CROSS SECTIONS OF CANAL

1) CHANNEL IN CUTTING: - A channel is said to be in cutting when the ground

level is above the full supply level in the channel. The side slope of the channel
should be such that they are stable for the type of material. In average loam
soil, the side slope is usually kept 1:1 to 1.5:1 in cutting.

2) CHANNEL IN FILLING: - A channel is said to be in filling when the ground level

is below the bed level of the channel. The side slopes for the channel in filling
are generally flatter than those in cutting for the same soil. In the average loam
soil, the side slope in filling is usually kept 1.5:1 to 2:1.

3) CHANNEL IN PARTIAL CUTTING & PARTIAL FILLING :-A channel is in partial

cutting & partial filling when the ground level is in between the bed level & the
top of the bank of the channel.

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PART OF THE CANAL SECTIONS
1. Side Slopes :

As far as possible, the channel should be kept in ½ : 1 side slope is assumed

with the presumption that the sides of the channel get silted up to ½ : 1 slope
and channel capacities would be reduced accordingly in due course. The side
slopes depend upon the nature of the soil and the depth of cutting or filling. The
minimum slope usually allowed is given in
Table :
SIDE SLOPES OF CHANNEL

Sr. Type of Soil Cuttings Fillings

1 Hard rock 1/8 :1 to ¼ : 1
2 Soft Rock ¼ : 1 to ½ : 1
3 Hard clay or gravel ¾ : 1 to 1 : 1 1½ :1
4 Soft clay & alluvial soils 1:1 1 ½ : 1 to 2 :1
5 Sandy loam 1½ :1 2:1
6 Light Sand 2:1 2 : 1 to 3: 1

2. Berm :

Berms are narrow strip of land left at the ground level between the inner toe of
the bank and top edge of cutting. The width of the berm is variable but it is kept
such that the bed line and bank line remain parallel.

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 After the channel runs for some time, the silt is deposited on the sides of the
section and gradually the sides get silted to a slope of ½ : 1. The position of the
berm, therefore, shifts from ground level to the F.S.L. and the final berm width
becomes equal to the depth D of the canal when the filling of bank has been
done in 1 ½ : 1 slope. The berms when fully formed serve the following
purpose:

1. The silt deposited on the sides is very compact and impervious. It serves
therefore, as fairly impervious lining which reduce the absorption losses and
prevents leaks and consequent breaches.
2. The possibility of leaks and breaches are reduced as they bring the saturation
line more inside the body of the banks.
3. The berms provide a bigger water way ;
4. They protect the bank from erosion because of wave action.
5. They sometimes provide an additional inspection path.

Berm widths are recommended as under :

(a) When the canal is partly in cutting and partly in filling, the berm may be kept
at the ground level, with its width equal to 2D.
(b) When the canal is wholly in filling the berm may be kept at the fully
supply level with its width equal to 3D.
(c) When the canal is wholly in cutting the berm may be kept at the full supply
level with its width = 2D.

Additional berm:additional berm is provided when the channel is in deep

cutting. Such a berm may be provided at the ground level. In such a
circumstance, the width of the original berm, provided at full supply level may
be reduced.

3. Banks :

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 The purpose of the bank is to retain water so long as the berm is not formed.
They have to withstand full pressure of water above the ground level. They
should, be sufficiently strong to withstand this initial strain.

MINIMUM TOP WIDTH OF BANKS

S Discharge (Cumec) Minimum Top Width (m)

r Inspection Bank Non-inspection
. Bank
1 0.15 to 7.5 5.0 1.5
2 7.5 to 10.0 5.0 2.5
3 10.0 to 15.0 6.0 2.5
4 15.0 to 30.0 7.0 3.5
5 30.0 and above 8.0 5.0
The following empirical formula is used for top width :
Top width = D + 0.3 r ½ where, r = B/D ratio.
It is customary to provide a minimum top width of 1.5 m
4. Dowel or Dowla :

A dowla is provided by the side of inspection road as shown in figure. Top of

Dowla is kept above the F.S.L. by a margin of free board. They are provided as a
measure of safety for automobiles driven on the service road. They act as kerbs
on the side of roadway towards the canal. Top width of dowla is kept from 0.3
m to 0.6 m and is about 0.3 m above the service road.

Free Board:

Free board is height between F.S.L. and top of the bank. It is possible to ensure
that water does not overtop the bank. Free board in a channel is governed by
the consideration of size of canal, its location, water surface fluctuations, rain
water inflow etc.

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5. Roads :

It is very necessary to have access to all parts of canal system so that proper
inspection may be done. It will also increase the efficiency of the maintenance.
Main canals and branch canals have roadway on both sides. Road is not
provided along minors. The canal road is usually unmetalled since they are
used for limited purpose only.

Standards of canal cross-section

Table gives the commonly followed standards of canal cross-section.

6. Saturation line or hydraulic gradient line :

When water flows through an unlined earth channel, seepage takes place
through the banks. Due to this seepage, the banks get saturated in the lower
portion while the upper portion remains either dry or moist. The line
demarcating these two portions is called the saturation line or the hydraulic
gradient line or phreatic line. The slope of the saturation line is known as
saturation gradient or hydraulic gradient and its value depends upon the type
of the soil of the banks.

Type of soil Hydraulic gradient (H:V)

1. Silty soils 4:1
2. Silty sand 5:1
3. Sandy soil 6:1

7. Back Berm, Counter Berm:

Even after providing the usual embankment section of a bank, the saturation
gradient may cut the downstream side of the bank. In such a case the saturation
line should always be covered by 0.3 to 0.6 m of earth. This is best done by the
help of counter berm as shown in figure.

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8. Spoil Bank :

When the quantity of excavated earth is much in excess of the quantity

required for filling it has to be deposited in the form of spoil banks. A
longitudinal drain is always made between the spoil bank and service road.
Cross drains should also be provided at about 100m interval and the spoil
banks should be discontinuous at these points.

9. Borrow pit :

When the earth work in filling exceeds excavated quantity at a particular

section, borrow pits are required for filling. Inside borrow pits are usually
advocated as they get silted up during the course of time. The outside borrow
pit if used should not be dug deeper than 0.3m, so that the land may be
reclaimed after the completion of the job. The outside borrow pit should start
from a distance not less than 5m from the toe of embankment in case of small
channels and 10m from the toe in case of large channels. The arrangement of
internal borrow pit is shown in figure.

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10. Balancing Depth :

A canal section will be economical when the earth work involved at a particular
section has an equal amount of cut and fill. Usually a canal section has a part in
cutting and part in filling. If the amount of cut is equal to the amount of fill, it
has to be paid for once only. More so, the necessity of borrow pit or soil bank
entirely avoided. For a given cross-section there is always only one depth of
cutting for which the cutting and filling will be equal. The depth is known as
balancing depth.

LINING OF IRRIGATION CHANNELS

1. Necessity

Lining of canal is necessary :

i. To minimize the seepage losses in canal.

ii. To increase the discharge in canal section by increasing the velocity.
iii. To prevent erosion of bed and side due to high velocities.
iv. To retard the growth of weeds, and
v. To reduce maintenance of canal.

2. Advantages of Lining :

The main advantages derived by canal lining are mentioned below :

1. The lining of canals prevents seepage loss and thus more area can be irrigated
by the water so saved. The cost of irrigation is, therefore, reduced.
2. The lining of canal is an important anti-water logging measure as it rreduces
seepage to the adjoining land.
3. The lining provides a smooth surface. The rugosity coefficient, therefore,
decreases. The resistance to flow also decreases and hence the velocity of flow
in the lined canal increases.
4. The increased velocity minimizes the losses due to evaporation.

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5. The increased velocity helps to provide a narrow cross-section for lined
channels.
6. Higher velocity helps in providing a flatter hydraulic gradient or bed slope.
Thus better command can be obtained.
7. Higher velocity prevents silting of channel.
8. Lining makes the banks more stable in light textured soil.
9. Lining reduces maintenance costs and possibility of breaching due to increased
stability of section.
10. Lining of a canal prevents or reduces weed growth.
11. Lining of a canal increases available head for power generation as a
flatter gradient can be provided.
12. Canal lining assures economical water distribution.
13. Canal lining prevents water to come in contact with harmful salts during
transit.

3. Disadvantages of canal lining :

The disadvantages of canal lining are mentioned below:

1. Canal lining requires a heavy initial investment.

2. Lining being permanent, it is difficult to shift the outlets very often.
3. It is very difficult to repair the damaged lining.
4. A lined channel section is without a berm.
4. Suitability of canal lining material :

A canal lining material, to be suitable, should have the following properties:

1. The material used for lining should provide complete water tightness.
2. The material used should have low coefficient of rugosity so as to make the
section hydraulically more efficient.
3. The material chosen for canal lining should be strong and durable.
4. The lining should not have a very high initial cost. Subsequent maintenance
cost of canal lining should be very low.
5. The material used should be able to resist growth of weeds and attack of
burrowing animals.
6. The material used should be unaffected by tramping of cattles.
7. The material should withstand high velocity.
8. The material should permit construction of required slop easily.

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TYPES OF LINING :

The following are the important types of concrete lining used in India :
(a) Hard Surface Type Lining :
1. Cement concrete lining. 2. Shotcrete lining.
3. Precast concrete lining. 4. Cement mortar lining.
5. Brick lining. 6. Asphaltic lining.
7. Stone block, or undressed stone lining.

(b) Earth Type Lining :

1. Soil Cement lining 2. Clay Puddle lining
3. Sodium carbonate lining

(c). Buried and protected membrane type lining :

1. Prefabricated light membrane lining
2. Bentonite soil and clay membrane lining
3. Road oil lining

CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE LINING :

Prepare a sub grade and compact it fully. Saturate sub grade to a depth of 30cm in
sandy soil and 15cm in other soils and then treated in any of the following
manner before laying concrete :
a) . Lay a base coat of 1:4 cement sand slurry on the sub grade. This is
cheapest and best treatment. OR
b) . Spread oil paper on the sub grade. OR
c) . Spread crude oil on sub grade.

The concrete is used for lining generally has a mix ratio 1:4:8 or 1:3:6 or 1:4:6.
The concrete is usually laid in alternate block. The form work is removed after
seven days and the remaining blocks are laid then. After the concreting is over,
the entire lined surface is properly cured.

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