AGROFORESTRY

THEORY AND PRACTICES

Editors & Authors

ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ Ph.D.
Associate Professor (Forestry)
Department of Land Resources Management and Environmental Protection
Mekelle University, Ethiopia
&
Associate Dean (On Leave)
College of Forestry and Environment
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences
(Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) Deemed University
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

S.B.LAL Ph.D.
Pro-Vice Chancellor and Dean
College of Forestry and Environment of SHIATS - Deemed University
(Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute)
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
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ISBN: 978-81-7233-867-1
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Printed in India
 FOREWORD

World’s total forest area is 4.03 billion hectares, corresponding to 31 per cent of the
total land area or an average of 0.6 ha of per capita, whereas India’s forest and tree cover
is 78.29 million hectares which is only 23.81 per cent of the geographical area. We are
continuously putting efforts to achieve the national goal of 33 per cent geographic area of
the country under the forest and tree cover as enshrined in the National Forest Policy,
1988. India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s geographical area and 0.5 per cent of the
world’s grazing area but supports over 16 per cent of the world’s human population and
over 18 per cent of world’s cattle population. This ever increasing population places
enormous demands and pressures on the land resources and forest resources. Agro-
forestry is the potential option for increasing the tree cover outside the notified forest
areas.
India is endowed with a variety of soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regions.
An area of 46.70 million ha has been estimated under wastelands which is 14.75 per cent
of the total geographical area of the country. The land degradation issue threatens
country’s food security and the quality of the environment which assumes a major
significance nowadays. Agroforestry practices are considered as most vital technology
and potential farming system for minimizing the land degradation. Agroforestry practices
increase farm productivity, diversify income sources for farmers and provide environ-
mental services. Agroforestry improves soil, water and air quality, and biodiversity while
supporting sustainable production of food, feed, fibre and energy. IPCC’s prediction of
temperature increase between 1.1ºC and 6.2ºC by the end of the century due to excessive
carbon dioxide emission will most likely create extreme changes in temperature and
precipitation. Agroforestry represents a significant opportunity for sequestering more
carbon per unit area on agricultural lands and it can be better climate change mitigation
option than ocean and other terrrestrial options because of vast production and protective
benefits.
The new comprehensive editorial textbook “Agroforestry: Theory and Practices” by
Dr.Antony Joseph Raj and Prof.S.B.Lal is a rich source of knowledge and practical
information on agroforestry drawn from the scientific literature, databases and field
experiences from all over world. This textbook provides thoroughly up-to-date principles
and methods on agroforestry and excellently covers the latest and modern technologies in
iv Agroforestry Theory and Practices

the agroforestry field. This book, with its high standards, will enormously benefit the
students for their preparation of competitive exams like UPSC-Civil Services, UPSC-
Indian Forest Service, ICAR-ARS Scientist Exam, ICFRE Forestry Scientist Exam, NET
Exam, State Public Service Commission Exams etc. I am confident that scientists,
University and college teachers, and foresters from all over world should find this
resource book useful in creating effective and innovative training programmes and
manpower in agroforestry.
I welcome this latest Agroforestry textbook which will be most valuable to the
students of agriculture, forestry, horticulture, soil science, water science, ecology,
environment science and other plant sciences.
I would like to congratulate the authors, Dr. Antony Joseph Raj and Prof.S.B.Lal, for
their tireless efforts in bringing this high quality textbook for the benefit of students,
teachers, scientists and agricultural community.

Vice-Chancellor
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences
(Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) Deemed University
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

July 2013
 PREFACE

Agroforestry provides a different land use option, compared with traditional

agricultural and forestry systems. Agroforestry combines trees, shrubs, forages, grasses,
livestock, and crops in innovative, flexible combinations tailored to the needs of farmers
and landowners. This intensive integration in agroforestry ensures sustained availability
of multiple products as direct benefits such as food, vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel,
manure, medicine, timber, etc. It makes use of the complementarity between trees and
crops, so that the available resources can be more effectively exploited. It is a practice
that respects the environment and has an obvious landscape benefit. The integration of
trees, agricultural crops, and/or animals into an agroforestry system has the potential to
enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion, improve water quality, enhance biodiversity,
increase aesthetics and sequester carbon. Efficient, modern versions of agroforestry have
been developed around the world which can be adapted to different agroclimatic
conditions.
The agroforestry always remains productive for the farmer and generates continuous
revenue. Agroforestry allows for the diversification of farm activity and makes better use
of environmental resources. The goal of agroforestry is to optimize productivity and
conservation benefits within a set of integrated land use practices. Agroforestry has
interesting advantages from three different perspectives viz. agriculture, forestry and
environment. The agroforestry practices enhance biodiversity, sequester more carbon
dioxide from atmosphere, diversify farmers’ income sources, generate greater profits than
annual crops, and create a more integrated, interesting, and visually appealing land use
system that may be more environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable than
the original farmland. With the shrinking per capita land availability, agroforestry system
with the integration of perennial woody trees with crops/pastures is most suitable
technology for increasing total productivity of food, feed and fuel and thereby reducing
the risk of farming.
This editorial textbook “Agroforestry: Theory and Practices” is one of the finest
books on agroforestry that offers a global review of the basic approaches, tools and
technologies, research innovations and real-world practices in agroforestry. The book
offers a comprehensive guide to basic principles, techniques and applications, integrative
strategies, economic and environmental concerns, and future trends in agroforestry in
vi Agroforestry Theory and Practices

different regions of the world. This textbook is an effort to create a coherent and wide-
ranging guide to the practice of agroforestry. This book covers key areas in agroforestry,
namely agroforestry practices and its distribution, agroforestry systems classification,
agroforestry trees, agroforestry management, technologies and modern concepts in
agroforestry, production benefits of agroforestry, environmental services of agroforestry,
agroforestry education, research & extension, etc.
In many aspects, the topics and structure of this textbook is highly meritorious and
unique than other agroforestry books. This textbook is intended for university & college
students, professors, scientists, researchers, foresters, farmers, policy makers and
professionals in the field of agriculture, forestry, horticulture, other agricultural sciences
and biological sciences. The main intention of this textbook is to provide a state-of-the-
art and up-to-date knowledge of recent developments in agroforestry as a potential future
land use system. This textbook on agroforestry will enormously benefit the students for
their preparation of competitive exams like UPSC-Civil Services, UPSC-Indian Forest
Service, ICAR-ARS Scientist/NET Exam, ICFRE Forestry Scientist Exam, State Public
Service Commission Exams and University Entrance Exam for admission to M.Sc. and
Ph.D. programmes
This agroforestry textbook will contribute significantly to academic teaching and
scientific research. Additional information or suggestions are invited from experienced
researchers and experts for improving the quality of the book in future editions. We thank
Dr.(Mrs.) Roselin Antony, Assistant Professor of Mekelle University (Ethiopia) for her
editorial help and for enhancing the English language & technical writing of manuscript.
We are confident that this agroforestry textbook will become a huge success just like our
earlier book “Forestry: Principles and Applications”.

ANTONY JOSEPH RAJ

S.B. LAL
July 2013
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Antony Joseph Raj Prof. S.B. Lal

Associate Professor (Forestry), LaRMEP, Pro-Vice Chancellor and Dean, College of
Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia & Forestry and Environment,
Associate Dean (On Leave), College of SHIATS Deemed University,
Forestry and Environment, SHIATS Deemed (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute),
University, Allahabad Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. M.M. Roy Shri. P. Durairasu, IFS

Director, Dean (Forestry), Forest College and
Central Arid Zone Research Institute Research Institute (FC&RI),
(CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Shri. N. Satheesh, IFS Prof. S.L. Madiwalar

District Forest Officer, Tiruchirappalli, Dean (Forestry) & Professor (Agroforestry),
Tamil Nadu College of Forestry, Sirsi,
(UAS-Dharwad), Karnataka

Dr. K. Sasikumar, IFS Prof. S.J. Patil

District Forest Officer, Professor and Head, Dept. of Silviculture
North Tripura District, and Agroforestry & Officer In-charge for
Kumarghat, Tripura AICRP Agroforestry, University of
Agricultural Sciences,
(UAS-Dharwad), Karnataka

Dr. T. Mohan Raj, IFS Prof. K.T. Parthiban

Divisional Forest Officer, Professor and Head, Dept. of Tree Breeding,
Tonk Forest Division, Tonk, Rajasthan Forest College and Research Institute
(FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu

Shri. N. Gurunathan, IFS Prof. M.P. Divya

Scientist in National Research Center for Professor (Agroforestry), Officer In-charge
Agroforestry, Jhansi (Earlier) and Presently for AICRP Agroforestry, Forest College and
Probationary Officer, Indira Gandhi National Research Institute (FC&RI),
Forest Academy, Dehradun, Uttarakhand Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu
viii Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Dr. Suresh Kumar Prof. C.T. Ashok Kumar

Head & Principal Scientist, Department of Professor (Entomology), Department of
Integrated Land Use Management, Entomology, College of Agriculture, U.A.S.,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute G.K.V.K., Bangalore, Karnataka
(CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Dr. Ramakrishna Hegde Prof. M.S. Malik
Associate Professor & Head, Professor and Head, Dept. of Silviculture
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, and Agroforestry and Officer In-charge for
College of Forestry, Ponnampet AICRP Agroforestry, Faculty of Forestry,
(UAS, Bangalore), Karnataka Birsa Agriculture University, Kanke,
Ranchi, Jharkhand
Dr. T.K. Kunhamu Dr. O.P. Chaturvedi
Associate Professor (Agroforestry), Head, Department of Plant Science &
Dept. of Silviculture and Agroforestry and Principal Scientist, Central Soil and Water
Officer In-charge for AICRP Agroforestry, Conservation Research and Training
College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural Institute (ICAR), Dehradun
University, Thrissur, Kerala
Dr. K.S. Pant Dr. A. Venkatesh
Senior Scientist (Agroforestry), Principal Scientist (Forestry),
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
College of Forestry, Dr.Y.S.Parmar Umiam (Barapani), Meghalaya
University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
Dr. C. Buvaneswaran Dr. J.C. Tewari
Scientist E, Division of Forestry, Land Use Principal Scientist (Forestry),
and Climate Change, Institute of Forest Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore, (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Dr. Sanjeev K. Chauhan Dr. Harsh Mehta
Associate Professor (Forestry), Principal Scientist, Central Soil and Water
Dept. of Forestry & Natural Resources, Conservation Research and Training
Punjab Agricultural University, Institute (ICAR Institute),
Ludhiana, Punjab Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Dr. Ajit Dr. J.M.S. Tomar
Senior Scientist, National Research Center Senior Scientist, Central Soil and Water
for Agroforestry (NRCAF), Conservation Research and Training
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh Institute (ICAR), Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Dr. Munish Kumar Dr. P. Ratha Krishnan
Associate Professor, Department of Soil Senior Scientist (Forestry),
Conservation and Water Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Management/Forestry, C.S. Azad University (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan
of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
List of Contributors ix

Dr. Sharad Nema Dr. Rajesh Kaushal

Associate professor (Forestry) & Head, Senior Scientist, Central Soil and Water
School of Studies (Forestry & Wildlife), Conservation Research and Training
Bastar University, Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh Institute (ICAR), Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Dr. Naresh Kaushik Dr. D.R. Palsaniya
Senior Scientist (Agroforestry), Senior Scientist,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Indian Grassland and Fodder Research
Hissar, Haryana Institute (ICAR), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. P.J. Mishra Dr. J. Jayaprakash
Officer In-charge for AICRP Agroforestry, Scientist,
College of Agriculture, Orissa University of Central Soil and Water Conservation
Agriculture and Technology, Research and Training Institute (ICAR),
Bhubaneswar, Odisha Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Dr. Lalit M. Gupta Dr. S. Varadha Raj
Associate Professor (Agroforestry), Assistant Professor,
Division of Agroforestry, Department of Agricultural Economics,
Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Science and Technology, Jammu, J&K Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Dr. Manmohan J.R. Dobriyal Dr. S. Umesh Kanna
Associate Professor (Silviculture), Assistant Professor (Forestry),
Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Forest College and Research Institute
Aspee College of Horticulture and Forestry/ (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu
College of Forestry, Navsari Agricultural
University, Navsari, Gujarat
Dr. Emiru Birhane Mr. Mengisteab Hailu
Assistant Professor, Department of Land Head, Department of Land Resources
Resources Management and Environmental Management and Environmental Protection,
Protection, Mekelle University, Mekelle University,
Mekelle, Ethiopia Mekelle, Ethiopia
Mr. Etefa Guyassa Mr. Samuale Tesfaye
Department of Land Resources Management Department of Land Resources Management
and Environmental Protection, Mekelle and Environmental Protection, Mekelle
University, Mekelle, Ethiopia University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
Dr. Ajay Thakur Mr. Hailemariam Gebrewahid
Scientist, Botany Division, Institute of Geo-Information and Earth
Forest Research Institute (ICFRE Institute), Observation Sciences (I-GEOS), Mekelle
Dehradun, Uttarakhand University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
Mrs. Smitha G Nair Dr. Afaq Majid Wani
Jr. Scientist, AICRP on Agroforestry, Assistant Professor, College of Forestry and
Orissa University of Agriculture and Environment, SHIATS Deemed University,
Technology, (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute),
Bhubaneswar, Odisha Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
x Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Dr. S. Kala Dr. Munesh Kumar

Scientist (Forestry), ICAR-CSWCRTI Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry,
Research Centre, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar
Agra, Uttar Pradesh Garhwal, Uttarakhand

Dr. A. Sudha Dr. Amol Vasishth

Assistant professor (Forest Pathology) Assistant Professor (Forestry),
Forest college and Research Institute College of Horticulture and Forestry,
Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu MPUAT, Jhalawar, Rajasthan

Shri. V. Mahewarappa Dr. Raj Kumar

Asst Professor, Department of Silviculture Scientist, Central Soil and Water
and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Conservation Research and Training
Ponnampet , University of Agricultural Institute (ICAR), Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Sciences (UAS-Bangalore), Karnataka

Dr. Vipan Guleria Dr. S.K. Uttam

Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture Assistant Professor, Department of Soil
and Forestry, Conservation and Water
Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh Management/Forestry, C.S. Azad University
of Agricultural & Technology,
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Ms. Meenakshi Gupta Shri. M.N. Ramesha

Assistant Professor (Agroforestry), Division Scientist, ICAR-CSWCRTI Research
of Agroforestry, Sher-E-Kashmir University Centre,
of Agriculture, Science and Technology, Datia, Madhya Pradesh
Jammu, J&K

Ms. S. Vennila B.B. Behra

Forest college and Research Institute Jr. Scientist, AICRP on Agroforestry,
Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu Orissa University of Agriculture and
Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Ms. V. Priyanka Ms. B. Vinothini

Forest college and Research Institute, Forest college and Research Institute
Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu
 CONTENTS

PART 1: OVERVIEW OF AGROFORESTRY

Chapter 1 Introduction to Agroforestry – Antony Joseph Raj 1-33

Introduction - Paradigm Shifts in Agricultural Development - What is
Agroforestry? - Why Agroforestry? - History of Agroforestry -
Definitions of Agroforestry - Components of Agroforestry - Scope of
Agroforestry - Concepts of Agroforestry - Benefits of Agroforestry -
Limitations of Agroforestry - Agroforestry Terminologies
Chapter 2 Agroforestry and Food Security – A. Venkatesh, K.P. Mohapatra, 34-53
A. Arunachalam, D.J. Rajkhowa, S. Bharali & S.V. Ngachan
Introduction - Global Demography - Global Food Production - Asian
Agriculture - Indian Agricultural Scenario - Myriad of Agroforestry
System - Agroforestry in India - Potential of Agroforestry -
Agroforestry Vis-a-Vis Food Security - Productivity of Agroforestry
Systems - Breaking Poverty and Food Insecurity Cycle - Caveats and
Clarifications - Conclusion
Chapter 3 Agroforestry and Ecosystem Services – Ramakrishna Hegde 54-66
Introduction - Agroforestry for Microclimate Modification -
Agroforestry for Soil Enrichment - Agroforestry for Soil Stabilization
and Erosion Control - Agroforestry for Flood Mitigation - Agroforestry
for Water Yield and Quality - Agroforestry and Pest Control -
Agroforestry for Pollination Improvement - Agroforestry for Carbon
Sequestration and Air Quality - Agroforestry for Climate Change
Mitigation - Agroforestry for Biodiversity Conservation - Agroforestry
for Aesthetics and Cultural Services
Chapter 4 Agroforestry Systems Classification – S.J. Patil & Maheswarappa. V 67-90
Introduction - Classification of Agroforestry Systems - Structural
Classification of Agroforestry Systems - Classification based on Nature
of Components - Agrisilvicultural Systems - Silvopastoral Systems -
xii Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Agrosilvopastoral Systems - Other Systems - Classification based on

Arrangement of Components - Functional Classification of
Agroforestry Systems - Classification based on Ecological Grouping -
Classification based on Socio-Economic Conditions - Physiognomic
Classification of Agroforestry - Other Ways of Agroforestry Systems
Classification

PART 2: AGROFORESTRY TREES

Chapter 5 Multipurpose Trees in Agroforestry – Mengisteab Hailu & 91-103

Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - What is a Multipurpose Tree? - Why Grow Multipurpose
Trees? - Objectives of Planting Multipurpose Trees - What are the Best
Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry? - Selection Criteria for
Multipurpose Trees - Methods for Multipurpose Trees Screening and
Evaluation - Greater Role of Multipurpose Agroforestry Tree Species -
ICRAF’s Multipurpose Tree and Shrub (MPTS) Database - ICRAF’s
Agroforestree (AFT) Database - Important Multipurpose Trees for
Tropics
Chapter 6 Nitrogen Fixing Trees in Agroforestry – S.L. Madivalar & 104-116
Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - Overview of Biological Nitrogen Fixation - Nitrogen
Fixing Trees - Fertilizer Trees - Selection of Nitrogen Fixing Trees for
Agroforestry - Uses and Planting of Nitrogen Fixing Trees in
Agroforestry - Nitrogen Inputs and Outputs in Agroforestry - Nitrogen
Fixing Trees for Agroforestry Practices
Chapter 7 Genetic Improvement of Industrial and Non-Industrial 117-149
Agroforestry Trees – S. Umesh Kanna, K.T. Parthiban, S. Vennila &
P. Durairasu
Introduction - Status of Tree Improvement: A Global Perspective -
Genetic Improvement of Industrial Species - Genetic Improvement of
Non-Industrial Species - Biotechnology and Its Applications in Tree
Improvement - Micropropagation - Somaclonal Variation - Somatic
Embryogenesis/Synthetic Seeds - In Vitro Selection - Protoplast Fusion
- Haploid Cultures - Shoot-Tip/ Meristem Culture - Gametophyte
Cultures - In Vitro Embryo Rescue - In Vitro Control of Maturation
State - Cryopreservation and In Vitro Storage - Molecular Markers -
Quantitative Trait Loci - Genetic Engineering - Conclusion
Chapter 8 Domestication and Commercialization of Indigenous Trees in 150-175
Agroforestry – Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - What is Domestication? - Plant Species Domestication -
History of Tree Domestication - Global Initiatives for Agroforestry
Tree Domestication - Tree Domestication in Agroforestry - Stages of
Contents xiii

Agroforestry Tree Domestication - Principles of Agroforestry Tree

Domestication - Tree Domestication and Vegetative Propagation -
Domestication of Trees for Wood and Non Wood Forest Products -
Participatory Approach in Agroforestry Tree Domestication - ICRAF’s
Global Research Project-1 (GRP 1): Domestication, Utilization and
Conservation of Superior Agroforestry Germplasm
Chapter 9 Traditionally Important Trees in Indigenous Agroforestry Systems 176-191
– Harsh Mehta, Sanjeev Chauhan, Pankaj Panwar & O.P. Chaturvedi
Introduction - Role of Agroforestry Trees in Rural Livelihood - Trees
in Agroecosystems - Important Trees of Indigenous Agroforestry
Systems/Practices in India - Himalayan Region - Indo-Gangetic Plains
- Arid and Semi-Arid Region - Humid and Sub-Humid Region -
Coastal and Island Region - Description of Important Traditional Tree
Species of Indigenous Agroforestry

PART 3: AGROFORESTRY MANAGEMENT

Chapter 10 Tree Architecture and Tree Management in Agroforestry – 192-205

Maheswarappa. V, Ramakrishna Hegde, Ashok B Divatar &
B.G. Nayak
Introduction - Tree Structure and Growth - Tree Crown Architecture -
Tree Root Architecture - Above and Below Ground Competition in
Agroforestry - Silvicultural Options for Minimizing the Negative
Interactions - Pruning - Pollarding - Thinning - Coppicing
Chapter 11 Crop Planning and Management in Agroforestry – D.R. Palsaniya, 206-220
Sunil Tiwari & Mukesh Chaudhary
Crop Cultivation in Agroforestry - Crop Planning and Management in
Agroforestry - Selection of Suitable Crops for Agroforestry -
Introduction of Leguminous Intercrops in Agroforestry - Nutrient
Management - Water Management - Shade Management - Weed
Management - Disease Management - Insect-Pest Management
Chapter 12 Disease Management in Tropical Agroforestry Landscapes – 221-247
A. Sudha
Plant and Tree Diseases - Scope and Scale of Pathogens and their
Impacts - Symptoms of Plant/Tree Diseases - General Methods for
Plant Disease Control - Seed Diseases - Nursery Diseases - Foliar
Diseases - Root Diseases - Heart Rots - Disease Management in
Agroforestry Trees (Neem, Albizia, Gmelina, Pongamia, Teak,
Shisham, Casuarina, Ailanthus, Jackfruit, Eucalyptus) - Disease
Management of Crops under Agroforestry (Rice, Sorghum, Maize,
Wheat, Pearl Millet, Red Gram, Green Gram)
xiv Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Chapter 13 Insect Pest Management in Tropical Agroforestry Systems – 248-271

C.T. Ashok Kumar, S.C. Topagi & Veereshkumar
Introduction - Factors Contributing to Insect Pest Problems in
Agroforestry - Pest Control, Pest Management and Integrated Pest
Management - Overview of Pest Management Options - Natural Forest
Pest Control - Artificial or Applied Control of Tree Pests - Silvicultural
Control - Mechanical and Physical Control - Semiochemicals
(Behaviour Inducing Chemicals) - Biological Control - Microbial
Control - Chemical Control - Constraints to Forest Pest Management in
the Tropics - Need for Further Research

PART 4: AGROFORESTRY CONCEPTS

Chapter 14 Tree Crop Interactions in Agroforestry – 272-289

M.P. Divya, V. Priyanka & B. Vinothini
Introduction - Kinds of Tree-Crop Interactions - Positive Interactions -
Increased Production and Productivity - Soil Improvement - Nutrient
Cycling - Microclimate Amelioration - Negative Interactions -
Competition - Allelopathy - Microclimatic Modifications for Pest
and Diseases - Interaction Management - Manipulation of Densities
and Arrangement of Trees - Manipulation of Tree Crowns and Roots -
Choice of Agricultural Crops
Chapter 15 Diagnosis and Design in Agroforestry – 290-298
M.N. Ramesha & N. Gurunathan
Introduction - Diagnosis and Design (D&D) - Agroforestry Systems
Research Process - Basic Procedure of D&D - Key Features of D&D -
Variable Scale D&D Procedures - New Farming Concepts and
Application of D&D Tool - Conclusion
Chapter 16 Economic Analysis of Agroforestry Systems – 299-312
Amol Vasishth & Vipan Guleria
Introduction - Agroforestry Investment Valuation - Key Factors in
Economic Analysis of Agroforestry - Economics of Agrisilviculture
Systems - Economics of Silvipasture Systems - Economics of
Agrihorticulture Systems - Two Tier Cropping Systems based on
Poplar Plantation - Conclusion
Chapter 17 Markets and Marketing of Agroforestry Products – S. Varadha Raj, 313-329
M. Chinnadurai, M.P. Divya & N. Narmadha
Introduction - Timber Markets - Major Markets for Forest, Farm and
Agroforestry Products - Wood based Products Trade in India - Wood
Production in Agroforestry and Its Sale and Marketing - Industrial Raw
Material Based Agroforestry Products Markets and Marketing -
Conclusion
Contents xv

PART 5: IMPORTANT AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

Chapter 18 Alternatives to Shifting Cultivation – K. Sasikumar 330-341

What is Shifting Cultivation? - Overview of Shifting Cultivation - Soil
Dynamics in Shifting Cultivation - Positive and Negative Aspects of
Shifting Cultivation - Controlling Shifting Cultivation: Strategies and
Initiatives - Improvements and/or Alternatives to Shifting Cultivation -
Successful Experiments for Potential Management of Shifting
Cultivation - Technological Guidelines for Improvement of Shifting
Cultivation
Chapter 19 Taungya Systems – N. Satheesh, T. Mohan Raj & S. Kala 342-353
What is Taungya System? - Types of Taungya Systems - Taungya
System in some Tropical Countries - Taungya System in India -
Management of Taungya System - Taungya Plantations Establishment
and Biodiversity Conservation - Advantages and Disadvantages of
Taungya System - Improvements to Taungya System
Chapter 20 Alley Cropping System – R. Kaushal, Raj Kumar, J.M.S. Tomar & 354-364
O.P. Chaturvedi
Introduction - What is Alley Cropping? - Alley Cropping: History and
Mixed Response - Establishment of Alley Cropping System -
Management of Alley Cropping System - Benefits of Alley Cropping -
Drawbacks of Alley Cropping
Chapter 21 Tropical Homegardens – T.K. Kunhamu 365-375
What is Homegarden? - Distribution of Homegardens - Tree-Crop
Diversity in Homegardens - Structural Attributes of Homegarden -
Functional Attributes of Homegarden - Ecosystem Services of
Homegarden - Management Characteristics of Homegarden - Shifting
Trends in Homegardening - Conclusion

PART 6: DISTRIBUTION OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

Chapter 22 Agroforestry Systems of World – Etefa Guyassa, Samuale Tesfaye & 376-419
Antony Joseph Raj
Overview of Global Agroforestry - Agroforestry Systems in Africa -
Agroforestry Systems in Asia - Agroforestry Systems in Pacific Islands
- Agroforestry Systems in Latin American Tropics - Temperate
Agroforestry Systems in North America - Temperate Agroforestry
Systems in Europe - Agroforestry Systems in Australia and New
Zealand
xvi Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Chapter 23 Agroforestry Systems of India – S. Kala, T. Mohan Raj, K.R. Dhixya 420-444
Deve & S. Reeja
Introduction - History of Agroforestry Practices in India - Traditional
Agroforestry Systems in India - Agroforestry Systems in different
Agro-Ecological Zones of India - Agro-Climatic Zones of India -
Improved Agroforestry Systems in Agro-Climatic Zones of India -
Recent Scenario of Agroforestry Development in India
Chapter 24 Agroforestry Systems of Himalayan Region – Meenakshi Gupta, 445-453
L.M. Gupta, Punit Choudhary, K.K. Sood & Amol Vasishth
Introduction - Agroforestry: A Sustainable Land Use in Himalayan
Region - Composition of Traditional Agroforestry Crops and Trees in
Himalayan Region - Traditional Agroforestry Combinations in
Himalayan Region - Agroforestry for Livelihood Security and
Sustainable Development in Himalayan Region - Important
Agroforestry Practices of Himalayan Region - Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants in Himalayan Agroforestry Systems - Conclusion
Chapter 25 Urban Agroforestry Systems – 454-464
P.J. Mishra, Smitha G Nair & B.B. Behra
Introduction - Urbanization - Urban Green Development and Urban
Forestry - Urban Agriculture - Urban Agroforestry - Benefits of Urban
Agroforestry - Urban Homegardens/ Dooryard Urban Agroforestry -
Urban Agroforestry Systems on Undeveloped and Underutilized Lands
- Problems of Practicing Urban Agroforestry Systems

PART 7: AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES FOR EXTREME SITE CONDITIONS

Chapter 26 Agroforestry Practices for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions – 465-484

P. Ratha Krishnan, J.C. Tewari, Suresh Kumar & M.M. Roy
Introduction - Major Cropping System and Tree Choice for Arid and
Semi-Arid Zone Farmers - Importance of Major Agroforestry Practices
in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions - Agroforestry Practices in Hot Arid
Regions - Agroforestry Practices in Cold Arid Regions - Agroforestry
Practices in Semi-Arid Regions - Agroforestry Policy Research
Priorities for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions
Chapter 27 Agroforestry Practices for Salt Affected Lands (Biosaline 485-500
Agroforestry) – Munish Kumar, S.K. Uttam & Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - Distribution of Salt Affected Lands - Classification of
Salt Affected Soils - Reclamation of Salt Affected Lands - Biosaline
Agroforestry - Salt Tolerant Crops, Trees and Grasses for Biosaline
Agroforestry - Agroforestry Practices in Salt Affected Lands
Contents xvii

Chapter 28 Agroforestry Practices for Wetlands and Waterlogged Areas – 501-527

S. Kala & T. Mohan Raj
What are Wetlands? - Classification of Wetlands - Distribution of
Wetlands in India - Wetland Rehabilitation Measures - Selection of
Suitable Trees and Crops for Wetland Agroforestry - Major
Agroforestry Practices for Wetlands - Other Agroforestry Options for
Wetlands - Benefits of Wetland Agroforestry Practices - Waterlogged
Lands - Adverse Effects of Waterlogging - Causes of Waterlogging -
Anti-Waterlogging Measures - Afforestation Techniques and
Agroforestry Practices for Waterlogged Areas - Development of Bio-
Drainage System through Agroforestry - Sustainable Integrated
Farming System for Waterlogged Areas - Other Biomass Production
Technology for Seasonal Deep Waterlogged Areas

PART 8: AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 29 Agroforestry Practices for Non-Wood Forest Products and Rural 528-550
Development – Manmohan J.R. Dobriyal
Introduction - Greater Role of Agroforestry - Non-Wood Forest
Products from Agroforestry - Domestication of Non-Wood Forest
Products in Agroforestry - NWFPs Yielding Plants for Potential
Agroforestry Use - Flavours and Fragrances (Essential Oils) - Gums,
Resins and Latex - Tree Borne Oil Seeds (TBOs) - Fibres and Flosses -
Dyes/Colourants - Tannins - Medicinal Plants - Edible Plant Products -
Canes/Rattan - Palms - NWFPs based Agroforestry - Constraints for
Development of NWFPs - Development of NWFPs through
Agroforestry - Conclusion
Chapter 30 Bamboo based Agroforestry Systems – M.S. Malik & 551-563
Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - Bamboo Morphology and Growth - Bamboo Occurrence
and Flowering - Bamboo Resources of India - Bamboo Propagation -
Development of Bamboo based Agroforestry Systems - Utility of
Bamboo Plantation - International Network for Bamboo and Rattan -
National Bamboo Mission
Chapter 31 Fruit Trees based Agroforestry Systems – K.S. Pant, A.G. Yewale & 564-588
Prem Prakash
Introduction - Fruit Tree based Agroforestry - Concept of Fruit based
Agroforestry System - Advantages of Fruit based Agroforestry Systems
- Fruit based Agroforestry Systems: Indian Scenario - Mango based
Agroforestry System - Guava based Agroforestry System - Citrus based
Agroforestry System - Aonla based Agroforestry System - Apple based
Agroforestry System - Peach based Agroforestry System - Litchi based
Agroforestry System - Sapota based Agroforestry System - Multitier
Systems Consisting of Two or More Fruit Crops - Flower Crops as
Intercrops in Orchards - Agrihortisilviculture - Agrihorticulture - Fruit
xviii Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Trees based Agroforestry Research in Dr.YSPUHF, HP - Horti-

Medicinal Agroforestry System
Chapter 32 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants based Agroforestry Systems – 589-601
Ajay Thakur & Puran Chandra
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: A Valuable Resource - Significance
and Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Forest -
Conservation of MAPs in Farm Cultivation - Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants based Agroforestry Systems - Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in
Pure Stands/Orchards - Medicinal and Aromatic Plants as Overstorey
Trees - Medicinal and Aromatic Plants as Intercrops - MAPs in
Homestead Gardens - MAPs in Traditional Agroforestry Practices -
Conclusion
Chapter 33 Fodder Production from Agroforestry Trees – Raj Kumar, 602-612
J.Jayaprakash, J.M.S. Tomar, O.P. Charurvedi, Charan Singh &
A.C. Rathore
Introduction - Significance of Tree Fodder - Selection of Trees for
Fodder Purpose - Fodder Trees Planting - Tree based Agroforestry
Systems for Fodder Production - Harvesting of Tree Fodder in
Agroforestry Systems - Feeding Tree Fodder to Farm Animals -
Harmful Side-Effects of Tree Fodder
Chapter 34 Agroforestry Practices for Fuelwood Production – Sharad Nema 613-622
Introduction - Overview of Forest and Fuelwood Status - Agroforestry
for Meeting Fuelwood Demand - Scope and Approaches for Fuelwood
Production in Land Use Systems - Choice of Fuelwood Species in
Agroforestry - Management of Fuelwood Trees - Conclusion

PART 9: ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES OF AGROFORESTRY

Chapter 35 Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation – Munesh Kumar 623-636

Introduction - Agrobiodiversity - Significance of Agrobiodiversity -
Changes in Agrobiodiversity - Threats to Agrobiodiversity - Conse-
rvation Strategies of Agrobiodiversity - Agroforestry and Biodiversity
Conservation - Conservation of Tree Diversity in Agroforestry
Chapter 36 Soil Fertility Improvement and Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry – 637-651
S.K.Uttam, Munish Kumar & Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - Soil Fertility and Productivity - Effects of Agroforestry
Trees on Soil Quality Improvement - Concept of Nutrient Cycling -
Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry Systems
Chapter 37 Agroforestry Practices for Soil and Water Conservation – 652-670
J.M.S. Tomar, R. Kaushal, A.C. Rathore, H. Mehta & O.P. Chaturvedi
Introduction - Soil Erosion - What is Soil Conservation? - Role of
Agroforestry in Soil and Water Conservation - Agroforestry Practices
for Soil and Water Conservation
Contents xix

Chapter 38 Agroforestry Practices for Wasteland Development – 671-688

S.B.Lal & Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - Land Degradation - What is Wasteland? - Wastelands in
India - National Action Programme to Combat Desertification -
Wasteland Development - Wasteland Development through
Agroforestry - Trees, Crops and Grasses suitable for Agroforestry
Practices in Degraded Lands
Chapter 39 Windbreak and Shelterbelt Agroforestry Systems – 689-701
C. Buvaneswaran
Windbreak Agroforestry System - Common Benefits of Windbreak -
Benefits of Windbreak reported in Research Studies - Planning and
Designing of Windbreaks - Optimum Number of Rows and Spacing for
Windbreaks - Selection of Species for Windbreaks - Ideotype Breeding
for Windbreaks - Shelterbelt Agroforestry System - Conclusion
Chapter 40 Agroforestry for Carbon Sequestration, Climate Change 702-736
Mitigation and Adaptation – Antony Joseph Raj
Global Carbon Cycle - Global CO2 Emissions - Greenhouse Effect and
Global Warming - Climate Change - Forest Carbon Cycle - Carbon
Sequestration - Agroforestry and Carbon Sequestration - Assessment of
Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry - Agroforestry and Climate
Change Mitigation - Agroforestry and Climate Change Adaptation -
Challenges and Main Thrust Areas in Carbon Agroforestry

PART 10: MODERN APPROACHES IN AGROFORESTRY

Chapter 41 Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) based Agroforestry Systems – 737-754

C. Buvaneswaran & Afaq Majid Wani
Introduction - Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) - TBOs based Agroforestry
Systems - Neem (Azadirachta indica) - Pungam (Pongamia pinnata) -
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) - Paradise Tree (Simarouba glauca) -
Alexandrian Laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum) - Kusum (Schleichera
oleosa) - Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) - Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)
- Wild Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) - Tung (Aleurites species) - Indian
Jujube or Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) - Wild Plum (Ximenia
americana)
Chapter 42 Tree Growth and Yield Modelling in Agroforestry – Ajit 755-772
Introduction - Artistry of Modelling - Model Estimation - Model
Validation - Tree Modelling Techniques - Tree Growth and Yield
Modelling Strategies - Linear Functions - Non Linear Functions -
Allometric/Power Functions - Sigmoid Functions - Parabolic Functions
- Tree Height and Volume Equations - Tree Growth Modelling Website
in Indian Perspective - Conclusion
xx Agroforestry Theory and Practices

Chapter 43 Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Agroforestry – 773-790

Hailemariam Gebrewahid & Emiru Birhane
Introduction - Remote Sensing Techniques and Components - Types of
Remote Sensing - Photogrammetry and Aerial Photograph - Air Photo
Interpretation - Satellite Remote Sensing - What is Geographic
Information System (GIS)? - Components of GIS - Capabilities of GIS
- GIS Data Types and Models - Role of Remote Sensing and GIS in
Agroforestry

PART 11: AGROFORESTRY EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

Chapter 44 Agroforestry Education, Research and Extension – N. Kaushik 791-806

Introduction - Agroforestry Education in India - Global Experiences in
Agroforestry Education - Agroforestry Research in India - Agroforestry
Research in World - Agroforestry Extension
Chapter 45 On-Farm Research in Agroforestry – M.P. Divya, V. Priyanka & 807-817
B. Vinothini
Introduction - What is On-farm Research? - Why On-farm Research? -
Types of On-farm Research - Experimental On-farm Research -
Developmental On-farm Research - Phases in Developmental On-farm
Research - Experimental Designs in On-farm Research - On-farm
Adaptations
Chapter 46 Experimental Designs in Agroforestry Research – 818-831
Emiru Birhane, Hailemariam Gebrewahid & Antony Joseph Raj
Introduction - What is Experimental Design? - Agroforestry
Experiment Design Requirements - Types of Agroforestry Experiments
- Agroforestry Experimental Designs (Completely Randomized Design
(CRD), Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), Latin Square
Design (LSD), Incomplete Block Designs, Factorial Design, Split-Plot
Design, Systematic Designs, Y-Design, Star Design, Two-Way
Systematic Design, Augmented Design, Design to Study MPT Effect)
Chapter 47 International and National Organizations of Agroforestry – 832-857
Antony Joseph Raj & Afaq Majid Wani
International Organizations - Regional Organizations - National
Organizations - Agroforestry/Forestry Journals
Bibliography 858-926