MNC526 : Elements of Mining Technology

Chapter 2 : Surface Mining

1
Example: Palabora, South Africa
The Palabora orebody is an igneous, pipe structure containing:-
Copper
Magnetite (iron oxide),
Vermiculite (used for insulation),
Zirconium,
Titanium, and
Uranium.
The mine opened in 1964.
It is a full mine-to-smelter complex.
Open pit operations ended in 2002.
The pit used to be the deepest and steepest in the
world.
The mine is now an underground block-caving
operation with a 20 year mine life.
Proven reserves are 225 Mt at 0.7% copper.

2
Surface Mining methods

Controls of Gold Mineralization - LCS 3

Typical open cast mine

4
 Surface Mining
Applicability of surface mining:
1. When ore deposit is large with continuous lateral extension and
preferably horizontal or with low dip,
2. When the ore deposit is at shallow to moderate depth,
3. Applicable in any strength of the ore/rock,
4. When the ore deposit is preferably uniform i.e. tubular or
bedded,
5.  Applicable in any grade of ore body. Many a times this method
is economically viable & technically feasible even if the grade
is low .
6.  When high rate of production and productivity is of paramount
importance especially with due regard to conservation, quality
and safety.

5
 Surface Mining contd….
Limitations of Surface mining
1.  Limited by depth (up to 300 approx.). Beyond which to be left
for mining in future with upgraded technology or may
immediately proceed for Underground Mining in deeper
property,
2.  Weather detrimental - All season mining is not possible,
3.  When Large scale degradation of land in excavation & dump
area is not permitted sometimes even with reclamation
especially in reserve forest,
4.  When the ore body or the rock is not competent viz. free
flowing argillaceous sand, morture etc. Formation of stable
benches and the dumps are not possible ,
5.  Highly capital intensive,
6.  When environmental protection is highly critical OC mining
may not be feasible,
7.  Extremely difficult to safe guard any important and
sensitive infrastructure nearby the mine. 6
Classification of Surface Mining:

Class Subclass Methods

Mechanical Open Pit Mining
Quarryng
Strip Mining
Auger Mining
Acqeous Solution Dredging
Hydraulic mining
Surface Techniques
In Situ Leaching

Different deposit conditions that favour open pit mining are detailed
in foregoing table. It may be observed that geometry and extent of
the deposit have a significant influence on the method of mining so
chosen.
 Terminology in Surface Mining

•  Ultimate Pit / Overall Pit slope angle The angle measured
from the bottom bench toe to the top bench crest. It is the
angle at which the wall of an open pit stands and it is
determined by rock strength, geological structures and water
conditions
•  Stripping Ratio or strip ratio refers to the ratio of the volume
of overburden (or waste material) required to be handled in
order to extract 1 Tonne of ore. For example, a stripping ratio
of 3 means that mining one tonne of ore will require
excavation of three cubic meters of waste rock.

8
Break Even Stripping Ratio(BESR)/Maximum Stripping Ratio(SRmax)/Cut off
Stripping Ratio :
This is defined as that stripping ratio at which cost of mining one tonne of ore &
corresponding volume of waste material equals the revenue received by sale of
one tonne of orebody
OR
when cost of mining ore & waste matches with revenue generated by sale of ore.
•  Overall Pit Limit is decided by Break Even Stripping Ratio/ Maximum
Stripping Ratio.

Max. Allowable Stripping(Rs.) = Value of Ore(Rs.) Total Production Cost(Rs.)

OR
Max. Allowable Stripping(Cum) = (Value of Ore in Rs.) -
(Total Production Cost in Rs.) / Stripping Cost(Rs./Cum
OR
Max. Allowable Stripping(Cum) = (Price of Ore in Rs./Te - Cost of production of
ore in Rs./Te Cost of OB removal in Rs./Cum x BESR) / Stripping Cost(Rs./Cum)

9
•  Once allowable stripping is known, Ultimate Pit Limit/Pit Geometry
can be determined with the help of Ultimate Pit Slope angle
•  Market price of the mineral & cost of Exploitation keep on
changing so ultimate Pit Limit need to be dynamic. As such, Long
Range Plan should be updated based on market scenario
•  Open Pit mining is not viable beyond BESR feasibility of
underground mining is to be explored.
Physical Significance: An important parameter/planning tool which
decides the extent of mining with economics/viability. To determine
the ‘Economic Pit Limit’ firstly “Ultimate Pit Slope Angle” is
determined based on geotechnical parameter. Subsequently,
projection/budgeting is made for mining cost & revenue to be
generated during entire life of the mine which is tabulated & and
cash flow analysis done. Other factors considered in analysis are
discounting rate of future revenue at present level, interest on
capital expenditure including cost of prestripping of waste material.
And mining should continue till this BESR is reached.

10
Open Pit Mining: is a term properly applied to a surface mining method
in which reclamation is deferred until all, or nearly all, of the deposit is
removed within economic limits. Open Pit Mining is mostly being worked
with shovel dumper combination or FE loader Tipper Combination.

Quarrying: is usually restricted to mining dimension stone - prismatic

blocks of marble, granite, limestone, sandstone, slate, etc. that are used
for primary construction of buildings or decorative/exterior/interior
portions of buildings. Dimension Stone mining is normally done with high
mast crane and truck combination. In other cases of quarrying operation
shovel dumper combination or FE loader Tipper Combination are
deployed
Most illustrative example is that crushed limestone is produced
in an open pit mine, while dimension limestone is produced in a quarry.

Stripping: This method is primarily used for extracting bedded deposit

like coal, lime stone etc, but may also be applied to other types of
materials ranging from metals to minerals. In this method benches are
formed strip by strip by removal of overburden above the useful mineral.
11

 Overburden: unwanted material present above Coal/ore body.
Access Trench: made through the overburden to expose a
portion of the ore body. An open excavation/ a trench with
trapezium cross section is driven gradually dipping/normally
inclined so as to touch the bottom of the seam & is further
extended to the limits of the property in the horizontal/strike
direction which provides access/entry to the entire property in
the mine.
A Box Cut serves as the first step in the excavation of most
surface mining methods. Mining starts with a rectangular cut
made in the surface of the earth, forming a box shape. Box cut
mining is primarily used for initiating extraction of coal/bedded
deposits but may also be applied to other types of materials
ranging from metals to minerals.

12
 Opening up Deposit & Mine Development

Box Cut
Access Trench

Developmen
Pit Expansion t of Bench

Initial Cuts in an Open Cast Mine with Shovel Dumper Combination

Box Cut Formation, its extension in 3 direction and bench formation
in stripping downwards: All being parallel operations

Pit Expansion
Pit Expansion Pit Expansion

Truck & Shovel Box Cut

Access Trench
Open-Pit Mining:

•  Traditionally cone-shaped excavation (although it can be of any
shape, depending on the size and shape of the orebody)
•  Applicable when the ore body is typically pipe-shaped, vein-type,
steeply dipping stratified or irregular.
•  Most often associated with metallic orebodies, however, it can be
used for any deposit that suits the geometry – most typically
diamond pipes
•  Excavation is normally done by rope/ hydraulic shovels with trucks
carrying ore/waste.
•  Drilling and blasting is most often used, which makes the process
cyclic.
•  Waste is dumped outside the mined-out area since no room is
available within the pit.
•  Waste is placed as close to the edge of the pit as possible, to
minimize transport costs.
 Box Cut & Mine Development in Open Pit Mining in Non-Stratified Deposit

Box Cut

Pit Expansion & Mine Development

Formation of Benches

Reaching the Final Pit

17
18
Terminology in Surface Mining Contd…….
•  Free face: The face of a bench which is free to move when
blasting is done.
•  Charged Hole: A blast hole filled with explosive and detonator
•  Burden: Distance of the charged hole from the nearest free
face.
•  Spacing: Distance between the adjacent blast holes in a row.
•  Controlled blasting: Controlling of blast-induced ground/
structural vibration by limiting the maximum charge per delay.
•  Stemming: Length of filling done in a charged blast hole (with
drill cuttings/angular fragments) to provide confinement to
explosive.
•  Fly rock: Rock pieces that get released while blasting and fly to
large distances.
•  Throw: Horizontal movement of broken rock after blasting
(normally limited to one single bench).
19
20
‘

21
For Planning of a Surface mine following factors are
considered:

1.  Natural and geological factors: geological, geotechnical,
hydrogeological ore types, topography, and
metallurgical characteristics.

2.  Economic factors: ore grade, ore tonnage, stripping ratio,
cutoff grade, operating cost, investment cost, desired
profit/IRR, production volume/rate, and market
conditions.

3.  Technological factors: equipment, pit slope/pit limit,
bench geometry, road grade, easements and property
limits/lines etc.

22
Quarrying:
•  Quarrying is done for dimension-stone which are normally nonmetallic
viz. granite, marble, limestone, sandstone, flagstone, and slate.
•  Quarries resemble open pits, but the benches (called faces) are lower
and nearly vertical. In overall appearance, the highwall of a quarry is
often of imposing height and steepness, some attaining a vertical
dimension approaching 300 m.
•  Mining of such deposit produces prismatic blocks of mineral, which are
both roughly sized and shaped.
•  Because of the difficulty and cost associated with cutting stone,
quarrying is the most expensive among the surface mining methods.
•  It is highly selective, small-scale method with low productivity.
•  Although the term quarry is sometimes applied to any surface mine
producing a nonmetallic mineral, it is preferable to restrict quarrying to
denoting a dimension-stone operation and the unique methods
associated with it.
OPEN CAST(STRIP) MINING:
•  It is most common surface exploitation method normally
used for large scale mining of coal & other bedded
deposits.
•  This resembles open pit mining with one unique difference
i.e. the overburden may not be required to be transported
to waste dumps for disposal but casted/dumped directly
into adjacent mined out area.
•  Strip mining is ideally applied where the surface of the
ground and the ore body itself are relatively horizontal/
flatter and not too deep under the surface, and a wide
area is available to be mined in a series of strips.
•  Typical examples of this type of mining are the large
capacity coal mines.

24
Favorable conditions for strip mining are:
•  Extensive area of reserves
•  Relatively thin overburden
•  If thick and flatter orebody, it should be regular in shape
without undulation, not scattered
•  Uniform surface topography, may be multilayered deposit/
coal seams

 Types of Surface Mines with applicability conditions:
Character Open Pit Quarring Strip Mining Augering
Ore Strength Any Any(Sound Any Any
Structure)
Rock Strength Any Any Any Any

Deposit Shape Any(Tabular) Thick bedded Tabular bedded Tabular

or massive Bedded
Deposit Dip Any dip Any Low dip, Steep if Low dip
economics permit
Deposit Size Small to Large Small to Large Large moderate Limited,
Thick Thick Thickness thin
Ore Grade Low to high high Any even low grade low
Ore Uniformity Uniform Uniform Fairly Uniform Uniform

Depth Shallow to Shallow to Shallow Shallow to

moderate moderate moderate

Unit Operations/Cycle of Operation in Surface Mining:
(I)  Overburden Removal depends on nature of overburden whether :-
•  without breakage can be removed
•  Should be ripped prior to excavation
•  Hard rock requiring drilling & blasting which is normally
prevailing in Coal mining & hard rock mining

This consists of following unit operations:
1.  Drilling: rotary/percussive/rotary percussive etc.
2.  Blasting with Slurry/Cartridge or Bulk/Emulsion/Heavy ANFO
3.  firing by electric detonator/Detonating Cord/NONEL system
4.  Excavation: Dragline/Rope Shovel/Hydraulic Excavator/Bucket
Wheel Excavator/dozer/scrapper/cast blasting etc.
5.  Haulage: Dumper/Tipper/Scrapper/conveyor etc.

27

(II)Unit Operation/ Cycle of Operation in Mining Ore or Coal:

This depends on nature of ore/host rock & includes the following :
i.  Cleaning: normally by dozer etc.
ii.  Drilling: rotary/percussive/rotary percussive etc.
iii.  Blasting: ANFO/Slurry/Emulsion sometimes without blasting
just by ripping
iv.  Excavation and loading: Front End Loader/Power Shovel/
Surface Minor etc.
v.  Hauling or Transport: Truck/Dumper/belt conveyor etc.
vi.  Processing or beneficiation: Beneficiation Plants or Coal
Handling Plant or Coal Washeries

(III) Auxiliary Operation:

It includes Haul Road construction & maintenance, Equipment
maintenance, material supply, maintaining lighting/safety standards,
Dust/environmental control, drainage & pumping, communication,
power distribution, slope stability, reclamation etc.

28
 Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling Drill machines (rotary/percussive)

| |
Blasting SMS, emulsion, Primer, Nonel, etc
| |
Loading Shovels, Draglines, etc
| |
Hauling Front-end loader, etc
| |
Transporting Dumpers, Conveyors, etc
| |
Processing/Washing Coal washeries… 29
Selection criteria for mining equipment surface
mines:
Following factors are considered for selection of equipment for
Opencast Mining:
•  Extent of deposit i.e. strike length and dip rise width.
•  Nature of strata, whether soil, sub soil, watery etc.
•  Coal reserve and OB volume
•  Production capacity required.
•  Geological disturbances
•  Seam thickness, Nos. of Coal Seams, Inter seam partings.
•  Gradient of deposits deciding mining method
•  Hardness of the coal and overburden strata.
•  Location of deposit with respect to surface structure, human
habitation, forest land etc.
30
Walking draglines are for many years the most popular machine for strip
mining. A dragline is a typical combined cyclic excavator and material
carrier since it excavates material and dumps it subsequently on the no
coal/ore area without the use of trucks or conveyor belts. A dragline has
following special features:
•  It sits on the highwall side and excavates the material in front of
itself and dumps subsequently on the no coal/ore area without the
use of trucks or conveyor belts
•  low operating cost with lowest cost of mining,
•  high productivity
•  high availability and utilization
•  Low ground pressure
•  ideally suitable for waste mining also because it can sit on the OB
dumps provided the geotechnical conditions permit for
deployment of dragline.
Draglines Commonly deployed in India is of 24/96 capacity but D/L up to
60 CUM bucket capacity is available globally.
31
Stripping with Draglines: Applicability :
Draglines are the lowest cost overburden removal equipment in
common use. A dragline consists of a large bucket suspended from a
boom with wire ropes. The bucket is maneuvered by a number of
ropes & Chains.
What are the favourable conditions for working of a Dragline?
•  Large deposits to ensure adequate strip length and sufficient
reserves to justify the capital expenditure.
•  Gently dipping deposits(up to 1 in 6 gradient), due to stability
problem of spoil heaps on steeper gradient
•  Shallow deposits, as draglines can only excavate up to a maximum
depth of 50 to 80 m of overburden due to limitations in its reach
and dump height.
•  Where there is possibility of side casting of overburden removed
from top of the coal seam on the decoaled area
•  To be deployed on overburden on single seam mining or at most
lower of 2 seams 32
Mining Process OPENCAST

Drilling
|
Blasting
|
Loading
| DRAG LINE
Hauling
|
Transporting
|
Processing/Washing 33
DRAGLINE
Dragline – Revolving shovel that carries a
bucket attached only by cables and digs by
pulling the bucket toward itself.

34
LINE DIAGRAM OF DRAGLINE

35
 A typical layout of a Open Cast mine with dragline & Shovel
Dumper Combination

36
37
A Box Cut in Dragline serves as the first step in the excavation of
most surface mining methods. Mining starts with a cut of
trapezoidal section made in the surface of the earth extending in
strike direction, thus forming a box shape. Box cut mining is
primarily used for extracting coal/bedded deposits but may also
be applied to other types of materials ranging from metals to
minerals.
In Surface Mining, before deployment of a dragline
excavator a box cut is created along the length of the site. The
earth and rocks removed from this cut are set aside above
ground for later reuse. This gives an access for mining all
available minerals and ore. Many a times a box cut is created
deep enough in tandem of the access trench to reach the other
end of the coal deposit. In new pitching or steeply dipping seam
operations, the initial pit is opened and coal removed. The initial
box cut is opened to the economic limit down dip. Subsequent
cuts are advanced on-strike, and overburden hauled back into
the mined- out initial pit. 38

INITIAL BOX CUT IN DRAGLINE MINING

39


40
41
Methodology of Dragline Operation:
Draglines work in strips each having a width of 40 to
90m(approx.) and height depending on the size of the
equipment(30m for 24/96 dragline). It works for few
kilometers in one pass. Overburden is excavated and dumped
on the surface in a no coal zone for the initial strip (box cut)
and subsequently in adjacent mined out strips(mined out
area/no coal area). Strips are generally aligned along strike
with each subsequent strip down dip from the previous strip.
The dragline starts at one end (or the middle) of the strip and
advances to the other end. At the completion of each strip the
dragline relocates to the start of the strip and commences the
next strip, this is referred to as deadheading.
Ramps for coal mining access are either taken through
the overburden dump through the spoil heap created in the
highwall either parallel or at right angles to the strip or a
combination of the two to minimize lead distance.
42
 Shovel Dumper Combination
•  This is the most commonly used equipment in opencast/surface
mines
•  Basically two varients – Rope Shovels & Hydraulic shovels
•  Electric and Diesel driven equiments are available
•  Front End and Backhoe Shovels are available
•  Bucket Capacities vary from 0.9 CUM to 40 CUM.
•  Selection depends on volume of Overburden, interburden and
Ore/Coal to be removed.
Applicability of shovel dumper combination:
•  Universally applicable including geologically complex deposits
which can not be efficiently mined by a dragline. However in such
cases pits may acquire irregular shapes.
•  Steeply dipping deposits, where other equipment cannot be
operated on the seam roof and floor. Mining commences at one
end of the deposit and advances along strike to the other end.
This can be operated from both ends and need not to be
43
deadheading as in case of Dragline.
APPLICABILITY….. Contd……..
•  To access the coal seam/seams the pit advances vertically to the
deeper levels & concurrently to the mine boundary in the srike
direction/horizontally. Overburden is initially dumped externally
and then inpit dumping is done when sufficient dump room is
available.
•  Basin deposits that combine the problems of steep dips at the
margins with short strike length and varying overburden depth
along the strip.
•  Small deposits, which do not require high productivities
•  Mining of Multi Seams/bedded deposits
The versatility of the system and ability to haul for a
moderate distance makes this system favourable in nearly all
mining situations. However, hauling for a large distance makes it
uneconomical and not sustainable.

44
Rope Shovel and Dumper

45
46
240 T R/DUMPER, GEVRA OCP
Caterpillar 793D Dumper(240T)

48
42 M3 SHOVEL, GEVRA OCP
42 M3 SHOVEL, GEVRA OCP
51
Hydraulic Excavator:
Hydraulic Shovel and Dumper
With the use of Hydraulic Excavators mining becomes more flexible,
faster, more productive, universally applicable in any type of strata
because it is lighter machine which exerts less ground pressure and
hydraulic movements are much faster reducing cycle time.

52
53
Hydraulic shovels:
• Versatile – easy to march from place to place.
• Productivity is higher than rope shovels.
• Can march on steep gradient.
• Can be deployed for removal wedge portions in the
last OB bench (Over coal seams).
• Can be used for preparation sumps and drains.
• Can load on dumper placed at the same level as that
of the shovel or on a dumper placed below the shovel
level.
• Can be used for removal of soft coal/ strata without
blasting.
• Can be deployed for removal of thin seams.
• The life of shovel is around 9 to 12 years only and
requires a mid-life overhaul.
• Initial capital is low compared to Rope shovels.
54
55
 OPERATION OF DOZER
A Dozer or Bull Dozer is the vital equipment used in
! cast
Open It is themining for pushing
vital equipment in Openlarge volume of loose soil,
cast mining.
stone etc. It has a pusher blade attached to the front
! tractor with a pusher blade attached to the front portion.
portion mounted on 2 nos. of crawler chains.
! Diesel operated with crawler chain (some times tyre mounted
Dozers also used)
! the pusher blade can be raised lowered or tilted through small
angles horizontally by rams operated by hydraulic pressure.
! The Dozer blade is used for pushing loose material, digging earth,
soft weathered rock, for pushing scrapers, for levelling / grading
and compacting the ground, for laying haul roads, for toeing
dumpers etc., for pushing boulders trees etc.,
! There is different capacity of Dozers ranging from 100HP to 800
HP and normally used are 400 HP, which costs app. 1.2 Cr. 56
Bull Dozer/Dozer 57
RIPPER DOZER

58
 SCRAPER

Scraper – Machine used in digging, hauling, and grading. Has a

cutting edge, carrying bowl, movable apron, and
dumping/ejecting mechanism. 59
 OPERATION OF SCRAPER

! A scraper is self propelled or towed by a Dozer

! It’s blade cuts a thin slice of a earth usually between 100 mm to 250
mm thick over a distance of nearly 30 m.
! The earth is automatically collected in the bowl located at the
centre of the machine.
! The bowl capacity ranges from 5 cum to 20 cum and takes nearly
half to one minute for loading.
! When the scraper is fully loaded its bottom opening is closed
through a table operated by the operator.
! At the dumping yard as the Scraper moves, the bottom opening of
bowl is opened, and the contents of earth are unloaded in the layer
150 mm to 250 mm thick over a distance of 30 to 50 m. 60
BLOCK AREA/DOZER-SCRAPER METHOD:
This method takes advantage of the dozer’s ability to move
material over short distances at low costs and the scraper’s
ability to elevate material over steep grades for short distance at
reasonable costs. However this method has limited application
because wear and tear on the scrapers makes the method
sometimes cost prohibitive because of high repair &
maintenance costs.
This method is especially suited for
•  Soft strata
•  when there is restriction in blasting because of some
critical surface infrastructure nearby.
•  When working nearby a populated area/village etc.

61
BLOCK AREA/DOZER-SCRAPER METHOD
Fig. 13.2.2.2. Modified open pit: flat-lying seams (Anon

62
Atlas Copco Pit Viper 351 Drill

63
64
Technical Specifications:
Manufacturer Atlas Copco
Model Year 2011
Model Pit Viper 351
Dimensions :
Length Tower Up 16.4m
Tower Down 29.9m
Height Tower Up 31.6m
Tower Down 8.5m
Width 8.1m
Weight 175-188T
Drill Rod 4 Rods(One Rod of 10.7m
length)
Engine 1044-1230KW
RPM 1800
Drill Depth 41.1m 65
Surface Miner

66
Cutting by Surface Miner in conjunction with Dumper in a Lime Stone
Mine:

67
Stable Highwall after cutting by Surface Miner:

68
Working Principle of Surface Miner:
•  The surface minor is crawler mounted machine with one cutting
drum located in the centre
•  The drum is lowered hydraulically with powerful hydraulic motors
for cutting coal/limestone for variable cutting depth of cut
•  The material cut is loaded onto primary & secondary discharge
conveyers for loading the same onto the loading/ transporting
equipment.
•  The rear crawler travel at lower level then the front crawlers to
adjust to the required depth.
Applicability
•  Flat or gently dipping coal seam
•  Best suited for rock compressive strength up to 60Mpa
•  Less abrasive rock
•  Thin seam or thin dirt bands
•  Sizes material/selective mining
•  Environmentally sensitive area

69
Advantages of Surface Miner:
•  Drilling & Blasting is eliminated
•  Primary crushing is eliminated added with very good
fragmentation
•  Eco friendly mining
•  Very good conservation of coal
•  High productivity with simultaneous operation of a no. of
machines can be deployed on same bench as well on various
coal benches
•  Compatibility with in pit belt conveyor system if installed in
tandem
•  Better Safety
Limitation:
Although this machine can be applied to flatter seams & on moderate
bench width but with continuous upgradation this machine is
becoming universally applicable even on steeper seams with limited
bench width. The added advantage of Eco friendly mining outweigh
this system of mining.
70


71
Open Cast Mining with Bucket Wheel Excavator:
•  Originally designed for relatively easy digging materials (gravel, sand,
loam, marl, clays, and lignite). ︎These have included compact sediments
such as shale, coal, some limestone, and tar sands.
However, BWEs have been developed which can dig relatively hard
material.
•  ︎The machine digs out the material using buckets mounted on large
wheel which revolves. The teeth on the individual buckets are the
primary digging/breaking tools that break out the material from the
ground.
•  ︎BWEs are most often attached to a conveyor network where waste
material is sent to a spreader and/or the ore is sent to the stockpile.
•  ︎Abrasive material produces excessive wear on the teeth (some modern
tooth design can significantly increase tooth life).
•  ︎Very limited flexibility however BWE can mine both thin overburden and
deeper overburden where single bucket machine eg. Dragline etc is
impossible to deploy,
•  ︎High capital costs but may prove to be economical for mining of weak
flat tabular deposits.
•  ︎Distinct advantages in direct reclamation (environmental benefit);
72
73
Large BWE: Capacity 2,40,000CUM per day, capable of cutting a
Large Bucketwheel Excavators
digging height up to 100m.

74
75
dSmallest & Compact BWE capable of cutting hard material with capacity
compact Bucketwheel
ranging from 450-2000CUM/hr & can be transported on a trailer.

76
 BUCKET CHAIN EXCAVATORS

! Bucket chain excavators (BCEs) are similar in structure

and function to BWEs.

! However, instead of the buckets being placed in a ring,

they are strung out in a manner reminiscent of a
trencher.

! They remove material from below their plane of

movement, which is useful if the pit floor is unstable or
underwater

78
Bucket chain
Excavators

79
Bucket chain excavators

80
Under Water Mining with Bucket Chain Conveyor:

81
IN-PIT BELT CONVEYOR,
DIPKA OCP
In-pit crusher conveyor technology

83
In-pit crusher conveyor technology

84
Highwall Mining
•  Highwall mining is a technology that extracts available coal from the
highwall faces of the existing opencast mines by deploying remote
operated equipment, which have reached their final limit due to
uneconomic stripping ratio or due to local constraints (which limit further
mining by normal surface/ opencast technology).
•  This method relies upon the self supporting capacity of the strata above
the series of parallel entries driven mechanically to a considerable depth
without artificial roof support and ventilation in the seam horizon.
•  This technology provides an economical way to extract coal reserves
locked up in the highwall.
•  The extent of an opencast project is limited by the financial viability,
though coal seam continues to exist beyond the quarry limits.
•  Non-replenishable coal is getting lost forever within the highwalls of the
opencast projects.
•  This technology is being practiced in USA, Australia and Indonesia
•  Limiting gradient – 1 in 3.5 and maximum penetrating depth (in level
gradient) is around 500 m
85
Highwall Mining- either through abandoned benches or through
a cutting a trench.

Bench Mining
Trench Mining

86
Auger Mining: In Augur Mining, coal is extracted using an
augur mining machine. This machine operates like a drill with a
cutter head rotating into the coal seam & creating holes to access
the coal. The extracted coal is hauled through the augur machine
& the conveyor system.
It is comparatively less productive in comparison to ADDCAR
Continuous Highwall mining system but is safer as its augurs
(conveying system) are armoured & covered. Augur has also
limitation of penetration into the seam.
Continuous mining system: This involves use of a
continuous mining machine that creates a rectangular opening in
the coal seam of highwall. Coal is hauled to the surface through a
conveyor system.
The Technology is highly productive. Production capacity of
continuous Mining Machine is up to 1 MT per annum. Continuous
Mining Machine can go up to 600m depth.
87
 High wall Mining Technology – Auger Type

• Consisting of single or dual cutting heads with coal being cleared

by spiraled flights, creating circular entries

88
Advantages:
•  Very safe Method as operations are carried out by remote control. No
person is required to go inside the drivages. Machine is controlled by
PLC, to avoid human error.
•  Persons are not exposed to hazards like roof falls, gas, dust etc.
•  Efficient & Cost effective as compared to other present UG mining
methods
•  Manpower requirement for the whole operation is as low as 4 per shift.
•  Blasting Free Environment Friendly Technology which extracts coal
without major land degradation.
•  High percentage Extraction ( up to 70%) leads to high volume of coal
conservation.
•  Mobility –Machine can move for longer hauls, fully assembled
Highwall Mining in India:
In India both types of Highwall Mining (Augur & Continuous) are in operation.
1.  BUCYRUS Augur HW Mining System is Operational since April 2011 at
Sharda Mine, Sohagpur Area of SECL, a Subsidiary of CIL
2.  ADDCAR Continuous HW Mining System Operational at RGOCP-II 89 of
SCCL since Dec. 2010.
 SHARDA HIGHWALL PROJECT

90
91