 • Use natural sound descriptively.
• Natural sound should be present wherever pictures are present.
• Pictures and sound, especially commentary, should work together and
not contradict each other.
• Natural sound should always be evident in a TV news story, even
beneath commentary.
• Natural sound is descriptive and can be just as effective as commentary
in relating a story.
• Natural sound is a vital part of the tele-visual experience.
• Natural sound used as a pause in the commentary brings the audience
closer to the story or event and allows the information in the pictures to be taken
in more easily.
• "Let the pictures breathe" through the use of natural sound.

Non-linear editing:
• Get to know your software and your settings.
• Make sure you have enough disc space for your rushes.
• Don't digitise too much material. It not only uses up valuable space but
can also be time consuming when searching for material
• Digitise all material at the same resolution.
• Be disciplined in labeling your bins and numbering your tapes during the
digitising process.
• Save your projects on at short regular time intervals.
• Be creative within your editing if time allows.
• Don't go over-board with video effects. News and documentaries very
rarely need visual effects to tell a story.
• Any problems may require you to close the software down and re-boot.
• Be careful of your sound levels.
• Split and checker-board your audio tracks.
• Always try and get feedback about your material.
• Keep safety at the forefront of everything you do.

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 FILMING NEWS - Useful pointers
1. How important is sound in television?
Good quality sound is very important. Sound is accepted without question by our viewers until
that is you take it away. Without sound the pictures lose their full meaning, (especially where
sync sound is concerned). Consider carefully the type of microphone you are using,
(directional/omni-directional) and the positioning of the microphone in relation to the shot that
you want. Check sound levels when filming.

2. As a picture editor what would you do if you had no sound on your

camera tape?
A lot depends on the context of the pictures and what they are being used for. For example, an
interview where the sound has been lost would need to be done again, as the pictures are
useless without sound. Music can be dubbed over the pictures. Sound effects can be added to
the pictures. In some instances in news, in an emergency, you could use these pictures as long
as commentary accompanies them.

3. When would you use a tri-pod?

Whenever possible. In a dangerous situation you would not use the tri-pod. Also if you
have only one chance to film, forget the tri-pod, e.g the PM walking into the room. With
small portable cameras, you can get dynamic shots without the tri-pod.

4. If you don’t have a tri-pod, what are the rules you should follow.
Support yourself as best you can. Spread your legs. Use a wall, a table, a lamp-post.
Keep the camera as steady as possible. Don’t zoom-in to big close-ups as this will
accentuate camera shakes.

5. What system should you use before you press your “RECORD” button on
your camera?
Zoom in. Focus. Zoom out. Frame or compose your picture. Press record.

6. If your filter or colour temperature is set at 3200 degrees kelvin, where are
you likely to be filming?
Indoors in tungsten light.

7. If you are filming indoors using artificial light with a window in the
background, how would you balance the light from inside and outside?
Use a blue filter over your light.

8. What rules do you apply regarding the placement of microphones during

an interview?
Get the microphone as close to the sound source as possible. Keep the microphone
out of shot if you can.

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9. What is the “Golden Mean” or “Golden Rule”?
Divide the frame into thirds horizontally and diagonally and all main points of interest
should be composed along those lines.

10. Where do you position your interviewee and your journalist for an
interview?
Position the interviewee so that he/she has talking room INTO the frame. Make sure
the eyes and points of interest are well framed and composed within the rules of the
“golden mean”. The interviewer should be as close to the camera as possible, so that
the eye-line of the interviewee looks towards the interviewer and not to camera.

11. What is the rule if you are conducting a series of interviews and vox-
pops?
Make sure you change subjects from side to side.

12. What is a sequence?

It is a series of pictures that condense the time of a particular action. It also selects in
detail, through the use of close-ups, mid shots etc., the main points of interest of the
action. A sequence can also be action cuts.

13. What are the rules of filming a sequence, in other words what are the
minimum requirements for the picture editor?
Cutting points. In and out of frame. Variety of shots and angles. Look for the unusual.

14. You are filming on location, there is a journalist, a sound man, an

electrician, and the camera operator, who is in charge?
The journalist is ultimately in charge. It is his or her story.

15. What is the first thing you should consider when you are working,
whether indoors or outside?
Safety first. We are each responsible for safety issues. Do not put members of the
public in danger. Beware of people who want to perform stunts for the camera.

16. What safety issues should you consider when using lights.
When using lights beware of trailing cables. Lights are hot, wait util they cool before
touching them. Make sure all your plugs and connections are safe. If you are using
somebody else’s power source, check that it is safe. Ask permission before plugging
into someone else’s electricity. Don’t touch bulbs with bare hands.

17. What makes good, interesting television?

Good pictures, good sound. Interesting subject matter. Variety of interest. Pace and
Rhythm. Educating subject matter. Informative. Good editing. Keep the viewer
guessing.

18. How long is a shot?

As long as it takes to record the action you want.

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19. In general terms, what is the minimum length of shot you should provide
for the picture editing process?
10 seconds.

20. How do you avoid losing tapes?

Always mark them up. Keep them safe. Adopt a system in the cutting room that
everybody understands.

21. What are the rules concerning camera moves?

Don’t make them too long. Don’t combine two different camera moves unless
necessary. Keep camera moves simple. A camera move should have a purpose that
is, there is a reason for you to move from one subject matter to another. In the cutting
room, don’t cut on camera moves. You cheat the viewer.

22. When you film a camera move what are the rules, for example a pan?
You should frame your shot, and rehearse the camera move. Press “RECORD” hold
the first part of the shot for 10 seconds, make the pan, hold the shot for 10 seconds at
the end of the pan, then reverse the move backwards.

23. Why do you do this?

To provide a variety of shots for the editor and journalist.

24. “What do we mean by “Filming to edit”.

In a news environment, a system of filming has to be developed so that everybody in
the system understands the minimum requirements needed to make a package. A lot
of course depends on the length of the package. The camera operator will film a
number of general views knowing that the editor will probably only use half of what he
has filmed, but, he has given the editor and the journalist a choice of shots. This is
particularly important if the emphasis of the story changes. The operator also provides
shots that are a variety of lengths, 5”, 10”, and he will have provided the editor with
cutting points.

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Tips for ensuring good “filming for editing”:
• Ask “What is the story?”
• Hold your shots.
• Make sure you have good clear sound
• Use the tri-pod – keep the camera steady.
• Get to know the characteristics of the tri-pod, set the tri-pod to your
preferences.
• Have a clear idea of what you want before recording.
• Think beginning, middle and end.
• Camera movements, i.e. pans, tilts, zoom must have a purpose or
motivation.
• Avoid long camera moves.
• Think interesting pictures and sequences.
• Look for the unusual.
• Big Close-ups.
• Zoom in, focus, compose the picture and record.

Tips for filming and editing:

• Use the tripod, when appropriate.

• Record actuality sound.
• Keep the story in mind. It’s easy to change subject and drift away from the
theme.
• Keep microphones out of shot
• Hold every shot for at least 10 seconds. Very important.
• Think about your key light source.
• Limit the use of camera moves: pans, zooms, tilts etc.
• Camera moves must have a reason.
• Shots must be well framed. Composition is interesting and adds dynamics
• Do not change framing during interview. Keep framing on interviewee (not
reporter)
• Take interviewees away from walls and flat backgrounds.
• Always record the audio of questions as well as the answers during interviews
• Interviewees must be looking to the reporter and the reporter must be standing
as close to the camera as possible. Alternate the eye line (left to right, right to
left between interviews). Make sure you frame the interviewee looking INTO the
frame.
• Think about the background for interviews and standuppers.
• Record setup shots, two shots and cutaway questions etc. if required,
• Record a variety of shots: Close ups mid shots and wide shots.
• Look for the unusual shot and the big close ups.
• Whenever you see action, don’t just film the wide shot – but film the action in
“sequence”.
• Think about what people are looking at and film the subject from their “ point of
view”.
• Think about action and movement WITHIN the frame.

10
• Direct and repeat the action if necessary.
• Provide the picture editor with “cutting points”
• Let people walk into frame and out of frame.
• Remember to have hands coming into and out of frame.
• Do not allow people to talk around the camera.
• Don’t digitise too much material.
• Digitise all material at the same resolution.
• Be disciplined when labeling your material
• Be creative within your editing time-frame
• Any problems may require you to close the software down and re-boot.
• Be careful of your sound levels.
• Split and checker-board your audio tracks.
• Always try and get feedback about your material.

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 Glossary of TV Terms

•1 + 1 One plus one. One presenter plus one guest.

• 2 + 4 Two presenters plus four guests.
• 4-wire Bi-directional communications wire.
• Analogue Signals that can have any value from 0 to 1
volt.
• Angle of View The horizontal angle visible through a
specific focal length lens.
• Aperture Correction (now known as 'detail') A way of
electronically increasing the sharpness of a picture.
• Backing track Instrumental recording replayed into a
studio while a per-former sings live.
• Bars Electronically created test signal used to check
(among other things) brightness (black level), contrast (white level) and colour.
• BITC (pronounced 'bitsey') Burnt in time-code The time-
code has been printed onto the vision and is always visible on screen. Used for
taped off-line editing.
• Black level The electronic level setting of the dark parts of
a picture.
• Bus A row of sources (e.g. on a vision mixer) usually
placed in a row from which an operator can select an input.
• Canting Twisting the camera on its axis through the lens, so the
horizon is not parallel to the frame. Very MTV.
• Capgen (CG) Caption generator. Creates type on screen,
sending two signals - a video and a key.
• CCD Charge-coupled device. The light sensitive device
behind the camera lens that has replaced camera tubes. It converts the varying
light levels into an electrical signal.
• CCU Camera control unit. The base station for a studio
camera. On this (or through a remote control panel) you can adjust all the
camera and many engineering settings.
• Chroma-key The technique of electronically removing one
colour from a scene and replacing that part of the image with a different picture.
• Chrominance The colour part of a signal showing hue
and saturation. Clearing cameras Letting cameras know you do not need them
any more and they can move to a different area of the studio.
• Control track Part of a VT recording used to maintain
correct replay.
• Complementary colour The colour which, if added to the
original, will make white light.
• Component A television picture kept in three separate
parts. As the colour signals are not coded and later decoded the final picture is
better quality, but three cables are needed to move a signal from one machine to

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another.
• Composite A television picture that has the colour and
luminance signals coded together, and which is sent down a single cable.
• Crash zoom Either a deliberate fast zoom on air, or the way
the director tells the camera operator to get the close-up as fast as possible.
• Decibels (db) The units of sound measurement.
• Detail See aperture correction.
• Dichroic block A mix of glass layers that lets some colours
through, and reflects others. Used in the front of cameras to split light into its
separate primary colours.
• Digital Signals that work in just 'is' and 'Os'. Analogue signals
can be converted to digital and vice versa.
• Digital video effects (DVE) Machine used to whizz pictures
around the screen.
• Dissolve Old-fashioned term for a mix.
• E to E Electronics to electronics. A way of seeing on the output
of a video machine what is going into it without having to be recording.
• EFP Electronic field production. Single camera with either
separate or inte-gral video recorder. While this may sound very similar to ENG it
has a big difference. The word 'news' does not appear in the title, which makes
some camera operators feel a lot better.
• ENG Electronic news gathering. Single camera with either
separate or integral video recorder. First used by news organisations to replace
film cameras.
• Extender An extra lens that can be switched in to extend the
focal length of a lens.
• Eyeline The direction in which a performer is looking in relation
to the camera (i.e. their eyeline can be to the left/right, above/below the camera).
• Field One half of a frame.
• Fill One of the three main lights used, it softens the strong
shadows from key lights and controls the contrast range.
• Filter wheel A wheel holding a number of filters sitting just in
front of the CCD. Typically it would hold neutral density and diffusion filters.
• Focal length The distance behind a lens where parallel light
rays converge.
• Foldback The audio feed to the studio floor speakers.
• Frame Two fields. There are 25 frames per second in a PAL
signal, 30 for NTSC.
• Gain Amplification that can be applied to either a video or an
audio signal. It usually increases 'noise', making a video signal more grainy.
• Gallery A production control room.
• GV General view. Wide or long shots showing locations/local
geography.
• Hue The basic colour (i.e. red, yellow, orange etc.).

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• IFB Interrupt foldback. This is a sound feed (e.g. a programme
clean feed going to a presenter at an OB) which someone (e.g. a director) can
press a button and override. It is a nice easy way of being able to speak to the
presenter through a single earpiece feed.
• Kelvin (K) The unit of measurement used to describe colour
temperature.
• Key The main light for illumination and creating shadows.
• LTC Longitudinal time code. The time code recorded horizontally along a
VT.
• Luminance The brightness of a television signal.
• Lux The unit of measurement used to describe the amount of light
received at a particular point.
• M/E Mix effects. The part of the vision mixer where wipes and special
effects are prepared.
• Mixed minus (also known as Programme clean feed) The audio of
programme output without one of the outside broadcast sources.
• Monochrome Black and white television (or more accurately one colour,
i.e. could be black and blue).
• Neutral density filter A filter placed in front of a lens without altering the
colour of the picture. It is used if you want to control the depth of field, or if you
have an outrageously bright source.
• Noise Electronic distortion added to either video or audio signals. NTSC
National Television System Committee. The people who defined the American
television system.
• Overscanning A television set which cuts off the edges of the picture.
The opposite of underscanning, which shows the picture right the way into the
corners. Underscanning is useful for checking that booms are not getting into
shot.
• PAL Television system used by much of Europe, India, Australia and
many other countries.
• PCF Programme clean feed. The studio output minus the live inject used
by a presenter on location. The presenter can hear the whole pro-gramme
without getting their own voice with a delay back in their ear.
• Pedestal The base under a studio camera, commonly called a 'ped'.
• PFL Pre-fade listen. A way of listening to an audio signal before it goes
on air. Used by sound to check that a source is present. Directors some-times
use it to check the start of VT packages. Presenter listens are PFLs.
• Pick-up Additional shots may be recorded at the end of a studio
sequence. It is not always necessary to start from the beginning again, as long
as there is a clean shot the editor can use to join the two recordings.
• POV Point of view. A camera shot that mimics what one of the
performers is seeing.
• PSC Production single camera. Single camera with either separate or
integral video recorder. I know that sounds just like ENG and EFP. It is.
• Rx Record.

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• Saturation The amount of white mixed into the coloured light - 100%
means it has no white light added.
• SIS (Sound in syncs) A way of coding the sound into a video signal.
Useful for outside broadcasts as it means that if the studio receives vision it will
also definitely get the audio.
• Soft light A light that gives faint or no shadows
• SOT Sound on tape
• SOVT Sound on video tape
• Standards converter The machine used to convert pictures from one TV
system (PAL, NTSC or SECAM) into another.
• Super Superimpose. Key a source over a
background video.
• Synchronous A vision source that can be
used on air because it starts each field at the same time as all the other sources.
• Tally light Vision mixers can send simple signals (tallies) to
equipment e.g. cameras telling them when they have been cut on-air. The
camera-mounted little red lights that use this signal are tally lights.
• TBU Telephone balance unit. The device connected
to telephone lines that enable presenters to have a phone conversation live on
air.
• Tight in/out The VT does not have a proper
clean entry or exit point, i.e. instead of good clean silence and a steady shot at
the beginning and end the editor may have had to put a freeze on, or didn't have
time to clean up the sound.
• Time-code Each frame of a VT is given a number in hours, minutes, sec-
onds and frames. It provides a technique for finding shots and can be used by
edit controllers.
• TX Transmission/on air.
• VITC (pronounced 'Vitsey') Vertical interval time-code. Time-code
recorded in spare television lines, and used by edit controllers when they are
jogging or slowing down tapes. VITC should read the same as LTC.
• V/O Voice over.
• White balance Electronic correction for
lighting colour temperature, so a white object appears as white.

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