NaturalResourcesMgt - Vol.3F 6 9 2017 PDF

Natural Resources Management
for Sustainable Development

and Rural Livelihoods
Vol. 3
Editors
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva
Department of Geography and Resource Management

School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resources Management
Mizoram University (A Central University)
Aizawl – 796004, Mizoram India
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Preface
Natural resources are depleting at alarming rates because of their

irrational use pattern. Although, utilization of resources is an intrinsic
component of the process of development yet, overexploitation of natural
resources has led to environmental degradation and change in pattern of
rural economy. Rural communities, in particular, are greatly affected by
the increasing use of natural resources. To many of them, development is
about livelihood and survival rather than increasing productivity and
accumulation of wealth. Management of natural resources seems to be the
only way forward to sustain the livability of rural communities.
Management of natural resources requires collaborative works from
various stakeholders as the use and un-use of natural resources depend
upon a number of factors including historical, political, economic, social
and cultural. Through the substantial holistic approach and concrete
framework for policy research could be conceptualized, planned and
implemented.
Department of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram
University, Aizawl, India, hosted an International Conference on ‘Natural
Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural
Livelihoods’ (26-28 Oct, 2017) which have addressed ways to boost
agricultural productivity for food security and sustainable economic
development, while conserving and restoring the natural resource base.
Topics were covered include: assessment, management of natural resources
for sustainable development, rural livelihoods and food security; integrated
management of water and land resources; conserving agriculture systems;
climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies including carbon
sequestration in soils for different land use systems; and policy frameworks
for capacity building to mitigate emerging problems in natural resource
management. Developing and transition economies will be increasingly
concerned with natural resources management, sustainable development
and rural livelihood issues; they will have to solve a three-fold challenge:
a better environment, good economic performances and poverty reduction
as targeted by the Millennium Development Goals. Developing and
emerging countries will also have to tackle with increasing scarcities.
Major objectives of conducting the conference was to evaluate
past research efforts in integrated natural resources management for
sustainable development and rural livelihoods, to streamline future
scientific efforts in support of sustainable livelihood, to draw
recommendations for capacity building in land, forest and water
management
Invited participants were international and national geographers
and scientists, leading farmers and experts from governmental and non-
governmental organizations, researchers, representatives of donor
organizations, and decision-makers who exchanged views on how to use
and manage natural resources for sustainable development and rural
livelihoods.
This proceeding, an output an International Conference, contains
109 chapters which are published in three volumes. The first volume is
devoted to the theme, ‘natural resources use pattern, management and policy
perspectives’ in which 22 chapters are incorporated. The second volume
contains 37 chapters and the theme is ‘agriculture and livelihood
sustainability’. The third volume has three sections; the first one is ‘climate
change’ with nine chapters. It is followed by the second section ‘population
and socio-economic development’ which also contains nine chapters. The
last section is interdisciplinary in nature in which 32 chapters are
incorporated. The whole proceedings comprise chapters from different
disciplines such as Earth Sciences, Biological Sciences, Environmental
Sciences, Social Sciences and Medical Sciences and thus the authors of
the proceedings chapters are divers in nature and they contributed chapters
from different respective fields.
We received financial support from the national and local level
institutions and organizations to host this conference and to publish this
book. Among them the major funding institutions were ‘North Eastern
Council’ and NERC-ICSSR from Shillong; ICSSR, SERB and ICAR from
New Delhi and NABARD, Mizoram University, APEX Bank, Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan and Koinonia from Aizawl, Mizoram. We gratefully thank them
for their valuable supports. Besides, many other agencies from Aizawl
city have also assisted us financially. We are thankful of all of them. We
are thankful of the Mizoram University for providing us all the logistic
and other support. Similarly, the faculties, staffs and students from the
Department of Geography and Resource Management have supported us
substantially. We are thankful of them. We are also grateful of Today and
Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi for publishing these
volumes. In the last but not the least, we are thankful of all of those who
supported us to host this conference successfully and to publish this
proceeding.
Aizawl
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva
Contents
Volume 1
(Theme: Natural Resources Use Pattern,

Management and Policy Perspectives)
Chapter 1: Submissive Role of Power in Resource Access:
An Application of “Theory of Access” in Wetland Resource
Mohammad Nazrul Islam and Subarna Akter 1-17
Chapter 2: Integrated Watershed Management by

Mississippi Watershed Management Organization
in Minnesota, United States of America
Douglas Snyder 19-33
Chapter 3: Design and Implementation of Water Resources

Monitoring Program for the State of Mizoram-Pilot Project
Udai B. Singh, Joseph Magner, K. C. Lalmalsawmzauva
and R. Zonunsanga 35-42
Chapter 4: Rational Resource Management and the

Role of Traditional Knowledge Among the Santhal
and the Bhumij Tribes of Binpur II Block, Paschim
Medinipur, West Bengal
Nilanjana Das Chatterjee and Kousik Das 43-58
Chapter 5: Site Suitability Analysis for Identifying

Potential Water Harvesting Sites in Lachigad
Watershed, Uttarakhand
L. Mirana Devi, S.K.Bandooni and Masood A.Siddiqui 59-71
Chapter 6: Protection of Ox-bow Lake with Sustainable

Management –A Case Study of Khalsi Lake, Nadia
Rakhi Biswas 73-77
Chapter 7: Sustainable Resource Management in North
East India: A Socio-Economic and Political Perspective
Satabdi Das 79-93
Chapter 8: Sustainable Management of Sundarbans

as Green Heritage: Essential for Climate Future
Sonali Narang 95-115
Chapter 9: Identifying the Causes of Water Scarcity

and Sustainable Water Conservation for Improving
Livelihood in Bankura District, West Bengal:
A Geographical Perspective
Indrajit Roy Chowdhury 117-130
Chapter 10: Ground Water Prospecting using Remote

Sensing and GIS in Champhai District, Mizoram, India
F. Lalbiakmawia and Shiva Kumar 131-145
Chapter 11: Conservation and Sustainable use of

Biological Diversity by the Instrumentality of Biological
Diversity Act, 2002 with Special Reference to
North East India
Yumnan Premananda Singh 147-167
Chapter 12: Natural Resource Management and Rural

Livelihood Development in Churchu Block of Hazaribagh
District, Jharkhand
Soumik Halder 169-181
Chapter 13: Community Based Ecotourism as a Means

of Resource Management: an Assessment in Nameri
National Park of Assam
Niranjan Das 183-197
Chapter 14: Tribes, Sacred Jungles and Natural Resources

Management in West Bengal
Tapas Pal 199-217
Chapter 15: Homegardens: Traditional Systems for

Maintenance of Biodiversity in Kolashib district
of Mizoram, Northeast India
U. K. Sahoo 219-245
Chapter 16: Natural Resource Management and its
Preservation for Better Livelihood
Md. Salauddin Khan 247-255
Chapter 17; Need of Effective Public Policies on

Conservation of Forest for Sustainable Development:
A Case Study of North East India
H.Laldinmawia. 257-262
Chapter 18: Forest Resources, Traditional Medicines and

Sustainable Livelihood of Tribal Population of North
East India
Pranay Jyoti Goswami 263-273
Chapter 19: Flowering and regeneration of bamboo

(Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz.) in natural
forests of Mizoram
F Lalnunmawia and Lalrammuana Sailo 275-285
Chapter 20: Tree Species Diversity and Composition

in Naturally Regenerating Forest Stands of Tripura
Maria Debbarma, Thiru Selvan and A. S. Senthi Vadivel 287-300
Chapter 21: Soil Erosion: A Lose of Natural Resource

B. Gopichand 301-305
Chapter 22: Spatio-Temporal Changes in Pichavaram and

Sundarbans Mangrove Forest: A Geographical Analysis
Mijing Gwra Basumatary, Subhash Anand and Usha Rani 307-322
Volume 2
(Theme: Agriculture and Livelihood

Sustainability)
Chapter 23: Agricultural Water Resources Availability
in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal and the Associated
Farmers’ Livelihoods Adaptability Analysis
DengWei KongBo Song Xuqian 323-341
Chapter 24: Prospect of Community Based Renewable
Energy on Rural Resiliency: A Secondary Study on
Different Renewable Energy Projects
Mohammad Nazrul Islam and Kelly Vodden 343--360
Chapter 25: Changes in Shifting Cultivation in

Mizoram, India
Karlyn Eckman and Laltanpuii Ralte 361-375
Chapter 26: Jhum Cultivation and Changing Livelihood

Strategy of Tripura Tribe, Longtharai Valley, Tripura
Chandra Shekhar Tripura and Raghubir Chand 377-399
Chapter 27: The Role of Value Chain Analysis in

Developing Sustainable Land Use Options
Dean Current, K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva, Lalnilawma Vuite,
F. Lalnunmawia, John Zothanzama, John Chisholm,
Brock Flint, Brooke McManigal and Tai Stephen 401-412
Chapter 28: Impact of Oil Palm Plantation on Rural

Livelihood: a Case Study of Mamit and Kolasib
District, Mizoram, North East India
Lalrinpuia Vangchhia and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati 413-423
Chapter 29: Improving Agriculture through

Indigenous Method of Cultivation
C. Hmingsangzuala and P.Rinawma 425-433
Chapter 30: Analysis of Agricultural Employment

in Serchhip Town, Mizoram
Ramengmawii, V.P. Sati, Angela Laldingngheti and
LalrinpuiaVangchhia 435-441
Chapter 31: Assessment of Land Capability and

Suitability Classification for Agriculture using
Geospatial Techniques in Rudraprayag District
(Garhwal Himalaya)
Atul Kumar and M.S. Negi 443-463
Chapter 32: Assessing the Impact of Fly-ash on Crop
Productivity and Surrounding Environment in and
Around Bandel Thermal Power Station, Hugli
Mousumi Basu 465-474
Chapter 33: Importance of soil Seed Bank in Shifting

Cultivation Affected Areas
Shijagurumayum Baleshwor Sharma and Suresh Kumar 475-486
Chapter 34: Value Chain Analysis of Maize in Mizoram
K. Hmingthansangi and Lalnilawma 487-491
Chapter 35: Alternative Agricultural Techniques with the
availability of Water in Purola District of West Bengal
Tanima Ghosh 493-500
Chapter 36: Crop Productivity and Crop Specific Soil
Suitability of Arambagh Subdivision in Hugli District,
West Bengal
Pompa Moadal and Tapas Mistri 501-512
Chapter 37: Rural Livelihood under Shifting Cultivation
System in Mizoram
R.Vanlalauvi and Lalnilawma 513-519
Chapter 38: Importance of Floriculture among
Horticulture Crops: A Case Study on Howrah District,
West Bengal
Sujit Maji and Sayani Mukhopadhyay 521-532
Chapter 39: Sensitization for Sustainable Tourism
Development in East Khasi Hills District of Meghalaya
Ashok Kumar and Deborah Rose Shylla Passah 533-541
Chapter 40: Edible Plants of Traditional (Meitei)
Homegardens in the Hailakandi District, Assam, India
N. Linthoingmabi Devi and DipendraSingha 543-557
Chapter 41: Expansion of Food Processing Industry in
Rural Areas of West Bengal: A New Horizon in
Rural Livelihood
Sumana Roy 559-572
Chapter 42: Sustainable Rural Development
through Lac Cultivation in Purulia District of
West Bengal: a Case Study
Kalyan Kumar Mandal 573-582
Chapter 43: Sustainable Utility Index Value of

Wild Edible Plants amongst the Tai Khampti
Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh
Sheelawati Monlai, Nang Sena Manpoong and
Chowlani Manpoong 583-592
Chapter 44: Ecological Restoration and Livelihood

Options through Forestry: A Case Study of Pasolgad
Watershed, Uttarakhand
B. W. Pandey, Akshansh Yadav and Himanshu Mishra 593-603
Chapter 45: Empowering the Poor through Rural

Livelihood Programme ‘JEEViKA’ in Bihar
Jyotish Kumar and Dhiraj Kumar Sharma 605-616
Chapter 46: Impact of Ponds and Livelihood Issues

of Rural Communities with Special Reference to
Dhanaipur Mauza in Harirampur Block,
Dakshin Dinajpur
Md. Ismail 617-631
Chapter 47: Impacts of Tourism on Rural Development

in the Mukutmanipur Village of Bankura District,
West Bengal, India
Uday Chatterjee and Samik Chakraborty 633-640
Chapter 48: Assessment of Sustainable Livelihood

through SHGs’ Activities under NRLM Scheme:
A Block Level Case Study in Hooghly District of
West Bengal
Sharmistha Sarkar and Sayani Mukhopadhyay 641-654
Chapter 49: Issues of Sustainable Livelihood in the

Chars of Teesta in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal
Sanghamitra Sarkar 655-668
Chapter 50: Status of Potable Water in Rural Areas
of Lunglei Town: Challenges and Solutions
Malsawmtluanga, Lalmalsawmi Zadeng and
Lalhmangaihsangi 669-678
Chapter 51: A Critical Review on Biodiversity in

North East India
Saikat Majumdar 679-685
Chapter 52: Biodiversity: Utility, Threats, Conservation

Hotspots and a Sustainable Model
Prabhat Kumar Rai 687-702
Chapter 53: Diversity of Tree and Shrub Species and

Assessment of Carbon Stock in Mizoram University
Campus Forest, Mizoram
S. B. Sharma and U.K. Sahoo 703-723
Chapter 54: Floral Biodiversity in Buffer Zone of

Dampa Tiger Reserve and Impact of Developmental
activities
Nagaraj Hegde and Chowlani Manpoong 725-739
Chapter 55: Diversity of the Understory Vegetation in

the Disturbed and Undisturbed Sites of Community
Conserved Forest of Reiek in Mamit District of Mizoram
S.T. Lalzarzovi and Lalnuntluanga 741-757
Chapter 56: A Study of Land Use and Land Capability

Classification in Chemlui sub-watershed, Kolasib
District, Mizoram Using GIS and Remote Sensing
Techniques
David B. Lalhruaitluanga, P. Rinawma and
Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao 759-771
Chapter 57: Participation of Women in Water Resource

Management in Rural Areas of Mizoram:
An Empirical Analysis
Lancy Zodinpuii Chawhte and Vishwambhar Prasad Sati 773-782
Chapter 58: An Overview of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants of Indian Western Himalaya
Neena Kumari and Suresh Kumar 783-800
Chapter 59: Cultivation of Oil Palm in Mizoram

Lalherliana Sailo 801-807
Volume 3
Section 1: (Theme: Climate Change)

Chapter 60: Socio-economic Transformation in
the Backdrop of Climate Variability: A Case
Study of a Santal Village in Bankura District of
West Bengal, India
Suman Chakrabarty, Ananda Dhali and Mahua Sengupta 809-825
Chapter 61: Does Global Warming a Blessing for

Areca Nut Cultivators in Mizoram
K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva and PC Lalrohlua 827-838
Chapter 62: Multi-temporal Standardized

Precipitation Index and Regional Drought
Monitoring in the Western Part of West Bengal
Pradip Patra 839-851
Chapter 63: Climate Change Impact on Migratory

Birds in Kolkota, West Bengal
Akhi Sarkar 853-859
Chapter 64: Risk perception of flood and its

management by the stakeholders along Mayurakshi
Basin: a New Arena in Flood Research Management
Sayani Mukhopadhyay 861-876
Chapter 65: Media and Climate Change:

Mizoram Scenario
Irene Lalruatkimi 877-883
Chapter 66: An Assessment of Meteorological Drought
of a part of Western Tract of West Bengal for the Need
of Water Conservation of the Area
Payel Saha and Asutosh Goswami 885-893
Chapter 67: Impact of Climate Change on Human Comfort

and its Relation in Market Rise of Electronic Gadgets:
A Case Study of Kolkata City, India.
Deep Chakraborty, Sangita Roy, Asutosh Goswami 895-903
Chapter 68: Understanding Global Warming in Local

Contexts: Mizoram’s Jhum Cultivation and Hybridised
“Chapchar Kut”
Samuel L Chuaungo 905-917
Section 2: (Theme: Population and Socio-

Economic Development)
Chapter 69: Out-Migration and its Impact on Socio
Economic Profile of Natives in Lachigad Watershed,
Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand
Anupama M. Hasija, S. K. Bandooni and
Ashok N. Selwatkar 919-938
Chapter 70: Ethnicity and Socio-Cultural

Restructuring of Bhotiya Tribe: A Case Study
of Johar Valley of Kumaon Himalaya
Atithi Pant, V.S Negi and B.W. Pandey 939-952
Chapter 71: Impact of Population Pressure on

Landscape Changes in Aizawl City: A Spatio-
Temporal Analysis
Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao 953-961
Chapter 72: Population and Development in the
Third World: A Case Study of India
Aslam Mahmood and Sushil Dalal 963-978
Chapter 73: Role of Kanyashree Project on
Empowerment of Women in West Bengal
Moumita Ghosh 979-985
Chapter 74: Socio-Economic Status of Women
Population in Dhule District, Maharashtra
Suryawanshi Dnyaneshwar Ahire and Suresh Chintaman 987-996
Chapter 75: Sustainability of Jute Farming and Socio –

Economic Issues of the Jute Farmers in Assam
Bidyut Jyoti Kalita and Anjan Bhuyan 997-1009
Chapter 76: Socio-Economic Condition of Indian

Sundarban: An Issue on Food Scarcity
Priyanka Pal 1011-1018
Chapter 77: Socio-Economic Profile of Rural Dimapur,

Nagaland
Geeta Kumari 1019-1032
Section 3: (Theme: Multi-Disciplinary Studies)

Chapter 78: Finding Common Ground: Interdisciplinary
Narrative Sharing As A Way Forward for Human and
Environmental Sustainability
Kathryn C. Smith, MDV, DMin 1033-1043
Chapter 79: Physio-Chemical Analysis of Potable Water

in the Vicinity of Aizawl, Mizoram
M. Lalruatfeli, Shiva Kumar, B. Lalhriatpuii and
John Blick 1045-1054
Chapter 80: Contamination of Potable Water Sources

of Lawngtlai Town, Mizoram
John Blick and Shiva Kumar 1055-1071
Chapter 81: Zonation of Landslide Susceptibility and Risk

Assessment in and Around Serchhip Town, Mizoram
Lalramdina 1073-1078
Chapter 82: Comparative Study of Physico-chemical

Properties of Soil under Three Different Bamboo Stands
ImokoklaImsong, AngomSarjubala Devi and
Lalnuntluanga 1079-1084
Chapter 83: Use of Geographic Information System in
Hypsometric Analysis of Chite Lui Watershed, Aizawl
District, Mizoram
Binoy Kumar Barman, K. Srinivasa Rao and
N. S. R. Prasad 1085-1096
Chapter 84: Landslide Hazard Zonation Along State

Highway between Aizawl City and Aibawk Town,
Mizoram, India, Using Geospatial Techniques
Laltlankima, F. Lalbiakmawia, K. S. Rao 1097-1110
Chapter 85: Evaluation of Phytochemical and Acute

Toxicity of Various Extracts of Croton caudatus
Geiseler
Longjam Shantabi, Ganesh Chandra Jagetia and
Thaodem Tomcha Singh 1111-1126
Chapter 86: Efficacy of L- Carnitine Supplementation

on the Tuibur (Tobacco Smoke Infused Water) Induced
Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Testis of mice.
Maibam Sunita Devi, Sanasam Sanjeev and
Guruswami Gurusubramanian 1127-1137
Chapter 87: Refocusing the Correlates of Carbon

Sequestration through Maintaining the Carbon
Stock in Home Gardens of West Bengal, India
Mohit Subba, Nazir A. Pala, Gopal Shukla,
Kausik Pradhan and Sumit Chakravarty 1139-1151
Chapter 88: A Comparative Study of Gestural

Communication on Three Species of Macaques
(Assamese macaque, Rhesus macaque and pigtailed
macaque) in Mizoram
Phoebe Lalremruati, Vansawmkimi and G.S. Solanki 1153-1164
Chapter 89: Determination of Serum Lipid Profile

and β- estradiol Level in Pre-Menopausal and
Post-Menopausal Women in Aizawl District, Mizoram
Sarda Sh, Lalsanglura R and Lajji D 1165-1175
Chapter 90: Growth Hormone Gene Polymorphism
and its Association with Performance Trait in
Mizoram Local Pig “Zovawk”
T.C. Tolenkhomba and P. Mayengbam 1177-1182
Chapter 91: Pharmacognostic and Physicochemical

Profile of the Leaves of Trevesia palmata
Victoria Devi, Lanutanget and H. Lalhlenmawia 1183-1192
Chapter 92: Women and Natural Resources Conservation:

Study in Community Based Wetland Resources
Management Groups in Hail Wetland
Mohammad Nazrul Islam,
Mohammad Mojammel Hussain Raihan, Subarna Akter
and Mohammad Saiful Islam 1193-1204
Chapter 93: Impact of Industrial Model Township

on Natural Resources: A Case of Manesar Town
and its Envions
Shashi Mehta 1205-1211
Chapter 94: Impact Assessment of Forest Cover

Changes of Havelock Islands in Andaman’s:
a Study through Geospatial Technique
Kajal Kumar Mandal 1213-1225
Chapter 95: Geomorphic Evolution and Landscape

Development of Tut Drainage Basin
K. Lalduhawma, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao and
K. Srinivasa Rao 1227-1240
Chapter 96: A Study on Relief Characteristics and

Erosion Status of Tuirini Watershed, Mizoram
Vanlaltanpuia, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao, P.Rinawma 1241-1251
Chapter 97: Diversity and Dynamics of Rural

Landscapes in the Brahmaputra Floodplain, Assam
Sourav Saha and N. Deka 1252-1265
Chapter 98: Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Channel
Morphology of Raidak River-II in Alipurduar District,
West Bengal, India
Ajit Kumar Singha and E. Iswarjit Singh 1267-1285
Chapter 99: Mapping of Vegetation Changes in

Lakshadweep using Remote Sensing
Tipu Sulthan. M.M, M. Muthukumar 1287-1297
Chapter 100: Determination of Hydraulic

Conductivity of Soil from Grain Size Analysis
G. Nengzouzam, Y. Pordung, R. Phawa,
A. Bandyopadhyay and A. Bhadra 1299-1311
Chapter 101: Economic Dynamicity of Sunderban:
A Perception Study
Baisakhi Biswas 1313-1320
Chapter 102: Shifting Land Surface Temperature
(LST) due to Change in Urban Land Use:
A Case Study of Bidhannagar Township, West Bengal
Mahua Bardhan, Sujay Sadhu and Nandini Chatterjee 1321-1338
Chapter 103: Changing Occupational Trend of the
Brass Artisan Moria Community of Brahmaputra
Valley of Assam with Special Reference to
Lakhimpur District
Jyoti Saikia and Sailajananda Saikia 1339-1349
Chapter 104: Ecosystem Services from Homestead
Production System – a Case in a Deforested area
of Bangladesh
Md Abiar Rahman and Masakazu Tani 1351-1358
Chapter 105: Acute Toxicity Study of Various Extracts
of Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. F. on Swiss
Albino Mice
Nambam Bonika Devi and Ganesh Chandra Jagetia 1359-1368
Chapter 106: Comparison of Rainfall Records of
Mizoram, India by means of Isohyetal Maps
Generated using GIS Technique
F. Lalbiakmawia 1369-1379
Chapter 107: Dynamics of Organic Wastes
Treatment on Soil Characteristics and Growth
of Brassica oleracea
Angom Sarjubala Devi, Yaiphabi Akoijam and
Elangbam Jadu Singh 1381-1387
Chapter 108: Relation of Soil Bulk Density and

Elevation with some Soil Physico-Chemical Properties
in Pare River Basin of Arunachal Pradesh
L. G. Kiba, N. K. Mondal, V. Khatso,
A. Bandyopadhyay and A. Bhadra 1389-1401
Chapter 109: Scope of Resource Re-generation

by following 3R Policy from Urban Solid
Wastes – A Study on Kolkata Municipal Corporation,
West Bengal, India
Samik Chakraborty and Uday Chatterjee 1403-1411
Section 1:
(Theme: Climate Change)
Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Development and Rural Livelihoods
Vol. 3 (2017) : 809-825, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
Editors : Sati, V.P. and K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva
Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India
60
Socio-economic Transformation in the
Backdrop of Climate Variability: A Case
Study of a Santal Village in Bankura
District of West Bengal, India
Suman Chakrabarty1*, Ananda Dhali2and Mahua Sengupta3
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Mrinalini Datta
Mahavidyapith, Birati, Kolkata – 700 051, West Bengal, India,
Email: [email protected]
2
Laboratory Assistant, Department of Geography, Mrinalini Datta
Mahavidyapith, Birati, Kolkata – 700 051, West Bengal, India
3
Consultant, Institute of Livelihood Research and Training, Basix India,
3rd Floor, Surabhi Arcade, Troop Bazar, Bank Street, Koti, Hyderabad –
500 001, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
In search of the livelihoods burden among the scheduled tribe under
unfamiliar climatic events, the present study aims to investigate the
impact of climate variation on the present socio-economic condition
of the Santal tribe living in a village (Gidhuria) located at the drought
prone district (Bankura) of West Bengal, India. Structured schedule,
focus group discussion and key informant interviews were used to
collect data from 58 families. The results revealed that about 90% of
the villagers engaged in rainfed agriculture. The declining monsoon
rainfall, rise of temperatures, shifting season and dryness of top soil
in the agricultural land for the last 15 years may heavily impact on
agricultural production, socio-cultural life and livelihoods of the Santal
810
villagers in a negative way. The perception regarding climate variability

among villagers was also supported by the meteorological data of that
region. Though they tried to cultivate high yielding varieties of paddy
but failed to get sufficient yield due to water scarcity, economic barrier
to use modern technology and frequently occurring dry seasons. The
development programmes (like Grain Bank) were often failed to meet
their challenges. These erratic conditions have forced the villagers to
migrate in other districts or urban areas in search of their secondary
earning as daily wage labour which form a new socio-economic
dimension for their survival.
Key words: Climate variability, Santal tribe, socio-economic status,
paddy production, Bankura district
Introduction
In addition to the poorest socio-economic conditions, the
marginalized people who have close relationship with natural environments
are the foremost victims of unfamiliar climate change/climate variability
and which may be added as additional burden for their survival and
development. According to the Stern Review and IPCC 4th Assessment
Report, “poorest people in the poorest countries expected to suffer first
and foremost” by the adverse impact of climate change in the health, safety
and livelihoods. The report is also emphasized the fact that future climate
change will have created barriers to poverty reduction and failed many of
the important socio-economic ventures made by developing countries
(IPCC, 2007). In recent years, the rate of climate change is alarming, and
poor people, who have small landholding and natural resources based
livelihood, are facing unexpected challenges to meet their means for
survival (Mbilinyi et al., 2013; FAO, 2014). However, they have their own
traditional perception and unique technologies to find the first hand solution
in a creative ways and that may help them a lot for mitigating the impact of
climate change (UNPFII, 2008).
In India, the foremost vulnerable marginalized social groups are
scheduled tribes (STs), who are owing to low socio-economic status even
after 69 years of Indian independence (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014).
They constitute 8.60 percent of total population of India and live in remote
rural areas (Census of India, 2011; Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2013). They
are the marginal farmers and mainly depend on rain fed agriculture for
their own livelihoods and food security (NABARD consultancy services,
2007). Climate change and its overall consequences could, therefore,
catalyze the ongoing agrarian crisis in rural India into a migratory rout
(Sainath, 2002). Revi (2008) in his study reported that climate change
induced drought and resource conflict may force the pace of rural-urban
migration (urbanisation) over the next few decades. He also showed that a
811
demographic transition that will see India’s population stabilizing at about

1.6 billion in the 2060s. Sengupta and Chakrabarty (2015) showed that
people (mainly tribal) are migrating in search of secondary occupation
from rural to sub-urban areas in Kalchini administrative block of north
Bengal and involving in various illegal activities to form a new socio-
economic dimension for their survival.
The studies on the impact of climate variability/ change on socio-
economic life and livelihoods of Indian tribes are sporadic. For instance,
the Naga tribes of Nagaland of Northeast India exemplified a good
traditional knowledge of seeds, crop varieties as well as medicinal plants
specifically among the women, which may help them to tackle the adverse
impact of climate variability (AIPP and IWGIA, 2014). In contrast, the
Khanda tribal of Jharkhand did not accept the modern fertilizers and
pesticides as they belief that this is an offence against their traditional
practice of agriculture (World Bank, 2014). Again Singh et al. (2011)
reported that the Adi tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh have rich
knowledge of bicultural resources that may play an important role for coping
the climate change and livelihood security. The Mizos tribal people (Hmar,
Paihte and Mara) of Mizoram has excellent potential in their traditional
knowledge of environment to combat the problem of climate variability
and sustain the socio-economic life (Chinlampianga, 2011). However some
of the groups have given little attention towards the erratic of climate events
like the Rabha tribes of North Bengal and Baiga and Gond tribes of
Chhattisgarh and as a results they suffered by socio-economic problem to
a large extent (Chakrabarty, 2015; Nema and Tripathi, 2013).
On the basis of above discussion, it is, therefore, beyond any doubt
that climate variability/ change may have heavily impact on the socio-
economic life of the tribal people in India and they are fighting against
these adverse consequences in their own ways. But there is hardly any
systematic study on these issues among the tribes, who are living in drought
prone areas (Bankura and Purulia districts) of West Bengal state in India.
In order to understand these consequences, the present study aims to
investigate how far the present climate variability of this region is influenced
on the socio-economic condition of the Santal tribe (autochthonous group
of this region) and also to investigate the adaptive strategies and associate
hindrances at local level in terms of socio-economic transformation.
Materials and Methods
People and the Study Area
For the present study, the Santal tribe was selected. They perhaps
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considered to be the most populated tribal group in Eastern parts of India

and third largest tribe in India with a total population of around 69 Lakh.
They belong to the Austro-Asiatic language group (Mundari speaking) of
people and mainly concentrated the state of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar,
Odisha, Assam, Tripura and even few areas of Bangladesh and Nepal. In
western part of West Bengal, the Santals are concentrated in the Bankura
and Purulia districts (Dey, 2015). The present study area was located at
Bankura district of West Bengal, India. It is situated between 220 38’ and
230 38’ N latitude and between 860 36’ and 870 46 E longitude. It has an
area of 6788 Sq.km which is the connecting link between the plains of
Bengal on the East and Chota Nagpur plateau to the West. The name of the
studied village was Gidhuria (a monoethnic village of the Santal tribe),
which was situated in Susunia gram Panchayat of Chatna Block under
Bankura Sadar subdivision of Bankura district. Geographically the village
was situated at the cross sectional point of 280 80’ 06" N and 86058’ East
(Google Map accessed on March, 2017).
Figure 1: Map showing study areas and studied village
Data Collection
The present study was based on both the primary and secondary
information. Published reports on meteorological data were used for
understanding the regional level climate variability of the studied areas.
Primary cross sectional data from 58 households including 90 individuals
were used for the analysis. The data was collected from 9th to 25th December,
2015. All the households of the studied village were taken into consideration
for the present study. Individual as well as household level socio-economic
variables like education, occupation (both primary and secondary), monthly
household income and expenditure, food expenditure, house type,
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household size, household assets (like Pressure cooker, Bicycle, Radio,

Mobile, T.V. with cable, Car, Tractor, Motor cycle, Fan, Sewing machine,
Refrigerator, Fishing net, Plough, item-wise household food production,
and livestock possession data was collected by using pre-tested structured
schedules. Besides this, another pre-tested structured schedule was used
to get people perception on climate change including its different parameters
like heat, cold, rain etc., adaptive strategies and hindrances related to
adaptive strategies in individual levels. One focused group discussion
(FGD) was performed to gather information regarding community
perception and their involvement related to climate change measures in
community or village level and finally six key informants (primarily
engaged in cultivation) were interviewed to collect data of climate change
and its mitigating measures in their agriculture field and major problem
faced by them over the last 10 years. The study integrated both qualitative
and quantitative methods to build on their complementarities for cross-
checking information received from the respondents.
Data Analysis
Standard of living index (SLI) was estimated by using score of
household assets. Income, expenditure and food expenditure were
calculated in terms of monthly per capita. All continuous socio-economic
variables like SLI were categorized by using 50th (median) percentile values
in order to understand the inequalities within the group (Chakrabarty and
Bharati, 2012). Systematic coding was done to analyse the data on
perceptions of climate change and its variability as well as adaptive
measures by using SPSS software.
Results and Discussion:
Table 1 demonstrates the age group and sex-wise distribution of
sample under study. For the present study, a total of 90 individuals aged 30
to 65 years were considered. The mean age of the sample was 44.24±10.76
years. All the sampled individuals have been living in the studied villages
for at least last 20 years.
Table 1: Age group and Sex –wise distribution of Sample size
Age group Male Female Total
(Years) No. % No. % No. %
30- 44 41 45.6 7 7.8 48 53.3
45-65 32 35.6 10 11.1 42 46.7
Total 73 81.1 17 18.9 90 100.0
Mean age 43.90±11.25 45.71±8.48 44.24±10.76
(years)
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Socio-Economic Condition of the Studied Village

Socio-economic parameters of an area or a community like
education, household size, household income, access to information etc. is
positively associated with peoples’ adaptive capacity to the climate change/
variability (Ndamani and Watanabe, 2016). For the present study, both the
individual level as well as household level socio-economic parameters were
used for the analysis. Table 2 depicts the individual level data on educational
status and occupation of the respondents. It was observed that 51.1% of
the individuals were illiterate followed by 32.2% studied up to secondary
level. The percentage of literacy was higher in recent generation.
Occupation-wise, majorities of the individuals engaged in the agricultural
activities (83.3%) of the studied village. They generally engaged in rain
fed agricultural in their own agricultural land. The rate of participation in
agriculture was more or less equal by males and females. However, during
post monsoon and/or just after their own agricultural activities, they engaged
as daily wage labour (75.6%) either at the neighbouring villages or far
from their native place as hired agricultural labour (like other districts as
Birbhum or Burdwan) in search of their secondary earning.
Table 2: Education and occupation of the studied respondents
Level of education Primary occupation Secondary occupation
Variables No. % Variables No. % Variables No. %
Illiterate 46 51.1 Agriculture 75 83.3 Agriculture 15 16.7
Primary 09 10.0 Daily wage 08 8.9 Migratory 68 75.6
daily wage
Secondary 29 32.2 Service 05 5.6 Service 05 5.6
Higher 04 4.4 Business 02 2.2 Business 02 2.2
Secondary
Graduation 02 2.2 —- —- —- —- —- —-
and above
Total 90 100.0 Total 90 100.0 Total 90 100.0
Table 3 represents the household level socio-economic variables

of the studied population. It was observed that majorities of the houses
were Kaccha (84.5%) in structure. More than 90% households possessed
their own cultivable land but the amount of land was very small as 52.8%
of households had possessed up to 1 Acre of cultivable land. They were
considered as marginal farmers. Although they have their own cultivable
land but more than 88% households did not get any irrigation facilities
815
during cultivation of paddy. They have to depend on rainy water during

monsoon season. They, therefore, often failed to get desire amount of paddy
for their own consumption. In order to increase the production, majorities
of the households (90.6%) have cultivated high yielding varieties (HYV)
of paddy for the last 10 years. Even though, they received very less amount
of paddy (41.5% households up to 5 quintal for the last season). Generally
the households members involved in cultivation (71.7%) rather than the
hired labour. Present day, they are using modern technologies for agriculture
in form of used tractor, but the percentage of households was only 24.5%.
Apart from cultivation, the households’ member also engaged in livestock
raring. 93.1% of households possessed livestock specifically cow and goat.
They have been using cow for ploughing in their agricultural land and
have kept the goat for earning during household occasions. Overall, a sharp
socio-economic division was observed between households, which were
reflected in the Standard of Living Index (SLI) (Low 51.7% household vs
High 48.3% household). The monthly per capita income, expenditure and
food expenditure was Rs. 1410.2, 851.80 and 608.60, respectively.
Table 3: Household level summery variables of the Santal community
Variables No. %
House type ( n = 58)
Kaccha 49 84.5
Pakka 9 15.5
Household size (n = 58)
Less than 5 person 26 44.8
Above 5 person 32 55.2
Cultivable land (n = 58)
Present 53 91.4
Absent 5 8.6
Amount of cultivable land (n=53)
Up to 1 Acre 28 52.8
Above 1 Acre 25 47.2
Irrigation facility at the cultivable land (n= 53)
Present 6 11.3
Absent 47 88.7
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Type of paddy seeds used (n= 53)

High yielding varieties (HYV) 48 90.6
Traditional varieties (TV) 5 9.4
Paddy production of last year (n = 53)
Up to 5 Quintal 22 41.5
Above 5 Quintal 31 58.5
Hired labour during cultivation (n = 53)
No38 71.7
Yes 15 28.3
Used during cultivation (n = 53)
Only plough 28 52.8
Only tractor 13 24.5
Plough and tractor both 12 22.7
Livestock (n = 58)
Present 54 93.1
Absent 4 6.9
Standard of living index (n = 58)
Low (score up to 4) 30 51.7
High (score 5 and above) 28 48.3
Mean ±SD
Income (Monthly per capita) 1410.2 811.6
Expenditure (Monthly per capita) 851.8 361.8
Food Expenditure (Monthly per capita) 608.6 192.3
Regional Climatic Variability

The studied village Gidhuria is located at the northern slopes of
Susunia hills. Geographically, the area falls under the “Red Laterite – Agro
–Climatic Zone”. It is characterized as undulating topography, coarse
textured soil with acidic in nature. There is a high chance of soil erosion.
The annual temperature varies from 14.8o to 37.0o centigrade and annual
rainfall varies from 1100 to 1300 mm. However, there was a clear climate
variability observed in last ten years (2000-2009). This region is now
experiencing lower rain fall than expected in the non-monsoon months
(WBPCB, 2016).
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More intensive analysis (for the 48 years i.e. 1961 to 2009) of the
climate variability of this region showed that though the monsoon rainfall
was slightly increased but post monsoon rainfall was moderately decreased.
Analysis of different components of temperature shows that the average
daily temperature is increasing almost everywhere. Average daily minimum
temperature is rising faster than the average daily maximum temperature,
causing a reduction in the diurnal range. After 1970, increasing trend is
well marked and more marked since the beginning of the present century.
So the date of onset has been delayed by about a week, but the date of its
withdrawal remains almost unchanged. However in recent years, delayed
withdrawal is noticed. Although the area is well marked as ‘drought prone’,
but the dryness is more due to poor moisture holding capacity of the soil
rather than poor rainfall. A period of the last three and a half decade depicts
that there is a decreasing trends in deposition of dew, increasing erratic
nature in weather behaviour, typical seasonal character of weather is
disappearing, and exceptional incidences like storm and unexpected rainfall
are becoming the usual ones. In general, winters are becoming shorter,
warmer and drier and summers are becoming longer. Monsoons are
becoming more variable. Firstly the onset of monsoon is being delayed
whereas the withdrawal remaining almost the same, therefore a reduction
in the span of monsoon is observed. Secondly, the variability of rainfall of
the monsoon months has increased without causing much change in the
total quantity of the season. thirdly, the incidences of partial break in one
region and heavy rainfall in the other causing partial drought and flood is
on the rise (Cited in Adoption Fund Project of DRCSC and NABARD,
2014).
Perception of climate Variability, Adaptive Strategies and Hindrances
Among the Studied Population
Table 4 demonstrates the people’s perception of climate change
and it was observed that 80.0% individuals were aware that the environment
is changing over time. However, the percentage of awareness may be
varied from population to population (Amir and Ahmed, 2013). The Rabha
tribal people were reported lower awareness level (66.6%) compared to
the present studied population (Chakrabarty, 2015). However, 73.7% of
individuals failed to give the reasons behind such climate change in the
studied region. Surprisingly, few individuals believed that these may be
due to the willing of God of the Santal community i.e. Marang Buru. The
low perception level regarding the causes of climate change may be due to
their high illiteracy and small exposure to mass communication. Though
the Santal villagers have lower awareness level about the causes of climate
818
change, but they have perceived quite well regarding the adverse impact
of heat, cold and rainfall over the last five to ten years ago. 84.4%
respondents agreed that the heat during summer was increased in
comparison to the last five to ten years. In contrary, 92.2% of the respondents
perceived that the present bitterness of cold during winter was decreased.
However, majority of the individuals (95.5%) perceived that the present
intensity of rainfall during rainy session has been decreased in comparison
to the last five to ten years.
Table 4: Perceptions of climate variability among the studied population (n = 90)
Climatic perceptions Total
No. %
Have you perceived that environment is No 07 7.7
changing in your village?
Yes 72 80.0
Don/t know 11 12.3
If yes, what are the reasons behind it? (n = 72) God 05 6.9
Deforestation 14 19.4
Don/t know 53 73.7
Have you perceived that heat during summer is No 06 6.6
increased in comparison to the last five to
ten years? Yes 76 84.4
Don’t know 08 9.0
Have you perceived that the present No 83 92.2
bitterness of cold during winter is increased
in comparison to the last five to ten years? Yes 02 2.2
Don’t know 05 5.6
Have you perceived that the present intensity No 03 3.3
of rainfall during rainy session is decreased in
comparison to the last five to ten years? Yes 86 95.5
Don’t know 01 1.2
The perception about shifting of seasons is a relevant indicator of

climatic change. In the present study, the perceived view of shift of climatic
seasons was taken into consideration (Figure 2) and 78.7% of the individuals
perceived that climatic seasons have been shifted from last five to ten
years. A similar study was conducted among the people of the Kalapara
Upazila of Patuakhali district in Bangladesh, where 66% reported positive
response of shifting climate change (Amir and Ahmed, 2013), while another
819
study by Chakrabarty (2015) on Rabha tribes of North Bengal showed that

85.5% informants reported affirmative response. .
Figure 2: Perception about shifting of climatic season among villagers (n = 90)
Table 5 narrates the people’s perception regarding the threat of

climate change on livelihood option. 76.7% individuals replied that the
major impact was noted on health than other factors. Similar findings
have been reported among the indigenous people located in Jema’s local
government areas of Kaduna state of Nigeria (Ishaya and Abaje, 2008).
Table 5: People’s perception regarding the threat of climate change more on
Parameter No. %
Health and food supply 69 76.7
Fuel wood availability 07 7.8
Businesses 02 2.2
Instigating disaster 03 3.3
Biodiversity quality and sustainability 09 10.0
Total 90 100.0
It is well known fact that adverse impacts of climate change have

been found in agricultural production as well as in natural resources. In
the present study, 91.1% individuals perceived that the current annual
rainfall is not suitable for crop production as was before (Table 6). However,
comparatively lower percentage of people (78.9%) perceived that climate
820
change has lead to crop infestation and diseases. Besides, 66.7% of the
people negatively responded regarding the perception of increasing costs
of food crops due to climate change. This may be because of their poverty
and/or less dependency on market economy for their survival.
52.2% of the respondents perceived that people, specifically youths
and young couples, have been migrating seasonally as wage labour, due to
low agricultural production for last 10 years. But they did not feel that
climate change has lead to permanent rural-urban migration in the studied
village.
Table 6: Perceptions of impact of climate change on food production and migration (n=
90)
Climatic perceptions No. %
Have you current annual rainfall is not suitable No 05 5.6
for crop production as was before?
Yes 82 91.1
Don’t know 03 3.3
Do you perceive that climate change has lead No 07 7.8
to crop infestation and diseases?
Yes 71 78.9
Don’t know 12 13.3
Do you perceive that the costs of food crops No 60 66.7
are increasing because of climate change?
Yes 21 23.3
Whether people are migrating due to low No 31 34.4
production?
Yes 47 52.2
Do you feel that climate change has lead No 73 81.1
to rural-urban migration
Yes 08 8.9
In order to overcome the adverse effect of climate variability/

change, the studied Santal people have taken multiple measures or adaptive
strategies to mitigate the problem and also faced several hindrances. It
was observed that 95.6% people have taken at least one adaptive measure
821
from last 10 years. Almost all the respondents are using High Yielding
Varieties (HYV) of paddy for agriculture and depositing certain amount of
paddy in their village Gain Bank. This is for the purpose of using it during
the low productive years or any marital occasion in their families. Besides,
more than 60% informants are using chemical fertilizers as well as
shortening of growing seasons of paddy. In contrast, only 24.4% are using
power tractor during ploughing of their agricultural land. It may be due to
low economic capabilities of the studied farmers for investing costly input
in the cultivation. They had tried for the best for their survival but they
believed that the major challenges are the lack of irrigation system (93.3%),
frequent dry weather (84.4%) and economic burden (62.2%). The repeated
loss of production may have played major role on the mind of the villagers
as 11.1% of them expressed their unwillingness to cultivate in the coming
years (table 7).
Table 7: Adaptive strategies and hindering factors related to climate change (n = 90)
Adaptive strategies and hindering factors No. %
Do you take any adaptive No 04 4.4
measures for climate change?
Yes 86 95.6
Adapted strategies (n = 86) Planting High Yielding 86 100.0
Varieties (HYV) of paddy
Shortening growing season 57 66.3
The use of chemical fertilizer 53 61.6
Use of tractor 21 24.4
Storage in “Grain Bank” 86 100.0
of the village
Hindering factors (n = 90) Lack of irrigation 84 93.3
Frequent dry weather 76 84.4
Economic problem 56 62.2
Lack of knowledge about the 32 35.5
use of modern technology
in agriculture
Unwillingness to cultivate 10 11.1
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

A focus group discussion was conducted on 13th December 2015
at the studied village by involving 10 male and 4 female farmers aged 30
822
to 65 years on the topic of present socio-economic burden due to climate

variability for the last 10 years. It was noted that the agriculture has been
the main source of income for their livelihoods. Apart from that they
engaged in livestock raring mainly cow and goat and also daily waging.
Besides they had also performed occasional fishing and wood cutting for
their subsistence. For the last 10 years, they suffered a lot for uneven climate
variability in this region. All of them agreed that erratic rain fall during
monsoon and post monsoon season may heavily impact in the form of low
agriculture output. The temperature during summer was rapidly increased
and reflected in the form of draught. The water bodies in and around the
village were shrinking rapidly. One of the main causes of increased
temperature was de-forestation at Susunia hill tracks for the last three
decades. These anthropogenic incidences were not only hampered on their
livelihoods but also influenced on surrounding biodiversity. For the last
two decades, the local Mahua and Sal trees were disappeared. The extinction
of fauna was also noted along with extinction of some indigenous fish
from ponds and rivers. They believed that the prevalence of cold and cough
as well as the prevalence of tuberculosis was increased due to sudden
increased of temperature. They clearly told that summer period has been
extended and food stock has been diminishing. They also reported that the
earth worm is not visible in the recent times due to dryness of the top soil
in their agricultural land. Similarity leafy vegetable like Kantha Shak, which
was important source of nutrient during post harvesting season, were also
extinct. The reason behind these events may be the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer in their agricultural land in the recent time. Earlier
they cultivated some wild verities of paddy like Uperlaya, Vutmuri, Kaya
etc. but due low productivity and absence of seeds, the replaced into high
yielding varieties of paddy at present like Lal Swarna, Sada Swarna, Jaya,
Padda, Puja etc. However, it needs sufficient amount of water, which they
don’t have. They explained that earlier when they performed worship of
land Goddess before the start of agriculture, the rain came within a week
but now a day, the rain came even after one month. Therefore, their socio-
cultural believe system was also getting hampered. The World Bank had
come forward for making two Check Dams in the river (locally known as
Jhara) running at the north western part of the village by the help of local
Susunia gram Panchayat. This is basically for supplying water for
cultivation in a sustainable way. However, they have some confusion
regarding the distribution of water especially for the high land (Danga
Jami). They often scared for their future agriculture and ways of earning.
Presently they encouraged the young generation to educate themselves
and involve in service instead of cultivation. They believed that the rainfall
823
in future will be getting more erratic. For mitigating strategies for water
scarcity, the traditional village council of Santal community made some
restriction in use of water from village pond during post monsoon season.
This may heavily decreased the vegetable cultivation after rain fed
agriculture. Currently they were eager to learn the new technologies for
cultivation. The hope lies on the Government agricultural farm at Susunia
and local NGOs, who may provide their expertise to train the villagers and
transfer them sufficient skills for mitigating the problem of climate
variability in the studied community.
Conclusions
On the basis of the above discussion, it may be concluded that the
Santal tribe of Gidhuria village at Bankura district perceived that the climate
is changing with the evidences like increased heat, decreased cold and
shifting of rainy seasons over the years. The regional meteorological
findings also supported their perception. The major impact was on
agricultural production with low output due to water scarcity, followed by
some visible changes in biodiversity. They used to take different adaptive
strategies by using their local knowledge but failed to overcome it due to
several hindrances. These erratic conditions have forced the villagers to
migrate in other districts or urban areas in search of their secondary earning
as daily wage labour, which form a new socio-economic dimension for
their survival. Finally the low level of education, insufficient household
income and inadequate use of new technologies may have also taken into
consideration due to its strong association with people’s adaptation capacity
to climate change. As because, it is beyond any doubt that enhancing
adaptive capacity of climate change/variability among the marginalized
people including Indian tribes with small landholding will be the most
important policy option in smoothing the sustainable development of the
community. However, in-depth study is required to understand this complex
nature of climate change at micro level and its impact. The probable solution
should be made through providing proper awareness along with - training
and skill development on modern agricultural practice in dry weather
condition.
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indigenousday/pdf/Backgrounder_ClimateChange_FINAL.pdf
WBPCB. (2016) State Environment Report,2016. West Bengal, West Bengal Pollution
Control Board, Kolkata: Saraswaty Press Ltd. Pp 275-276.
World Bank. (2014) Republic of India. India: Food Security and Nutrition in Tribal Areas.
Report No: ACS9269. SASDL SASDS South Asia, Washington, DC, 2014.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 827-838, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
61
Does Global Warming a blessing for Areca
nut cultivators in Mizoram
K.C. Lalmalsawmzauva and PC Lalrohlua
Department of Geography & RM, Mizoram University, Aizawl
Abstract
The problems causes by global warming are multiple. It costs many
lives and undue situation globally. Many scientists and scholars talk
about the negative impacts and work hard to mitigate increasing
green house gases worldwide by predicting the uncertainty of future
generations. However, the effects and responses of global warming
might not be similar across the world, particularly the responses of
the hilly state like Mizoram. This paper is an attempt to investigate
how global warming is responsible for increasing areca nut
production in the selected villages of Hortoki and Bilkhawthlir
located in the north western part of the state. Literatures tell us that
certain plant species have been migrated upward and towards north
or south poles following favourable temperatures cause by global
warming. Present study is also base on the assumption that during
the last few years areca nut attains ideal climatic environment in
certain pocket of Mizoram wherein before, the area was not warm
enough to bear the nut or even if it bore a nut/fruit it cannot ripe
properly. It is interesting to reveals that areca nut plantation becoming
much more productive during the last couple of years compared with
roughly the previous 20 years or more ago. This reality can be a
blessing for areca nut planter in Mizoram.
Key words: Global warming, areca nut, production, ripen, market
828
Introduction
Global warming and Climate change is one of the greatest
concerned in the 21st century. It is well-established fact that global warming
has multiple negative effects world-wide. Many literatures showed how
global warming and climate change disturb normal ecosystem. This reality
may not need to elaborate in this article rather the ironical facts based on
the pilot research done in Mizoram on areca nut plantation is interesting
and worth to consider. This pilot study found that global warming is one of
the most important drivers of increasing production of areca nut in Mizoram.
IPCC estimated that global mean surface temperature have risen
by 0.74 ºC±0.18 ºC when estimated by a linear trend over the last 100
years and the warming rate during last 50 years is almost double that of the
last 100 . According to the regional climate report of IPCC (2007), the
entire Asian region is very likely to warm during the last 100 years. The
temperature is likely to be above the mean in East and South Asia, and
similar to the mean temperature in Southeast Asia. (Kunihisa Morinaga,
2016)
Research has shown that Northeast India, home to about 40 million
people, has warmed significantly in the last 10 years and the situation
could get worse in the near future. Average temperatures are projected to
increase by about 1.7°C in almost all the districts of the Northeast, according
to a study conducted by Prof. N. H. Ravindranath from the Indian Institute
of Science and supported by KfW Development Bank on behalf of
Germany’s Federal Government (Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/
articles/surviving-amid-change-meghalaya-video)
Areca nut production in India is the largest in the world, as per
FAO statistics for 2013, accounting for 49.74 % of its world output and is
exported to many countries. Within India, as of 2013-14, Karnataka
produces 62.69 percent of the crop followed by Kerala and Assam; all
three states together account for 88.59 percent of its production. In the
other states of Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, where it is also
consumed, the crop is grown in a very small area. In Karnataka, in the
Shivamoga District the crop is grown extensively, and is considered by the
plantation owners as a prestige symbol (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Areca_nut_production_in_India)
Migration of crops along with temperature is also proven from
literature. Elizabeth Weise, USA today, September, 2013 reported
interesting story that “John Nowatzki’s brother left North Dakota in 1965.
829
Two years ago, he came back for a visit. The brothers spent a day driving
around the area where their family had farmed cool-season grains like
wheat and barley for almost 100 years. Only now the fields were full of
warm-season corn and soybeans” (usatoday.com.googlrweblight.com/).
This is one proof of crop migration, which we are hopeful to identify in
the case of areca nut cultivation in Mizoram.
The Assam tribune and Down to Earth magazine reported that
‘Assam Muga Silk’ may soon become a passé as Mizoram is likely to
unseat Assam as one of the major centres of muga silk production due to
increasing temperature. This report is based on a pilot survey conducted in
2012 and 2013 which found that the high-altitude of Mizoram, Nagaland
and other Himalayan states showed promising results for muga silkworm
rearing due to global warming whereas Assam faced drastic decline in
muga silk production in the recent years.
It is well known that the reality of global warming is felt everywhere
including Mizoram. Before 2000 Mizoram maximum temperature record
hardy reached 300C and today 300C is normal in the summer day and often
experiences 330C. It is therefore obvious that increasing temperature will
have some positive or negative impact to the whole ecosystem of the state.
It was reported that areca nut never be a native plant in Mizoram
as the temperature is not conducive for its cultivation in the past years.
Even though present study villages are growing areca nut many years ago,
it could not ripen properly as temperature was colder than it requires.
However, since some years back, the areca nut can ripen properly and the
production also increase and due to which a good number of families are
encourage to cultivate the plant.
We are therefore hope to the fact that global warming can be the
main reason for increasing production of areca nut cultivation in the study
areas and pilot survey has been conducted during April, 2017.
Geographical Attributes of the Study Area
The geographical attributes of present study is extremely important
because the affect of global warming varies on elevation and typical
geographical position. Both Hortoki and Bilkhawthlir villages are located
in Kolasib district in the northwestern part of Mizoram, comparatively in
the low lying area and not far from Assam plain areas. Among the eight
district capital of Mizoram, Kolasib is the lowest in altitude with 880m
above mean sea level. As a result of this low-lying area, the district in
general and the two selected villages in particular are relatively warmer
830
than many villages in Mizoram, which is one ideal condition for areca nut
cultivation.
Table 1. Geographical attributes of the study areas
Village Hortoki Bilkhawthlir
District Kolasib Kolasib
o o
Lat-Long 24 03.819' N-92 35.731E 24 0 19.811’N to 920 42.641’E
Elevation 70 m 460m
Accessibility 20 km from NH-4,Unmettaled NH-54 passes, Metalled
Climate Warm and moist Warm and moist
Temperature 15-34 0C (approximate-2016) 14-33 0 C (approximate-2016)
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017
The geographical location is also close to each other as Bilkhawthlir

is located more north than Hortoki with 24o 03.819' N-92o 35.731’E and
240 19.811’N to 920 42.641’E latitude and longitudes respectively. Hortoki
village is lower in altitude and closer to Tlawng river, the longest Mizoram
river while Bilkhawthlir is more in the proximity of Serlui river. These
two rivers somehow play an important role in controlling the temperature
and humidity of the two villages and also provide favourable climatic
condition for areca nut plantation.
Research Methods
Present study is a pilot research on the impact of global warming
on areca nut production. Only two villages of Bilkhawthlir and Hortoki
are selected for field investigation as these two villages are recently popular
for their cultivation of areca nut.
Both qualitative and quantitative data are use for the present
research. For secondary sources we used - Book, Magazine, Articles,
Journal (especially E-journals) and Meteorological data of Mizoram,
published by Mizoram Remote Sensing Application Centre, Aizawl.
Regarding primary sources, questionnaires were prepared for
households in both English and Mizo. Questionnaire contains the following:
Farmers’ understanding about areca nut, year of cultivation started, their
past experiences about the plant, understanding about global warming,
their observation about variation of productivity and the reasons as well as
market of the areca nut production.
831
Sample Size
We applied purposive sampling technique as all the households in
both villages are not areca nut planter. We select only those family
cultivating areca nut and the universe is not from total household in the
villages but from the total household of areca nut cultivators. Similarly,
sample sizes are also taken from total cultivator of areca nut.
Table 2. Household Sample
Bilkhawthlir Village Hortoki Village
Household % Household %
Number Number
Sample size 50 9 30 50
Number of Areca nut grower 550 100 60 100
Total Household (2011 census) 1100 490
Source: Field Survey, April, 2017& Census of India-2011
Table-2 shows that the sample size in Bilkhawthlir was relatively

so small because in Bilkhawthlir they have active association that maintain
proper records about areca nut plantation and they can give us detail
information whereas Hortoki village do not have any association to maintain
records and as a result we need to collect 50 % sample.
Research Question
Present study is based on the assumption that areca nut plantation
is comparatively much more productive in the recent years due to global
warming. The main research question of present research is that ‘Does
global warming a blessing for areca nut planter in Mizoram? Even though
global warming has countless negative impacts across the world, it may
also have positive impact in the hilly state of Mizoram.
Objectives
1. To study the history of areca nut cultivation in the study area
2. To examine production of areca nut cultivation
3. To investigate the role of global warming in the production of
areca nut cultivation.
Discussion
India is the largest producer and consumer of areca nut palm in the
world. Mostly areca nut palm are grown in the warm and humid temperature.
832
Major producing states in India are Karnataka, Kerala, Assam, Tamil Nadu,
Meghalaya and West Bengal. Literatures reveal that areca nut palm can
thrives well in wide verities of soil. It requires annual rainfall of between
750 mm to 4500 mm. This crop can be grown in an altitude up to 1000 m
above mean sea level. The ideal temperature range is 100 C to 400C (source:
www.agrifarming.in/arecanut-cultivation/ dated: 10/06/2017).
History in Mizoram
The cultivation of areca nut palm never popular in Mizoram as the
climatic condition used to be moderate and cold temperature throughout
the year. Even though there is no historical record of reliable climatic data,
it is well known by the people that Mizoram never be a warm state rather
it experiences ice-dew in many places across the state 30 years back.
Therefore, it is hardly an ideal place for cultivation of areca nut. Betel nut,
the product of areca nut is also known by Mizoram mainly from Khasi
people of Meghalaya and Assam. The state never had large scale production
even till today as the climatic condition is not favourable in many places,
particularly the temperature.
Bilkhawthlir village has the longer history of areca nut plantation compared
with Hortoki village. The areca nut planter association of Bilkhawthlir
recorded that areca nut cultivation was started in the year 1953 by Mr.
Liankhuma without much success. However, present research clearly
reveals that Mr Hmartawnvunga of Bilkhawthlir popularized areca nut
plantation. He started areca nut plantation in the year 1965 but in a meager
quantity and without much success. In 1977 he starts planting Assam variety
(as the local called it) but that was also failed. It appears from his statement
that areca nut plantation was not much success before 1980 in the
Bilkhawthlir village located at an altitude of 460m above mean sea level
before 37 years ago. Therefore, at least in Bilkhawthlir, the present success
story of areca nut plantation was only during the last 37 years or so.
Hortoki village has a younger history of areca nut cultivation compared
with Bilkhawthlir village. The Hortoki village started areca nut plantation
only in 1994 with small quantity along the lemon fruit and without
noticeable success. But since then they start planting gradually in large
quantity. Thus, the planting history of Hortoki village shows that areca nut
plantation is new and a recent success merely around 10 or 15 years back.
Therefore, plantation history clearly shows that the success story
of areca nut in the selected two villages is recent and also can be assumed
that the climatic condition was not much favourable in the past 50 years
833
ago. Most importantly, areca nut was not native species of Mizoram and
so from the beginning they imported from outside the state.
Production Trends of Areca Nut
The above historical discourse makes us wonder why areca nut
plantation was successful today in the study villages while it was not success
in the past years. This is an interesting research question that we challenge
to answer. Under normal circumstances, the soil fertility of areca nut
cultivation might be poorer or at least similar compared with the past
cultivation and present cultivation. But in such situation the production is
much more today than the previous 30 years back. If that is the case, soil is
not responsible for present success of the villages. If so, global warming
might be the main driver. Since Bilkhawthlir has a longer planting history,
they have proper association with some records while Hortoki village does
not have any proper record and no association, which make limitation of
present research.
Variety of Areca Nut Plantation
Table-3 discusses about variety of areca nut plantation in the study
villages. There are two popular varieties, such as Assam variety and Dessi/
Local variety.
Table-3. Variety of Areca nut cultivation
Variety Number % Number %
Assam 28 56 17 56.67
Dessi/Local 0 0 13 43.33
Both 22 44 0 0.00
Total 50 100 30 100.00
Table-3 reveals that in Bilkhawthlir village 56 % grows Assam

variety while 44 % grow both Assam and Dessi/Local variety. In Hortoki,
Assam variety is more common than Dessi/Local variety as 56.67% grow
Assam variety while 43% households grow Dessi variety.
Production Pattern
Table-4 shows that all the cultivators reported that production of
areca nut was increases year after year. Interestingly this is true in both
villages.
834
Table-4. Production pattern of Areca nut

Bilkhawthlir Hortoki
Production Number % Number %
Increases with year 50 100 30 100
Decreases with year 0 0 0 0
Not decrease or Increase 0 0 0 0
Total 50 100 30 100
Comparative Income from Areca Nut Yield

In order to confirm the statement above table-4, the actual earning
of household from areca nut yield was asked. Table-5 clearly reveals that
the earning from areca nut was increases enormously within a span of only
five years. The average annual income from areca nut was much higher
among farmers of Bilkhawthlir compared with Hortoki farmers. When we
compared last year earning of both the villages Bilkhawthlir generated
average income of as much as Rs 858039 compared with Hortoki income
of 5113. What is more important is the five year gap differences in both
villages.
Table 5. Comparative Income from Areca nut yield
Last year In Rs Before Differences In Rs Before Differences
earning 5 year 5 year
Average 858039 323529 534510 35967 5113 30854
Total 43760000 16500000 27260000 1079000 154300 924700
As shown in table-5, last year average annual income of

Bilkhawthlir village was Rs 858039 which was much more than the average
income five years ago with Rs 323529. Within a short span of five years,
the income generated from areca nut plantation was highly varied with Rs
534510. Similarly, average annual earning of Hortoki was also hugely varied
within a span of merely five years. Average income of last year among
farmers of Hortoki was Rs 35967 which was comparatively higher than
the annual income five years ago with merely Rs 5113. The difference
between these five years was Rs 30854.In the same way, total earning of
last year and five years ago was extremely different in both villages (table-
835
5). This drastic change of production quantity was amazing as it can really
provide higher income and contributes fro better livelihood of the villages.
Trends of Income from Areca Nut Production in Bilkhawthlir
Since Bilkhawthlir village has areca nut grower association,
information of the past years can be taken whereas the same kinds of
informations are not available from farmers of Hortoki. According to the
record of Areca nut Grower Association of Bilkhawthlir, income generated
from areca nut production was exceedingly increases within the last six
years. Table-6 reflects that there was a continuous increase of income among
the farmers since 2010 onwards. In 2010-2011 the income of areca nut
grower association of Bilkhawthlir was Rs 609960, which increases to
12727700 in 2011-2012 and ascending fairly high up to Rs 32000000 in
2015-2016.
Table 6. Bilkhawthlir Village: Trends of income from Areca nut Production
Years Production (Rupees) Year-wise differences
2010-2011 609960 12117740
2011-2012 12727700 707150
2012-2013 13434850 5639280
2013-2014 19074130 5425870
2014-2015 24500000 7500000
2015-2016 32000000
Source: Areca nut Grower Association of Bilkhawthlir
The year-wise differences were also significantly varied. This
clearly shows that areca nut plantation is a blessing for farmers of
Bilkhawthlir village.
Does Global Warming Play a Role for Increases of Areca Nut
Production
Farmers in both the villages are questions about their opinion on
why is the areca nut production increases. The observations in both the
villages were varied. In Bilkhawthlir, the highest number of 45 (90%)
reported that increasing production is mainly due to increasing temperature
or global warming whereas in Hortoki a lesser number of 28 (93%) are of
the viewed that global warming is the main driver of increasing areca nut
production.
836
In Bilkhawthlir 42 (84%) reported that market improvement is the

reason of production increases of areca nut while as much as 29 (97%) in
the case of Hortoki village. A good number of 36 (72%) reasoned that
favourable climatic condition is the main factor responsible for increasing
production of areca nut while as many as 29 (97%) have similar opinion
among farmers of Hortoki village.
Table 7. Reason of increasing production
Why Number % Number %
Market improvement 42 84 29 97
Favourable climatic condition 36 72 29 97
Global warming 45 90 28 93
Total 50 100 30 100
Table-7 clearly shows that global warming is the main driver of
increasing production of areca nut. Market improvement is only after
production and it cannot be the main driver even though it is important.
Pondering all other determinants of increasing productivity, soil fertility
might be one important factor but this is also not much to give weightage
as soils are somehow similar compared with the time when they failed to
grow and today.
One respondent says that ‘even 20 years back, the areca nut palm
bore fruit/nut but it cannot ripen but today it can ripen’. This really reflects
the validity of global warming for increasing productivity.
Decreasing Spring Water Sources
It is often encountered by researcher in various studies that the
farmers or the respondents are not fully understand why things are happened
around them because they usually don’t think in the way researcher think
and sometime they simply not curious enough to know the reasons why
things happened, which were usually reflected in the way answers. Present
questionnaire also structure in such a way that, even if the respondents do
not fully understand or cannot rationally answer the determining factors
of why areca nut can be grown now, we add additional information to
prove the validity of global warming. In order to do that we asked their
observation on the volume of water in the river/spring near their villages
837
compared with the past years.

Table-8. Do you observed springs water volume decreases
Number % Number %
Yes 50 100 30 100
No 0 0 0 0
Total 50 100 30 100
All the respondents of both the villages replied that river/spring

water in the vicinity of their villages is gradually dry up and the water
volume decreases year by year. This is another way of identifying the reality
of global warming that happened in the areas.
It is also proves that many respondents are not understand the
concept of global warming and they lack to link with areca nut cultivation.
However, when asked that ‘do you feel temperature are warmer than the
past years’ and all of them replied ‘yes’, which clearly validate global
warming as one main driver of areca nut cultivation. Generally, that soil
condition is also poorer in today’s cultivated area compared with when
they start planting areca nut 30 years ago but it bear more fruits today
mainly because of warmer temperature.
Market for Areca nut Production
Apart from global warming, respondents are asked question on
market condition of the farmers in both the villages. All of them reported
that they do not have market problem. Interestingly, they sell their product
outside Mizoram. Mostly buyers from nearby state of Assam came and
pluck areca nut from the tree when it ripens and the farmer just to get
money from the buyers. Thus all of them sell outside the state.
Table-9. Market for areca nut production
Where do you sell Number % Number %
Within Mizoram 0 10 0 0
Outside Mizoram 50 100 30 100
Total 50 100 30 100

838
Findings and Conclusion

Taken together of the above analysis, it can be concluded that-
(1) Historically, areca nut cultivation never become popular in
Mizoram and the seeds are imported from neighbouring states like
Assam and Meghalaya.
(2) Research find out that areca nut production in the study villages
are increases drastically within the recent times and a good number
of families are depend on it.
(3) Among different potential determinants like global warming, soil
fertility and market opportunities; global warming seems the most
important determinant for increasing productivity of areca nut in
the study areas.
(4) Readily market became one of the most important drivers of areca
nut cultivators.
(5) It is interesting to note that, the areca nut fruit/nut cannot properly
ripen 20 years back but it really ripen nicely today due to increasing
temperature.
Therefore, our objective and research question are answered by
the fact that global warming is becoming a blessed for areca nut cultivator
in Mizoram at least today.
References:
Impact of Climate Change on Horticulture Industry and Technological Countermeasures
in Japan- Kunihisa Morinaga (2016), Research manager, National Agricultural
Research Organization (NARO
IPCC (2007): Observations: surface and atmospheric climate change, Fourth Assessment
Report: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf
IPCC (2007): Regional Climate Projections, Fourth Assessment Report
Source: http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library.php?func=view&id=20120104150721&type_
id=4
usatoday.com.googlrweblight.com
Vol. 3 (2017) : 839-851, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
62
Multi-temporal Standardized Precipitation
Index and Regional Drought Monitoring
in the Western Part of West Bengal
Pradip Patra
CSIR-SRF, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta,
E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract
Drought is considered as one of the most important natural hazards in
the world, and it ranks the first in case of total number of affected
people are concerned. Drought may occur due to scarcity of moisture.
Therefore, precipitation is the most important factor of drought, but
other climatic factors like temperature, relative humidity and wind
too influence drought. There are a number of methodologies available
to study drought that varies from one region to the other. In general,
droughts are classified into four types- meteorological, hydrological,
agricultural and socio-economic. There are various drought indices
developed, e.g. the simplest index, like: Percentage of Normal, to
complex one, like: Palmar Drought Severity Index. McKee, Doesken
and Kleist (1993) developed Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI),
which has been accepted by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) and other important meteorological institutes worldwide. In
this study, multi-temporal SPI has been calculated to quantify the
characteristics of the drought in the western part of the state of West
Bengal. Application of SPI does not only monitor regional drought
phenomena, it also gives long-term climatic characteristics of a region
in terms of dry and wet period, which is the prime objective of this
paper. It has been found that both the duration and intensity have
changed from one district to the other.
Key Points: Meteorological Drought Indices, Regional Drought, SPI,
Western West Bengal
840
Introduction
Assessment Report Five (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) pointed out the fact that as a result of the increasing
surface temperature of the earth, various climatic phenomena also has
changed their characteristics. It is now an established fact that frequency
and intensity of climate extremes will increase with the changing climate.
Various researchers have pointed out that extreme event such as, droughts,
heat wave, cold wave, high intensive precipitation, dry days frequency,
storm intensities are likely to increase in recent time as well as in the near
future (Frich et. al. 2000; Emanuel, K., 2005; Alexander, L.V. et. al., 2006).
Easterling, R. D. et. al. (2000) pointed out the fact that, with the rise in
climatic extremes, the magnitude of loss too will increase in the future.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) defines a drought index as
“an index which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged
and abnormal deficiency.” Drought is a slow onset and long lasting
environmental hazards. A drought is a period of dry normal conditions,
and usually occurs when an area receives considerably less precipitation
compared to the normal one. It is the result of many factors, and accordingly
it is classified into different categories. In general, drought can be classified
into four categories like meteorological, hydrological, agricultural and
socio-economic (Palmer, 1965; Wilhite and Glantz, 1985 and White and
Walcott, 2009). It is indeed a big challenge to define and monitor drought.
So, the preparedness of drought planning and its monitoring depends on
spatio-temporal availability of the data from various sources like
meteorological, hydrological, vegetation information, etc. WMO also
clarify that, an ideal drought index should have the following criteria: (1)
The timescale should be appropriate to define problem, and (2) it should
be a quantitative measure of large-scale, long-continuing drought conditions
(intensity, duration, spatial extent). Thus, various drought indices (DIs)
have been propounded by the different scholars like Palmer Drought
Severity Index (PDSI), Palmer Hydrological Index (PDHI), Palmer (1965)
Rainfall Anomaly Index, RAI (Van Rooy, 1965), Deciles (Gibbs and Maher,
1967), Crop Moisture Index, CMI (Palmer, 1968), Surface Water Supply
Index, SWSI (Shafer and Dezman, 1982), Vegetation Condition Index, VCI
(Kogan, 1990), Standardized Precipitation Index, SPI (McKee et. al. 1993),
Temperature Condition Index, TCI and Vegetation Health Index, VHI
(Kogan, 1995), Normalized Difference Water Index, NDWI (Gao, 1996),
Effective Drought Index, EDI (Byun and Wilhite, 1999), Reconnaissance
Drought Index, RDI (Tsakiris et. al., 2007) etc. Before the arrival of SPI,
PDSI was widely accepted DI, but due to the complexity of the calculation,
841
it has lost its reputation. Now SPI is accepted worldwide due to its versatility
and flexibility (Hayes, et. al., 1998). In 2009 WMO meeting, the Lincoln
workshop highlighted on Drought Early Warning System (DEWS) and
recommend that the SPI should be computed and used by different
meteorological or hydrological services as the common meteorological
drought index along with their own drought index.
Various researchers have analyzed multi-temporal SPIs to
determine the causes and intensity of the drought phenomena, like Loukas
et. al. (2004), Dai (2013) and Homdee (2016). As it is time independent,
researchers often used SPI for different kind of drought monitoring. McKee
et. al. (1993) and Lincoln Declaration (2011) pointed out the fact that, SPI
is a more meteorological drought than other types of droughts. While multi-
temporal drought analysis different time scale have been used by different
researchers like Umran Komuscu (1999), Mahfouz et. al. (2016). On the
other hand, with the effect of global warming, probability of drought
occurrences and its change of intensity were done by various researchers
and found that frequency and intensity of the drought event is increased in
recent past and will be increases in upcoming future (Dai, 2013, Trenberth,
2014, Touma et. al. 2015, Farahmand et. al. 2015).
Objectives
Main objectives of this paper are –
• To analyze multi-temporal Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)
of the study region.
• To compare different types of drought among the districts of the
region.
• To know the onset and maximum intensity of the recent drought
using DI.
Data and Methodology
To look into the drought scenario of the area, 113 years of mean
monthly precipitation data of five districts, collected from India
Meteorological Department (IMD) Pune, are used. The data is almost
complete, only 2% to 3% are missing data, for the entire 113 years of
period, hence it is quite reliable. Those small quantity missing data are
filled up by simple arithmetic method and normal ration method, which is
applicable for suitable cases. After the data preparation i.e. missing data
calculation and completion of data MS Excel software is used to compute
multi temporal SPI. Total 113 years of data taken, so for SPI3 calculation,
842
data start from 1901 March to 2013 December total 1354 time step. For
spatio-temporal analysis of the drought centroid has been generated each
of the district and its spatial distribution has been done using Inverse
Distance Weightage (IDW) interpolation techniques of ArcGIS 10.2.
The Study Area
The present study area is extended from 21Ú46¹ 42º N to 24Ú 36¹
04º N and 85Ú47 ¹ 21º E to 88Ú 23¹ 0ºE covering an area of 34,200 sq.km
of the South-Western part of West Bengal. The study area lies between the
plateau fringe zone of West Bengal, rainfall gradually decreasing from the
eastern part of the study area (1567mm) to the western part (1307mm) and
the southern part of the study area to northern part of the study area. But
the variability of the precipitation is the maximum throughout the region,
hence one district may face acute drought, but the other portion are not
same as the previous part. On the other hand, temperature also increases
from the south eastern part to the north western part of the study area. The
maximum and minimum temperatures lie between 45ÚC and 6ÚC in
summer and winter months.
Figure 1: Location map of the study area
Classification of Droughts
Droughts can be grouped as meteorological, hydrological,
agricultural, and socioeconomic (Wilhite and Glantz, 1985). First,
Meteorological drought is defined solely on the degree of dryness,
expressed as a departure of actual precipitation from an expected average.
Second, Hydrological drought is related to the effects of precipitation
shortfalls on stream flows and reservoir, lake, and groundwater levels.
Third, Agricultural drought is defined principally in terms of soil moisture
deficiencies relative to water demands of plant life, usually crops. Fourth,
Socioeconomic drought associates the supply and demand of economic
843
goods or services with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and

agricultural drought.
Drought Index-Standardized Precipitation Indices (SPI)
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) developed by McKee,
Doesken and Kleist (1993) is used to estimate the intensity and duration of
the drought event. In general, computation of SPI requires the fitting of a
probability distribution of precipitation records for the timescale of interest
in order to define probability to the precipitation. Then the fitted probability
distribution is normalized to a standard normal distribution using the inverse
normal function. In standard normal distribution, the mean of the variance
SPI for the location and desired time period are 0 and 1 respectively.
Therefore, for any observed precipitation data, the SPI value is the deviation
from entire standard normal distribution. Multi-temporal SPI index have
been calculated as stated by McKee et. al. (1993). All the equation of the
computation of SPI are available in the research papers of Karavitis et. al.
(2011), Juliani et. al. (2017).
Table- 1: Classification of Drought
Drought Category SPI values
Mild Drought(MD) 0 to -0.99
Moderate Drought(MoD) -1.00 to -1.49
Severe Drought(SD) -1.50 to -1.99
Very Severe Drought (VSD) <-2.00
It is based only on precipitation. No soil water-balance component,

thus no ratios of evapotranspiration/potential evapotranspiration (ET/PET)
can be calculated. A new variation of the index by Vicente-Serrano S.M.
et. al. (2010) attempts to address the PET issue by including a temperature
component in the calculation of their new index called the Standardized
Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI).
Result and Discussion
1-month SPI: It is good to know water deficit in a particular month from
its long term mean, but one has to remember the fact that, due to the
precipitation distribution pattern, if one month has comparatively dry
month, then small amount of precipitation deficit may result into a peculiar
situation of high negative or positive SPI. From the figure 3 (a-e) and table
2, it can be said that, around 56% of the months belong to the mild drought
(MD) category, where the highest percentage of the MD observed in the
844
station of the Purulia district, while other districts also have same percentage
of the MD; whereas (Moderate Drought) MoD, Severe Drought (SD) and
Very Severe Drought (VSD) are few in the districts of the Bankura and
Birbhum while Birbhum and Purulia districts have 1 VSD by SPI1.
3-month SPI: SPI3 is used as meteorological drought analysis by
researchers like McKee et. al. (1993), Lincoln Declaration (2011), Jain.
et.al. (2015) as it give us a short term moisture deficit condition, due to
lack of precipitation. Three months SPI of September calculated using
precipitation of ‘three consecutive month i.e. July, August and September
and its long term average precipitation of that particular period. SPI3 have
less MD compared to the SPI1 as cumulative moisture content of three
comprehensive months is account here. From the figure 3(a-e) and table 2,
it can be said that all the five districts have more than 44% of MD, while
more than 10% of MoD and Purulia and Paschim Medinipur have more
than 12% of MoD.
6-month SPI: It is helpful for drought delineation of a region, having
different climatic condition. As it gives us wetness and dryness of a region
in the last consecutive six months, so short term precipitation dryness can
be overcome. Hence it will help us to stream flow or reservoir monitoring.
SPI has relatively lesser MD compare to the previous SPI, while MoD,
SD, and VSD are having high in frequency compare to the MD. All the
station having the highest percentage of frequency of MoD compare to
any other SPI’s.
9-month SPI: This actually bridge between short-term droughts to long-
term droughts. It is good for agricultural drought delineation, as consecutive
nine month water deficit or moisture increase can be measured. With the
increase of time scale, MD has come down, while MoD, SD and VSD are
increased. It is also mentionable that, out of four categories of water scarcity
or dry phases, SD has increased considerably throughout all of the districts.
12-24-month SPI: As the moisture deficit or surplus is measured for a
consecutive 12-24 month period, it also gives us a long-term water
availability condition. It is actually used for stream flow, reservoir level
and ground water level monitoring, i.e. it can be applicable for hydrological
drought monitoring. The maximum frequency of MoD and SD has been
recorded in this time period. SPI24 shows the maximum VSD among all
other SPI throughout all of the districts, except Purulia where SPI with
higher time scale played an important role.
36-48-monthSPI: Lincoln Declaration (2011) and WMO guidelines depict
845
that SPI can be calculated up to 72 month of time period. From the figure
2(d), it can be said that SPI36-SPI48 has been separating the whole data
period of dry and wet periods. Inter-district distribution of SPI48 reveals
that, all of the districts have a dry climatic phase exist at 1950-1960. On
the other hand, wet period exist most of the district from 1980-2000, except
Barddhaman district, where a dry phase has been noticed from 1990-2000.
In recent times, in the decades of 2000s shows irregularity of the distribution
of dry and wet phase exist throughout all of the districts. The frequency
analysis shows that frequency of occurrence of MD to MoD has increases
while SD to VSD has decreases in SPI36-SPI 48 compared to the previous
SPI12-24. This may be the cause of climatic oscillation or wet phase and
dry phases are not very prominent in the region.
a. b.
c. d.
Figure 2: SPI3 (a), SPI12 (b) and SPI24 (c) SPI48 (d) of Purulia District
a. b.
c. d.
846
e.
Figure 3: Comparison of multi SPI of districts Bankura (a), Birbhum (b), Barddhaman
(c), Paschim Medinipur (d) and Purulia (e)
Table 2: Intercomparison of drought months demarcated by SPI’s among five districts

Districts Class SPI1 SPI3 SPI6 SPI9 SPI12 SPI24 SPI36 SPI48
Bankura MD 763 612 548 524 495 467 497 489
MoD 91 149 170 156 138 117 95 120
SD 8 21 35 52 69 82 82 54
VSD 0 2 1 1 4 19 16 25
Birbhum MD 764 605 529 501 462 490 537 475
MoD 85 154 151 144 168 167 116 115
SD 12 26 46 58 57 57 58 64
VSD 1 4 5 4 5 4 11 16
Barddhaman MD 758 597 564 557 512 553 503 442
MoD 76 140 153 140 158 101 140 105
SD 17 33 43 51 58 69 47 103
VSD 0 2 3 6 2 11 19 14
Paschim MD 764 603 552 559 572 482 551 537
Medinipur MoD 70 165 173 152 128 145 104 95
SD 17 23 37 34 45 47 65 55
VSD 0 0 6 12 12 17 10 19
Purulia MD 775 595 537 524 526 484 495 510
MoD 71 145 136 138 122 104 96 114
SD 11 27 49 47 51 70 64 66
VSD 1 3 9 12 17 28 24 23
847
a. b.
c
Figure 4: Probability of occurrence of MoD (a), SD (b) and VSD (c) of all the districts
Probability of the Occurrences of Drought

Probability curves of all the districts denote that, all the districts
have similar characteristics with diminishing MoD with the higher SPIs;
while in case of SD and VSD are concern, all of the districts show positive
trends of the drought with increasing time periods. That may happen due
to the cumulative effects of small scale intensive wet and dry phase which
eliminate at larger time scale. It is also interesting that all the districts
shows both the frequency (table 2 and figure 4) of occurrences of the SD
and VSD are becoming less on above SPI24; that means, precipitation
irregularity are present in short-term time scale, and not in the long-term
cases. Probability curves of the SD and VSD of Purulia, Bankura and
Paschim Medinipur show that with the increasing temporal scale probability
of SD and VSD have increased very much, due to the continental effects.
Spatio Temporal Variability of the Drought
To know the spatio-temporal variability of the drought phenomena
SPI3, which is the most suitable for the meteorological drought analysis,
has been used (Jain et. al., 2015). Here, the importance is given on
understanding the onset and progress of drought occurrence and its
maximum distribution over the area. Drought phenomena in the year of
2000 have been analyzed in figure 5(a-d). In 2000, drought starts with
decreasing precipitation (about 15%-35%) of the May and June months.
SPI3 of June month shows that, western part of West Bengal mainly at
Purulia, the SPI3 value remain mild drought category, while other portions
848
remain mild wet, with the change of the time, due to the deficit of the
precipitation. The entire western parts remain mild drought to moderate
drought, which are shown by SPI3 of July, August and September. It is
also shown by SPI3 of September that, later precipitation in the month of
late August and September in Birbhum, severity of the drought has decreases
and it remain wet to very wet condition.
a. SPI3 of June, 2000 b. SPI3 of July, 2000
c. SPI3 of August, 2000 d. SPI3 of September, 2000
Figure 5: Spatio Temporal Distribution of Drought 2000(a-d)
Aman is the main paddy crop of the area, as the agriculture of the
western part of the area remains precipitation dependent, and irrigation
facilities are not spread throughout the entire period, this may lead to crop
849
failure of the region. In the year of 2000 has been recorded as a drought
year and due to lack of precipitation vis-à-vis water availability, crop failure
has been noticed. Production of the Aman crop during 2000 decreased
substantially, less than half compare to normal year the in the districts of
Birbhum, Paschim Medinipur, Purulia and Barddhaman.
Major Findings
From the above discussion, major outcomes can be enlisted as 1.
Out of the five districts Bankura and Purulia and Birbhum Districts are the
most drought affected districts in case of short-term drought, like SPI1-
SPI6. 2. Most Drought Severity districts are Bankura and Purulia for long-
term or hydrological drought. 3. SPI36 and SPI48 can be used for
hydrological drought analysis, and these are useful for wet phase and dry
phase delineation. Recent decades shows irregularity of wet and dry phase
distribution, which may often impose threats to the food security in the
area in the near future. 4. SPI3 is the best suited meteorological drought;
and it has a very good relationship with the agricultural production of the
area.
Conclusions
Climatic variability in recent years has increased, and the various
associated hazards too have increased. As the drought is a “creeping
hazards”, special focus should be given on monitoring the drought
phenomena of a region. SPI is one of the important drought indices; by
this, anyone can easily monitor different drought condition of a region.
Not only drought analysis, SPI with higher temporal scale like SPI36-SPI72,
can be used to delineate the dry phase and wet phase of a region. Small
scale drought is an important phenomenon, which is directly linked with
crop production of a dry area. Water deficit of the last 2-3 month may play
the decisive role of this kind of drought, and SPI3 very efficiently demarcate
the recent drought condition of the area. So, proper study is needed for
human being to survive with the upcoming climatic hazards, particularly
of drought. Other than precipitation, temperature and potential
evapotranspiration also play very important role in this regard. Number of
rain gauge in this area is very less, so need to be increased for a good
spatio-temporal drought analysis. Other than observational based Drought
Indicator (DI), there are also various satellite based DIs, which can be
used to analyze spatial extension of droughts and their impact on vegetation.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Prof. Lakshminarayan Satpati, my Ph. D.
850
supervisor, for his immense help in preparing this research paper. I also
thank Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ministry of
Earth Science, for funding my research work. I also express my gratitude
to India Meteorological Department (IMD) for providing me the
precipitation dataset.
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Juliani, B.H.T. and Okawa, C.M.P. (2017) Application of a Standardized Precipitation
Index for Meteorological Drought Analysis of the Semi-Arid Climate Influence in
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852
Vol. 3 (2017) : 853-859, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
63
Climate Change Impact on Migratory
Birds in Kolkota, West Bengal
Akhi Sarkar
Bhairab Ganguly College, PG, Department of Geography
Abstract
Climate is the most important astringent of nature. But the climate of
West Bengal is changing day by day. The onset and withdrawal of
monsoon are delayed and the extent of delay may be up to a fortnight.
Kolkata (22Ú34’N-88Ú22’E) is a district of West Bengal. Kolkata is
experiencing most vulnerable condition to climate change. Kolkata
enjoys tropical wet and dry climate. The highest recorded temperature
is 43.9Úc and the lowest temperature was 3Úc. To understand the
impact of temperature and rainfall characteristics are been analysed
through statistical techniques and graphical representation. After
analysing all the data temperature is rising day by day. As a result of
climate change is definitely affecting the migratory pattern of the birds
in their different phenological events. The earning scopes become
decreases day by day from migratory birds visiting the sanctuary. This
topic concentrates mainly on the co-relation between migratory birds
in relation to the variation of climatic components.
Key Words: Kolkata, climate change, temperature, rainfall, migratory
birds.
Introduction
We live on the most beautiful planet, Earth which has very clean
and attractive naturefull of greenery. Climate is most important astringent
of nature. Climate is a critical factor in the lives and livelihoods of the
854
people and socioeconomic development as a whole. But the climate of

West Bengal is changing day by day. The onset and withdrawal of monsoon
are delayed and the extent of delay may be up to a fortnight. Climate has
shown warming of 0.89°C, over the period 1901–2014 which is mainly
attributed to anthropogenic activities (IPCC 2014). The newer findings
indicate that warming is more pronounced than expected. Kolkata
(22Ú34’N-88Ú22’E) is a district of West Bengal. Climate change, rapidly
increasing population, depletion of natural habitats and resources are
important global challenges having direct impacts on livelihoods and raising
concerns for food security, water supply, health and energy. Also climate
change is definitely affecting the migratory pattern of the birds in their
different phenological events.
Study Area
Kolkata (22Ú34’N-88Ú22’E) is a district of West Bengal is
experiencing most vulnerable condition to climate change. Study area is
Kolkata has a Tropical Wet and Dry Climate. The Annual Mean Temperature
is 28.3° C while Monthly Mean Temperatures range from 19° C to 30° C.
The average Relative Humidity varies between 47% and 83%.Kolkata gets
most of its rainfall from the South-West Monsoon between June &
September.
Fig.1: Location Map of Kolkata
Objective
Ecosystem restoration and pest regulation, in addition to the
important cultural, aesthetic and economic roles they play in the lives of
855
people worldwide.Kolkata, houses many places of tourist interest that result

in thousands of footfalls round the year for watching migratory birds. The
city is the main business, academic, and cultural hub of Eastern India and
lies on the eastern riverbanks of the Hooghly River.
Methods and Materials
To understand the impact of temperature and rainfall characteristics
are been analysed to climate change through statistical techniques and
graphical representation. T he primary data are collected from
Meteorological Observatory and the secondary data are collected from
various Bird Sanctuary, from the neighbourhood of these sanctuary. Drawn
the line graph, bar graph by the help of the data of minimum & maximum
temperature, rainfall. This data represented the climatic trend of temperature
and rainfall & the co-relation of migratory birds.
Results and Discussion
Changes in rainfall and other forms of precipitation will be one of
the most critical factors determining the overall impact of climate
change. The trend of mean rainfall represents the mean rainfall of Kolkata
during (1965-2015). The average rainfall was moderately high in the year
of 2000-2005. But the amount of rainfall is decreased at the recent time.
Fig. 2: Trend of Rainfall in mm. (1965-2015)
Trend of Average Minimum and Maximum Temperature (1965-

2015)
Minimum temperatureis the lowest temperature recorded—
diurnally, monthly, seasonally, or annually, or the lowest temperature of
856
the entire record. Daily air temperature minima are recorded by the
screen minimum thermometer. ...minimum temperature. The trend of mean
maximum temperature is shown here. It represents the maximum
temperature is increased day by day. From June month the maximum
temperature is increased. Besides the minimum temperature is decreased
day by day. Alipur Meteorological observatory recorded it.
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
The minimum temperature occurs when there is a balance between
outgoing and incoming radiation. As the sun rides higher in the sky,
increasing amounts of short-wave radiation are available to heat the
ground, and therefore available to heat the overlying air.
The months January, February, November and December have a
nice average temperature.
On average, the maximum temperatures are always high. The
warmest month is May.
On average, the coolest month is January. The minimum
temperature is decrease day by day.
Fig. 5: Trend of Monthly Mean Maximum & Minimum Temperate

857
Temperatures measured on land and at sea for more than a century

show that Earth’s globally averaged surface temperature is rising. For the
last 45 years, global surface temperature rose at an average rate of about
0.17°C per decade—more than twice as fast as the 0.07°C per decade
increase observed for the entire period of recorded observations (1880-
2015). Co‚ is most responsible for climate change. The projected
temperature change during 2000-2020 is shown here. The amount of co‚
and maximum temperature is increased day by day. As a result the balance
of co‚ and o‚ is going to the misbalancing condition.
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Impact on Migratory Birds
Bird Sanctuary of Kolkata is the home to a variety of local and
migratory birds which include the Black-napped Monarch, Rufous Treepie,
Jungle Babbler, Asian Paradise Flycatcher, Common Hawk Cuckoo,
Orange-breasted Green Pigeon, Emerald Dove, Streak-throated
Woodpecker, Orange-headed Thrush, White-throated Fantail, Crested
Serpent Eagle, Large-tailed Nightjar, Ashy Wood Swallow, Lineated Barbet
and Greater Flame back.Some of the migratory birds that come from central
Asia, Siberia.
Climate Change Affects on the Patterns of Migration
Global warming also influences the routes of many migratory birds
and their annual migration rhythm. A lot of migratory birds change their
routes, shorten or completely cancel their journey as a result of changing
temperatures.
858
Warm Weather Increases the Competition for Breeding Places

Mild winters help resident birds to survive. They start to use food
resources and breeding places of long distance migrants. As a consequence,
long distance migrants might find their breeding grounds occupied by a
large number of resident birds.
Global Threat: Climate Change Implies the Danger to Migratory Birds
The earth’s climate has been changing throughout time. Some of
the earth’s bird species were able to adapt to these changes, while others
could not and have become extinct as a result. However, the climate change
we are experiencing today is different: human-induced global warming is
happening at an accelerated speed and it is becoming increasingly difficult
for many bird species to keep up with the resulting shifts species and
migratory birds.
Fig. 8
Table 1: Decadal migratory birds in Kolkata

YEAR Black-napped Asian Paradise Streak-throated
Monarch Flycatcher Woodpecker
1965-1974 210 321 158
1975-1984 262 345 195
1985-1994 297 385 241
1995-2004 235 351 205
2005-2015 191 300 165
859
Kolkata has lost a winter signature — migratory birds at Alipore

zoo — and climate change could be the reason. The zoo used to play host
to about 20,000 feathered visitors every winter from various parts of the
world, including the Himalayas and even Siberia, in the 1980s. The figure
dwindled to 4,000 in the last decade. This year, migratory birds were absent
on the vast water body at the centre of the zoo.According to Subir
Chaudhury, Director, Alipore zoo, “not only has the number of birds gone
down considerably over the past two decades, the duration of their staying
time has also shortened”. The reason behind is the climate change due to
global warming. He also said “Around 84 per cent of species of migratory
birds face some of threat from climate change.”
Conclusion
Birds generally reflect the status and trends affecting wider
biodiversity. They are important for monitoring changes in the environment,
since they are an integral part of almost all ecosystems in the world. Climate
change affects birds in different ways. It can alter distribution, abundance,
behaviour, even genetic composition. It can also affect the timing of events
like migration or breeding. Climate change can affect birds directly, through
changes in temperature or rainfall. It can also lead to increased pressure
from competitors, predators, parasites, diseases and disturbances like fires
or storms. And climate change can act in combination with other major
threats like habitat loss and alien invasive species, making the overall impact
worse. The impact of climate change is not the only factor responsible for
the changed behaviour, but other factors like urbanisation and destruction
of habitat are also behind the climatic shifting.
References
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 861-876, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
64
Risk perception of flood and its
management by the stakeholders along
Mayurakshi Basin: a New Arena in Flood
Research Management
Sayani Mukhopadhyay
Department of Geography, Asutosh College, Affiliated to University to
Calcutta, Kolkata, India, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) is a process which
involves sustainability of resources and at the same time focuses to
incorporate all possible stakeholders from the planning level itself,
reducing possible future conflicts. Water has always been an essential
resource for survival. There is a great spatial and temporal inequality
in the distribution of precipitation in India which is generated by the
south-west monsoon. India experiences flooding every year and
disastrous floods threaten regions and the people living there and the
basis of their existence. Flood Risk Management (FRM) is the latest
approach which has shifted its paradigms from technical oriented flood
protection measures of focus on defending against floods towards flood
risk management, a focus on managing flood risks. Human perceptions
of flood risk of the stakeholders provide the necessary information
and integration of these perceptions in decision-making process may
help in developing a holistic flood management policy. The present
study aims to analyse the perception of flood damage and its causes
by the inhabitants of Mayurakshi River basin in Jharkhand and West
Bengal. The river Mayurakshi, one of the major right bank tributaries
of the river Bhagirathi flows down through a large part of eastern
India and has structural measures like Massanjore dam(MD) and
862
Tilpara barrage(TB). The river has become infamous for its widespread
flooding and long duration water logging in the lower reaches of its
basin, the worst of which happened in the year 2000. A questionnaire
survey was carried out in 21 villages covering a wide range of flood-
related issues was prepared to examine the perception of the bank-
dwellers. People’s perception suggests that apart from natural causes
like very high rainfall, improper management of the reservoirs and
dams, as well as lack of adequate coordination in releasing water from
dams and barrages, are the root causes of recent flood in the basin.
Key Words: Integrated natural resource management (INRM),
stakeholders, Flood Risk Management (FRM), perceptions of flood
risk, holistic flood management policy.
Introduction
There is a great spatial and temporal inequality in the distribution
of precipitation in India which is generated by the south-west monsoon.
Though the average rainfall of the nation is 1160 mm, but the spatial
variability ranges from 2800 mm in North eastern States, Andaman and
Niccobar to 300mm in Western Rajasthan. Floods are most common natural
disaster in India .India experiences flooding every year and disastrous floods
threaten regions and the people living there and results heavy losses both
economic and lives. More than 75 % of annual rainfall of India occurs
during the South West monsoon season i.e. during June to September
reflects the temporal inequality. For a long time the flood management
strategies were based on measures several structural measures. Structural
schemes include the whole range of engineering adjustments from localised
river training works to the large-scale construction of embankments and
flood-control reservoirs. The most common solution to flood risk exposure
was river impediment through construction of levees, embankments,
dredging, channelisation, canals, and dams. In India, after independence
large dam projects regarded as the most popular interventions led to
instruments of river basin development. The recent widespread increase
in flood hazards all over the world and the ensuing impacts raises serious
questions of the efficiency of these measures and has guided a change in
approach to flood risk management. Now a days, Flood Management
strategies has shifted from technical oriented flood protection measures
towards Flood Risk Management,(FRM) based on non-structural
approaches where understanding of the social, human dimensions of flood
risk is an important aspect, is needful.
During the 20th century, hazard disaster management practices have
been dominated by scientific or technocratic viewpoint, focused primarily
on the physical processes of disasters. The dominant view provided the
863
basis for the majority of research and policy development until the
pioneering works of Gilbert White began to identify human dimensions as
a fundamental consideration in disaster events. Seminal works by scholars
such as Ian Burton, Robert Kates, Thomas Saarinen, E.L. Quarantelli,
Dennis Mileti, Kenneth Hewitt and many of their colleagues challenged
the technocratic notion and laid the groundwork for theories that integrated
social process and factors into the explanation of disasters. There are two
significant changes have occurred in our thinking about hazards (Mitchell
1989). The first lies with the ‘nature’ of hazard which is no longer seen as
singular event, they are viewed as events of complex interactions between
natural, social, technological system. Another second important change is
related to how we ‘respond’ to hazardous events. ‘‘Disaster marks the
interface between an extreme physical phenomenon and a vulnerable human
population. It is of paramount importance to recognize both of these
elements. Without people there is no disaster’’ (O’ Keefe t al., 1976,). The
inclusion of social aspects to understand how different stakeholders
perceive risk play a pivotal role in decision-making in developing a holistic
flood management policy. Mileti (1980) defines risk perception as the
‘‘cognition or belief in the seriousness of the threat of an environmental
extreme’’. If risk perception of people living in risk prone areas is known,
effective information strategies on protective measures can be designed.
The present paper aims to analyze the perception of flood damage
and its causes by the inhabitants of Mayurakshi River basin in Jharkhand
and West Bengal, India. The river Mayurakshi, one of the major right bank
tributaries of the r iver
Bhagirathi flows down
through a large part of eastern
India. The reason behind the
selection of Mayurakshi river
basin is the area besides this
river beyond the Massanjore
experience widespread
flooding, long duration water
logging in the lower reaches
of its basin, the river is having
such important structural
measureses like Massanjore
Dam, Tilpara barrage and
canal. The downstream parts
Fig: 1 : Location Map of Study Area.
of Mayurakshi basin areas in
864
West Bengal are flooded almost regularly after heavy downpour, especially
particularly during September. Some of the very high floods in the basin
were recorded in years 1956, 1959, 1978,1995,1999,2000 and 2006, when
monsoon rainfall was also very high. The worst flood happened in the year
2000. Rainfall records suggest that the rainfall of September 2000 in
Mayurakshi basin was unprecedented for the period of 18-09-2000 to 21-
09-2000 (1015 mm). It resulted in a catastrophic flood, surpassed all
previous records in terms of quantum, intensity and duration and the
magnitude of flood damage. This is despite the fact that the basin is now
endowed with large dams and flood regulating structures like Massanjore
Dam, Tilpara barrage and many canals. The year 2000 flood was the highest
flood year after 1978,thus the present study comprises of questionnaire
survey which were conducted during 2003-2007,taking the 2000 year
flood as benchmark. Some of the worthy works done on the flood aspects
of this catchment by Mukhapadhyay and Bhattacharyya, 2010; Pal, 2010,
2015; Jha and Bairagya, 2012; Bhattacharya, 2013; Ghosh and
Mukhopadhyay, 2015) mainly emphasized on flood characters, but present
work concerned about flood risk perception of the stakeholders and their
significance on the Flood Risk Management (FRM).
Study Area
River Mayurakshi (Length: 288 km.) is a 5th order tributary of
Bhagirathi. Its catchment area (5325 sq. km.) lies within the transitional
zone between two mega physiographic provinces namely the Chotonagpur
plateau and the Bengal basin (Basin Extension: 23°15' N to 24° 34’15'’ N
Lat. and 86°58' E to 88°20' 30'’ E Long.). The river basin specially the
lower part is a well known name in the flood scenario of West Bengal
(Saha M.K. 2011). The river Originates from a spring at the foothill of
Trickut Pahar, Jharkhand. Several tributaries, distributaries, anabranching
loop and spill channels - the Manikornika, Gambhira, Kana Mayurakshi,
Mor, Beli or Tengramari etc. forms the interwoven network in its lower
reaches and flow into the Hizole Beel in the district of Murshidabad. From
the Beel, the river Babla starts its journey finally draining into the river
Bhagirathi (Mukhopadhyay S. and Pal S. 2009)) O’Malley L.S.S. 1914).
Geologically the catchment is having Dharwanian sedimentary deposition
followed by Hercinian orogeny in the upper part, lateritic soil and hard
clays deposition in the middle catchment and recent alluvial deposition of
alternative layers of sand, silt and clay in the lower extensions. The relief
of the catchment ranges between 12 m. to 400 m. Rolling uplands and
lateritic badlands in the upstream, wide undulating planation surface, low
lying flat and depressed land in the middle and downstream characterizes
865
the morphological features of the basin. Low lying and sometimes depressed
lower part is well known for frequent flood incidents and long flood
stagnation period. Sub-tropical monsoonal climatic is prevailing in the
basin and Monsoon season (June-September) carries about 80% of total
annual rainfall. This seasonal rainfall concentration rainfall mainly results
water crowd in the lower catchment. The area covered mostly with the
alluvial (Younger and older), laterite, loamy (Red and Plateau Stulfs), clayey
(Ustochrents and Huplustulfs) soil (N.A.T.M.O. 2001). Part of the upper
catchment is covered with sal forest. The middle and lower part is prone to
soil erosion and agricultural invasion. This often aggravates the rate of
sedimentation in channel.
Methodology
A model questionnaire covering a wide range of flood- related
issues was prepared to examine the perception of the bank-dwellers. The
questionnaire survey was carried out in 21 villages, with a sample size of
907. The official records and journals provided the secondary data to
examine the perception at organizational level. The data collected were
analysed by qualitative and quantitative techniques. The annual peak
discharge data of Mayurakshi River at Tilpara Barrage since 1954 to 2013
and monthly inflow and outflow data from 1990-2013 have obtained from
the Investigation and Planning Circle, Suri, Birbhum, Irrigation and
Waterways Directorate, Govt. of W.B. Annual peak rainfall data (1954-
2013) have obtained from District Census handbook and Indian
Meteorology Department.
Fig: 2 : Flood Affected Area of 2000.

866

It has been found that Flood in lower Mayurakshi river basin (MRB)
is an age old event for more than 200 years. The years which faced such
worst type of flood are1956, 1959, 1978, 1995, 1999 and 2000. The year
2000 may be designated as the year of the worst flood in terms of quantum,
intensity and duration.(Fig:2)
Perception of Causes of Flood:
Most of the bank dwellers in the upper basin felt that apart from
‘excess rainfall’, a ‘decrease in river /reservoir depth’ was a major cause
for the flood. In the middle and lower basins, inhabitants perceived that
more than average rainfall when was a cause for the flood, but the collapse
of guard-wall was a prime reason for the magnitude. (Fig.3)
In the upper basin, apart from ‘excess rainfall’ majority of respondents
perceived that the ‘decrease in river /reservoir depth’ category is the chief
reason for the flood they experience. Flood is almost artificial in the
upstream as it occurs due to gradual encroachment of reservoir water into
the village. According to the villagers, more we have tried to control the
river and to obstruct their natural flow through several structural measures
like dam and intervene the hydrological regime more and more we worresen
the nature’s equilibrium situation. During 2000, within 5 days (18th to
22nd Sept.), Tilpara barrage released 52,49,884 cusec In Mayurakshi river,
Massanjore reservoir have no flood storage capacity. The initial capacity
of Massanjore reservoir was 5x105 acre feet or 61.67 x 107 m3. According
to the report of the Irrigation and Waterways Directorate, the capacity of
Massanjore dam has been reduced by about 48 per cent in dead storage
and 15 per cent in live storage. In 2000 flood, it has been reported that on
the 18th September 2000 when the storage in the reservoir reached the
threshold limit of 358000 acrefeet, 42690 cusecs water was released. This
is an indication that the overall capacity of reservoir has been reduced by
about 28 per cent during preceding five decades. (Rudra,K) The I & WD
claims that the Massanjore reservoir has reduced the intensity of flood by
about 30 per cent since the flow of river was controlled from 3,77,000
cusec to 2,62,000 cusec. One important aspect was denied in this statement.
Had there been an uncontrolled river system, the flow of water would have
not been to the tune of 3,87,000 cusec or 4,30,000 cusec. The controlled
system allowed the pond level to achieve an alarming height and then
releases the water. The velocity of water thus multiplies many times. For
example, the pond level of Massanjore reservoir was raised from 378 ft. to
402.61 ft. between 17th September to 21st September, 2000. This added a
867
tremendous momentum to the released water which caused havoc in the

downstream areas of Birbhum district. (Rudra, K).
Fig: 3: Perception of Bank Dwellers of Causes of Flood in Upper, Middle and Lower
Basin Area. Source: Based on Field Survey by the Author During 2003-2007.
In the both middle and lower basin, inhabitants perceived that when
rainfall occurs much more than average chances of flood increase naturally.
But collapse of guardwall is a prime indicator of flood in the downstream.
Here people opined that whenever dam releases its extra water load by
opening almost all the gates and guard walls of the downstream villages
868
collapse immediately. As mentioned earlier, after talking to them, it has

been understood that by decrease in river depth, they actually mean to
decrease in the reservoir depth. The author found that reservoir discharge
is becoming a crucial cause of flood in recent days flood. More often flood
inundation is occurring in recent days floods, more due to release of water
from dam and reservoir rather the excess rainfall. In initial years, these
reservoirs provide the desired results, but after that siltation problem
starts along with many other problems resulting the lowering of their
importance in flood control rather aggravating the occurrence flood
situation more. As reservoirs are filled to their bursting points during heavy
and incessant rains of Sept. 2000, huge volumes of water are released
abruptly from the Massonjore and other barrages traced a similar grim
picture of devastation in the downstream reach of Mayurakshi river basin
(Pearce, 2001, Dasgupta, 2002). Sudden discharge from Tilpara barrage
of Mayurakshi river contributed huge water and water level dramatically
raised far above the extreme danger level. Interestingly the water level,
again just after sometimes, had dropped down. It is because of breaching
the embankment at five points (year 2000) along Mayurakshi River and
the excess water was being dispersed through old course of Mor river.
Now the time has come to think over the change of attitude to
command and control over fluvial regime. The floods of September-
October 2000 have also forced us to do some introspection. The 2000
flood has warned us an indication of nature’s fury. It is high time we together
take a view to sustain natural courses of river.
Perception of Magnitude of Flood Damage
Apart from a few villages in the upstream part of the river,
respondents in other parts perceived that the magnitude of flood damage
had increased in all dimensions. In the upper basin, as the damage was
less, many inhabitants did not reply to this question or were reluctant to
answer. Due to higher elevation and steeper slope, possibility of flood is
less but back flow from Massanjore dam creates inundation in this areas
resulting flood situation. In villages nearer to dam like Bazar Rahamatganj,
Ektala, etc., however, majority of the respondents said that flood damage
increased with time. Back thrust of water flows up to 2 km. upstream of
Massanjore dam. This condition encourages water logging during flood in
the surrounding upstream areas. The deposition rate within the dam and
barrage is so high their longevity may not exceed next 75 years. There is
48% shortage in dead storage of Masanjore reservoir and 12.5% shortage
in live storage (M.K. Saha,2011) . Such growing loss of retention capacity
869
immediately accelerates flood condition in the downstream as well as some

portion of upstream catchment. In the middle and lower basins, almost all
the respondents said that flood damage increased with time,and damages
higher (Mukhopadhyay 2005). Disaster and occurrence risks have both
substantially increased in the middle and lower basins and losses of life
and property from flood are now much higher and are increasing, especially
after the inception of the Mayuakshi Project. The Massanjore dam and
Tilpara barrage play a very crucial role in flood occurrence here. The authors
found that the over-emphasis on structural measures to control flood had
increased the flood risk over time and place, than helping to reduce them.
Fig: 4: Perception of the Magnitude of Flood Damage in Upper, Middle and Lower
Basin Area. Source: Based on Field Survey by the Author During 2003-2007.
Perception of Effectiveness of Massanjore Dam (MD) and Tilpara

Barrage (TB)
On the perception of effectiveness of MD and TB, most of the
bank dwellers in the upper basin reported that the frequency of flood
increased after the erection of MD and the structural measures were not
beneficial. In the middle basin, from MD to Sainthia, majority of the people
perceived that both MD and TB intensified the flood and none of two was
beneficial. According to them, the increased frequency of flood was a mere
870
result of erroneous water discharge from MD and TB. Bank dwellers

opined that MD usually does not release its water until the reservoir capacity
is full, but it now fills up soon. Huge volume of water, when released,
washes out places on its path in no time. If TB, downstream of MD, does
not release the water flowing down from MD, the places in between Tilpara
and Massanjore become water logged. Villagers reported that in year 2000,
as flood water rushed down, many embankments and guard walls collapsed,
even at unpredictable places, thus increasing the flood volume. In the lower
basin, villagers repeatedly talked about the uncontrolled water discharge
from MD and TB. According to them, the volume of water that MD
discharges, when added to downstream runoff, increases the flood volume
3 to 4 times. This tremendous volume of water when thrust upon the
downstream villages, sweaps out most weak structures like mud huts ,as
well as living beings, causing enormous damage along the flood path.
Fig:5: Perception of Effectiveness of Massanjore Dam and Tilpara Barrage in Upper,

Middle and Lower Basin Area.
Source: Based on Field Survey by the Author During 2003-2007.
Perception of Rate of Occurrence of Flood Due to Tilpara Barrage

(TB)
On the question of the change in rate of occurrence of flood due to
MD and TB, many respondents in villages nearer to the dam in upper
basin thought the increment in frequency of flood was due to the TB. Most
people in the middle and lower basins opined that the flood frequency
871
increased after the MD and TB, especially due to their improper functioning,
particularly mentioned a lack of coordination in water discharge between
MD and TB. When MD releases water, gates of TB should also be opened
to pass out the extra water. But TB authority hardly cares for that. As a
result huge volume of water accumulates in the area between the MD and
TB. Their perception is that that if these two were not in the basin they
would not have to face such huge flood damages. So the principal concern
becomes the Mayurakshi River Project. Whatever it is, it can be concluded
that presently this project is not properly performing its function of
providing irrigation. Bank-dwellers said that before the construction of
the Dam, the inundation used to occur for short time durations and used to
pass out more promptly than recent time.
Fig: 6: Perception of rate of Occurrence of Flood Due to Tilpara Barrage (TB) in Upper,
Middle and Lower Basin Area.
Source: Based on Field Survey by the Author During 2003-2007.
Perception of Condition before Dam Construction

In this section , efforts has been made to understand the perception
about the condition before the construction of Massanjore dam .In the
upper basin, majority of the respondents found that the MD Massanjore
dam is an evil as it has become the root cause of the new flood situation.
These poverty stricken people, who have once lost their land during the
872
construction of Massanjore dam, are suffering from the fear of losing their
land once again. That is why their perception of utility of Massanjore dam
is very little. They deeply regret the building of Massanjore dam. They
feel that Tilpara barrage and Massanjore dam have been built for the
convenience of Bengal. They deeply regret the building of Massanjore
dam, from which they had no ‘profit’, but it displaced them from their
ancestral land. There has been great loss economically, culturally, socially
and physically. They have been agriculturists for generations, which they
had to change, at least partially because of their loss of land. They do not
get direct help from it. As people of these areas are mostly illiterate, many
of them are unable to express their sufferings. They said that huge promises
were given during the Dam construction. But in reality they have to face
water crisis in dry months. Thus they perceived that villages in West Bengal
prospered at the cost of them. In the middle basin, except one village i.e.
Junidpur, in all the villages the responses of “better” category are much
than “worse” category. Junidpur is substantially distantly located than the
other villages which are located within 500mt to 2km distance. In this
part, majority people felt their conditions were better before the construction
of Dam. From the historical records, it has been found two major floods
occurred during the years 1787 and 1902 before the inception of Mayurakshi
Reservoir Project. (SechPatra, June, 2001). This catchment experienced
heavy flood in 1956, 1959, 1978, 1995, 1999, 2000 and 2006. Amongst
2000 flood was the historic flood after the 1978. According to them, the
frequency of occurrences of flood has increased due to the improper
functioning of Massanjore dam and they perceive that the rate of flood
will be increasing more because of uncontrolled water discharge from the
Dam. The Dam here never empties its extra water load in small discharges.
It suddenly opens all the gates without prior information and consequently
the entire area up to barrage become immersed under water. Most of them
opined that after the commissioning of Massanjore Dam, occurrences of
flood increased and people lost their agricultural land due to sandsplay. So
the inhabitatans mostly think that flood situation were better before the
advent of the Dam. In the lower basin of the river people are much annoyed
with Tilpara barrage rather the Dam. Some of them are in the opinion of
that if Tilpara is noticed to be closed today, their problems would be solved.
According to them the volume of water that Massanjore discharges when
added to downstream become 3-4 times multiplied in amount which resulted
massive losses to the villages.
873
Fig: 7: Perception of Condition Before Dam Construction in Upper, Middle and Lower
Basin Area.
Source: Based on Field Survey by The Author During 2003-2007.
The prime objective of Mayurakshi Project is to provide a support

to the agriculture sector, by ensuring supply of irrigation water at critical
times when natural rainfall falls or falls short of the requirement of the
crops under cultivation. With assured irrigation, the productivity of a crop
rises. When there exists a favourable condition, the dam can provide water
for the second and the third crop also. But the bank dwellers view is just
opposite. Majority of them complained that they do not get irrigation in
dry season. They informed that before the construction of dam, the
inundation used to occur but passed out promptly. But nowadays the nature
and duration of inundation has been changed. A number of people remained
silent here to this question .It can be assumed that as they are getting
irrigation from it during wet season, they do not want associate with
controversial issue.
Conclusion
Flood risk perception studies of bank dwellers of river Mayurakshi
reveals some new insights and the existing functional gap between the
thinking patterns of the flood victims and the flood management authorities.
874
In general, bank-dwellers’s perception is that flood in this basin is a man-

induced phenomenon to a certain extent in this regard they blamed the
Massanjore Dam and Tilpara Barrage in particular. Their perception is
that, if these two were not in the basin they would not have to face such
huge flood damages .So the principal concern becomes the Mayurakshi
River Project. From the analysis of previous flood records it is clear
maximum water was released from Massonjore dam in the month of
September in different years. In the year of 2000 and 2006 huge amount of
water were released and which caused a devastating flood in lower
Mayurakshi basin. There is a positive relationship with flood and water
release from Massanjore dam. Although the official data entails that the
Mayurakshi river project is a success, people’s perception is just the
opposite. Inhabitants of the villages along the river in Birbhum complained
that they get no water in the irrigation canals except in rainy season. If it is
so these figures becomes invalid. But it can be asserted that, may be, the
situation has been worsened in more recent years. Whatever it is, it can be
concluded that presently this project is not performing its function of
providing irrigation properly. So what is the use for it? Bank dwellers said
that before the construction of the Dam, the inundation used to occur for
short time duration and used to pass out more promptly than recent time.
Some of the extremists opine that instead of big dam huge number of small
regulatory dams can regulate the flood water without creating devastating
flood.
People from any corner of the basin as upper, middle and lower
basin of the river , perceived that the impact of flood both in magnitude
and frequency has been increased due to Massanjore dam and Tilpara
barrage. Due to sudden discharge of huge volume of water from dam and
barrage the intensity of spatial extent of flood was increased many times
more. They perceived that embankment cannot resist the massive flow of
river during monsoon. So, breaching of it causes flood as embankments
block the inter-linking channels for free flow of flood water and
consequently long stagnation periods occur. People consider embankment,
dam and barrage as the false security to flood. Flood has a multi-disciplinary
dimension where society plays a vital role. Hazard and disaster management
at the community level has been somewhat limited and local stakeholders
have not been effectively incorporated in the policy process. With an
enhanced understanding risk perception, decision makers and institution
experts will be better able to establish and implement proactive mitigation
and preparedness strategies that are sustainable and improve resilience.
875
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 877-883, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
65
Media and Climate Change: Mizoram
Scenario
Dr. Irene Lalruatkimi
Department of Mass Communication, Mizoram University, Aizwal,
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The power of the media cannot be ignore, especially when it comes to
giving information and awareness to the local masses.The media is an
important player in cli-mate change com-mu-nic-a-tion – the general
population does not read sci-entific reports, spe-cialist web-sites and
blogs, or the reports of the certain conferences, seminars and meetings
of the experts. Therefore, the need of professional journalist in the
concern subject remains very important. Therefore, it is high time to
understand the importance of media for disseminating awareness on
climate change and also moulding and training the journalists for their
better information and professionalism in the field.
Introduction
Media coverage of climate change has been, and remains, a
significant factor in shaping public perceptions and attitudes towards the
issue. Climate Change debates are no longer privilege of a few, today these
issues make headlines in print and electronic media. Global warming and
climate change are the hot and prioritized topics in the global mass media.
Both the Governments and the people depend on Communication and Mass
Media not only for disseminating information, but also in setting agenda
for the development and other allied activities. Hence, communication
media become powerful tool for disseminating information and diffusion
of innovations.
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The power of the media cannot be ignore, especially when it comes

to giving information and awareness to the local masses. Its existence and
importance need to be realized and understand in any topic. Media always
plays an important role in disseminating necessary information.
Media Coverage of Climate Change
Global climate change has been a major issue on the US political
agenda since 1988. The conjecture that humanity might change the climate
of the entire planet first appeared in 1896, in a prediction that carbon dioxide
from fossil fuel combustion could gradually warm the globe. Climate
change was first reported in the US press in the 1930s, while news coverage
of anthropogenic climate change did not appear until the 1950s. For
example, in 1957, the International Geophysical Year, a Christian Science
Monitor article posed the question, ‘‘Are men changing the Earth’s
weather?’’ In the subsequent 3 decades, climate coverage remained sparse.
During the 1960s, research suggested that small perturbations might lead
to an abrupt change in the climate system. Some began to frame global
warming as an environmental risk, a security risk, a practical policy
question, an international relations issue, and even a moral problem. By
the late 1970s, a scientific consensus began to take shape. In the mid-
1980s, the media, science, and policy spheres intersected for the first time,
triggering a dramatic increase in climate change coverage.When the issue
of global warming first rose to prominence in the USA and UK in the late
1980s, it focused on mitigation. This coverage was fuelled by public interest
about chlorofluorocarbons, the ozone hole, and the US presidential election.
By the late 1980s, nuclear energy emerged as a potential alternative to
fossil fuel consumption. At the same time, Congress began introducing
bills to reduce carbon emissions. Boykoff and Roberts explored newspaper
coverage of climate change in 40 English-language newspapers in 17
countries, across five continents. Among 40 of the most influential English-
language world newspapers, climate coverage increased globally when
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports were released in
1990, 1995, and 2001, during the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change in 1992, and during the Kyoto Protocol convention in 1997.
Distinct phases in climate science policy have been reflected in
media attention overtime. The 1990s were characterized by a complex
politicization of climate science, media, and policy. A small group of
skeptical spokesmen and scientists, many of whom received funding from
carbon based industry interests, gained prominence in the news in theearly
1990s by refuting scientific findings about human contributions to climate
879
change. In 1995, a strong scientific consensus of more than 2,000

researchers emerged, assertingthat humans influence the global climate.
By the end of the 1990s, increasing mediawarnings of peril made most of
the literate world public aware of the issue, but skepticismand aversion to
regulation persisted.Most people in the world were now concerned but
notmotivated to take action. Between 2003 and 2006, coverage of climate
change adaptationincreased substantially. In developing countries and rural
areas, climate change news iscommunicated primarily through radio.News
coverage of climate change in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in
2005emphasized conflict and immediacy frames, which could have
inhibited public understandingof climate issues. Climate change news
coverage between 2006 and 2010 sparkeda surge in public interest in articles
about the environment, energy, and pollution. Thiscoverage coincided with
the greatest turmoil in the history of the news industry, a timewhen
journalism jobs were drastically reduced, news outlets had extremely
limited printspace and airtime, and editors were often disinterested in
climate issues. As public interestin ‘‘going green’’ increased during the
first decade of the twenty-first century, editors andreporters became more
attentive to the ethical line between writing about the environmentand
writing on behalf of the environment.In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change consensus report estimated a90 percent likelihood that
human activities cause climate change and that impacts will beabrupt and
irreversible. It added that if urgent steps are taken, climate change could
beaddressed at a reasonable cost. Nearly 200 nations endorsed the IPCC
findings in 2007,which were based on thousands of published, peer-
reviewed studies. In the same year,China suddenly and quickly overtook
the USA as the world’s worst in greenhouse gasemissions because of its
rapid economic expansion. Most special reports on climatechange in news
publications mentioned China because global efforts to make the
planetgreener hinge on China’s politics, emissions, and actions. In 2007,
Patrick Symmes said inOutside magazine, ‘‘China is the asterisk at the end
of every conversation about theenvironment.’’ In this piece, he related his
own story of whitewater rafting down theYangtze River, whose valleys
may soon be flooded from the construction of hydroelectricdams. The best
US print news coverage of China’s economic growth has used
visualstorytelling to highlight its extreme pollution and environmental
degradation. Manystories emphasized China’s reliance on coal, inefficient
use of energy, pollution-relateddeath toll, and preference for growth over
environmental protection.In 2007, Andrew Revkin, former environment
reporter for The New York Times, started Dot Earth, an innovative blog
where he posts and exchanges ideas about climate and sustainability issues.
880
In the same year, CBS’s Katie Couric asked each presidential candidate to
answer a single question during a 7-min segment: ‘‘Is the threat of climate
change overblown?’’ Some critics felt Couric’s pointed question was posed
irresponsibly within a skeptical and meaningless frame and that it only
allowed candidates to spout talking underrepresented campaign issue on
national, prime-time television. By 2008, news coverage moved beyond
climate change science into the broader arena of action – what governments,
entrepreneurs, and ordinary citizens are doing about it. As of 2010, Abu
Dhabi announced it will have the first city in the world with zero carbon
emissions by 2018. In addition, developers plan to build a desert city for
50,000 residents relying completely on solar power and other renewable
energy, and the Dutch are developing ways to protect vulnerable coastlines
against rising sea levels. (Swain, Kristen Alley, 2013)
The need of professional Journalists in the subject
Sarah Ladouceur in 2015 pointed out in her research on “Climate
Change” that, the media is an important player in cli-mate change
com-mu-nic-a-tion – the general population does not read sci-entific reports,
spe-cialist web-sites and blogs, or the reports of the certain conferences,
seminars and meetings of the experts. Therefore, the need of professional
journalist in the concern subject remains very important.
Climate Change topic and any issues in this matter can be put
under Science journalism in the study of Journalism and Mass
Communication. The aim of a science journalist is to render very detailed,
specific, and often jargon-laden information produced by scientists into a
form that non-scientists can understand and appreciate while still
communicating the information accurately. One way science journalism
can achieve that is to avoid an information deficit model of communication,
which assumes a top-down, one-way direction of communicating
information that limits an open dialogue between knowledge holders and
the public. Science journalists often have training in the scientific
disciplines that they cover. Some have earned a degree in a scientific field
before becoming journalists or exhibited talent in writing about science
subjects. However, good preparation for interviews and even deceptively
simple questions such as “What does this mean to the people on the street?”
can often help a science journalist develop material that is useful for the
intended audience.
Media in Mizoram and Climate Change
The media industry in Mizoram is very well established and
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stronger comparing to other north-eastern states. Every part of the media

functions well and provides adequate information and entertainment to
the audiences. The media industry in Mizoram keeps growing day by day.
As per the population of the states in India there are no states other than
Mizoram where media industry is stronger and well established
(Vanneihtluanga, 2013).
Mizoram is equipped with government owned media Doordarshan
Kendra known as Aizawl station and All India Radio Aizawl station which
is also having FM station known as “FM Zoawi”. The cable operators in
the State act as a production house as well, they give out their own channels
and programmes apart from star channels. Before there were three main
cable operators in the capital Aizawl, and after the first cable operator
Skylinks was shut down in 2007, now 2 main cable operator LPS and
Zonet serve as the main supplier not only for the capital Aizawl but also
for other districts. Their programmes are sent through video CDs and today
direct cable wire and satellite connection is as well available.In terms of
print media, Mizoram has more than 100 daily newspapers across the state.
The largest number is published from the Capital Aizawl, and others are
from the other seven (7) districts. The journalist of Mizoram formed a
strong association called Mizoram Journalist Association (MJA), which
has its headquarters at Aizawl and its branches in the other entire district.
In total there are 240 members approximately.
It can be strongly say that Media in the state is no doubt an important
tool for teaching and disseminating information in the state.
84 members of the Mizoram Journalist Association (MJA) from
various districts were asked few questions about climate change. The
following tables are the results:
No. of Journalists 84
Journalists for 0-10 years 24
Journalists for 11 – 20 years 48
Journalists for 21 years and more 12
Do you publish news, articles and issues on Climate Change in
your media?
Total No YES NO Sometimes
Journalists for 0-10 years 24 8 - 16
882
Journalists for 11 – 20 years 48 10 2 36

Journalists for 21 years and 12 - - 12
more
TOTAL 84 18 2 64
Does the department concernor expert in this field of climate
change ever ask you to publish in your media?
Total No YES NO
Journalists for 0-10 years 24 10 14
Journalists for 11 – 20 years 48 12 36
Journalists for 21years and more 12 - 12
TOTAL 84 22 62
Do you feel that the Mizoram journalist should get training for
better reporting on climate change?
Total No YES NO
Journalists for 0-10 years 24 24 -
Journalists for 11 – 20 years 48 48 -
Journalists for 21years and more 12 12 -
TOTAL 84 84 -
The above three tables figure shows that issues or news and articles
of climate change is not cover well enough at all in Mizoram. It is also
seen that the government or private department concern dealing with climate
change does not have a good relationship or communication with the media.
The journalists of the state are eagerly waiting for a training or workshop
on reporting for climate change.
Conclusion
In a democratic country like India, media is the fourth pillar of the
democracy due to its social responsibilities. The role of mass media in
shaping public understanding of environmental issues has been well
documented in recent years (Burges, 1990). Much research has theorized
on and now established the role of mass media in ‘framing’ and re-forming
climate change issues, whether scientific or political.
883
The media plays very important in educating the people about climate
change. It can inform vulnerable impacts and how they can adopt to them,
and reduce the amount of earth warming. Media coverage of climate change
can give better informed publics, policy makers and more effective policy
making. Better media coverage of climate issues can raise the alarm of
environmental issues like global warming, acids rain. Across the world
media can create the awareness of the challenges that developing nations
face, and promote a sustainable outcome to the intergovernmental climate
change negotiations. (Dr. Mike Shanahan, 2011).
Therefore, it is high time to understand the importance of media
for disseminating awareness on climate change and also moulding and
training the journalists for their better information and professionalism in
the field.
References
Boykoff, T Maxwell and Roberts, J Timmons (2007), Media Coverage of Climate Change:
current trends, strengths, weekness, United Nations Development Progamme –
Human Development Report.
Kakade, Shilpa and Raut (2013) Role of Media in Creating Awareness about Climate
Change – A case study of Bijapur City, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR –JHSS) Volume 10, Issue 1 (Mar – Apr, 2013) PP 37 - 43
Lalruatkimi, Irene (2016) Electronic Media in Mizoram: An Interpretative study of Its
Development, Unpublished Thesis, Assam University
Swain, Kristen Alley (2012) Mass media Role in Climate Change Mitigation, Meek School
of Journalism & New Media, University of Missisippi, University, MS, USA,
884
Vol. 3 (2017) : 885-893, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
66
An Assessment of Meteorological Drought
of a part of Western Tract of West Bengal
for the Need of Water Conservation of the
Area
Payel Saha1 and Asutosh Goswami2
1
P.G. Department of Geography, Bhairab Ganguly College, Kolkata
2
Department of Geography and Environment Management, Vidyasagar
University, Midnapore
E mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The Western tract of West Bengal is designated as the drought prone
area of the State. It is mainly due to so called low amount of rainfall
and harsh climatic condition of the region. But the amount of rainfall
and the number of rainy days are not so much less compared to the
Gangetic West Bengal; sometimes the amount of rainfall in Paschim
Medinipure is higher than the Gangetic West Bengal. Beside this, the
climatic condition of the region is very much conducive for the
cultivation of different types of crops.
In this study an attempt has been made to identify the meteorological
drought of a part of Western tract of West Bengal for the need of water
conservation of the area.
Introduction
The western tract of west Bengal is generally identified as the
most backward and under developed region of the state. After 69 years of
886
independence, adverse climatic condition, land form and soil condition

are generally blamed for this under development.
If we consider average per capita income, the ratio of the persons
living below the poverty level to the total population, the production and
productivity per hectare, cropping intensity, current fallow land, the sign
of backwardness is everywhere (Mishra, 2012). According to the criteria
followed by the India Meteorological Department, this region cannot be
termed as the drought prone. But the region is dry due to its undulating
topography which does not allow the soil to retain moisture. So after a
spell of shower the entire water moves as surface runoff making the top
soil dry very soon. Average annual rainfall of this region is 1446.4 mm
which varies from 1218.8 mm at Burrabazar in Purulia to 1704.0 mm at
Pingla in Paschim Medinipure. Average annual rainfall of this sub-division
varies from 1316.3 mm at Purulia Sadar to 1636 mm in Kharagpur which
comes in between 68 and 79 rainy days (Mishra, 2012). The adverse climatic
condition of this region generally satisfies the following points:
1) So called inadequate rainfall
2) drought proneness
3) extremity of weather and climate
4) unfavourable climate for agriculture.
Criteria for Identification of Drought
India Meteorological Department: India Meteorological Department
considers the occurrence of drought if the rainfall during a year or a
southwest monsoon season (June-September) over the area is less than 25
percent of the normal (Mishra, 2012).
Irrigation Commission (1972): It has defined drought-prone areas where
drought has occurred in 20% of the years examined and chronically drought-
prone areas where it has occurred in more than 40% of the years under
study. The commission further recommended the exclusion of such areas
from list of drought areas where 30% or more area is under irrigation
(Mishra, 2012).
National commission on Agriculture (1976): The National commission
on Agriculture defines agricultural drought as the condition when the
rainfall in four consecutive weeks from mid-May to mid-October is half of
the normal or less and when the normal weekly rainfall is 5mm or
more(Mishra, 2012).
887

Adopting the criteria laid down by the India Meteorological
Department, an attempt has been made to identify the meteorological
drought characteristics of a part of western tract of West Bengal. The study
is based on both secondary as well as primary sources of data. Relevant
data have collected through field survey and published literature. The
preliminary knowledge about the study area has been collected from district
gazetteers. Relevant data regarding the study area has been collected from
published literatures in the form of books and journals. For the purpose of
identifying the meteorological drought, 40 years (1971-2010) data of rainfall
have been collected from Agricultural Meteorology Division of the State
Agriculture Department, Government of West Bengal and India
Meteorological Department, Alipur. To prepare water budget of the study
area, the data of potential evapotranspiration has been collected from India
Meteorological Department, Alipur. A number of statistical techniques viz.
moving average and semi average methods have been applied to identify
the trend of rainfall during June, July, August and September (monsoon
months).
Location Map of the Study Area
Km
Study Area
The western tract of West Bengal, extending between 21°47’N-
24p 15’N and 85°49’E-88°2’E covers 32% of the total area of the State. It
actually spreads over 99 CD blocks located in 13 sub-divisions of 5 districts
viz- Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Asansol and Durgapur sub-division of
888
Barddhaman and Paschim Medinipure excluding Ghatal sub-division. But

for the present study three districts have been selected namely Purulia,
Bankura and Paschim Medinipure excluding Ghatal sub-division.
Analysis of Meteorological Drought (1971-2010)
Table 1. Meteorological Drought (1971-2010)
Sl No. Districts Frequency (%)
1 Darjeeling 03.33
2 Coochbehar 13.33
3 Paschim Medinipure 16.67
4 Burdwan 20.00
5 Purulia 16.67
6 Bankura 03.33
7 Malda 13.33
Table 2. First Half of Monsoon
1 Darjeeling 06.67
2 Coochbehar 23.33
4 Burdwan 23.33
5 Purulia 20.00
6 Bankura 03.33
7 Malda 30.00
Table 3. Second Half of monsoon
1 Darjeeling 10.00
2 Coochbehar 27.00
4 Burdwan 30.00
5 Purulia 20.00
6 Bankura 33.33
7 Malda 26.67
889
Table 4. Mid monsoon

1 Darjeeling 10.00
2 Coochbehar 17.00
4 Burdwan 20.00
5 Purulia 16.67
6 Bankura 20.00
7 Malda 20.00

Table 5. Meteorological drought in Purulia, Bankura, Paschim Medinipure and other agro-
meteorological stations/districts
Sl.no. Agro-Meteorological Rank According to Frequency Percentage
Stations/Districts
June July August September
1 Jalpaiguri 7 2 2 7
2 Maldah 1 1 6 3
3 Barddhaman 6 3 1 1
4 Bolpur 3 6 5 2
5 Bankura 8 8 7 8
6 Purulia 2 4 4 4
7 Paschim Medinipure 4 5 3 5
8 Nandigram 5 7 - 6
On the basis of percentage of occurrence of meteorological

drought during June, July, August and September, a table (Table-5) has
been constructed. The table indicates that the study area i.e. Purulia,
Bankura and Paschim Medinipure never occupy the position of rank one
(1) in terms of occurrence of meteorological drought. So it may be
concluded from the above table meteorological drought is not a severe
problem in the aforesaid districts. But the dryness of the region is a hard
reality which is due to undulating nature of the topography which promotes
surface run off.
890
On the basis of rainfall data of 40 years (1971-2010), the trend of rainfall

of the aforesaid districts has been identified.
Trend of Rainfall in the Month of June
Trend of Rainfall in the Month of July
Trend of Rainfall in the Month of August
Trend of Rainfall in the Month of September

Table 6. District: Purulia
Observation Total 1st half of 2nd half of Mid monsoon June July August September
monsoon monsoon monsoon
Rainfall (mm) Marginal Moderate Moderate Marginal Marginal No significant Moderate No significant
decrease increase decrease decrease increase change decline change
Table 7: District: Bankura

Table 8: District: Paschim Medinipure

891
892
Water Budget
Like the other parts of the country as well as the state, the western
tract comes under the grip of south west monsoon rainfall. This region
receives 75 to 85% of the normal rainfall during the south west monsoon
season from June to September. This region receives 3%, 12% and 8-9%
of the total rainfall during winter (December-February), summer (March-
May), post monsoon (October-November) respectively. If we consider the
rainfall as the water income and potential evapotranspiration as the water
loss, it is found that 500-800 mm of rainfall after satisfying the evaporation
need goes mainly in the form of surface run off. If a major portion of this
amount of surface run off is arrested, the problem of water scarcity will be
solved to a considerable extent.
Water Budget
District- Paschim Medinipure
WATER DEFICIT
WATER
WATER SURPLUS DEFICIT
Data Source: Agricultural Meteorology Division of the State Agriculture Department,

Government of West Bengal.
Conclusion
As per the criteria followed by India Meteorological Department,
this zone cannot be designated as the drought prone area. But the region is
dry due to its undulating terrain, which results speedy runoff coupled with
coarse grained soil with very little moisture holding capacity, making the
top soil dry very soon. If a major portion of this amount of surface runoff
is arrested, the problem of water scarcity will be solved to a considerable
extend (Mishra, 2006). A few more suggestions for water conservation
and drought management in this region are as follows:
893
1. Plot to plot runoff control

2. Water conservation in plots
3. Creation of small reservoir
Due to undulating terrain a greater amount of water moves as the
surface run off. It takes the most pivotal role for enhancing the soil erosion.
By these methods soil erosion can be controlled. Thus the water can be
used for greater time period and it can be successfully used for the
agricultural purpose.
These methods will also increase the irrigation potential and ground
water recharge to a large extent. If the ground water level is increased then
there will be greater availability of water during the non rainy season.
Bibliography
India Meteorological Department (1970). Agri-Met. Technical Circular No. 17.
Meteorological Data Handbooks (2003-2012). India Meteorological Department,
Government of India, Alipur
Mishra, S. (2006). Deposition of Dew and Its Measurement in West Bengal , Landscape
Systems, 27 (1), 21-30.
Mishra, S. (2012). Drought and Its Management in West Bengal, Indian Journal of
Landscape and Ecological Studies, 35 (1), 20-28.
894
Vol. 3 (2017) : 895-903, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
67
Impact of Climate Change on Human
Comfort and its Relation in Market Rise of
Electronic Gadgets: A Case Study of
Kolkata City, India
Deep Chakraborty*, Sangita Roy and Asutosh Goswami
Post Graduate, Department of Geography, Bhairab Ganguly College,
Kolkata-56
*
Abstract
People of Kolkata city are suffering from uncomfortable weather
condition with rising temperature and humidity rather the climatic
conditions are changing and also it has an adverse impact on the human
health and comfort as well as it’s also indirectly leading the market of
electronic gadgets. Some of the weather elements determine human
comfort likely temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation etc. Most
extremely the rising temperature of the city Kolkata is determining
the status of human comfort. Temperature influences human bodies
through internal and external heat while the internal body heat is lesser
effective than the external body heat regarding the human comfort.
Humidity level is also a determining factor in respect to human comfort.
The comfortable weather condition may have 22°C to 28°C temperature
and 27% to 80% humidity as per summer human comfort level. In the
recent time people are taking some of electronic goods and gadgets
(Air-condition, Cooler, Refrigerator, Fan etc) which can make artificial
comfortable weather condition. The present study has analyzed the
changes in climatic condition of Kolkata city to identify the rising
temperature and humidity in respect to human comfort based on the
896
IMD data through statistical analysis and it also tried to find out how
the rising temperature and humidity leading the market rise of electronic
gadgets in Kolkata city.
Introduction
Climate is the most significant component which generally plays
its role surrounding the Earth’s surface. The tropical climate comes into
human consideration due to its extreme phenomenon over the tropical belt.
Now the climatic conditions are changing and also it has an adverse impact
on the human health and comfort as well as it’s also indirectly leading the
market of electronic gadgets. Some of the weather elements determine
human comfort likely temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation etc.
As the climatic conditions are changing, the impacts of weather on human
comfort are also varying. During 1991-2005, eight IMD stations of South
Bengal recorded an increasing temperature trend during monsoon seasons
about 0.03-1.04 °C (Pramiti Kumar et al, 2014). Temperature is influenced
with the solar radiation thus, the temperature is the most significant
component to experience comfort in a space. Temperature influences human
bodies through internal and external heat while the internal body heat is
lesser effective than the external body heat regarding the human comfort
(Boduch and Fincher, 2009). Humidity level is also a determining factor
in respect to human comfort. The particular time when humidity level
becomes lower, human body may feel comfort but when level rise, body
feels uncomforting with lots of sweats. As the atmosphere becomes
saturated with adequate moisture or humidity level, body becomes unable
to release sweats and heat also the condition leads uncomfortable condition.
So, it can be stated easily that there are some potential humidity level in
respect to human body rather human comfort in an intervening weather
condition. In the recent time with the development of technology some of
electronic goods and gadgets are easily available in the markets which can
make artificial comfortable weather condition. Some of people are taking
those such electronic gadgets regarding their health and comfort purpose
likely the Air-condition, Cooler, Refrigerator, Fan etc. The present study
has analyzed the coming changes in climatic condition of Kolkata city
regarding the rising temperature and humidity in respect to human comfort
based on the IMD data and it also tried to find out how the changing climate
rather rising temperature and humidity leading the market rise of electronic
gadgets based on seals reports of different selling companies in Kolkata
city.
897
Methods and Metrials

Study area
Kolkata city (latitude 22°57’ and longitude 88°36’) area and one
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) station located in Alipore,
Kolkata, have been selected for the present study. The database ware of
last 50 years for the period of 1966-2015 from March to September of
Kolkata city.
Methodology
Mostly secondary data of temperature (Maximum and Minimum),
rainfall and humidity as well as the primary data of selling electronic gadgets
ware used in this study from the Alipore IMD weather station, net-met
data and electronic company for finding the changing climatic condition
and the data have been used in the several statistical methods likely trend
analysis, SD of mean, 5 year moving average, CV etc. The data are
specifically applied into the human comfort index to determine the summer
human comfort status of Kolkata city. Finally the study tried to find out
the correlation between the changing climate and rising of electronic market
of electronic gadgets and how they are inter related with each other in
respect to human comfort status. Two types of analysis were performed in
this work: Like the long term yearly data analysis of 50 years for the
period of 1966-2015 to find out the climate change status and another long
term annual data analysis of each of the year for the period of 2001-2015
to find out the human comfort status also the correlation between climate
change and market rise of electronic gadgets. The major analysis was to
test the accuracy of the different simulations in the present study.
Climate change and temperature trend in Kolkata city of last 50 years
from 1966 to 2015
The linear trend analysis of temperature is generally showing the
rising trend of temperature of Kolkata city during last 50 years likely after
the analysis of maximum and minimum temperature data.
Maximum temperature trend during 1966-2015 for summer months
(March-September):
During the summer season the maximum temperature of Kolkata
city has been rising since 1999 to the present days (Table 1). During 1966-
1998 the maximum temperature was constantly similar in respect to mean
898
temperature of summer months. There was no extreme fluctuation before

1999 but the linear trend line of the graph showing the rising temperature
about 1.42°C than the mean during 1999-2015. So, this rising temperature
is standing behind the climate change of Kolkata city.
Fig.1: Comparison of yearly mean (maximum temperature) and 5 year moving average
with mean temperature during 1966-2015 for summer months (March-September).
Minimum temperature trend during 1966-2015 for summer months

(March-September):
During the summer season the minimum temperature of Kolkata
city has been rising since 2003 to the present days (Table 1). During 1966-
2002 the maximum temperature was somehow lesser than mean temperature
of summer months. There was no extreme fluctuation before 2003 but the
linear trend line of the graph showing the rising temperature about 3.38°C
than the mean during 2003-2015. So, this rising temperature is standing
behind the climate change of Kolkata city in last two decades.
Fig.2: Comparison of yearly mean (minimum temperature) and 5 year moving average
with mean temperature during 1966-2015 for summer months (March-September).
Climate change and rainfall trend in Kolkata city of last 50 years from
1966-2015
The linear trend analysis of rainfall is generally showing the
descending status in Kolkata city during the last 50 years likely after the
899
trend analysis of rainfall data.

Rainfall trend during 1966-2015 for summer months (March-
September):
During the summer season the rainfall trend of Kolkata city has
been descending since 2002 to the present days (Table 1). During 1966-
2001 the yearly mean rainfall was somehow fluctuating than mean rainfall
of summer months. There was extreme fluctuation before 2002 but the
linear trend line of the graph showing the low rainfall about 87mm than
the mean during 2002-2015. So, this descending rainfall is standing behind
the climate change of Kolkata city in last two decades.
Fig. 3: Comparison of yearly mean (rainfall) and 5 year moving average with mean
rainfall during 1966-2015 for summer months (March-September).
Climate change and Human comfort status in Kolkata city of last 15

years from 2001 to 2015
Generally the human comfort status is depending on two component
of weather likely the maximum temperature and humidity. Whereas the
human comfortable weather belongs to the humidity status is about 32-78
percent and the maximum temperature is about 22-28°C. In the graphical
representation of weather data human comfort zone identified with the
above declared ratio of humidity and temperature.
Human-comfort status during 2001-2015 for summer months (March-
September):
During the summer season the maximum temperature rises about
35°c which is quite above than the comfortable temperature and the
humidity status somehow similar in respect to comfortable weather (Table
2). So, in Kolkata city there is none of year which represent the human
comfortable weather condition rather the recent climatic condition of last
15 years are standing far away from the comfortable weather.
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Fig.4: Status of human comfortable weather during 2001-2015 for summer months
(March-September).
Human comfort
According to Thom’s equation… TH= 0.4 (td + tw) + 4.8
(In Mid-latitude comfortable index will not exceed 21 and in humid region
it will not exceed 26. Where: T = Temperature, H = Humidity, td = Dry
Bulb Temperature in °C, tw = Wet Bulb Temperature in °C.)
Correlation between climate change and market rise of electronic
gadgets
The maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall data analysis
of last 50 years during the summer months from 1966 to 2015 have been
identified the climate change condition in Kolkata city most specifically
during last 15 years from 2001 to 2015. As, the temperature rising, people
adopting certain electronic gadgets like AC, Cooler, Fan etc which can
make artificial weather regarding the human comfort.
Climate change and electronic market rise during 2001-2015 for
summer months (March-September):
All the climatic data since 2001 to the present days are generally
indicating an uncomfortable weather condition and people of Kolkata taking
much more electronic gadgets. The correlation between climate change
data and uses of electronic gadgets are showing a positive relation among
them. Hence, the linear trend line showing the strong correlation where R2
value is about 0.492 so, there is a strong positive relation among both of
the data.
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In the present study with the temperature rise of 1.42°C the sales raise up
to 120 units (Table 2) during 2001 to 2015 of summer months. People of
Kolkata city are now much more accustomed with the artificial weather
making process which giving them a comfortable weather.
Fig.5: Correlation between climate change and market rise of electronic gadgets during
2001-2015 for summer months (March-September).
Table- 1: Yearly mean of summer months during 1966-2015.
Year Maximum Minimum Rainfall Year Maximum Minimum Rainfall
tempera- tempera- in mm tempera- tempera- in mm
ture (°C) ture (°C) ture (°C) ture (°C)
1966 34.2526 25.4599 139.204 1991 33.9686 25.8621 216.316
1967 33.4537 25.2619 169.905 1992 33.8813 25.7177 178.65
1968 33.4973 25.3311 246.527 1993 33.153 25.0469 289.885
1969 33.8964 25.6183 200.744 1994 33.7107 25.6043 196.832
1970 33.598 25.5586 231.854 1995 33.683 25.8906 206.559
1971 31.6976 23.9481 279.713 1996 33.5547 26.1477 191.282
1972 34.3094 25.0816 163.492 1997 33.2827 25.6334 236.89
1973 33.2807 24.8111 213.819 1998 33.3539 26.176 169.612
1974 33.4794 24.995 200.244 1999 33.8539 25.8611 276.716
1975 33.454 25.1616 160.2 2000 33.3394 25.6919 173.558
1976 33.3541 25.1321 190.369 2001 33.4403 26.0193 167.906
1977 32.883 25.2321 233.686 2002 33.8103 25.7181 216.159
1978 32.8989 24.9606 300.798 2003 34.5834 26.566 99.8407
1979 33.9679 25.3599 153.72 2004 34.1254 27.431 96.36
1980 32.6691 25.2463 192.646 2005 34.1117 28.023 95.3356
902
1981 31.9966 24.7053 216.715 2006 34.6514 28.974 98.2579

1982 33.5954 25.7339 159.077 2007 34.543 29.351 98.8421
1983 33.6384 25.7766 176.432 2008 34.0611 29.2533 124.95
1984 33.6253 25.3461 269.072 2009 34.2861 29.2054 123.929
1985 33.7531 25.6601 175.562 2010 34.2464 29.3079 127.422
1986 33.9677 24.9753 251.665 2011 34.8546 29.6483 105.509
1987 33.6416 25.7151 215.692 2012 34.2549 29.3404 101.327
1988 33.4959 25.8303 225.193 2013 34.4137 29.3963 112.229
1989 33.8113 25.6037 162.844 2014 34.9183 29.8559 112.625
1990 32.5671 25.5736 275.56 2015 35.1397 29.8626 103.9
Data source: Secondary data from IMD and Net-met data
Table- 2: Yearly mean of summer months during 2001-2015.
year maximum humidity sales of year maximum humidity sales of
tempera- in % electronic tempera- in % electronic
ture (°C) gadgets ture (°C) gadgets
(unit) (unit)
2001 33.44 69.7143 6 2009 34.286 68.2857 41
2002 33.877 69 16 2010 34.246 72.4286 55
2003 34.583 68.7143 11 2011 34.855 68.5714 66
2004 34.125 70 24 2012 34.255 69.1429 58
2005 34.112 66.7143 19 2013 34.414 70.4286 70
2006 34.651 64.8571 20 2014 34.918 71.8571 72
2007 34.543 66.5714 29 2015 35.14 72.7143 113
2008 34.061 68.8571 25 - - - -
Data source: Secondary data from IMD and Electronic Company.
Conclusion
The present study indicate that temperature (maximum and
minimum) and rainfall trend during summer months (March-September)
from 1966-2015 are changing quite rapidly in Kolkata city. Lastly the two
decades experiences a large climate change in different parts. As, climatic
condition changing human comfort status also hampering throughout the
several time span and people are taking more electronic gadgets to make
artificial comfortable weather. In this condition electronic market is rising
with the rising temperature. This condition leading the city into a non-
903
sustainable form. As the city taking more electronic gadgets it’s causing
more environmental degradation with the huge non-harmonic exposal and
gases like plastic, CFC gas, Co2, etc.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Regional Meteorological Centre (IMD), Alipore,
Kolkata, for providing data, we are also thankful to the electronic companies
in Kolkata for providing data used in the present study. We are also thanking
Dr. Pradip Chakraborty (Ex-professor BCKV, India) for his fruitful support
and motivation.
References
Chakraborty, P K., Dutta, M. and Das, L (October 2014) Long-term temperature analysis
and its future projection during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons in South Bengal.
J. Agrometeorology., 16: 120-124.
Das, L. and Lohar, D (2005) Construction of climate change scenario for the tropical
monsoon region. Clim. Res., 30:39-52.
Das, P K. (2015) The Monsoons. National Book Trust India., P: 60-97.
India Meteorological Department (2017) Net-met. Technical circular 05.
Shukla, J. (1975) Effects of Arabian Sea-surface temperature anomaly on Indian summer
monsoon. J. Atmosphere. Sci.., 32, USA, 503-511.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 905-917, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
68
Understanding Global Warming in Local
Contexts: Mizoram’s Jhum Cultivation
and Hybridised “Chapchar Kut”
Samuel L Chuaungo
PhD, Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University
[email protected]
Abstract
The biggest obstacle to countering the effects of global warming today
is the lack of conviction among the inhabitants of thisvery world, some
of whom are powerful elites with the authority to shape the fates of
the majority. The paper proposes an obvious (yet meticulous) solution,
that rather than try and continue raising awareness at a wide-scale
global level, the problem should be handled at local levels using tropes
that the indigenous can relate to. In the case of Mizoram, said tropes
would be that of jhum cultivation and the local festival of
“ChapcharKut” which is being hybridisedas a result of global warming.
The paper will also review the current academic discord on not only
the effects of jhum cultivation, but also the reports on whether jhum
cultivation is being culled by policies.
Keywords: Global Warming, Jhum, ChapcharKut, Hybridity,
Mizoram.
Introduction
In contemporary times of political-correctness,there are occasions
where the logic of science gets challenged in a far-fletched manner. For
example, Judith Butler’s (1990) influence on queer studies has been so
monumental because she can intellectually break down erstwhile scientific
906
basis of the “sex vs gender” debate. However, these fruitful challenges

tend to take on an unhealthy turn when neo-gendered communities insist
on having been divided even more across a number of other classifications
–absorgender, adeptogender,ambonec, anogender, cocoongender,
circgender, daimogender, nonbinary, trigender, etc.;and expect to be
recognised not only in government policies but popular culture as well. It
is quite safe to say that these demands and categoris ations will not be
getting popular in the near future.
This is the exact problem with the issue of global warming today,
albeit with the slight difference that it already is a scientifically-proven
phenomenon. The cynicism it faces is similar to the ones faced by the
(whimsical) demands of the neo-genders i.e. it is not the first (of threats of
global catastrophes) and it won’t be the last; and that given enough time,
this issue will be remedied by “others”.
Therefore, it is imperative that the issue of global warming be
highlighted to people – masses and elites alike, in a manner where theories
can be supported by relatable empirical data that are already part of one’s
existential experience.
What then, constitutes as “relatable” for the Mizos of Mizoram
when it comes to understanding global warming? I propose that the familiar
phenomena of jhum cultivation and the indigenous festival called
ChapcharKut(held at the end of harvest) be used to show the connection
between global warming and the changes that these relatable phenomena
have undergone as a result.
The paper is resultant of a mix of orthodox and unorthodox
methodologies. For secondary information and theoretical background,
newspapers, journals, books and government official policies and directives
have been referred to. For primary information, a number of aged
community members of Aizawl were interviewed who are living or have
had lived the rural/agricultural way of life outside of the capital.
In an unorthodox manner, documentaries and social media outlets
have been studied and recorded for those kinds of information that are yet
to make it to academic or orthodox channels. They have been referred to
with the belief that they reflect individual facets of popular culture. Times
are changing and I believe academics should appropriately accommodate
such changes. Virtual world and digital modes of communication in the
form of social media do more than just provide entertainment; they actually
907
represent subverted voices which erstwhile needed one or more charismatic

spokespeople in the academic field to be able to break the barriers of
dominant discourses.
Furthermore, social media, and in particular, YouTube can be
considered a reliable source of information if academic achievers are willing
to present their thought in an A/V format. This method of dissemination
caters to a more varied demography, andyoung researchers can get
motivated to go deeper into literary works once they have been provided
snippets of a topic of their interest. This paper has particularly utilised the
You Tube channel of Vox Media (a news and opinion website) which,
along with University of California, produced a six-part series calledClimate
Lab and tackles the issues of global warming including climate change
and energy conservation.
The Inconvenience of Understanding Global Warming
Al Gore can be accredited with bringing the world’s attention to
global warming through his book (2006a), Oscar winning documentary
(2006b), and Grammy winning spoken work album (Released 2008, Won
2009), where he says that the global situation is “inconvenient” because
we have to change the way we live our lives. This inconvenience still
pesters today and is one of the reasons why global warming is still doubted
by many. As Stoknes (2015) says, people feel there is a need to “defend
their identity and lifestyle against the message …they feel an inner need to
explain it away” (2015, p 71). He elaborates that there are 5 psychological
barriers to climate action or 5 D’s:
 Identity – where people feel their lifestyle is being challenged.
 Denial – where people find it easier to live if their conscience
were guilt-free.
 Dissonance – where people don’t see a direct connection between
climate change and their lives.
 Doom – where people are put off by the notion of doom in the
future.
 Distance – where people believe that distancing themselves from
the issue will result in someone else taking care of the problem.
He says that these barriers are “not conducive to engagement, it
makes people passive… (makes them) withdraw from the issue and try to
908
think about something else” (Vox Media 2017).

M Sanjayan, says that in order to overcome this difficulty, “We
need to change the way we talk about climate change” (Vox Media 2017).
So How Do We Change The Way We Talk about (and Deal with)
Climate Change?
Let us take the example of the hole in the ozone layer issue that
happened much before the issue of global warming was brought to the
forefront. The issue was comparatively easily grasped because of the manner
it was explainable and visually presentable – “the protective layer over the
earth has a hole and it can cause skin cancer”. For example, CFC content
of aerosol hairsprays was found and disseminated by scientists, and the
actual sale of these products went down because consumers were given
the concrete choice of “hairspray vs the environment”. Now scientists
estimate that the ozone layer will be healed by 2050 (Knapton 2016).
However, the issue of global warming is not complimentary with
these tools. As Stoknes(2015) says, “So climate change enlightenment was
fun while it lasted…but it is now limp and dead…so dead, in fact, that it is
moving backwards” (2015, p4); “particularly since they have been presented
in abstract, doom-laden, fear-mongering, guilt-inducing and polarizing
ways” (2015, p 81).He describes people’s attitude of challenging policies
on global warming as “The search for a good reason to reject good science”
(2015, p 75). Leiserowitzechoes this by saying, “Climate change is the
policy problem from hell”…”if CO2 was black we would have dealt with
this issue a long time ago” (Vox Media 2017).
What,therefore, is the solution? How do we make the issue of global
warming “visible”?
The University of California has started theUCLA Engage
programme with the purpose of making energy-use visible and
understanding what the motivationsare for people to change behaviour –
money, health, or the environment?According to Delmas, one of the
project’s devices was “how to frame information about electricity usage
so that people …conserve electricity”(Vox Media 2017), and with repeated
information, changes in consumer behaviour was found.In a nutshell, the
programme found that money had no effect on behaviour because electricity
is relatively cheap; and that a public status or social pressure approach
gave the best results.
This approach of following behavioural science was applied by
909
Virgin Atlantic airlines which saved over 6800 tonnes of fuel in a year by
motivating select pilots to make minute changes like altitude, routes and
speed. This equates to reduction of CO2 emission by 21000 tonnes.
Similarly there are various studies that have shown the positives
of engaging behavioural science.
 Liston-Heyes and Brust (2016) studied the values and attitudes of
managers towards the environment, environmental intentions, and
the context in which these intentions are formed and translated
into actual performance.
 Delmasand Toffel(2008) found thatenvironmental activist
organisations who interact with influential corporate departments
are more likely to affect facility manager s’ decisions
regardingadoption of environmental management practices.
 Delmasand Montes-Sancho(2010)studied the Climate Challenge
Program (1995–2000) established by the U.S. Department of
Energy and represent atives of the national electric utilities to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Theyfound that early joiners
were subjected to higher levels of political pressure at the state
level and were more dependent on local and federal regulatory
agencies than late joiners were.
 Tulloch, Diaz-Rainey, andPremachandra(2017) show that the EU
policies that focus on liberalisation and energy efficiency have a
significant negative impact on the energy sector’s financial returns.
To surmise, there is increase in both the awareness as well as
favourable change regarding global warming when there are constructive
adjustments made in business models and products. In all the instances
given above, there is the application of motivations of progressinstead of
the application of guilt and foresh adowing of doom. Moreover, all these
instances find success when individual-level competitiveness gets
stimulated.
Applications for the Mizoram Scenario
Are these methods applicable in Mizoram? I defend my subjective
interpretation that the Mizos as a whole cannot be expected to have the
level of competiveness found in communities of Ivy League universities
or multi-national corporations.For instance, in Mizoram, for many, the idea
of human rights still exists at the very level of survival. This is because
there exists a “Modernism-Intellectualism Disparity” (Chuaungo 2015a)
910
among the Mizos as a result of a disconnection provided by the super-

rapid rate of globalisation against the backdrop of conservative
traditionalism.
This is why in order to contextualise global warming at a local
level, I propose highlighting the hybridity occurring today in the traditional
festival of Chapchar Kut.
Jhum and Chapchar Kut
Mizo animism, as deduced from the accounts of Chatterjee (1995),
was bound up with the culture of collective life. This animism accounted
for spirits who needed to be appeased for a healthy crop and this was done
by holding a festivity that occurred at the end of a jhum cycle. In post-
animism and Christian era, this cultural norm is still represented, although
in a hybridised form. In the olden pre-Christianity days, due to the time-
off that the people got during the burning of the leftovers of a harvest, it
was a conducive time for merry-making. This annual harvest festival also
marked the advent of spring.The festival had other latent functions which
served the traditional culture well – the festival would last for days during
the time which all disputes in the community were settled, and even
altercation between married couples was a taboo. It was a sign of prosperity
with abundant supply of meat and locally brewed liquor (Pachuau 2010).
Even today, the festival is an important calendar event in Mizoram and
designated as a state holiday.
This is where I would like to point out the hybridity that has
occurred. Firstly, Christianity is a supreme force in Mizoram – both in the
public (including state legislation) and private spheres (Chuaungo 2015b)
and therefore the “non-Christian” elements of liquor and pre-Christianity
deities has been done away with. Secondly (and this pertains to the central
theme of the paper), the exact calendar date for holding the festival is
negotiated every year. This is because the actual burning of leftover harvest
is possible only if the weather permits i.e. there should be no rainfall to
interrupt the burning process.
In the past years, the date of the festival has fluctuated within the
first week of March, and the state government passes out directives of a
last date before which all the harvest burning procedures must be finished.
This last date is usually the 15th of March. Older generation interviewees
approached for this paper were unanimous in their experience that in their
youth, such was never the problem i.e. the climate was consistent, and rain
was the least of their problems in burning the leftover harvest. The idea
911
that the state would have to direct them a deadline was not something they
thought would ever happen.
So what has happened since then? Climate change is what has
happened – which has resulted out of global warming, and now the cultural
festival is slowly but steadily verging towards being dependent on an
inconsistent climate.
Before we move further, let us review literature on whether the
statement “global warming is the cause of inconsistent rainfall” is true or
not:
1. Radford, (2013) – Although the effects of global warming vary by
region, precipitation is expected to increase in higher latitudes and
decrease in areas closer to the Equator.
2. Tollefson (2016) and Stone (2016) – Climate change is already
driving an increase in extremes of rainfall and snowfall across
most of the globe, even in arid regions; and there has been an
overall increase in rainfall extremes as well as boosting of the
number of record-breaking rainfall event. The trend is expected to
continue as the world keeps getting warmer.
3. (Chennai rain 2015) – There have been instances of sudden
downpour caused by climate change affecting daily and commercial
life;
4. (Climate Change 2011) – Climate change seems to have taken its
toll on the agriculture sector of the North East over the years, which
has prompted scientists to conduct vulnerability assessment and
issuing warnings to farming communities and agriculture managers.
5. Stone (2016) and Thompson (2017) – More extreme rains could
have implications for water management and flooding because the
ground can’t absorb as much rainwater when it falls all at once.
To explain the reason for the global anomaly, Union of Concerned
Scientists (2016) state that a warmer climate spurs the evaporation of water
from land and sea, and allows the atmosphere to hold more moisture; thus
setting the stage for more extreme precipitation. The atmosphere’s water-
holding capacity increases by about 4 percent for every 1° Fahrenheit (0.6°
Celsius) rise in temperature; and places now wetter than the historical
average include Northern Europe, Eastern North and South America, and
northern and central Asia.
912
How then, does one connect with the indigenous about the problems
of global warming, since the alternate methods like those being conducted
in the University of California are not context-appropriate?
Engaging the Jhum Debate
The central problem in engaging the jhum debate is that, on one
hand, it has been scientifically proven that the practice has a direct effect
on global warming; but on the other, curbing it has its complications as
well. Some literature for the former situation are:
1. Rahman, Rahman, and Sunderland, (2012) – Traditional land
practices, exacerbated by poverty and associated with a lack of
technical knowledge is the main cause for the continuation of
unsustainable shifting cultivation.
2. Kamboi (2014) – Burning of forests causes loss of habitat for rare
plants and animals, and an increase in CO2 emission leading to
global warming which farmers have little knowledge of.
3. Maisnam,Nongtdu, and Rangad (2016) – Hill agriculture will be
most adversely affected due to climate change in Meghalaya,
primarily due to the practice of jhumcultivation.
However, there are other literature that complicate the matter:
1. Ramakrishnan and Patnaik (1992) – If the interim period between
2 successive cropping is long enough, jhum cultivation does not
harm the land.
2. Raman (2014) – Jhum cultivation in Mizoram, which supports
biodiversity as well as yields a wide range of organic produce, is
under threat from government policy that aims to “settle”
agriculture, by promoting monocultures like oil palm, rubber and
horticultural that reversibly cause permanent deforestation. In
contrast,jhum cultivation causes only temporary loss of small forest
patches followed by forest recovery.
3. Dewani, U. (2014) – Jhum farming must also be viewed in its
entirety – where it means much more than just an agricultural
method for the communities; and government approaches to replace
it with settled agriculture just complicates other facets of the
community life.
4. The simplified statements of the negativity of jhum cultivation
are brought forward by Ribeiro et al (2013) – the nature of the
913
impact depends on the shifting cultivation system (SCS) phase

(conversion, cultivation, or fallow) and on the soil properties
(physical, chemical, and biological). They also suggest
improvements in the choices of soil quality indicators for collection
of more concrete data.
To surmise, global warming is a direct outcome of the ecological
imbalances cause by deforestation. However, what is debatable is pinning
the blame solely on the existence of jhum farming, without providing viable
alternatives to this age old method.
To make the debate even more complicated, there exists conflicting
studies on whether the governmental processes of curbing jhum cultivation
is successful or not.
On one hand the following reports state that in Mizoram, due to
NLUP (New Land Use Policy) jhum farming practices are steadily being
replaced with significant horticulture and bamboo products industry:
1. Agriculture Statistical Abstract 2012-2013 Directorate of
Agriculture, Government of Mizoram (2013);
2. IBEF Report, Mizoram Economy, New Delhi (2010);
3. Mizoram India State of Forest Report 2011, Government of India
(2012).
Moreover, Northeast Today (14 Sep 2016) reported that NLUP
has reduced jhumming by 29.75%; and The Shillong Times (NLUP, 4 Jun
2015) reported that “The CCN, comprising experts from the Mizoram
University, found that families engaging in jhum cultivation has decreased
from 66.44 per cent of the total families in Mizoram to 46.14 per cent,
after the launching of the NLUP in 2011”
However, on the other hand, the following studies have shown the
opposite results:
1. Garbyal (1999)– Most of the beneficiaries of NLUP continue
jhuming, as the programme has failed to bring out any perceptible
improvement in the economic conditions or quality of life.
2. Grogan et al (2012) –Jhum cultivation, though discouraged,
remains in practice in Mizoram and affects its topography.
Moreover, the ineffectiveness of replacing jhum cultivation is
highlighted by Goswami et al (2012) – Despite dedicating largest amount
914
of labour, jhum and non-jhumcultivation fail to raise the rice yield. Mizoram
produces about 26% of rice it consumes every year, and buys the deficit
from other states.
Conclusion
To surmise, due to the inconsistencies of the jhum debate, it is not
prudent to use it to educate the indigenous of its effects on global warming.
As has been mentioned before, the problem is the lack of the possibility of
a visual representation. The indigenous cannot be shown the effects of
jhum by pointing to the sky, and having them imagine its repercussions.
The idea of replenishment and purification of the environment, and the
tropes of “this is the way it has always been done” or that “mother nature
provides” has trickled down from generations, and without formal education
or extensive training programmes, one cannot possibly expect a change of
such mentality. Some interviewees even felt that the increase in rainfall is
actually cooling the climate further!
The only solution to this dilemma is by using those ideas that are
easily visible or experienced in the indigenous life experience. Such an
idea is highlighting the fact that ChapcharKut today is no longer a
calendrical-consistent festival. Every resident of Mizoram, be it in rural
agricultural sectors or urban ones, annually get reminded of this fact; and
just need subtle added information that such is a result of global warming
to which Mizoram contributes to by engaging injhum cultivation.
But what of another fact that even if one were to convince them,
there are currently no government plans that can successfully and fruitfully
replace the jhum way of life?This is where I believe that demands for
alternatives must come from the commoners, and not politicians, specialists
and scientists. If this could be achieved, then governmental aid as well as
policies on curbing jhum can be much more rewarding than it currently is.
Other solutionsas well as possible future research areas to cease
Mizoram’s contribution to global warming include social networking and
other freely available media channels where one reframes climate messages,
and use the power of stories to “re-story” climate.The intention for this is
that awareness of the future of the earth gets more awareness in local
contexts – in a manner freely and interestingly available; as it is not without
co-operation from every orifice across the globe that one could make the
world better for future generations to come.
915
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Vox Media Interviewees
M Sanjayan is vice-president and senior scientist at Conservation International (which
has worked towards the preservation of nature for over 30 years, with partners in
30 countries and being active in 77 countries).
Anthony Leiserowitz is a Research Scientist and Director of the Yale Project on Climate
Change at the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University.
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MagaliDelmas is a Professor of Management at the UCLA Institute of the Environment
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Section 2:
(Theme: Population and Socio-
Economic Development)
Vol. 3 (2017) : 919-938, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
69
Out-Migration and its Impact on Socio
Economic Profile of Natives in Lachigad
Watershed, Pauri Garhwal , Uttarakhand.
1
Anupama M. Hasija, 1S. K. Bandooni and 2Ashok N. Selwatkar
1
Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh (Eve.) College,
(University of Delhi), Sheikh Sarai, Phase-II, New Delhi-110017. India.
2CSTT M/o HRD Government of India, West Block-7 , R.K.Puram, New
Delhi, India.
Abstract
Outmigration from rural area of Himalayan region to the other nearby
urban area or to other states has now become so rampant that its impact
is felt in every aspect of life. After India’s Independence, out migration
became a way of life for many educated youths in the region. Almost
every family in Lachi Gad Watershed is affected by out migration.
And this is affecting every facet of life specially economic,
demographic, social, political and even religious. With such a massive
impact, the question arises what is the socio-economic status of the
region left behind. It is mainly the youth male who have migrated in
search of better job opportunities. The objective of the study is to
analyse the impact of rapid outmigration on Socio Economic profile
of Natives in Lachi Gad watershed, Pauri Garhwal District, Uttrakhand,
using GPS and GIS as tools. It also examines its impact on the women
of the region. In spite of the abundant resources in Lachi Gad
Watershed, people are compelled to move out to urban areas due to
various physical, social and economic problems.
Keywords: Out-migration, socio-economy, vulnerable and Watershed
920
Introduction
Outmigration from rural area of Himalayan region to the other
nearby urban area or to other states has now become so rampant that its
impact is felt in every aspect of life especially on the Elderly people, Women
and the Children in the region. After 1947 (India’s Independence), out
migration became a way of life for many educated youths in the region.
But the rate of out migration has accelerated after 1991. Almost every
family in Lachi Gad Watershed is affected by out migration. And this is
affecting every facet of life specially economic, demographic, social,
political and even religious. With such a massive impact, the question arises
what is the status of the women, children and the elderly aged parents who
are left behind. How does a woman juggle different roles in Sustaining
their families and fields. It is mainly the youth male who are migrated in
search of better opportunities.
The objective of the study is to analyse the impact of rapid
outmigration on Socio Economic profile of Natives in Lachi Gad watershed,
Pauri Garhwal District, Uttrakhand, using GPS and GIS as tools. It also
examines its impact on the women of the region. In spite of the abundant
resources in Lachi Gad Watershed, people are compelled to move out to
urban areas due to various physical, social and economic problems.
Therefore, outmigration is a common phenomenon in this region. This
rapid young male outmigration to the urban areas for better economic
prospects has had a severe impact on both the land use and the families
back home.
The study covered 15 villages namely Lachi, Nawasu,
Pokhersain, Diboli-Puriyakhel, Mangaro, Bhainsora, Saingaon,
Nadiya, Seela Talla, Seela Malla, Matkunda, Mail Bambradi, Tail
Bhamradi, Jogimarhi colony and Chaundaliya. This paper tries to
examine, the role of women in the absence of their male counterparts, so
as to sustain their families and fields. The women have taken up a very
strong front in the absence of the male in the family workload. They are
devoting their lives for tending to the kids, dependent parents and also the
farms.
The per cent age of urban population in India which was only 17
per cent of the total population in 1951 is expected to jump to around 42.5
per cent of the total population by 2025. All this will happen because large
numbers of people will leave rural areas for urban areas in search of better
opportunities. In the last 50 years the rural population has decreased from
82.0 to 68.9 per cent. Large numbers of people, mostly young are moving
921
away from rural areas to urban centers because there are fewer employment
opportunities back home. The story of migration has its own tales of sorrow
as several children turn into rag pickers and families have to live in inhuman
conditions in urban areas. Many don’t get employment throughout the year
and commute between urban and rural areas.
Therefore, the study of migration and its impacts becomes a matter
of great significance for geographers. In the present paper, the impact of
outmigration is examined with special reference to agricultural land thus
the status of women who are taking the entire burden of responsibilities.
The well-educated out migrants generally send good amount back home
and thus their families are in good state in villages.
The National Sample Survey Office in its 64th round survey which
was carried out during July 2007 to June 2008, covering a random sample
of 5,72,254 persons, covering 79,091 rural and 46,487 urban households
spread over 7921 villages and 4688 urban blocks of the country, explored
some significant trends of rural migration in India. As per the economists
and development experts - migration is essential for development and it is
a desirable phenomenon; but what is not desirable is the distressed migration
found across the nation resulting in over-crowding of cities and
mushrooming of slums. Some states which have higher investment and
resources for development experience high in-migration; at the same time,
the backward states like U.P, Bihar, M.P, etc are experiencing heavy out-
migration. The rural poor from the downtrodden and backward communities
and backward regions such as Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh travel to far
distances seeking employment at the lowest rungs in construction of roads,
irrigation projects, commercial and residential complexes etc. Hence, there
is a need for balanced regional development. More focus for development
and investment should be given to those states which are lagging behind in
development parameters. (Rural India: Still Floating Towards Cities)
Statement of Problem
Outmigration takes place due to Physical, Economic, Social, and
many more problems that are faced by people in any backward region or
less developed. Outmigration has positive and negative impacts in this
region. When the young and skilled working groups moves out from their
region in search of better opportunities, the region which is left behind
experiences shortage of labour and thus the progress of this region slows
down. But at the same time the remittances sent by them do aid the area
and its economy improves. Migration also impacts the cropping patterns
and techniques used in agriculture. Rural outmigration remains as a potential
922
mechanism for change in the rural areas through diffusion process (Gold
Scheider, 1984). People have been migrating to different parts of India
since historical past. But during past three decades the volume has increased
many folds, mainly due to increase in the levels of awareness about job
opportunities in the cities and decreasing interest in agricultural activities.
Mostly the out migrants are engaged in defence services and other types of
government jobs in the ministries. Most of the out migrants land up getting
unskilled jobs or low grade clerical jobs on lack technical and as they
higher education skills. The out migrants are sending monthly remittances
depending upon their family’s needs in the native village. The economic
conditions of the family left behind and most importantly level of attachment
with the people in village play a very significant role.
However, for the landless and marginal farmers who are in constant
debt, migration is the only choice for livelihood. Migration comes as a
boon for several people who get getter fresh opportunities and send
remittances home. Some analysts advocate internal mobility as a necessity
for lifting people out of poverty. Remittances play an essential role in
ensuring food for many rural poor households and thus constitute an
efficient strategy for facing adversities such as low agricultural productivity
and the inherent risks and instability of farming activities.
Moreover, remittances may serve as insurance to improve or
counter crisis situations, thus limiting negative effects on food security.
Migration is the barometer of changing socio-economic and political
conditions at the national and international levels. It is also a sign of wide
disparities in economic and social conditions between the origin and
destination. Even as analysts debate whether migration is recommended
for growth or not, one thing is fundamental to migration-It is a natural
outcome of inequality in the distribution of resources.
Migration has been significantly reshaping the traditional social
and economic structures of rural communities of this country. The livelihood
activities of rural families are no longer confined to farming and are
increasingly being diversified through rural-to-urban and international
migration. With the development of trade and industry and the awareness
produced by the mass media, rural poor are shifting towards the urban
areas in order to improve their living standards and to search for better
livelihood opportunities. The lack of employment opportunities in the rural
areas and better employment prospects and infrastructure facilities in the
urban areas motivate people to migrate to urban areas. In the rural areas,
sluggish agricultural growth and limited development of the rural non-
923
farm sector raises the incidence of rural poverty, unemployment and

underemployment. Given the fact that most of the high productivity
activities are located in the urban areas – people from rural areas move
towards town or cities with a hope to grab diversified livelihood
opportunities as the rural poor still consider migration as one of the
significant as well as reliable livelihood coping strategy.
Migration primarily occurs due to disparities in regional
development. The causes of migration are usually explained by using two
broad categories, namely, push and pull factors. Studies conducted in the
sphere of migration in India - found that poverty, job searching and family
influence have been the main push factors for out-migration, while
availability of better employment opportunity, prior migrants and
availability of better educational facilities have been identified as the key
pull factors behind migration. To be more specific, for rural India, poverty
is still considered to be the main push factor for illiterates and moderately
educated migrants.
Literature Review
Out-migration is an important driver of local land use and land
cover change (Kates and Parris, 2003; GLP, 2005; Lambin and Meyfroidt,
2011; Seto et al., 2012). However, the relationship between outmigration
and Landuse/Landcover is not yet fully understood. The livelihoods of
most of the human population depend almost entirely on natural resources.
Thus there exists increasing competition between the utilization and
sustainable management of land resources and a need to monitor land use
and land cover changes over time. “Land use” refers to what people do on
the land surface, that is, the manner in which human beings employ the
land and its resources (e.g., agriculture, settlement etc). “Land cover”
defines the ecological state and physical appearance of the land surface
(e.g., water, crops, forest, human structures, shrubs etc) (Turner and Mayer,
1994; Brandon, 2001; Geist and Lambin, 2002). Worldwide, land cover
change is caused by changes in the way people use and manage land
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005a).This occurs mainly
from direct effects of population growth and migration on many things
such as agricultural expansion, grazing and land for settlement as well as
indirect effects of pollution.The impact of migration on Landuse/Land cover
(LUCC) is one of the major research frontiers in the Global Land Project
(GLP), especially in relation to globalization and urbanization (GLP, 2005).
There are many Push factors which are responsible for the outmigration,
i.e. Climate change, land degradation, water shortage but also inundations,
924
poverty, famine and population pressure, unemployment etc. Moreover,

insecure livelihoods drive millions of vulnerable people to move from their
original habitat to other place where the pull factor is for better economy
opportunities. Therefore, a strong focus on this is needed to address the
problems at their roots. It is also evident that most of those on the move
from rural areas also head towards urban agglomerations and where they
often concentrate in slum areas. Migration, if managed properly (legal,
well prepared etc) could be beneficial in both source and target Places
(remittances, brain circulation, skills and labour mobility).
According to National Sample Survey 64th round, Nearly 29 per
cent of rural male migrants and 56 per cent of urban male migrants have
migrated due to employment related reasons.
Some researchers have found that the health and educational status
of children belonging to migrant households tends to improve with
remittances, while others emphasize that the impacts of migration are not
always positive and that the social and human costs for future generations
are high and hard to measure. Migrants usually keep their alliance with the
place of origin.
Aims and Objectives
 To analyse the impact of out migration on agricultural land use.
 To assess the role of women in the region.
 To examine the change that has taken place in the cropping pattern.
 To examine the impact of out migration on the economic
development of the region.
Methodology
1. The study covered 15 villages. Household data were collected and
tabulated with the help of simple statistical techniques to
understand the pattern of agricultural Landuse and to analyse
characteristics of out-migrants.
2. Use of Handheld GPS receiver (Global positioning system) to carry
out the field survey for the demarcation of Study area.
3. Satellite Data (Landsat ETM + and IRS LISS –III) of 2002 and
2015 is use to generate landuse/ landcover using Digital image
processing software i.e. Erdas Imagine 2013.
4. SOI Toposheet, Google Earth and other Thematic Maps (Soil,
925
Geological, weather etc) is used to generate the base and other

maps for Watershed Boundary and other related information.
5. To determines the anthropogenic activities of landuse due to
outmigration
6. To examine the impact of out migration on agriculture land use
pattern, inter views wer e conducted for 272 households.
Questionnaire is used to collect the primary data mainly on
characteristic of respondent and his/her family, landuse and
agricultural landuse including cropping pattern, characteristic of
out migrants, place of migration, year of migration, nature of Job,
average monthly income and remittance, reason and frequency of
visits and impact of outmigration.
7. Study focused on two points of time; current (2015-16) and
previous (2001-02) cultivated land to compare the production/yield
of annual crops, cropping pattern and working hours of women.
8. The pattern of remittances were analysed and its impact on
development of the region was observed.
Study Area
Lachi Gad watershed is a part of Eastern Nayar river catchment in
central eastern part of Garhwal Himalaya. Within Garhwal Himalaya it
comes in Pauri Garhwal district (fig. 1) between 29º 52’ 23" to 29º 54’
28"N latitude and 79º 1’ 48" to 79º 4’ 43"E longitude in Uttrakhand, and
encompasses a total area of around 1047.85 hectares. It comes under
Bironkhal block and Thailisain tehsil with the elevation from mean sea
level ranges between 1100 and 2250 mts. The total population is
approximately 1600 and they are mostly farmers. The climate is warm
and cool temperate with cold winters, warm and crisp springs, cool summers
and a strong monsoon.
The average temperature of the watershed is 20ºC approximately.
The summer temperature ranges from 20ºC to 30ºC while during the winter
temperature ranges between 10ºC and 15ºC. Many times winters
temperature decreases below freezing point and snowfall is frequent. The
average annual rainfall of Bironkhal station is 175 cm and about 150 cm to
200 cm of rainfall during the monsoon season. During the winters, snowfall
may occur as low as 1400 mts. The winter rainfall and snowfall ranges
between 15-25 cms. The main types of landuse are forest, agriculture,
pasture, barren and waste land.
926
Fig. 1: Location map
Land Use Pattern

Land use pattern in a region at any particular time is determined
by the physical, economic and institutional framework taken together. In
other words, the existing land-use pattern in different regions has been
evolved as a result of the action and interaction of various factors, such as
the physical characteristics of land, the institutional framework, the structure
of other resources available, and the location of the region in relation to
other aspects of economic development e.g. those relating to transport as
well as to industry and trade. The present pattern can, therefore, be
considered in some sort of static harmony and adjustment with the other
main characteristics of the economy of the region. A close study of the
present land use pattern and the trends during recent years will help to
suggest the scope for planned shifts in the pattern.
927
Fig. 2: Land use 2002
Fig. 3: Land use 2015

928
Table 1. Land use/Land cover (2001-02 and 2015-16)

Classes 2001-02 2015-16
Hectare Percentage Hectare Percentage
Agriculture 152.28 14.53 120.60 11.50
Settlement 47.32 4.51 48.71 4.64
Scrub forest 91.42 8.72 95.41 9.10
Dense Forest 636.48 60.74 648.62 61.90
Barren ,fallow 71.31 6.80 79.90 7.62
Water 15.03 1.43 14.63 1.39
Fruits Trees/Horticulture 33.97 3.24 39.95 3.81
Total 1047.85 100 1047.85 100
Fig.2 & 3 depict the contributors to the change in land classes

during 2001-02 to 2015-16. It is evident that dense forest and agriculture
are the two major classes which have largely modified village landscape.
The area under agriculture has decreased by about 3.03 per cent from 2002
to 2015 and the area under dense forest is increased by 1.16 per cent in 13
years (Table1). Therefore, increased in Dense forest and decreased in
agriculture land indicate people have almost given up agriculture and move
out of the region. It is also found that there has been significant increase in
the area under scrub forest, Barren land, and area under Fruits Trees/
Horticulture. It is a matter of satisfaction that in spite of changes in the
village landscape the water bodies are unaffected.
929
Survey Analysis
Impact of Out Migration on working hours of women
From the data collected it was observed that due to working Men
outmigration, there is immense pressure on the women be it fodder, fuel
wood collection , working in fields, finishing house hold chores or attending
any family get together or tending to old parents and children’s needs.
The entire study area is revealing the stress signatures on women.
Table 2: Hours spent by women in various activities [2001-02 and 2015-16]
Village Fodder Fuel Fetching Cultiv- House- Social Other
Collec- wood Water ation hold Obliga-
tion Collec- chores tions
tion
Nawasu 2 (3) 2.5 (2) 2 (1) 2.5 (3) 3 (3) .5 (2) 11.5 (9)
Diboli-Puriakhil 2 (2.5) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (4.5) 3 (3) 1 (3) 12(9)
Tail Bhamradi 2 (2) 2 (1.5) .5 (.5) 3 (4.5) 3.5 (4) 2 (4) 11 (7.5)
Bhainsora 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 (.5) 4 (5) 4 (4) 2 (4.5) 9 (8)
Lachi 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (0) 3.5 (4) 3.5 (4.5) 2 (4) 11(9.5)
Saingaon 1 (1) 1.5 (1) 1 (.5) 3 (4) 3.5 (5) 2.5 (4.5) 11.5 (8)
Nadiya 1.5 (1) 1 (1) 1 (.5) 3 (4) 3.5 (4.5) 2 (4) 12 (9)
SeelaTalla 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (0) 3.5 (4) 4 (4.5) 2 (4.5) 11.5 (9)
Seela Malla 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3.5 (4.5) 4 (4.5) 2.5 (4) 11 (8)
Matkunda 1 (1) 1 (1) 1(.5) 3.5 (5) 4 (4.5) 2 (3.5) 11.5 (8.5)
Mail bambradi 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (0) 3 (4.5) 4 (4.5) 2 (4.5) 11 (8.5)
Jogimarhi Colony 1 (1) 1 (1) .5 (0) 2.5 (4.5) 3.5 (4.5) 2.5 (4) 12 (9)
Chaundilya 1 (1) 1 (1.5) 1 (.5) 3.5 (4.5) 3.5 (4.5) 3 (4) 11(8)
Pokharsain 1 (1) 1 (1) .5 (.5) 3.5 (4.5) 4 (4.5) 2.5 (4) 11.5 (8.5)
Mangaro 1 (1) 1.5 (1) 1 (.5) 3.5 (4.5) 3.5 (4) 2.5 (4) 11 (9)
It has been observed that, Fuel wood collection is taking less of

their time as many of the households have LPG connections now. They
earlier went to farms to assist but now they plough the fields too. The
stress is both psychological and physical. They have shifted from main
crops to vegetables for the ease of cultivation and marketing. Vegetable
growing sustains their families too. Even the kids help in the vegetable/
kitchen gardens. Moreover they don’t have to employ any labour for
930
vegetable gardens/ horticulture. This region although is blessed with

bountiful resources, but there is scarcity of water. However at present
forest area has witnessed an increase, but the indiscriminate cutting of
woods, drying up of aquifers, surface water runoff has led to drying up of
the river channels. They don’t need to travel much for fetching water these
days as pipeline connections have reached their homes. The women’s
burden has increased manifold when the social obligations of meeting
extended family, attending functions, taking old parents for health checkups,
childrens needs etc is also on them that too in such a rugged terrain. They
are spending two to three hours every day for this activity. House hold
chores are in any case their sole duty which includes kitchen work, washing
clothes, cleaning house, bathing kids, tending to domesticated animals etc.
An observation from the data collected and primary interview suggests
that Diboli, Bhainsora and Chaundilya have been the most impacted women
due to out migration of working men.
Impact on Agricultural Land use and cropping Pattern
Forest area has seen a rise as fuel wood collection has witnessed a
decrease due to increase in LPG connections in the households. Pasture
and fallow lands have increased as NSA has declined.NSA has seen a
decline as women folk can’t manage the large scale magnitude of
cultivation, because it’s not just sowing it also includes continuous vigil
and time to time remedial measures in case of pest attacks or ill effects of
cold weather. Instead they have shifted to growing vegetable. Growing of
fruits is also gaining importance, such as Walnut, Malta, Apple, Orange
and Apricot.
Table 3: Agricultural land use in % (Total area 1047.85 hectares)
Type 2001-02 2015-16
NSA 18 13
Forest 51 53
Pasture 10 11
Horticulture 8 10
Other 5 2
Table 4. Cropping Pattern : Kharif season in (%)
CROP 2015-16 2001-02 Examples
Rice 15 30
Jhangora 30 20
931
Mandua 30 30 Popularly known as Ragi

Pulses 15 15 Rajma and Kulath
vegetables 10 5 Lady Finger, Chillies, Brinjal,
Potatoes, Garlic.
Burden on Women
932
In Kharif season earlier Rice was a dominant crop but since it is

labour intensive it has seen a decrease in cropping area after the male out
migration has intensified. The women have shifted to vegetable gardens as
that helps in self sustenance too. The feasibility factor is significant here
as they can check on their vegetables without going far away from home.
Table 5. Cropping Pattern: Rabi Season in (%)
Crop 2015-16 2001-02
Barley 10 30
Wheat 40 50
Mustard 10 10
Vegetables 40 10 Raddish, Rhye, Cauliflower, Onion and
Turmeric.
In Rabi season, Barley is losing importance as it is a coarser crop.

Wheat has also witnessed a downward trend. Onion and Turmeric are very
much in demand and hence profits are more. One woman in SEELAMALLA
earns 10,000/ yr from onions. A group of females have started the cultivation
of Onions.
933
Impact on Socio Economic Conditions

The average monthly income <10,000 is found in around 8%
families, whereas 10,000-20,000 average income is of approximately 26%
families. Nearly 40,000 and more income is found in around 26.02%
families. It’s observed that due to outmigration the family status is well
maintained as the migrants send remittances on monthly basis.
Table 6. Average Monthly Income
S.No Income (in Rs.) No. of Out migrants Percentage
1. <10000 10 8.13
2. 10000-20000 33 26.83
3. 20000-30000 31 25.20
4. 30000-40000 17 13.82
5. 40000 & Above 32 26.02
6. TOTAL 123 100
Around 41% visit their families on regular basis and those families
depicted a sound economic status. Nearly 33.33% visit occasionally and
22.76% visit rarely. There are several reasons for these, for e.g., many
families have shifted to NCR or other cities since ages and now they don’t
have much charm for the village. Some of them have abandoned their village
homes.
Table 7. Visit to the Village
S.No Nature No. of Out Migrants Percentage
1. Regularly 50 40.66
2. Occasionally 41 33.33
3. Rarely 28 22.76
4. Never 4 3.25
5 Total 123 100
Table 8. Participation of out migrants in Agricultural Activities
S.No Nature No. of Out Migrants Percentage
1 Regularly 22 18.49
2 Occasionally 35 29.41
3 Rarely 32 26.89
4 Never 30 25.21
5 TOTAL 119 100
934
There are few out migrants who visit their village seasonally when
crops are to be sown and harvested. But many are of them do not come on
seasonality. Because most of the respondent is settled in Delhi due to lack
of infrastructure in Lachi gad area and now they don’t have any interest or
time for agriculture. Hence the burden of cultivation is on the women who
are in the village.
Mostly people visit their village in case any religious ritual takes
place or a social gathering or to attend a family function. Sometimes this is
imposed on them and not by choice because by now they have gelled into
cities busy life and taking time out is a very daunting task. A very few who
still feel the charm of greenery is waiting, do visit for regular recreation
with family during breaks or vacations. These women only arrange for the
religious rituals to be held, right from collecting necessary items to
arranging the priests and also sending the invites.
Table 9. Purpose of Visit of Out migrants to the Village
S.No. Purpose No. of Out Migrants Percentage
1 Participate in social rituals 32 46.37
2 Participate in religious rituals 28 40.58
3 Participate in other function 4 5.8
4 Recreation 3 4.35
5 Other activities 2 2.9
6 Total 69 100
Around 47% out migrants are sending back regular money to their
families. This has helped in the socio economic development of the Lachi
gad area. Although the remittance amount is not reported to be very huge,
ranging from 8000-25000 (Table 10) per year. But something is better than
nothing. One can clearly observe that those who are never sending or rarely
doing so, their houses are in ruins and badly kept in the village. The family
which is left behind can’t bear the burden of everything. They are just
managing to sustain their lives. In fact major portion of these remittances
go to the labours employed by these women, who are acting as the head of
the family.
935
Table 10. Remittances

S. No. Nature No. of Family Percentage
1 Regularly 58 47.16
2 Rarely 38 30.89
3 Never 27 21.95
4 Total 123 100
Findings and Results

 The major destinations of out migrants are Defense and Para
Military. Apart from this they also migrate to Dehradun, Rishikesh,
Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and other states in NCR.
 Mostly it was observed that, people and specifically young adults
migrated due to lack of jobs, attraction towards city life, poor
economic condition etc.
 Many youth also migrated as part of the family or distant relative
was already settled and leading a very comfortable life.
 Lachi Gad also is Vulnerable to landslides, Poor Infrastructure,
lack of coordination between authorities, Poor road network and
many more such push factors playing a very significant role in the
high rate of OUT MIGRATION.
 The families which are left behind have to bear the brunt, be it
natural calamity, loss of crop to floods, sudden landslides etc.
 The loss of the young adult labour force.
 The loss of those with the skills and entrepreneurial talents, which
may slow down the process of economic development.
 The area may suffer from the cumulative problems and there growth
would be retarded.
 The women’s burden has increased manifold when the social
obligations of meeting extended family, attending functions, taking
old parents for health checkups, childrens needs etc is also on them
that too in such a rugged terrain.
 They are spending more hours as they used to in agricultural
activities every day.
936
 House hold chores are in any case their sole duty which includes
kitchen work, washing clothes, cleaning house, bathing kids,
tending to domesticated animals etc.
 Social Obligations like attending local functions or taking parents
to hospital which is not less than 1 to 5 kms distance (Dispensary)
and a Public Health centre at 14- 20 kms, they nearly spend 3-4
hours in this every day.
 An observation from the data collected and primary interview
suggests that Diboli, Bhainsora and Chaundilya have been the most
impacted women due to out migration of working men.
Suggestions
 The females should be provided with some technical or skill
development courses (pickle making, juice making) so that they
can work from home.
 The area should be developed (road network among the villages)
so that women can reach medical assistance, if needed, at the
earliest.
 Presently one Ayurvedic Hospital in Joghimarhi with no medical
assistance; a dispensary at 1 to 5 kms distance and a Public Health
centre at 14- 20 kms.
 More employment opportunities should come up in the area to
check out migration. The only coordination that is missing is
between the authorities.
 The females should be provided with some technical or skill
development courses (pickle making, juice making) so that they
can work from home.
 The area should be developed (road network among the villages)
so that women can reach medical assistance, if needed, at the
earliest.
 More employment opportunities should come up in the area to
reduce/check out migration.
Conclusion
They are the ones taking major decisions in farming as well as family
related issues. The study found most of the agricultural land has got
converted into bushes/ abandoned land and productivity has decreased due
937
to the physical and financial hardships. The fallow lands as well as forests
have also seen a rise. It is also observed that approximately 30 per cent of
people are migrating outside the state, mostly to Dehradun, Rishikesh,
Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and other states in NCR. However, the out migrants
maintain a strong sense of belonging to their native place and family. Their
decision to move out is, in the first place, driven by the need to find some
lucrative job so as to enhance the living standards of their family. Secondly,
they make it a point to visit their hometown at least once a year to attend to
some religious ceremonies, family functions or for some repair or
maintenance of their homes. Their visits not only help and aid the makeover
of their own homes physically but they also share the ideas of development
with their community. The area is a promising one with serene ambiance.
The only coordination that is missing is between the authorities. If this
can be channelized this watershed can become economically self sustained
very efficiently.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 939-952, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
70
Ethnicity and Socio-Cultural
Restructuring of Bhotiya Tribe: A Case
Study of Johar Valley of Kumaon
Himalaya
Atithi Pant1, V.S Negi2 and B.W. Pandey1
1
Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi
2
Department of Geography, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College (Eve.),
University of Delhi
Email: [email protected] [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract
The Tribal societies of Uttarakhand show an extraordinary range of
cultural behaviours, ‘Bhotiyas’ are one of them. Historically and
politically the ‘Johar Valley’ which is considered to be the stronghold
of Bhotiya tribe, has a great importance. The trading patterns and social
structure of Bhotiyas (sub-communities) found in the valley have now
become a part of history. The social system of the Bhotiyas has changed
a lot within past few decades, but they have kept their individuality
and traditional knowledge for their future generation. Different aspects
of Bhotiya’s society like trading system, building methods, division
of work, knowledge of herbal medicine, rituals and caste system are
the subject of learning for researchers and scientists. Bhotiya
community illustrates or presents reconciliation, adjustment and
harmonization with the environment and with their natural settings;
they are the strongest among all the tribes found in Kumaon Region.
In the present paper we have tried to depict the spatial characteristics
940
of Bhotiyas including their history, geography, society and culture. A

case study has been done on Bhotiya Tribe who are well known as the
residents of Johar valley and were formerly involved in trans-
Himalayan trade and transhumance. The study offers new insight into
highland-lowland interactions of mountain communities and resource
utilization system, more strongly to the fore of borderland areas like
‘Johar’.
Introduction
India is rich in its tribal population from the immemorial time
with their traditional knowledge system which deals with the many
significant aspects of their society and culture. About half of the total tribal
population of the world lives in India. They include about 18per cent of
country’s land and 8.2per cent of its population. In the Indian context, a
tribe is defined as a group with traditional territory, their own political
organization, specific name, lack of technology, common language, strong
kin relations, association with clan structure and rigid inclination to religion
and belief. Functional independence, homogeneity, primitive means of
exploiting resources, economic backwardness, their own rituals and belief,
social-political value, rich culture and tradition and least desire to change
are some of the other characteristics governing among the tribes. The tribal
people get their cure with the help of their traditional knowledge and
understanding of nature. The distinct lifestyle of tribal communities is
inclined by distinct socio-cultural practices, religious, beliefs, support of
traditional ability and services of traditional medicine men. These people
have close association with their surrounding environment and basically
depend on due to their remoteness and solitude (Negi, 2007). Tribal people
are the nature lovers who live in close harmony with the Ecology. The
records of tribal traditional knowledge especially local crafts, traditional
house construction and medicinal and aromatic plants etc. have been
considered to support the discoveries of new drugs for the advantage of
mankind. Medicinal plants are the base of many societies, for their primary
health care system. The tribal community and their habitation constitute
very important parts of our country’s environment and ecology (Pandey
2015).
In the state of Uttarakhand there are five major tribal communities,
namely Bhotia, Jaunsari, Raji, Tharu and Buksa. In the present paper a
case study has been done on Bhotiya Tribe who are well known as the
residents of the Gori or Johar valley of Kumaun Himalaya. Bhotias consists
of several valley communities who were formerly involved in trans-
Himalayan trade. The present study analyses the shifting livelihoods of
Bhotiya’s This offers new insight into highland-lowland interactions of
941
mountain systems and brings the utilization of natural resources more

strongly to the fore of borderland studies.
Geopolitical Relevance and History of Johar Valley
The indigenous category Bhotiya was popularised as an
administrative category in Kumaon under British rule (Atkinson,
1882).Their ethnic identities and livelihoods remain closely linked to the
area of the Sino-Indian border, which was sealed as a result of the war
between the two countries in 1962. The Britishers favoured the residents
of the valley for their politico-economic interests (Brown, 1984).
In the Johar valley population splits up further into several
exogamous patrilineal clans and lineages. Their winter settlements are
located around the urbanized centers and former trade depots of Munsiari
and Dharchula. The Johar valley was inhabited by the Shauka people who
led semi-nomadic lives actively engaged in trade with Tibet across the
difficult Himalayan passes. The trading activities were continued in the
whole year. It took traders 20-25 days to reach Munsiyari from Tibet from
where they carried back mainly salt. Tibetan Salt consumed in the entire
Himalayan region those days. Every able-bodied man in the village braved
the dangerous passes to cross over to Tibet as a trader. They travelled in
groups carrying woollen clothes, sheeps and animals. Each mule loaded
with 40 kg. of luggage. In their former trans Himalayan trade sugar, grain,
woollen products animals from India were exchanged for salt, raw wool,
animals and Borax which were largely found in Tibet (Gerwin and
Bergmann, 2012). During the 19 th century a rapid increase in Trans
Himalaya trade especially in wool, took place because of the improvements
in mule tracks in the highlands which aimed at securing access to the border
districts as well as at extending the commercial relation with Tibet. After
1880 the drainage of the Bhabhar as well as the extension of the railway
network in the lower areas of Kumaon Himalaya had very much transformed
lower valley areas into the most important markets for trading. The residents
of the Johar were rich people, they had agricultural land in every major
resting points of their migration especially around Munsiyari, Dharchulaand
Thal area of Pithoragarh. The seasonal migration with the motive of trading
was continued till 1960.
A gradual restructuring of the Bhotiya trading took place after 1920,
when the Tibetan wool was replaced by European and Australian wools;
similarly the Tibetan salt was gradually superseded by coastal salt of south
India. In the course of time main trading activities were shifted to eastwards
linking Sikkim with the ports of Bengal. This was the time when the Bhotiya
942
people turned their focus on agricultural activities in order to compensate

for losses under changing trading patterns. The locals of Johar valley were
suddenly found without a viable livelihood when the border with Tibet
was sealed in 1962 and the trade stopped completely.
Right after India’s independence the Kumaon Bhotiya People’s
Federation was established as a leading union of Bhotiays in the area.
They demanded their community to be included in Backward and special
statuary safeguards to promote economic welfare and social and cultural
uplift. Soon after when the Indian government started listing Schedule
Tribes, the Bhotias claimed for recognition and laid emphasis on their
primitiveness and disadvantage as former trans-Himalayan and cross border
traders and they succeeded to get quota access to universities, government
services. By the time the former winter settlements of Munsiyari and
Dharchula developed into new economic and administrative centers.
Bhotias managed to hold key position in local politics and were able not
only to retain but also to expand their property in the expanding markets.
Their main occupation of pasturing cattle rearing was started to fall and
replaced with agricultural activities. Agriculture has never been too
developed here on account of the unfavourable climate. So people started
migrating to Talla Johar Valley (Munsiyari, Dharchula area) from Malla
Johar area. Most of them were therefore forced to migrate. Today the
villages of Milam, Pachhu, Burfu etc. of Malla Johar Valleyseems deserted
without communication and Infrastructural facilities.
The Study Area
Talla Johar Valley located in northern India adjacent to Tibet and
Nepal. The Johar valley is a remote area within the Pithoragarh district of
the western Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, India, along the eastern
Ramganga River or Goriganga River (figure 1). The valley used to be a
major trade route with Tibet. The main Gori valley from Munsairy to Milam
is known as Johar. The Johar valley also divided into two part Talla Johar
valley‘and Malla Johar valley’. The Johar Valley ranges in altitude from
2,290 mts. at Munsiyari to 3,872 mts. in Milam. The upper Johar Valley
constitutes part of the eastern border of the buffer zone of the Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve. The valley lies between middle Himalaya and lower
Shiwalik, between 29° 16' 10" N to 29° 24' 11" N latitudes and 79° 41' 21"
to 79° 48' 13" E longitudes. The mountainous landscape of the Johar Valley
includes river valleys and alpine meadows, with alpine glaciers in the
distance.
943
Figure 1: Location Map of the study area ‘Johar Valley’
The Valley is accessed from the gateway village of Munsiyari along

a foot trail that follows the River Goriganga, a right bank tributary of the
Kaliganga system. The foot trail is the only link between the lower and
upper villages in Johar Valley, and historically functioned as a trade route
between Johar Valley villages and villages in Tibet. As described by the
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) these
rangelands are particularly fragile and critical ecosystems that support
livestock and accommodate important watershed functions as well as
provide valuable and biologically diverse resources. The climate valley
describes as of tundra variety where mild summer season is followed by
an extremely cold and snowy winter season. Amount of rainfall is high
towards north and west in thickly forested area. Further northward increase
in altitude has marked effect in lowering the temperature. During the coldest
months of December and January, the tropical and temperate mountain
ridges and high locations receive snowfall and have a minimum -4 to -5 °C
944
and maximum 38 °C temperature. The valley area is also famous for one
its herbs which is known as Macrotomia, locally known as Ratanjot which
is silvery, hairy with drawn out brackets and red roots grows here in the
rocky surfaces. Beyond Milam the sub-alpine vegetation is represented by
yellow flowered Berberis sp., white flowered Rosa, Ribes Grossularia,
species of Juniperus, Lonicera and Ephedra gerardiana. In Uttarakhand
Himalayan region, as per 2011 census, 291903 tribal people constituted
about 3 per cent to the total population of the state. This state gives about
0.83 per cent to the total population and 0.3 per cent to the tribal population
of India. The village wise population details of the selected villages are
given in Table 1. Among the selected village Milam has the highest
population. According to Census 2011, total population of Milam is 135
which were more than 400 in 1991.
Table 1: Demographic Profile of the Selected Village
Name of the Area Number Total population Total SC ST
villages (Hectares) of House- Popula- population
holds M F tion
Milam 138.88 110 118 17 135 47 47

Pachhu 44.98 17 21 17 38 19 19
Burphu 227.11 41 55 39 94 37 37
Martoli 212.76 23 28 12 40 31 31
Source: Census Handbook, 2011
Society and Culture

The tribal people who are identified as Bhotias of U.P. Himalayas
have their permanent homes or ‘maits’ in the upper reaches of seven
different river valleys falling within the Uttarakhand division. The seven
river valleys forming the homeland of the seven different tribal groups, all
called Bhotias, are as follows.
1. Jads of Jahnavi Ganga, originally belonging to Neelang and Jadung,
now settled at Bagori on Bhagirathi.
2. Marchhas of Mana village on Alaknanda.
3. Tolchhas of Dhauli valley and Marchhas of upper Dhauli valley.
4. Johar is of Johar valley of upper Gori Ganga.
5. Darma Bhotias of Darma valley.
6. Chaudansi Bhotias of Kal valley.
945
7. Byansi Bhotias of upper Kali and Kuti valley.

‘Bhotias’ of Johar Valleyare the followers of Hinduism, and rely
on the Hindu Brahmins to conduct religious ceremonies. Their main deity
is Goddess ‘Nanda Devi’. The most important common characteristic of
the Bhotias is that they practice “transhumance”. They have one set of
residence for summer and autumn; with the onset of winter they move to
another set of dwellings at a lower altitude. Since these dwellings are
permanent structures with hereditary ownership rights these people cannot
be called ‘nomadic’. Secondly, the Bhotias are natural mountaineers, earlier
they used to visit the Tibetan Mandis by crossing through high mountain
passes and carry on a flourishing trade there. Bhotias have developed their
own distinctive cultures like dressing styles, rituals, customs, popular
beliefs, farming and business methods, and language.
Housing and Building Types
The settlement pattern of the Malla Johar Valley looks like a series
of housing clusters. One notable difference is the prevalence of a white
plaster on the walls of many houses it is a white mud sourced near the
river, and gives a clean appearance to the walls. The entrance and widows
are well carved with woodwork (Plate: 1). The Angan is communal space
used for drying meat, threshing grains, and grinding seeds and herbs, as
well as for playing, chatting, and weaving. The flat stone paving of many
angan includes one special stone with a deep indentation, carved out to
serve as a mortar (Plate: 2). Raga wood, which is not only durable but also
easy to carve, is used to construct traditional door and window frames.
They board up their windows with stones to prevent theft by tourists and
porters when they migrate to Talla or Lower Johar valley.
Plate: 1. The oldest carved window in Plate: 2. A Man drying Black Cumin in
Village Milam his courtyard (Angan)
Photo by Atithi Pant, 2016.

946
Plate 3: Traditional Ornaments of Bhotiyas. Photo by Atithi Pant, 2016.
Windows and doors are much smaller in traditional constructions

to shield the interiors from the harsh climate including strong and cold
winds. A wooden frame supports the slate roof are made of raga timber
which is longer, straighter, and more durable. Their Building foundations
are usually two feet deep and made of stone. The two-story walls, with
built-in niches on the interior and wooden hooks on both sides, are
constructed of coursed stone rubble and plastered inside with mud and
cow dung. They used to make baskets and boxes with Ringaal and Bamboo.
Tradional Bhotiya’s ornaments were made by copper, bronze and brass,
they were typically carved and decorated with flowery designs ((Plate: 3
and 4).). The traditional utensils of Bhotias are made of Bronze, Brass and
Zinc metals (Plate: 5).
Plate: 4. Ringaal made Traditional Baskets or Hampers and wooden Boxes

947
Plate: 5. Ethnic Utensils and Containers of Bhotiya Tribe

Land Ownership
Despite many cultural and ethnic differences, there are also striking
similarities among the people belonging to these seven river valleys. Due
to low population numbers, one Gram Panchayat (Village Council) governs
all seven villages west of the Goriganga River in Malla Johar Laspa,
Rhilkhot, Martoli, Luang, Mapa, Gangar, and Bachu. Another governs
Kilanch, Tola, Burphu, Bilju, and Milam, which lie east of the Goriganga.
Each village has its own elected Van Panchayat, or Forest Council. Malla
Johar is a complex web of properties and ownership. Individual families
hold fifty of the 150 hectares of land in Martoli; the rest is publicly owned
and managed by the Van Panchayat. Many individual family plots, however,
have been abandoned for multiple generations, with hundreds of relatives
now laying claim to the same piece of land. This makes it difficult for any
individual family member to modify a house, as he must first receive the
approval of all relatives with a claim to the house. Since many houses of
Milam, Burphu and pachu are require heavy restoration which are
destroyed, abandoned and desolated.
Environment and Local Livelihood
Bhotias very much depend to their surroundings for their daily
economic activities. Indigenously they are well known as Traders of Johars
but some of them were also known as Herdsman or Shepherd. Apart to the
animal rearing and agriculture Bhotias are also excellent natural
mountaineers. According to old aged people earlier more than 20 sheeps
and goats found to be every household but the numbers felled down in
948
recent years.
Bhotias considered to be strong, adventurous, many of them acting
as guides, hosts, provenders of essential supplies needed for survival, and
even patrons of the pilgrims and travellers. Bhotias were the people who
used to give hospitality and accommodation to the pilgrimage on the way
to Mount Kailash and Lake Manas Sarovar but these pilgrimage activities
were stopped after 1962 with the closure of the lndo-Tibetan border, no
pilgrims from India being permitted to cross to Tibet.
The Bhotias ‘strategies of natural resource use in terms of discrete
socio-cultural contexts and their evolving systems of land tenure and
community-based institutions have very important role in their strong
dominance in the Johar. The main income generation sources of the Talla
Johar is agriculture and cattle rearing, some people are still engaged in
weaving of woollen clothes. The main crop in the area is potatoes, mustard,
and grains. Among the seven villages of Malla Johar, Burphu is the main
market center where Government ration store, veterinary office, PWD
office, pharmacist, post office, hotels, school and a pharmacist are available.
The villages along the Johar Valley are expecting increased economic
opportunities as a result of this, primarily in the form of tourism, herb
cultivation, and wool products.
Traditional Medicine plant Cultivation
Historically plants have played a vital role in medicine system. It
was found that the cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants marks
important incentives in the valley ((Plate: 6 and 7). Besides Atis, Kutki,
Kida, Thoya (Rs. 400-500/Kg), Jimbu (Garlic Chive) (Rs.300-350/kg),
Lal Jadi (Red Herb), Meetha Atees, Chirayat and Gandraini etc. herb
cultivation is an important component of life in Malla Johar. Some important
herbs are Kala jira, black cumin, which some villagers sell for and Gandraini
root, which is used in cooking and also to treat stomach aches. Jimbu garlic
chives fetch Rs.300- 350 per kilogram for the villagers and are sold in
Munsiyari for Rs. 450/kg. Meeta Atis is another common herb, used both
in cooking and for its medicinal properties. Although the outskirts of Martoli
are covered in terraced farmland, most farming now takes place directly
around the houses, in the interstitial spaces that were once courtyards or
vegetable plots (Plate: 8).
949
Plate: 6. Jimbu Farming around the houses in Martoli
In front of the various types of grasses and traditional herbal plants

has become of particular interest for local gatherers in the recent decades.
The use of these herbal remedies is not only cost effective, easily available
but also safe and almost free from serious side effects as compared to
modern medicine. It was found that the elders and farmers have depth
traditional knowledge of their cultivation and uses. The Bhotias have a
long ritual of wise conservation strategies of these plants which are useful
to people and society. The traditional knowledge of medical systems of
northern India (such as Ayurveda and Tibetan) is a part of time tested culture.
Local herbs are one of the most valuable sources of medicines system.
They are also used as remedy against chronic eczema, chronic ulcers,
chronic rheumatism, chronic nervous diseases, cholera amenorrhoea etc.
Plate: 7. Cultivation of Medicinal Plant Plate: 8. Store House in the village

in Munsiyari Pacchu

950
Agriculture and Cattle Rearing

Major agriculture crops of the Upper Johar valley is Lie (mustard),
Potatoes, Ogle (pepper), Uoa, Wheat, Lentils, Jimbu, Black Cumin and
Addth. Bhotias also grow vegetables like cabbage, peas, beans, carrots,
squash, daikan, spinach. They sell their agri-products to everyone including
locals, tourists, and the ITBP. Goods are brought in from Munsiyari on
ponies at the beginning of the season and are replenished based on demand.
The farmers stated that they send their agricultural products down on mules
and sell direct to the market. The storekeeper stated that there is a problem
with goods expiring. The seeds have been in the family for generations
and are heirloom seeds in every houses there is store room in the ground
floor where they keep their agricultural tools, instruments and other articles
like Basket, scab, axe etc. (Plate:9 and 10).
Plate: 9. Skinning of Sheep Plate: 10. Weaving Machine in Martoli
Mr. Durga Singh Martoli, former Gram Pradhan believes that

concrete road to Malla Johar will create better access and increase tourism,
but there may also be outside beneficiaries. Bhotias their selves do skinning
work (Plate: 9) they sell woollen goods in the local market of Munsiari
and to the Tribal Museum located in Munsiyari. They make woollen shawl,
Muffler, socks and Bed sheets. The art of weaving fine shawls and blankets
from coarse goat wool is prevalent even today. Among the selected villages
almost every household has weaving machines with them (Plate: 10).
Tourism Development
Until 1990 most of the part of these border areas were restricted
for the access of external people due to the concern of border security
issues. These restrictions inhibited tourism activities and economic
development of the area. Later on the gradual rise of market oriented
borderland once again altered peoples visit in the area. There are several
951
tourist spots in the Johar valley like Birthi fall, Panchachuli, Darkot,
Betulidhar, Kalamuni and Nanda Devi etc. However villagers have already
begun modifying the built environment in response to tourism is another
indicator of tourist expectations. The Eco Tourism Committee was founded
on May 15, 2006 by Uttaranchal (Uttarakhand) Tourism. Itoriginally
included twelve villages, but only Martoli is active. The people of Munsiyari
and Dharchula believe that intense rainfall leads to several flood situation
in the area. Many times tourist do not visit the high altitude areas of Johar
valley due to hefty roadside landslide and flooding (Pant et.al, 2016). In
the Tall Johar area the land is very much fertile, here less rainfall is not an
issue but the main concern is the receding glaciers. There have been little
changes in economic activities but gradually they are looking for other
alternatives vis. horticulture, floriculture and more importantly medicinal
plants cultivation. However, locals are hopeful for the growing tourism in
the area. Specifically, more research needs to be done on the role of eco-
tourism and home stay tourism for valley’s economic development. More
research about the proposed road projects should be undertaken. In addition
to local stakeholders local organizations need to be involved in tourism.
Conclusion
The future of Malla Johar’s built form will depend on the realities
of responding to the changing economic demands of a valley that may
soon see a road for motor vehicles. It could be expected that there will be
an increased capacity to bring to market the herbs that are cultivated in the
valley, as well as a busier tourist industry. The natural and built environment
of the area is extremely fragile, and new development should be sensitive
of the unique natural, cultural, and historic resources of the valley. An
important next step would be to outline appropriate development goals
and guidelines that are sensitive to these resources. Historic preservation
can be an important tool to help, maintain or reverse the decay of the
unique structures in the valley. It was observed that the social system of
Bhotias has been weakened and there is a risk of disappearance of traditional
knowledge, as the younger generation is not interested to learn their tradition
knowledge. There is a need to pay attention for resource conservation and
promotion of local indigenous knowledge.
References
Atkinson (1882) The Himalaya Gazetteer, Volume II, part I, Dehradun.
Brown, C. W. (1984) The Goat is Mine, the Load is Yours: Morphogenesis of ‘Bhotiya-
Shauka’, U.P., India. Studies in Social Anthropology. Indian Anthropological
Association, 7 (2): 125-137.
952
Gerwin, M. and Bergmann, C. (2012) Geopolitical Relations and Regional Restructuring:

The Case of Kumaon Himalaya, India, Erdkunde, Bd. 66, H. 2, pp. 91-107.
Joshi, M. P. and C. W. Brown (1987). Some Dynamics of Indo-Tibetan Trade through
Uttarachal (Kumaon -Garhwal) India. Journal of the Economic and Social History
of the Orient 30(3) 303-317.
Kainthola, S. D. (2006). Community Rights and Livelihoods in The Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 4(3): 205(15).
Mawdsley, E. (1999). A New Himalayan State in India: Popular Perceptions of Regionalism,
Politics and Development. Mountain Research and Development, 19(2): 101-
112.
Negi, C. S. (2007). Declining Transhumance and Subtle Changes in Livelihood Patterns
and Biodiversity in the Kumaon Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development,
27(2): 114-118.
Pandey, B. W. (2015) Anthropogeography of High Altitude Transhumance Region of
Western Himalaya (B. W. Pandey) The Eastern Anthropologists. Vol.68. No. 4
October –December 2015. ISSN: 0012-8686. Ethnographic and Folk Culture
Society Lucknow, India.
Pant, A. et.al (2016) Community Based Disaster Management Planning and Hazard Risk
Assessment for Social Security: A Case Study of Talla Johar Valley of Uttarakhand,
India, International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and
Culture (IJIRSSC), 2 (1): 1-19.
Silori, C. S. (2001). Biosphere Reserve Management in Theory and Practice: Case of
Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India. Journal of International
Wildlife Law and Policy 4(3): 205(15).
Singh, T. V. and S. Singh (2004). On Bringing People and Park Together through
Ecotourism: The Nanda Devi National Park, India. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
Research 9(1).
Traill, G. W. (1832): Statistical report on the Bhotia Mehals of Kama- on. In: Asiatic
Researches 17, 1-50.
Upreti, H. C. (1968). The social life of the Bhotias. Vanyajati, 1968, 16 (1), 15-20.
Walton, H.G. (1911) Almora: A Gazetteer. Allahabad.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 953-961, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
71
Impact of Population Pressure on
Landscape Changes in Aizawl City: A
Spatio-Temporal Analysis
Ch.Udaya Bhaskara Rao,
University, Aizawl-796004. Email:[email protected]
Abstract
Aizawl is one of the rapidly developed hill cities in the country and
also the largest urban centre in the state of Mizoram. The rapid
development has led to unplanned expansion of the city even over
precipitous slopes with heavily loaded structures. As the terrain of the
area is composed of unconsolidated sedimentary formations, it is prone
to frequent slope failures and subsequent physical degradation of land
as occurred at several places in the city. An attempt has been made in
this study to analyze the possible causes for the landscape changes
based on the integration of multi-thematic layers and digital elevation
models using the advanced tools of ArcGIS software. It has been
estimated based on the digital terrain analyses that about 20 km2 out
of the total area of about 110 km2 of the city is under the threat of
physical degradation of the landscape due to drastic topographic
changes mostly by human induced causes in addition to some peculiar
natural causes like undulating topography and tectonic influence.
Keywords: Slope failure, landscape changes, land degradation, spatio-
temporal analysis, tectonic influence.
Introduction
Urbanization is one of the most vital social phenomena of the 20th
century (Kumar,1999). Landscape changes are quite common and inevitable
954
in highly urbanized areas. Particularly, in an urbanized hilly terrains the

changes are much faster than in plain landscape due to operation of various
physical processes at much faster rates. Sometimes anthropogenic causes
also accelerate or aggravate the natural processes with an unusual intensity
as in the case of Bamenda, Cameroon (Acho-Chi,1998).
In fact, population dynamics can be assessed over a short period
of time whereas it may be difficult to detect changes that take place in the
landscape during a short span. The rate of changes in the landscape that
occur due to landslides and other earth surface processes can be assessed
by the advanced techniques of geospatial technology ( Zhou et al., 2003).
Multi-date digital elevation models are much helpful to detect topographic
changes precisely for identifying the areas of slope instability causing
landslides (Dai and Lee, 2002). The results are more reliable when
landscape changes are integrated with the other physical factors like land
use / land cover and population data. An attempt has been made in this
study to assess the landscape changes occurred between 2000 and 2017
due to various human induced causes.
Datasets and Methodology
Survey of India topographic maps of the year 1973 at 1: 50,000
scale with a contour interval of 20 m were used to generate a high resolution
digital elevation model with the help of ArcGIS software. Population
data pertaining to the Aizawl city from the last 50 years has been collected
from Census of India reports for the detailed analysis. The digital elevation
models (DEMs) of the years 2000 and 2017 acquired by SRTM (Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission) and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer) at 30 m resolution were used. The
DEMs were reprojected from WGS84 to polyconic projection using
ERDAS Imagine software to estimate the volume of sediment in real units.
Triangulated irregular network models of the two dates have been generated
using 3D Analyst module in ArcGIS to compare the spatio-temporal
changes in the surface topography. The volume of the sediment above the
base plane in both the digital elevation models of the years 2000 and
2017 has been estimated using ArcGIS 3D analyst module to compute the
average loss of sediment/matter above the surface of the terrain.
Study area
Aizawl, the capital of Mizoram state is located between 92o 39’
52"- 92 46’ 43" east longitudes and 23o 39’ 50" – 23o 48" 46" north
o
latitudes (Fig.1) in Aizawl district with a total population of 293,416

955
persons (2011 census). The city is situated on the north-south aligned

mountain ridge at an average elevation of about 1132 metres above the
mean sea level spread in an area of 110 km2. The terrain of the city is
mainly composed of sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, siltstones and
shales of Tertiary age (Ganju, 1975). The average annual rainfall in the
area is about 210 cm. The minimum and maximum temperatures range
between 20oC and 32oC. The area experiences moist tropical to sub-tropical
climate. The eastern flank of the city exhibits gentle slopes whereas the
western side shows very steep slope. The city fringes are covered by tropical
semi-evergreen type of forest.
Fig.1 Location map of Aizawl city.

956

Population Dynamics vs. Landscape Changes
Aizawl is the most densely populated biggest urban centre in the
state of Mizoram, situated at an elevation of about 1,132 m above the
mean sea level. A majority of the population in this area occupy the steeply
sloping terrain between 600 and 900 metres. The population density of
the city is 234 persons/km2. As the terrain is highly undulating, there is a
limited space and scope for construction of human settlements in this area.
It appears that the Aizawl city has witnessed a very rapid growth
of population during the last five decades. As seen from the table 1, the
city population in 1971 was 38,260 persons in an area of 24 km2 and
increased to 2,93,416 in 2011 in 110 km2 of geographical area.
Table 1: Population growth in Mizoram.
Year State Population Decadal Aizawl City Decadal
Growth rate Population Growth rate
1961 —- —- 14,257
1971 —- —- 38,260 168.3
1981 —- —- 78,267 51.11
1991 689756 —- 1,58,901 103.02
2001 888573 28.82 2,44,912 54.13
2011 1097206 23.48 2,93,416 28.51
A recent survey conducted by Directorate of Economics and

Statistics, Govt. of Mizoram reveals that about 28277 of human population
is increased between 2011 and 2016 at an average rate of 5655 persons/
year (Table 2). It is clear that the city has highest population growth which
is ever-increasing due to unchecked migration from rural areas as there are
a plenty of livelihood opportunities due to concentration of educational
institutes and administrative offices being the state capital. The people
living in this area are compelled to occupy the steep edges of the mountains,
also the gently to moderately sloping foot hills and valley parts.
Table 2: Population of Aizawl city between 2011 and 2016.
Year Population Increase
2011 293,416 ——-
2012 297,602 4186
2013 300,117 2515
957
2014 306,506 6389

2015 312,237 5731
2016 321,693 9456
As the population is increasing, there is an enormous pressure on

the landscape by the overloaded constructions over steep slopes. There is
a limited plain area available mostly over the top of the mountains for
construction of settlements due to highly uneven nature of topography.
The heavily loaded structures over instable areas are causing slope failure
as happening frequently at many places particularly, during and after the
monsoon periods.
It is obvious that the haphazard urbanization in the Aizawl city
has a great stress on the dense forest, land (steep terrain) and also the
surrounding environment. Moreover, the inappropriate land use changes
for the survival of human population in this part are also a threat to
environment.
The eastern parts of the city are gentler than the western parts
which is somewhat favourable for expansion of settlements. As a result
the city is expanded more on the eastern side. It is seen that the western
parts of the city are very steep which exceed more than 60o of gradient.
The heavily loaded structures are causing slope failure leading to loss of
lives and damage to property. Moreover, the rapid development of the city
has led to environmental instability by the occurrence of frequent landslides,
mass movement and subsequent soil erosion.
Terrain Analysis and Estimation of Sediment Loss
Digital elevation models (DEM) are 3D surfaces in the raster form
which represent the terrain configuration (Burrough amd McDonnell,
1998). A Triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a vector data model on
an irregular array of elevation points which form a sheet of non-overlapping
contiguous triangle facets (Maune et al., 2001). The volume of the sediment
above a base plane on the surface can be estimated as it contains the third
dimension of elevation. The actual length, width and height information
of the terrain at each pixel are stored in the raster format of 3D when it is
projected to polyconic coordinate system.
The thickness of the sediment at any point on the 3D surface
between the years 2000 and 2017 can be estimated based on the estimation
of the volume of sediment that lies above the base plane.
A careful analysis of the TIN and DEM models of the two dates
958
mentioned has revealed that there is a change in elevation of the recent

surface of about 15 metres at different levels spatially. The changes are
noticeable fairly on the eastern side where it is densely populated than on
the steep western side of the city. The changes are more at higher altitudes
than at the lower levels. In fact, erosion is found at higher elevations and
siltation at lower levels like valleys. It is estimated based on the analysis
of multi-date triangulated irregular network models and digital elevation
models representing the surface topography of Aizawl city, the average
loss of sediment by subtracting the volume of surface of the year 2017
from the volume of the surface of the year 2000 (Fig.2 & Fig.3).
ArcGIS 3D Analyst module has been used estimate the area and
volume of the sediment/ matter above the base plane. Thus, the total volume
of the sediment in the year 2000 was estimated to be about 61474530125.38
m3. Similarly, the total volume of the sediment above the base plane in the
year 2017 was estimated to be about 57451371524.61 m3. It is found
based on the simple subtraction of the volume obtained from both the
surfaces, the total loss of the matter as 4023158600.77 m3.
Fig.2 Digital elevation models of Aizawl city of the years 2000 (Left) and 2017 (Right).
It is inferred that on an average about 236656388.28 m3 of the

sediment is lost annually. It is quite possible that the loss, thus, obtained
in this study may not be uniform spatially and temporally for the period of
study as it varies with the physical factors such as amount of rainfall, its
959
intensity, the degree of slope failure and the extent of human intervention.
In addition, the area is composed of loose sedimentary formations with
high topographic relief which enhance slope failure at much faster rates.
Moreover, as the area falls in a tectonically active zone, it is quite possible
to trigger landscape changes mostly by landslides and other associated
mass movement processes. Large scale deforestation for building
settlements and illegal mining over steep slopes at places also led to physical
degradation of the terrain in this area.
Fig. 3 A Triangulated irregular network model of the year 1973 (Left) and 2017 (Right)
of the central part of Aizawl city showing topographic changes along the main ridge.
Further, a slope analysis has also been carried out in this study. As
seen on the slope map of the area overlaid with ward-wise population data,
a majority of the population occupies the steep slopes of the terrain between
15o and 30o (Fig.4). Further, it is found along the main ridge also more
population occupy over steep slopes exceeding 30o.
It is inferred based on the present spatio-temporal analysis of
population data and the mutli-date digital elevation models that Aizawl
city area is prone to severe topographic changes. It is estimated based on
the analysis of multi-date slope maps that about 20km2 area over the
steep slope is under the risk of physical degradation due to slope failure
mostly by population stress on the landscape in multi-dimensions.
960
Conclusion
The present study has revealed based on the digital terrain analyses
of multi-date DEMs that there are definite changes in the landscape of
Aizawl City between 2000 and 2017 due to various human induced causes.
There is a loss of sediment of about 236656388.28 m3 annually mostly due
to slope failure, erosion and associated mass movement processes. If the
changes are continued at these alarming rates the area has to face serious
environmental consequences.
Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to Head of the Department of Geography
and Resource Management, Mizoram University for providing necessary
facilities to carry out this work.
961
References
Acho-Ch. (1998). Human interference and environmental instability: addressing the
environmental consequences of rapid urban growth in Bamenda, Cameroon,
Environment and Urbanization. Vol.10 (2): 161-174.
Burrough , Peter A. and McDonnell, Rachhael A. (1998).Principles of Geographical
Information Systems, Oxford University Press, New York P.333.
Dai, F.C and Lee, C.F. (2002). Landslide characteristics and slope instability modeling
using GIS, Lantau Island, Hong Kong. Geomorphology. Vol.42: 213-228.
Ganju, J.L. (1975). Evolution of the Orogenic Belts of India, Geol.Min..Met.Soc.India.
Vol.48: 17-26.
Kumar, D.V.(1999). Concepts, Problems and Perspectives: A critical appreciation of their
interrelationship in: Kumar,G. (Ed.) Urbanization in Mizoram: Retrospect and
Prospects 1:7.
Maune, D.F., Kopp, S.M., Crawford, C.A & Zevas, C.E. (2001). Introduction, in: (Ed.)
Maune, D.F. Digital elevation model technologies and applications: the DEM user
manual, The Americam Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sesnsing,
Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 1-34.
Zhou,G., Esaki, T., Mitani, Y., Xie, M. and Mori, J. (2003). Spatial probabilistic modeling
of slope failure using an integrated GIS Monte Carlo simulation approach.
Engineering Geology,
962
Vol. 3 (2017) : 963-978, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
72
Population and Development in the Third
World: a case study of India
Aslam Mahmood1 and Sushil Dalal2
1
Professor, formerly of Centre for the study f Regional Development,
School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi – 110067, Email: [email protected]
2
Associate Professor, M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana
Email : sushil_dalal@y hoo.com
Abstract
Most of the developing countries of the World are suffering from the
vicious cycle of rapid population growth and underdevelopment. Lower
levels of investment on human capital slows down the development
which further reduces investment on human capital. The vicious cycle
can be broken down by a better coordination of management between
their natural and human resources. As a result, worldwide the developed
countries show a better population scenario in terms of fertility and
mortality and other parameters etc. than the developing countries.
A case study of India in this paper has been carried out to show the
covariation of improvements of some of the key sectors of the economy
with the improvements in the key parameters of population growth.
The study shows that due to the sustained efforts of the government
for improvement in food supply for the growing population, the food
production of cereals between 1951 -2001 could grow by 4.44 times
as compared to the population of India which could grow 2.85 times
only for the same period. A better resource management could also
lead to an impressive growth in sectors like education and health also.
Sectors like employment, health and other social sectors etc. have not
964
shown a satisfactory improvements and Government has yet to go to a

long way to achieve meaningful goals in these sectors.
Keywords: Vicious cycle, covariation, human capital, fertility,
mortality, infant mortality, Logistic Law, population dynamics,
Introduction
Growth of population in relation to the economic development of
a country has always been the concern of planners and the administrators.
There is no standard form of relationship between the two. The ideal form
of relationship is defined in the light of the prevailing social, political,
historical and economic realities of the specific countries. In the present
paper the dynamics of population and economic development in India is
examined in the light of the common experience of the countries of different
regions of the World for different periods in time.
Population and Economic Development
Until the beginning of 1880s the number of human population
could reach only one billion (1000 million) and until 1960 it could reach
only 3 billion mark. Figure1, given below shows the movement of World
population since the year 1800. As of August 2016, it was estimated at
7.4 billion3. The United Nations estimates it will further increase to 11.2
billion in the year 21004 (Figure 1). Now,roughly the world gains 1 billion
people in every 12 years or around 80 million people each year, equivalent
to 220,000 people a day (Engelman 1997, p.11)5.
Figure 1
965
Throughout the history growth of population has been the concern

of thehuman society for reasons depending on the situation. During
preindustrial era, due to heavy human mortality; population was considered
as an asset due to the requirements of the armed forces, agriculture and
administration etc.
With the expansion of industrial revolution in the West the share
of “Labour”and “Capital” in the productionalso started emerging as the
basic issue, which later divided the world into two major camps of
the”Capitalist World” and the “Socialist World”. This was the period when
economist like; Malthus6,(1766-1834), Marx8 (1818-1883) andRicardo9
(1772 -1823) etc. devoted serious attention to the discussion on population
and resources and reforms to the English Poor Law10 were suggested.
In the post-industrial era of population explosion in the developing
countries, due to reduction in human mortality and continued higher fertility,
excessive growth of population wasconsidered as undesirable visa-vis the
infrastructure and the economic and socialdevelopmentamong these
countries.
Malthus Theory on Population
The consequences of population growing faster than the means of
subsistence were initially outlined by Malthus (1959) in his famous essay
on population.Thomas Robert Malthus( 1766-1834) in his famous essay
on population analysed the population growth and food supply in different
countries of Europe(An Essay on the Principal of Population 1798) and
formulated his world famous theory on population.
Malthus argument is that, given food the basic requirement of
human society and passion for sex, growth of human population takes place
in geometric progression and growth of resources take place in Arithmetic
progression. If this is so no matter where from we start, sooner or later
population will surpass the resource limit as shown in Figure 2 given below.
In the graph blue line showing the resources remainsabove the orange line
showing the population for most of the time. However after time limit of 9
(in the present case) it fall short of population which over shoots. In such
a situation either positive checks or preventive checks will take place to
maintain the balance between the population and resources.
966
Figure 2
Positive checks will be natural and may involve epidemics, famine,

war and many other forms of natural calamities. To prevent positive checks
human society can adopt some voluntary checks to control the growth of
population such as delayed marriages, lower levels of reproduction rate
etc. Malthus a faculty at Cambridge University was also a clergy man,so
he did not advocate family planning through abortion. Various methods
for preventive checks recommended by him were as given below.
Malthusian Preventive checks:
1 Malthus in his theory argued that in order to escape positive checks
human society will have to take necessary preventive checks such
as :
2 Abolition of charity through poor laws,
3 Discourage people to have larger size families, by
4 Depriving the labour from the leisure time by increasing working
hours,
5 Keeping wages at lower level and make them busy in making both
the ends to meet.
6 Reducing the living space, etc.
Malthus has not been criticized for his basic theory as much as for
967
his suggested preventive checks.

Karl Marx on Malthus
Malthus is been criticized by economist, sociologist and others on
account of not being able to foresee the emergence of modern methods of
family planning. However, his main criticism was by the economists like
Karl Marx7 and other socialists as his theory not only provided the basis to
abolish the English poor law8 but was also picked up by the Capitalist to
justify the reduction of share of labour in the production.
Population Growth and Food Supply
Growth of human population follows a “S” shaped Logistic Curve
which almost all the living species also follow. Logistic curve was used by
Pearl and Reed (1920) to study the growth of population of U.S11. In brief
as per the “Logistic Law” the growth will be slow to start with and will
show some upward trend. After a while it will become faster and will
reach a peak. After reaching the peak the growth will show signs of
retardation and slow down gradually before reaching a stationary situation.
Logistic Curve and Growth of Human Population
On the long term basis human population also followthe Logistic
Law of growth. Whole cycle of Logistic curve may take different time for
different societies depending on their level of education and economic
developments.When we observe the population growth of a society for a
short period of time, we get only a part of the logistic curve it follows.
Current population growth curve of many of the developing countries may
be the first half of the curve showing exponential growth or a part of it.In
the case of industrialised countries it could be the later half of the curve
showing the declining growth rate, or stable position.The shape of a
hypothetical population following the Logistic Curve is given below in
Figure 3.
Demographic Transition Theory
Another important theory explaining rapid population growth in
developing countries in the context of development is “the Demographic
Transition Theory” propounded by Notestein (1945)12. A good discussion
on it can also be found in Dudley Krik (1996)13.Demographic Transition
theory is yet another attempt to explain population growth in relation to
the economic development. T he theory as propounded by
FrankNotesteindivides the historical transition of population growth
mainlyinto three main stages. These stages are given as:
968
Figure 3
Stage I: High fertility, high mortality resulting at a low growth

rate of population as was the case in pre-industrial world
with rampant influence of killer diseases. Europe 17 th
century.
Stage II: High fertility and low mortality resulting in higher
population growth. Post industrial revolution era
characterized by advances in medical technology reducing
mortality. Fertility remains high. Europe 17-18th Century.
Stage III: Low fertility and low mortality, resulting in low growth
rate. Later pert of post industrial revolution era when
along-with mortality fertility also declined due to higher
education and over all social development ad better quality
of life. Europe 18th century on ward.
Stage IV and V relate to stable and declining population, the stage yet not
reached by developing countries.
The demographic transition from stage I to stage III is shown
graphically in Figure 4 given below. Time from 1 to 6 could be first stage
of demographic transition characterise as high fertility and high mortality
whereas time 7 to 14 could be related to second stage of demographic
transition characterised as high fertility and low mortality and time level
beyond 14 could bethird stage and beyond characterised as low fertility
and low mortality.
969
Figure 4
In the context of economic growth of western Europe and North

America, Kuznet14(1966) defined modern economic growth as a sustained
increase in population which seldom exceeded 1.0 percent per annum as
compared to the rapid population growth of developing countries during
the post Second World War.
Towards the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century
mortality in most of the developing countries started falling down
dramatically without any accompanying fall in fertility. As a result
population growth rates in most of the developing countries registered
unprecedented increase ranging from 2.0 to 4.0 percent per annum.
Methodology
The population parameters like; growth rate, crude death, total
fertility rate and infant mortality rate have been used to highlight the
differential dynamics of population in more developed and less developed
countries of the World. The dynamics of population has been studied since
the last century and is projected for future also.
Indian situation of population dynamics has been studied as a case
study of the population dynamics in the third World countries also. The
trend of some of the socio-economic variables have also been analyzed
since the beginning of the last century to assess the impact of growing
population.
Population Growth in Developed and Developing Countries
The growth rate of population in developed and developing
970
countries of the world given below in Table 1 since the second half of the
last century shows that the population growth rate of more developed
regions of world has been consistently lower than the same in the less
developed regions.
Table 1: Population Growth Rate of Developed and Developing Countries
Region Period
1950-55 1990-95 1995-2000 2045-50
More Developed 1.21 0.40 0.26* -0.23*
Less Developed 2.05 1.77 1.65* 0.55*
Source: World Population Prospects the 1996 version, UN 1998 p.10.
*Projected
To understand it in further detail, fertility and mortality the main

components of the growth of population are compared for the two regions
of the world in the next stage.
Indicators of “Total Fertility Rate” (TFR) and “Crude Death Rate”
(CDR) the main components of population growth for “Developed” and
“Developing” countries are given below in Table 2 for the last forty years
of the twentieth Century.The Table shows that much of the reduction in
the population growth rate of the developed countries is due to a relatively
faster decline in TFR as compared to the decline in the death rates which
was already very low. Mortality rather has shown a marginal rise in the
last decade of the twentieth century due the increasing proportion of
population in the older ages.A situation similar to the third stage of
demographic transition. In the developing countries, however, due to lack
of required socio-economic development, the fertility remains largely
unaffected and the decline in the CDR is found to be much faster than the
decline in their respective TFR, a situation similar to the second stage of
demographic transition showing a rapid population growth. The longer
the developing countries remain in the second stage of their demographic
transition higher will be the accumulation of population in the younger
ages and population explosion will continue.
Table 2: Trends of Fertility and Mortality in the World, Developed Countries 1950-95
Period World Developed Countries Less Developed
Countries
TFR CDR TFR CDR TFR CDR
1960-65 5.0 15.6 2.7 9.4 6.0 18.2
971
1965-70 4.9 13.4 2.4 9.4 6.0 15.0

1970-75 4.5 11.7 2.1 9.4 5.4 12.0
1975-80 3.9 11.0 1.9 9.5 4.7 11.5
1980-85 3.6 11.0 1.8 9.6 4.1 10.5
1985-90 3.4 9.6 1.8 9.6 3.8 9.6
1990-95 3.0 9.3 1.7 10.1 3.3 9.1
Source: World Population Prospects 1996 version UN 1998, p.20.
TFR = Total Fertility Rates, CDR, = Crude Death Rate (per 1000).
Infant Mortality Rate is another important indicator of population

transition. It reflects not only the level of mortality of any society but also
indicate the awareness of the society about the population issues. It is a
very powerful composite indicator of literacy, health status, population
awareness etc. of a society.Table 3 below gives the IMR for the Developed
and the Developing countries of the World for the same period of the last
century.
The lack of social infrastructure and its influence on demographic
variables can also be seen by taking infant mortality rates (IMR) both for
developed and less developed countries as shown in Table-3. The Table
shows a considerable fall in the IMR in developed countries during the
same period of 1960-65 to 1990-95. It fell down to 11from 33 per thousand
during this period – something around 66 percent per cent decline. In less
developed countries also the value of IMR declined but from 135 to 68 per
thousandonly during the same period – a decline of less than 50 percent.
As IMR is a very sensitive indicator of socio-economic development, the
data given in Table-3 do indicate a higher socio-economic status of the
developed countries.
Table-3: Infant Morality Rate (IMR) for Developed and Less Developed Countries 1960-
65 and 1990-95
Year IMR
World Developed Less Developed
Countries Countries
1960-65 118 33 135
1965-70 102 26 115
1970-75 93 21 104
1975-80 87 18 98
972
1980-85 78 1 87
1985-90 69 13 76
1990-95 62 11 68
Source: World Population Prospects 1996 version UN 1998, p.7.
Population Growth and Development in India

Census of India in 2001 recorded the population of India about
1027.02 million as on 1st March 2001 given it the share in the world
population of about 16 percent of from 15.2 per cent in 1981.
Table-4 gives the population of India(according to present
boundaries) and its decadal growth rate for last century. The population of
India in 2001 was found to be around three times the population at the
time of independence. Another highlight of the table is a consistent increase
in the population of the country after 1921. The rate of population growth
during 1921-31 was 11.0 per cent, which also kept on increasing until
1971-81 when it reached the maximum of 24.7 per cent per decade. Only
during 1981-91 and in 1991-2001, the decadal growth rate of population
showed a marginal decline in relation to the previous decades and reached
23.5 per cent per decade and 21.9 respectively.Between2001-2011,
however, the decadal rate of population growth showed a significant decline
and registered a growth rate of 17.7 percent, indicating the positive impact
of the sustained government policies of population control.
Table 4 Population of India 1901-2001
Year Population (in million) Decadal Growth rate
1901 238.4 -
1911 252.1 5.7
1921 251.3 - 0.3
1931 279.0 11.0
1941 318.7 14.2
1951 361.1 13.3
1961 439.2 21.5
1971 548.2 24.8
1981 683.3 24.7
1991 843.9 23.5
2001 1028.6 21.9
2011 1210.2 17.7
Source: Census of India 2011 .
973
One of the direct consequencesof rapid population growth is on

the age structure of the population. Percentage distribution of the population
of India in three age groups(0-14, 15-59 and 60+) is given in Table-5
from1901 to 2011.
Table 5 shows that share of 0-14 years has been very large all
through the decades. The table also shows a marginal increase in the aged
population 60 years and above age group. The age group of 15-59, however,
registered a marginal increase also, due to the increase in the group 60
years and above. The increase in the proportion of the elderly population
indicates towards future emphasis on old age care programmes of the
country. Population share of the age group (0 – 14) years has shown a
consistent decline from 1961 onward and has reached from 41.00 to 30.89
from 1961 to 2011.
Table-5: Percentage distribution of population of India in different age groups 1901-91
Year Age Groups
0-14 15-59 60+
1901 38.60 56.35 5.05
1911 38.45 56.40 5.15
1921 39.20 55.55 5.25
1931 40.00 55.95 4.05
1941 38.25 56.85 4.95
1951 37.50 56.85 5.65
1961 41.00 53.36 5.64
1971 42.02 52.01 5.97
1981 39.54 53.98 6.48
1991 37.25 55.98 6.77
2001 35.44 57.09 7.47
2011 30.89 60.55 8.56
Source: UN 1982 Population of India: Country Monograph series No 10, New York.and
Census of India 1991, 2001, 2011.
Along with developments in science and technology not only the

world population has increased but the means of subsistence have also
been improved. In the following section, therefore, changes in some of the
socio-economic variables having close relationship with population are
also discussed.
974
Table-6 provides literacy rates and also total number of illiterates

in India afterindependence. Table shows an overall improvement in the
proportions of literates to the total population which has increased from
16.6 per cent in 1951 to 40.7 per cent in 1991. Improvement in the literacy
of female however is quite remarkable. It has registered a phenomenal
increase from 7.9 per cent in 1951 to 64.46 per cent in 2011. The literacy
of male during this period could also increase around four times from 24.9
in 1951 to82.14 percent in 2011. Total population of illiterates is gradually
declining yet it constitute the major part of the world illiterates.
Table 6: Literacy Rates of India 1951-2011
Year Literacy rates in (in per cent) Illiterates (in million)
Total Male Female Total Male Female
1951 16.6 24.9 7.9 - - -
1961 28.3 30.9 15.3 333.9 148.5 135.4
1971 29.5 39.5 18.7 386.5 171.9 214.6
1981 26.7 39.5 16.8 424.2 182.6 241.8
1991 40.7 53.6 27.0 491.8 213.3 278.5
2001 65.38 75.85 54.16 450.3 191.3 269.0
2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 282.4 98.0 184.4
Source: M.K. Premi (1991) India’s Population: Heading towards a billion B.R. Publishing
Corp. and Census of India 2001, 2011
Sectoral division of workers as provided by census of India from

1961 to 2001 is given below in Table 7. Table shows a slow decline in the
share of primary sector and a marginal increase in the secondary sector
accompanies by substantial increase in the tertiary sector. Primary sector
in the country has declined from 72.3 per cent in 1961 to 57.1 per cent in
2001. Tertiary sector, however, has shown an increase from 16.0 per cent
to 25.8 per cent during the same period. Secondary sector which is the
core of industrialization, however, has not shown significant increase in
this period – although it has also improved from 11.7 per cent to 17.1 per
cent during 1961-2001.
Table 7: Sectoral Division of Workers, India 1961-91
Year Sector Total
Primary Secondary Tertiary
1961 72.3 11.7 16.0 100.0
1971 72.6 10.7 16.7 100.0
975
1981 69.3 12.9 17.8 100.0

1991 67.4 12.1 20.5 100.0
2001 57.1 17.1 25.8 100.0
Source: M.K. Premi (1991) India’s Population: Heading towards a billion B.R. Publishing
Corp. and Census of India 2001.
Another important area which is seriously influenced by population

is land utilization. Percentage of net area sown, and area put to
nonagricultural uses is given in Table 8 along with area sown more than
once from 1951 to 2001.
The table clearly shows a consistent increase of net sown area as
well as area sown more than once the as an important consequence of
population growth. The table shows a big success story of Indian agriculture
which shows that percentage area sown more than once significantly
increased from 4.62 per cent of 1950-51 to15.43 in 2001.
Another important consequence of population growth is on the
land put to nonagricultural uses such as urban and industrial purposes.
The table also shows a consistent decrease in percentage of uncultivated
area from 17.377 in 1951 to 9.30 in 2001.
Table 8: Percentage of net area sown, and area put to nonagricultural uses and area sown
more than once.
Year Total % Area Percen- Percent Percent Percent Total Percent-
Area under tage of unculti- fallow of area age sown
(million forest net vated land put to more than
hectare) sown area non-agri. once
area uses
1950-51 284.39 14.23 41.79 17.39 9.88 16.71 100 4.62
1960-61 298.46 18.11 44.63 12.61 7.65 17.00 100 3.21
1970-71 303.76 21.04 46.18 11.54 6.54 14.70 100 8.40
1980-81 304.15 22.18 46.06 10.62 8.11 13.03 100 10.73
1990-91 305.02 22.44 46.26 9.96 7.86 13.48 100 14.31
1991- 306.01 22.55 46.16 9.30 8.13 13.86 100 15.43
2001
Central Statistical Organization (2004) Statistical Abstract India, CSO, New Delhi.
In the context of the developing countries the effect of population

growth is likely to be more serious on the agricultural production. Table 9
given belowshows the total amount of production of cereals and pulses in
976
absolute as well as in per capita terms after independence.

Table 9: Absolute and Per Capita Production of Food Grain in India 1950-2001.
Year Production (million tones) Per capita (kg/person)
Cereals Pulses Cereals Pulses
1950-51 42.414 8.41 117.48 23.29
1960-61 69.314 12.70 157.82 28.91
1970-71 96.604 11.82 176.24 21.56
1980-81 118.962 10.63 174.09 15.56
1990-91 162.124 14.26 191.58 16.85
2000-01 188.460 11.08 183.22 10.77
Source: Handbook of statistics on the Indian Economy, Reserve Bank of India 2002-03.
The table shows a phenomenal increase in the total production of

foodgrain cereals which was 42.42 million tones in1950-51 and increased
to 4.4 times in 2000-01 and reached to 188.46 million tones. Population of
India during the same period could change from 361.09 million to 1028.61
million only, recording a change of less than three times. As a result the
growth of the production of cereals per capita has been found to be
continuously increasing during the post-independence period. It was 117.48
kg. In 1950-51 which almost doubled by 1990-91 and reached the level of
191.58 kgs. The last decade, however, has shown a slackness also as the
per capita production has gone down from 191.58 to 183.22 Kgs.in the
decade of 1990-91 to 2000-01.
Another important food grains are pulses, production of which
has also increased but only by about one and a half time during this period.
It was 8.41 million tones in 1950-51 which could rise to 11.08 million
tones in the year 2000-01. Since the growth of population during 1951 to
1961 is about two and a half times, the per capita production of pulses has
gone down drastically from 23.29 kgs. to 10.77 kgs.during the same period.
Recommendations and Conclusion
Unprecedented growth of population accompanied by the
phenomenal over all development throughout the globe has been the
hallmark of the last century. However, there are regional as well as temporal
patterns in this relationship. With increasing burden of population on
resources, both developing as well as developed countries have started
showing a tendency of reduction in the growth of their population. In their
response, however, developing countries lag far behind the developed
977
countries. At regional levels also it is found that different regions and

communities have different attitude towards the growth of their population.
The study shows that the differences in the population growth are mainly
attributed to fertility differentials across different groups of population.
Mortality differentials, in the present context, do not play any significant
role. As even after sustained efforts of reduction of fertility its level is still
higher in developing countries.Reduction of fertility plays a key role in
controlling the growth of population. The study suggest that in India social
and economic condition have shown signs of fertility reduction but still
have not reached the level to achieve the goals of population control. The
paper emphasizes on the fact that the phenomenal success of India on food
production and literacy etc., suggests that if similar efforts are made in
social sectors also, population control will not be an unachievable target
References
1. Coale, A.J., and Edger Houver (1958), Population growth and economic
development in low income countries: A case study of India’s prospects.Princeton,
N.J.: PrincetonUniversity Press, pp. 10-11.
2. UN (1953), The Determinants and consequences of population trends. Deptt. of
Social Affairs Population Division, Population Studies No. 17, New York, pp. 56-
61.
3. “2016 World Population Data Sheet”. Population Reference Bureau.
Retrieved September 15, 2016.
4. “World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations”. esa.un.org.
Retrieved 2016-09-15.
5 Engelman, R. (1997), Why Population matters. Washington: Population Action
International, p.11.
6 Malthus, Thomas Robert (1959). Population: The First essay. Am Abor Ann Arbor
Paperback.
7 Malthus Thomas (1960), A Summary view of the principles of population in Three
essays on Population eds., Thomas Malthus, Julian Huxley and F. Osborn, New
York,: Mentor Books, pp. 13-59.
8 Karl Marx (1818-1883) General Law of Capital Accumulation, Chapter XXV
Capital.
9 Ricardo, David. 1919. Principles of Political Economy and Taxation.
10 English Poor Laws were a system of relief from 1536 onward and were modified
in 1834 to provide workhouses run by poor law Unions.
11 Pearl R. and Reed L.J, (1920). “ on the Rate of Growth of the population of United
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Academy of Sciences ,6, I, Population and Resources .
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12 Frank W. Notestein (1945): “Population - The Long View” in Theodore W. Schults

(ed.) Food for the World, Chicago University Press.
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50, No.3, pp. 361-387.Kuznet Simon (1966), Modern economic growth. New Haven
ct: Yale University Press, p.20.
14 Central Statistical Organization (2004) Statistical Abstract India, CSO, New Delhi.
15 Census of India 1961, 1971, 1981 and 1991.M.K. Premi (1991).India’s.Population:
Heading towards a billion B.R. Publishing Corp. and Census of India 2001.
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York.and Census of India 1991, 2001.
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UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME New York.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 979-985, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
73
Role of Kanyashree Project on
Empowerment of Women in West Bengal
Moumita Ghosh
Department of Geography, University of Calcutta
Abstract
Women are one of the most important focus groups in the study of
development and marginalization. A section of women in West Bengal
are commonly portrayed as among the most oppressed, and majority
of them are grounded in both poverty and patriarchy. The objective of
this paper is to analyze the life of women who are affected in the
process of marginalization and how the Kanyashree- a social
development project of the Government of West Bengal, has been acting
as a helping tool for women, and also its impact on reducing child
marriage, improving maternal health, school dropouts and girl child
trafficking. The work is based on various reports of the Government
of India and State Government of West Bengal, and interaction with
the selected local people. It is found the that Murshidabad, Malda,
Birbhum, Purulia, Bankura, Dakshin Dinajpur, South 24 Parganas,
Nadia and Coochbehar districts are the more vulnerable districts in
terms of child marriage and school drop out in the state. According to
the DLHS-3 published in 2007-08 the percentage of child brides were
54.7, which has reduced to 32.1 in the year 2012-13 mainly due to the
implementation of the Kanyashree Project. The school dropout rate
has also reduced significantly in these districts.
Keywords: Development and marginalization, Kanyashree Project,
child marriage, girl child trafficking
980
Introduction
In the course of democratic development the most important point
of development is considered as social transformation process, and
development is not confined within profit oriented motive which is
associated with sustainability, social safety nets, greater participation,
poverty reduction and equal gender rights within the country and in the
mind of people (Hartwick, 2009). Woman empowerment is not only a
corporate terminology now a day, through this people should give equal
opportunity to their daughter as they use to give their son in every sphere
of life, only by which girls can develop self esteem from very tender age.
This self-esteem gives them courage to be educated and financially
independent. Child marriage is a serious problem in present world, mainly
in the developing countries like South Asian countries, Africa and Latin
America. Child marriage is a violation of children human rights, despite
of being prohibited by law; it does continue to rob million of girls under
eighteen and their childhood. Child marriages denies girls, their right to
make vital decision about their sexual health and well being and also
associated with less education, ill health, poor prospect and increase the
risk of violence and early death (Anderson, 1998). According to the District
Level Health Survey – 3, 2007- 08, West Bengal ranks fifth highest in the
country when it comes to the prevalence of child marriage. In the year
2013, the State Government of West Bengal introduced a holistic approach
as Kanyashree Prakalpa for underprivileged girls of the state. The scheme
is designed in such a way that reducing the tendency of drop out from
school; it motives girls of poor families to pursue higher study and at the
same time protect them from the harmful social custom of marriage at
young age.
Concept of Marginalization and Woman as a Focus Group
Marginality is generally used to describe and analyse socio-cultural,
political and economic spheres, where disadvantaged people struggle to
gain access to resources, and full participation in social life (Brodwin,
2001). In other words, marginalized people might be socially, economically,
politically and legally ignored, excluded or neglected, and are therefore
vulnerable to livelihood change. A section of women and girl child in West
Bengal are deprived from their economic and social rights in every sphere
of their life. Poverty and patriarchy are the main cause of their condition
and this situation force them to marry in a early age which also have a
chain negative reaction in their life. Patriarchy, in its wider definition,
means the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over
981
women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance
over women in society in general and woman are subordinate in the case
of rights and access to property and decision making. After 2013
Kanyashree Prakalpa has been playing a vital role to protect the
underprivileged girl child of this state from the darkness of early marriage.
Child Marriage: An Important Concern for West Bengal
West Bengal is one of those states in India which had done worse
performance in prevention of child marriage. It is a great shame for Bengal.
Bengal was one of the states which led India to its modernity by making
various socio cultural reforms. This is the land of Kaviguru Rabindranath
Tagore and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar who always fought for rights of
woman and equalitarian society in India but unfortunately the present
Bengal is far behind among states in India regarding the significant social
issue of preventing child marriage. Inaction and lack of effective measures
during last three decades pushed West Bengal out of the track (Anderson
and Larsen, 1998). According to the District Level Health Survey – 3,
2007- 08, the state ranked fifth highest in the country when it comes to the
prevalence of child marriage, almost every second girl is a child bride
(54.7%). According to District Level Health Survey -4, 2012-2013, the
percentage of girls aged 18 years getting married before 18 years was 32.1%.
As per Rapid Survey on Children (2013-2014), 44.47% of women aged
20-24 were married before age 18. Survey reveals that Murshidabad, Malda,
Birbhum,Purulia, Bankura, Dakshin Dinajpur, South 24 Parganas, Nadia
and Cooch Behar are more vulnerable districts where the highest incidence
of child marriage in the state. The most important factor which to be noticed
in this context that even in non-slum areas in the heart of the city of Kolkata,
where families are wealthier and girls are likely to be better educated,
more than a quarter of girls are married before they reach adulthood. It
signifies that till today in West Bengal child betrothal and marriage is
considered to be a gendered practice. An overwhelmingly large percentage
of girls are married at before reaching adulthood which reflects
backwardness in the set of mind of the people.
Negative Impact of Child Marriage
Child marriage affecting more girls than boys and is a type of
sexual abuse of minor girls which has a consecutives negative impact on
their health, leaves them financially and socially disempowered. According
to UNICEF, motherhood among teenagers is nine times more among girls
with no schooling than among woman with 12 or more years of education.
Negative impact of child marriage are-
982
1. Female school dropout

Child marriage leads to girls dropping out school, which limits
their scope of future development. The Selected Education Statistics (2010-
11) published by MHRD, Government of India shows that for the state of
West Bengal the gross enrollment ratio of girls gradually decrease from
88% at elementary level to 59% in high school level and 33.3% at higher
secondary level, so the dropout rates between class I-X was found to be as
high as 47.9% by the same report. Higher secondary education is not free
so poverty-stricken parents choose to invest their money to marry their
girls rather than their education. As a result, poverty plays a vital role that
fuels child marriage, in turn perpetuates feminization of poverty.
2. Trafficking:
Child marriage is one of the lures that the human exploitation
rackets often use to entice poor parents. There is no concrete date of how
many numbers of young girls who have gone missing because of child
marriages. Simply because such marriages are arranged by fraudulent means
and there is no data of it. It is significant to note that the districts which
rank the highest amongst all districts in the state for child marriages, namely,
Murshidabad and Malda, are also considered the most vulnerable to
trafficking because these districts share a border with Bangladesh. In many
cases girls who drop out of school are sent away by parents to earn their
dowries by working as child labour in various metropolitan cities within
India and sometimes outside India, which also makes them vulnerable to
traffickers.
3. Maternal ill health and mortality
Child marriage is one of the deterrent factors which hamper the
progress of maternal and child health and improvements in the nutritional
status of children in West Bengal. Child marriages result in early
pregnancies, which in turn lead to high maternal and infant deaths, and are
also a leading cause for malnutrition among children. Owing to the marriage
at early stage girls becoming mothers at that period when they are not out
of childhood themselves.
4. Psychosocial disadvantage
The loss of adolescence, the forced sexual relations, and the denial
of freedom and personal development attendant on early marriage have
profound psychosocial and emotional consequences. The impact can be
subtle and insidious and the damage hard to assess.
983
Kanyashree Prakalpa- A Project to Empower the Girl Child

In India, there are various laws made for prevention of child
marriage, but unfortunately child marriage is still realty in the country.
The Department of Women Development and Social Welfare and Child
Development (DWD) implemented anti child marriage campaigns
spreading the message of prevention, and endorsing enforcement of the
law and its penal position for adults. Human rights research shows that the
greatest obstacles to girls’ education are child marriage and subsequently
pregnancy and other domestic chores. Naturally to ensure that girls stay in
school would be an effective protective measure against child marriage.
And in order to do in an effective way what the state needs a government
sponsored social welfare scheme for girls that directly helps and motivates
students to continue study. The present Government of West Bengal, just
after coming into the power in the year 2012 under the leadership of Smt.
Mamata Banerjee, has taken special initiative for compulsory female
education and in order to support it under the supervision of the Department
of Women Development and Social Welfare, West Bengal (DWSW)
introduced in the year 2013 the Kanyashree Prakalpa – a conditional cash
transfer scheme with the aim of improving the status and well-being of the
girl child in West Bengal by incentivizing schooling of all teenage girls
and delaying their marriages until the age of 18, the legal age of marriage.
Kanyashree Prakalpa is a West Bengal Government sponsored scheme
which presently is implemented in all the districts of the state. 38, 11,618
girls are enrolled in Kanyashree Prakalpa in West Bengal till date.
Scheme Benefits and Eligibility Criteria:
(1) Annual Scholarships (K-1):
The Scheme assures an annual scholarship of Rs. 750/- to girls
based on the below mentioned eligibility criteria
(2) One-Time Grant (K-2)
The scheme assures a one- time grant of Rs. 25,000/- to girls who
fulfill the following eligibility criteria.
Age Is between 13 and 18 years of Birth certificate issued by Municipal
age (K-1)Is between 18 and 19 or Panchayat authorities
years of age (K-2)
Marital status Is unmarried Declaration by parent/ guardian.
Education Is enrolled in any one of the Certificate of enrolment and
following educational attendance by Head of Institution.
984
institution :In class VIII or

above in a formal school,
madrassah or equivalent open
school course.In college or
equivalent open universities
course.Vocational training
centre, technical training
centre, industrial training
centre, sports training centre.
Family income Is less than or equal to Declaration by self employed
Rs. 1, 20,000/- per annum. parents or certificate given by
competent authority.
Observations
Comparing National Level Survey -3 (2005-2006) and National
Level Survey -4(2015-2016) in case of West Bengal number of girls married
before 18 and infant and maternal mortality rate are decrease than previous
years for a small percentage. To spread out message and thought state
government observes the Kanyashree Day on 14th of August every year,
where 27 lacks kanyashree girls are observed this day in the year 2015.A
recently released set of data shows adolescent girls in rural Bengal setting
a nationwide trend with their keenness to go to school. Compared to their
male counterparts, the central survey shows, rural girl students have a better
attendance record.
The NSSO survey, carried out in January-June 2014, shows that
in the gross attendance ratio and net attendance ratios in primary, upper
primary and secondary classes, girls have overtaken boys by a good measure
in rural Bengal. The results came in three months after the West Bengal
Government’s launched its Kanyashree scheme -a conditional cash transfer
or CCT to stop adolescent dropouts among girl students.
State women and child development minister Dr Shashi Panja said,
“When Kanyashree was launched by the Chief Minister in October 1, 2013,
it was followed by a sustained media campaign. This, we felt, had touched
the common psyche. Otherwise, the number of beneficiaries would not
have reached 2.5 million. In addition, we always had a Sabala project, in
which, through ICDS centers in six districts, we try to spread awareness
about dropping out from school.
Conclusion
Time has come to bring a radical change in the dominant ideology
of patriarchy. This dominant ideology, which is produced from patriarchal
985
structures, is found in all areas of social relations. It is said that it is not

enough to change only family value system, the laws of inheritance, property
distribution; right over children should also be changed. To bring equality,
it is essential to establish equal right between men and women in all respects
of life. The responsibilities of women should also be equally distributed.
In fact, I believe that real democracies and egalitarian societies can only
be established if we practices democracy, equality and mutual respect within
the family. Real peace in society can only be established if we experience
peace at home. Early marriage is closely associated with poverty. Some
interventions on behalf of adolescent girls have focused on improving their
economic situation as a means of granting them higher status and more
control over their lives including their options in marriage. This scheme is
expected to bring about measurable improved outcomes for the education,
health (especially infant and maternal mortality) and empowerment of the
state’s girls, their children and immeasurable benefits for larger society,
because I believe than equity in gander is not a feminist issue rather it is
the most important human issue of the society.
This paper can be concluded with hope and a quote of Nobel
laureate Malala Yousafzai that, “Extremists have shown what frightens
them most: a girl with book.” Kanyashree in West Bengal is a unique
project to empowering the girls and that’s why UNESCO has recently
recognized it with the first prize among the competitors participating from
the countries across the world.
References
Anderson, J. Larsen, J. E. (1998) Gender, Poverty and Empowerment. Critical Social
Policy, 18(2): 241-258
Brodwin, P. (2001) Marginality and Cultural Intimacy in a Trans-national Haitian
Community, Occasional Paper No. 91 October. Department of Anthropology,
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA
Dreze, J. and Sen, A. (2013). An Uncertain Glory: India and Contradictions (Vol. I). Penguin
Books
Govt. of West Bengal (2013). Kanyashree Implementation Guideline
Hartwick, R. P. (2009). Theories of Development, Contentions, Arguments,
Alternatives(Vol. II). New York: The Guilford Press, ISBN 978-1-60623-065-7
MWCD, National Strategy Document on Prevention of Child Marriage, 14.02.2013
NFHS III, 2005-06
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 987-996, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
74
Socio-Economic Status of Women
Population in Dhule District, Maharashtra
Suryawanshi Dnyaneshwar Shivaji1 and Ahire Suresh Chintaman2
1
V. W. S. College, Dhule (M.S.), E-mail: dssvws@ rediffmail.com
2
U. P. College, Dahivel, Tal- Sakri, Dhule (M.S.),
Abstract
Women are a significant demographic and cultural index. In the
population status of women and men are an important issue for the
development of the society. It reflect the socio- economic development
prevailing is an area and useful tools for geographic analysis. Society
development is governed by various aspects i.e. - demographic, socio-
economic, infrastructure and amenities of the areas. Development
process depends on the level of socio-economic interaction between
rural and urban areas. The present paper attempts to analyze the decadal
variation of woman population status in Dhule district. The main
objective of study is to measure the women status of the 2001 and
2011 in Dhule district. On the basis of availability of data socio-
economic indicators like general sex ratio, population density, women
child sex ratio, women literacy rate, women working population rate
and women working population in non agricultural sector are taken
for consideration separately to assess the status of women. Overall
women status at tahsils level for the year 2001 and 2011 is uneven.
The various indicators data is processed and comparison tahsil wise
‘Z’ value and composite index then presented through tables, maps
and graphs. In Dhule tahsil female population increased by 5.4% in
2011, Sakri tasils female population has been decreased by 2 to 3 %.
Whereas, lowest fall of female population is observe in Shirpur tahsil
which was 0.77 % only. It is found to be Composite index highest
988
level in Dhule (9.7), and Sakri (4.7). While remaining two tahsil like
Shirpur (3.6) and Shindkheda (1.9) are moderate and low level status
of women in 2011. Regional pattern of study area is closely related
with the socio-economic of region. The study region recording low
women status suffer from poor agricultural and show emigration, while
the region recording high status women have undergone industrial
development attracting in migration. The high status women have
increased up to 63.8% in 2001 and 80.9 in 2011. According to total
population in Dhule district population of female child was higher
than male child population in 2001, which declined by the year 2011.
Key Word: Population, Density of Population, Female Literacy,
Workers Population
Introduction
Development is a process of socio-economic transformation in the
society which is greatly influenced by human being. Rural development is
now viewed closely as a strategy specifically designed to improve the socio-
economic subsistence of the rural people. Rural development is governed
by various aspects i.e. demographic, socioeconomic, infrastructure and
amenities of rural areas. With the process of development and highly
depends on the level of socio-economic interaction between rural and urban
areas. In present study an attempt has been made to discover level of status
of women development by analyzing various indicators. In the selection
of indicators to measure the levels of status of woman considerable
emphasis are placed on variable which represent a change and development
in a society. In the study region has been much of the important in various
socio-economic dimensions like density of population, education, Child
population, occupation, and infrastructure level of living. In study area
correspondingly positive change is found in socio-economic status of
different segments of socio-economically. The mass illiteracy, adverse
socio-economic condition poverty high fertility rate, scarcity of education,
and health facility in rural areas are some of the causes behind their lower
level of status.
Location
The shape of the study area is triangular. It is located in the northern
part of the Maharashtra State. It has occupied over an area of 8063.11
sq.km. It is extended from 20038 N to 21039 N latitudes and from 73050 E
to 75013l E longitudes (Fig. No.1). The study area is bordered by the districts,
Jalgaon to the east, Nasik to the south, Gujarat State and Nandurbar district
to west. Satpura ranges presented to the north of the study area. Because
of the ‘Satpura’ ranges Dhule district is separated from Madhya Pradesh
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State, while ‘Satmala’ ranges separate the district from western

Maharashtra.
Dhule district contributes 2.62 percent total geographical area of
the Maharashtra State. As per the 2011 Census, the population of Dhule
district is 2,048, 781. The density of population is 285 persons per sq. km.
Dhule district lies on the junction of National Highway No.3 and 6. National
Highway No.3 is connected to Mumbai –Agra, while National Highway
No. 6 is connected to Surat – Nagpur – Bhusawal branch. About one fifth
of the total area of the district is under forest, which is substantial proportion
as compared to State average. Dhule district with it’s headquarter at Dhule
includes 4 tahsils. The four tahsils are – Dhule, Sakri, Shirpur and
Shindkhede. Dhule is the only district in the State having such less number
of tahsils except Mumbai city and Mumbai Suburban district.
Objective
1. To study the decadal changes of women population in Dhule
district.
2. To study socio-economic study of women population in Dhule
district.
3. To study measurement of the socio-economic status of women
population in Dhule district.
Database and Methodology
The study based on secondary data. District and data is obtained
by censes of 2001 and 2011. On the basis of availability of data socio-
economic indicators like general sex ratio, population density, child sex
ratio, literacy rate, working population rate and working population in non
agricultural sector are taken for consideration separately to assess the socio-
economic status of women. Overall, study of women status at tahsils level
for the year 2001 and 2011, then data is processed by ‘Z’ value and
composite index and presented through tables, maps and graphs.
Women status facilities serve social need so it is considered as an
important factor of social development. It leads to qualitative development
and provide better facilities to the people. The spatial distributions of
women’s status facilities are uneven. In the present study 06 indicators of
socioeconomic facilities have been worked out. The present study considers
the following set of indicators for measuring the level of status of women.
990
Indicators of Women status

X1- Density of Population
X2- Female Population
X3- Female Child Population (age-group 0-6 Years)
X4- Female Literacy
X5- Female workers Population
X6- Female Primary workers Population
Development of an area may be assessed in several ways. To
examine the level women status and analysis is to discover level of status
of women in study area. The data has been collected from census of Dhule
district, statistical handbook and official records of Dhule district. The
indicators taken under consideration are analyzed with the variables has a
wide range of variation, finally the variations are grouped into three
categories and it has been applied to assess the level of women status. On
the basis of composite index, women status has been classified in to three
different categories as follows-
High level status women- Above 5
Moderate level status of women- 2.5 to 5
Low level status of status of women’s- Below 2.5
Density of Population
It is observed that the density of population is seen decreasing in terms of
the percentage also, as it is observed in terms of the percentage also, as it
is observed in tahsils likeDhule, Sakri, Shirpur and Shindkheda. In 2011
‘Z’ value of all above tahasils was above all tahsils except Dhule tahsil
show decreasing trend of population density. So far as Dhule is concerned,
it is a big town and district headquarters, the population of the villages in
the close vicinity of Dhule town is dense.
Moreover, it provides educational, transportation, commerce,
trade, and health facilities; hence, the density of population is higher. Than
Shindkheda and Other tahsils has lower density of population it is because
farming is only trade/source of earning for the people. Major parts of Sakri
and Shindkheda tahsils are draught prone. Western part of Sakri tahsil and
northern part of Shirpur tahsil is hilly area of Sahyadri and Satpura mountain
991
range. That is the main reason of low density of population 11% density of
population increased in Dhule tahsil only. Rest all tahsils showed declined
trend in the density of population.
Sex Ratio
Sex ratio is an index of socio-economic condition of an area and
important device for regional analysis. Sex ratio constitutes one of the
most radial observable elements of population. In 2001 and 2011, the male-
female sex ratio was 953 and 956 respectively in Dhule district. Tahsil-
wise distribution of sex ratio shows that Sakri tahsil recorded highest sex-
ratio which is 970, shares lowest sex ratio is observed in Shindkheda tahsil
which is 941 although, Dhule tahsil is urban, it’s sex ratio is higher. Sakri
tahsil region is rural and tribal. Sex ratio in tribal area is also higher. The
lowest sex ratio is in Shindkheda tahsil. It is rural area and most of the
populations depend on farming. In Dhule tahsil female population increased
by 5.4% in 2011 tahsils female population has been decreased by 2 to 3 %.
Whereas lowest fall of female population observed in tahsil which was
0.77 only.
Table No. 1 : Dhule District: Tahsilwise Female Demographic Factors in Percentage (2000 & 2011 )
992
Sr. No. Tahsils Total Area of Total Female age- Female Female Total Female Main Density of Total
Population Tahsil in Ha. Females group 0-6 Years Literates Workers Workers Population
Population
01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11
1 Dhule 29.9 41 32.8 32.8 14.4 19.8 2.08 2.45 7.35 8.07 5.79 5.33 3.57 4.34 30 41 63.2 80.9
2 Sakri 28.8 22.7 32.5 32.5 14.7 11.2 2.06 1.49 6.14 5.39 6.66 5.39 4.52 4.64 28.7 22.6 62.2 50.8
3 Shindkheda 19.4 15.8 21.5 21.5 9.49 7.64 1.26 0.89 5 4.55 3.71 3.11 1.83 2.33 19.4 15.8 40.7 34.3
4 Shirpur 21.9 20.6 13.2 13.2 10.7 10 1.91 1.48 4.59 4.93 4.68 4.02 2.67 3.29 21.9 20.6 46.5 44.4
Total 100 100 100 100 48.8 48.6 7.31 6.31 23.1 22.9 20.9 17.8 12.6 14.61 100 100 212.6 210.3
Table No 2. : Dhule District: Tahsil wise Demographic Factors of ‘Z’ Score (2000 & 2011)
Sr. No. Tahsils Density of Female Child Female Female Female Total Change
Population Population Population Literacy Workers Primary Composite
(Z1) (Z2) (age-group (Z4) Population Workers Score
0-6 Years) (Z5) Population
(Z3) (Z6)
01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11 01 11
1 Dhule 25.6 39.3 9.5 14.8 -2.6 -2.2 2.7 3.4 1.8 1.3 0.9 1.6 37.9 58.2 6.3 9.7 3.4
2 Sakri 24.3 20.9 9.2 6.2 -2.6 -3.2 1.5 0.7 2.6 1.4 1.8 1.9 36.8 27.9 6.1 4.7 -1.5
3 Shindkheda 15 14.1 4.6 2.7 -3.4 -3.8 0.3 -0.1 -0.3 -0.9 -0.9 -0.4 15.3 11.6 2.6 1.9 -0.6
4 Shirpur 17.5 18.9 5.8 5.1 -2.8 -3.2 -0.1 0.3 0.6 0 0 0.6 21 21.7 3.5 3.6 0.1
Total 82.4 93.2 29.1 28.8 -11.4 -12.4 4.4 4.3 4.7 1.8 1.8 3.7 111 119.4 18.5 19.9 1.4
Source: Dhule District Population Censes 2001, 2011 & Computed by Researcher
993
Female Child Population (age group 0-6 Years):

The present study is focus on spatio temporal change in female
child ratio in Dhule district. There are four tahsils in the district, thus tahsil
wise population data collection from 2001 and 2011 census for further
study. This indicate serious problem of different consequences regarding
sex ratio in 6.31% tahsils. There are many causes behind declining child
sex ratio mention in current study.
Sex composition of population is the most basic demographic, since
it influence the marriage and growth rate of population. Some influence of
the ratio between the sex is partly constructing and partly complimentary.
Child sex ratio is an index of socio-economic conditions reveling in the
area and is useful tool for regional analysis. Due to the considerable
influence on many other demographic elements the sex ratio is fundamental
to geographical analysis of any region. Child sex ratio is important
parameters that reflect the status of the women society. Maharashtra state
located west part of the India. The sex ratio is changing and declining in
each decade to 2011. For this study researchers have selected Dhule district
in North Maharashtra. The changes in sex ratio is gender bias, less health
care nutrition inattention, low status of women in society, migration and
other socio- culture practice like dowry. Therefore the effects are required
to solve the problem of gender imbalance regarding girl child.
As per population status female child population is changed. Low
female child population is an indicator of low status Dhule district has the
highest child population and in comparison to 2001, it increased by 0.3%
in 2011 ‘Z’ value regarding female child population in Dhule district is
negative.
Female Literacy
Literacy is one of the important aspects of population. The united
nation’s has defined literacy as the ability of a person to read and write
with understanding a short simple statement on his every day ingredients
of economic and social development planning (Sharma and Rutherford,
1987). The level of literacy and educational attainment is an important
indicator of social development.
Literacy acts as an important indicator for displaying the socio -
economic development of an area. It is essential for social reconstruction,
improvement in the quality of life and preparation of man power for rapid
development. On the other hand, lack of literacy can certainly be an
impediment in the development process. A certain level of literacy is
994
therefore, a basic, requirement for people to get out of ignorance and

backwardness (Gosal and Chandana, 1979). Literacy is a qualitative
attribute of population and a fairly reliable indeed of socio-economic
development. It also helps for economic development, social advancement
and even in controlling population. Therefore attempt is made here to
analyze literacy at micro level in the tahsil of Dhule district
Female literacy in Dhule district is 22.9 as per 2011 cenens. When
compared 2001 Female literacy in the district to 2011, it declined by 0.2%
Dhule and Shirpur recorded increase in 2011 shereas Sakri and Shindkhda
tahsils recorded decrease in female literacy in 2011.
Female workers Population
Female workers populations attach the development of the
population. The countries show development whose Female workers
population is higher female workers population in the district is 17.8. In
comparison to 2001 and 2011, Female workers population declined by 2.9
% all tahsils recorded declining trend.
Female Primary workers Population
As per census 2011, Female primary workers population in Dhule
district is 12.6. In comparison to 2001, it shows an increase by 2% Sakri
Shirpur and Shindkheda tahsils show increasing trend in female primary
workers population. It is due to farming which is the only trade/earning
source in these tahsils.
The all inclusive development of the country based upon the
development of the population. When compared male and female
development there is variation. Along with the male population (status)
development, Female empowerment is needed. 50% population of the
country is female population. Hence, by uplifting the status of women,
socio-economic development can be achieved socio-economic development
of female population need to be checked through composite index. Spatio-
temporal study of some indicators is essential, like population density,
female population, child ratio, female literacy and female working
population.
Conclusion
The paper conclude that the composite index value of socio -
economic status of women among the different segment of the society.
Shows that there is much progress in status but there remain wide disparity
in women status within and between the different tahsil in 2001 and 2011.
995
It is further found that mostly Dhule and Sakri tahsils which are having
higher level status of women. The Sakri and Shirpur tahsils scheduled
tribe women status is far lagging behind in relation to women in any other
section of the society. Regional pattern of study area is closely related
with the socio-economic of region. The study region recording high sex
ratio suffer from poor agricultural and show emigration, while the region
recording low sex ratio have undergone industrial development attracting
in migration. The low sex ratio has decreased up to 48.79 in 2001 and
48.6% in 2011. Population of female child population in total population
in Dhule district was higher than that male child population in 2001, which
declined by the year 2011.
High level status of women is above 5 composite score. Overall
women status was observed in four tahsils. It is found to be Composite
index highest level in Dhule (9.7). While remaining two tahsil like Sakri
(4.7) and Shirpur tahsils (3.6) are moderate and low level status of women
is Shindkheda (1.9) tahsil. It’s found that mostly district headquarters tahsils
are industrialized urbanized and center point of four national highways.
Education, transportation, health service are developed. Hence western
and eastern part of district is concerned with high status women level.
Overall status was found to be moderate level in Shirpur tahsil, its
Composite index found 3.6 score. Whereas Shindkheda tahsil of the district
is drought prone affected and overall backward. It’s concerned with the
lower level women status of the tahsil.
References
1. Das Abhiman (1999): ‘Socio-Economic Development in India’, Economic & Political
Weekly, Vol. XIV, No. 48, pp.1853-54
2. Ramotra K. C. (19970: ‘Socio-Economic Status of Women in India and Maharashtra’,
The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol.72 (1), pp.39-46
3. Rao Usha N. J. (1983): ‘Women in a Developing Society’, Ashish Publishing House,
New Delhi. Pp.155-56
4. Bhende Aasha & Kanitkar Tara (2004): ‘Principal of Population Study’, Himalaya
Publishing House,Pune pp. 140-141
5. Triwarta G. T. (1953): ‘A Case Study of Population Geography’, Analysis of Association
of American Geographers, Vol. 2 pp.19-22
6. Barakade A. J (2012): ‘Decline Sex Ratio An analysis with Spatial Reference to
Maharashtra State’ Geoscience Research Pune, Vol. 3(1), pp.92-95
7. Suryavanshi D. S. & Ahire S. C. (2012): ‘Levels of Sustainable Development in Kan
basin of Dhule District’, Maharashtra Bhugolshastra Sanshodan Patrika, Pune, Pp
89-99
996
8. Mohammad Noor (1992): ‘Spatial Variation in level of Development in U.P. in Dynamic

if agricultural development’ Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Vol.7 pp
175-180
9. Shrikant Karlekar and Mohan Kale (2006): ‘Statistical Analysis of Geographical data’
Dimond Publications, Pune . pp 70,183,184
Vol. 3 (2017) : 997-1009, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
75
Sustainability of Jute Farming and Socio –
Economic Issues of the Jute Farmers in
Assam
Bidyut Jyoti Kalita and Anjan Bhuyan
Department of Business Administration, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Jute is one of the major cash crops, primarily cultivated by the marginal
and small farmers in Assam. The state ranked third in terms of its
production in India after west-Bengal and Bihar.In this era of
environmental awareness, natural fibers are regaining its acceptance
among environment conscious consumers across the world. In this
context, the sustainability of the fiber cultivation is a crucial issue.
This paper tries to analyze the sustainability issues of Jute farming
along with the socio-economic issues of the growers in the region.
The study is based on primary data collected through field survey of
the researchers. Multistage sampling procedure has been used and
grower’s responses were obtained with the help of a structured
schedule. It was observed that there is apathy among the farmers
towards farming the crop and increasing cost of cultivation,
inappropriate marketing facilities influenced the growers for crop
shifting in the area.
Keywords: Sustainability, Jute Farming, farmer’s constraints, socio-
economic conditions
Introduction
Jute popularly known as the golden fiber is the cheapest and the
998
strongest of all natural fibers. India, Bangladesh, China and Thailand are
the leading producer of Jute in the world. This cheapest natural fibreis
widely used as packaging material. Among the natural fibres, Jute occupies
the foremost position after Cotton for its inherent attributes. Apart from its
technical advantages like strength and length of the fiber, the significance
of Jute basically lies in its biodegradability and environment friendliness.
In this context of growingglobal awareness on environment, Jute and allied
fibers, as eco-friendly packaging materials are regaining their popularity
as against synthetic fibers, which are pollutant in nature as claimed by
environmentalists (Sadat &Chakraborty, 2015).After considering the
ecological importance of natural fiber, Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) has declared the year 2009 as the “International Year of
NaturalFibers”. This was another major step of popularizing natural
fiber.Ensuring environmental sustainability through Millennium
Development Goal (MDG) gives a momentum to the process of
popularization of these natural fibers. Traditionally used as packaging
material, the use of Jute is extended to all aspects of human life through its
diversification in the present era. Thus Jute and Jute made products are
getting wider acceptance among the environment conscious consumer
across the world in general and developed countries in particular.Jute is a
product of the luxuriant soil of South Asia and speciûcally a product of
India and Bangladesh.More than 90 per cent of world Jute is grown in
these two South Asian nations.India is the largest producer of Jute
contributing about 55.2 per cent of world production. West Bengal, Bihar
and Assam are the three largest Jute producing states in India respectively.
In spite of having a promising demand, the present Jute production scenario
shows a fluctuating trend rather than a stable upward trend in the last decade.
This variation mainly arises due to variation in Jute acreage, which is
effected by different agro-ecological and agro-economic factors. Jute plays
a vital role in the agricultural as well as industrial growth of both the nations.
Jute industry contributes significantly in the socio-economic transformation
of these agrarian economics by supporting livelihood of more than 12
million families engaged in farming, industrial activities and trade of Jute
(Jute matters 2014).Cultivation of Jute is an important source of food
security for these weaker sections of the rural community. Assam is one
of the prominent Jute growing destinations in India. The state economy is
an agrarian in nature, where 75 per cent of the population is still dependent
on agriculture for livelihood directly as well as indirectly. The total number
of Operational Holdings estimated in the State is 27, 20,223 and Area
Operated is 29, 99,070 hectares. The marginal and small holding taken
together constituted 85.57 percent of the total holdings (Agricultural Census
999
2010-11).The net cultivable land is 28.10 lakh hectares. Jute is cultivated

in 76,400 hectares only. This paper is an attempt to analyses present scenario
of Jute cultivation in Assam and growers sustainability. To apprehend the
opportunities carried out by the environment, it is crucial to assess the
constraints of the Jute growers. This is also important to fulfill the requisite
of regular and uninterrupted fiber supply in future. Environmental
sustainability can be ensured only through uninterrupted supply of these
natural fibers. Thus it requires assessment as well as removal of the
constraints of the Jute farmers in the entire process of cultivation and
marketing from a holistic perspective.
Literature review
Jute fiber was known in India since ancient times and Jute clothes
were being manufactured in the country even in the 16th century. AbulFazal
(1590) in his Ain-e-Akbari written during the era of Mughal Emperor Akbar
(1542-1605) stated that villagers of India in those days used to wear clothes
made of Jute fiber (Bhaattacharya, 2013, Goyal, 1990). During British
regime, in the later part of the 18th century, this fiber was send to United
Kingdom to investigate the possible ways of commercialization by East
India Company. The experiment showed a favorable end and as a result in
1832 the first Jute mill of the world was established at Dundee, Scotland.
The mill at Dundee was developed entirely on the basis of raw Jute supplied
from India. For about twenty three years since the inception of the first
Jute mill in India, Dundee remained the most important center of the Jute
industry. In the year 1855, the first Jute mill in India was established at
Rishra near Serampore, 12 miles North of Calcutta on the Hooghly River
by Mr. George Acland. It marked the beginning of organized Jute industry
in India. (Bhaattacharya, 2013, Goyal ,1990, Adhikary, 2000 ) . Since the
establishment of the first mill in the year 1855 till the partition of India in
1947 there has been a rapid growth of the Jute industry in the undivided
India. The growth of Jute industry was at peak during the Second World
War (1945), due to its various requirements at the war time measures.
However, the major milestone of Indian Jute industry was the partition of
India. Thegrowth of Jute industry since independence is depressingbecause
of the partition of India. As a result of partition, most of the Jute growing
areas were went to then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and Jute mills
were remain in India. Since independence, the Indian Jute industry has
passed through a series of upheavals in spite of several crucial measures
taken by government such as, establishment of mill at state and cooperative
sector, nationalization of mills, introduction of Minimum Support Price
(MSP) etc. Jute cultivation in Assam was started during the end of 19th
1000
century, under the patronage of the British. By the end of nineteenth century,
Assam administration had allotted the riverine areas of Brahmaputra for
Jute farming mostly to the immigrant peasants, to meet the raw material
requirement of Jute industries of West-Bengal. During 1910-20 large pitches
of land including uncultivated, low lying riverine areas, un-classed state
forest and grazing reserve were reclaimed by immigrant peasants to bring
these areas under Jute cultivation (Saikia, 2016). It was the beginning of
large scale Jute cultivation or commercialization of Jute farming in the
state and then the region become the Jute frontier of British emperor within
four decades.
Socio-Economic Impact of Jute cultivation
Jute cultivation has significant impact on the socio-economic
conditions of the farm families of the Jute producing region of the world.
Farmers in Bangladesh are able to improve their socio economic conditions
through the income arise from Jute cultivation (Sheheli& Roy, 2014). Jute
is mainly cultivated in the low laying areas or wetland of India. This labour
intensive crop has significant economic impact among the farm families
in Indian in general and eastern region in particular. Its cultivation and
processing is vital sources of livelihood in the rural India as it supports the
livelihood of 40, 00,000 farm families of the nation. Besides its economic
significance the crop has socio-cultural relevance among farming
communities. (Debbarma et.al. 2015).Rahman (2008), has stated that the
Jute economy impacts on social and economic development and plays a
pivotal role in reducing poverty and hunger. Jute harvesting takes place at
a time when marginal farmers and workers are faced with shortage of their
food stocks. The cash derived from sales of Jute fiber and the wages received
by workers are an important contribution towards food security for these
vulnerable segments of the population as stated by the researcher. Chapke
(2013) has studied the role of Jute cultivation on farmer’s livelihood and
assessed the impact of the demonstrated Jute technologies on the livelihood
of the farmers’ in West Bengal. His study revealed that demonstrated
technologies increased the fibre yield of Jute and provided an additional
surplus of Rs. 5000 per hectare to the farmers. This additional income was
utilized by the farmers with 50 per cent more than earlier on food, health
of the family members, education of children, attending social and
entertainment programs. Thus, the income arising from the disposal of
raw Jute has a significant impact upon the livelihood of farm families as
well as on their growth and development. In addition, Jute provided several
non-price advantages with various uses of plant parts other than fibre, which
were equally important to them Parthier (2007).Goyal (1990) has
1001
emphasized on its economic importance and livelihood creation at different

levels like cultivation or industrial uses etc. On the basis of above literatures
following objectives were taken for the present study.
Objectives
The main objective of the paper is to analyze the present scenario
of Jute cultivation in Assam and in order to do so the following sub objective
were taken
(i) to study the economic sustainability of the Jute growers in the
area
(ii) to highlight the constraints faced by the growers in the production
as well as marketing of raw jute in Assam
Methodology
The study is based on both primary as well as secondary data.
Secondary data were collected from books, journals and websites of
National Jute Board (NJB), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
Office of the Jute Commissioner; Ministry of Textile Government of India
(GOI) etc.The study is carried out in two agro climatic zones of Assam
viz., Central Brahmaputra Valley zone and North Bank Plains. Two districts,
one from each zone (Nagaon and Darrang) were selected purposively based
on the area under Jute acreage and volume of production. 5 Agricultural
Development Officer (ADO) circles were selected from each of the two
selected districts. 20 per cent VLEW (Village Level Extension Worker)
elaka were covered from each of the selected ADO circles. At the final
stage, 30 farmers from each of the selected VLEW elakawere interviewed
by selecting through non-probabilistic convenience sampling procedure.
Thus the total sample size becomes 600 Jute farmers for the present study.
Responses of the farmers were taken on nominal scale and likert scale
depending upon the objectives and nature of the questions.
Diagrammatic representation of sampling procedure
Agro Climatic Zones Districts ADO circles VLEW elakas Farmers
1. North Bank Plains Darrang 5ADO Circle VLEWelaka Farmers
2. Central Brahmaputra Nagaon From each 20 elaka from 30 farmers from
Valley district each circle each elaka
10 ADO 20x30 600
circles
1002
Analysis and Discussion

Table 1: Table showing state wise Jute acreage in India
Sl. No State Area (in ,000 hectare )
1 West Bengal 519
2 Bihar 113.4
3 Assam 76.4
4 Orissa 14.3
5 Meghalaya 8
6 Andhra Pradesh 5.6
7 Nagaland 3
8 Tripura 1.1
9 Uttar Pradesh 0
10 Others 1.7
Source: Office of Jute commissioner, Ministry of Textile, Government of India
Jute Cultivation in Assam

Jute Production in the State
Table 2: Raw Jute production in Assam and trends
Year Production
2005-06 603.6
2006-07 583.3
2007-08 683.7
2008-09 674.3
2009-10 638
2010-11 650.7
2011-12 795
2012-13 823
2013-14 823
2014-15 795
1003
Jute and its socio-economic impacts

Purpose of growing Jute crop:
Different scholars offer their differing views regarding the purpose
of growing Jute crop. So an attempt is made to analyze the purpose of
growing Jute crop by the farmers. The responses were given below
Table 3: Purpose of growing Jute crop by sample respondents
Sl no Reasons %
1 As it is a traditional crop of the family traditional crop 2.00
2 With the expectation of remunerative return 84.13
3 For the requirement of Jute stick 11.06
4 For the support and assistant from Jute Corporation of India/ 2.8
Government
It was found that 84 per cent of the farmers cultivate this fiber crop
with the expectation of good return i.e. to get remunerative return and cash
income in the annual crop year. Another 11 percent farmers raise this crop
because of the requirements of Jute stick, which is widely used as fuel for
cooking , thatched wall, fencing and roof of the their households.
Utilizations of Income from Jute Cultivation by the Farmers
Income from Jute farming has crucial significance among the
farmers. It has positive effect upon the growth and wellbeing of the farm
families. So analysis of the utilization pattern of Jute income is crucial to
know the economic importance of its cultivation among the farm families.
Top four areas (priority wise) where farmers utilize their Jute income in
the study area are as follows.
1004
Table 4: Utilization of income from Jute cultivation by the sample farmers

Heads Rank
Financing Rabi crops &labour payment 1
Festival requirements, travel and recreation 2
Education of the children 3
Medical treatment 4
It was observed that the income from Jute farming is mainly use
for labour payment and financing Rabi crops for the next crop season. It
acts as source of working capital for the growers for farming Rabi crops.
The other three areas where farmers spend their Jute incomes are festival
needs, education of the ward and medical treatment accordingly. The peak
time of Jute marketing is September to November for the framers. During
these seasons, the cash income arises from selling of raw Jute helps them
to meet their family’s festival needs. This phenomenon was found more
common among the Bengali farmers. The income arises from selling of
Jute is utilize for buying cloths for the children, visiting friends and relatives
etc. medical expenditure is another area where farmers utilize their Jute
income.
Asset Structure of the Household:
These are the asset structure of farm households
Table 5: Asset structure of the farm households
Asset Yes No
Bi- Cycle 86.26 13.73
Motor cycle 30.00 70.00
Electricity 77.73 22.27
Radio 7.07 82.93
TV 53.2 46.8
Mobile 82.93 17.07
Livestock 84.4 15.6
Sprayer 38 62
Water Pump 30.27 69.73
Tractor 10.67 89.33
LPG gas 20.93 79.06
Car/ truck 2 98
1005
Economic Sustainability of Jute farming

In order to analyze the economic sustainability of Jute farming an
attempt is made to analyze the cost and return structure of Jute cultivation
in Assam
Table 6: Calculation of cost of production
Heads Unit per bigha of land in Rs
Cost of seeds 350
Cost of fertilizer and pesticides 660
Preparation of land 1175
wedding 4050
cutting 3160
Carriage to retting 600
Washing and striping 1200
Cost of transportation to the market 168
Total 11363
Return per bigahs of land

Average productivity= 10.6 maund (1 Maund is equal to 40kg)
Average price obtained by farmers in the primary market = 1417
Thus the gross return = Average productivity x Average price obtained by
farmers
= 10.6x1357
= 14384-11363
Gross return from Jute farming = 3021 Rs
Constraints of the Growers
Jute is a fibre crop that requires care and nurture during initial
period of plantation. There is a general belief among the farmers that “the
more you nurture, the more is the yield of the Jute”. The market price of
the raw Jute is determined on the basis of its quality (strength and colour
etc.). The quality of the fibre again depends upon the optimum utilization
of quality inputs. Optimum use of input is controlled by two main factors
in the study area, viz., and availability of the inputs at the time of
requirement and the input cost.
1006
 Availability of Jute seeds during the time of sowing is a critical

issue faced by the growers in the region.
 Increasing prices of Jute seed is another constraint faced by the
farmers of the area. Local periodic market (Haats), fertilizer shops
of the village (nearest retail outlet) are the two major sources of
procurement of Jute seeds by 85 per cent of the surveyed farmers.
 Increasing prices of seeds often affect them and this is becoming
more common in recent years as reported by farmers. The same
phenomenon is also applicable in the case of the fertilizers.
Increasing prices of fertilizers mainly Diammonium phosphate
(DAP), Potassium chloride (MOP) and Urea often affects the
farmers. The quality of the uncertified seeds available in the haat
is also a concern, issue.
Marketing constrains include, insufficient storage space, lack of
grading knowledge, dominance of middleman etc. Storing of Jute requires
extra caution on the side of the growers particularly ensuring safety from
fire, pest and insects.
 Shortage of liquid cash compels the farmers to sell their fibre
immediately after harvest at throwaway prices. Instant cash
requirement for labour payment as well as festival needs ( Durga
and Kali Puja among Bengali farmers) forced them to sell their
produce immediately. Thus, farmers are unable to get the advantage
of the price rise during the later month of harvest (December to
April) due to weaker cash position
 Absence of storage capacity is another constraints influence the
farmers in getting remunerative return through storing their fiber.
 It was observed that there is hardly any exclusive storage facility
in terms of space and arrangement in farm households or even in
the nearest primary markets for storage of raw Jute of the area.
 Farmers are unable to recognize the grade of their produced due to
lack of scientific grading knowledge among them. As a result,
traders are taking undue advantage by disbursing average prices
by considering average grades through the process of inaccurate
eye estimation during the time of procurement. This exploitation
is more common by the traders, while procuring from farmer’s
doorstep than in the primary market. Although JCI has taken a few
measures for creating awareness among the farmers regarding
1007
accurate grading, the coverage of the scheme is low and it should

be extended to all the Jute growing areas to have maximum
coverage.
 Absence of agricultural credit is another reason that can be
attributed to this cause. Growers often face the problem of cash
shortage throughout the entire process of production. Traders are
one of the major, most convenient sources of credit for them.
Traders provide loan to the farmers at the time of harvest and collect
the amount with interest after harvest either in kind or in cash in
the interior villages of the study area. The coverage of KCC (
Kisan Credit Card) should be extended as presently, only the
progressive farmers are able to get its advantage.
 Market information or marketing intelligence is another major
problem among the farmers in the study areas. Fellow farmers or
traders are the only source of price related information for them.
Sometimes they have to rely on the same traders for knowing the
price as well as for selling. Thus, due to their ignorance, traders
are again in the advantageous position and chances of misleading
become higher in such situation.
DJP as a Viable Option
Diversified Jute Products (DJPs) are an array of non-traditional
goods produced by transforming Jute to numerous value-added products
through innovations and application of artistic skills. Diversified Jute
products produced by entrepreneurs in the decentralized sectors including
members of Self Help Groups (SHG), Non-Government Organizations
(NGO) and rural area womenfolk have acclaimed wider acceptance in the
national as well as international market. This phenomenon is reinforced
by the eco-friendly nature of the fiber as well as growing environmental
awareness among the consumers of the world.The sector has the potential
to emerge as a major industry particularly in rural areas for reducing
unemployment as well as poverty. Besides, Due to declining of demand of
the traditional Jute products, DJP can be catalyst for the Jute economy and
can be a major tool for enhancing foreign reserve. Prospect of increasing
the global demand for Jute and Jute goods largely depend on the extent of
use of Jute for diversified purposes. Thus DJP is becoming prominent
segment for rural economic transformation as well as economic growth of
the nation.
1008
Benefits of DJP to Jute Farmers

 Inducement to produce quality fibers
 Quality fibers ensures better price
 Extra source of income
DJP can play a role of catalyst for rural economic transformation,
if properly promoted in the region by considering its raw material base.
Again the industry requires lesser fixed capital and a small amount of
working capital for functioning, which is another advantageous dimension
for the backward sections of the rural area. Promoting the crafts can be a
tool for reducing poverty and unemployment in rural area of the state. The
economic benefits from the crafts will also ensure better standard of living
of the rural dwellers in the region.
Conclusion
The role of Jute cultivation in an agrarian economy like Assam is
crucial, where more than 75 per cent of the population depends on
agriculture directly as well as indirectly. It absorbs a huge amount of labour
force in rural areas of the state. Agriculture can play a vital role for growth
and development of a state like Assam, where 31.98 per cent of the
population is still living the Below Poverty Line (BPL). Jute cultivation is
environmentally significant as its cultivation process is less harmful to the
environment and it enriches the soil fertility. In the present era, due to
growing environmental awareness Jute products are getting prominence
among environment conscious consumer across the world. This brings an
opportunity for the region to emerge as a major producer of environment
friendly products, after considering the vast raw material base. In the process
of ensuring environmental sustainability, through production and use of
environment friendly products, sustainability of these fibre producers needs
considerable attention. It requires analysis and removal of grower ’s
constraints at all stages so that they are encouraged to increase acreage as
well as production. The above mentioned production constraints should
be removed and inducement should be provided to them. The constraints
concerned with marketing can be eliminated by bringing reform in the
existing marketing system. Besides, this will also accelerate the growth of
the state economy in the future.
References
Adhikary, M.M. ,Saha, D. and Biswas, S.K (2005),Jute cultivation in India; Theory and
Practices. KalyaniPublishers.New Delhi
1009
Bhaattacharya, B. (2013), Advances in Jute agronomy, processing and marketing. , Delhi:

PHI.4-5
Chapke, Rajendra, R. (2013). Role of Jute Cultivation in Farmers’ Livelihood.Indian
Research Journal Ext. Edu, 13.1, 132-136.
Debbarma, Jimi, Goswami, Sandhya and Sharma, Tarika (2015). Livelihood opportunity
through Jute cultivation in Tripura, India, International Journal of Current
Research, 7,04,14662-14665
Goyal, H.D. (1990).Indian Jute Industry, problems and Prospects. Delhi: Commonwealth
Publishers. 6-7
Pratihar, J.T. (2007). Jute, the golden fiber present status and future of Indian Jute sector,
Vanijya ; March 1-17
RahmanRezaur, A. K. M.(2008) “Jute in South Asia” Proceedings of the Symposium on
Natural Fibers n.p
Sadat, Abdul. &Chakraborty, Kaushik. (2015). Insect pest constrains of Jute and its control
by biological agents under modern Eco-Friendly sustainable production system.
international Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development . 2. 3.316-
321
Saikia , Arup Jyoti (2016), A century of Protests, Peasents Politics in Assam since 1900,
Rutledge Publishers, New Delhi
Sheheli, S .& Roy,B( 2014). Constraints and opportunities of raw jute production: a
household level analysis in Bangladesh,.Progressive Agriculture 25: 38-46, 2014
National Jute policy, (2005), Ministry of Textile, Government of India
1010
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1011-1018, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
76
Socio-Economic Condition of Indian
Sundarban: An Issue on Food Scarcity
Priyanka Pal
M.Sc Student, Bhairab Ganguly college, Kolkata
Abstract
Indian Sundarban located in the southern part of West Bengal, it
experiencing a critical vulnerable coastal location. Different extreme
climatic hazards have been occurring every year in that particular
coastal area. So that the people of that region experiencing food scarcity,
property loss at the time of extreme event. Extreme climatic events
also hamper the economic condition as well as the structure of economy
of the region. This study tries to analyse about the people’s social and
economic condition and food security of Indian Sundarban region. To
analyse all the aspects occupational structure, monthly income of those
people, government’s involvement during the extreme events are
analyzed. Frequencies of extreme events of 10 years are discussed
here. A perception study about food availability, cropping pattern,
involvement in different economic sector are also been discussed here.
This study tries to suggest some strategies and options to get rid from
those extreme weather conditions and ensure the food availability.
Keywords: Indian Sundarban, food availability, extreme weather
condition, mitigating strategies.
Introduction
Sundarbans is the largest intertidal zone located in the southern
part of West Bengal, India. It occupies a position of importance as a tourist
spot for the scenic beauty it provides and for the famous and majestic
1012
“Royal Bengal Tiger” found there. Sundarban region is enriched in terms

of flora and faunas and different types of mangroves are also present there.
Therefore, this area is very much enriched in terms of biodiversity. But,
now a days, people of Sundarban faces different problems due to climatic
changes and intensifying of the extreme weather events viz: storm surges,
tropical cyclones, rise in sea water level which create an impact upon the
food scarcity of Sundarban region. In a study by School Of Oceanography
Of Jadavpur University stated that the growth of population is another
criterion that hampers the food availability of Sundarban. People lives in
Sundarban deltaic region faces different extreme weather events. These
conditions posed a major threat to this deltaic region. Wide scale
reclamation, deforestation and unsustainable resource exploitation practices
have together produced changes in the physical, social and biological
dynamics of the coastal system.
Study Area
The Indian part of Sundarbans lies between 21°30´ N and
22°40´48˝N latitude and 88°1´48˝E and 89°04´48˝E longitude. This region
is bounded by the Hugli River on the West, Ichamoti- Kalindi -Raymongal
Rivers in the East, Dampare-Hodges line in the North and Bay of Bengal
on the South. The Sundarban covers an area of 9827 sq km; is considered
to be the largest single mangrove belt of the world. The present study
mainly focused on Gosaba, Basanti, Canning, Kultali, Kakdwip, Sagar,
Namkhana, Patharpratima, Matla, Kalashitala C.D. Blocks.
This study deals with the social problems as well as economic
problems of that area. As we know, this is a cyclone prone area, so that,
this study analyse the intensity of different cyclonic phenomena and try to
suggest some proper mitigation strategies. To pursue this study a door to
door survey has conducted. 50 household are taken as the source of primary
data. A market survey has been done in Gosaba market to analyse the
peoples need and affordability to the amenities’. Occupational structure of
the Sundarban region also been taken by the door to door survey. These
data generated through questionnaire based survey, where the random
sampling techniques applied in terms of selecting data samples. But no
study can only depend upon the primary data sources. To proceed in this
analyse the available secondary data from relevant sources are also been
collected analyse through some graphical methods.
1013

Sundarban region is become vulnerable in terms of socio-economic
condition and food availability. Food scarcities, in this region, become the
major cause that hamper the social and economic life. People of this area
mostly engaged in agricultural activity, honey collecting. But now a days
they are also associated with several other occupation viz: teaching, tourism,
businessman, and different other services etc. As the maximum populations
are engaged in cultivating people experience different problems at the time
of flood, drought and cyclonic phenomena.
Population Growth as a Consequence for Food Scarcity: Sundarban is
organized with several islands. Many of them are uninhabitable, some of
them are inaccessible. As the area is influenced by tidal activities some
islands appear and disappear on a regular basis. But, now days, population
concentration on the C.D Blocks of Sundarban has a increasing trend. In
the diagram (fig 2), Basanti C.D. Block has the highest population
concentration as it is the nodal point of Sundarban region. In Fig 3, the
graph reveals the decadal growth of population of Sundarban region.
Through analyzing the data of 60 years, we can see, the decadal growth
rate is about 3%. These kinds of growth rate hamper the food availability
as the cultivable lands are occupied for residing.
Climate change as a cause for food scarcity: climate change hamper the
food availability in a indirect way. As the temperature rising and rainfall
decreasing through the decade that create a major impact upon crop
production. It also influences the extreme weather event like cyclone, flood
and drought.
Cyclones As A Consequence for Food Scarcity: Due to the location of
Sundarban region it got affected by severe cyclonic storm surges originated
from Bay of Bengal almost 2-3 times in every year. Cyclones hit the coast
at pre monsoon and post monsoon time. Cyclones have a devastating impact
upon Sundarban region. The strong gusty wind has blown at more than 70-
80 km/hour that may caused for destruction of the area and the trees are
been uprooted. These kinds of storms surges caused for the displacement
of the houses destroy the crops and vegetables as well.
In the diagram (fig 4), it has shown that the intensity of cyclone is
increasing. By analyzing the frequency of cyclones for last 20 years it can
be say that the concentration of cyclone is increasing through decade. The
storm surges has intensifying its nature in that particular area. Fishing
activity, honey collection and agricultural activity got affected. The massive
1014
fertility loss from the agricultural land due to cyclone and flood may cause
for less crop production by which food scarcity occur. Cyclones also make
the area inaccessible for that rescue system got delayed; people experience
a bad condition with unavailability of food, water and shelter.
Flood As A Consequence for Food Scarcity: Sundarban region is include

several tidal creeks and rivers. This area influenced by tidal activity. People
are experiencing flooded conditions almost in every year. Cultivable lands
are flooded in the time of monsoon due to both heavy rainfall and tidal
activity. Cyclones also create flooded conditions in a micro scale. Due to
Flood, fertility of the agricultural land become low and that make a negative
impact upon crop production. This kind of phenomena creates food scarcity.
At the time of Aila, heavy rainfall took place, due to that there was seemed
a flooded condition. The saline water mixed up with pond water. Cultivable
lands blocked by saline water for some days at a depth of 5feet. Those
1015
conditions create a negative impact on food availability. Aila collapse the

cultivable land for 2-3 year a decrease its fertility level.
Food Availability: Urbanization reveals development, development

consume the agricultural lands so that crop production hampers. In the
year 2004, the maximum people of Sundarban are engaged in agricultural
activity. The rice production of Sundarban is 254g/capita, cereals and pulses
450g/capita, milk 250ml/person. But as the area developed road and small
industry are formed crop production getting down. These days, food scarcity
is picking up an innumerous phase. The diagram (fig 6) depicts a decreasing
trend of food availability in Sundarban region.
1016
Change in Occupation Structure

Due to several physical and social causes the occupation structure
of Sundarban region adopting a dynamic mode. People residing there, are
now engaged themselves in other occupational modes rather than
agriculture. Flooded condition, storm surges and insufficient capital and
wage formation are the main cause of this kind of dispersion.
1017
From the above diagram (fig 7, fig 8, fig 9) it can easily seemed
that the dispersion took place in between 2001-2011 at this time
globalization, introduction with technology took place. The present study
discussed about the intensity of the cyclones rather the extreme weather
events. These factors play a major role for the changing structure of
occupation of Sundarban region.
Mitigating Strategies and Agricultural Pattern: At present almost 25%
of the agricultural land in this region is multi cropped and 9% of
monocropped (rice, pulses). In winter paddy cultivation consume almost
90%. Other important crops are jute, pulses and tobacco and vegetables.
Through these cultivation technique food scarcity can be diminishes. As
the people engaged in agriculture, land distribution among the agricultural
labours may improve the crop production that could make the food
accessible. Sustainable farming or organic farming could be another
technique for mitigating the food scarcity.
Peoples’ Perceptions about Food Scarcity: people residing Sundarban is
very hardworking and they can survive from the extreme weather events.
People of this region blame the government not to take immediate steps
after the extreme weather event i.e. flood, cyclones etc. so that they are not
able to get proper foods, drinks and shelter. But some of the people accept
the governments concern about this region and the people. Government
takes proper steps to improve the livelihood of the people as soon as possible
after the extreme weather.
1018
Conclusion
Foods are the basic needs to survive in life. Food security determines the
level of poverty and peoples income. Government of India introduced
several acts associated with food scarcity. Crop production, Occupational
status and natural hazards are the main determinants to food security. The
people residing there are very hardworking and hardy in nature. In present
condition the Sundarban region enjoying an innumerous scarcity of food.
But through involving agricultural organizations a well benefitted crop
scheduled can be done. By creating a proper land utilization pattern of that
region food availability could be increased. Government should take some
initiative by introducing volunteers, campaigning to understand the people’s
perception and some Awareness plans to combat with the extreme weather
event has to introduced.
References
Mahadevia, K. and Vikas, M. Climate Change – Impact On The Sundarbans: A Case
Study, International Scientific Journal Environmental Science
Ghosh, A.K. Challenges Of Sustainability: Issue Of Food Security In The Indian Sundarbans
Swaminathan, M. S. and Bhavani, R.V. (June 9, 2011) Food production & availability -
Essential prerequisites for sustainable food security
District census handbook 2001 and 2011
Joygopalpur gram vikas Kendra, Aila, cyclone in Sunderbans
Indian institute of technology, kharagpur, hazard assessment and disaster mitigation for
west Bengal due to tropical cyclones
Chowdhury, A.N., Mondal, R., Brahma, A. and Biswas, M. K. Eco-psychiatry and
Environmental Conservation: Study from Sundarban Delta, India
Nath, R. Food Habits of Lodha Tribe of Sundarbans- Effetcs on Health and Biodiversity
Partha, P.( April 04, 2016 - 07:33) Honey Collection And Biodiversity In The Sunderbans
Mukhopadhyay, A. (2009) Cyclone Aila and the Sundarbans: An Enquiry into the Disaster
and Politics of Aid and Relief
Hazra, S., Ghosh, T., DasGupta, R. and Sen, G. (2008) Sea Level and associated changes
in the Sundarbans. School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata
700032, India. Science and Culture (ISSN 0036-8156), Vol 68, no 9-12, 2002, p
309-321
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1019-1032, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
77
Socio-Economic Profile of Rural Dimapur,
Nagaland
Geeta Kumari
University of Delhi, Delhi, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The measurement of socio-economic well-being in resource dependent
communities has generally relied on indicators that are readily available
and quantifiable such as income, unemployment, poverty, cost of living,
housing affordability, population turnover, welfare dependence. Multi-
criteria analysis has been used to show the development of different
blocks through using different socio-economic indicators. The study
is based on secondary data sources. A total of 31 indicators have been
used to analyse different socio-economic indicators such as social
indicators (including educational and health related indicators),
economic indicators (including infrastructure facilities such as roads,
electricity, water etc.) agriculture development indicators and
demographic indicators such as population, sex ratio etc. The indicators
were given weights and ranks according to their importance and then
scores were obtained. The results show that Dhansaripar block has
performed lowest among all the four blocks whereas Medziphema has
scored highest amongst all the blocks. Niuland and Kuhuboto have
made their place in the medium category.
Key Words: Socio-economic indicators, Multi-criteria index, Dimapur,
Nagaland.
Introduction
In resource-dependent communities like tribal or agricultural
communities, the dynamics of socio-economic well-being becomes an
interest for human geographers, rural sociologists and economists as well
1020
as a challenge for the government. Governments have certain perpetual

concerns about rural areas, like that of natural resource management,
including protection of the most fertile land for Agriculture and
alliedactivities or about the persistent inequalities and social imbalances
in the spatial development and its social and economic consequences thereof
(OECD, 1994).
The socio-economic well-being in resource dependent communities
is measured generally by relying on indicators that are readily available
and easily quantifiable such as household or individual income,
unemployment, poverty, cost of living, type of housing and housing
affordability, welfare dependence, and crime (Freudenburg and Wilson,
2002; Stedman et al., 2004). Much of the research, especially in resource
based communities living in a remote area with a small population, has
pointed to relatively high levels of social and economic disadvantage on
this issue (Wilson, 2004). In view of this the rural areas of Dimapur are at
receiving end compared to the town area. Natural resources dependence is
very often associated with high incomes, there is also a tendency that such
dependence is accompanied by relatively high rates of poverty,
unemployment and state sponsored welfare dependence, as well as low
levels of educational attainment (Freudenburg and Wilson, 2002). In
essence, the inequality in earnings isovershadowed by high median incomes.
It has been argued that this inequality is the result of the income gap between
those who has the ownership or management of resources like land or
forests, or those in highly specialised skilled occupations, and those
involved in least paid unskilled occupations (Lawrie et al., 2011).
Methodology
The study is based on secondary data sources. Multi-criteria
analysis has been used to show the development of different blocks through
using different socio-economic indicators. A total of 31 indicators have
been used to analyse different socio-economic indicators such as social
indicators (including educational and health related indicators), economic
indicators (including infrastructure facilities such as roads, electricity, water
etc.) agriculture development indicators and demographic indicators such
as population, sex ratio etc. (Figure 1). The indicators were given weights
and ranks according to their importance and then scores were obtained.
The results has been shown through maps as high, medium and low
categories of their condition as which block is more developed or less
developed.
1021
Figure 1. Flow chart of various indicators
Use of indicators that overlap or cover the same aspect is avoided

as they result in “double count” in the aggregate index. This fact also needs
to be appreciated that an aggregate index like composite score index may
be too broad for some audiences to arrive to a clear conclusion regarding
the meaning and implications of the index. The approach selected depends
mostly on the index’s intended purpose.
Study Area
Nagaland is situated in North eastern part of India with Kohima
being it’s capital. Dimapur is the largest town of Nagaland and also the
financial capital of Nagaland.
A large area of Dimapur district is in the plains with an average
elevation of 260 metres above the sea level. Dimapur is situated at
25o54’45"N and 93o44’30"E. Administration of Dimapur district is headed
by a Deputy Commissioner (DC) under whom there are 8 administrative
revenue circles. The present names of the administrative circles are Niuland,
Aquqhnaqua, Kuhoboto, Nihokhu, DimapurSadar, Chumukedima,
Dhansiripar and Medziphema.Dimapur has four Rural Development (RD)
blocks namely Medziphema, Dhansiripar, Niuland and Kuhuboto (Figure2).
1022
Due to technical difficulties, the boundaries of the RD Blocks cannot be

ascertained with accuracy.
*Due to technical difficulties, the boundaries of the RD Blocks could not be shown
with accuracy. Source: Census of India 2001
Figure 2. Administrative map of Dimapur
Results and Discussions

Multi-criteria index for the various indicators
Social indicators
Social indicators describe the well-being of individuals or
communities in numerical terms. Indicators are comprised of different
variables or components combined into an index. They are used to study,
describe and evaluate well-being of a community in terms of social, and
1023
economic welfare.
Educational indicators
Communitisation of elementary education is one of the achievements
of Nagaland. Communitisation of Public Institution and Services Act (2 of
2002), in fact predates the SarvaSikshaAbhiyaan (SSA) and is aimed at
accelerating the universalisation of elementary education. It was found
that the traditional structures of village councils in naga communities are
very strong in Dimapur which contributed in a big way not only in
establishment and construction of schools but they also keep a vigil on
regular attendance of both the children and the school teachers. Inspite of
strong community involvement some problems like teacher accountability,
absenteeism, appointment of proxy teachers are common, especially in
remote far flung areas (Statistics of School Education, 2011).
Under the ambitious programme of SSA and the implementation of
Right to Education Act, the state is marching towards bringing all children
in schools. Though the total habitations including villages and hamlets are
2,019 in the state, the state has so far 1,806 primary schools, of which
1,696 are independent primary schools, 109 primary schools are with upper
primary schools and in one school primary school is attached with higher
secondary schools (SSA, 2014).
The different indicators taken into consideration were literacy rate,
primary, secondary schools and higher education institutions. As far as
educational indicators are concerned, Dhansaripar is categorised low having
score less than 7. Niuland and Kuhubotofalls into medium category in the
index having score between 7 to 9. Medziphema falls into high category
having scored more than 9 (Figure 3). This indicates that the educational
facilities are better in Medziphema compared to other blocks. The
educational institutions (including primary, secondary and senior secondary
institutions) in Medziphema added to 196, highest in all the blocks.
Health related indicators
NRHM takes a ‘systems approach’ to health. It is imperative that
the officials take a holistic view and stride themselves towards putting in
place policies and systems in several such areas where there are optimal
returns on investments made under NRHM. For effective outcomes, a sector
wide implementation plan of health services would be essential (NRHM,
2013).
1024
Figure 3: Multi criteria scores for educational indicators
The different indicators taken into consideration were doctors

including staff, treated tap water, Primary Health Centre (PHC), sub centres,
family welfare centres, dispensary, birth and death registration office,
anganwadi centres. Kuhuboto tops the list having a score of 52 followed
by Dhansaripar (38, medium), Medziphema (28, low) and Niuland (28,
low) (Figure 4). There is a lot of scope for improvement in health facilities
in the blocks and National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) has increased
the scope to a great extent. Kuhoboto has the highest score because of the
fact that this area has been neglected for so long in the past that the health
indicators and infrastructure was poor. Small intervention in this place
resulted in a notable improvement in the health indicators of the villages.
Medziphema has always been having the advantage of the proximity to
Dimapur town area where the district hospital caters to all their needs.
Mapping of facilities coupled with differential planning for the
district as well as the blocks with substandard health indicators needs to
be done. Further targeted investments should be done and it should be
taken care that the resources not to be spread too thin. Quality assurance in
1025
delivery points like Primary Health Centre (PHC), Community Health

Centre (CHC), sub centres and the district hospital should be the emphasis
in the district.
Figure 4: Multi criteria scores for health indicators
Planning for enhanced supply of nurses, Auxiliary Nurse Midwife

(ANM), doctors, , and paramedical staff coupled with mandatory rural
postings of young doctors after MBBS and Post- Graduation (PG) can be
a good step in the positive direction (NRHM, 2015).
Demographic indicators
The indicators taken for demography were rural and urban
population, sex-ratio, sex-ratio (0-6) and workforce participation rate. The
demographic indicators are high in the Niulandblock (84) with overall
score more than 75. Medziphema and Dhansaripar blocks are falling into
the medium categories having scores of 72 and 66 respectively. Kuhuboto
block is lagging behind when it comes to the demographic indicators and
it has the minimum score amongst all the blocks. Kuhuboto has scored 60
1026
which falls into the low category on the scale for multi criteria index (Figure
5). The reason for such underdevelopment is the fact that Kuhuboto block
falls under Disturbed Area Belt (DAB) where development has been the
least. Further the demographic indicators are results of long term
interventions which means that if the government starts intervening now,
the results will be on the table after few years.
Figure 5: Multi-criteria score index for demographic indicators in Dimapur
Economic indicators
Infrastructure facilities
The infrastructure facilities are also categorised into high, medium
and low categories applying multi criteria index. The indicators taken to
calculate the multi criteria score index were road connectivity to village,
post-office, P.D.S. shops (in nos.), telephone density and market (weekly
haat in nos.). On the basis of these indicators, the score was calculated and
Medziphema and Kuhuboto scored highest (score 45 each) and were
categorised as the blocks having high infrastructure indicators. Dhansaripar
with a score of 42 got place in medium category in infrastructure whereas
1027
Niuland scored lowest (30) in these indicators (Figure 6). Medziphema

has scored highest because of the fact that it has been near to the town and
also it is on the national highway where connectivity has made wonders.
On the other hand, Kuhuboto has also been placed highest because of the
fact that it was historically neglected being situated in the DAB area where
development has been minimum. But now the government has taken note
of this that people cannot be made to suffer on some dispute and has now
started to put things in proper place.
Figure 6: Multi criteria scores for infrastructure indicators
Sectoral employment
The sectoral employment was calculated by way of multi criteria
score index for all the four blocks in Dimapur district. The indicators for
the calculations were cultivators, agricultural labourers, household
labourers and other workers. On the basis of the score calculated,
Medziphema scored highest score of 65 and fall into the high category in
the index thus indicating high workforce participation followed by
Dhansaripar and Kuhuboto blocks which are having a medium score.
1028
Niuland lags behind in workforce participation and scored the lowest

making it in the low category (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Multi criteria scores for sectoral employment indicators
The number of cultivators is least in Medziphema (19.62 per cent)

and is highest in Niuland (52.04 per cent) for the 2011 census. This can be
attributed to the fact that the Medziphema block being ahead in health and
education indicators as well as strategically well located has the advantage
of supplying skilled labour to the Dimapur town. This assertion is also
supported from the fact that the number of other workers which includes
service and other sector jobs is highest in the Medziphema block (68.57
per cent). Dhansaripar and Kuhuboto also have a fair good percentage of
other workers in the workforce 47.67 and 47.98 per cent respectively (Figure
8).
1029
Source: Census of India, 2011

Figure 8 Workforce composition of the RD blocks
Agricultural development indicators

Agriculture is still the backbone of the economy of Dimapur and a
major part of population is dependent upon agriculture and allied activities
to earn their livelihoods. Agricultural development indicators were selected
for the district to analyse the scenario of agriculture in the RD blocks in
Dimapur. The indicators chosen were total irrigated area, total cultivated
area, agricultural credit societies, fertilizer use and main markets or mandis
controlled by Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) or like
bodies. On the basis of the score calculated by the multi criteria method,
both Dhansaripar and Kuhuboto scored less than 40 and hence were placed
in low category. On the other side Medziphema (64) and Niuland (60)
scored well and both these blocks were categorised as high agricultural
development blocks. Both these blocks scored more than 50 score on the
index (Figure 9). In this calculation, there was no block making its place in
the medium category. This shows that either there is too much focus on
agriculture in some part or there is no focus at all in this sector. But by no
stretch of imagination this sector can be lefton its own fate when so many
lives are associated with this sector.
1030
Figure 9: Multi criteria scores for agricultural development indicators
Composite score for all indicators

Composite score for all the six major indicators is calculated by
adding the numbers and then dividing the score into high, medium and
low category. A score below 245 is considered low category, a score between
245 and 280 is considered medium category and any score higher than 280
is considered high category. Following this index, Dhansaripar block (244)
has performed lowest among all the four blocks whereas Medziphema (284)
has scored highest amongst all the blocks. Niuland (246) and Kuhuboto
(250) have made their place in the medium category (Figure 10). This
composite score can be a useful insight for the development of these blocks
and it will be a handy tool for policymakers, farmers, businesses and civil
society to better understand current conditions of these blocks.
1031
Figure 10: Multi criteria composite scores of all indicators
Conclusion
This work on socio-economic indicators provides data on
education, gender, amenities, employment and other economic indicators.
These indicators for the district can help in identifying the linkages between
socio-economic conditions of the communities and achievement of
sustainable livelihood goals in different areas of human development.
Amongst the researchers a consensus is emerging that the livelihood
security and well-being of rural households improves with the
diversification resulted from mixing of various non-farm activities with
farm activities and such resilient diversification of rural livelihood
positively impacts the household income and farm efficiency. Better
education and proper training is essential for sustainable livelihoods and
competitiveness of the rural economy. The commutation of people from
rural areas to urban neighbourhood for work and jobs resulting inmoney
flow from urban to rural add to the new and wider dimensions of livelihood
diversification. Livelihood diversification in terms of employment, income
1032
generation and labour force participation can be easily derived from these
results indicating the improvement in the socio economic fabric of the
area.
The composite scores thus derived have helped to come to an
understanding about the socio economic scenario of the study area and
these findings along with the livelihood strategies will be a guiding light
for the policy implementers and researchers in order to achieve the overall
development of the district with felt need interventions at the right place
and at right time.
References
Census, of India, (2001) Census2001. http://www.census2001.co.in/census/state/nagaland. html
[Accessed on 14 April 2016].
Census of India (2011) District Handbook of Dimapur, Government of Nagaland.
Freudenburg, W.R. and Wilson, L.J. (2002) Mining the Data: Analysing the Economic
Implications of Mining for Non-Metropolitan Regions, Sociological Inquiry 72,
549-575.
Lawrie, M., Tonts, M., and Plummer, P. (2011) Boomtowns, Resource Dependence and
Socio-economic Well-being, Australian Geographer, 42:2, 139-164.
NRHM (2013) National Rural Health Mission, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Approval of State Program Implementation Plan 2012-13; Nagaland.http://
nagahealth.nic.in/ROP/Nagaland%20ROP%202012-13l.pdf[Accessed 27 Jan
2016]
NRHM (2015) National Rural Health Mission, http://nrhm.gov.in/nrhm-in-state/state-wise-
information/nagaland.html#state_profile[Accessed 28 Jan 2016].
OECD (1994) Territorial Indicators of Employment: Focusing on Rural Development
(Paris: OECD). http//: www.oecd.org/findDocument/[Accessed 27 Jan. 2016].
Statistics of School Education (2011) Ministry of Human Resource Development; Bureau
of Planning, Monitoring and Statistics; Government of India. http://mhrd.gov.in/
sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics/SSE1112.pdf[Accessed 30 Jan 2016].
SSA (2014) SarvaShikshaAbhiyan, 19th Joint Review Mission, State Report: Nagaland
http://ssa.nic.in/monitoring-documents_old/jrm/19th-jrm/state/Nagaland.pdf
[Accessed 24 Jan 2016].
Stedman, R., Parkins, J. and Beckley, T. (2004) Resource Dependence and Community
Well-Being in Rural Canada, Rural Sociology 69, 213-234.
Wilson, L.J. (2004) Riding the Resource Roller Coaster: Understanding Socioeconomic
Differences between Mining Communities, Rural Sociology 69, 261-281.
Section 3:
(Theme: Multi-Disciplinary
Studies)
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1033-1043, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
78
Finding Common Ground:
Interdisciplinary Narrative Sharing As A
Way Forward for Human and
Environmental Sustainability
Kathryn C. Smith, MDV, DMin
Andrew Riverside Presbyterian Church (PCUSA)
Abstract
A theological or spiritual perspective, including a claim to atheism,
effects an individual’s world view and engagement with other human
beings, plants, animals and natural resources. How human beings
understand themselves in the world is both reflected in and shaped by
this spiritual perspective or ethic. Theists, agnostics and atheists alike
form cultural identities effecting their interactions with natural
resources and neighbors who may or may not share their perspective
or ethic.
How can individuals and communities work across divisions and
differences of opinion that are deeply rooted in cultural identity and
worldview?
In this paper, the practices of observation, interaction, flexibility and
responsiveness - present in both permaculture design and contextually
based theologies - are explored as a potential interdisciplinary
partnership that can promote full and meaningful human life in
community. This paper does not propose a single solution or dogmatic
set of principles. Rather, this paper will explore how to discover
collaborative potential and find common ground between diverse
1034
groups of people.
As global climate changes, biodiversity continues to be threatened,
environmental damage is exacerbated, local and global economies fail
and natural resource depletion continues to effect individuals and
communities, human thriving will require contextually based strategies
and collective solutions. Finding common ground for conversation
and deliberation is foundational for addressing the basic human needs
of food, clothing and shelter.]
Introduction
Cultivation practices have close and historic links to traditional
cultures, local calendars, celebrations, labor patterns and other people-
centered dimensions. Inducing changes in cultivation practices are likely
to influence and possibly threaten traditional belief systems, social and
economic relations, and livelihoods (Eckman and Ralte, eds., 2015).
Religion and science are two contending sources of the creation
stories by which we humans define ourselves, our moral codes, and the
meaning of our existence. Since the beginning of the scientific revolution,
religion and science have been engaged in a competition to be the exclusive
purveyors and interpreters of the reigning creation story of modern life.
Each of these establishments has allowed the more dogmatic extremists
within its ranks to define its story in terms that emphasize the contrast
between its own position and that of the contending party (Korten, 2006).
How does an American Presbyterian church pastor and theologian
contribute to an agricultural conference in Mizoram, India? Finding
common ground need not be as difficult as it might first appear. Setting
aside preconceived, culturally based notions of a scientific and religious/
spiritual divide is the first step for a good interdisciplinary conversation.
The goal of this paper is twofold: 1) to explore the potential for dialogue,
discovery of wisdom and strategies for mutual learning outside one’s own
discipline and 2) to tell the story of one small congregation in Minnesota,
Andrew Riverside (AR) experimenting with a new model of local church.
For the purposes of this paper the AR model is called: Church as
Permaculture. The church draws insights from the language and work of
permaculture tools. Noting similar understandings and commitments within
permaculture, AR participants actively seek to understand the relationship
between congregation and context, embracing interdisciplinary interaction
as means of finding common ground in an increasingly ecologically
threatened and socially divided postmodern world.
1035
Key Words
Culture - “Culture is the system of customary beliefs, values, perceptions,
and social relations that encodes the shared learning of a particular human
group essential to its orderly social function.” (Korten, 2006,).
Permaculture -”Permaculture is a philosophy of working with, rather than
against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than
protracted and thoughtless action; of looking at systems in all their functions
rather than asking only one yield of them and of allowing systems to
demonstrate their own evolutions” (Mollison, 2017). “Consciously designed
landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature,
while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of
local needs. People, their buildings and the ways in which they organize
themselves are central to permaculture. Thus the permaculture vision of
permanent or sustainable agriculture has evolved to one of permanent or
sustainable culture” (Holmgren, 2017).
Theology - The study of religious and/or spiritual questions, specifically
questions of 1) the divine; 2) human search for meaning and purpose; and
3) the relationship of human beings to the natural world. Related to the
study of theology in this paper is the study of these questions without
religious referents.
Spirituality - A recognition of spirit, broadly encompassing a sense of
human self in the world that serves to connect the human being with a
sense of belonging and relationship beyond the self. Spirituality
encompasses a religious perspective, a sense of connection to the natural
world and an awareness of human culture that informs human life and
systemic organization.
Brief Description of Andrew Riverside
AR is a congregation of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). The
current congregation represents a merger of two previous congregations
(Andrew Presbyterian and Riverside Chapel) in 1968. AR is a welcoming
intergenerational community that values listening and learning. Diverse
voices reflect multiple generations, cultures, nationalities, socioeconomic
differences, and traditions in spirituality and worship. The congregation
has existed on the corner of Fourth Street and Eighth Avenue southeast in
Minneapolis since the 1850s. The original gothic structure made of native
blue limestone partially collapsed in 2001. Following more than a decade
of negotiation and planning the land was sold to a housing developer. A
new apartment building was erected on the site with the contingency that
1036
the congregation would remain in a portion of the new building thereby

maintaining a connection to its historic location. In 2013 the congregation
moved into five thousand square feet within the apartment building that
houses students fromthe University of Minnesota. The store front space
allows dynamic communal use of congregationalspace. In any given week
visitors might find the worship services of three different congregational
communities, Brazilian jiu jitsu classes, yoga classes, theatre productions,
workshops, and an infant daycare center.
AR is a diverse Christian community of Presbyterian origin. After
the building collapse in 2001, AR lacked a permanent location for more
than a decade. Meeting at the local YMCA, the congregation struggled to
maintain a sense of identity and purpose. More than half of the membership
departed. AR is now smaller, more efficient and flexible in a space designed
for multiple uses. Following the move to new space the congregation
struggled with the change. Who were they without their beautiful, historic
building? A desire to use the new space well was crippled by an inability
to imagine how to do so. As one woman commented, “We know the space
has potential. We just don’t know what to do with it!”
Collaboration and Cooperation
Three years later the congregation is being shaped by its space
through new partnerships and initiatives. The flexibility of the space invites
flexibility into AR’s sense of identity and work. The community has a
multi-layered, multi-focused identity that includes the historic Presbyterian
tradition, partnerships with Faith Pentecostal Church, (an African American
congregation), Midtown Company, (a missional community dedicated to
promoting social capital and training leaders), Learning to Grow Academy,
(an infant child care center), Southside Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Academy, (a
martial arts academy and training center), an Intentional Community House
for students, and Gospel Life Church, (a new evangelical church planting
team). These groups form the long term partnerships, supplemented by
short term partnerships with theater groups, artists, musicians, yoga classes
and other special events. Partnerships enable sharing of space and costs
benefiting all participants and the neighborhood.
The practices of collaboration and cooperation center in a
broadened definition of church. The congregation is leaning into the idea
that, “Church is everywhere if we allow it to be, because God is
everywhere.” New partnerships and collaborations are entered into
confidently, yet formed tentatively, meaning that they are confirmed over
time around areas of relationship and agreement. Agreements are not
1037
contracts, but cultivated relationships inviting a communal, spiritual

conversation without a “churchy” veneer. At AR individuals and groups
are invited to bring their gifts and talents to create something new for the
good of the community. Potential partners are not asked to become
Presbyterian or Christian. Each individual or partner is invited to share
their own spirituality, whatever that may be, without judgment.
In this new model, where collaboration and cooperation are highly
valued, teaching does not come without learning, baptism is a communal
experience of being “washed” in the life and perspective of another and
discipleship is less about conversion and more about investigating how
life is lived and what is valued. This is a form of reclaiming of what
Christians call the Great Commission (Mt. 28:16-20) in a postmodern age.
The congregation is reclaiming a central characteristic, reinterpreting it in
the current context. Change is embraced as a reciprocal process as the
congregational community and the partnerships encounter one another.
Contextual Theology and Permaculture
Contextual theology is a culturally informed and engaged theology
that considers circumstances and location as central to theological identity
and articulation. Contextual theology seeks to bring the stories and gifts of
the community’s spiritual identity together with the stories and needs of
the surrounding people and location. A contextually sensitive theology
observes and responds to the realities of the people. Much as contextual
theology is an awareness of place and people, permaculture is also an
awareness of place and people. Permaculture and contextual theology share
practices (observation, interaction, flexibility and responsiveness).
A contextually based theology encourages deep reflective
conversation, active experience and continual reassessment, for the purpose
of benefiting communal systems that share proximity and resources. Similar
to the interactive focus of a permaculture approach, AR is experimenting
with a spiritual practice that comprehends itself within a larger context of
equal systems, some overtly committed to traditional faith expressions and
some not. This model is a form of topophilia, a love of place that embraces
an understanding of itself within larger systems.
From earliest times we have known, if we were willing to know,
having learned by experience and example, that when people are
disconnected from their land they suffer. But that is only half the truth.
The other half is that when its rightful people, the people who rightfully
care for it, are absent from it, the land suffers. It is the mutual, indivisible
1038
suffering of land and people that sets in right perspective the suffering of
either (Berry, 2015).
When the congregation moved into its new space at its old location,
a new kinship and affinity began to form for the place. The traditional
work of the church (worship, mission, education) is part of a larger network
of programs and services through its partners. Drawing from permaculture
practices of observation and interaction AR does not ask, “How is this
new idea or program ‘church’?” Instead the congregation asks the potential
partner, “Help us to understand where love is present in your work and
how we can collaborate and cooperate with you in that work.” Rather than
asking, “How do you fit into what we are doing at the church?” The question
becomes, “How can we as the church support you in bringing your gifts
and talents to the world?” Permaculture invites a human affiliation with
place. AR is inviting new partners into its affinity for place and the people
who live there.
Storytelling: Identity Forging in Common and Shared Use Space
Working across divisions and differences of opinion that are deeply
rooted in cultural identity, worldview and experience, the sharing of life
stories and experiences is an essential method and characteristic of the
congregational communityand its partners.Spiritual growth and
development are fostered in a dialogical style formed in relationship.
Storytelling invites listeners into a moment of shared experience, inviting
questions and establishing a shared imaginative experience, retelling a
unique perspective different from one’s own. Through storytelling the
community’s history and meaning are interpreted shaping a common core
of identity through interaction.
Like a permaculture landscape constantly responding to change,
the appearance and formation of the community is unique at every gathering
of the congregation or its partners. Personal stories break down barriers,
foster understanding, cultivate community and connect individuals.
Storytelling is a method for overcoming the alienation that many people
experience as part of their everyday lives in an urban, postmodern context.
As shared experiences occur in community, storytelling becomes communal
narrative. Storytelling has discovery and relationship as its goal, inviting
and developing human connection. Narrative then forms a structure and
method for interpretation of the community’s stories. Developed over time
through shared experiences and values narrative uses the community’s
stories to shape a communal identity.
1039
Narratives are powerful tools for shaping community and can be

vulnerable to manipulation (used for a purpose), formalization (forming
structures and methodologies for interpretation), and formula-zation
(conventionalizing a particular perspective). AR’s narrative is an organic
and dynamic entity shaped as individuals and partners enter and leave.
Diverse perspectives are present, encouraged and welcomed. There is no
assumption that participants share a worldview. The practice of the
communal narrative takes care to identify a speaker sharing personal story
(“I” statements) and when the narrative reflects communal commitments
(“We” statements). At AR asking questions is an essential part of ongoing
identity forging. The practice of storytelling serves to connect past and
present, congregation and partners, church and wider community.
Storytelling as Permaculture Practice
Reflecting on the importance of storytelling a Minnesota
permaculturist observed that interpretation is integral to permaculture.
Interactive land use management understands that paradigms are not
universal. Interpretation of the story is as important as the story. When
storytelling is used as an exploratory form of reciprocal teaching and
learning, individuals and communities cultivate the ability to interpret,
learn and grow in ways that are most helpful to their setting or landscape.
Permaculture describes a new method of thinking that is interactive and
observational. The ecosystem must be part of a larger considered dialogue
with the people, culture and goals of a community, sometimes multiple
communities.
Rather than “teaching stories” AR allows stories to be teachers.
This is an inductive method of learning that values all voices and
experiences, trusting the wisdom of communities. Communal learning trusts
in the teaching power of story and the wisdom of those untrained by
institutions. As those who have received teaching interpret sacred text and
personal story new vitality enters the community. The history and tradition
of the congregation are brought into conversation with the lives of those in
the wider community. As new voices and experiences emerge, they promote
new conversations, experimentation, and most importantly failure.
Failure is important to permaculture practice. As human beings
observe the landscape failure is a necessary part of interaction. When
individuals and communities are taught to fail within the structure and
practices a ease and confidence to consider new opportunities grows.
However, learning to fail is not easily accepted in an American success
oriented culture nor within a triumphalist view of spiritual practice.
1040
Acceptance of failure at AR continues to challenge some participants’

understanding of what it means to be church. To address the discomfort
some have with new initiatives and failures a form of deep contemplative
listening is practiced.
Sharing Stories and Contemplative Listening
Deep listening is practiced as a compassionate, spiritual resting
place. Emptying the heart makes compassion for the other’s story the top
priority of the time and space. When the “I” in me is able to practice deep
listening, the “You” becomes a real encounter of person to person rather
than person to problem or person to argument. In deep listening one person
relates to the other with focused attention, and ideally with uninterrupted
silence conveying to speaker: “I see you. I hear you. I am with you. Tell me
your story.”
Permaculture values new modes of operation to carry out best ideas
and practices. Holding those practices and ideas (and commitment to their
success) loosely enough to respond to changing landscape needs and new
information means flexibility is important. Similarly, a safe space for deep
listening allows exploration and vulnerability for sharing life. As individuals
make distinctions between what needs to be carried loosely and what needs
to be carried tightly, the possibility of imagining alternative ways of thinking
and being, begin to emerge. Permaculture practices encourage new ideas
and experimenting with and on the land. The church as permaculture
encourages awareness of self, others and God through deep listening
practices, fostering imaginative new worlds and alternative opportunities
for caring of people and place.
Vulnerability and Trust
At AR personal storytelling is encouraged as a way of learning
about God, others and self. Telling and retelling stories of the sacred text,
interpreting and re-interpreting, the community recognizes that reading
and hearing the text is filtered through personal history and life experience.
There is no objective view of faith and life. Understanding comes through
lenses of paradigm and culture reflected in life experience. As the monk,
Meister Eckhart suggested, “All the names we give to God come from an
understanding of ourselves.” (Fox, 2006).
Practicing vulnerability becomes a way for individuals and
community to connect personal experience to the questions and themes
raised and reflected upon in spiritual conversation. Vulnerability in
storytelling removes obstacles and restraints which develop and subvert
1041
new exploration of the narrative. Permaculture also trusts the practice of

vulnerability as a way of observing and responding to the changing
landscape and allowing its natural development.
But what happens when storytelling is skewed or distorted in ways
that can do harm? While the potential for manipulation or even emotional
control is acknowledged where personal storytelling is valued, it must be
noted that a lack of personal storytelling in the church’s past has been no
guarantee that these will be avoided.The threat of manipulation or control
are partially addressed at AR by inclusion ofthe sacred text to balance or
correct. Though corrective is rare at AR, it is used, for example if a story is
told using “We” statements when “I” is more appropriate; when
interpretation of sacred text is asserted as normative; when a voice is quoted
as definitive on a subject under discussion; or when narrative identity is
asserted without contextual influence.
The cultivation of vulnerability in community encourages
individuals to wade into two kinds of experiences that seem unrelated.
Vulnerability invites participants into the experience of susceptibility (the
capacity to be affected emotionally) and the experience of liability (the
capacity to take responsibility for self and actions). Becoming vulnerable
with one another is a congregational work that contributes to the wider
communityby inviting a br oad conversation about knowledge
andexperience and their effect on interrelated systems. This work requires
a creative, flexible and trusting atmosphere. This interactive approach
invites participants and communities to build relationships and find
common ground for work and identity.
“Perhaps the best argument for changing the structures of
Protestantism is that the present form of the Church seems unable to speak
to the outsider, or to vitally involve those who are already on the ‘inside,’”
(Rose, 1966). Because the agreement of the community is grounded in
each individual taking responsibility for his/her own faith development, a
firm set of rules for corporate identity is resisted. Spiritual identity is like
an endoskeleton rather than an exoskeleton. There is an inherent
vulnerability and risk in this way of being together. Without a rigid set of
rules, vulnerability and maturity both individually and collectively, are
necessary to grow together. A firm set of rules allows an individual or
community to “feel right.” A more flexible way of gathering as a community
demands a continuous discovery together of what is best.
1042
Conclusion
Cropping cycles are closely tied to cultural and religious festivals,
meaning that attempts to dissuade people from shifting cultivation will
have profound and likely distressing cultural impacts (Eckman and Ralte,
2015).
But to quit expecting the help we need from government bureaus,
university administrations, and the like will give us back the use of our
own minds (Berry, 2015).
When AR lost its beloved historic building the congregation was
forced to examine its identity and purpose. Recognizing the provisional
nature of the human theological task and being forced to push into the
“whys?” behind congregational practice, AR has begun to lean into a
permaculture style of community, inviting partners to join in work that
benefits the neighborhood landscape they share. The community of AR
assumes that God is present and engaged with the world, therefore its
practice is to remove obstacles to the full participation of partners in the
life and work of the congregation, inviting others to join in the good and
good news that is made possible through collaboration, cooperation and
imaginative creation.
Human institutions are designed to instruct, organize and provide
structure for human communities. Over time institutions tend to become
entrenched in their own identity, holding more tightly to structure and
becoming less effective, acting as organizational exoskeletons rather than
as endoskeletons from which vulnerable humans can flexibly learn, observe,
respond and act. The congregation of AR, like so many representatives of
institution, is attempting to discover a new sustainability in a rapidly
changing context and wider world. Every aspect of life provides the raw
material for spiritual exploration. Using the practices of observation,
interaction, flexibility and responsiveness, AR is working to remove the
obstacles that stand in the way of theist, agnostic and atheist working
together. In a time of extremism, AR is attempting to connect people through
a common love and concern for a place inviting an effective way for all to
remain in conversation by, “Reaching out across institutional lines,…joining
forces to challenge the partial stories of their respective traditions and to
construct and communicate a more complete and factually grounded
contemporary story that reads on the accumulated knowledge and
experience of the species”(Korten, 2006).
1043
References
Behar, Ruth. (1996). The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart,
Beacon Press, Boston.
Beery, Thomas, Jonsson, K. Ingemar and Elmberg, Johan. (2015). From Environmental
Connectedness to Sustainable Futures: Topophilia and Human Affiliation with
Nature. Sustainability. [online] Available at: <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/
7/7/8837/htm> [Accessed: 8 June, 2017].
Berry, Thomas. (1999). The Great Work: Our Way into the Future. Bell Tower, New York.
Berry, Wendell. (2015). Our Only World: Ten Essays. Counterpoint, Berkeley, P.111, P.
63.
Eckman, Karlyn and Ralte, Laltanpuii, eds. (2015). Integrated Land Use Management in
the Eastern Himalayas, Vol. 1. Akansha, Delhi, P.10.
Eckman, Karlyn and Ralte, Laltanpuii, eds. (2016). Integrated Land Use Management in
the Eastern Himalayas, Vol. 2. Delhi: Akansha, Delhi, P.12.
Fox, Matthew. (2006). A New Reformation: Creation Spirituality and the Transformation
of Christianity. Inner .Traditions, Rochester, Vermont, P. 105.
Friedersdorg, Conor. (2017). How People Like You Fuel Extremism.The Atlantic.[online]
Available at: <https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/together-
people-like-you-fuel-extremism/531702/?utm_source=fbb> [Accessed: 26 June
2017].
Holmgren Design: Permaculture and Innovation. (2017). [online] Available at: The Origin
of Permaculture <https://www.holmgren.com.au/about-permaculture/> [Accessed
2 May, 2017].
Jantzen, Grace M. (1999). Becoming Divine: Towards a Feminist Philosophy of Religion.
Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana P.
Korten, David. (2006). The Great Turning: From Empire to Earth Community, Berrett-
Koehler, San Francisco P. 266, P. 85, P.126.
Permaculture. (2017). Definitions. [online]. Available from: <http://www.permaculture.net/
about/definitions.html>[Accessed: 2 May, 2017].
Rose, Stephen C. (1966). The Grass Roots Church: A Manifesto for Protestant Renewal.
Abingdon, Nashville, TN P. 49.
Sedmak, Clemens. (1970) Doing Local Theology: A Guide for Artisans of a New Humanity.
Orbis, Maryknoll, NY.
1044
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1045-1054, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
79
Physio-Chemical Analysis of Potable
Water in the Vicinity of Aizawl, Mizoram
M. Lalruatfeli*, Shiva Kumar1, B. Lalhriatpuii2 & John Blick2
Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
The quality of water sources are highly polluted with different harmful
contaminants due to increase human population, use of fertilizers,
pesticides, manures, anthropogenic activities etc. For mankind,
knowledge of quality of potable water is vital and is directly linked
with human warfare. The present study focused on the Physico-
chemical characterization of sub-surface water during rainy season in
2017. Water samples from Tuikhurs at various locations in the area
were collected and analyzed. Total Iron content was measured by using
the Water testing kit and for pH, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids and
Electrical Conductivity values, digital instruments were used. Nitrate
concentration was done by uv-spectrophotometric method. Total
Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Chloride, Total Alkalinity and
Sulphate were analyzed by titrimetric method. Bicarbonate (HCO 3-)
determination was carried out using acid titration. For anion and cation,
piper and ternary diagrams are plotted in order to classify the facies
and water belongs to Ca-Na-HCO3 type. The results revealed that all
of these water samples were well within the permissible limits
established by World Health Organization and Bureau of Indian
Standards and hence suitable for drinking purposes. However,
magnesium contents at few sites are found exceeding the permissible
value of 30 mg/l.
Key words: hardness; physico-chemical parameters; piper tri-linear
diagram; ternary diagram; Standard levels.
1046
Introduction
Water is the most essential element, next to air, to the survival of
living things. Water makes up more than two thirds of the weight of the
human body and there is many importance of water in our life to complete
daily life and to maintain our body health. The purpose of the present
work is to study various physic-chemical qualities by following the
recommendations of World Health Organization (WHO) and Bureau of
Indian Standard (BIS) in order to test whether the selected springs
(Tuikhurs) are safe enough to be used as potable water resources.
Potable water is water which is fit for consumption by humans
and other animals. Water may be naturally potable, as the case with pristine
springs, or it may need to treat in order to be safe. In either case, the safety
of water is assessed with tests which look for potentially harmful
contaminants.
There could be many sources of groundwater contamination. Poor
quality of water adversely affects the plant growth and human health (US
Salinity 1954; Todd 1980; BIS 2012; WHO 2003; Hem 1991; Karanth
2001; Singh et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2009, 2011). Fertilizers containing
nitrogen, cattle feeding operations, sewage that enter to the ground, water
from septic tanks, irrigated waste water and cultivation of soil introduce
nitrate (NO3-), and ammonium (NH4+) contaminants to the sources of potable
water. Other inorganic species such as Ca, Mg, Na, HCO3-, HS-, CO32-,
H2 CO 3, Cl- and F - are major contributors to the overall salinity of
groundwater; high concentrations of these species make water unfit for
human consumption and for many industrial uses. (Dominico 1998).
Study area
Aizawl is a bustling town in the remote northeast part of India
with an area of 3576 square kilometers. The study area falls within toposheet
number 84 A/10 and 84 A/14 as shown in figure 2. The district is bounded
on the north by Kolasib district, on the west by Mamit district, on the
south by Serchhip district and on the east by Champhai district. It is
positioned at an altitude of 1,132 meters above the sea level; it perches
precariously on the steep slope of sharp ridge, straddling the watershed
between Tlawng and Tuirial river valleys. The general geology is
represented by a repetitive succession of Neogene arenaceous and
argillaceous sediments which were later thrown into a series of
approximately NS trending, longitudinal plunging anticlines and synclines
impart a characteristic topographic expression to the study area. The
1047
samples were collected from selected springs of different location within

the city Kulikawn, Saikhamakawn, Salem veng, Sakawrtuichhun, and
Tuivamit respectively.
Fig.1 Location of Aizawl District.
Fig.2 Aizawl map.

1048
The main source of water for domestic use within the township is
through the supply maintained by Public Health Engineering Department,
Government of Mizoram. The department procures water from Tlawng
River. Different plans for Aizawl city have been prepared from time to
time to maintain a consistency in supply of potable water yet a good chunk
of population is still dependent on alternate sources such as hand pumps,
rain water and Tuikhurs. Considering the population of the city the number
of hand pumps is negligible and rainwater is available only during rainy
season. During post monsoon and pre monsoon seasons, when the other
alternative sources are not accessible, heavy pressure shifts to the springs
most of which are perennial in nature. The Tuikhurs are much susceptible
to alteration of water quality by natural and anthropogenic activities.
Methods and Material
Samples were collected from selected location within Aizawl city,
Mizoram, India (Fig. 1) during rainy (monsoon) season. These were taken
for detailed hydrological and hydro geochemical investigations. All of the
10 samples are from Tuikhurs. Sampling was done accordingly to the
recommendations of the APHA, AWWA and WEF. Water samples were
collected in a wide mouth bottle (tarson bottle), and then washed with
distilled water and again rinsed with representative water samples.
Analysation was performed in situ to find out the physico-chemical
properties like pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical
conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), total chlorides (TC), total iron
(Fe), free chlorine (FC), nitrate and arsenic. Digital instruments made by
‘Eutech Instruments’ were used to test pH, total dissolved solids and
electrical conductivity. Total hardness, total chlorides, total iron, total
chlorine and nitrate were measured using the water testing kit made by
Transchem Agri-tech Limited. Turbidity values of the samples were
measured using the Digital Nephelo Turbidity Meter-132 (systronics) using
formazine as standard.
Results & Discussion
The results of various physic-chemical analyses are summarized
in Table 1 and 2. Geographic coordinates of samples that were collected
from different sources were determined using a GPS. A ternary cation
diagram of sub-surface water and groundwater are mainly dominated by
the sum of potassium and sodium. It can be observed that clustering for
calcium and magnesium has been found to fall between 42% to 70% and
15% to 38% respectively whereas sodium and potassium together contribute
19% to 45% to the total cations (Fig. 3, 4). Bicarbonate ion is the main
1049
dominant anion in both sub-surface and groundwater contributing over

72% to the total anions (Fig. 4, 5).
In the present study, both sub-surface (GW) water and groundwater (GW)
are dominated by Na>Ca>Mg>K except in some samples where Na is
replaced by Ca in cationic abundance. The order of abundance in anionic
chemistry is HCO3>Cl>SO4>NO3. The plots of chemical data on trilinear
diagram reveal that majority sub-surface and groundwater samples fall in
the field of 1 suggesting that alkaline earths exceed alkalies, and weak
acids exceed strong acids respectively. Thus, the total hydrochemistry of
sub- surface water in the area under study is dominated by alkaline earths
and weak acids. Chloride and sulphate do not exceed bicarbonate in any of
the samples. Most of sub- surface waters and groundwater in the study
area occur as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium is
sometimes replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies (Fig.
5).
Fig. 3 Ternary diagram for cation compositions.
Fig.4 Ternary diagram for anion compositions

1050
Fig. 5 Piper tri-linear diagram.
From the generated data, the pH in the samples ranges from 6 to

7.45 (Fig. 8) which are found well within prescribe limit for the quality of
drinking water as specified by BIS 2012. The pH value of 7.0 is considered
to be advisable and ideal for the human being (Santhi 2012). The weight
of the residue consisting as dissolved ions that are left behind after all the
water from a water sample is evaporated is a measure of the TDS and it
reflects the general nature of the groundwater quality and extent of
contamination ( Davis and de Wiest 1966; AWWA 2005). The BIS
specification limit (BIS IS 105001983) for TDS is about 500 mg/l, whereas
the WHO permissible limit (WHO 2012) is 1,000 mg/l. In general, TDS
values of <1,000 mg/l are considered as freshwater and values of >1,000
mg/l are considered brackish. The total dissolved solids (TDS) value ranged
from 140-260. It is reported that the higher concentration of TDS produce
distress in human livestock (Yadav 2010). All turbidity value ranges from
0.0 to 0.5. The WHO recommendation of turbidity is 5NTU. The high
turbidity may be due to improper drainage system where domestic wastes
are drained. The chloride in the sample ranges from 14.89 to 84.37. Total
hardness ranges from 64 to 130 mg/l. WHO (2012) recommended (100-
500 mg/l) as safe permissible limit for hardness. The nitrate concentrations
in all the samples are within desirable limit 0 to 10mg/l. Total hardness is
an important property that indicates the quality of groundwater which is
affected by calcium and magnesium cations. The desirable limit for TH is
up to 200 mg/l, but it is acceptable up to 600 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983).
The hardness measured in all the water samples were rather low, ranging
between minimum of 64 mg/I to maximum of 130 mg/I (Fig. 6). All the
samples were well within the acceptable limits. Sodium [Na+] in natural
1051
water is mainly the soluble products released during the weathering of

plagioclase feldspars; sodium concentration of the samples varies from
4.5 to 12.1 mg/l. These values were well below the WHO specification of
200 mg/l for domestic use (WHO 2003). Potassium [K+] Ionic is usually
found at low concentrations in groundwater and are however can increase
by excessive use of fertilizer in surface as well as in groundwater. Its
concentrations in the study area are varying from 0.21 to2.52 mg/l. Calcium
[Ca2+] concentration of the area is varying from 8.8 to 216.8 mg/l, the
permissible limit of calcium concentration is about 75 mg/l (BIS IS 10500
1983; WHO 1984), and concentrations of over 200 mg/l are considered
excessive. All samples have calcium concentrations well below the
permissible limit. Magnesium [Mg2+] also causes hardness in water (Fig.6).
Magnesium concentration is varying between 9.6 and 43.77 mg/l. The
permissible limit of magnesium is 30 mg/l (BIS IS 105001983; WHO 2012).
All the samples of the study area except sample No.1 (Tlangnuam) and 3
(Tuivamit) are well within this limit. Chloride concentrations of the
groundwater samples in the study area are varying from 26.8 to 84.37 mg/
l (Fig. 7). The WHO limit for chloride in groundwater is 250 mg/l (WHO
2003) and that of BIS 250 mg/l, and the maximum permissible limit in the
absence of alternate source is 1,000 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). All our
samples are well under these limits. The bicarbonate concentration values
in the samples vary from 25, 39 to 61.37 mg/l. Bicarbonates can cause
alkalinity in natural water. Alkalinity of water defines as the measure of its
capacity to neutralize acids. The WHO limit for alkalinity in water is 120
to 250 mg/l (WHO 2012) and that of the BIS limit is 200 mg/l (BIS IS
10500 1983). In the study area, there values range from 20 to 112 mg/l
(Fig. 7). So, its alkalinity value is definitely within the WHO and BIS
limits. Sulfate concentrations in our water samples vary from 1.14 to 3.64
mg/l. The WHO limit for sulfate concentration is 150 mg/l (WHO 2003).
The desirable limit for BIS is 200 mg/l. Thus, all the samples are well
within the permissible limit.
Table 1: Physico-chemical analysis of water samples.
Sample pH Odor Color Taste Alka Total Turbid- TDSMg/l
No linity Hard- ity
Mg/l ness (NTU)
Mg/l
1 6.91 Odorless Colorless Tasteless 74 130 0.0-0.5 180
1052

Table 2: Analyses of anion and cation of water samples.

Sample Chloride Calcium Magnes- Nitrate Sodium Potassi- Bicarbo- Sulphate
No Mg/l Mg/l ium Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l um Mg/l nate Mg/l Mg/l
1 51.62 14.4 42.23 10 12.1 1.18 44.16 3.19
2 71.46 8.8 22.56 10 7.2 2.52 44.32 3.64
3 53.6 10.4 43.77 0 9.1 0.66 61.37 1.38
4 26.8 14.4 19.68 0 9.3 1.49 25.39 2.17
5 15.89 14.4 13.44 10 5.9 2.11 33.57 1.42
6 84.37 12 9.6 0 4.5 0.76 25.41 3.06
7 53.6 10.4 24.48 10 4.6 1.78 41.31 1.02
8 14.89 16 10.56 10 5.2 2.12 36.31 1.16
9 57.57 16.8 7.2 10 8.6 0.21 43.45 1.15
10 53.6 15.2 14.4 10 11.4 0.36 42.18 1.14
Fig 6. Variation of calcium, magnesium and total hardness.

1053
Fig 7. Variation of Chloride and Alkalinity.
Fig 8. pH chart.
Conclusion
From the above overall results obtained from the physico-chemical
studies, it is concluded that water of the study areas are good for domestic
use such as for cleaning, bathing and washing, but not for drinking purposes
without boiling. As Mg Â30mg/l is present in few samples collected, it is
found that it is also suitable for drinking purposes. In fact, consumption of
drinking water even moderately high in Magnesium (at least 10ppm and
up to more than 40ppm) can be expected to reduce cardiovascular mortality.
References
APHA, AWWA. (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water
analysis, 20th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC.
Bureau of Indian Standard (B.I.S). (2012) Indian standard drinking water specification
(2 nd Revision).
Blick, J. (2016) Quality assessment and characterization of potable water sources in SW
Lawngtlai District in Mizoram, India. PhD thesis (unpub), Mizoram University.
Blick, J., Kumar, S., Bharat B.K. and Kumar S. (2016). Status of Arsenic contamination
in potable water in Chawngte, Lawngtlai, Mizoram, Science vision, 116 (2):74-
81.
BIS IS 10500 (1983) Bureau of Indian Standards, Indian standards specification for drinking
water.
1054
Davis, S.N., De Wiest, R.J.M. (1966) Hydrogeology. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New
York.
Domenico, P.A., Schwartz, F.W. (1998) Physical and chemical hydrogeology. Wiley, New
York.
Karanth, K.R. (2001) Ground water assessment development and management. Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
Hem, J.D. (1991) Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural waters,
Book 2254, 3rd edn. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Kumar, S., Singh, K.B. and Bharati, V.K. (2009) Assessment of spring water quality in
Aizawl city, Mizoram. Journal of Applied Hydrology, 22 (3, 4): 6-11.
Kumar, S., Bharti, V.K., Singh, K.B. and Singh, T.N. (2009) Quality assessment of potable
water in the town of Kolasib, Mizoram (India). Environmental Earth Science.
61:115-121.
Kumar, S., Baier, K., Jha, R. and Arab, J. (2013) Status of arsenic contamination in
potable water of Northern areas of Mizoram state and its adjoining areas of Southern
Assam, India. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 6(2): 383-393.
Santhi, D. (2012) Assessment of water quality parameters in Kodumudiaru dam at
Nanguneri Taluk of Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India. Pollution Research,
31(1):83-86
Todd, D.K. (1980) Groundwater Hydrogeology. Wiley, New York.
US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils,
US Department of Agricultural soils. US Department of Agricultural Hand Book
60, Washington.
Ward, A.D. and Elliot, W.J. (1995) Environmental Hydrology. Boca Raton, New York.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1996) Health criteria and other supporting information.
In: (2nd ed.), Guidelines for drinking-water quality 2, WHO, Geneva, pp. 940–
949.
WHO. (2003) Hardness in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of WHO
Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Geneva.
WHO. (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1055-1071, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
80
Contamination of Potable Water Sources
of Lawngtlai Town, Mizoram
John Blick and Shiva Kumar
Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram
Abstract
The area under study belongs to southern part of the state of Mizoram
constituting north-east India. The region as a whole is in lime light
because of its higher arsenic contamination in ground water sources
including neighbouring states of Assam, Manipur, Tripura and also
Bangladesh. The present study focused to establish the current status
of physico-chemical characteristics along with toxic metals in order
to determine its suitability for drinking and other domestic purposes
in accordance to the Standards. Therefore, Tuikhurs and Hand pumps
samples at different location were collected in the area and analyzed
as per standard methods. The concentrations of heavy metals were
determined by using Microwave Plasma- Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy. Total E-coli was tested on Multiple-Tube Method. For
anion and cation, piper and ternary diagrams are plotted in order to
classify the facies and water belongs to Ca-Na-HCO3 type. The results
revealed that most of the water samples are within the recommended
values of water quality standards prescribed by World Health
Organisation and Bureau of Indian Standards. However, Most Probable
Number, Iron and Lead contents at some locations are found more
than the permissible limits of 10/100 ml, 0.3 mg/I and 0.05 mg/I
respectively.
Keywords: Physico-chemical Parameters “Coliform” “Toxic Metals”
Tri-linear and “Ternary Diagrams” Standard Levels.
1056
Introduction
The quality of potable water depends on the physical as well as
socio-economic development of the area. Deterioration of drinking water
quality arises from introduction of chemical compounds into the water
supply system through leaks and cross connection. Since it is a dynamic
system, its quality is likely to change day by day and from source to source.
Any alteration in the natural quality may disturb the equilibrium system
and would become unfit for designated uses (Sanjay 2014). The problems
of drinking water viz. scarcity, processing before use probable
contaminations etc. in local and in regional water sources are also common
in the study area. However, sometimes some toxic contents are being receipt
by water in the form of heavy metals such as viz. Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickel,
Mercury etc. Therefore the need for safe and sufficient water has to be
ensured from its sources and through Public Health Engineering Department
(PHED).
The main source of potable water in the township is the Kaladan
River, tuikhurs and hand pumps. Since the supply of water by PHED is
insufficient and does not meet their daily needs, majority of the people in
the study area are totally depended on seepage water (Tuikhurs) and ground
water (Hand pumps) without any proper treatment. Most of the tuikhurs
and hand pumps water become insufficient and are not available; this is in
fact a tremendous problem they are facing especially during the dry period.
Contamination of the water sources may result in poor drinking water
quality, potential health problems, erroneous conclusions regarding the
impact of contamination on the society and environment and the amount
of effort required to improve the water sources (Balachandar et al. 2010).
Since people of the study area directly consume water for their drinking
and domestic purposes without any treatment, a township at remote area
in Mizoram has been selected for the present study in order to ascertain
the current status of the physico-chemical characteristics including toxic
metal/ trace elements and most probable number (MPN).
Mizoram is a tiny state in northeastern India which is bounded by
international border with Myanmar in the east and Bangladesh in the west,
and sharing domestic borders with Manipur in the east, Assam in the north
and Tripura in the west. It is located between 22°19’N and 24°19’N latitude
and 92°16’E and 93°26’E longitude covering a wide geographical area of
21,081 km2. The state has a length (N-S) measured 277 km and a width (E-
W) measured 121 km. Lawngtlai district is one of the administrative districts
of Mizoram state. In the southern part of Mizoram, the administrative
1057
headquarters of the district– Lawngtlai is located (Fig. 1) having

international boundaries with Bangladesh in the west and Myanmar in the
east. The district is bounded by Lunglei district in the north and Saiha
districts in the south. It location is between 92° 51’40" E to 92° 56’12" E
longitudes and 22° 28’ 20" N to 22° 34’58" N latitudes covering an area of
2258 sq km. It is linked by National Highway 54 with Aizawl, the state
capital of Mizoram at a distance of 296 km. It can be easily approachable
from Aizawl via Lunglei, Guwhati and Shillong. The ‘Lai’ people are the
native inhabitants and some other tribes— Chakma, Lushai, Bru and Mara
live in the area.
Fig. 1 Location map of the study area.
Sample Collection and Method of Analysis

Water samples were collected in clean polythene bottles from
different sources viz. tuikhurs and hand pumps by using standard techniques
(APHA and AWWA 1998) following the grab sampling method. Sample
bottles (Tarson wide mouth bottle) were thoroughly washed with acidic
water and rinsed with representative water samples. 26 samples were
collected during pre-monsoon, 2017. Out of 26 samples, 8 samples are
1058
from hand pumps and 18 samples are from tuikhurs (sub-surface water).
The sample bottles were capped it tightly to avoid any spillage during
transportation. Two bottles of 250ml each for each location, one acidified
with 2-4 ml of diluted.HN03 and non-acidified were collected. In situ testing
of the water samples was measured immediately at the site to find out the
physico-chemical properties like pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity and Iron (Fe). Digital Nephelo Turbidity
Meter-132 (systronics) was used to measure the values of turbidity (using
formazine as standard). Total iron content was measured by using the Water
Testing Kit made by ‘Transchem Agritech Limited’. And for pH, Total
Dissolved Solids and electrical conductivity values, digital instruments
made by ‘Eutech Instruments’ were used. The determination of Nitrate
concentration was done by uv-spectrophotometric method. Total Hardness,
Calcium, Magnesium, Total Chloride, Total Alkalinity and Sulphate were
analyzed by titrimetric method. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) determination was
carried out using acid titration, with methyl orange as indicator. Total
coliform (MPN) was determined by the multiple tube method. The
concentration of elements like Sodium, Potassium, Arsenic, Silver,
Aluminium, Barium, Cadmium, Cobalt, Chromium, Copper, Gallium,
Lithium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Lead, Strontium and Zinc were
determined by using Microwave Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
(MPAES).
The results of various physical and chemical along with
bacteriological and toxic metals/ trace elements analyses have been
presented in the Table 1a, 1b, 2a and 2b respectively.
It has been observed that the pH varies from 6.7 to 7.5, which are
found to be well within the acceptance limit for drinking water (6.5—8.5)
as specified by the BIS (2012) and WHO (2011). All of the pH values are
constant whereas total alkalinity is found highest in SW-12, SW13 and
SW-13. The high alkalinity in these samples may be due to addition of
sodium which can increase the alkalinity value. The value of alkalinity in
water provides an idea of natural salts present in water (Reeta 2012). The
electrical conductivity values of all the samples are much lower as compared
to standards, values range from 65 µmhos/cm to 136 µmhos/cm. The lower
values of EC may be due to the presence of lesser amounts of dissolved
salts indicative of less solubility of minerals and ions from the host rock
and has insignificant rock-water intercalation. Further, it characterizes
dominance of more silica content in the host rock. Higher value of EC is
1059
obtained in GW-06, GW-09, SW-05 and GW-16; this may be due to the
presence of more ions. The more ions that are present, the higher the
conductivity of water. The value of TDS has been observed ranging from
a minimum of 43 mg/I to a maximum of 107 mg/I. Here the decrease in
TDS value is in agreement with the EC results. However, relatively higher
value of TDS for GW-16 and SW-23 may be due to colloidal or finely
divided suspended solid matter, which does not readily settle. Rajurkar
(2003) has reported that this colloidal and finely divided suspended matter
may be present due to the direct discharge of solid waste and to construction
activities in the area. According to WHO (2011), the standard permissible
limit for TDS is 2000 mg/l. Therefore, the values of TDS are found to be
well within the prescribed limits. For turbidity, it is observed that majority
of the values are slightly higher than the desirable limit but still within the
permissible limit of 5 NTU. In the samples analyzed, total alkalinity has
been observed with having a value of 25.24 mg/I to 67.34 mg/I. The values
of total alkalinity having less than 200 mg/I are desirable for drinking and
domestic purposes. The hardness of water is mainly due to dissolved
calcium and magnesium salt. The hardness measured in all the water
samples were rather low, ranging between minimum of 32.53 mg/I to
maximum of 65.27 mg/I. The concentration of iron in groundwater (hand
pumps) samples is much more than the sub-surface water (Tuikhur). The
standard level of iron prescribed by WHO (2011) is 0.3 mg/I. All of the
hand pumps samples have exceeded the standard level. The Environmental
Protection Agency considers iron as a secondary contamination; declare
that it does not have a direct impact on human health.
Table 1a: Results of physico-chemical parameters of potable water .
Samples Location pH EC TDS TURB TA TH TCl Fe
GW-03 Tuivamit (AOC) 7.4 100 86 2.6 44.11 44.25 8.36 0.82
L-IV
GW-06 BCM Salem L-III 7.1 135 96 2.3 44.27 48.44 7.28 1.21
GW-07 S.P Road 7.0 89 64 1.3 61.34 42.47 6.28 0.83
(Vengpui)
GW-08 Bangla (Council 7.2 98 77 1.7 25.47 36.59 9.64 2.11
veng)
GW-09 LIKBK (Electric 7.3 132 97 2.3 33.48 44.14 9.12 0.52
veng)
GW-15 College veng 7.1 109 75 2.5 25.24 58.62 12.42 0.34
GW-16 Forest Off. 7.5 136 107 3.1 41.27 41.31 11.26 2.32
(College veng)
1060
GW-17 ML Home 7.4 105 64 2.6 36.22 44.27 10.44 0.62

(College veng)
SW-01 Lui hnai L-III 7.3 66 58 1.5 43.46 32.53 7.39 0.02
SW-02 Luizaute L-III 7.1 72 43 0.9 42.14 47.27 6.44 0.03
SW-04 Tuivamit (AOC) 7.1 108 92 0.5 62.37 35.64 8.44 0.02
L-IV
SW-05 V.S Workshop 7.3 132 83 2.6 57.42 46.41 6.54 0.04
(Opp.) L-III
SW-10 Kanaan veng L-IV 7.1 81 65 1.9 64.21 48.19 11.24 0.02
SW-11 Matu veng L-IV 6.8 99 64 1.1 40.12 57.74 10.26 0.02
SW-12 Khurmawi 6.9 94 80 1.5 67.24 45.68 9.27 0.01
Chanmari L-IV
SW-13 KM-I (Kanaan 6.8 101 62 2.5 65.45 46.84 8.75 0.02
veng)
SW-14 Km-II ( Kanaan 7.4 117 92 2.3 60.52 63.29 8.55 0.01
veng)
SW-18 Buk-I (Chawnhu) 6.9 98 68 1.2 33.16 48.87 13.04 0.01
SW-19 Buk-II (Chawnhu) 6.9 100 71 1.1 55.52 42.21 9.21 0.02
SW-20 Siaha road-I 7.1 94 70 2.5 38.21 39.66 10.47 0.01
SW-21 Siaha road-II 7.2 90 70 2.3 44.14 41.27 9.14 0.01
SW-22 Vaizuala (College 7.3 112 97 1.9 35.12 61.25 19.37 0.01
veng)
SW-23 Land hnuai L-IV 6.9 122 104 2.7 46.29 65.27 18.54 0.02
SW-24 Luizaupui L-III 7.1 65 47 1.7 44.34 44.36 13.45 0.02
SW-25 Khuruih tui L-I 7.4 88 43 1.5 33.24 35.48 9.22 0.01
SW-26 Pioneer tui 6.7 68 50 2.2 37.54 46.57 16.35 0.01
(College veng)
GW= Ground Water SW= Surface Water
Table 1b: Physico-chemical analysis of potable water samples.

Samples Location Na K Ca Mg NO 3 SO 4 HCO3 MPN
GW-03 Tuivamit (AOC) 12.1 1.18 5.11 4.28 0.34 3.17 44.11 22
L-IV
GW-06 BCM Salem L-III 7.2 2.47 5.18 4.24 0.20 3.67 44.27 21
GW-07 S.P Road 9.3 0.64 3.19 3.17 0.21 1.32 61.34 12
(Vengpui)
1061
GW-08 Bangla (Council 9.1 1.47 5.44 5.29 0.31 2.12 25.47 10
veng)
GW-09 LIKBK (Electric 5.7 2.15 4.28 4.10 0.27 1.44 33.48 9
veng)
GW-15 College veng 4.8 0.79 6.29 5.57 0.17 3.02 25.24 12
GW-16 Forest Off. 4.3 1.71 4.14 3.49 0.17 1.08 41.27 10
(College veng)
GW-17 ML Home 5.5 2.01 4.03 3.26 0.11 1.15 36.22 12
(College veng)
SW-01 Lui hnai L-III 8.3 0.25 4.34 4.24 0.62 1.12 43.46 14
SW-02 Luizaute L-III 11.3 0.33 6.24 3.13 0.43 1.14 42.14 14
GW-03 Tuivamit (AOC) 14 1.18 5.11 4.28 0.34 3.17 62.37 22
L-IV
SW-04 Tuivamit (AOC) 9.4 1.34 5.32 6.11 0.21 3.14 57.42 24
L-IV
SW-05 V.S Workshop 5.1 1.48 6.37 4.43 0.79 5.14 64.21 26
(Opp.) L-III
SW-11 Matu veng L-IV 4.8 0.54 6.17 3.18 0.12 3.01 40.12 26
SW-12 Khurmawi 5.2 1.47 9.11 4.56 0.57 2.15 67.24 18
Chanmari L-IV
SW-13 KM-I (Kanaan 5.8 1.08 4.16 3.34 0.16 2.47 65.45 12
veng)
SW-14 Km-II (Kanaan 5.3 1.21 4.11 3.52 0.12 2.49 60.52 18
veng)
SW-18 Buk-I (Chawnhu) 4.2 0.41 3.47 3.12 0.12 1.06 33.16 14
SW-19 Buk-II (Chawnhu) 5 0.61 5.08 3.46 0.11 1.05 55.52 18
SW-20 Siaha road-I 6.5 1.34 5.18 5.25 0.14 4.05 38.21 21
SW-21 Siaha road-II 6.1 1.42 5.32 5.30 0.16 3.07 44.14 25
SW-22 Vaizuala (College 5.4 0.23 8.32 6.74 0.57 2.04 35.12 28
veng)
SW-23 Land hnuai L-IV 7.5 0.82 7.54 5.53 0.54 3.17 46.29 14
SW-24 Luizaupui L-III 5.4 0.55 6.38 4.38 0.49 2.56 44.34 16
SW-25 Khuruih tui L-I 6.5 1.03 7.11 5.02 0.26 2.00 33.24 24
SW-26 Pioneer tui 4.3 1.12 8.06 4.78 0.11 2.06 37.54 17
(College veng)
1062
The concentration of total chloride (TCl) in all the stations are

much lower (6.28—19.37 mg/I) than the desirable limits value of 250 mg/
l prescribed by BIS (2012) as well as WHO (2011). There is a good
correlation of chloride with sodium as compared to magnesium and
potassium in all the samples. Most of the Chloride concentration in GW
and SW samples is found exceeding sodium level but in SW-01, SW-02,
SW-04, SW-05, GW-03, GW-06 and GW-07 samples concentration of
sodium is found higher than chloride concentration (Fig. 2). In SW-22 and
SW-23 samples, concentration of chlorides are slightly higher compared
to other samples due to anthropogenic activity, and natural processes such
as the passage of water through natural salt formations in the earth or it
may be an indication of pollution from industrial or domestic use (Reeta
2012). The concentration of nitrate in all the samples is quite low ranged
from 0.11mg/I to 0.79 mg/I as compare to the standard level of 45 mg/I.
The reasons for low content of nitrate in all water samples in the study
area may be attributed to denitrification, plant assimilation of nitrate before
entering the streams and less use of fertilizers (Chimwanza et al. 2006;
Basu et al. 2007; Akoto and Adiyiah 2007). Sivasankaran (2004) has also
reported that accumulation of nitrate in groundwater is not significant where
the area is less intense use of irrigation. The values of Sulphate in water
sources were generally low ranging between 1.05 mg/I to 5.14 mg/I. The
values sulphate contents are far below the permissible limits of 200 mg/I
prescribed WHO. Sodium concentration is generally higher than sulphate
concentration having a minimum range of 4.21 mg/I to a maximum of
14.05 mg/I. The values obtained are found below the permissible limits of
20 mg/I. Potassium content is much lower as compared to sodium in all
water samples in the study area. Potassium content in sub-surface and
groundwater samples ranges from 0.23 mg/I to 2.47 mg/I. Although the
availability of potassium may be controlled by biological factors; the
concentrations are low because of the high degree of stability of potassium-
bearing alumino-silicate mineral. Concentrations of calcium and
magnesium are found to be in ranged of 3.19 mg/I to 9.11 mg/I and 3.12
mg/I to 6.74 mg/I respectively. In all the samples, it can be seen that all the
values of these cations (Ca, Mg) are much lower than the standard value,
but are well within the desirable limits. The plots for calcium and
magnesium with total hardness are presented in Fig. 3, 4. It can be observed
that the contribution of both calcium and magnesium contents for hardness
of water are almost constant. No remarkable variation has been observed
for these cations in all the samples. Absence of sewerage system, improper
treatment of water, inadequate and unhygienic handling of solid- wastes,
and use of pit latrines, piggeries and poultries (which is predominant in
1063
the study area) may increase the number of MPN (Ghimire et al. 2007;
Adekunle et al. 2007; Shar et al. 2010; Rajurkar et al. 2003). According to
BIS (2012), more than 10 MPN/100ml coliform organisms should not be
present in any sample, but it has been observed that 88% of the samples
have exceeded this limit.
Fig. 2 Plot of chemical data (sodium versus total chlorides).
Fig. 3 Plot of chemical data (total hardness versus calcium).
Fig. 4 Plot of chemical data (total hardness versus magnesium).

1064
Aluminium concentration in water sample ranges from 0.00 (BLD)

to 0.02 mg/I. It concentration in all the water sources are well within the
acceptance limits of 0.03 mg/I prescribed by BIS (2012). Barium
concentration in the samples in the study area is below the permissible
limits of 0.7 mg/I. It concentration ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.02 mg/I.
Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as gallium (III)
compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores and in bauxite. The concentration
of gallium in water samples ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.02 mg/I. Lithium
concentration in water sample ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.01 mg/I. No
water sources from GW and SW has been found exceeding the desirable
limits of 0.07 mg/I (BIS 2012). Strontium concentration in water sample
ranges from 0.00 (BLD) to 0.03 mg/I. The permissible limit of strontium
in potable water is 1.5 mg/I. The concentration of Lead (Pb) in water sample
ranges from 0.01 mg/I to 0.09 mg/I. The 15% of water samples have been
found exceeding the permissible limits of 0.05 mg/I. High concentration
of lead has been recorded in SW-05, SW-13, SW-14, SW-20 and SW-21
samples (Fig. 5). The high concentration of Pb in these water samples may
be attributed to gasoline coming out of vehicles as most of the tuikhurs are
situated on or near the highway. The concentration of zinc present in the
samples has been recorded low as compared to the desirable limits of 5.0
mg/I. All the samples of GW and SW are found below the desirable limits,
ranging between 0.01 mg/I to 0.07 mg/I (Fig. 5). Low concentration of
Zinc in surface water is due to its restricted mobility from the place of rock
weathering or from the natural sources (Rajappa et al. 2010). In all water
samples, concentration of Arsenic (As), Gold (Ag), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt
(Co), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo)
and Nickel (Ni) is below limit of detection (BLD). Such a low concentration
of these metals may be due to the phenomena of pronounced adsorptions
in the area under study as the area is primarily dominated by shale which
consists of clay minerals having phyllosilicate structure providing enormous
space as structural voids, where metals ions of large ionic size can be
accommodated by replacing hydroxide (OH-), Potassium (K+ ) ions.
Table 2a Toxic metals/ trace elements concentration (mg/I) in potable water samples.
Samples Location Ga Li Mn Mo Ni Pb Sr Zn
GW-03 Tuivamit (AOC) 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.08 0.02 0.04
L-IV
GW-06 BCM Salem L-III 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.05 0.01 0.02
GW-07 S.P Road 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.04 0.00 0.01
(Vengpui)
1065
GW-08 Bangla (Council 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.02 0.00 0.03

veng)
GW-09 LIKBK (Electric 0.01 0.01 - - - 0.02 0.01 0.02
veng)
GW-15 College veng 0.01 0.01 - - - 0.03 0.01 0.03
GW-16 Forest Off. 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.02 0.00 0.02
(College veng)
GW-17 ML Home 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.02 0.00 0.012
(College veng)
SW-01 Lui hnai L-III 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.02 0.01 0.02
SW-02 Luizaute L-III 0.01 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.00 0.031
SW-04 Tuivamit (AOC) 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.07 0.01 0.05
L-IV
SW-05 V.S Workshop 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.11 0.03 0.03
(Opp.) L-III
SW-10 Kanaan veng L-IV 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.00 0.02
SW-11 Matu veng L-IV 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.07 0.00 0.02
SW-12 Khurmawi 0.02 0.00 - - - 0.06 0.02 0.032
Chanmari L-IV
SW-13 KM-I (Kanaan 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.12 0.02 0.02
veng)
SW-14 Km-II ( Kanaan 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.11 0.02 0.02
veng)
SW-18 Buk-I (Chawnhu) 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.00 0.01 0.01
SW-19 Buk-II (Chawnhu) 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.00 0.01 0.02
SW-20 Siaha road-I 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.14 0.02 0.05
SW-21 Siaha road-II 0.00 0.01 - - - 0.16 0.03 0.051
SW-22 Vaizuala (College 0.02 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.01 0.03
veng)
SW-23 Land hnuai L-IV 0.01 0.01 - - - 0.02 0.02 0.03
SW-24 Luizaupui L-III 0.01 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.02 0.02
SW-25 Khuruih tui L-I 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.01 0.01
SW-26 Pioneer tui 0.00 0.00 - - - 0.01 0.01 0.02
(College veng)
1066
Table 2b Toxic metals/ trace elements concentration (mg/I) in potable water samples.
Samples Location As Ag Al Ba Cd Co Cr Cu
GW-03 Tuivamit (AOC) - - 0.01 0.00 - - - -
L-IV
GW-06 BCM Salem L-III - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
GW-07 S.P Road - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
(Vengpui)
GW-08 Bangla (Council - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
veng)
GW-09 LIKBK (Electric - - 0.00 0.01 - - - -
veng)
GW-15 College veng - - 0.01 0.02 - - - -
GW-16 Forest Off. - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
(College veng)
GW-17 ML Home - - 0.01 0.00 - - - -
(College veng)
SW-01 Lui hnai L-III - - 0.00 0.01 - - - -
SW-02 Luizaute L-III - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
SW-04 Tuivamit (AOC) - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
L-IV
SW-05 V.S Workshop - - 0.02 0.00 - - - -
(Opp.) L-III
SW-10 Kanaan veng L-IV - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
SW-11 Matu veng L-IV - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
SW-12 Khurmawi - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
Chanmari L-IV
SW-13 KM-I (Kanaan - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
veng)
SW-14 Km-II (Kanaan - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
veng)
SW-18 Buk-I (Chawnhu) - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
SW-19 Buk-II (Chawnhu) - - 0.00 0.00 - - - -
SW-20 Siaha road-I - - 0.00 0.01 - - - -
SW-21 Siaha road-II - - 0.00 0.01 - - - -
SW-22 Vaizuala (College - - 0.02 0.02 - - - -
veng)
1067
SW-23 Land hnuai L-IV - - 0.01 0.02 - - - -

SW-24 Luizaupui L-III - - 0.01 0.01 - - - -
SW-25 Khuruih tui L-I - - 0.01 0.02 - - - -
SW-26 Pioneer tui - - 0.00 0.01 - - - -
(College veng)
Fig. 5 Plot of toxic metal/heavy metals (Al, Ba, Ga, Li, Pb, Sr and Zn).
A ternary cation diagram of s sub-surface water and groundwater

are mainly dominated by the sum of potassium and sodium. It can be
observed that clustering for calcium and magnesium has been found to fall
between 20% to 55% and 18% to 35% respectively whereas sodium and
potassium together contribute 25% to 60% to the total cations (Fig. 6).
Bicarbonate ion is the main dominant anion in both sub-surface and
groundwater contributing over 90% to the total anions (Fig. 7).
In the present study, both sub-surface (GW) water and groundwater
(GW) are dominated by Na>Ca>Mg>K except in some samples where Na
is replaced by Ca in cationic abundance. The order of abundance in anionic
chemistry is HCO3>Cl>SO4>NO3. The plots of chemical data on trilinear
diagram reveal that majority sub-surface and groundwater samples fall in
the field of 1 suggesting that alkaline earths exceed alkalies, and weak
acids exceed strong acids respectively. Thus, the total hydrochemistry of
sub- surface water in the area under study is dominated by alkaline earths
and weak acids. Chloride and sulphate do not exceed bicarbonate in any of
the samples. Most of sub- surface waters and groundwater in the study
area occur as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium is
sometimes replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies (Fig.
8).
1068
Fig. 6 Ternary diagram for cation Fig. 7 Ternary diagram for anion
compositions. compositions.
Fig. 8 Piper tri-linear diagram.
Conclusion
The analysis of the water quality parameters of sub-surface
(Tuikhurs) and groundwater (Hand pumps) from 26 water samples shows
that all the physical and chemical parameters are well within the permissible
limits prescribed by WHO (2011) and BIS (2012). However higher values
of coliforms (MPN) in water samples may be attributed to the use of pit
latrines, piggeries and poultries. It is suggested that moving pit latrines,
waste disposal from the piggeries and poultry farms away from locations
upstream of the tuikhurs and proper sanitation will greatly reduce the
contamination of coliforms.
Most of the toxic metals or trace elements (As, Ag, Cd, Co, Cr,
Cu, Mo, Mn and Ni) are found below limit of detection (BLD). However,
1069
concentration of iron (Fe) and lead (Pb) in some stations has exceeded the
permissible limits of 0.3 mg/I and 0.05 mg/I respectively. Iron is considered
as the secondary contamination which means that it does not have a direct
impact on human health. Though all the tuikhurs and hand pumps are fit
and suitable to serve as water source for human consumptions and
household purposes need treatment to minimize the contamination
especially the Lead (Pb). The drinking water of the area should be filtered
by the quality control agencies. Water sample should be treated chemically
or physically for toxic metals treatment.
Ternary diagram of cation and anion shows that most of the samples
are dominated by bicarbonate, sodium and calcium. Piper tri-linear diagram
shows that most of the sub-surface and groundwater samples in the study
area can be classified as Ca-Na-HCO3 facies while in some samples sodium
is replaced by magnesium giving rise to Ca-Mg-HCO3 type of water.
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groundwater of Pondicherry region. Environmental Science and Engineering,
46(3): 210-216.
WHO. (2003) Hardness in drinking-water. Background document for preparation of WHO
Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Geneva.
WHO. (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva.
1072
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1073-1078, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
81
Zonation of Landslide Susceptibility and
Risk Assessment in and Around Serchhip
Town, Mizoram
Lalramdina
Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Mizoram Remote Sensing
Application Centre.
Abstract
A landslide is the downward-slope movement of soil, rock or organic
material under the influence of gravity. It can be caused by a variety of
reasons like intense or prolonged rainfall, earthquakes, geomorphology,
slope variations and human activities. Landslides includes debris flow,
slide, toppling or falling movements, and many landslides exhibit a
combination of two or more types of movements. Mizoram is one of
the most landslide disastrous prone in India. The State experienced
landslides yearly during monsoon season. The extent of damage caused
varies considerably from place to place, mainly caused by human
activities, geological processes assisted by environmental processes.
The study area lies in the southern part of the Aizawl district. Remote
Sensing and GIS techniques are used. Satellite data are utilized for
mapping and preparing landslide hazard zones. Risk assessment is the
final goal. The main objectives are to assess the risk, vulnerability of
landslides, mapping and classify the zones of landslide hazards and
suggest preventive and remedial measures, methods involves extensive
fieldworks and data collections, creation of thematic layers and data
analysis. From the present study, it is observed that human activities
paired with natural factors have made many parts of Serchhip highly
prone to landslides.
Keywords : Mizoram, Serchhip ,Landslide, Remote Sensing, GIS.
1074
Introduction
Landslides are a natural disaster. Though landslide occurs naturally,
one of the main factor contributing to landslide in city and township can
be credited to human interference. The topography of Mizoram is being
relatively young, landslide can be a very major economic setbacks. There
are N-S trending mostly anticline strike ridges with steep slopes and narrow
intervening synclinal valleys with series of parallel ridges or topographic
highs. The other landforms of the state are dissected ridges with deep gorges,
spurs, keels, etc. Faulting has produced steep fault scarps. Thus, Mizoram,
being a hilly terrain is extremely prone to landslides.
Early reports on geology of Mizoram are few due to its isolation
and hilly topography. Studies on Landslide in Serchhip town is very few
as well as the whole state of Mizoram despite their annual occurrences
and problems it causes to the region. On the basis of sub ranges of Total
Estimated Hazard (TEH), the study area has been divided into Low Hazard
Zone, Moderate Hazard Zone, High Hazard Zone and Very High Hazard
Zone.
The advent of Satellite Remote Sensing Technology and
Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques has provided us a more
in depth approach to study landslide phenomena. In the present study, high
resolution satellite data such as Quickbird,IRS and Carosat-I data were
utilised to map the different landslide hazard zones of Serchhip town for
undertaking mitigation measures and to identify potential zones of
occurrences. An in-depth study of slope stability within Serchhip township
was also carried out and it was found that this locality of the town has been
severely affected by subsidence and landslides, endangering the lives and
property of the people. It was also found that the area comprises very soft
shale and interceded, weathered sandstone and siltstone which belongs to
the Middle Bhuban Formation of Surma Group of Tertiary age. Landslide
risk assessment determines the expected degree of loss to landslide and its
disruption of economic activities. The correlation of landslide susceptibility
with major assets in the region helps to determine the risk assessment.
Study Area: Serchhip is one of the eight districts of Mizoram in North-
East India. The district occupies an area of 1421.60 km² and Serchhip town
is the administrative headquarters of the district.The elevation is 888m.The
population of the district is 64,932 as per the 2011 censusand it is a hilly
terrain sandwiched by Mat river and Tuikum river with alluvial benches
being utilised for agriculture .Serchhip lies in the southern part of the Aizawl
district and about 80 kilometres south of Aizawl and is covered by the
1075
Survey of India Toposheet No.84A/15 and falls within the coordinates of

latitudes N 23°.18’ - 23°.20’ and and longitudes E 92°.51’ -92°.52’. The
present study is conducted within Serchhip town. The study area is
strategically important as it connect to the southern part of the Mizoram.
Several locations along the road sections are vulnerable as highly weathered
rocks dip towards road side.
Methodology
Thematic layers prepared such as Geomorphology, slope, lithology,
Landuse/land cover and geological structure were prepared and field work
were utilized for this study.A zonation map based on the integration of the
data acquired from the above various geo-environmental thematic databases
is prepared. The following geo-environmental factors like slope
morphometry, land use/land cover, lithology, geomorphology and geological
structure are found to be playing significant roles in causing landslides in
the study area. These five themes form the major parameters for Landslide
susceptibility zonation and their susceptibility and are individually divided
into appropriate classes which are then carefully analysed so as to
establishtheir relation to landslide susceptibility and risk assessment within
the study area. Accordingly, weightagevalue is assigned for each class based
on their susceptibility to landslides in such a manner that less weightage
represents the least influence towards landslide occurrence, and more
weightage, the highest.The National Remote Sensing Agency Scheme of
weightage is used which comprises a scale of 1-10.
Parameter Category Weight
Lithology Sandstone 4
Siltstone & Shale 8
Shale & Siltstone 9
Crumpled Shale 10
Land Use / Land Cover Heavy Vegetation 3
Light Vegetation 5
Scrubland 6
Barren 7
Built-up 8
Slope Morphometry (in degrees) 0 - 15 1
15-25 3
1076
25-30 4
30-35 5
35-40 6
40-45 7
45-60 8
> 60 5
Structure (Faults and Lineaments) Length of Buffer distance 9
Geomorphology High Structural Hill 4
Medium Structural Hill 3
Low Structural Hill 2
Valley Fill 0
The risk assessment is calculated using the cross correlations of
building footprints in which buildings are categorized into three types
according to their build types,namely reinforced concrete, Semi-Concrete
and assam types,the congestity of each area, population density,slope
stability,commute and other landslide causing factors and evacuation plans.
By giving all the parameters different weightage values and
considering the risk assessment.The study area is classified into High
Susceptibility, Moderate susceptibility and low susceptibility. The output
map is generated on a scale of 1: 5,000.Human activities coupled with
natural factors like lithology, slope, geological structure, rainfall, etc. have
made many parts of Serchhip town highly prone to landslides.
Acknowledge
The author is thankful to Dr. K. Srinivasa Rao, Dr. R. K.
Lallianthanga, Mr. Z.D. Laltanpuia (MIRSAC) and Mr. F. Lalbiakmawia
(PHE) Aizawl for their support during the study.
1077
References
Verma, R., (2013). Landslide hazard in Aizawltownship, Mizoram. In: Landslide and
Environmental degradation. GnanodayaPrakasan Publ. pp. 11-21.
Lal Duhawma, K..SrinivasaRao, K., and Udayabhaskara Rao, Ch., (2015).Morphometry
and Tectonic Geomorphology of Tut watershed, Mizoram. Lap. Lambordt Academic
Publ., Germany. 109p.
1078
Lallianthanga RK and Laltanpuia ZD (2007). Landslide Hazard Zonation of Aizawl city

using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques- A qualitative approach. Bull. of National
Natural Resources Management System. NNRMS (B)-32, February 2008. Pub.
P&PR Unit, ISRO Hqrs. p. 47-55.
Anon (2007). Micro-level Landslide Hazard Zonation of Aizawl City using Remote Sensing
and GIS, A project report. Mizoram State Remote Sensing Centre, S&T, Planning
Dept. Mizoram, p. 24.
Anon (2009).Natural Resources Atlas of Mizoram.Mizoram Remote Sensing Application
Centre, Aizawl, Mizoram. p. 90-91
Tiwari RP& Shiva Kumar (1996). Geology of the Area Around Bawngkawn, Aizawl
District, Mizoram, India Misc. Publ. No. 3, The Geological & Research Centre,
Balaghat, M.P., p. 1 – 10.
La Touche THD (1891). Records of the Geological Survey of India.Geological Survey of
India, 24(2).
Lalnuntluanga F (1999). Geo-Data Based Total Estimated Landslide Hazard Zonation, A
case study of North Tawipui-Thingfal road section, Lunglei district, Mizoram.
Proc. Symposium on Sc. & Tech. for Mizoram in the 21st Century, June 1999. p.
147-154.
Anon (2012).Meteorological Data of Mizoram.Mizoram Remote Sensing Application
Centre, Aizawl, Mizoram. p. 43-45
Joyce EB & Evans RS (1976).Some areas of landslide activity in Victoria, Australia.
Proc. Royal Soc. Victoria, 88 (1 & 2): p. 95 – 108.
MIRSAC (2011) Atlas of Landslide Hazard Zonation ofMizoram (Unpbl.Report).
MIRSAC (2012) Hazard Risk & Vulnerability Analysis of Aizawl District (Unpbl.Report).
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1079-1084, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
82
Comparative Study of Physico-Chemical
Properties of Soil Under Three Different
Bamboo Stands
Imokokla Imsong, Angom Sarjubala Devi and Lalnuntluanga
Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University;
Abstract
Bamboo forests cover a large extent in Mizoram. Around 57% of the
geographical area of Mizoram is under bamboo cover found at heights
ranging from 500 m-1500 m. There are 35 species of bamboo known
to be found in Mizoram. Melocanna baccifera is distributed throughout
the state and comprised of more than 98 percent of the growing stock
of bamboo and the remaining 2 percent are different clump forming
bamboo species. Therefore, the present study has been taken up to
study the difference in the soil properties specially soil moisture
content, soil pH, bulk density, total organic carbon and available
phosphorus under Melocanna baccifera, Dendrocalamus strictus and
Bambusa balcooa stands. During the study, it was found that soil
moisture content was highest under Melocanna baccifera
stand(35.81%) and least in Bambusa balcooa stand(25.42%). Soil
pH was found to be highest under Melocanna baccifera stand(4.8)
and the least in Dendrocalamus strictus(4.4) and under Dendrocalamus
strictus stand highest bulk density(1.12g/cm 3) was observed while
Melocanna baccifera had the least (0.93g/cm3).Total organic carbon
content was found to be the highest in Bambusa balcooa(3.27%) and
least in Dendrocalamus strictus (3.03%). In the case of available
phosphorus, the highest was observed in Melocanna baccifera(19.8%)
and the least in Bambusa balcooa(17.37%). The results showed that
1080
growth of Melocanna baccifera stands can lead to more enhancements

in soil fertility.
Keywords: bulk density, organic carbon, pH, phosphorus, soil
moisture.
Introduction
India is second to China in bamboo production with 3.23 million
tonnes per year. In India, bamboos account for around 12.8% of the total
forest area cover and is one of the largest bamboo resources in the world
(Bahadur and Jain, 1981). The North-East Himalayan region harbours more
than 66% of the Indian bamboo genetic resources (Sarmah et al., 2000)
having very dense bamboo forests. Out of the 128 bamboo species found
in India, 84 taxa are in the North-Eastern region. Bamboo area of Mizoram
state is the highest in India (49.1 percent of the total forest cover of the
state). Out of which, 98 percent is contributed by the non-clump forming
species (Melocanna baccifera), and the remaining 2 percent are different
clump forming bamboo species. Bamboo forms an indispensable resource
base for the rural population of north eastern states in general and Mizoram
in Particular. Over exploitation of bamboo resources and the destruction
of natural habitat due to shifting cultivation, have resulted in a decrease of
growing stock, especially the clump forming species in Mizoram (Anon,
1997). The present study was undertaken to determine the physico-chemical
properties of soil namely moisture content, pH, bulk density, total organic
C and available P under three types of bamboo stands namely Bambusa
balcooa, Dendrocalamus strictus and Melocanna baccifera within Mizoram
University Campus.
Study site
The exact location of the three study sites with different bamboo
stands are: Bambusa balcooa (latitude:230442 363 N, longitude:920392 673
E and altitude:705 m), Dendrocalamus strictus (latitude:230442 353 N,
longitude: 920392 683 E and altitude:690m) and Melocanna baccifera
(latitude:230442 253 N, longitude: 920392 833 E and altitude:821 m) within
Mizoram University campus towards Tanhril village. The study area is
confined within a subtropical semi evergreen forest. The temperature ranges
from 150C to 320C and the rainfall is about 240 cm per annum.
Soil analysis
Soil samples were collected from 5 random places from each stand
1081
and were mixed and three replicates were taken. The soil samples were
analysed for moisture content by using the oven dry method, bulk density
determined with a soil corer, pH by digital pH meter, total organic C by
using Walkley and Black’s method and available P with the help of
spectrophotometer outlined in Anderson and Ingram (1993). Soil samples
were collected every month for seven months starting from August, 2016
to March, 2017. Sampling could not be done for the month of January,
2017.
By comparing within the seven months, soil moisture was found
to be highest in the month of October, 2016 and least in the month of
February, 2017 (Fig.1). The average soil moisture content in the different
months within the three types of bamboo stands was found to be highest
under Melocanna baccifera stand (35.81%) and least under Bambusa
balcooa (25.42%) (Table 1).
Fig. 1.: Soil moisture content under the three bamboo stands (±standard error).
Fig.2: Soil pH under the three bamboo stands(±standard error).

1082
Fig. 3.: Total organic C under the three bamboo stands (±standard error).
Fig.4: Soil available P under the three bamboo stands (± standard error).
The soil pH was highest in the month of September, 2016 (5.62)

and minimum in October (4.02) (Fig.2). It was found that the average soil
pH was highest under Melocanna baccifera stand (4.8) and the least in
Dendrocalamus strictus (4.4). This indicates that the soil within the study
sites were acidic. Soil under Dendrocalamus strictus stand was observed
to have the highest bulk density (1.12g/cm3) while Melocanna baccifera
stand had the least (0.93g/cm3); soil under Bambusa balcooa. had 1.07g/
cm3. The result signifies that the more the soil moisture the less is bulk
density.
The total organic C was found to be highest in the month of
October,16 and least in the month of March,17(Fig.3). Average total organic
C was found to be highest in Bambusa balcooa stand (3.27%) and least in
Dendrocalamus strictus stand (3.03%). The available P was also found to
be highest in the month of October,16 and least in the month of February,17
(Fig.4). The maximum average was observed under Melocanna baccifera
stand (19.8mg/kg) and the least in Bambusa balcooa stand (17.37mg/kg).
1083
Table 1 : Physico-chemical properties of soil under three bamboo stands (±Standard error).
Bamboo stands Soil Moisture pH C (%) P (mg/kg)
(%)
Bambusa balcooa 25.42 4.57 3.27 17.37
±0.61 ±0.03 ±0.16 ±2.27
Dendrocalamus strictus 25.94 4.44 3.03 17.46
±1.03 ±0.04 ±0.12 ±1.63
Melocanna baccifera 35.81 4.80 3.24 19.80
±1.11 ±0.06 ±0.17 ±1.73
Correlation analysis were done within the different physico-

chemical soil parameters. The results are given in Table 2. Positive and
significant correlations were observed between soil moisture and total
organic C and available P. Significant correlation was also observed between
total organic C and available P. These results showed that availability of
soil moisture, organic C and available P were interdependent. Since highest
amount of soil moisture and available P were found under the Melocanna
baccifera stands the soil under these bamboo stand can be considered more
stable and better quality in terms of nutrient availability although the
organic C content was slightly lesser than Bambusa balcooa stand. By
comparing within the three sites under the Dendrocalamus strictus stand
the soil was having lesser quality.It is the most common bamboo species
widely distributed in dry hills, and often termed as bushland. This is the
hardiest of all Indian bamboos (Banik, 2015). Therefore the soil under this
type of bamboo can have comparatively lower nutrient status compared to
the other two bamboo stands.
Bambusa balcooa is a thick-walled and huge bamboo which are
mainly cultivated for construction purposes. The dead organic debris takes
more time for decomposition. Whereas Melocanna baccifera ia a thin-
walled bamboo and since it does not form clumps they have more advantage
in multiplication over a wider area thereby influence the soil on a wider
range.
Table 2: Correlation coefficient (r) between different soil parameters (**) reflected
significance at p<0.01.
Soil moisture (%) C (%)
C (%) 0.53**
P(mg/ kg) 0.56** 0.56**
1084
Within the months October exhibit maximum amount of soil

moisture, organic C and available P and least during February and March
indicating the positive and significant correlationship established between
these three parameters. A regular pattern of soil pH was not observed
however all the soil samples were found to be moderately acidic. The result
indicates that influence of bamboo on soil acidity is high. Every year huge
amount of litter falls on the ground and quickly gets decomposed. As a
result bamboo growing soils are mostly brown to dark in colour, coarse
textured, loose and acidic with higher content of organic matter (Pant et
al., 1993). Ly et al., (2012) had observed higher content of organic C (2-
2.5%) in bamboo growing soils when compared with other forest
plantations. The soil organic C pool under bamboo amounts to 92t/h at
70cm soil depth comparable to both forest and regenerated forest in the
northern central upland of Veitnam.
The present study sites have comparatively more organic C in soil.
It can be stated that the soil conditions under the three types of bamboo
stand have high potential for sustaining the ecosystem and storing as well
as sequestering CO2 for a long period of time.
References
Anderson, J. and Ingram, J. S. I. (1993). Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. Handbook of
methods.C. A. B. International, London, UK. P.302.
Anon. (1997). The working Scheme on Bamboo Forests of Mizoram, Department of
Environment and Forests, Govt. of Mizoram: pp 1-30.
Bahadur, K. N. and Jain, S. S. (1981). Rare bamboos of India. Indian Journal of Forestry.
4 (4)280-286.
Banik, R.L. (2015). Growth , behaviour and silviculture of bamboos. Bamboos in India
(Kaushik, S., Singh, Y.P., Kumar, D., Thapliyal, M. and Barthwal, S. eds.). Envis
Centre on Forestry. ICFRE, Dehradun, pp104.
Ly, P., Pillot, D., Lambelle, P. and Neergoard, A. (2012). Evaluation of bamboo as alternate
cropping structure in the northern central upland of Veitnam: aboveground carbon
fixing capability, accumulation of soil organc carbon and socio-economic aspects.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 149:80-90.
Pant, N.C., Pandey, D. K. and Singh, A. K. (1993). A comparative study of soil properties
under some miscellaneous forests with and without bamboos in Shahdol (M.P.).
Journal of Tropical Forest. 9 (4): 342-349.
Sarmah, A., S. Thomas, M. Goswami, K., Haridashan and Borthakur S. K. (2000). Rattan
and Bamboo flora of North- East India in a conservation perspective. Sustainable
management of forest in India (Arunachalam, A. and Khan, M.L. eds.). International
Book Distributers, Dehradun. pp. 37-45.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1085-1096, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
83
Use of Geographic Information System in
Hypsometric Analysis of Chite Lui
Watershed, Aizawl District, Mizoram
Binoy Kumar Barman, K. Srinivasa Rao# and N. S. R. Prasad#*
Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796 004, India.
*
Center for Geo-informatics applications in Rural Development, NIRD
Guwahati.# = Mentor
Abstract
GIS aided Hypsometric analysis of watershed (area-elevation analysis)
is generally used to understand the stage of geomorphic evolution such
as youth, mature and old. Hypsometric Integral quantifies the geologic
stages of development and erosion proneness of the watersheds. The
present study is mainly focused on identifying the erosion status of
watersheds and prioritizes them for undertaking soil and water
conservation measures. The six sub-catchments (A to F) of Chite Lui
watershed analyzed in the present study and hypsometric analysis
carried out using the digital contours which are generated by Arc GIS
software on CARTOSAT Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The Survey
of India (SoI) toposheets on 1:50,000 scales are used for delineating
the watershed boundary. The Hypsometric curves for sub-catchments
were prepared based on the Strahler’s percentage method (1952) from
which the ratios a/A and h/H plotted and Hypsometric Integrals (HI)
calculated by Elevation relief ratio method. In the sub-watersheds of
C and D catchments widening is accompanied by significant channel
networking. The high rate of erosion leading to mass accumulation
and simultaneously increases the mouth elevations. The hypsometric
1086
curve for sub-watersheds B, E and F shows S-shape indicating the

mature stage of development of these sub-catchments. The Hypsometric
Integral values for the six sub-catchments ranges from 0.47 to 0.56
which signifies that the watershed is at equilibrium (mature) stage.
Keywords: Hypsometry, GIS, CARTOSAT, Chite Lui watershed,
Aizawl district.
Introduction
Hypsometric analysis is considered as an effective tool for
understanding the stage of geomorphic evolution, geological development
of a watershed and to delineate erosion proneness in the catchment area.
Hypsometry means relative proportion of an area at different elevations
within a region and hypsometric curve depicts distribution of an area with
respect to altitude (Strahler, 1952). It is a useful method to identify the
stage of watershed development in an erosion cycle and to evaluate the
denudational process. Besides the erosional stage of landform evolution,
the other controlling factors are the influence of tectonic activity, climate
change, lithological factors and geomorphic development of the area can
be analysed from hypsometric analysis (Lifton and Chase, 1992; Moglen
and Bras, 1995; Willgoose and Hancock, 1998; Hurtrez and Lucazeau,
1999; Chen, et al., 2003; Huang and Niemann, 2006). The hypsometry of
a drainage basin is exemplified either graphically as a “Hypsometric Curve”
(HC), or quantitatively as an integral called “Hypsometric Integral” (HI).
The hypsometric curve expresses the volume of rock mass in the watershed
and the amount of erosion that has taken place in the watershed against the
remaining mass. The hypsometric integral is calculated from the area under
a hypsometric curve and is expressed as percentage. The use of
Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques in hypsometric analysis
is digitization contour maps in the first step, which helps in improving the
accuracy of results and conservation of time. Considering the above facts
that present study was selected to determine the geological stage of
development of sub-watersheds of Chite Lui watershed in the Aizawl district
of Mizoram.
Hypsometric analysis was first introduced by Langbein (1947) to
express the overall slope and the forms of drainage basin. The hypsometric
curve is related to volume of soil mass in a basin and the amount of erosion
that had occurred in a basin against the remaining mass (Hurtrez, 1999). It
is a continuous function of non-dimensional distribution of relative basin
elevations with the relative area of the drainage basin (Strahler, 1952).
The shape of hypsometric curves explains the temporal changes in the
slope of the original basin. Strahler (1952) interpreted the shape of the
1087
hypsometric curves by analysing numerous basins and classified the basins

as young (convex upward curves), mature (S-shaped hypsometric curves
which is concave upwards at high elevations and convex downward at low
elevations) and peneplain or distorted (concave upward curves). There is
frequent variation in shape of the hypsometric curve during the early
geomorphic stages of development followed by minimal variations after
the watershed attains a stabilized or mature stage. Hypsometric analysis is
carried out to ascertain the susceptibility of watershed to erosion and
prioritize them for treatment. The slope of the hypsometric curve changes
with the stage of watershed development, which has a greater bearing on
the erosion characteristics of watershed and is indicative of cycle of erosion.
The hypsometric integral (HI) is also an indication of the ‘cycle of erosion’
(Strahler, 1952; Garg, 1983). The cycle of erosion is the total time required
for reduction of land area to the base level i.e. lowest level. This entire
period or the cycle of erosion can be divided into the three stages viz.
monadnock (old) (HI<0.3), in which the watershed is fully stabilized,
equilibrium or mature stage (HI = 0.3 to 0.6), and in equilibrium or young
stage (HI > 0.6), in which the watershed is highly susceptible to erosion
(Strahler, 1952). Hypsometric curves and hypsometric integral is an
important watershed health indicator. Hypsometric analysis using GIS has
been used by several researchers in India dealing with erosional topography
(Pandey, 2004; Singh, 2008).
Study Area
The Chite Lui watershed which is a tributary of Tuirial River lies
within the urbanizing Aizawl city, covering an area of 53.04 sq. km. and
geographically lies between 230382 303 to 230452 303 N Latitude and
920422 303 to 920 472 303 E longitude and extends within Survey of
India Toposheets No. 84 A/9, 84 A/10 and 84 A/14 on 1:50,000 scale (Fig.
1).
The information about the topography of the study area was
extracted from Survey of India (SOI) Toposheets on 1:50,000 scale. The
topographic information such as stream features and basin boundary were
digitized and geo-referenced with Universal Transverse Mercator projection
(WGS 1984, Zone 46ÚN) by using Arc GIS tools such as Spatial Analyst
on CARTOSAT DEM with 2.5 meter resolution contour lines generated.
Totally six sub-basins were delineated namely sub-basin-A, sub-basin-B,
sub-basin-C, sub-basin-D, sub-basin-E, sub-basin-F by overlaying the
drainage map and study area boundary. Then the drainage networks of
1088
Fig 1: Location map of the study area
Chite Lui watershed is further divided into 5 fourth order sub-basins and 1
third order (sub-basin-F) sub-basin through digitization by using the Arc
GIS 10.3.1 software. Stream order was assigned to each stream following
the stream ordering system developed by Strahler (1952). The entire
watershed was identified as sixth order. The main watershed and sub-
watershed areas, perimeters, maximum and minimum elevations, mean
elevation and length of watersheds were calculated by using GIS software.
The attribute table that accommodate these values were utilized to plot the
hypsometric curves for the watersheds in the present study from which the
HI values calculated. Although, different methods are available to estimate
the hypsometric integral, the HI values in the present investigation were
calculated using the elevation-relief ratio method proposed by Pike and
Wilson (1971). The elevation-relief ratio method is found to be more
accurate and easy to calculate within the GIS environment.
Plotting of hypsometric curves (HC)
The Hypsometric Curve (HC) of the study area was prepared by
using Strahler’s (1952) percentage method. The digital contour map was
used to generate the data required for relative area and elevation analysis.
Hypsometric curve is obtained by plotting the relative area (a/A) along the
abscissa and relative elevation (h/H) along the ordinate (Fig. 2). The relative
area is obtained as a ratio of the area above a particular contour to the total
area of the watershed encompassing the outlet. Similarly, the relative
elevation is calculated as the ratio of the height of a given contour (h) from
the base plane to the maximum basin elevation (H). This provided a measure
of the distribution of landmass volume remaining beneath or above a basal
reference plane.
1089
Figure 2. Three types of hypsometric curves which reference in percentage of

hypsometric Analysis as youth, mature and old stages – showing toe, head and body
(after Strahler, 1964; Willgoose and Hancock, 1998).
The percentage hypsometric method has been used for the present
study (Figs. 2 and 3). There are two ratios involved in this method and
plotted against each other on a graph. The ordinate represents the ratio of
relative elevation (h/H) and the abscissa represents the ratio of relative
area (a/A). The relative elevation is computed as the ratio of the height of
a given contour (h) from the base plane to the basin height (H). The relative
area is obtained as a ratio of the area above a particular contour (a) to the
total area of the basin above the outlet (A). The values of relative area (a/
A) and the relative height (h/H) are in a range from one to zero. One at the
lowest point in the watershed (h/H = 0) and zero at the highest point in the
basin (h/H = 1).
Estimation of hypsometric integral (HI)
In the present study, the hypsometric integral or the area under the
curve was estimated using elevation-relief ratio method as proposed by
Pike and Wilson (1971). The relationship is expressed as:
where, E is the elevation relief ratio equivalent to the hypsometric integral

HI; Elev (mean) is the weighted mean elevation of the watershed estimation
1090
from the identifiable contours of the delineated watersheds, Elev (min)

and Elev (max) are the minimum and maximum elevations within the
watershed.
The HI is expressed as a percentage and is an indicator of the
remnant of the present volume as compared to the original volume of the
basin (Ritter, et al., 2002). The hypsometric integral is also an indication
of the ‘cycle of erosion’ (Strahler, 1952; Garg, 1983). The cycle of erosion
is defined as the total time required for reduction of a land topological unit
to the base level i.e. the lowest level. This entire period or the cycle of
erosion can be grouped into three categories, each representing the three
distinctive stages of the geomorphic cycle, viz.
(i) the monadnock or old stage if, HIdH0.35, in which the basin is
fully stabilized;
(ii) the equilibrium or mature stage if, 0.35dHHIdH 0.60, in which the
basin development has attained steady state condition and
(iii) the in-equilibrium or young stage if HIeH0.60, where the basin is
highly susceptible toerosion and is under development (Strahler,
1952).
Results and discussion
Hypsometry can be evaluated through the hypsometric curve and
hypsometric integral.The shapes of the hypsometric curve and the values
of hypsometric integral are the important elements in landform evolution.
These can be explained in terms of degree of landscape dissection and
relative landform age. The hypsometric curves and hypsometric integral
values of the Chite Lui watershed (Fig. 3 and Table 1) and its sub-catchments
are discussed below.
From the shape of the various hypsometric curves, it is found that
the sub-catchments C and D catchments widening is accompanied by
significant channel networking and high erosion, leading to mass
accumulation and elevation increases at their mouth. The hypsometric
curves of sub-catchments A, B, E and F shows S-shape indicating mature
stage of development of these sub-catchments. The Hypsometric Integral
values for the six sub-catchments ranges within 0.47 to 0.56 which signifies
that the watershed is at equilibrium (mature) stage (Table 2).
1091
Table 1. Relative area and relative height of Chite Lui watershed and its sub-catchments.
Sub-catchment-A
Elevation Area above Area Lower Interval Height
Interval bottom of proportion Elevation- proportion (h/H)
interval (a) km2 (a/Ab) Mouth
elevation (h)
299-389 6.22 6.22/6.22=1 299-299=0 0/815=0
389-479 5.67 5.67/6.22=0.91 389-299=90 90/815=0.11
479-569 4.50 4.50/6.22=0.72 479-299=180 180/815=0.22
569-659 2.88 0.46 270 0.33
659-749 1.95 0.31 360 0.44
749-839 1.28 0.20 450 0.55
839-929 0.76 0.12 540 0.66
929-1019 0.44 0.07 630 0.77
1019-1109 0.18 0.02 720 0.88
1109-1114 0.00 0 810 0.99
Sub-catchment-B
elevation (h)
304-399 5.22 5.32/5.32=1 304-304=0 0/762=0
399-494 5.10 5.10/5.32=0.95 399-304=95 95/762=0.12
494-589 4.46 4.46/5.32=0.83 494-304=190 190/762=0.24
589-684 3.51 0.65 285 0.37
684-779 2.39 0.44 380 0.49
779-874 1.30 0.24 475 0.62
874-969 0.62 0.11 570 0.74
969-1064 0.19 0.03 665 0.87
1092
Sub-catchment-C
elevation (h)
505-602 2.12 2.12/2.12=1 505-505=0 0/584=0
602-699 2.1 2.10/2.12=0.99 602-505=97 97/584=0.16
699-796 2.02 2.02/2.12=0.95 699-505=194 194/584=0.33
796-893 1.05 0.49 291 0.49
893-990 0.5 0.23 388 0.66
990-1087 0.2 0.09 485 0.83
1087-1089 0 0 582 0.99
Sub-catchment-D
elevation (h)
503-589 7.18 7.18/7.18=1 503-503=0 0/691=0
589-675 7.09 7.09/7.18=0.98 589-503=86 86/691=0.12
675-761 6.72 6.72/7.18=0.93 675-503=172 172/691=0.24
761-847 4.84 0.67 258 0.37
847-933 3.07 0.42 344 0.49
933-1019 1.72 0.23 430 0.62
1019-1105 0.53 0.07 516 0.74
1105-1191 0.01 0 602 0.87
1191-1194 0 0 688 0.99
Sub-catchment-E
elevation (h)
467-565 2.45 2.45/2.45=1 467-467=0 0/592=0
565-663 2.37 2.37/2.45=0.96 565-467=98 98/592=0.16
1093
663-761 2.04 2.04/2.45=0.83 663-467=196 196/592=0.33

761-859 1.38 0.56 294 0.49
859-957 0.49 0.2 392 0.66
957-1055 0.06 0.02 490 0.82
1055-1059 0 0 588 0.99
Sub-catchment-F
elevation (h)
234-321 6.45 6.45/6.45=1 234-234=0 0/610=0
321-408 6.08 6.08/6.45=0.94 321-234=87 87/610=0.14
408-495 5.21 5.21/6.45=0.80 408-234=174 174/610=0.28
495-582 3.95 0.61 261 0.42
582-669 2.14 0.33 348 0.57
669-756 0.89 0.13 435 0.71
756-834 0.07 0.01 522 0.85
834-844 0 0 609 0.99
Entire Chite Lui watershed

Interval bottom of proportion Elevation- proportion
interval (a) (a/Ab) Mouth (h/H)
km 2 elevation (h)
191-302 53.04 53.04/53.04=1 191-191=0 0/1003=0
302-413 50.04 50.04/53.04=0.94 302-191=111 111/1003=0.11
413-524 43.47 43.47/53.04=0.81 413-191=222 222/1003=0.22
524-635 34.46 0.64 333 0.33
635-746 24.97 0.47 444 0.44
746-857 15.16 0.28 555 0.55
857-968 6.82 0.12 666 0.66
986-1079 2.39 0.04 777 0.77
1079-1190 0.16 0 888 0.88
1190-1194 0 0 999 0.99
1094
Figure 3. Hypsometric curves of Chite Lui watershed and sub-catchments
Table 2. Calculated hypsometric integral values of the Chite Lui watershed and its sub-
catchments.
Name of sub- Area Elevation (m) Hypsome- Geological
catchment (s) (km2) tricintegral stage
Maximum Minimum Mean (HI)
Sub-catchment-A 6.22 1114 299 741.2727 0.54 Early maturity
Sub-catchment -B 5.22 1066 304 722.2 0.54 Early maturity
Sub-catchment -C 2.12 1089 505 832.625 0.56 Early maturity
Sub-catchment -D 7.18 1194 503 881.7 0.54 Early maturity
Sub-catchment -E 2.45 1059 467 761 0.49 Middle
maturity
Sub-catchment-F 6.47 844 234 571.44 0.55 Early
maturity
Chite Lui watershed 53.04 1194 191 736.2727 0.54 Early maturity
1095
Conclusion
Hypsometric study quantifies the geologic stages of development
and erosional proneness of a river basin. Therefore, it is useful to
comprehend the erosion status of drainage basins and prioritize them for
undertaking soil and water conservation measures, if necessary. But, great
care must be exercised in interpreting and comparing hypsometric curves
due to its complex nature of computation. It was observed from the
hypsometric curves and integral values of these sub basins that the drainage
system has transformed into mature stage as compared with Strahler’s
(1952) classification of various drainage basins. The hypsometric curve of
the entire study area has indicated and suggests that a larger part of the
area is moderate to gently sloping. The curve can be characterized as mature
/ equilibrium stage of landscape development. Among the six sub
catchments, sub catchment-C shows a high hypsometric integral value
(0.56). Hence, this value shows that the study area is passing through early
mature stage of development. The hydrologic response of the sub basins
attaining the mature stage will have slow rate of erosion unless very high
rainfall leading to high runoff leads to more erosion. All the six sub-
catchments are at mature stage, which are moving towards stabilization
and also indicate that the erosional process differs from one sub-catchment
to another. These sub-catchments needs minimum mechanical and
vegetative measures to arrest sediment loss but may require more water
harvesting structures to conserve water at appropriate locations in the
watershed for conjunctive use of water. No sub-catchment comes in the
old stage of dissection in the study area. This analysis will help to take
appropriate measures to conserve soil and water resources for sustainable
development of the study area.
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Basin, Karnataka, India, using geographic information system. Geocarto
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1097-1110, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
84
Landslide Hazard Zonation Along State
Highway between Aizawl City and Aibawk
Town, Mizoram, India, Using Geospatial
Techniques
Laltlankima*1, F. Lalbiakmawia1, K. S. Rao1
* Astt. Professor, Department of Geology, Govt. Zirtiri Residential
Science College, Mizoram, India
Asst. Hydrogeologist, PHE Department Mizoram, India
Asst.Professor, Department of Geology, Mizoram University
Abstract
Road transport network is one of the most common victims of landslide
disaster which in turn affects the population. Landslide is one of the
most common geo-environmental hazards in Mizoram due to its fragile
geologic conditions and unplanned developmental activities. The
present study investigates the Landslide Hazard Zones along State
highway between Aizawl city and Aibawk town of Mizoram. This
highway is the most important road connecting northern and southern
parts of the state. The study utilized Remote Sensing and Geographic
Information System (GIS) techniques. The road was buffered 50m on
both side to delineate the study area. Important factors which induced
landslide were identified and accordingly, five thematic layers viz.,
slope morphometry, geological structures like faults and lineaments,
lithology, relative relief and land use / land cover were generated. These
thematic layers were ranked and weighted based on their relative
1098
importance in causing landslide. Each class within a thematic layer

was assigned an ordinal rating from 1 to 10 as attribute information in
the GIS environment. These attribute values were then multiplied by
the corresponding rank values to yield the different zones of landslide
hazard. The ground information on landslide occurrences were also
considered while classifying the different zones of landslide hazard.
The resulting Landslide Hazard Zonation map classified the area into
five relative hazard classes like very high, high, moderate, low, and
very low. The final map generated will, therefore, be used by engineers
and administrators for maintenance and monitoring of this state
highway to ensure smooth flow of transportation between the state
capital and other important district headquarters of the southern part
of Mizoram. Landslide inventory was also conducted and remedial
measures were suggested at several landslide locations.
Keywords: GIS, Landslide Hazard Zonation, Remote Sensing, Aizawl
city, Aibawk town.
Introduction
Landslide is a major natural geologic hazards causing loss of lives,
damage to houses, roads and other infrastructures(Dai et al., 2002; Sarkar
and Kanungo, 2004; Gurugnanam et al., 2012; Sujatha et al., 2012). Rapid
increase of manmade stuctures, fast expansion of road networks and growth
of population lead to high vulnerability of human lives and properties.
Landslide therefore, become a disaster when it occurs in such human
habitations (Chandel et al., 2011). Geologically, Mizoram comprises N-S
trending ridges with steep slopes, narrow intervening synclinal valleys,
dissected ridges with deep gorges, and faulting in many areas has produced
steep fault scarps (GSI, 2011). Therefore, settlement areas along with roads
in Mizoram are highly vulnerable to landslide disaster. Several attempts
were made to study landslide within the state of Mizoram. These include
Geoenvironmental appraisal of Aizawl town and its surroundings (Jaggi,
1988), study of Vaivakawn landslide in Aizawl city with geotechnical
laboratory testing of the slide materials (Choubey, 1992), critical study of
the causes of South Hlimen landslide in 1992 which claimed the lives of
almost 100 people (Tiwari and Kumar, 1997) and Geo-data based Total
Estimated Landslide Hazard Zonation in the southern part of the state
(Lalnuntluanga 1999). A comprehensive report onLandslide Hazard
Zonation of southern part of Mizoram which includes Lunglei, Lawngtlai
and Saiha districts (Rajuet al., 1999), and Landslide Hazard Zonation
Mapping of Serchhip town (Ghosh and Singh, 2001) were also carried
out.
Remote Sensing and GIS have wide-range applications in the field
of geo-sciences (Jeganathan and Chauniyal, 2002).Therefore, many
1099
researchers have utilised these techniques for landslide hazard studies

(Vahidnia et al., 2009; Dinachandra Singh et al., 2010). The same techniques
had been used to carry out Landslide Hazard Zonation of Uttaranchal and
Himachal Pradesh States by National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA,
2001). Landslide Hazard Zonation of Aizawl city, the state capital of
Mizoram using satellite data like IRS LISS III and PAN data had also been
done successfully (Lallianthanga and Laltanpuia, 2007). Remote Sensing
and GIS techniques have been proved to be of immense value in landslide
hazard zonation, and this had been validated in the study conducted for
Aizawl city (MIRSAC, 2007). Similar techniques had also been successfully
applied in Landslide Hazard Zonation studies for Serchhip town
(Lallianthanga and Lalbiakmawia, 2013), Mamit town (Lallianthanga et
al., 2013), Kolasib town (Lallianthanga and Lalbiakmawia, 2013), Saitual
town (Lallianthanga and Lalbiakmawia, 2013), entire Aizawl district
(Lallianthanga and Lalbiakmawia, 2013) and for Aizawl City (Lallianthanga
and Lalbiakmawia, 2013). The present study utilizes Quickbird, IRS(P-6)
LISS-III and IRS(P-5) Cartosat-I data to map the different landslide hazard
zones and to create database for mitigation measures of landslides along
the highway between Aizawl city and Aibawk town which frequently
suffered many landslide incidents. The study also suggest the methods for
mitigation of landslide along this vibrant highway.
Figure 1: Location map of the study area

1100

Data used
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Quickbird, (IRS-P6) LISS III data
having spatial resolution of 23.5m and Cartosat-Istereo-paired data having
spatial resolution of 2.5m were used as the main data. SOI topographical
maps and various ancillary data were also referred in the study.
Thematic layers
For the preparation of landslide hazard map, a detailed knowledge
of the processes which influence the landslide activities in an area is required
(Dutta and Sarma, 2013). There are several geo-environmental factors which
are known to induce landslide (Bijukchhen et al., 2009). Selection and
preparation of these factors as thematic data layers are highly crucial for
landslide hazard mapping (Sarkar and Kanungo, 2004). Integration of multi-
sources of information is a major goal to attain more reasonable results in
the assessment of many environmental issues (Archana and Kausik, 2013).
The present study utilised five thematic layers for Landslide Hazard
Zonation which were prepared from satellite data and field work. The
different layers are as follows-
Land use/Land cover
Land use/land cover pattern is one of the most important parameters
governing slope stability as it controls the rate of weathering and erosion
(Anbalagan et al., 2008). The study area was divided into four classes,
viz., Dense Vegetation, Light Vegetation, Scrubland and Built-up areas.
Built-up areas were more prone to landslide than all the other classes
(Pandey et al., 2008) while Dense vegetation were considered less prone
to the occurrence of landslides (Mohammad Onargh et al., 2012). The
different land use / land cover classes in the study area are shown in Figure
2.
Slope
Landslides are more prevalent in the steep slope areas than in moderate
and gentle slope areas (Sharma et al., 2011; Das et al., 2011). This is due
to the fact that the shear stress in soil or other unconsolidated material
increases as the slope angle increases. Therefore, slope is one of the most
important parameter for stability consideration (Lee et al., 2004; Nithya
and Prasanna, 2010). Slope map was generated from Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) in a GIS environment. The slopes of the area are represented
in terms of degrees, and are divided into six slope classes, viz., 0- 10, 10-
1101
20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, and above 50 degrees.Weightage values are

assigned in accordance with the steepness of the slope. Slope map is shown
in Figure 3.
Figure 2: LU/LC map of the study area Figure 3: Slope map of the study area
Relative relief
Relative relief plays a crucial role in the vulnerability of settlements and
transport network. Hence, it is an important factor in landslide hazard
zonation (Chandel et al., 2011). The study area possesses high relative or
local relief and was divided into High and Moderate classes with elevation
ranging from more than 1000m and 500-1000m from mean sea level
respectively. High elevated areas are more susceptible to landslide than
areas with lower elevation (Lee et al., 2004) and following this pattern,
weightage values were given to each of the relative relief classes. The
relative relief map of the study area is shown in Fig. 4.
Lithology
Lithology is one of the major parameters for landslide hazard zonation
(Sharma et al., 2011). The geology of Mizoram consists of great flysch
facies of rocks comprising monotonous sequences of shale and sandstone
(La Touche, 1891). The study area lies over Middle Bhuban, Upper Bhuban
and Bokabil formations of Surma Group of Tertiary age (GSI, 2011). Middle
Bhuban and Bokabil formations consist mainly of argillaceous rocks while
1102
Figure 4: Relative relief map Figure 5: Geological map of the Landslide inventory
of the study area study area map
Upper Bhuban formation compirses mainly of arenaceous rocks. Two litho-

units have been established for the study area purely based on the exposed
rock types. These are named as Sandstone dominant unit and Shale
dominant unit. Soft rock units comprising of shale erode faster and are
easily weathered (Anbalagan et al., 2008), and are therefore considered
more susceptible to landslide than the hard and compact sandstone units.
In accordance with this, weightage values are assigned for analysis.
Geological Structure
Remote sensing data can be utilised to delineate and analyse the
geological structures like faults, fractures, joints, etc.(Kanungo et al., 1995).
These geological structures are among the most important parameters for
Landslide Hazard Zonation (Saha et al., 2002). It was observed that the
rocks exposed within the study area were traversed by several faults and
fractures of varying magnitude and length (MIRSAC, 2006). Areas located
within the vicinity of faults zones and other geological structures are
considered more vulnerable to landslides. For analysis, areas with 50 m on
both sides of all the lineaments including faults were buffered. The
geological map of the study area is given in Fig.5.
1103
Data Analysis
The main road connecting Aizawl city and Aibawk was buffered
500m on both side to delineate the study area keeping in mind that any
landside incident within that vicinity may damage the road and disrupt any
kind of transportation activities. Landside inventory was done along the
the road in which recent and dormant landslide were identified, anaylse
and plotted in a GIS environment. The geo-environmental factors like slope
morphometry, land use/land cover, relative relief, lithology and geological
structure are found to be playing significant roles in causing landslides in
the study area. These five themes form the major parameters for landslide
hazard zonation and are individually divided into appropriate classes.
Individual classes in each parameter are carefully analysed so as to establish
their relation to landslide hazard. Weightage value is assigned for each
class based on their hazard to landslide in such a manner that less weightage
represents the least influence towards landslide occurrence, and more
weightage, the highest. The assignment of weightage value for the different
categories within a parameter is done in accordance to their assumed or
expected importance in inducing landslide based on the apriori knowledge
of the experts. In addition, ground information regarding landslide
occurences within the study area were also considered. All the thematic
layers were integrated and analysed in a GIS environment to derive a
Landslide Hazard Zonation map. The scheme of giving weightages by
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA, 2001) and stability rating as
devised by Joyce and Evans (Joyce and Evans1976) were adopted in the
study as shown in Table 5.
Very High Hazard Zone
This zone is highly unstable and is at a constant threat from
landslides. The area forms steep slopes with loose and unconsolidated
materials, and include areas where evidence of active or past landslips
were observed. Besides, it also includes those areas which are located near
faults and tectonically weak zones. It further includes areas where road
cutting and other human activities are actively undertaken.
High Hazard Zone
It mainly includes areas where the probability of sliding debris is
at a high risk. It covers an area of steep slopes whichwhen disturbed are
prone to landslides. Most of the pre-existing landslides fall within this
category. Besides, this zone comprises areas where the dip of the rocks
1104
and slope of the area, which are usually very steep, [about 45 degrees or
more] are in the same direction. This rendered them susceptible to slide
along the slope. Several lineaments, fractured zones and fault planes also
traverse the high susceptible zone. Areas which experience constant erosion
by streams because of the soft nature of the lithology and loose overlying
burden, fall under this class.
Moderate Hazard Zone
This zone comprises the areas that have moderately dense
vegetation, moderate slope angle and relatively compactand hard rocks. It
is generally considered stable, as long as its present status is maintained.
Although this zone may include areas that have steep slopes, the orientation
of the rock bed and absence of overlying loose debris and human activity
make them less hazardous. The Moderate Hazard Zone is well distributed
within the study area. Several parts of the human settlement also come
under this zone. It may be noted that as seismic activity and continuous
heavy rainfall can reduce the slope stability. It is recommended not to
disturb the natural drainage, and at the same time, slope modification should
be avoided as far as possible. Further, future land use activity has to be
properly planned so as to maintain its present status.
Table: Ratings for Parameters on a scale of 1-10 Landslide hazard zonation map
1105
Low Hazard Zone

This zone includes areas where the combination of various
controlling parameters is generally unlikely to adversely influence the slope
stability. Vegetation is relatively dense, the slope angles are generally low,
about 30 degrees or below. Large part of this zone prominently lies over
hard and compact rock type. This zone is mainly confined to areas where
anthropogenic activities are less or absent. No evidence of instability is
observed within this zone, and mass movement is not expected unless major
site changes occur.
Very Low Hazard Zone
This zone generally includes the area where the slope angles of
the rocks are fairly low. As such, it is assumed to be free from present and
future landslide hazard. Although the lithology may comprises of soft rocks
and overlying soil debris in some areas, the chance of slope failure is
minimized by low slope angle. The Landslide Hazard Zonation map is
shown in Fig. 6.
Remedial Measures
Landslide inventory survey was conducted along the state highway
between Aizawl city and Aibawk town. The active landslide locations were
marked identified using GPS and photographs were also taken which was
correlated using alpha-numeric code. Remedial measures were also
suggested as follows:
For landslide location code L-1, L-2 and L-3, excessive use of
heavy machinery and excessive blasting should be avoided in these stone
quarries. Extraction of building stones should be done with extreme care
and in systematic ways. For landslide location code L-4, L-9 and L-11;
although vegetation alone cannot prevent or stop a landslide.Vegetation is
an important slope stabilizer. Planting the slope with thick native vegetation
serves to strengthen the shallow soils with root systems, prevents erosion,
and deters infiltration. Control of surface water using catch water or
interceptor drains L-12 and L-15 is suggested as loose soil may continue
to slide during rainy season. The collection of run-off at the uphill of
unstable area may be done using catch water or interceptor drains, in order
to intercept and divert the water from the hill slope, catch water drains
shall be located, after the topography of the ground is studied in detail.
Catch water drains shall be lined and properly maintained and shall be
given a gradient of 1 in 50 to 1 in 33 to avoid high water velocity and
possible wash out.
1106
Landslide location code-L1 Landslide location code -L2 Landslide location code-L3
Landslide location code-L4 Landslide location Landslide location code-L15

code- L11
Landslide location code-L12 Landslide Lc-L6 Landslide Lc-5
Highly weathered fractured rock was found at L-6, L-10. Rock

fall protection using geo-grid netting is suggested at this site as rock fall
cause danger to the life of the pedestrian and passenger of the vehicle.
Rock falls can be contained by providing gabion wall to withstand the
pressure at least a height of 4m. Gabion walls acts as retaining walls. Geo-
grid netting up to top and well anchored on all the sides of the rock fall
zone may also be utilized.
1107
Benching of slopes may be provided at L-5, L-7 and L-8. Benching

involves straight slopes separated by near horizontal bench. Benching
increases stability of slopes by dividing the long slope into segments or
smaller slopes connected by benches, the proper width of bench shall be
estimated by analysis of stability of slopes for a given soil. The width of
bench shall not be less than 4 m to enable the slope segments to act
independently. In Benching of slopes, construction becomes easier since
steeper slopes are feasible with benches. The benches shall be constructed
with a V-shaped or gutter section with a longitudinal drainage grade and
with suitable catch basins to carry the water down the slopes. The ditch
shall be lined or paved to reduce erosion or to prevent percolation of water
into pervious areas on the benches. In High and Moderate hazard zones,
forestation scheme should be implemented. It is also recommended not to
disturb the natural drainage, and at the same time, slope modification should
be avoided as far as possible. Further, future land use activity has to be
properly planned.
Conclusions
The present study has proven that terrain factors like land use/
land cover, lithology, slope, geological structure and relative relief are
directly associated with the occurrence of landslides. The study further
indicates that landslide. Occurrences are mostly confined at the newly
constructed or widened roads. This shows that proper planning with
landslide mitigation measures is required for expansion of settlement and
construction of road communications. Different methods of remedial
measures should be utilized depending upon the types of landslides for
implementing suitable mitigation measures.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1111-1126, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
85
Evaluation of Phytochemical and Acute
Toxicity of Various Extracts of Croton
caudatus Geiseler
Longjam Shantabi1*, Ganesh Chandra Jagetia1and Thaodem
Tomcha Singh2
1
Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl –796 004, India
2
Department of Radiotherapy, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences,
Imphal 795001,India
E mail:[email protected]
Abstract
Croton caudatusGeiseler is widely used in the northeast region of India
to treat several diseases in humans. The aim of the present study was
to investigate the phytochemical basis of its medicinal use and the
acute toxic effects of various leaf extracts of Croton caudatus
(CCE).The mature leaves of Croton caudatuswere collected, dried and
powdered. The powdered material was sequentially extracted in
petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl alcohol and water. The cooled liquid
extracts were concentrated by evaporating their liquid contents under
reduced pressure at room temperature,concentrated in vacuo and stored
at -70°C until further use. Qualitative phytochemical analysis, TLC
profiling and the acute toxic effects of different doses of various extracts
of Croton caudatus leaves were carried out using standard protocol.
The Croton caudatus was found to contain alkaloids, phytosterols,
saponins, phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenolics and
terpenoids. The intraperitoneal administration of different CCEs
showed a dose dependent increase in the acute toxicity in mice.The
LD 50 was 0.35 g/kg b. wt. for aqueous CCE, whereas it was 0.5 g/kg b.
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wt. for chloroform and 0.65 g/kg b. wt. for ethanol extracts,
respectively.
Keywords: Croton caudatus, phytochemical, TLC, LD 50 and acute
toxicity.
Introduction
Herbal medicines are as old as the human race and have historically
been nurtured by shamans, wise-women and healers. A tremendous amount
of empirical information has accumulated to form a nebulous system of
“herbal medicine.” Two of the most extensively developed traditional
systems are Chinese medicine and the Indian system of Ayurvedic medicine.
The medicinal benefits of herbs have been known for centuries. Records
of Native American, Roman, Egyptian, Persian, and Hebrew medical
practices show that herbs were used extensively to cure practically every
known illness. Many herbs contain powerful ingredients which, when used
correctly, can help heal the body. The pharmaceutical industry was originally
based upon the ability to isolate these ingredients, and make them available
in a purer form (Tyler, 1993, 1994).
Medicines derived from plants have played a pivotal role in health
care of ancient and modern cultures. Ayurveda, the Indian system of
medicine mainly uses plant based drugs or formulations to treat various
ailments including cancer. Recent surveys suggest that one in three
Americans uses dietary supplements daily and the rate of usage is much
higher in cancer patients, which may be up to 50% of patients treated in
cancer centers (Richardson et al., 2000). The popularity for use of herbal
medicines by general public is due to the belief that botanicals are nontoxic
and will provide some measure of benefit over and above modern allopathic
medical approaches whose toxic implications are greater. They are also
considered non-toxic or less toxic than the synthetic molecules. There is
also the sense that taking supplements will allow some measure of self-
choice in medical care (Eisenberg et al, 1998).
The Croton caudatusGeiseler (family Euphorbiaceae) has been
traditionally used to treat several human health disorders.It is used as a
poultice to treat fever and sprains in various parts of Asia. It is also used to
treat liver diseases. The roots of Crotoncaudatusare purgative and its roots,
stems or leaves are used individually or even the whole plant is also used
for medicinalpurpose owing to low toxicity(Lin et al., 2003).Croton
caudatusis fairly widespread in South East Asia and it is found in Sri Lanka,
Bhutan,Borneo, Burma, Indo-Myanmar region, Java, Laos, Malaysia,
Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sumatra, Thailand andVietnam.
1113
The Chin-Kuki, inhabitants of Manipur and Mizoram have used Croton

caudatusGeiseler for healthcare since long.It has been used as a traditional
Dai Nationalistic medicine, where its stems and leaves have been used for
the treatment ofmalaria, ardent fever, convulsions, rheumatic arthritis, and
numbness (Jiangsu New Medical College, 1975). It is one of the constituents
in Qi Wei KeTengZi Wan,which is a famous formula used by the Dai
nationality of China for the treatment of pain and stomach
diseases(Anonymous, 2005). The leaves havebeen applied on festering
wounds of injured cattles to ward off against the maggots. In Hmar language,
it is called as “Ranlungdamdawi”(Ranlung=Worm, damdawi=medicine),
in Manipuri language “Yong Khullokpi and Khagilaikoi” and in Thadou-
Kuki”Ganthanlou”. The oral administration of the juice/extract from leaves
has been first experimented at Saikot, Churachandpurdistrict of Manipur
by Mr. Chawilen on himself, ther efore it is also known as
“Chawilendamdawi (medicine)” after him and it istraditionally known as
“Kam-Sabut”. It usually grows in peat swamp, deciduous and thick canopy
evergreen forests. Sometimes, italso grows near marginal areas along river
or stream tracts. Owing to its widespread use in this part of India as a
traditional medicine,the present study was undertaken to investigate the
phytochemical profile ofCroton caudatus in vitroand the acute toxic effects
it various leaf extracts in Swiss albino mice
Experimental
The Croton caudatuswas collected and its various extracts were
analyzed for the presence of various phytochemicals asdescribed below.
Collection and extraction
The mature and non-infected leaves of Croton caudatus Geiseler
(family: Euphorbiaceae) were collected from Saikot, Churachandpur
District of Manipur during the dry season. The plant was identified by
Professor Kumar Singh, a well-knowntaxonomist of Manipur University,
Imphal, India and it was further authenticated by the Botanical Survey of
India, Shillong. Thecleaned and non-infected leaves were spread in the
stainless steel trays and allowed to shade dry at room temperature in darkin
clean and hygienic conditions to avoid entry of insects, animals, fungus,
and extraneous terrestrial materials. The exhaust andfree air circulation
was allowed. The dried leaves were powdered in a grinder at room
temperature. A sample of 100 g of leafpowder was extracted sequentially
with petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol and water in a Soxhlet apparatus
1114
(Suffness and Dorous, 1979).The extract wasthen concentrated to dryness

under reduced pressure and stored at -80°C until further use. An approximate
yield of 26% wasobtained.
Phytochemical Screening:
Phytochemical screening of different extracts was carried out for
the presence of variousphytochemicals using standard procedures as
described below.
Alkaloids:
0.5 g of extract was dissolved in 10 ml of acidified alcohol, boiled
and filtered and to the 5 ml of filtrate, 2 ml ofdilute ammonia was added
followed by the addition of 5 ml of chloroform. The mixture was shaken
gently to extract the alkaloidalbase. The chloroform layer was further
extracted with 10 ml of acetic acid and divided into two parts. One part
was mixed withMayer’s reagent, whereas the other part was mixed with
Draggendorff’s reagent. The formation of a creamy (Mayer’s reagent)
orreddish brown precipitate (Draggendorff’s reagent) indicated the presence
of alkaloids(Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012). Similarly, to other two tubes
Hager’sand Wagner’s reagents were added and the appearance of the yellow
and brown precipitates indicated the presence of alkaloidsin the ethanol
extract of Croton caudatus.
Tannins:
About 0.5 g of dried powdered samples was boiled in 20 ml of
water in a test tube and filtered. A few drops of 0.1% ferricchloride was
added to the filtrate. The formation of brownish green or a blue-black
colour indicated the presence of tannins (Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012).
Phlobatannins:
The aqueous extract of Croton caudatuswas boiled with 1%
aqueous hydrochloric acid and deposition of a red precipitateindicated the
presence of phlobatannins (Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012)
Saponins:
Usually 2 g of powdered sample was boiled with 20 ml of distilled
water in a water bath for 10 minutes and filtered while hotand cooled
before conducting the following tests:
Frothing: 3 ml of filtrate was diluted up to 10 ml with distilled
water and shaken vigorously for 2 minutes. The formation ofa fairly stable
1115
froth indicated the presence of saponins in the filtrate.

Emulsification: 3 ml of above filtrate was diluted to 10 ml by adding
7 ml distilled water, mixed with 3 drops of olive oil andshaken vigorously
for a few minutes. The formation of a fairly stable emulsion indicated the
presence of saponins(Trease and Evans 1989; Harborne, 1998; Doughari,
2012).
Flavonoids:
The presence of flavonoids was determined in all the extracts using
three different methods(Sofowara, 1993; Harbrone, 1998; Doughari, 2012).
5 ml of dilute ammoniasolution was added to a portion of the
aqueous filtrate of each extract followed by the addition of a concentrated
H2SO4. Appearanceof a yellow colour (disappeared on standing) in each
extract indicated the presence of flavonoids.A few drops of 1% aluminum
solution was added to a portion of each filtrate. A yellow colour indicated
the presence offlavonoids.A portion of the each plant powder was heated
with 10 ml of ethyl acetate over a steam bath for 3 min. The mixture
wasfiltered and 4 ml of the filtrate was shaken with 1 ml of dilute ammonia
solution. A yellow colour indicated the presence offlavonoids.
Steroids:
The presence of steroids was determined by adding 2 ml of acetic
anhydride into 0.5 g ethanol extract of Croton caudatusfollowed by the
addition of 2 ml sulphuric acid. The change from violet to blue colour or
green colour in some samples indicatedthe presence of steroids(Harborne,
1998; Doughari, 2012).
Terpenoids:
Four milligrams of plant extract was treated with 0.5 ml of acetic
anhydride and 0.5 ml of chloroform, followed by the slowaddition of
concentrated sulphuric acid. The development of red violet or blue colour
indicated the presence of terpenoids(Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012).
Salkowskitest: Five ml of each extract was mixed with 2 ml
chloroform, with a careful overlaying of 3 ml concentratedsulphuric acid.
The formation of a reddish brown precipitate at the interface indicated the
presence of terpenoids ((Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012).
Cardiac Glycosides (Keller-Killani test):
Usually 5 ml of each extract was treated with 2 ml of glacial acetic
1116
acid containing one drop of ferric chloride solution withan under laying of
1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid. The appearance of brown ring at the
interface indicated the presence ofdeoxysugar, which is characteristic of
cardenolides (Harborne, 1998; Doughari, 2012).
TLC Analysis:
TLC is a simple and rapid technique which allows the
determinationof number of components present in solution and helps in
finding a suitable solvent for separating the components by column
chromatography as well as for monitoring reactions progress. The ethanol
extract was spotted on to a number of TLC plates (Merck India, Mumbai)
in 1 mm diameter above the bottom of the plates and placed into different
mobile phases. The extracts were allowed to move on the adsorbent
(Stationary) phase according to the solvent system used. Several
combinations of solvents of increasing polarity were evaluated as mobile
phase for TLC run to determine the number of compounds present in
different extracts of Croton caudatus. The different solvent systems were
used as mobile phase for TLC, which consisted of n-hexane (n HX) : ethyl
acetate (EtOAc) (7:3), hexane ; ethyl acetate (9:1), benzene (C6H6) : acetone
(Me2 CO)(9.5:0.5), chloroform (CHCl 3 ) : methanol (MeOH) (3:2),
dichloromethane (DCM) : methanol (MeOH) (8:2), dichloromethane
(DCM) : methanol (MeOH) (9:1), chloroform : methanol : Acetic acid
(3:1.5:0.5), chloroform : ethyl acetate (9:1) solvent combinations. The
measure of the distance a compound travelled is considered as the Rf value.
In each case the spots were visualized under UV light.
Animal care and handling
The animal care and handling were done according to the guidelines
issued by the World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, INSA
(Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, India) and the “Guide for
the care and use of Laboratory Animals” (National Academy of Sciences,
USA, 2010). Ten to twelve weeks old female Swiss albino mice weighing
30 to 36 g were selected from an inbred colony maintained under the
controlled conditions of temperature (23 ± 2°C), humidity (50±5%) and
light (12 h each of light and dark, respectively). The animals had free
access to the sterile food and water. Four animals were housed in a
polypropylene cage containing sterile paddy husk (procured locally) as
bedding throughout the experiment. The study was approved by the
Institutional Animal Ethical Committee of Regional Institute of Medical
Sciences, Imphal, India.
1117
Preparation of drug and mode of administration

The chloroform extract of Croton caudatus(CC) was dissolved in
100 ml of chloroform and diluted with sterile physiological saline (SPS)
containing 1.0 % carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC). Similarly ethanolic
extract of Croton caudatus was dissolved in 5% ethanol and diluted with
sterile physiological saline (SPS)containing 1.0 % carboxy methyl cellulose
(CMC). Aqueous extract was dissolved in sterile physiological saline (SPS).
Each animal from each group received 0.01 ml/g b. wt of either chloroform,
ethanol or aqueous extract intraperitoneally. All extracts were dissolved
in solvent immediately before use.
Acute Toxicity
The acute toxicity of CCE (Croton caudatus extract) was
determined (Prieuret al., 1972 and Ghosh, 1984) according to OECD
guideline No. 420-425. Both male and female albino mice were randomly
selected from the colony and assigned individual identification. The
animals were fasted for 18 h and were divided into three groups. Thereafter
the animals were administered intraperitoneally with 0.15, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0,
2.0, 3.5, 4.0, 5.0 g/Kg body weight of different CCEs, whereas the matching
control group received SPS containing 1.0 % CMC. The animals were
provided with food immediately after administration of different extracts.
Animals were observed continuously for first two hours and every
6 hours until 24 hours, and daily thereafter, for a total period of 14 days for
the development of toxic symptoms. The data were collected for the toxic
manifestations including alteration in the behaviour, tremors, convulsions,
salivation, diarrhoea, lethargy, sleep, and coma, time of onset and length
of recovery period. All observations were systematically recorded with
individual records being maintained for each animal (Table-1-3). Eight
animals were used for each dose of each extract for this experiment and a
total of 200 animals were used for the whole experiment.
Result
The results of phytochemical analyses of Croton caudatusare
presented in Table 1.The results of TLC profiles are depicted in (Figures
1) and the results of acute CCE toxicity are expressed as mean ±SEM in
tables 1 to 3.
The preliminary phytochemical screenings of different extracts of
Croton caudatusshowed the presence of alkaloids, phytosterols, saponins,
phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides flavonoids, phenolic and terpenoids as
1118
chemical entities, whereas tannins were completely absent (Table 1).

Table 1. Results of the Phytochemical analysis of Croton caudatusleaves.
Tests Chloroform extract Ethanolic extract Aqueous extract
Steroid + + +
Triterpenoid + + +
Phenol + + +
Flavonoid + + +
Tannins _ _ _
Saponin + + +
Alkaloid + + +
Cardic Glycoside + + +
phlobatanin + + +
TLC
The evaluation of various extracts of Croton caudatus showed presence
of different components as indicated by a varying number of spots on a
TLC plates. The TLC profiles are depicted in (Figures 1)
Figure 1: TLC profile of various leaf extracts of Croton caudatus (a;b chloroform
extract) by using a:chloroform:methanol: acetic acid (3;1.5:0.5), b:dichloromethane
:methanol (9:1), (c;d ethanol extract) by using c:chloroform: methanol (8:2),
d:hexane:ethyl acetate (9:1) and (e;f aqueous extract) by using e: chloroform: methanol
(8:2) and f:dichloromethane :methanol (9:1).
Acute toxicity:
The animals treated intraperitoneally with CCE did not show any toxic
symptoms or mortality up to a dose of 0.5 mg/kg body weight for
1119
chloroform and ethanolic extracts except aqueous extract where the animal
succumbed to death at a dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight indicating
maximum tolerated safe dose. A further increase in CCE dose caused
increased mortality and no animals could survive beyond 50 mg/kg b. wt.
of CCEs (Tables 1 to 3). The LD50 was 0.35 g/kg b. wt. for aqueous CCE,
whereas it was 0.5 g/kg b. wt. for chloroform and 0.65 g/kg b. wt. for
ethanol extracts, respectively.
Discussion
The plants are able to synthesize various complex molecules for
their nutrition, stress combat, defense and as a byproduct of metabolism.
These molecules are useful as remedies for various human diseases. The
analysis of phytochemistry of plants plays an important role in drug
development and also in combinatorial chemistry for new drug discovery.
The presence of different phytochemicals or pharmacophores makes plants
as an important source of medicine for the treatment of various human
ailments. The plants usually contain various phytochemicals including
alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and other polyphenolic compounds, which
are known to exert a definite physiological and biochemical action in the
humans after their administration (Hill, 1952). The plants containing
alkaloids have played a key role in the treatment of human diseases since
the advent of human history. The alkaloids derived from plant have been
used to treat cancer in the modern medicine. Some of the plant derived
alkaloids which have formed the part of cancer treatment regimens include
vinca alkaloids, taxons, podophyllotoxins, camtothecins etc. (Nicolaou et
al., 1994; Moudiet al., 2013).
The term saponins denote the ability of these natural products to
form froth in aqueous solutions. The saponins are a class of triterpinoids
found in several plants and mainly consist of aglycone, designated genin
or sapogenin, covalently linked to one or more sugar moieties. The saponins
are produced by plants mainly as a defence against pathogens and
herbivores. The saponins have been also found to possess immune adjuvant,
antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antioxidant, anticarcino genicimmuno
stimulatory, hypoglycemic and membrane permeabilizing activities
(Khatuntsevaet al., 2012; Khan et al., 2012). Saponins have been found to
inhibit angiogenesis and exert anticancer activity by inhibiting the cell
cycle and inducing apoptosis in cultured cell lines (Man et al., 2010).
Flavonoids are important biomolecules synthesized by plants for
various purposes and more than 4000 different flavonoids have been
identified in different plants. The flavonoids have been reported to possess
1120
Table 2. Effect of chloroform leaf extract of Croton caudatus on the acute toxicity in mice
Dose (g/kg) Mortality (%) on different days Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total
0.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 Active and all survived.
0.5 12.5 - - - - - - - - - 25 12.5 - - 50 Active and 4 died on 12 days.
1 - 12.5 12.5 - 12.5 - 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 - - - - 87.5 Lethargic 50% died before 7 days.
2 - 37.5 - 12.5 - 12.5 12.5 25 - - - - - - 100 Dull and died before 14 days.
3.5 37.5 - - 12.5 - - 25 - 12.5 12.5 - - - - 100 Lethargic and died before 14 days.
4 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100 Aggressiveness, dullness and died
within 4h.
within 2h.
Table 3. Effect of ethanol leaf extract of Croton caudatus on the acute toxicity in mice
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total
0.5 - - - - - - - - - - 12.5 12.5 - - 25 Active and 25% died before 14
days.
1 - 12.5 12.5 - 12.5 25 - 12.5 - 12.5 - - - - 87.5 Lethargic and 50% died before 7
days.
2 - 25 - - - 12.5 25 - 37.5 - - - - - 100 Dull and died before 14 days.
3.5 - 12.5 12.5 25 - 25 12.5 12.5 - - - - - - 100 Lethargic and died before 14 days.
within first day.
within 3h.
1121
1122
Table 4. Effect of aqueous extract of Croton caudatus on the acute toxicity in mice
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total
0.25 - - 12.5 - - - - - - 12.5 - 12.5 - - 37.5 Active and 37.5% died before 14
days.
0.5 - 12.5 - 25 - 12.5 - - - - - 12.5 - - 62.5 Active and 62.5% died before 14
days.
1 - 12.5 - 12.5 12.5 12.5 - 12.5 12.5 - 25 - - - 100 Lethargic and 50% died within7
days.
2 - - 12.5 12.5 - 25 25 - 25 - - - - - 100 Dull and all died before 14 days.
3.5 12.5 25 - 12.5 12.5 37.5 - - - - - - - - 100 Lethargic and all died before 14
days.
4 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100 Aggressiveness, dullness and all
died within 1h.
5 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100 Writhing, aggressiveness, dullness
and all died within 10 min.
1123
antimicrobial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiarrheal, antiinflammatory,

antithrombogenic, antiosteoporotic, antiviral and radioprotective activities
(Nijveldtet al., 2001; Jagetia and Reddy, 2002, 2005; Jagetiaet al., 2003;
Jagetia and Venkatesh, 2005; Schuieret al, 2005; Cushnie and Lamb, 2005;
Cushnie and Lamb, 2011).
Plant synthesizes a diverse array of steroids, which have been found
to be present in all the plants. Phytosterols have been found to possess
hypoglycemic activity and also act as hormones (Okwu, 2001). Steroids in
modern clinical studies have been used as anti-inflammatory and analgesic
agents (Singh, 2006).
Cardiac glycosides usually contain one or more sugars moieties
with an alcohol, a phenol, or a complex molecule such as a steroid nucleus.
Cardiac glycosides have been used as medicine to treat cardiac disorders
such as heart failure and atrial arrhythmia (Prassas and Diamandis, 2008).
They act by inhibiting Na+/K+-ATP ase. The clinical trials indicated that
the administration of the Cardiac glycosides, digoxin along with
chemotherapy had a positive impact on overall survival in the cohorts of
breast, colorectal, head and neck, and hepato-cellular carcinoma patients
(Mengeret al., 2012).
Traditionally Croton caudatusGeiseler var. tomentosushave been
used for the treatment of malaria, ardent fever, convulsions, rheumatic
arthritis, and numbness (Jiangsu New Medical College, 1975). The leaves
are also given to kill the sore-worms in pigs and cattles (Sawmliana, 2003).
Further investigations on the chemical constituents of this species have
now led to the isolation of a new flavone 1, along with nine known ones
(Zouet al, 2010).
In view of the increasing popular consumption of medicinal plants
as alternative therapy, it is necessary to conduct systematic research to
support the therapeutic claims and also to ensure that the plants are indeed
safe for human consumption (Wills et al., 2000; Simet al., 2010).
Investigation of acute toxicity is the first step in any toxicological
investigation of an unknown substance. The index for acute toxicity is
LD50. Historically the LD50 was determined with high degree of precision
and used to compare the toxicities of compounds relative to their therapeutic
doses. It is now realized that high precision may not be necessary to compare
toxicities. The present research finding has clearly met the objective of the
study. From the present study, the various extracts of Croton caudatus leaf
(CCE) did not show mortality up to a dose of 0.25 g/kg b.wt. for chloroform
and ethanolic extracts, respectively and 0.15 g/kg b. wt. for aqueous extract
1124
intraperitoneally during the observation period as per OECD guidelines

therefore according to the chemical labelling and classification of acute
systemic toxicity, based on intraperitoneally LD50 values, which were
recommended by OECD, the crude extracts of CCE were assigned to class
5 (LD50> 2000 mg/kg b. wt.), which was termed as the lowest toxicity
class (OECD, 1998).
Phytochemical analysis and TLC profiling of various extracts of
Croton caudatusrevealed that it contains alkaloids, phytosterols, saponins,
phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenolics and terpenoids
and the medicinal activity of this plant may be due to the presence of one
or more of these phytochemicals or also due to the concerted action of all
these pharmacophores. The acute toxicity studies have revealed that toxicity
profile of C. caudatus is low and may not have toxic imlications.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the University Grants Commission for
financial support vide Grant Nos. F.4-3/2007(BSR)/11-116/2008(BSR),
and F.4-10/2010(BSR) and Department of Biotechnology vide Grant No.
BT/60/NE/TBP/2011), Government ofIndia, New Delhi to carry out this
study.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1127-1137, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
86
Efficacy of L- Carnitine Supplementation
on the Tuibur (Tobacco Smoke Infused
Water) Induced Oxidative Stress and
Antioxidant Status in Testis of mice.
Maibam Sunita Devi*, Sanasam Sanjeev and Guruswami
Gurusubramanian
Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram,
India
* Corresponding Author: Mrs. Maibam Sunita Devi, Department of
Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004, Mizoram, India.
Abstract
A unique smokeless tobacco products (liquid preparation), made by
passing tobacco smoke through water till the preparation turns cognac
in colour and has a pungent smell is used in Mizoram locally known
as tuibur (tobacco smoke infused water). The major alkaloid component
of Tuibur is nicotin, a pharmacologically active and addictive alkaloid
component of most of the smokeless tobacco products causing
oxidative stress in reproductive organ leading infertility. L-Carnitine
is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized from the amino
acids lysine and methionine and exert a substantial antioxidant action,
thereby providing a protective effect against oxidative stress. The aim
of the present study was to determine the ameliorative effects L-
Carnitine supplementation against Tuibur induced oxidative stress and
antioxidant status of testis. Two different dozes of L-Carnitine (100
mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) were supplemented against Tuibur (260 mg/
1128
kg) and Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) orally treated animals for 90 days. The
oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation) and antioxidant status (superoxide
dismutase, Glutathione reduced and Glutathione S- Transferase) were
determined. The results showed significant increased in antioxidant
enzyme levels and decreased in lipid peroxidation in L- Carnitine
supplemented groups in compared to tuibur and nicotine treated groups.
Keywords: Tuibur, L- carnitine, Testis, Antioxidant, oxidative stress.
Introduction
A number of smoking and smokeless tobacco products are in use
all over the world. But unlike other smokeless tobacco products, unique
tobacco smoke–infused water is used in Mizoram and Manipur which is
locally known as tuibur and hidakphu, respectively. The consumption of
tuibur has been the part of the culture of Mizoram and Manipur for a long
time. These communities also have a very high incidence of tobacco use
(Sinha et al., 2003). Tuibur is made by passing the tobacco smoke, generated
by smoldering tobacco, through water until the preparation turns cognac
in color and has a pungent ammoniacal nicotine smell. Users take about 5
to 10 ml of tuibur orally and keep it in the buccal space of mouth for about
10 – 15 minutes and then spit it out and take it again as and when needed
(Sinha et al., 2004).
The major alkaloid component of Tuibur is nicotine. It is a
pharmacologically active and addictive alkaloid component of most of the
smokeless tobacco products, and its effects on male reproductive system
and fertility have been reported previously (Aydos et al., 2001). Wide body
of literature has indicated that nicotine decreases the level of testosterone
(Sarasin et al., 2003) through the inhibition in the multiple steps of
testosterone biosynthesis in the rats and the mouse (Patterson et al., 1990).
L-Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized
from the amino acids lysine and methionine. It is a trimethylated amino
acid roughly similar in structure to choline, facilitates the transfer of
activated long-chain fatty acids from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria,
where they are processed by oxidation to produce ATP (Steiber et al., 2004).
The carnitines exert a substantial antioxidant action, thereby providing a
protective effect against lipid peroxidation of phospholipid membranes
and against oxidative stress induced at the myocardial and endothelial cell
level (Cavazza, 2002). L-carnitine also acts as an antioxidant to prevent
the oxidative damage of sperms, improving sperm quality (Lenzi et al.,
2003) and shown to have beneficial effects in the treatment of varicocele,
a major cause of male infertility (Seo et al., 2003). Also, supplemental
doses of L-carnitine effectively counteracts the toxic effects of chronic
1129
nicotine administration on thyroid, liver, heart, bone, muscle, urinary

bladder, and kidney functions and attenuates the oxidative damage possibly
by its antioxidant action (Huang et al., 1999; Zadeh et al., 2008). The
present study was carried out to ascertain the testicular toxicity in mice
subjected to chronic Tuibur and nicotine treatment and the role of L-
carnitine supplementation to ameliorate the testicular toxicity.
Materials and Method
Animals
Ninety adult male Swiss albino adult mice (3 months old) weighing
25-30 g were obtained from the Animal Care Facility at the Department of
Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India. The animals were
accommodated in stainless steel wire-mesh cages under environmentally
controlled conditions (temperature: 25 ± 2°C; 12/12 h light/dark cycle) in
the Animal Care Facility at the Department of Zoology, Mizoram University,
Aizawl, Mizoram, India. The animals were provided with pelleted food
(standard pellet diet; Pranav Agro Industries, Maharashtra, India) and
drinking water ad libitum. This study was carried out in strict accordance
with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals of the National Institute of Health. The protocol was approved by
the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of the Mizoram
University Animal Ethical Committee (MZUAEC), Mizoram University,
Aizawl, Mizoram, India (Permit Number: MZU/IAEC/14-15/08).
Experimental groups
Animals were randomly divided into nine groups (n= 10 each)
and treated for 90 days by oral feeding as follows : I) Control (distilled
water); II) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg); III) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur
(260 mg/kg); IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); V) L-
Carnitine (200 mg/kg); VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/
kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW
(260 mg/kg); IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg). All the groups were allowed ad
libitum access to standard food and water until the day of the experiment.
Animal surgical procedure
After exposure to individual and combined Tuibur and L- carnitine
for 90 days, the rats of all groups were anesthetized with light ether
anesthesia and were sacrificed by decapitation, the reproductive organs
were removed by laparotomy and testes were decapsulated rapidly and
stored in -80 °C until used for all assays.
1130
Processing of Testes Tissues, Lipid Peroxidation, and Antioxidant Enzyme

Assays
The testis were harvested from each treatment group, and
homogenized with ice-cold Tris-EDTA suspension buffer in a glass
homogenizer to produce 10% (w/v) homogenate. The homogenates were
filtered and centrifuged for 30 minutes at ×10,000 g at 4ºC and the
supernatants were frozen at -80ºC in aliquots until used for biochemical
assays. The protein content of the supernatant was determined using the
Lowry method (Lowry et al., 1951).
The lipid peroxidation product (LPP) formation in the testes tissues
were estimated by measuring the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
and quantified as malondialdehyde (MDA) formed (nmol/mg protein) by
using 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane as the standard following the
spectrophotometric method of Ohkawa et al. (1979). Testes tissue
homogenates (10%) were prepared in potassium chloride (1.5%). The testes
tissue protein contents were precipitated by adding 2.5 mL of trichloroacetic
acid (TCA) to 1 mL of the homogenate. The precipitated proteins were
centrifuged at ×2500 g for 10 min at 4°C. The resultant pellet was suspended
in 2.5 mL of 0.05 M sulphuric acid and to this, 3 mL of 2 M thiobarbituric
acid (TBA) was also added. The whole suspension was incubated with
TBA for 30 min in boiling water bath (100°C). The contents were cooled
to room temperature, and pink color was extracted into 4 ml of n-butanol.
The color obtained was read at 530 nm using a spectrophotometer
(Eppendorf UV-9200) against the blank.
Testicular SOD was assayed by the method of Asada et al. (1974)
which involves the inhibition of photochemical reduction of nitro blue
tetrazolium (NBT) at pH 8.0. SOD activity was defined as the quantity of
superoxide dismutase required to produce 50% inhibition of photochemical
reduction of NBT. Briefly, the reaction mixture containing 100 µL of
phenazene methosulfate (PMS, 0.06 mg/mL), 300 µL of nitroblue
tetrazolium (NBT, 2.5 mg/mL) and 200 µL of NADH (0.6 mg/mL of n-
Butanol) were incubated at 30ºC for 90 sec. Reaction was stopped by
adding 1 mL of acetic acid and after that 4 mL of n-Butanol was added.
The absorbance was read at 560 nm against a blank using UV–Vis
spectrophotometer. The activity was expressed as µmol/mg protein.
Activity of catalase (CAT) in the reproductive organs was measured
at 37ºC by following the rate of disappearance of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
at 240 nm (Aebi, 1984). One unit of CAT activity is defined as the amount of
enzyme catalyzing the degradation of 1 µmol of H2O2 min-1 mg-1 at 37 ºC.
1131
Reduced form of glutathione content (nmol GSH mg-1 protein)

was estimated by interaction with DTNB (5,5-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid,
Sigma–Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and the absorbance was read at 412
nm (Rahman et al., 2007).
Glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity was quantified by
checking formation of a thioether bond between GSH and 1-chloro-2,4-
dinitrobenzene (CDNB as a substrate, (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA)
using a spectrophotometer (Warholm et al., 1985). The formation of the
product of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, S-2,4-dinitro-phenyl glutathione,
was monitored by measuring the net increase in absorbance at 340 nm
against the blank. The enzyme activity was calculated using the molar
extinction coefficient of = 9.6 M/cm and expressed as nmol/mg of protein.
Results
Lipid Peroxidation
The testis MDA content (a product of lipid peroxidation of the
polyunsaturated fatty acid present in cell membrane) was significantly (p
< 0.0001) increased after chronic Tuibur administration (13.15 nmol MDA/
mg protein) to mice with respect to the controls (2.98 nmol MDA/mg
protein), indicating the testicular ROS generations and induction of
oxidative stress. L- carnitine cotreatment with Tuibur (6.77– 7.37 nmol
MDA/mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (2.47 – 2.81 nmol MDA/
mg protein) significantly restored these parameters toward the level of
control, though a significant higher value was also noted in these parameters
(Fig.1).
Fig.1: MDA levels in different treatment groups.
I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg, III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/
kg) ; IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg) ; V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg)
; VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg) ; VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) +
Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); VIII) TSIW (260 mg/kg) ; IX) Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg).
1132
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)

A severe inhibitory response on the testicular antioxidant status
was observed, followed by chronic Tuibur exposure to mice (Fig. 2). The
testicular activities of SOD (4.82 µmol/mg protein) and were significantly
(p < 0.0001) decreased in tuibur-exposed mice than the controls (SOD:
25.51 µmol/mg protein) signifying the suppressed testicular antioxidant
defense against ROS, which assisted the generation of oxidative stress. L-
carnitine supplemented with Tuibur and nicotine ranges (8.38 – 11.67µmol/
mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (16.88 – 20.26 µmol/mg
protein) (Fig.2).
Fig.2: Superoxide dismutase levels in treatment groups.

Catalase
The activity of catalase in testis and were significantly (p < 0.0001)
decreased in tuibur-treated mice (58.11 µmol/mg protein) than the controls
(SOD: 202.16 µmol/mg protein), which also signifying it assisted the
generation of oxidative stress. L- carnitine supplemented groups ranges
96.57-145.45 µmol/mg protein) and L- carnitine alone treatment (160.73-
199.97 µmol/mg protein) which were more or less similar with control
(Fig.3).
1133
Fig.3: Catalase levels in treatment groups.

I – Control; II – L- carnitine 100 mg/kg; III - L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/
Glutathione reduced (GSH)

The activity of glutathione reduced were also reduced in tuibur
exposed mice from untreated control and L- carnitine alone groups. There
was again increased in GSH activity when supplemented with L- carnitine
(Fig.4).
Fig.3: Glutathione reduced levels in treatment groups.

1134
Glutathione S Transferase (GST)

The GST is one of the major antioxidant enzymes in testis tissue, which
defend sperm cells by scavenging ROS generated through the exposure of
environmental toxicants and pollutants. GST (5.46 µmol/mg protein) was
found in Tuibur treated mice which was significantly reduced from control
(22.61 µmol/mg) and L- carnitine alone treated groups (19.75 - 20.69 µmol/
mg protein). Ameliorative effects of L- carnitine were shown in carnitine
supplemented groups that ranges GST value (10.46 - 15.06 µmol/mg of
protein).
Fig.5: Glutathione S transferase levels in treatment groups.

kg); IV) L- Carnitine (100 mg/kg) + Nicotine (0.6 mg/kg); V) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg);
VI) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) + Tuibur (260 mg/kg); VII) L- Carnitine (200 mg/kg) +
Discussion
Male infertility and abnormal progeny outcome are some of the
consequences resulting from the exposure of germ cells to stressors such
as environmental chemicals and drugs (Hales and Robaire, 1997). Testicular
cancer is a disease in which cells become malignant in one or both testicles.
Testicles produce and store sperm and are also the body’s main source of
male hormones. These hormones control the development of reproductive
organs and male characteristics. During the male germ cell development,
cells have different abilities to cope with diverse types of stress such
as oxidative stress and protein and DNA damage.
Tuibur and nicotine treated mice showed an elevation in MDA
1135
level when compared with the control group. An increased MDA

concentration might be a consequence of decreased production of
antioxidants in the tuibur and nicotine treated mice tissues thereby shifting
the delicate balance in favor of ROS thus leading to a plethora of pathologic
damage to sperm cells and concomitant loss of function. Lipid peroxidation
of unsaturated fatty acids is a frequently used indicator of increased
oxidative stress and subsequent oxidative damage (Das et al., 2012). The
present data showed that tuibur administration produced marked oxidative
impact on the testis as evident by the significant increase in testicular lipid
peroxidation as well as a significant decrease in antioxidants including
SOD, Catalase, GSH and GST activities. This might suggest an inhibitory
action of tuibur on enzymatic antioxidants in testes.
This study also suggests that the activity of SOD which catalyzes
the dismutation of superoxide (O2+) radical to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
(McCord et al., 1971) was down-regulated in the testis in both the tuibur
and nicotine treated group. However it was again elevated when
supplemented with L- carnitine indicating that the effect of tuibur and
nicotine on SOD could be ameliorated by L- carnitine. The observed
decrease in the testicular SOD level may be a consequence of decreased
de novo synthesis of enzyme proteins or oxidative inactivation of enzyme
protein.
The inhibition of testicular SOD activity might also be attributed
to either hyperglycemia as reported by Sharpe et al. who found that glucose
induced oxidative stress in different tissues and/or due to loss of enzyme
cofactors namely copper and zinc (Sharpe et al., 1998). In addition, previous
studies have also indicated an increase in glucose level with nicotine
administration (Alada, 2001). Administration of tuibur significantly
decreased Catalase activity in the testes. The primary role of Catalase is to
scavenge H2O2 that has been generated by free radicals (Ribiere et al., 1992).
The recovery groups showed that the effect of tuibur on catalase could be
ameliorated by L- carnitine treatment.
The reduced level of SOD and Catalase activity might generate
excessive H2O2 , which could give rise to other ROS such as hydroxyl
radicals. This finding corresponds with earlier studies when the rats were
exposed to cigarette smoke for 45 (Rajpurkar et al., 2000) and 60 days
(Ozyurt et al., 2006).
This study further shows that down-regulation of antioxidant
enzyme levels in the treated mice is a mechanism by which tuibur induces
infertility in male. This study also confirmed that oxidative stress might be
1136
a mechanism by which tuibur causes infertility in male mice. On the other

hand when tuibur treated mice were supplemented with L- carnitine it
showed its ameliorative effects against tuibur caused testicular toxicity
indicating up-regulation of antioxidant capacity.
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(2003). Adrenal mediated rather than direct effects of nicotine as a basis of altered
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1138
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1139-1151, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
87
Refocusing the Correlates of Carbon
Sequestration through Maintaining the
Carbon Stock in Home Gardens of West
Bengal, India
Mohit Subba, Nazir A. Pala, Gopal Shukla, Kausik Pradhan* and
Sumit Chakravarty
Department of Forestry, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch
Behar, (W B), India
*Department of Ag. Extension, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Cooch Behar (W. B), India, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
We conducted a study to explore and refocus the correlates of carbon
stock in home gardens of Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling
districts of West Bengal. Purposive, multi-stage and random sampling
procedures are followed in the present study. From the exhaustive list
of the home gardeners in these three districts 100 respondents were
selected for the study. The total carbon stock was considered as the
dependent variable for the study and fifteen attributes of the
homegradeners were considered as the independent variables for the
study after operationalising the variables. The data were collected with
the help of pre-structured interview schedule. The data were processed
into correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis to draw a
definite conclusion. The result depicted that the variable educational
aspiration was positively and significantly associated with the total
carbon stock in the Terai regional homegardens of West Bengal. The
variable age was also significantly and positively contributing towards
characterising the total carbon. The fifteen predictor variables
1140
altogether had explained only 25.60% variations embedded with the

predicted one that is the total carbon stock in the Terai regional
homegardens of West Bengal.
Key words Carbon sequestration, Climate change, Home garden,
Seasonal whims.
Introduction
In the challenging climate change scenario, our seasons are
becoming confused and increasingly unpredictable. The farmers and
homegradeners have to depend on the whims and fences of season for
maintaining their enterprises. The home gardener will regularly observe
the effects of unseasonal and extreme weather on plants and wildlife. They
help control urban temperatures, mitigating the effects of extreme heat
and cold. They prevent flooding by absorbing rainwater that would
otherwise overload drainage systems. They have effectively become some
of the best nature reserves, supporting a range of wildlife including birds,
mammals and invertebrates. They support human health by easing stress
and providing physical exercise. Now the environment is particularly prone
to heating due to the replacement of vegetated areas with dark and
impervious surfaces, with very different thermal and radiative properties
(ie pavements and roads absorb considerably more heat and reflect
considerably less than planted surfaces – this makes them warmer than
planted surfaces). This results in urban air and surface temperature being
significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas, the extent of which varies
depending on the time of year and specifics of the location (Grimmond,
2007). Heat waves have the potential to increase fatalities due to heat stress
(Hajat et al., 2007) and can increase the hazards arising from fires that
occur. Vegetation has the ability to provide aerial cooling by shading
(primarily trees and climbing plants) but also through the plant-specific
process of evapo-transpiration (water loss through leaf pores). Current
models predict that a 10 percent increase in vegetated surfaces in areas
would help control the rise in summertime air temperatures due to climate
change (Gill, 2007) Geographical location, building design and the
prevalence and orientation of trees will all affect the extent of savings, but
on average summer-cooling energy savings have been estimated to be
around 30 percent; such savings also help reduce CO2 emissions (Akbari,
1997). Home gardens are a common small holder agro-forestry system in
India. Due to their high biomass these systems simultaneously offer
potential for carbon storage due to their high woody biomass. These species
rich, tree based systems usually occupy lands immediately surrounding
the household and are used to produce a diverse array of food and other
1141
products (Roshetko et al., 2002). The home gardeners are usually the prime
movers of carbon sequestration process through developing the carbon
stock for mitigating the climate change. Consequently the socio-personal,
economic and other attributes of the home gardeners can pave the way to
develop and maintain the carbon stock in their own home garden. Keeping
all these in view the present study was carried out to refocus the correlates
of total carbon stock development and management in the Terai Home
gardens of West Bengal.
Method and Materials
The study was conducted in Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling
districts of West Bengal. Purposive, multi-stage and random sampling
procedures are followed in the present study. The districts Cooch Behar,
Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling were purposively selected due to the availability
of diversified ecosystem related to the theme of the present study wherein
the Terai ecosystem was prevailing with a vast agricultural field and forest
area coverage. From the fifty nine selected villages of the three districts an
exhaustive list of home gardeners was prepared and from the exhaustive
list forty home gardeners from Cooch Behar district, forty home gardeners
from Jalpaiguri district and twenty home gardeners from the Darjeeling
district were finalized as respondents for the present study. Thus, a total of
100 diversified home gardeners from Terai region of west Bengal were
selected for final data collection (Annexure I). The total carbon stock was
considered as the dependent variable for the study and fifteen attributes of
the homegradeners were considered as the independent variables for the
study after operationalising the variables. The data were collected with
the help of pre-structured interview schedule through personal interview
method. The data were processed into correlation analysis and multiple
regression analysis to draw a definite conclusion
Descriptive distribution of the selected predicted variable total
carbon stock and 15 predictor variables is presented for terai region of
West Bengal comprising the districts of Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Siliguri
sub-division of Darjeeling district in table 1. The analysis of mean standard
deviation and coefficient of variation indicates higher consistency of all
the variables. Majority of the respondent belongs to medium utilization of
resources category and in age category of 30-50 years with low education,
medium level of family education, high educational aspiration, small family
and small land holding with small house type, low economic status, low
farm power status, low household materials and low of annual income.
1142
Moreover, the majority of the respondents represented medium risk

orientation category with medium scientific orientation and low level of
innovation proneness. Finally the total C stock was distributed with mean
of 101.27, standard deviation of 143.02 and coefficient of variation 141.22
indicating high consistency level of distribution with majority of
homegardens had low level of total carbon stock. The majority group of
respondents are the most important stake holder in case of adopting
strategies of climate change through managing home garden land use
system. Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation among the total carbon stock
with fifteen causal variables in the terai region clearly shows that
educational aspiration is positively and significantly associated with the
total carbon stock at 5 % level of significance in Table 2.
Table 1. Descriptive distribution of the respondents with respect to their attributes and
total carbon stock in Terai region of West Bengal
Variables Range Mean Standard Coefficient
Deviation of Variation
Age 30 - 90 51.3 12.1 23.6
Education 0-6 2.99 1.9 64.5
Family Education status 0.6-5.3 2.69 1.0 36.8
Family size 3.0-13.0 5.7 1.7 29.7
Educational aspiration 5.0-12.0 9.4 15 17.5
Annual income 11.1-691.5 140 128.1 91.2
Land holding 0.06-2.7 0.1 0.5 94.3
Economic status 0-3 1.4 0.5 37.3
House type 1-5 2.0 0.8 39.8
Farm power 0-8 1.3 1.5 111.2
Material possession 1-25 7.8 4.1 52.6
Risk orientation 21-37 28.4 3.7 12.9
Scientific orientation 6-40 28.5 5.1 17.8
Innovation proneness 3-19 9.45 4.0 42.4
Utilization of sources of 12-37 23.3 4.8 20.6
information
Total carbon stock 45-1503.8 101.0 143 141.2
1143
Table 2. Correlation co-efficient of total carbon pull or stock with fifteen causal variables
in Terai region of West Bengal
Sr. No Variables Coefficient of correlation
1 Age 0.121
2 Education 0.114
3 Family Education status 0.162
4 Family size -0.144
5 Educational aspiration 0.179*
6 Annual income 0.109
7 Land holding 0.011
8 Land status 0.002
9 House type 0.164
10 Farm power -0.047
11 Material possession 0.026
12 Risk orientation 0.062
13 Scientific orientation 0.158
14 Innovation provenances 0.138
15 Utilization of sources of information 0.149
*Significant at 5% level of significance
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis of total carbon stock with fifteen predictor variables
in Terai region of West Bengal
Variables Β b S.E of ‘b’ t-value
Age 0.271 3.19 1.41 2.262*
Education -0.080 -5.91 12.53 -0.472
Family Education status 0.015 2.17 21.33 0.102
Family size -0.186 -15.74 9.6 -1.639
Educational aspiration 0.222 19.22 11.64 1.65
Annual income -0.037 -0.041 0.152 -0.272
Land holding -0.111 -33.08 44.8 -0.739
Land status 0.017 4.46 41.19 0.108
House type 0.198 35.01 26.64 1.314
1144
Farm power -0.092 -8.84 12.03 -0.735

Material possession -0.125 -4.36 4.86 -0.898
Risk orientation -0.068 -2.64 4.64 -0.569
Scientific orientation 0.183 5.15 4.2 1.22
Innovation provenances 0.161 5.73 4.48 1.27
Utilization of sources of information 0.091 2.71 4.08 0.667
R2 = 0.256
*Significant at 5% level of significance
Educational aspiration reflects the aspiration of an individual for

achieving the educational perspective through their children. It also helps
to build the attitude towards the attainment of educational degree and
develop analytical mindset of an individual to seek information and utilize
that information in their own situation with the help of their available
resources. Such type of analytical mind leads the respondent to seek the
information on adaptation strategy of recent climate change through carbon
sequestration or enhancement of the carbon stock in their home garden.
Multiple regression analysis of total carbon stock with fifteen predictor
variables indicates that age of the respondents is positively and significantly
contributing towards characterizing the total carbon stock in the home
gardens of terai region presented by table 3. Age is the indicator of
experience gathering of an individual. Age increases the individual’s
information level cosmopolitans, knowledge, and wisdom level. It also
helps individuals to keep him updated with the latest knowledge. The
advance age increases the knowledge about the adaptation strategy of
climate change. Age is directly contributing 27.0 % in case of characterizing
the total carbon stock in the home garden. One unit change of the age is
delineating the 3.89 unit positive change in the total carbon stock. The
fifteen predictor variables all together can explain the 25.6% variations
embedded with the dependent variable, total carbon stock in terai regional
home garden of West Bengal. Socio-psychological factors such as farmer’s
economic and educational status, demography, social connections, culture,
and resource availability are important to understand why and how farmers
select certain management practices (Seabrook et al., 2008). Agricultural
decisions made by individuals (or farmers) are often influenced by their
economic opportunities (Lambin et al., 2006). Similarly, the positive effects
of education on adoption of desirable land management practices have
been reported (Anjichi et al., 2007; Matata, 2008).
1145
Conclusion
Natural resources managed in home gardens could be targets for
improving conditions of human life and for maintaining ecosystem services.
So, in the changing climate situation there is a need to develop and maintain
the home gardens in a better way to increase the carbon storage for
mitigating climate change and to increase the earning of the family as it
may be viewed as the species rich, tree based agro-forestry system. In case
of increasing the carbon storage and stock in home garden the policy should
be made on the basis of the needs, demands, age and educational aspiration
of the home gardeners. The journey towards the identification of correlates
of carbon storage in home gardens holds good for previous research
propositions and strategies.
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Annexure I. Basic information of sampled home gardens
1146
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Khagrabari 0.06 19 69 Banana, Brinjal, Chilly 3C, 8G Service
2 Dharbhar kotie 0.8 15 33 Areca nut, Mango, Latka 4C Farmer
3 Kumarpara 0.4 24 229 Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana - Labour
4 Banchukamari 0.93 23 340 Areca nut, Lemon ,Gamer - Shopkeeper
5 Uttar Sonapur 0.46 26 255 Areca nut, Chilly, Seemul 2C, 6G Labour
6 Uttar Khagrabari 0.66 29 245 Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana - Service
7 Dakshin Chowakathi 0.06 26 62 Bamboo, Banana, Areca nut - Carpenter
8 Saheb Pota 0.33 28 168 Areca nut, Chilly, Ghora neem - LIC Agent
9 Dakshin Chowakathi 0.4 25 99 Areca nut, Banana, Pineapple - Service
10 Sonapur 0.46 18 174 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 12C Labour
11 SP Ghoramara 0.73 19 133 Areca nut, Bamboo, Jackfruit - Labour
12 SP Ghoramara 0.2 19 61 Areca nut, Cauliflower, Teak 2C, 6G Self-employed
13 Dakshin Chowakathi 0.33 31 330 Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak 1C, 2G Labour
14 Saheb Pota 0.46 42 142 Ginger, Areca nut, Jackfruit 3C, 2G Business
15 Dakshin Kalarai kotie 0.06 41 276 Areca nut, Sugarcane, Brinjal 3C Labour
16 Dakshin Kalarai kotie 0.46 24 150 Areca nut, Banana, Bamboo 2C Scrap Collector
17 Bagmara sukandighi 0.53 27 307 Turmeric, Brinjal, Bamboo 2G Service
18 Bagmara sukandighi 0.133 15 146 Bamboo, Turmeric, Banana - Labour
19 Bagmara sukandighi 0.2 21 133 Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam 1C Labour
20 Chhata rangrash 1.33 22 103 Areca nut, Tulsi, Banana 1C Service
21 Chhata rangrash 0.73 14 56 Areca nut, Marigold, Teak 1C, 2G, F Driver
22 Uttar Angarkata 0.26 21 83 Bamboo, Areca nut, Mahogany - Fruit seller
23 Dhangdinguri 2.66 21 64 Areca nut, Marigold, Banana 2C, 1G, 22 H Shopkeeper
24 Kumarpara 0.33 17 90 Areca nut, Gamer, Banana 2C, 1G Baker
25 Kumarpara 0.33 18 111 Areca nut, Ganjaa, Papaya - Labour
26 Mathura 0.133 21 63 Areca nut, Tulsi, Mango - labour
27 Khurmai Busty 0.133 14 134 Areca nut, Turmeric, Kadam 4P Labour
28 Khurmai Busty 0.66 16 139 Areca nut, Lemon, Ghora neem 1C, 3G, 4H, 1P Forest Guard
29 Khurmai Busty 0.4 13 150 Areca nut, Gamar, Latka 2P, 12H Forest Guard
30 Khurmai Busty 0.8 21 458 Areca nut, Dhania, Chilly 1C, 3H, 1P Contractor
31 Chanand chaurai 1.06 24 162 Areca nut, Mahogany, Tulsi 1C Service
32 Chanand chaurai 1.66 29 688 Bamboo, Areca nut, Papaya F Salesman
33 Angarkata 0.6 24 272 Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold 2C Labour
34 Jhojko narayan kotie 0.6 22 94 Areca nut, Teak, Pineapple, - Service
1147
35 Konamalick 0.2 21 237 Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak 1C, 2G Labour
1148
36 Angarkata 0.06 24 180 Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam 2C, 1G Labour

37 Gandhipalley 0.6 15 44 Areca nut, Papaya, Kadam - Driver
38 Uttar kalirair kotie 0.06 12 232 Bamboo, Areca nut, Kadam, - Labour
39 Uttar kalirair kotie 1.4 20 108 Areca nut, Ginger, Mango 2C, 5D, 5H, F Farmer
40 Madhari Road 2 Mile 0.46 14 28 Areca nut, Marigold, Papaya 1C Panchayat Pradhan
41 Lothapota 1.86 24 402 Areca nut, Bamboo, Coconut 4C, 5G, 20 Pg, F Farmer
42 Rabina Nagar 0.06 19 819 Areca nut, Carrot, Teak - Engineer
43 Chuaa Khola 0.73 28 246 Areca nut, Marigold, Mango - Driver
44 Khusier bari 0.133 20 101 Bamboo, Areca nut, Jackfruit 2C,4G Shopkeeper
45 Jagna narayan kotie 1.26 20 447 Areca nut, Chilly, Tulsi 2C Farmer
46 Raichainga 0.133 27 449 Areca nut, Ginger, Banana 4C, 9G Labour
47 Kalipur Balurghat 0.46 19 63 Areca nut, Gamer, Ghora neem 4C Labour
48 Kalipur Balurghat 0.8 20 264 Bamboo, Areca nut, Jackfruit 3C Decorator
49 Kochu Banbaram 0.46 26 212 Bamboo, Banana, Areca nut F Carpenter
50 Jog narayan kotie 0.33 16 15 Areca nut, Papaya, Kadam 2C Driver
51 Kochu Banbaram 1.2 16 65 Areca nut, Pineapple, Chilly 4C, F Labour
52 Jog narayan kotie 0.4 23 143 Areca nut, Gamer, Mango 2C, 6H, F Farmer
53 Harpur 0.8 18 264 Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold 2C Farmer
54 Chamta bashikpara 0.73 13 236 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 2C, 1G Labour
55 Chamta bashikpara 0.06 9 25 Areca nut, Litchi, Jackfruit - Shopkeeper
56 Baneashwar 0.06 13 42 Katchu, Areca nut, Mango 2C Bidi Maker
57 Boraibari 0.46 16 113 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 2C Labour
58 Boraibari 0.06 19 373 Bamboo, Banana, Mango 1C, 2G Labour
59 Dhurbo Khutia 0.06 22 162 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 18H, 2G, F Labour
60 Chaporar Phab 0.46 19 255 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 7G, 12H, F Labour
61 Balauk Bhabrie 1.8 16 108 Areca nut, Mahogany, Mango 3C, 11H Farmer
62 Phurbo Chokchoka 0.2 17 260 Bamboo, Marigold, Jackfruit - Electrician
63 Phurbo Chokchoka 0.06 15 191 Bamboo, Areca nut, Gamer - Scrap Collector
64 Kumar Gram 0.133 16 141 Areca nut, Teak, Mango 4C Tailor
65 Kumar Gram 0.06 9 39 Areca nut, Jackfruit, Chilly - Security Guard
66 Pashim Chokchoka 0.133 17 97 Areca nut, Banana, Jackfruit - Panipuri Seller
67 Pashim Chokchoka 0.66 12 74 Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold 2C, 7H Labour
68 Mechpara T.G 0.06 14 76 Areca nut, Teak, Guava 20H Labour
69 Pashim Chokchoka 0.6 12 65 Bamboo, Areca nut, Guava - Farmer
70 Pashim Chokchoka 1 16 39 Areca nut, Teak, Mango 2C Farmer
1149
71 Phurbo Chokchoka 0.133 19 46 Areca nut, Brinjal, Chilly - Labour
1150
72 Dharbharar kotie 0.53 19 406 Areca nut, Siris, Seemul 5H, 8D Shopkeeper
73 Chandan chowra 0.93 11 19 Ghora neem, Jackfruit, Coconut - Panipuri seller
74 Jalpaiguri Town 1.6 21 49 Areca nut, Jackfruit, Banana - Service
75 Jalpaiguri Town 1.46 16 63 Areca nut, Banana, Jackfruit - Cyber Café
76 Jalpaiguri Town 0.33 13 83 Areca nut, Chilly, Guava 2C Farmer
77 Jalpaiguri Town 0.53 20 121 Bamboo, Areca nut, Marigold - Driver
78 Jalpaiguri Town 0.8 15 152 Areca nut, Kadam, Teak 8G Labour
79 Khurmai Busty 0.93 21 180 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 4C,6G Labour
80 Khurmai Busty 0.86 21 49 Chilly, Mango, Coconut - Service
81 Salbari Hat 0.06 14 23 Coconut, Chilly, Marigold - Service
82 Salbari Hat 0.26 13 25 Mango, White Siris, Marigold - Service
83 Salbari Hat 0.06 9 26 Lemon, Mango, Guava - Cobbler
84 Salbari Hat 0.53 12 38 Areca nut, Banana, Mango - Shopkeeper
85 Salbari T.G 0.66 10 48 Banana, Areca nut, Papaya - Service
86 Salbari T.G 0.26 16 43 Pineapple, Banana, Ghora neem 1C, 3G Service
87 Dagapur 0.4 17 46 Brinjal, Marigold, Coconut 2C Service
88 Dagapur 0.2 17 125 Bamboo, Areca nut, Pineapple - Labour
89 Dagapur 0.06 22 160 Bamboo, Areca nut, Banana 13H Service
90 Salbari Hat 0.4 10 34 Areca nut, Mango, Lemon 6C,2P Business
91 Sukna 0.133 19 179 Bamboo, Areca nut, Coconut Service
92 Gurung Busty 0.06 20 210 Areca nut, Bamboo, Banana 2C, 2P, 7H Carpenter
93 Gurung Busty 0.133 21 75 Bamboo, Coconut, Kadam 2P Shopkeeper
94 Gulmar T. G. 0.06 8 11 Mango, White Siris, China rose 3C,6G Labour
95 Sukna T. G. 0.06 16 48 Tomato, Tulsi, Ghora neem - Wood Collector
96 Khapral 0.133 19 74 Banana, Areca nut, Ghora neem - Shopkeeper
97 Hakim Para 0.4 17 50 Bamboo, Areca nut, Teak - Shopkeeper
98 Gurung Busty 0.2 18 55 Pineapple, Papaya, Marigold - Service
99 Gurung Busty 0.06 20 67 Teak, Areca nut, Marigold - Business
100 Khaprel 1.2 16 88 Bamboo, Areca nut, Chilly 3C, 2G Driver
1-place; 2- area (ha), 3- species richness; 4- number of individuals; 5- dominant species; 6- other component (C- cow, D- duck, F- fish, G- goat,
H- hen, P- pig, Pg- pigeon); 7- occupation of the respondent
1151
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1153-1164, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
88
A Comparative Study of Gestural
Communication on Three Species of
Macaques (Assamese Macaque, Rhesus
Macaque and Pigtailed macaque) in
Mizoram
Phoebe Lalremruati*, Vansawmkimi and G.S. Solanki
Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl-796004
Address for Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract
Communication by facial expressions and body postures play an
important role in the social context of macaques. Macaques use gestures
to mediate both competitive and cooperative interactions within their
group. Comparison of communication patterns across different animal
species can provide evidence of the adaptive significance of signals
and their phylogenetic history. Variation in social organization between
rhesus, assamese and pigtailed macaques should be accompanied by
differences in social communication. Previous studies investigating
the use of nonvocal signals in each of these three species and comparing
the size of their gestural repertoire suggested that this is indeed the
case. The present study expands the previous comparative investigation
of gestural communication on these three species by investigating the
frequency of occurrence of nonvocal signals and their use in relation
to possible adaptive significance. A comparative study of gestural
communication was carried out in three species of macaques, namely,
assamese macaque (Macacaassamensis), rhesus macaque
(Macacamulatta) and northern pigtailed macaque (Macacaleonina).
1154
The study was conducted at Aizawl Zoological Park where each group
of species was housed in an open enclosure of 840m2. The group of
Assamese macaque, rhesus macaque and pigtailed macaque consists
of 14 individuals, 16 individuals and 9 individuals respectively.
Observations were recorded by the Focal Sampling and sampling all
occurrence method (Altmann, 1974) for all activities associated with
gestural signals. To determine the variation levels of gestural signals
for different activities among three species of macaques, Kruskal-Wallis
test was employed (SPSS ver. 16.0). The significant differing levels
of gestural signals as indicated by Kruskal-Wallis test were subjected
to pairwise comparison between species by Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney
test. The type of gestural communication observed on assamese
macaque includes lip-smack, bared-teeth, eyebrows, touch face, touch
genitals, present, mock bite and embrace. The type of gestures observed
on rhesus macaque includes lip-smack, pucker, teeth chatter, bared-
teeth, present and mock bite. The study group of pigtailed macaque
showed gestures such as lip-smack, pucker, teeth chatter, bared-teeth,
eyebrows, present and mock bite. The observation on the three group
of macaques showed no significant variation in the number of lip smack
(χ2=1.837; p>0.05), bared-teeth (χ2=2.762; p>0.05), present (χ2=1.441;
p>0.05) and mock bite (χ2=0.262; p>0.05). Significant variation was
shown by the species in eyebrows (χ 2=13.464; p<0.05), embrace
(χ2=8.120, p<0.05), pucker (χ2=20.273; p<0.05) and teeth chatter
(χ2=8.12; p<0.05). Touch face and touch genitals were observed only
in assamese macaques.
Key words: gestures, focal sampling, lip-smack, present, embrace
Introduction
Most non-human primates live in groups and communication
through vocal, gestural, tactile and olfactory signals play an important role
in their social life.Gestures are used by macaques to mediate both
competitive and cooperative interactions with other group members.
Gestures convey information on the emotional state of the sender and its
impending behaviour but can also be used to inhibit the behaviour of another
individual or to request its participation in specific activities such as
grooming, agonistic support, mating or play (Maestripieri, 1997).
Macaque group living probably results from the need to cooperate
for protection from predators and /or defence of food resources from other
con-specifics. Limited resources such as food, shelter and mates, however,
inevitably lead group members to compete with each other. Communication
is an adaptation to social life and mediates both cooperative and competitive
interactions with con-specifics. Two basic functions of communication are
to bring individuals together when there is need for cooperation and to
keep them apart whenever competition arises. Many of the complexities
1155
of macaque social life and communication results from the elaboration of

this simple system of approach and avoidance (Maestripieri, 1997).
Comparisons of communication patterns across different animal
species can provide evidence of the adaptive significance of signals and
their phylogenetic history (Darwin, 1872; Wenzel, 1992). Since
communication patterns are mainly adaptations to the social environment,
in order to understand the adaptive significance and evolutionary history
of the social signals observed in different species, information is needed
on the social organization and behaviour of these species as well as on
their phylogenetic relationships (Preuschoft and van Hooff, 1996).
Variation in social organization between rhesus, assamese and
pigtail macaques should be accompanied by differences in social
communication. Previous studies investigating the use of nonvocal signals
in each of these three species and comparing the size of their gestural
repertoire suggested this is indeed the case (Maestripieri, 1996a, b;
Maestripieri and Wallen, 1997). The present study expands the previous
comparative investigation of gestural communication in rhesus, assamese
and pigtail macaques by investigating the frequency of occurrence of
nonvocal signals and their use in relation to possible adaptive significance.
Study site
The study was conducted in Aizawl Zoological Park, established
in 2002, covers an area of 65 hectares and is situated 14 km away from the
state capital, Aizawl. The zoo is located at 23.47o 41" – 23.47o 23" latitude
N and 92.40o 00" to 92.40o 05’ longitude E. Six species of primates including
Macacamullata, Macacaassamensis, Macacaarctoides, Macacaleonina,
Hoolockhoolock and Trachypithecuspileatus are maintained under captivity.
For the present study, three species, namely, Assamese macaque
(Macacaassamensis), Rhesus macaque (Macacamullata) and Pig-tailed
macaque (Macacaleonina) were selected.
Subjects
The group of Assamese macaque (Macacaassamensis) consists of
14 individuals including 4 adult male, 3 adult female, 1 juvenile male, 2
juvenile female and 4 infants. Rhesus macaque (Macacamullata) consists
of 16 individuals including 4 adult male, 5 adult female, 2 juvenile male, 3
juvenile female and 2 infants. Pig-tailed macaque (Macacaleonina) consists
of 9 individuals including 3 adult male, 2 adult female, 1 juvenile male, 1
1156
juvenile female and 2 infants. All the study groups were fed with
provisioned food daily. In each group, all the members of the group could
be identified based on their morphological appearance.
Data collection
Observations were recorded by the Focal sampling and Sampling
all occurrence method (Altmann, 1974) for all activities associated with
gestural signals. The sender and the receiver of gestural signals were also
recorded.
Data analysis
To determine the differing levels of gestural signals among three
species of macaques,Kruskal-Wallis test was employed using SPSS ver.
16.0. The significant differing levels of gestural signals as indicated by
Kruskal-Wallis test were subjected to pairwise comparison by employing
Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney test. Statistical significance at p<0.05 was
considered.
Results
The different gestural signals observed during the study were listed
in Table 1
Table 1: Types of gestural signals observed and their definition
Gesture Definition
Lip-Smack (LS) Rapid opening and closing of the mouth and lips, such that when
the lips closed they make an audible smacking sound.
Pucker (PC) The lips are compressed and protruded, the eyebrows, forehead and
ears are retracted.
Teeth-Chatter (TC) The mouth is rapidly opened and closed and the lips are retracted,
exposing the teeth
Bared-Teeth (BT) The mouth is closed and the lips and lip corner are retracted so that
the teeth are exposed in a white band.
Eye-Brows (EB) The scalp and brows are retracted and the mouth is open.
Touch-Face (TF) One hand is extended to touch the face of another individual while
standing and sitting in front of it.
Touch-Genitals (TG) Manipulation of the genitals of another individual without olfactory
inspection.
Present (PR) The tail is raised to expose the genitals.
Mock-Bite (MB) Gripping another individual’s skin with the teeth, slowly, without
roughness, for several seconds.
Observation of gestural communication in macaques, Assamese
macaques, rhesus macaques and pig-tailed macaques are listed in table 2.
Table 2: List of gestural signals and their occurrence of incidence in the three groups of macaques
Assamese macaque Rhesus macaque Pigtailed macaque
Gestural signal Occurrence of incidence Gestural signal Occurrence of incidence Gestural signal Occurrence of incidence
Lip-smack After aggression Approach Lip smack Aggression Approach Lip-smack Aggression Aggression
Bared-teeth Aggression Approach Pucker After aggression Grooming Pucker After aggression
Grooming
Eyebrow Agonistic support Teeth chatter Submission Teeth chatter Submission
Touch Face (TF) Playing Bared teeth Approach Aggression Bared- teeth Aggression Approach
Touch genitals (TG) Reassurance Protection Present Submission Approach Eye brows Agonistic support
Present (PR) Approach Aggression Mock bite After attacking Playing Present Approach Submission
Mock bite After attacking Lip smack Aggression Approach Mock bite After attacking
Embrace ProtectionReassurance Pucker After aggression Grooming Lip-smack Aggression Aggression
Lip-smack After aggression Approach Pucker After aggression
Grooming
1157
1158
Lip-smack
There was no significant variation in the number of lip-smack
observed among the three macaques (χ2 = 1.837; p> 0.05). Out of the total
observation of lip-smack from all the three species of macaques, 64.70%
were observed after aggression and the remaining 35.29% were during
approach. Adult male were observed to show majority (76.47%) of the lip-
smack in all cases.
Bared-teeth
There was no significant variation in the number of bared-teeth
observed among the three macaques (χ2 = 2.762; p> 0.05). Out of the total
observation of bared-teeth from all the three species of macaques, 66.67%
were observed after aggression and the remaining 38.09% were during
approach. Majority of bared-teeth was shown by adult male (52.38%)
followed by adult female (38.09%) and juvenile male (9.52%).
Eyebrows
There was significant variation in the number of observed eyebrows
among the three macaques (χ2 = 13.464; p< 0.05). Rhesus macaques were
showing less eyebrows than that of pig-tailed macaque (U=20.00; p< 0.05)
and assamese macaque (U= 10.00; p< 0.05). However, there was no
significant difference in the number of eyebrows observed between pig-
tailed macaque and assamese macaque (U= 40.00; p> 0.05). Adult male
were showing the highest level of eyebrows (35.71%) followed by adult
female (28.57%), juvenile female (21.42%) and juvenile male (14.28%).
All the eyebrows observed occurred in the context of agonistic support in
all cases.
Touch face
Touch face was observed only in assamese macaque. Majority of
touch face was shown by adult male (50%) followed by adult female (25%)
and juvenile male (25%). All the touch face observed in assamese macaque
occurred in the context of playing.
Touch genitals
Touch genitals was observed only in assamese macaque. All the
observed touch genitals occurred among adult male and occurred in the
context of reassurance (50%) and protection (50%).
1159
Present
There was no significant variation in the number of present
observed among the three macaques (χ2 = 1.441; p> 0.05). Majority of
present was shown by adult female (68.18%) followed by juvenile female
(31.81%). Out of the total observation of present from all the three species
of macaques, 54.54% were observed to be a submissive signal toward the
dominant individuals and the remaining was during approach (27.27%)
and aggression (18.18%).
Mock bite
There was no significant variation in the number of mock bite
observed among the three macaques (χ2 = 0.262; p> 0.05). Mock bite was
observed in all age-group: adult male (11.76%), adult female (35.29%),
juvenile female (35.29%), juvenile male (5.88%), infant male (5.88%),
and infant female (5.88%). All the observed mock bite occurred in the
context of aggression.
Embrace
There was significant variation in the number of embrace observed
among the three macaques (χ2 = 8.120; p< 0.05). Rhesus macaque did not
show any embrace. There was no significant variation in the number of
embrace exhibited by assamese macaque and pig-tailed macaque (U=40.00;
p> 0.05). Majority of embrace occurred in the context of reassurance (60%)
and the remaining embrace was observed in the context of protection (40%).
Pucker
There was significant variation in the number of pucker observed
among the three macaques (χ2 = 20.273; p< 0.05). No pucker was observed
among the group of assamese macaque. Pig-tailed macaque showed
significantly more pucker than rhesus macaque (U= 14.00, p< 0.05). In all
the cases, pucker was most commonly occurred during aggressive
interaction (70.58%) and grooming (29.41%).
Teeth-Chatter
There was significant variation in the observed incident of teeth-
chatter among the three macaques (χ2 = 8.12; p< 0.05). Teeth-chatter was
not observed in a group of assamese macaque. There was no significant
variation on the number of teeth-chatter observed between rhesus macaque
and pig-tailed macaque. In all cases, adult females were more frequently
showing teeth-chatter (40%) as compared to adult male (30%), juvenile
1160
female (20%) and juvenile male (10%). Teeth-chatter was observed only
during submission of subordinate individuals to dominant individuals.
Discussion and Conclusion
The study of gestural communication in monkeys has mostly
concentrated on Old World monkeys such as macaques and baboons.
Macaques are the only monkeys in which gestural communication has been
studied quantitatively and therefore, they are the best candidates for a
comprehensive review of literature on this phenomenon. Furthermore,
macaques have been the subject of study for several decades and we possess
a considerable amount of information on several aspects of their social,
mating and parental behavior, which is useful to understand their
communication dynamics (Maestripeiri, 1997).
Macaque gestural communication, just like any other behavioral
phenomenon, can be studied from different perspectives. Ethologists
traditionally distinguish between approaches that focus on the ontogeny,
causation, function and evolution behavior (Tinbergen, 1963). A functional
analysis would address both the immediate consequence or function of
gestures and the adaptive value of gestural communication for the survival
and reproductive success of the individual. Finally, an evolutionary
approach would involve comparative analyses of gestural communication
in closely related species to understand the origin and modification of
gestures in relation to speciation and adaptive radiation.
In macaques, competition occurs not only between individuals but
also between families and groups. Therefore gestures are used not only to
communicate with competitors but also with relatives, friends and allies
who may provide their support in agonistic encounters (Maestripieri, 1997).
Macaques use a variety of gestures to communicate their intention to engage
in or to avoid a fight. Although an aggressive disposition can be
communicated with piloerection or body movements, signals of threat
mostly involve the face. Threats use all of most conspicuous elements of
the face, forehead and eyebrows, eyes, nose, ears and mouth. Facial
expressions of threats are quite similar across macaques species and
typically involve staring at the opponent with eyes wide open, mouth open
without showing the teeth, eyebrows raised, and ears flattened (M.arctoides:
Blur ton-Jones and Trollope, 1968; M.cyclopis: Poirier, 1986;
M.fascicularis: Shirek-Ellefson,1967; M. fuscata :Masataka and Fuji, 1980;
M.mulatta: Altmann, 1962: M.nemestrina: Kaufman and Rosenblum, 1966;
M.nigra:Nickelson and Lockard, 1978).
1161
Other macaques such as Stump-tailed macaques use the mock-

bite as an assertive behavior pattern (Bertrand, 1969; de Waal and Lutrell,
1989; Maestripieri, 1996b). During mock-bite interactions, one individual
grips the other’s skin with the teeth, slowly, for several seconds. The
individual being bitten remains passive and does not attempt to flee. In
most cases, one hand or arm is bitten. Mockbites are displayed by dominants
to subordinates in two main contexts: when a dominant approaches a
subordinate who has recently been involved in a conflicts with a third
individual, or when two closely-ranking individuals threaten and attack
each other, usually with slaps (Maestripieri, 1996b). The present study
also indicated that mock bite always occurred during aggressive
interactions. During the study period, mock bite was observed in all age
group and it was more frequent among adult female and juvenile female.
Despite the observation of mock bite in all three species of macaques,
there was no significant variation on the incidence of mock bite observed
among the three macaque’s species.
In most cases, macaques respond to threats and other assertive
signals from conspecifics with submissive gestures. Submissive gestures
are a heterogeneous class of signals whose common function is to reduce
the aggressive disposition of the individual to whom they are displayed.
Submissive signals can be expressions of fear, postures that expose
vulnerable regions of the body, or behavior patterns belonging to the mating
or infantile repertoire. Although it is generally believed that the ability to
display submissive signals is relatively independent from experience, the
usage of submissive signals is probably learned during development,
through direct experience and observation of interactions between other
individuals (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1947; Kirkevold et al. 1982). A common
submissive signal in macaques is probably the hindquarter presentation.
In this body posture, which is probably derived from the sexual repertoire
(Darwin, 1876), the hindquarters are oriented towards another individual
and the tail is raised. Similar to the bared-teeth, subordinates present to
dominants upon receiving aggression or in situations with high risk of
aggression (arctoides: Blurton-Jones and Trollope, 1968; Rhine, 1972;
Rhine and Kronenwetter, 1972). From the three species observed, ‘present’
was common gestural signal that was employed by the animals to indicate
a sign of submission to their dominant conspecific. Out of the total
observation of present, majority (68.18%) was exhibited by subordinate
female toward the dominant female. Apart from submission, present also
occurred in the context approach and aggressive interaction. In addition,
macaques also exhibited teeth-chattering as a sign of submission to the
1162
dominant. Although there was no significant variation in the number of

teeth-chatter observed among the three species, the incident was most
common among the group of rhesus macaque.
The most common submissive signal in macaques is the bared-
teeth display, also referred to as fear grin or grimace. In this expression,
the mouth is closed and the lip corners are retracted so that the teeth are
exposed in a white band. The bared-teeth are present in all macaques, but
some species have two or more variants of this signal (Bernstein, 1970;
Dixson, 1977; Nickelson and Lockard, 1978). The bared-teeth display may
or may not be accompanied by scream vocalizations. In the latter case, it is
often referred to as ‘silent bared-teeth display’ (de Waal and Luttrell, 1985).
During the study period bared teeth was observed in all the three species
of macaques. We do not find any significant variation in the number of
bared teeth exhibited by the three species. The study indicated that bared
teeth were most commonly shown by the adult male toward the dominant.
Unlike the reports given by Bernstein (1970), Dixson, (1977) bared teeth
was observed mostly during the aggressive interaction between the adult
males. In most macaque species, the bared-teeth occur primarily in response
to threat or aggression, or in response to an approach by a dominant
individual (M.arctoides: Blurton-Jones and Trollope, 1968; Bertrand, 1969).
Similarly, bared teeth observed during the present study also exhibited by
the subordinate male in response to an approach by the dominant male
(38.09%). In this context, the most likely meaning of the bared teeth is ‘I
am afraid’ or ‘Do not attack me’ or a combination of both (Maestripieri,
1996b). The signal may or may or may not be effective in preventing
aggression depending on the circumstances.
Lip-smacking involves rapid opening and closing of the mouth
and lips, so that when the lips close they make a smacking sound. Lip-
smacking is present in virtually all macaque species and is used in variety
of contexts. Teeth chattering involve rapid opening and closing of the mouth
but, unlike lip-smacking, the lips are retracted exposing the teeth. Teeth-
chattering is morphologically intermediate between bared-teeth and lip-
smacking and is probably an evolutionary derivation of these two gestures
(van Hooff, 1967).During the observation, lip-smack was observed among
the three macaque species. There was no significant variation among the
three macaque species. Lip-smack was the most common gestural
communication among the adult male (76.47%). Lip-smack occurred mostly
in the context of aggression. In most macaque species, lip-smacking and
teeth-chattering are displayed by subordinates to dominants more than vice
versa, suggesting that these signals serve a submissive function (Altman,
1163
1962; Hinde and Rowell, 1962). Lip-smacking, however, is rarely the first
signal displayed in response to threat or aggression. Lip-smacking may be
displayed by the victim of aggression but usually only after another
submissive signal such as the bared-teeth or presentation has occurred
(Nickelson and Lockard, 1978). The present study also indicated that
majority (64.70%) of lip-smack occurred immediately after aggression
between subordinate male and dominant male. While the remaining
(35.29%) lip-smack were observed when the subordinate male approach
the dominant male. From all the observed macaques species, lip-smack
was most commonly occurred between the adult male (76.47%), followed
by juvenile male (11.76%) and adult female (11.76%).
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1165-1175, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
89
Determination of Serum Lipid Profile and
β- estradiol Level in Pre-Menopausal and
Post-Menopausal Women in Aizawl
District, Mizoram
Sarda Sh*, Lalsanglura R and Lajji D
Department of Medical laboratory Technology, Regional Institute of
Paramedical and Nursing Sciences, Zemabawk-796017, Aizawl,
Mizoram, India, Email-shsarda2 @gmail.com
Abstract
The female sex hormones especially estrogens play an important role
in lipid metabolism. After menopause due to the decline of estrogen
level, the lipid metabolism mainly the serum cholesterol and
lipoproteins levels are affected and hence has an indirect effect in
coronary heart diseases. Aims: The present study aims to determine
the lipid profile changes among the menopaused women in Aizawl
district, Mizoram. Methods: Hundred apparently healthy women, 50
post-menopausal and 50 pre-menopausal women were studied. Serum
total cholesterol and their subfractions – high density lipoprotein
(HDL-C), low density lipoprotein (LDL-C), very low density
lipoprotein (VLDL-C) and triglycerides (TG) were estimated using
enzymatic and established mathematical methods on Semi auto analyser
(CHEM – 7, Erba). Estimation of β-estradiol was done by using DRG
Estradiol on ELISA Reader (Thermo Scientific Multiscan GO). Result:
This study found that the serum total cholesterol and the cardiovascular
risk factors like LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were significantly
increased among the post- menopausal women when compared to pre-
menopausal women thus providing a lipid profile highly favourable
to atherogenic potential leading to cardiovascular disease. The cardio-
1166
protective HDL-C was decreased which may increase the risk of

coronary artery disease among the menopaused women.
Keywords: Menopause, Estrogen, Lipid profile, Coronary artery
disease.
Introduction
The sex hormones which are secreted in minute quantities undergo
changes in levels according to different phases of a woman’s reproductive
life. They especially estrogen, not only have an important role in woman‘s
reproductive life but also play an important role in lipid metabolism . This
affects mainly serum cholesterol and lipoproteins and hence has an indirect
role in coronary heart diseases.1
Menopause is the cessation of fertile period of a women’s life that
usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55 years and is signaled with
the loss of ovarian function. During menopause, a woman’s ovaries stop
making eggs and they produce less estrogen and progesteron.2 The hormonal
changes associated with menopause i.e low plasma levels of estrogen and
marked increase in luteinizing and follicle stimulating hormone levels exert
a significant effect on the metabolism of plasma lipids and
lipoproteins. 3After menopause, the reduced estrogen production from
ovaries results in derangement of lipoprotein profile, adverse changes in
glucose and insulin metabolism, body fat distribution, coagulation and
fibrinolysis and dysfunction of vascular endothelium.4,5 Estrogens have
several cardio-protective mechanisms that change the vascular tone by
increasing nitrous oxide production. Estrogens stabilize the endothelial
cells; they enhance antioxidant effects and alter fibrinolytic protein. All
these are cardio protective mechanisms which get lost with the onset of
menopause.6,7 The effect of changes in the hormone levels associated with
menopause on the serum lipid profiles plays major role in most cardiac
related disorders.8 The incidence of CVD after menopause may be due to
changes in plasma levels of lipids that usually occur following menopausal
transition.9
The manifestations of menopause could be sensation of heat,
flushed skin and excessive sweating in what is commonly referred to as
“hot flush”. Changes in mood (anxiety, anger) commonly seen in menopause
can lead to an elevation in blood pressure and subsequently stroke and
other cardiovascular diseases (CVD).9
Lipid profile : Lipid profile consist of a group of biochemical tests often
used in the prediction, diagnosis and treatment of lipid related disorders
1167
including atherosclerosis. These include total cholesterol (TC), high

density lipoprotein - cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein-
cholesterol (LDL-C), very low density lipoprotein - cholesterol (VLDL-
C) and triglycerides.
Cholesterol is the main lipid associated with arteriosclerotic
vascular diseases. Elevation of the total cholesterol values in plasma is
considered to be a prime risk factor for coronary heart disease. Increased
triglycerides and VLDL-C values are taken as primary risk factors. Elevated
LDL is suggestive of atherogenic risk. Low level of HDL-C indicate high
risk of coronary heart disease. A low serum triglyceride level is suggestive
of intravascular lipolysis and enhanced formation of HDL. Hypertrigly
ceridemia on the other hand indicates less effective intravascular lipolysis
and a reduced formation of HDL, which is associated with a higher
atherogenic risk.
Complications of menopause
Atherosclerosis : Atherosclerosis is a slowly progressive disease of large
to medium-sized muscular arteries and large elastic having elevated focal
intimal fibrofatty plaques10. It is characterized by deposition of cholesteryl
ester and other lipids in the connective tissues of the arterial wall. Diseases
in which prolonged elevated level of LDL-C and VLDL-C occur in the
blood are accompanied by severe atherosclerosis.11 LDL-C is the principal
factor in promoting atherosclerosis. They are deposited under the
endothelial cells. LDL-C undergoes oxidation by free radicals released
from endothelial cells. Local elevation of lipid hydroperoxides leads to
decrease in the prostacyclin and thromboxane ratio, which can lead to
thrombosis.
Myocardial infarction mostly occur due to coronary artery disease.
Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of
exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol and excessive alcohol intake. In
early middle age, men have a greater risk of heart attack than women. This
is because of the fact that female sex hormone estrogen has a cholesterol
lowering effect. Thus, a woman’s risk increases once she begins menopause.
Hence, the present study is being done to understand the lipid profile
changes among the postmenopausal women in our region i.e Aizawl district,
Mizoram. This study also aim to assess for any increasing risk of coronary
artery disease and hence to take up preventive measures to protect the
post-menopausal women from coronary artery disease.
1168
Materials and Method

The present study was carried out in the Biochemistry laboratory
of the Department of Medical Laboratory Technology (MLT), Regional
Institute of Paramedical and Nursing Sciences (RIPANS), Aizawl, Mizoram
in the year 2016. Hundred apparently healthy, non-pregnant females-50
post-menopausal (55-76 years) and 50 pre-menopausal (19-38 yearswomen
were included in the study. Postmenopausal state was considered in women
who had at least 12 months amenorrhea. The samples were taken randomly
from different areas (Zemabawk, Lungdai and Tlangnuam) of Aizawl
District, Mizoram. Before starting the collection of samples, a simple
questionnaire was used to obtain data such as age, address, pregancy and
whether the menopause was natural or surgical (hystrectomy) and whether
they were taking estrogen therapy or not etc. Only women with natural
menopause were included and those women with estrogen therapy or
surgical removal of uterus or women having any condition or disorders
which might affect lipids metabolism, like smoking, alcoholism, diabetes
mellitus, hypertension, renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism,
liver disease and heart disease were excluded from the study.
About 4ml of venous blood was collected after overnight fasting
of about 12 hours in all the subjects. Blood samples were drawn into plain
vials without anticoagulant. The samples were allowed to clot and
centrifuged and the serum samples were used for the tests. Serum total
cholesterol (TC) and their subfractions–high density lipoprotein (HDL-
C), low density lipoprotein (LDL-C), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL-
C) and triglycerides (TG) were estimated using enzymatic and established
mathematical methods. Estimation of β-estradiol was done by using DRG
Estradiol ELISA method on ELISA Reader (Thermo Scientific Multiscan
GO).12,13,14 Estimation of lipid profile was done on Semi auto analyzer
(CHEM – 7, Erba) using commercial reagent kits of coral clinical system.
Total cholesterol was measured by CHOD/PAP (cholesterol oxidase/ phenol
amino phenazone) method.15,16,17 HDL-cholesterol was measured by PEG
(polyethylene glycol) precipitation method. 18,19 LDL-cholesterol was
calculated by using Freidewald’s formula.20 VLDL-cholesterol value was
calculated by dividing triglyceride value by 5. Estimation of serum
triglyceride was done by GPO/PAP (Glycerol phosphate oxidase/phenol
amino phenazone) method.21,22,23
Statistical Analysis
Statistical data was recorded in Microsoft excel programme. The
datas were quoted in the form of mean ± standard deviation (SD) wherever
1169
required. Data between two groups were compared using One way ANOVA
employing Student-Newman-Keuls test. The p value greater than 0.05
(P>0.05) is considered as non-significant. The p value less than 0.05
(P<0.05) is considered as significant and p value less than 0.001 (p<0.001)
is considered extremely significant.
Results
Our study included 100 healthy women, 50 were pre-menopaused
(n=50) and 50 were post-menopaused (n=50). The mean age of the pre-
menopausal women is 21.84 ± 1.29 (mean ± SD) and the mean age of the
post-menopausal women is 64.76 ± 6.42 (mean ± SD). Table 1 shows the
mean age and serum β-Estradiol data in pre and post-menopausal subjects.
Table 1 : Age and serum β-Estradiol [Mean±SD] data in pre- and post-menopausal subjects.
Parameter Pre-meno- Post-meno- ‘P’ value Significance
paused (n=50) paused (n=50)
[Mean±SD] [Mean±SD]
Age (Years) 21.84 ± 1.29 57.82 ± 8.31 <0.001*** Extremly significant
β-estradiol (pg/ml) 37.70 ±17.10 9.66 ± 4.48 <0.001*** Extremly significant
The age (Mean±SD) of the post-menopausal women is 57.82 ±

8.31 which was significantly higher than that of the pre-menopausal
women i.e 21.84 ± 1.29 (p value <0.001***). The β-estradiol value among
the pre-menopausal women is 37.7±17.10 and that among the
postmenopausal women is 9.66±4.48. The post-menopausal β-estradiol
value is significantly reduced as compared to that of the pre-menopausal
women (p value <0.001***).
Table 2 : Lipid profile value [Mean±SD] data in pre- and post-menopausal subjects.
Parameter Pre-meno- Post-meno- ‘P’ value Significance
paused (n=50) paused (n=50)
[Mean±SD] [Mean±SD]
Total Cholesterol 160.8 ± 19.80 191.40± 41.90 <0.001*** Extremely significant
(mg/ dl)
Triglyceride (mg/dl) 111.96 ± 25.88 128.77± 52.16 <0.01** Highly Significant
HDL-C (mg/dl) 44.20 ± 11.58 31.24± 6.39 <0.05* Significant
LDL-C (mg/dl) 94.39 ± 18.67 134.43± 38.62 <0.001*** Extremely significant
VLDL-C (mg/dl) 26.02 ± 10.41 22.34± 5.16 >0.05 Non- significant
In our study, we found that the lipid profile values [Mean ± SD]
among the post-menopausal women was total cholesterol : 191.40±41.90,
1170
triglyceride : 128.77±52.16, LDL-C : 134.43±38.62 which were

significantly increased as compared to pre-menopausal value of total
cholesterol : 160.8±19.80, triglyceride : 111.96±25.88, LDL-C :
94.39±18.67( p<0.001*** for total cholesterol and LDL-C which shows
extremely significant and p<0.01** for triglyceride which indicates highly
significant). The HDL-C among the post-menopausal women was
31.24±6.39 which was significantly reduced (p<0.05*) as compared to
pre-menopausal value of 44.20±11.58. However, the VLDL-C value among
the post-menopausal women (22.34±5.16) was not significantly different
from the pre-menopausal value of 26.02±10.41 (p>0.05).
Table 3 : LDL-C/HDL-C Ratio (atherogenic risk) in pre- and post- menopausal women.
Parameter LDL-C (Mean) HDL-C (Mean) LDL-C/HDL-C
Pre-menopausal women 94.39 44.20 2.13
Post-menopausal women 134.43 31.24 4.30
Table 4 : Total cholesterol /HDL-C Ratio (atherogenic risk) in pre and post- menopausal
women.
Parameter Total cholesterol HDL-C (Mean) TC /HDL-C Ratio
(TC) (Mean)
Pre-menopausal women 160.88 44.20 3.63
Post-menopausal women 191.40 31.24 6.12
The LDL-C/HDL-C ratio between 0.5-3.0 and TC /HDL-C ratio

value between 3.3-4.4 indicate low risks for heart disease. In our study,
among the post-menopausal women, the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio was 4.30
and the TC /HDL-C ratio was 6.12 whereas among the pre-menopausal
women the ratio were 2.13 and 3.63 respectively. The LDL-C/HDL-C ratio
> 3.0 and the TC /HDL-C ratio >5.0 are risk factors in the development of
ischemic heart disease.
Discussion
The age (Mean±SD) of the post-menopausal women was 57.82 ±
8.31 and that among the pre-menopausal women was 21.84 ± 1.29 which
was statistically different (p value <0.001***) as the post-menopausal
women are generally in the older age group in which menopause occurs.
In our study, the serum β-Estradiol value of the post-menopausal women
was significantly reduced (9.66±4.48) when compared to that of pre-
menopausal women (37.7±17.10). The p value was <0.001*** which
signifies extremely significant. This is because of the fact that after
1171
menopause, the ovary ceases the production of the hormone estrogen which
results in a lower level of serum β-estradiol resulting in various
complications.
When compared to pre-menopausal women, post-menopausal
women were having high total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL-C level
and the values were statistically significant. The serum lipid profile values
[Mean ± SD] among the post-menopausal women were - total cholesterol
(TC) : 191.40±41.90, triglyceride : 128.77±52.16, LDL-C : 134.43±38.62
and the pre-menopausal values were - total cholesterol : 160.8±19.80,
triglyceride : 111.96±25.88, LDL-C : 94.39±18.67. The increase in these
lipid profile values may be due to the estrogen deficiency that raises the
total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL-C providing lipid profile highly
favorable to atherogenic potential.
The dyslipidemia most clearly associated with increased risk for
coronary artery disease (CAD) is hyper-cholesterolemia, particularly
elevated plasma levels of cholesterol carried in LDL. CAD risk is increased
at increasing plasma cholesterol levels. The increase in triglyceride level
is due to the fact that in post-menopausal women, there is increased fat
accumulation and increased release of free fatty acids into the circulation,
and excessive free fatty acids provide substrate for hepatic triglyceride
synthesis. Our findings are in accordance with other studies done by Depthi
SK(2012)24 , Eltayeb HA(2015)25 ,Welty FK(2001)26 , and Hallberg and
Svanborg(1967).27 Our findings are also consistent with Berg, et al (2004),28
Carr, et al (2000),29 and Milagros T, et al(2007)30 who also demonstrated
higher total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-C in post-menopausal
women when compared to the pre- menopausal women.
In our study, post-menopausal women had high levels of LDL-C
when compared to pre-menopausal women and was statistically significant
(P < 0.001). Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) which is regulated by circulating
estrogen catalyzes the hydrolysis of VLDL-C to form intermediate-density
lipoprotein and later LDL. Estrogen deficiency after menopause increases
the plasma LPL and hepatic triglyceride lipase activity causing plasma
LDL to accumulate.
Estrogen exerts cardio-protective action among the pre-menopausal
women by maintaining high level of HDL-C and lowering the LDL-C and
triglycerides. In the present study, the cardio-protective HDL-C among
the post-menopausal women was 31.24±6.39 which was significantly
reduced (p<0.05*) as compared to pre-menopausal value of 44.20±11.58.
This decrease in HDL-C may increase the risk of coronary artery disease
1172
in our post-menopausal women. The present study also correlates well

with results of Igweh J.C. et al (2005)7, Usoro C.A.O.et al(2006)31 and
Srinivas RK et al (2013)32 who found statistically significant increase in
total cholesterol and LDL and statistically significant decrease in HDL
after menopause.
Increased triglycerides and VLDL-C values are taken as primary
risk factors for coronary heart disease. In our study, the triglyceride value
is significantly higher in post-menopausal women as compared to that of
pre-menopausal women. However, the VLDL-C value among the post-
menopausal women (22.34±5.16) was not significantly different from the
pre-menopausal value of 26.02±10.41 (p>0.05) and this is consistent with
that of some other studies (Osakue D I33, 2013 and Madhavi D et al, 34
2014). In our study, the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio among the post-menopausal
women is found to be 4.30 which is in the borderline level indicating
moderate atherogenic risk. This ratio for pre-menopausal women is found
to be 2.13 which indicates low risk for development of ischemic heart
disease. The clinical risk factor for heart disease also represented by the
ratio of TC/HDL-C among the post-menopausal women is found to be
6.12 which indicates high risk for development of ischemic heart disease.
This ratio is found to be 3.63 in case of pre-menopausal women indicating
low risk.
Conclusion
Estrogen in pre-menopausal women has plasma cholesterol
lowering action and hence premenopausal women are protected from
coronary heart disease. This protective action of estrogen is lost in
postmenopausal women, causing changes in lipid profile. The hormonal
changes associated with menopause exert a significant effect on the
metabolism of plasma lipids. The effect of the hormonal changes on plasma
lipid levels thus play an important role in most cardiac related disorders.
Our study found that the serum total cholesterol and the
cardiovascular risk factors like LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides were
significantly increased after menopause when compared to pre-menopausal
women thus providing a lipid profile highly favorable to atherogenic
potential among the post-menopausal women. The decrease in the cardio-
protective HDL-C among the post-menopausal women in our study may
increase the risk of coronary artery disease in our post-menopausal women.
Our study shows that postmenopausal women have unfriendly lipid profile.
The elevated atherosclerotic risk factors such as total cholesterol, low
1173
density lipoprotein, triglycerides and reduction in cardio-protective high

density lipoprotein in post-menopausal women is an indication that
menopause is an independent risk factor for development of cardiovascular
disease.
Thus, our study shows that the low levels of estrogen exerts a
significant effect on the plasma lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. Therefore,
it is important to consider each and every post-menopausal woman to
undergo screening for abnormal lipid profile to take preventive measure to
protect the post-menopausal women from coronary artery disease. Up to
90% of cardiovascular diseases may be prevented if established risk factors
are avoided.
Frequent determinations of lipid profile in menopausal women
may help in the management and control of cardiovascular disorders and
other pathological conditions associated with alterations in lipid profile.
In them, specific health education strategies are needed in an order to
prevent the emerging cardiovascular diseases. Early identification of
alterations in these biochemical parameters can aid in the effective
planning. Early application of preventive therapeutic measures help to
reduce morbidity, mortality and psychological effects that lead to happy
ageing days ahead.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1177-1182, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
90
Growth Hormone Gene
Polymorphism and its Association with
Performance Trait in Mizoram Local Pig
“Zovawk”
T.C. Tolenkhomba1 and P. Mayengbam2
College of Veterinary Sciences and A.H., CAU, Selesih, Aizawl,
Mizoram, India.
1
[email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
In North eastern India, pork is the choice of meat. There is
very high demand for the meat of Mizoram local pig “Zovawk” because
of its deliciousness. The porcine growth hormone (GH) gene is
considered to be one of the most important candidate genes that can
influence porcine performance traits because of its crucial function in
growth and metabolism. So looking to the importance of local pig
“Zovawk” in the region a study was undertaken to find association
between growth hormone gene variants and growth rate in zovawk.
The PCR-RFLP digested product revealed three genotypes in Mizo
local pig population. The genotype AA was found predominantly (0.45)
as compare to the other genotypes AB and BB in the population. The
frequency of A and B alleles were 0.60 and 0.40 in the population.
The different genotypes did not show any significant effect on the
growth performance at different age groups in the population. This
may be further verified by including more samples in the study.
Keywords: Zovawk, Growth Hormone Gene, Performance Traits,
PCR-RFLP
1178
Introduction
Pork is a favoured meat for people of Mizoram, a small hilly state
in North eastern India. This part of the country is breeding tract to an
indigenous semi-wild population of pig called “Zovawk”. The meat of the
animal is a delicacy to the local people. Growth rate is an important
characteristics in livestock production. Swine production demands high
growth rate together with efficient conversion of feed to meat. Important
economic traits are usually controlled by genetic and non genetic factors
like environmental temperature and nutrition. Exogeneous porcine
somatotropin (GH) administration causes higher muscle mass and lower
fatness in pigs. The effect of porcine somatotropin depends on the genetic
potential for fat deposition of the breed, e.g. animals of German Landrace
and the Schwerfurther Race showed a higher response to administrated
somatotropin than Pietrain (Ender and Rehfedlt, 1993). Furthermore, pigs
selected for higher weights at slaughter have higher basal concentrations
of GH than unselected animals (Lund-Larsen and Bakke, 1975; Arbona et
al., 1988). Growth hormone is a peptide hormone approx. 190 amino acids
in length which is produced and released by the anterior pituitary in response
to the hypothalamic peptide, GH-releasing factor (Barinaga et al., 1985).
Secretion of GH results in a range of metabolic actions, the end result of
which is growth. Porcine growth hormone gene was sequenced by Vize et
al. (1984). It contains four introns and five exons, and the gene was assigned
to porcine chromosome 12p1.2-p1.5 (Yerle et al., 1993). The effects of
GH gene variations on performance traits have been described for cattle
(Rocha, et al., 1992; Schlee et al., 1994) and mice (Winkelman and
Hodgetts, 1992). Nielsen et al. (1995) suggested differences in
transcriptional activities between GH variants, which might eventually
cause higher plasma GH concentrations and higher growth rates, however,
their studies did not establish a direct cause and effect relationship. In this
study, the polymorphism of GH was investigated in Mizo local pig and
associations of GH variants with some performance traits.
Selection and maintenance of the animals: A total of 80
apparently healthy Zovawk pigs reared in the Livestock Farm, College of
Veterinary Sciences and A.H., Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram were selected.
The animals were maintained along with other animals and fed as per the
routine feeding schedule followed in the Livestock Farm of the college.
Weaning of the pigs was done on the 56th day of age.
1179
Collection of blood sample: Blood samples were collected in 3 ml capacity

K3EDTA coated tubes by venipuncture of anterior venacava. Adequate care
and necessary steps were taken up to prevent any untoward stress to the
animals. Cold chain was maintained for collected blood samples during
the transit from the farm to the laboratory for further studies.
GH genotypes defined by PCR-RFLP
DNA was extracted using standard phenol/chloroform extraction
method followed by ethanol precipitation (Strauss, 1991). Working dilutions
of extracted DNA were prepared for each individual at a concentration of
20 ng/ìl. Primers designed according to Knorr et al. (1997), 5' TTA TCC
ATT AGC ACA TGC CTG CCA 3' and 5' CTG GGG AGC TTA CAA CAT
CCT T 3' were used for PCR (polymerase chain reaction) amplification
between nucleotides -119 and +486 bp of the porcine growth hormone
gene (Vize and Wells, 1987). The PCR mixture contained 50 ng genomic
DNA, 25 pmol of each primer, 25 ìM of each dNTP, 1 unit of Taq DNA
Polymerase and 10×reaction buffer in a 25 ìl reaction volume. PCR was
done using the Eppendorf thermocycler according to the following
procedure: first 95°C for 300s, 59°C 45s, 72°C 45s; cycles 2-30: 94°C
45sÿ59°C 45sÿ72°C 45s; final extension at 72°C for 300s. The PCR
products were subsequently digested by ApaI and revealed allele A
(fragments of 449 bp, 101 bp and 55 bp) or allele B (fragments of 316 bp,
133 bp, 101 bp and 55 bp). The restriction digests were separated using
2.0% agarose gel in 1×TAE at a constant current of 80V. The gels were
stained with ethidium bromide and the fragments were visualized using a
UV transilluminator.
Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed using SPSS version 16. GLM
test was applied to evaluate the effect of genotypes on performance traits .
The PCR-RFLP digested product revealed three genotypes in Mizo
local pig population Figure 1). The genotypes and the allele frequencies of
GH are listed in Table 1. From Table 1, the higher frequency (0.45) of AA
genotype was found as compare to the other genotypes AB and BB in the
population. Comparatively higher frequency (75.8%) of AA genotype was
reported i in Chinese native pig breeds by Wenjun et al. (2002). Larsen et
al. (1993) and Knorr et al. (1997) reported that western pigs carried AA
genotype with a low frequency, while Chinese native pig breeds had higher
frequencies. The frequency of A and B alleles were 0.60 and 0.40,
respectively in the population. Similar finding of allele frequency was
1180
reported in Chinese native pigs by Wenjun et al. (2002). Meanwhile, the

allele B frequency in European pig breeds was high, especially in Pietrain
where its frequency was 79.1% (Wenjun et al., 2002). The genotypic
frequencies observed in the population were within the Hardy-Weinberg
expectation for the growth hormone locus as revealed by the chi-square
test.
Weekly growth profile according to the genotypes is given in Table
2. The different genotypes did not show any significant effect on the growth
performance at different age groups in the population. Similar to our finding,
inn Nanchang White pigs, no significant difference was observed between
three genotypes and the trait. But the pigs with AA genotype had more
birth weight, 2 months body weight, 4 months body weight and 6 months
body weight. As far as corrected back-fat thickness and average back-fat
thickness were concerned, pigs with BB genotype were the thinnest,
although no significant difference was observed (Wenjun et al., 2002).
After studying the offsprings of four purebred sires and two crossbred
sires, Casas-Carrillo et al. (1997) found that growth hormone genotype
was not associated with growth traits. But the results of Cheng et al. (2000)
showed that growth performance traits in Duroc, Landrace and Tao-Yun
pig breeds were highly correlated with their growth hormone genotype.
Figure 1. Genotypes of growth hormone gene in Mizo local pig revealed by PCR-RFLP
in 3% agarose gel. (M: 100bp ladder; AA, AB & BB: Genotpes)
It is indicated the GH locus plays a major role in defining the

genetic difference between breeds of pig and regards the GH gene as a
candidate gene for fatness in pigs. So it is important to build several resource
families and identify the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), to find
out which SNP has high relationship to production performance, and to
provide a basis for developing successfully mark-assisted selection
programmes. In our study the finding may further verified by including
1181
more samples and other regions of GH gene.

Table 1. Gene and genotype frequencies of growth hormone gene in Mizo local pig
Number Frequency
Allele
A 96 0.60
B 64 0.40
Total 160 1.00
Genotype
AA 36 0.45
AB 24 0.30
BB 20 0.25
Total 80 1.00
Chi-Square 0.93NS NS
Not significant
Table 2. Effects of different genotypes on growth performance

Age Genotype
AA AB BB
NS
Birth weight 0.52 ± 0.03 0.47 ± 0.04 0.55 ± 0.04
1st weekNS 0.99 ± 0.08 0.81 ± 0.06 0.92 ± 0.05
2nd weekNS 1.55 ± 0.12 1.32 ± 0.13 1.51 ± 0.06
rd NS
3 week 2.13 ± 0.14 2.01 ± 0.10 2.08 ± 0.07
4th weekNS 2.49 ± 0.20 2.27±0.17 2.39 ± 0.05
5th weekNS 2.83 ± 0.22 2.62± 0.13 2.93 ± 0.07
th NS
6 week 3.39 ± 0.25 3.22± 0.18 3.44 ± 0.09
7th weekNS 3.88 ± 0.31 3.69 ± 0.38 3.91 ± 0.20
8th weekNS 4.30 ± 0.37 4.23 ± 0.34 4.34 ± 0.27
NS
Note: Values are Mean±SE; Not significant
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by Central Agricultural University, imhal,
Manipur.
1182
References
Arbona, J. R., D. N. Marple and R. W. Russell. 1998.Secretory patterns and metabolic
clearance rate of porcine growth hormone in swine selected for growth. J. Anim.
Sci. 66:3068-3072.
Barinaga, M., L. M. Bilezikjian and W. W. Vale. 1985. Independent effects of growth
hormone releasing factor on growth hormone release and gene transcription. Nature.
314:279-281.
Casas-Carrillo, E., A. Prill-Adams and S. G. Price. 1997. Relationship of growth hormone
and insulin-like growth factor-1 genotypes with growth and carcass traits in swine.
Anim. Gene. 26:88-93.
Cheng, W. T. K., C. H. Lee and C. M. Hung. 2000. Growth hormone gene polymorphisms
and growth performance traits in Duroc, Landrace and Tao-Yun pigs.
Theriogenology. 54:1225-1237.
group D locus. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 91:1074-1077.
Knorr, C., G. Moser and E. Müller. 1997. Associations of GH gene variants with
performance traits in F2 generations of European wild boar, Pietrain and Meishan
pigs. Anim. Gene. 28:124-128.
Larsen, N. J. and V. H. Nielsen. 1993. ApaI and CofI polymorphisms in the porcine growth
hormone gene. Anim. Gene. 24:71.
Larsen, N. J., H. Ellegren and P. Brauner-Nielsen. 1995. Genetic variation at the growth
ormone locus in a wild pig intercross: test of association to phenotypic traits and
linkage to blood
Lund-Larsen, T. R. and H. Bakke. 1975. Growth hormone and somatomedin activities in
lines of pigs selected for rate of gain and thickness of backfat. Acta Agriculturae
Scandinavica. 25:231-234.
Nielsen, V. H., N. J. Larsen and D. Agergaard. 1995. Association of DNA-polymorphism
in the growth-hormone gene with basal-plasma growth-hormone concentration and
production traits. J. Anim. Breeding and Genetics. 112:205-212.
SPSS Inc. (2008). SPSS Base 10.0 for Windows User’s Guide. SPSS Inc., Chicago IL.
Vize, P. D. and J. R. E. Wells. 1987. Isolation and characterization of porcine growth
hormone gene. Gene. 55:339-344.
Wang Wenjun, Chen Kefei and Ren Jun et al. 2002. Relationship of growth hormone
genotypes with some production performances in pig. Acta Genetica Sinaca.
29(2):111-114
Yerle, M., Y. Lahbib-Mansais and P. D. Thomsen. 1993. Localization of the porcine growth
hormone gene to chromosome 12p1.2-p.15. Anim. Gene. 24:129-131.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1183-1192, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
91
Pharmacognostic and Physicochemical
Profile of the Leaves of Trevesia palmata
Victoria Devi*, Lanutanget and H. Lalhlenmawia
Department of Pharmacy, Regional Institute of Paramedical and Nursing
Sciences, Zemabawk-796017, Aizawl, Mizoram, India
*[email protected]
Abstract
The plant Trevesia palmata (Araliaceae) is traditionally used in the
north eastern region to treat several ailments. The present study aims
to investigate the pharmacognostic and physicochemical parameters
of the leaves of Trevesia palmata . Fresh mature leaves of Trevesia
palmata were collected from Venglai, Aizawl, Mizoram. After
collection, the fresh leaves of the plants were washed and dried by
spreading them for overnight. Dried leaves were ground into powder.
Some of the fresh leaves were also used. An exhaustive
Pharmacognostic studies was carried out by using standard
methodology. The leaf has been reported as the major organ used alone
or in combination with other plants for treatments of wide variety of
ailments such as stomach pain, sore throat, ingestion, liver diseases
and pains. In order to ensure the use of only genuine and uniform
materials in preparation of herbal formulation, work on standardization
was carried out. The morphology, anatomical, phytochemical, physico-
chemical and quantitative of the plant have been studied. The leaf of
Trevesia palmata shows the presence of Alkaloids, glycosides,
Flavonoids, Saponins and Tannins.
Keywords: Pharmacognostic, Physicochemical , Trevesia palmata,
Phytochemical, Alkaloids.
1184
Introduction
Herbal drugs play an important role in health care programs
especially in developing countries. Ancient Indian literature incorporates
a remarkably broad definition of medicinal plants and considers ‘all’ plant
parts to be potential sources of medicinal substances (Shankar and Ved,
2003). However a key obstacle, which has hindered the acceptance of the
alternative medicines in the developed countries, is the lack of
documentation and stringent quality control. There is a need for
documentation of research work carried out on traditional medicines
(Dahanukar et al., 2000). With this backdrop, it becomes extremely
important to make an effort towards standardization of the plant material
to be used as medicine. The process of standardization can be achieved by
stepwise pharmacognostic studies (Ozarkar, 2005). These studies help in
identification and authentication of the plant material. Correct identification
and quality assurance of the starting materials is an essential pre-requisite
to ensure reproducible quality of herbal medicine which will contribute to
its safety and efficacy. Simple pharmacognostic techniques used in
standardization of plant material include its morphological, anatomical
and biochemical characteristics (Anonymous, 1998).
The plant Trevesia palmata belongs to the family Araliaceae is
native to Asia, China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. They are evergreen tree to 15-20 feet
tall with few or no side branches and topped with a crown of long stalked
1-2 foot wide leaves that are deeply lobed giving the leaf a lacy snow flake
look. The genus name Trevesia was described by the Italian Botanist
Roberto De Visiani in 1840 (Mathew and Jebb, 1998). This species is used
in traditional system of medicines to treat venereal diseases and to treat
bruising (Atiqur Rahman, Uddin, and Wilcock, 2007). In addition shoots
are edible and the whole plants are used as ornamental plants. So far proper
pharmacognostical studies have not been reported for this plant, hence our
efforts were devoted in this direction.
Plant material
Fresh mature leaves of Trevesia palmata were collected from
adjacent places around Zemabawk Venglai, Aizawl, Mizoram. After
collection, the fresh leaves of the plants were washed and dried by spreading
them for overnight. Dried leaves were ground into powder. Some of the
fresh leaves were also used. An exhaustive Pharmacognostic studies was
1185
carried out by using standard methodology.
Fig. 1. Trevesia palmata

Macroscopy
The following macroscopic characters for the fresh leaves were
noted: size and shape, colour, odour, taste, the apex, margin and base.
(Trease and Evans, 2002); ( Wallis, 1985)
Microscopy
Qualitative investigation
Transverse section of leaf
Microscopic evaluation was carried out by taking transverse
sections of fresh leaves and was treated with Phloroglucinol hydrochloride
solution, mounted with glycerine and was observed under Projection
microscope at 10x first and then at 40x. The presence of the following
were observed: epidermal cells (upper and lower), covering trichomes,
xylem, phloem,collenchymas and parenchyma cells. The transverse sections
of the fresh leaves through the lamina and the midrib were mounted and
observed.
1186
Physicochemical parameters
The various physicochemical parameters such as moisture content,
extractive value- alcohol soluble extractive value and water soluble
extractive value, total ash, acid insoluble ash and water soluble ash were
determined. (Indian Pharmacopoeia, 1998).
i) Determination of moisture content
A glass stoppered shallow weighing bottle had been dried and was
used for weighing the sample. 5 grams of the drug was transferred to the
bottle and was covered . The bottle along with the contents was weighed
accurately. Then, the bottle was placed in the oven at 105°C for 5 hours.
The sample was dried to constant weight. After the completion of drying,
the drying chamber was opened and the bottle was closed promptly and
was allowed to cool to room temperature in a desiccator before weighing.
The bottle and the contents were weighed.
ii) Extractive value
(a) Methanol soluble extractive
5 grams of the air dried drug which was coarsely powdered was
macerated with 100 ml of methanol in a closed flask for 24 hours by shaking
frequently during the first six hours and was allowed to stand for 18 hours.
Then, it was rapidly filtered taking precautions against loss of ethanol, 25
ml of the filtrate was evaporated in a tarred flat bottomed shallow dish,
which was dried at 105°C and was weighed. The percentage of methanol
soluble extractive value was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug.
(b) Water soluble extractive
5 grams of the accurately weighed air dried drug, coarsely
powdered were macerated with 100 ml of chloroform water in a closed
flask for 24 hours, by shaking frequently during the first six hours and
allowed to stand for 16 hours. The extracts was filtered rapidly and 25 ml
of the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a tarred flat bottomed shallow
dish, dried at 105°C and weighed. The percentage of water soluble
extractive was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug.
iii) Total Ash
2g of the air-dried crude drug was weighed accurately in a silica
dish and was incinerated at a temperature not exceeding 450°C until free
from carbon, it was cooled and weighed. If a carbon-free ash cannot be
obtained in this way, the charred mass was exhausted with hot water, the
1187
residue was collected on an ashless filter paper, the residue was incinerated
on filter paper until the ash is white or nearly so, the filtrate was added,
evaporated to dryness and was ignite at a temperature not exceeding 450°C.
The percentage of ash was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug.
Total ash content (%) = z – x X 100 /y
where, z = weight of the crucible; x = weight of the crucible with ash; y =
weight of the plant taken.
iv) Determination of Acid insoluble Ash
The ash was boiled with 25 ml of 2M hydrochloric acid for 5
minutes, the insoluble matter was collected in an ashless filter paper, washed
with hot water. It was ignited and cooled in a desiccatorand weighed. The
percentage of acid-insoluble ash was calculated with reference to the air-
dried drug.
Acid insoluble ash value of the sample(%) = 100 X a / y
where, a = weight of the acid insoluble ash; y = weight of the air dried
drug
v) Determination of Water soluble Ash
The ash was boiled for 5 minutes with 25 ml of water, the insoluble
matter was collected in an ashless filter paper, it was washed with hot
water, and was ignited for 15 minutes at a temperature not exceeding 450°C.
The weight of the insoluble matter was subtracted from the weight of the
ash; the difference in weight represents the water soluble ash. The
percentage of the water soluble ash was calculated with reference to the
air-dried drug.
Water insoluble ash value of the sample (%) = 100 X a / y
where, a= weight of the water insoluble ash; y= weight of theair-dried
drug.
Quantitative investigation
Quantitative leaf microscopy was performed to determine the
stomatal number, stomatal index, palisade ratio, vein islet number and vein
termination number on epidermal strips. (Kokate, 1996)
a. Determination of Stomatal Number
Some piece of the leaf was boiled with chloral hydrate solution or
alternatively with chlorinated soda . Upper and lower epidermis were peeled
1188
separately by means of forceps. It was kept on a slide and mounted in

glycerin water. The slide was placed with cleared leaf on the stage and was
observed under Projection microscope at 40x. The epidermal cell and
stomata were counted in an area of 0.2 mm. The cell was included if at
least half of its area lies within the square. The result was recorded for
each of the four fields and its per sq.mm. was calculated.
b. Determination of Stomatal Index
Some piece of the leaves was boiled by using chloral hydrate
solution. Upper and lower epidermis was peeled separately by means of
forceps. It was kept on the slide and was mounted in glycerine water. The
slide was placed with cleared leaf on the stage of the projection microscope
at 40x. The number of epidermal cells (E) in each field were counted in an
area of 0.2 mm. The stomatal index(I) was calculated by using the formula:
I = S X 100 / E+S
c. Determination of Vein-islet and Vein-termination number
Few leaves were boiled in chloral hydrate solution in a beaker on
water bath. The preparation was mounted in glycerine water. The vein-
islets and vein terminations were subjected to Projection microscope at
40x. The number of vein-islets and vein- termination present were counted
within the square of 0.2mm. The observation from four squares was taken
and the mean was calculated.
In this study the pharmacognostic standards for the leaves of
Trevesia palmata was carried out for the first time . Morphological and
anatomical studies of the leaf will enable to identify the crude drug. The
information obtained from preliminary phytochemical screening will be
useful in finding out the genuinity of the drug. Ash value, extractive values
can be used as reliable aid for detecting adulteration. These simple but
reliable standards will be useful to a lay person in using the drug as a home
remedy. Also the manufacturers can utilize them for identification and
selection of the raw material for drug production. On macroscopic
investigation ( Table -1) Trevesia palmata leaves are palmate, ovate
lanceolate, dark green, evergreen, margin serrate, apex acuminate, 15-20
ft tall, 5-10 ft width.
The microscopic study revealed the presence of unicellular
unlignified covering trichomes, paracytic stomatas are seen in powders.
They contained elongated fibres, calcium oxalate crystals and starch grains
1189
were present. Various physico-chemical parameter of powdered drug has

been investigated and reported in ( Table -2) . Moisture content of drugs
might be at minimum level to dispirit the reduction of bacteria, yeast or
fungi through storage. Ash values used to find out quality and purity of
unsophisticated drug. It indicates the existence of a mixture of impurities
like carbonate, oxalate and silicate. The acid insoluble ash consist mainly
silica and indicate contamination with earthy material. The water soluble
ash is used to estimate the amount of inorganic elements present in drugs.
The extractive values are valuable to estimate the chemical constituents
present in the crude drug and furthermore assist in evaluation of definite
constituents soluble in a particular solvent. The stomatal number, stomatal
index, vein islet number, vein termination numbers are comparatively
constant for plants and can be used to make out differences between closely
related species. The results are depicted in Table -3
Table No. 1 Macroscopical characters of the leaves of Trevesia palmata
Size Height 15-20ft, width 5-10ft
Colour Dark green
Odour Foul odour
Taste Somewhat bitter
Shape Palmate, ovate lanceolate
Margin Serrate
Apex Acuminate
Base Rounded plate-like
Table- 2: Physicochemical standardization of the leaves of Trevesia palmata.

Sl. No Parameters Leaves
1 Total ash value 10.8%
2 Acid insoluble ash 44.5%
3 Water soluble ash 39.2%
4 Moisture content 10.3%
5 Water soluble extractive 36%
6 Alcohol soluble extractive 20.8%
1190
Table- 3: Quantitative estimation of the leaves of Trevesia palmata.

Parameters Range
Palisade ratio 12-13
Stomatal number (lower epidermis) 4-5
Stomatal index(lower epidermis) 15-16
Vein islet number 1-2
Vein termination 3-4
Fig. 2. T.S of the leaves of Trevesia palmata
Fig. 3. Stomatal number and Stomatal index and observed from the leaves of Trevesia
palmata
1191
Fig. 4. Vein islet and Vein termination observed from the leaves of Trevesia palmata
Conclusion
From the present study we can conclude that the majority of the
information on the identity, purity and quality of the plant material can be
obtained from its macroscopy, microscopy, physico-chemical, qualitative
and quantitative parameters. As there is no record on pharmacognostical
work on leaves of Trevesia palmata, the present work is undertaken to
produce some pharmacognostical standards.
References
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and HPTLC studies of various extracts of Annona squamosa (Annonaceae).
International Journal of Pharm Tech Research. 4, 364-368.
Ali, M. (1988) Text Book of Pharmacognosy, 974.
Atiqur Rahman, M. Uddin, S.B. and Wilcock, C.C. (2007) Medicinal plants used by
Chakma tribe in hill tracts districts of Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge, 6, 518-517.
Harborne, J.B. (1984) Phytochemical methods, 4-7.
1192
Kokate, C.K (1994) Practical Pharmacognosy, 107-111.

Kokate, C.K. Purohit, A.P. Gokhale, S.B. (2008) Textbook of Pharmacognosy, A1-A6.
Lalmuanpuii, J. Rosangkima, G. Lamin, H. (2013) Ethnomedicinal practices among the
Mizo ethnic group in Lunglei district, Mizoram. Science Vision, 13 24-34.
Laloo, R.C. Kharlukhi, L. Jeeva, S. and Mishra, B.P. (2006): Status of medicinal plants in
the disturbed and the undisturbed sacred forests of Meghalaya, northeast India:
Population structure and regeneration efficacy of some important species. Current
Science, 90, 225-232.
Matthew, H.P. and Jebb. (1998) A revision of the genus Trevesia (Araliaceae). Glasra, 3,
85-114.
Mohammed, A.S. Mohammed, F. Ahmad, I.C. Ahmmed, R.F. Abdullah, M. Mujahidul, I.
(2015) Thrombolytic and Anti-Arthritic activities of methanolic extracts of Trevesia
palmata. e-Journal of Science & Technology, 119-124.
Panyaphu, K, Preeyawis, P.S, Ubol, N. Nathakarnkitkul, S. Chansakaow, S. On TV. (2012)
Phytochemical antioxidant and antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used in
northern Thailand as postpartum bath recipes by the Mein (Yao) community.
Phytopharmacology, 2, 92-105.
Rahman, K.M.H. Nandi, J.K. Sultana, S. Rahman, S. Hossan, S. Rahmatullah, M. (2014)
Phytochemical screening, Anti hyperglycaemic and analgesic activity studies with
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1192-1204, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
92
Women and Natural Resources
Conservation: Study in Community Based
Wetland Resources Management Groups
in Hail Wetland
Mohammad Nazrul Islam1, Mohammad Mojammel Hussain Raihan2,
Subarna Akter3, and Mohammad Saiful Islam4
1
Graduate Student, Environmental Policy Institute (EPI), Grenfell
Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
2
Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Shahjalal University of Science and
Technology, Sylhet, Email: [email protected]
3
Research Associate, Policy, Research and Advocacy (PRA), Sylhet,
Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]
4
MBA Candidate, North East University of Bangladesh (NEUB)
Abstract
Climate-Resilient Ecosystems and Livelihoods (CREL) is a community
based project which introduced co-management approach for
promoting community mobility and wetland resources conservation.
The study has tried to explore role of different women’s groups on
wetland resources conservation. To meet the objectives of the study
Case study and In-depth interview methods have been used. Study
reveals that, women have a significant involvement in wetland
resources conservation. CREL project provided different training
including poultry and livestock rearing, fishing handicraft, small scale
women’s micro-credit for livelihood diversification. Again, through
1194
the various knowledge mobilization activity like weekly ‘Mothers

Caucus’, women became conscious about the importance of wetland.
They restrain their male person from catching undersize or mother
fish; and actively engaged them on their income generating activities.
Consequently, male family member of these women’s groups is
spending less amount of time for catching fish or collecting other
aquatic resources from wetland. Finally, since their family income is
increased, women have sent their children in school who in the earlier
were associated with their father for catching fish. However, sometimes
women are confronting different problems because of institutional
hindrance. So, government or NGO should take proper initiatives for
women advancement to conserving wetland resources.
Key Words: Co-management, Empowerment, Livelihood
diversification, Resource conservation, Women.
Introduction
Bangladesh is topographically a deltaic Plain land crass-crossed
by innumerable rivers. Therefore, it has numerous amounts of floodplains
areas. These floodplains areas are one of the world’s important wetlands -
home to hundreds of species of fishes, plants and other wildlife including
thousands of migratory birds. The annual catch of almost 500,000 metric
tons of fish and prawns from floodplains and wetlands is a source of income
and a critical supply of nutrition for millions of Bangladesh’s poorest rural
households (Mokkamel 2006:12).
Unfortunately, the wetland resources of Bangladesh are declining
due to over fishing and less of habitat and connectivity. As a result,
environment degradation is occurred. This environmental degradation
effects the livelihood of haor area’s people and food security condition
(Thompson et al 206: 301). In that context government take community
based haor resources management approach. (Byomkesh et al. 2009:81;
Rahman and Begum 2010:87). The community based haor resources
management is formulated to develop innovative approaches to flood plain
and wetland resource conservation to ensuring the sustainable productivity.
The Management of Aquatic Ecosystems through Community Husbandry
(CREL) is a prototype of community based wetland resources management
project which has supported by USAID and the Government of Bangladesh
have run from late September 1998 to the end of June 2007. The key
elements of the CREL approach have been establishing community
organizations and then embedding within that institutions form sustainable
wise use of wetland resources, formally linking these with the existing
local government system, and through these making interventions to restore
wetland habitats and their productivity and to improve the livelihoods of
1195
poor people dependent on these wetlands.

This management project is comprised of two organizations one
is Resource Management Organizations (RMOs) representing all local
people with interests in wetlands and fisheries and another is Federations
of Resource User Groups (FRUGs) comprising of poor fishers and other
poor wetland users. There are 16 various women resource user groups in
CREL project. They play a vital role in resource conservation and
management of sustainable eco-system. CREL project provides different
training and knowledge like as livestock and poultry/duck rearing, fish
culture, fish business, agriculture, vegetable cultivation, small trading,
tailoring and tree nursery to women for their livelihood diversity. So, the
study has tried to explore the role of women groups in the conservation of
natural resources through the various alternative livelihood activities.
Objectives of the study
The broad and general objective of this study is, to explore the
role of women in natural resources conservation. This broad objective has
been split into several specific objectives. This are-
1. To understand the formation and activities of various women groups
in community based resource management project;
2. To know the impact of miscellaneous livelihood diversification
on women’s condition; and
3. To explore the role of different income generating activities and
human skills to reduce dependency on haor resources.
The research design of this study is explorative and the study is
carried out in Hail Haor, Sreemongal, Moulvibazar, Bangladesh. It is in
the north-east part of Bangladesh and located between the Balishara and
Barshijura hills in the east and the Satgaoan hills on the west (MACH
2007). It is extended in five unions of Sreemongal Upazila and covers up
two unions of Sadar Upazila of Moulvibazaar District. The watershed of
2
Hail Haor covers about 600 km (375 square miles) and among this 15% is
flowing into India. The average area of Hail Haor in wet season is about
maximum 13,000 ha, but in the dry season the total area comes down to
just over 3,000 ha. Approximately 172,000 people live in this haor side
covering 61 villages all around (MACH 2007; IPAC 2009). There are 85
village CBO groups involved in community based fishery system at Hail
haor who are fully dependent on haor resources. This group is called
1196
Resource User Group (RUG). There are 16 RUGs groups were formed for
women where 200 female members are actively engaged. So, these groups
are the population of this study. Qualitative method like case study, in-
depth interview techniques have used for data collection. 10 cases were
selected purposively to obtain the objectives of the study.
Group Formation and Capacity building activities for women
There are two groups of people such as RMO and FRUG involved
with in co-management project. The RMOs incorporate all types of local
stakeholders – fishers, farmers, landless, local opinion leaders, men and
women, and work to represent the whole community in protecting,
managing and restoring productivity of their area of wetland and ensuring
fair access for local poor fishers. Very few numbers of women have involved
with RMO while many women join in several resource user groups, even
only women have numerous groups. Within these Women Resources User
Groups (WRUG) membership bodies limited to only poor women whose
families are depend on wetland resources for food or income. Before group
formation, awareness raising and motivational sessions are employed to
increase stakeholder’s understanding about the importance of wetland
resources management. Women Resources User Groups (WRUG) are
formed considering certain criteria such as the extent of dependency on
wetland resources, economic condition, education and husband occupation
for ensuring the active participation of poor households in wetland resources
management process. Each WRUG comprised of 15-30 women and elected
a chairperson, a general secretary and a cashier. WRUGs are formed at the
beginning and thereafter groups and membership increased modestly to
fill in gaps in coverage, with the emphasis moving to capacity building to
ensure sustainability of the group system. Membership is based on making
regular personal savings for building their own capital in weekly group
meetings according to the rate fixed based on their individual capacity.
They are mobilizing in the WRUG to perform the group activities and to
involve in resources conservation. CREL project provide training with
issue-based awareness rising sessions on wetland resources, nutrition, adult
education, primary health care and sanitation. In addition, basic trainings
on group development, leadership, social issues, and self-finance are
provide looking at the aptitude and analyzing the need of the recipient.
Impact of various livelihood activities on women
The resources users must limit fishing and use of resources for
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adopting wetland conservation measures that included fishing closure

period, banning harmful fishing practices and establishing sanctuaries
where fishing is banned round the year. Therefore, alternative income
generation schemes are introduced in addition to their principal occupation
to improve livelihoods and to conserve wetland resources reducing
dependency on wetlands. They are provided access to micro-credit and
revolving loan funds (RLF) to start alternative livelihood activities. Credit
activities are operated according to the approved guidelines. They are
trained in skills on alternative livelihood activities and credit that they
could apply when they use the loans to establish income generation schemes.
Profit-oriented, locally available and demandable activities are offered to
support the livelihoods. Almost 76% of the RUG members received skill
trainings on specific trade ranging from poultry, duck and livestock rearing
to nursery plantation, mechanics, electricians and sewing that enhanced
technical knowledge and efficiency. They can overcome the difficulties
implementing alternative livelihood activities because of training and access
to microcredit. They adopted income-generating activities on 35 types of
trades that are alternative to fishing. Typical enterprises included livestock
and poultry/duck rearing, fish culture, fish business, agriculture, vegetable
cultivation, small trading, tailoring and tree nursery. These aided taking
up new occupations altogether, earning an income from non-wetland sources
that created employment opportunities for them. The loan repayment rate
is almost 96% reflecting the successful outcome. Say for example, doing
small business women can generate potential income that can help her
family to lead their life in a different and better way. The statement of
Sofia depicted the scenario more concretely.
By taking loan from CREL, I have started a small business in my own
home. I have taken loan of 50000 taka for my business. From this I
have given my husband 10000 taka to start fish business in the local
market. Now instead of catching fish in the beel he sells fish in the
local market. Now my family condition is much better than that of our
past situation.
Besides this, tailoring also act as an activity for women to help

themselves as well as their family. According to Anuara,
I have received training in tailoring from CREL project. Now I can
income money by sewing clothes. In addition, I am also providing
training some women by the assistance of the project. I have mortgaged
some agricultural lands and my husband cultivates the lands. As a
result, now he engages more time in agriculture rather than catching
fish and our financial condition is better.
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In addition, poultry and animal raring are also very much popular
to women for contributing to their family. CREL project provides training
and skills on poultry and animal raring and by implement these women
can become a resource for their family. In case of Dilara,
I was totally helpless when my husband died in 3 years ago. The
officials came to me and suggested to receive training on poultry raring.
I received the duck raring procedure. At first, she took 5000 TK from
CREL and bought some duck and made profit. After that again took
loan of 30000 TK loan from the CREL and bought new ducks as well
as mortgaged 5 bigas of land. Now my two sons are cultivating these
lands.
As well Rahima said that,

Three years ago, CREL officials gave me training on goat raring and
gave some loan to buy goats. After that I made some profits and had
taken more loan to grow up more goats. By making profits I mortgaged
2 bigas of land where my husband cultivates crops.
Furthermore, cultivation fish by the help of CREL also able women

to enhance their income and do something for their family. According to
Monira,
My husband was involved in illegal catching of fish and I don’t do
anything before involving in CREL project. They gave me training on
fish cultivation and suggested me to cultivate fish in my pond by their
financial assistance. When some profits gained I willingly have taken
loan and cultivating fish in my pond. My husband helps me in that
case and sell the fish in local market. Now my husband rarely goes to
the haor and our condition is better than that of past.
Ways to conserve natural resources in wetland (haor) area

CREL project has provided various incentives to the members of
community based haor resource management practitioner as well as all
the members must be followed certain rules and regulation. For example,
any person of the general member’s family cannot catch fish from the
sanctuaries or mother fish or undersized fish from the Hail haor, they cannot
use any prohibited net for catching fish and they cannot hunting any kinds
of seasonal birds form the Hail haor. Generally, Women are honest and
they try to follow these rules and regulation through their group activities.
If any one family member violates these rules they inform to their team
member and takes various punishment for them according to their
institutional rules. Tahera Begum one of the active members of Shapla
group said,
…..One day my husband was catching different types of undersized
1199
fish form the Bikka bell and I was in my paternal house. However, my
elder daughter prepares and cooked these fish. But in that time my
neighbor Khalada has seen and she inform to the vice-president of our
group. Consequently, next meeting they called me and fine me 20 TK
for violating the rules as well as group president said if this type of
incident will occur in future they will stop my credits and determine a
big amount of fine. From that day, I am conscious about catching
undersized fish and I informed my husband that he does not catch
these types of fish again…
Sapna Rani is a general member of another women resource user

group name Borogangena said
…My son fishing from adjunct area of Bikka bell and other part of
Hail haor. Most of the time he catches medium size fish but when he
cannot get big and medium size fish he catches undersized fish. In
that time, me and my futar bou (daughter in law) scold him and told
him it is very difficult to prepare and cook these fish. If you catch such
fish we do not cook it. As a result, my son does not catch the undersized
fish from the Hail haor…
Awareness raising sessions are e.g. courtyard and public meetings,

rallies and street theater that making them responsive on conservation
benefits, access rights to resources, decision making and social issues.
Through these awareness related activities CREL project has tried to
conscious the member. Johura Begum said
…I did not know that mother fish and bird hunting are very harmful
for our fishing resource and environment before joining the Bikka
bell shomete. When I was involved with this shomete, officer informs
us you are mother, if any one kills you, what happen in this time. May
be your child faces miscellaneous problems and your family will
destroy. Similarly, if we catch mother fish it destroys our fish species.
He also said a Gozar fish lays one lac eggs. If only one thousand eggs
are surviving and one fish price is 200 TK, how much the total value
and availability of this fish in this area…
Each resources user group and FRUG arrange monthly meeting

where various issues like weekly saving, grant for microcredit, fishing
roles etc have discussed. Most of the time CREL project organize women
meeting which is called Ma Somabesh in local FRUG office. Through this
meeting CREL project stuff evaluate women group’s activities and they
send miscellaneous information for the WRUG members. Sontoshe Pal
attain every Ma Somabesh. According to her speech
I am tried to attain in every Ma Somabesh. Through this meeting I can
know that over exploring different aquatic resources such as water
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lily, Saluk, Hingir and several types of vegetable are very destructive
for haor ecology and environment. Before knowing the information,
we think that these vegetables are only used for grass.
Training and skills are called human capital. Through this human capital
people can improve their livelihood condition. CREL project introduced
and provided various training and skills development pogramme like as
fish cultivation, poultry raring, livestock raring old education training,
health and sanitation related awareness etc. by using these women are trying
to enhance economic solvency as well as they involve their family members
with such economic activities. Consequently, they do not go to haor or
spend little time for fishing in haor areas. Jaheda Begum said,
We are traditionally depending on fishing from haor. Before passing
away of my husband he only catches fish one time a day in hail haor.
After his death, my two sons go to the haor two times and catch distinct
types of fish from the haor. But when I have involved with sommete I
got training from CREL project. After that my sons do not go to the
haor and are going to school.
On the other hand, Nupur Begum said that,

Before CREL project most of my family members were involved with
catching fish in Bikka Bell. However, when I have involved as a member
of Golap RUG, I got some training from CREL project. Now I and my
husband are involved with pond fishing. By this income I have bought
two cows and my husband spend full day to caring these cows while 5
years ago he had gone to hail haor and stays weeks after weeks.
Accordingly, Komla Rani said that,

We live in very near close to the Bikka Beel. So, my husband and
other family members were involving with stealing fish from Bikka
bell and I am with other female members of my family collect various
aquatics resources like water lily, Shamuk, Jenuk, Mokna, Hingiar
from the beel. We sold these aquatics plants and fruits in local market.
However, now involve with a small business in a shop as well as I am
a general member of Shalk RUG. I do not collect aquatics plants for
selling. My husband and other family members are busy in my shop.
Microcredit is very useful tools for improving people’s livelihood

condition. CREL project’s main aim is to enrich people’s livelihood
diversification. Consequently, this project provides various loan for its
general member based on their savings. Women can take more than hundred
times of loan against her saving. Through these loans, women can invest
the money in miscellaneous income generating activities and keep their
husband or other family members busy for these purposes which are
partially or directly reduce the dependency on haor aquatics resources.
1201
Shahana Begum said

Due to the poverty, my husband and two sons were stealing fish from the
Bikka beel. One day Borogangena RMO was bring charged in court against
the all-male members of my family for stealing fish from the beel. After
that my husband get engage more fish stealing from the beel due to the
conviction. But one day Alamgir Bai (a stuff of CREL project) came in my
house and he made me aware about the various illegal activities as well as
its consequences. He also offered me to get microcredit from his
organization and gave me two days for thinking about the concerned matter.
After that I talked to my husband and made him realize about the harmful
effect of these unethical activities. I agree to him for restrain these illegal
activities. Therefore, I got twenty-five ducks and twenty thousand TK loan
from CREL project. Then I bought a shallow pump for my husband and
now my husband fully involved with agricultural activities. He rent these
shallow to others farmer as well as cultivated some land which we are
takes lease form others.
Similarly, Tonema Begum has taken 50000 TK loan from CREL for small
business and trying to improve her economic condition. She said
I run my business in my house. I also helped my husband to start a business

in the local market. From the loan money, I gave my husband 10000 taka
to run fish business in the market. However, before involving in the CREL
my husband and sons were depended in the Baikka Beel of Hail Haor for
their livelihood. They supported their living by illegal fishing and bird
hunting. I never thought about the negative impacts of such activities
towards the natural resources of the haor. After the project started the
officials gave some conditions to my husband to provide loan for me. The
conditions were that, not to go to the haor for fishing or hunting bird
illegally. But in that time my husband did not agree to the conditions. After
that the officials tried to meet with me to change the motive of my husband.
They made me understand that natural resources are vulnerable in that
area hence conservation of resources is very much important and it is the
duty of local people. They trained me to nurturing goat by and gave some
money to buy goat. Afterward I am successfully nurtured the goat and got
some extra money by sold the goat. Then I took more money from the
CREL and started a business in my home and also pursued my husband to
begin fish business in the market. I also could make understand my husband
about the importance of resources of the haor. Besides this when my
1202
husband started the fish business thereafter stopped to go to the haor.

Conclusion and Recommendations
This study directed to know about the role of women in natural
resources conservation considers the CREL project of Hail haor. Study
found that there are different strategies available in the project to involve
women in the mainstream economic earner of the family. They provide
various training and initiatives to women and consequently they are
converted as a conscious citizen. Besides these women are implementing
their achieved knowledge and skills and generate valuable income for their
family by diversified livelihood strategies. In addition, they can engage
their husband in miscellaneous activities started by them. Also, the can
prohibits their husband and male family members from destruct the
vulnerable natural resources. Finally, this study considers some
recommendations are in the flowing
1. Should change the mentality of the local people towards the uses
of the resources of the haor.
2. To increase the literacy rate of the women.
3. Enhance the basic capabilities of women by providing different
livelihood training.
4. Provide enough monetary help of the poor women.
5. Should provide diversified employment to local people.
6. Increase the awareness of local people about the aquatics resources
conservation.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1205-1211, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
93
Impact of Industrial Model Township on
Natural Resources: A Case of Manesar
Town and its Envions
Shashi Mehta
Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Amity University Haryana,
India; E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Earlier, human beings were merely dependent on natural resources for
their survival and had been controlled and used collectively by village
communities. In 1990, when the liberalization, privatization and
globlization (LPG) model and new industrial policy 1991 came up, an
abrupt transformation was discerned in the economy from agriculture
to industrial activities. Accordingly, Indian cities have started turning
into a melting pot of urbanization but the concern for natural resources
remained neglected because of the poor land management practices,
inadequate institutional arrangement etc made situation critical.
Although the growing concern of environmentalist still persist in
independent India but they have failed to stop the exploitation of natural
resources on the name of development which has imbalanced the
ecosystem. Manesar town and its surrounding resources are facing the
acute problem of depleting ground water due to the presence of large
scale industries. Thus quantitative and qualitative approach and other
statistical methods have been employed for analysis and identified
various issues such as loss of forest cover and biodiversity, drying
waterbodies, depleting water table, loss of agricultural land etc.
Keywords: Industrialization, Urbanization, Land Management,
Resources, Ecosystem
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Introduction
Industrialisation has always been an integral part of the economic
development especially in the developing countries. It has been measured
that larger the industrial area greater the economic growth and development.
Thus, it has two sides, on one side it contributes in the prosperity of the
area while on the other side it directed towards environmental degradation.
As a result, the impact of industrial activity on the natural environment is
a big concern not even at the global or national level but at local level also.
The most visible impacts of industries have been identified primarily in
deveoping countries in the form of deforestation, erosion of soil,
desertification etc. led to extreme pressure on environment and deprived
people from their right to live or environmental right. Then, this pressure
keep continued because of the increasing population and their demands,
rapid industrialization etc consequently giving birth to new problems such
as rising green house gas & emission, water pollution, growing volume
and waste, chemical pollution at a large scale.
Economic Growth versus Natural Resources
In 1981 the one third population of the world lived in poverty
whereas in 2001 the percentage declined up to 18 percent due to the rapid
economic growth. Industrial Development played an important role in the
developing countries like India and China where demand for services rises
rapidly due to increasing population.
In the 1980s the annual GDP growth rate 5.8 percent and 5.4 in
1990s, was moderately strong in India. Growth has been occurring mainly
in manufacturing and services. Between 1980 and 2002, the average growth
rate of manufacturing is 6.6 per cent, while agriculture grew at only 2.8
per cent per year. At present, the open trade system brought specialization
in the production of commodities and also attracted the foreign investment
in the country. In the pursuit of achieving more and more growth natural
resources are being exploited by the humans. The relationship between
people growth, resource depletion and environmental degradation has
always been a matter of discussion across the world.
Thus the imbalance stage between increasing population and
growing economy are continuously threatening the natural environment
and ecosystem. The major threats include pressure on land, loss of forest
cover and biodiversity, water scarcity and pollution, climate change etc. It
doesn’t mean that environment protection is against the economic
development but it is also a human right aimed to make the better life of
1207
people. It always insists on achieving sustainable development that merges

environment protection with economic growth and social justice.
It has been visualised that most of the countries are suffering from
severe health problem due to the pollution produced by industries. The
same case happened in China where serious air and water pollution caused
because of the unplanned development resulting health problems have
increased and even farmers have lost more than they gained from
agriculture. In this way, unrestricted economic development is not only
harmful for environment but it is also not economically beneficial.
Industrial Scenario in Haryana
Earlier Haryana was known for agriculture and cattle rearing state
but now it has directed its growth toward manufacturing sector and emerged
as a hub of large Indian and Multinational Companies. Haryana has the
highest average GSDP growth rate i.e 14.9 as compared to other state of
India (i.e 11.8). At present, the state Haryana has a sound industrial base
with impressive infrastructural services in terms of bank, road network,
industrial estates, communication network, technical institution and
established commercial markets.
Another important benefit to Haryana is the near proximity to Delhi
National Capital and well connected with Indra Gandhi International
Airport. The main reason behind such revolutionary transformation is heavy
investment in the infrastructure development and its strategic location.
There are 363 Special Economic Zone (SEZ) recognised in India among
them 32 are in Haryana state. Apart from this, Haryana has the highest
literacy rate i.e 67.9 as compared to other state of India (64.8) as a result a
pool of skilled, semi skilled and unskilled labours are available in order to
support the services.
However, state has always given emphasis on the planned
development of infrastructure accompanying with the eco friendly
environment for industrial development. Besides, the industrial policy of
the state is so welcoming that invited the investor all over the world to set
up their industries resulting changed the economic scenario of the state.
Recently, Haryana has received an investment proposal of worth rupees
one lakh crore in the areas of automobiles and automotive components,
Information technology etc.
Moreover the Haryana State Industrial and Infrastructural
Development Corporation (HSIIDC) is the nodal agency responsible for
the industrial development and its related infrastructure. It also establishes
1208
Industrial Model Townships, Industrial Estates, parks and Growth Centre

all over the state to ensure equitable progress. These IMTs are attributed
by basic infrastructure facilities such as motorable roads, access to the
site, water supply system, electrical infrastructure, sewage and drainage
system and are also equipped with secondary and tertiary level facilities
like CETP, solid waste disposal, parking, shopping complex etc.
Although,Gurugram, Faridabad, Sonepat, Panchkula, Ambala,
Yamuna Nagar are the key districts of Haryana in terms of industrial
development but industrialisation is taking place on a very fast pace
especially in two districts named Gurugram and Faridabad as compared to
other district of State. Similarly, the strategic location of Gurugram district
provided an impetus to the industrial growth. Subsequently, around 46000
crore is the annual turnoverhas been marked in Gurugram with an
investment of rupees 10000 crores and providing employment about 200000
persons. There are mainly three types of industrial cluster found in
Gurugram district is as follows:
I. Information Technology and its enabled Services Industry
II. Readymade Garments and other allied industry
III. Automobile Industry
Source: (Punia & Cheema, 2013)

Figure 1: Location of Industrial Area in Gurugram District, 2011
1209
Apart from this, a Dedicated Frieght Corridor (DFC) between Delhi

and Mumbai has been proposed by the Government of India (GoI) in the
National Capital Region. The industrial corridor with a length of 1500
kilometres will pass through six states of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra. There are two investment regions
and two industrial areas have been planned in Haryana among them Manesar
Bawal industrial region is the significant one due to its existing strong
industrial base. Similarly, the development of Kundli Manesar and Palwal
Expressway has been undertaken by HSIIDC in order to capture the
potential of present Manesar industrial hub by establishing various theme
cities along the expressway such as knowledge city, cyber city, medi-city,
Pharma city, fashion city etc.
Industrial Model Township Manesar and its Envions:
Earlier the economy of Manesar village was based on agriculture
with around thousand dwellings. But in 1990s a boom came in the
manufacturing sector consequently development activities were noted down
in the village on an immense speed. Now it has become a major industrial
town that invites multidimensional investment in the area. Conseuently,
Farmers have become millionaire or multi-millionaires by selling their
lands. A majority of them are living posh lives. According to the Census
2011, total population of the town is 23448 out of them 14381 are male
and 9067 are female. Among the three industrial clusters of Gurugram
Industrial Model Township, Manesar is one of the important industrial
clusters enabled with Automobile industries. At present, it is emerging as
a nucleus centre which attracts corporates, realty players, manufacturers,
industrialists and also multi national companies with an investment worth
more than one lakh crore and generating employment about 15 lakh skilled
and unskilled jobs. The major industries leading with global brands in the
township are Toyota, Mitsubishi, Honda, Suzuki etc. The topmost builders
like Raheja, DLF, Unitech, Vatika, Relaince, Amrapali, Antriksh etc have
developed their land in order to provide the faciltities required for the
people risiding in the township. Manesar town lies on the periphery of
Gurugram city and well connected with National Highway 8 (NH-8) and
other major cities like Jaipur, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad etc. Being a part
of the National Capital Region (NCR) it is endowed with well developed
infrastructure for the further enhancement of the industries. Besides, it is
the centre of some prestigious institutions like National Brain Research
Centre, National Security Guards, Government Polytechnic College, Indian
Oil Corporation etc. Further, the above massive development has depleted
various natural resources like land and water resources. As a result, a
1210
significant declined has been noticed around 30 metre below ground level
in the ground water of the town which has raised the question on the
sustainability of town. In addition, industries have supported some other
economic activities like large commercial complex, real estate market etc.
consequently a noticeable change has been seen the increasing percentage
of conversion of agriculture land into non agricultural uses. Apart from
this there are several other issues emerged pertaining to degradation of
resources like deforestation, loss of biodiversity etc.
Conclusion and Suggestion:
Manesar is one of the fastest growing industrial towns. It has
attracted huge investment in manufacturing sector not only from India but
also from abroad. IMT Manesar is famous automobile industries, it is
planned industrial township comprises of four development phase enabled
with latest technologies and facilities. But these industries have a
considerable impact on natural resources especially on water resources.
However the demands for water in the industries like for cleaning the parts,
construction of new buildings are continuously growing day by day. Due
to the limited availability of water surface industries are extracting more
and more groundwater to ful fills their requirement. Likewise, local people
are selling their land to industries on higher rate due to the unavailability
of water in the area caused the conversion of agriculture land into non
agricultural use. So in this case it is very important to promote the use of
technology system which reduce inputs and increase productivity on
farms.Encourage and work to accelerate the use of efficient water
conservation technologies in industries and promote new and capable
methods to conduct equal water distribution with defined demands and
reduce the overuse and wastage of water resource in the area.
References
1. Andersen, A. D. (2012). Towards a new approach to natural resources and
development: the role of learning, innovation and linkage dynamics. International
Journal of Technological Learning, Innovation and Development, 5(3), 291–324.
2. Atkinson, G. and K. Hamilton, K. (2003), “Savings, Growth and the Resource
Curse Hypothesis”, World Development Vol. 31: 1793-1807.
3. Edwards, Sebastian (1993) “Openness, Trade Liberalization and Growth in
Developing Economies”, Journal of Economic Literature, Sept, pp. 1358-1393.
4. Industrial Policy (2005), Directorate of Industries and Commerce, Government of
Haryana, Chandigarh.
5. Ploeg, F. Van Der. (2011). Natural resources: Curse or blessing? Journal of
Economic Literature, XLIX (June), 366–420.
1211
6. Regional Plan (2021) National Capital Region Planning Board, National Capital
Region, New Delhi.
7. Sachs, Jeffrey D. and Andrew M. Warner (1995b) “Natural Resource Abundance
and Economic Growth”, NBER working paper no. 5398.
8. Shaw, R. P. 1989. Rapid Population Growth and Environmental Degradation:
Ultimate versus Proximate Factors. Environmental Conservation 16(3): 199-208.
9. Surana V. (2006) “Industrial Development and Environment Pollution” Journal of
Environment Research and Development, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp- 203-208, Bhopal,
India.
10. WTO. (2010). World Trade Report: Trade in natural resources. World Trade
Organization.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1213-1225, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
94
Impact Assessment of Forest Cover
Changes of Havelock Islands in
Andaman’s: a Study through Geospatial
Technique
Kajal Kumar Mandal and Dr. K.Dharnirajan
Pondicherry Central University Department of Disaster Management,
Port Blair Campus; Andaman’s
Abstract
The changes in forest cover aggravate the land degradation. The forest
cover changes observed in the study area has a negative impact on
both the environment and socio-economic settings. Susceptibility to
forest degradation is understood that the forest resources can be
influenced or degraded by human activities. In reality, forest resources
are degraded not only by human activities but also due to other natural
factors too. However, in this area human activities were taken in to
consideration, because the unplanned actions such as illegal logging,
exploitation of forest resources for fuel wood and charcoal production
as well as expansion of agricultural lands are the main factors that
cause forest degradation and land use change. In this study, forest
area was estimated and its changes from 1979 to 2016 were estimated
using remote sensing and GIS. It is identified that forest area has
dramatically decreased and converted into settlement and agricultural
land (forest area decreased 576 ha & settlement with agriculture land
increased 607 ha.). So geospatial techniques are used to finding the
transformation of forest land to human settlement and agricultural land.
Keyword: degradation; Susceptibility; charcoal; geospatial.
1214
Introduction
Forest is an important natural resource, which is the lung of our
living earth. In India have 23.5% area under the forest cover which are
much low than the estimated (33%). In the study area where forest cover
above 86% due to its locational factor. Forest cover changes or conversion
to the agricultural or settlement area is vital problem that it decreases in
the name of development. The Havelock islands forest area are also
suffering the same problem. This havelock island located in the Indian
Ocean and also near the equator so the maximum forest comes under the
mangroves and evergreen type.
Study Area
Havelock island is located at latitudes 1152’34" to 1203’02"N
and longitudes 9255’21" to 9303’46"E. Island (Gold India Dive Resort
2014).
Review of Literature: According to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the main cause of deforestation
was agriculture. 32% of deforestation is due to commercial agriculture;
48% of deforestation is due to existed farming; 14% logging is responsible
for deforestation and 5% of wood collection is responsible of deforestation
by (Coppin, P., et al, 2004) and (Billington, C, et al, 1996) . According to
the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) of the UN, it is
estimated that deforestation and forest degradation rise 12.9 million hectares
per year and the current area of degraded forest is 850 million hectares.
Most of the changes in forest based ecosystems due to: a) conversion of
land cover, b) land degradation c) intensification of land use (Lambin, E.F,
1215
y D. Ehrlich,1997). These changes have resulted in coverage to a wide

variety of ecological impacts, ranging from local to global scale, including
changes in productivity and forests composition, nutrient dynamics, species
diversity, and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (Braswell et al 2003).
Globally six million hectare forest lands are changed due to logging,
agricultural, mining and other human activities, (Verburg,P.H
et.al.2006).Deforestation and degradation of wooded habitats due to
anthropogenic activities (especially land-use change) are among the major
contributors to current global climate change and biodiversity reduction
(Foley et al., 2005; Echeverríaet al., 2007; Zanella et al., 2012). Human
population growth pressures are expanding the area of land-uses such as
agriculture and settlement into natural habitats in all parts of the world to
meet the demand for food and housing (Lambin et al., 2003; Kabba and Li,
2011). These land-use changes have led to deforestation, further aggravating
fragmentation of remaining forest habitats (FAO, 2003; Ellis-Cockcroft
and Cotter, 2014; Riutta et al., 2014).As we are aware of the fact that the
hills are known for its natural beauty. Forests are the green blankets that
are naturally protecting the hill environment and preserving the natural
resources. The forest cover loss due to Shifting cultivation and illegal
encroachments by villagers; and the forest cover drastically decreased on
plateau areas due to human population pressure.( Sakthivel,R et.al, 2010).
In South Andaman Island the development of landuse is increasing steadily
in the last three decades. The change in landuse prominently depends on
the tourism, civil, defense and fishing sectors which plays an important
economic role of development of the union territory (Yuvaraj E,et.al ,2014).
GIS and Remote Sensing is the indispensable tool that has been widely
used for assessing, analyzing and monitoring of land use and land cover
change (Anderson et al., 2001). In India, researches on land use/land cover
have been done by various scholars, especially by using remote sensing
data. Pooja et al. (2012) have quantified land use/cover using survey of
India topographic sheet. Rawat et al. (2013a–d, 2014) have carried out a
study on land use/land cover change, they found that built up area has
sharply increased due to construction of new buildings in agricultural and
vegetation lands. Amin et al. (2012) carried out a study on land use/land
cover mapping. They observed that area has experienced significant changes
in land use pattern have resulted in the loss of forest area, open spaces, etc.
Integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS for land use and land cover
study of arid environment Mehta et al. (2012). Forest cover change detection
has been done, through visual interpretation of satellite data by Unni et al.
(1985), Roy et al. (1991a,b), Sukumar et al. (1991), Porwal and pant (1989),
Kushwaha (1990), Porwal and Roy (1992), Sudhakar et al. (1992), Unni
1216
(1992), Pant and Roy (1994), Das et al. (1997) and Pant and Jalal (1996),
Batista et al. (1998), Birniel (1998), Luque (2000), Imbernon and
Branthomme (2001), Young et al. (2001), Boyd et al. (2002), Larsson
(2002),Roy and Joshi (2002), Rogan et al. (2002), Le HegaratMascle et al.
(2006), Reis and Yomralioglu (2006), Panigrany et al. (2010) and
Sakthivel.R et al(2010).
Problem of the Study Area: Due to increased amount of tourism in this
island there is decrease of forest area with increase in the area under the
land use this is mainly due to increased amount of tourist activity,
encroachment of forest areas, deforestation, and increased human habitation
due to tourism. This island is one of the best tourist spot in Andaman, so
the tourists are mostly visiting this island for its scenic beauty. So there is
pressure of human over this island. In this regard, a study has been carried
out to know the status of forest in this Island.
Aim & Objectives: The main aim of the study is to identify the status of
forest cover in Havelock Island using remote sensing and GIS. And
objectives are:
 Identify the different forest types from a period from 1979 to 2016
 Identify the various changes within the forest types
Methodology
Material like Survey of India Topo-sheet, IRS-1D(March,2000)
Google Earth (2016) images, Erdas image processing software (ver.11) ,
ARCGIS software (Ver.10.1) and GPS were used for this studies.
Fig 1: Methodology for the study.

1217
Survey of India Topo-sheet (1979) is used for base map preparation

using ARCGIS software. Forest cover map was prepared from the base
map using IRS-1D (March, 2000) and Google Earth (2016) images based
on the tone, texture, size, shape, shadow and color and association. The
forest cover changes were studied.
Satellite Data: The raw digital data was enhanced using contrast stretching
and haze removal techniques to facilitate stratification and subsequent
collection /location of sample points during ground data collection.
Preprocessing of satellite data included radiometric correction/balancing
between and geometrically co-registerable images.
Table 1: Interpretation Key For Visual Classification, (NRSA, Dehra Dun)
Vegetation Tone Texture Association Phenology
Classes
Andaman Deep Red Coarse Most in hill tops Red Dhup (with red
Tropical leaves seen with tall
Evergreen dipteocarps)
Forest
Giant evergreen Reddish Coarse Small patches Dominate by
tropical forest along the streams dipterocarpus trees.
in flat area
Southern tropical Reddish Coarse Aspect based On the southern aspect
evergreen forest vegetation class with stunned growth of
evergreen species
Secondary Greenish Medium Observed in the Top canopy has
Evergreen Forest Red Coarse extracted areas evergreen species
Tropical Semi- Orangish Smooth On the slope of Canopy cover is about
evergreen Forest Red the hill 60%,well stratified
Tropical Moist Greenish Less On hill slopes Buttress root common,
Deciduous Forest Yellow Coarse and lowland leaf shedding trees
areas dominate the top canopy
Mangroves Pinkish Smooth Fringinging Along the creeks forming
Red muddy creeks a broad band

Forest Cover Classification: Forest cover has been classified into six
major classes i.e. settlement with agriculture, Andaman evergreen forest,
secondary evergreen forest, semi evergreen forest, degraded forest and
mudflats. The changes with forest from 1979 to 2016 ware identified and
discussed below.
1218
Havelock islands Evergreen Forest: Based on the observation evergreen

forest type trees species found on the top canopy consists of Diospyrous
,mesua, canarium, vateria, meliosma, polyalthia, dipterocarpus, palaquium
and many others. The second storey trees are from Palaquim, Hydrocarpus,
Euperia, Diospyrus, Agalaia, Unona, Scolopia,Syzygium and many others
(Champion & Seth 1968). And semi evergreen forest which are consists
mostly of Xylia and Terminalia but Dipterocarpus, Balanocarpus and
Hopea are also met with frequently. Middle storey consists of Schleichera
oleosa, Eocarpus , Mallotus, Diospyros, Hydnocarpus, etc. Undergrowth
consists of Strobilanthus, Clerodendron, Glycosmis, Ixora, etc. Spatial
distribution of forest cover and its changes were studied for the period of
1979 to 2016 by the visual interpretation of the satellite data’s and topo-
sheet.
Table 2: Distribution of major vegetation cover of SOI, Toposheet, 1979
Settlement with agriculture area 398 5.0
Andaman Evergreen Forest 2938 36.9
Secondary Evergreen Forest 341 4.3
Semi-evergreen Forest 4262 53.5
Degraded Forest 0 0.0
Mudflat 24.7 0.3
In the year 2000s satellite image interpretation a major change

notified which are forest area convert into agricultural land.
Table 3: Distribution of major vegetation cover of IRS 1D, March 2000
Semi-Evergreen Forest 3979 49.2
Mudflat 24.7 0.3
In the year 2016, settlement with agriculture area was estimated

as 1537 ha. The forest area like Andaman evergreen forest, secondary
evergreen forest, semi evergreen forest, degraded forest and mudflat was
estimated to as 2253 ha., 252 ha.,3788 ha., 260 ha. and 24.7 ha. Respectively
(Table 8 & Figure 5)
1219
Table 4: Distribution of major vegetation cover of Google earth,2016

Semi-Evergreen Forest 3788 46.7
Mudflat 24.7 0.3
All these observations clearly prove that the period 1979-2016

forests have decreased drastically. It is also inferred that forests cover in
the study area has also been notably changed from 1979 to 2016. It also
indicates that the area under agriculture human habitation has substantially
increased due to increased amount of tourism, encroachment of forest area,
population pressure and forests degradation. By comparing 1979,2000 and
2016there is increase of about 14% increase in area under the agriculture
and settlement and there is 9 % forest gets degraded from 2000,this is due
to the increased amount of tourism, habitation, human encroachment, illegal
cutting of trees and increased agricultural activities.
Table 5: Percentage Difference between 1979 & 2000
Settlement with agriculture area 398 930 +532 133.6683
Andaman Evergreen Forest 2938 2398 -40 -18.3799
Secondary Evergreen Forest 341 259 -82 -24.0469
Semi-Evergreen Forest 4262 3979 -283 -6.64008
Degraded Forest 0 492 -492 **
Mudflat 24.7 24.7 0 0
Settlement With Agriculture Area 930 1537 +607 65.26882

Degraded Forest 492 260 -232 -47.1545
Mudflat 24.7 24.7 0 0

1220

Settlement With Agriculture Area 398 1537 +1139 286.1809
Degraded Forest 0 260 -260 **
Mudflat 24.7 24.7 0 0
Discussion
Forest Cover Change: The quantitative information about forest in
Havelock islands, was estimated from 1979 to 2016 using Geographical
information system and remote sensing techniques. In general, the data
from 1979 and 2016 shows that there is a increase of settlement with
vegetation for about 1139 ha. It was increased by decreasing the different
forest types as Andaman evergreen forest into 685 ha., secondary evergreen
forest into 90 ha., semi evergreen forest into 474 and degraded forest into
260 ha. This is mainly due to the anthropogenic activity like construction
of building, agricultural and tourism activity.
Figure 3: Overall extent of different classes of forest of Havelock island-1979,2000,2016.

1221
Plate 1: Forest cover map 1979
Plate 2: Forest cover map 2010

1222
Plate 3: Forest cover map 2016.
MARFCC: Mean annual rates of forest cover change (MARFCC) between

different image dates were computed based on the time series classified
images using the equation bellow:
Where: T1 = the year in which the older image was captured; T2 =the year
in which the recent image was captured.
Vegetation class Areas in Areas in MAR- Areas in Areas in MAR-
hectares hectares FCC hectares hectares FCC
1979 2000 2000 2016
Settlement with 398 930 0.25 930 1537 0.1
agriculture area
Andaman Evergreen 2938 2398 0.03 2398 2253 0.04
Forest
Secondary Evergreen 341 259 0.29 259 251 0.38
Forest
Semi-Evergreen Forest 4262 3979 0.02 3979 3788 0.02
Degraded Forest 0 492 ** 492 260 0.2
Mudflat 24.7 24.7 ** 24.7 24.7 **
1223
The MARFCC index show that how the forest area change into
the settlement, agriculture land and construction buildings. The rate of
forest area change and the conversion in the other land both are inter linked.
Impact of Havelock Island Forest
Sustainable forest management, also known as sustainable forestry,
is the practice of regulating forest resources to meet the needs of society
and industry while preserving the forest’s health. Therefore, sustainable
forest management is always looking to strike a balance between the
demand for the forest’s natural resources and the vitality of the forest.
Now, in the most basic terms, a forest can be sustained by planting a new
sapling for every tree that is removed. However, that is an oversimplified
solution. Proper management of a forest must take into account an
assortment of factors, which are assessed by a forest manager, or forester,
who is the individual responsible for managing the balance of a forest’s
environmental, commercial, and recreational viability. Let’s look at some
ways a forest manager might practice sustainable forestry.
 Elevation: The elevation play the important role for constraining
accessibility to the forest was analyzed. The low land areas forest
are more vulnerable due to natural phenomena and also human
activity. Human activity like tourist activity, building construction
all are increased in the low land area but the hill top region are not
affected.
 Illegal cutting of the trees for construction of road and hotel which
also decrease the forest area. Before 1972 this island highly
ecological preserved area but after that the Indian govt. re-habited
the people who are came from Bangladesh form then this islands
forest ecosystem started to decrease.
 Due to high growth of population the forest area also reducing
continuously. Illegal agricultural land which also effect the forest
area.
 This island economy’s maximum comes from the tourism activity
so the maximum able body people engaged in this industry. Due to
high pressure of tourist the hotel and inland road construction are
increased, for this matter that the forest area reduce.
 For sustainable management of islands forest ecosystem, this island
needed proper plan like Arabadi Pakalpo for rescue the forest.
There are so many problem and causes are there which highly
1224
effect the forest and it reduce day after day, for this matter this area needed
the high management to maintain the forest. We can’t prevent the tourist
to come but we can able to reduce the pressure (like: every day 500 person
are permit to go Havelock island and also limit to stay there like 5/7 days
maximum) that reduce the pressure on hotel then the illegal cutting of
trees and constructing the hotel are reduce.
Conclusion
Forest cover changes, which effect any area’s ecosystem negatively.
In Havelock island forest are the major resource which started decrease
then the bengaladesi people are settled. In this study from 1979 to 2016
the islands vegetation are reducing in the rate of average evergreen forest
0.36%, secondary evergreen forest 0.71%, semi ever green forest 0.30% .
Before tsunami this islands changing nature lower than the after tsunami.
If this rate are not managed then the islands ecosystem ruin in future.
Acknowledgement
The present work entitled “Impact Assessment of Forest Cover
Changes of Havelock Islands in Andaman’s; A Study through Geospatial
Technique.” Which has been carried out under the supervision of Dr.
K.Dharanirajan. .His guidance and advice have been an immense help for
me. I like to express my regard Mr. Nashidul Islam (PhD. Scholar) who
help me for GIS handling.
References
Amin, A., Amin, A., Singh, S.K., (2012). Study of urban land use dynamics in Srinagar
city using geospatial approach. Bull. Envi. Sci. Res. 1 (2), 18–24.
Anderson J.R., Hardy E.E., Roach J0.T., and Witmer R.E., (2001), a land use and land
cover classification system for use with remote sensor data. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 964 and a revision of the land use classification system as
presented in U.S. Geological Survey Circular 671.
Batista, G.T., Y.E. Shimabukuro and W.T. Lawrence (1998).: The long term monitoring of
vegetation cover in the Amazonian region of northern Brazil using NoAA-AVHRR
data. Int. Nat. J. Rem. Sensing, 19, 245-265
Billington, C., Kapos, V., Edwards, M.S., Blyth, S. and Iremonger, S. (1996) Estimated
Original Forest Cover Map a First Attempt. WCMC, Cambridge
Birniel, A.B.M.E.S.B.R.W (1998): An analysis of land cover changes in the Northern
Forest of New England using multi-temporal Landsat MSS data. Int. J.Rem.
Sensing, 19, 245-265.
Boyd, D.S., G.M. Foody and W.J. Ripple: Evaluation of approaches of forest cover
estimation in Pacific Northwest, USA, using remote sensing. Appl. Geog., 22,
375-392 (2002).
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Braswell.B.H.,Hagen,S.C., Frolking,S.E, Salas,W.A,(2003). A multivariable approach for

mapping sub-pixel land cover distributions using MISR and MODIS: Application
in the Brazilian Amazon region.
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. (1968). A revised survey of the forest types of India.
Manager of Publication, Delhi
Coppin, P., Jonckheere, I., Nackaerts, K., Muys, B. and Lambin, E. (2004) Digital Change
Detection Methods in Ecosystem Monitoring: A Review. International Journal of
Remote Sensing, 25, 1565-1596.
Curray, J. R., Moore, D. G., Lawver, L. A., Emmel, F. J., Raitt, R. W., Henry, M., Kieckhefer,
R., (1979) Tectonics of the Andaman Sea and Burma, in Geological and Geophysical
Investigations of Continental Margins, eds Watkins, J.S., Montadert, L. &
Dickerson, P.W., Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Memoir 29. 189–198
Das., S, S.C. Behera and Kar (1997): Hydrogeomorphological mapping in ground water
exploration using remotely sensed data – A case study in Keunjhar District, Orissa.
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Dwivedi, A.P. 1993. A Text Book of Silviculture. International Book Distributors,Dehradun
Echeverría, C., Newton, A.C., Lara, A., (2007). Impacts of forest fragmentation on species
composition and forest structure in the temperate landscape of southern Chile.
Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 16, 426–439.
Ellis-Cockcroft, I., Cotter, J., (2014). Tropical forest fragmentation; implication for
ecosystem function. Technic
FAO, (2003). Forestry Outlook Study for Africa: Sub-Regional Report—Southern Africa.
African Development Bank, European Commission and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, p.74. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/
y8672e/y8672e00.pdf
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Forest survey of India-Indian state of forest report,2013
Gold India dive resort ,(2014), -About havelock island ,available at http://
divinghavelock.com/about_havelock.php.
Imbernon, J. and A. Branthomme (2001): Characterization of landscape patterns of
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Kushwaha, S.P.S. (1990): Forest type mapping and change detection from satellite imagery.
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Lambin, F.E., Geist, J.H., Lepers, E., (2003). Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change
in tropical regions. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28, 205–241.
Lambin y D. Ehrlich,E.L, (1997). The identification of tropical deforestation fronts at
broad spatial scales. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 18:17, 3551-3568
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Province, Eastern Sudan, using linear regression NDVI models. Int. J. Rem.
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examples.html (date 21/05/2017;15:55 IST).
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1227-1240, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
95
Geomorphic Evolution and Landscape
Development of Tut Drainage Basin
K. Lalduhawma1, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao2 and K. Srinivasa Rao3
1&3
Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796004
2
Mentor, Department of Geography, Mizoram University, Aizawl –
796004
School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resources Management, Mizoram
University, Aizawl – 796004, Mizoram, India
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Mizoram is tectonically active as evidenced by many geomorphic
signatures. The development of landscape is influenced by various
external processes aided by active tectonics in the Tut watershed which
is located in the northwestern part of Mizoram. An attempt has been
made in this study to evaluate the landscape changes with the help of
various geomorphic indices. The geomorphic indices were estimated
by standard formulae in order to correlate the active tectonics and
erosional processes in the watershed. The values of some significant
geomorphic indices such as valley floor width-to-height ratio index
(0.4-0.67), elongation ratio (0.34) and hypsometric integral (0.47-0.70)
indicate the active incision in the watershed. It is evident from the
geomorphic signatures that the area is prone to severe erosion in the
evolution of the Tut drainage basin
Keywords: Geomorphic indices, active tectonics, landscape
development, active incision, geomorphic signatures
1228
Introduction
The Tut River drainage basin has a variety of geomorphic features that
provide insight into the long-term landscape development of the
catchment. An integrated approach using drainage, geomorphological and
structural features is very useful in evaluation of active tectonics of an
area. Appropriate information of the indicators of active tectonics can be
retrieved through interpretation of topographic maps, aerial photographs,
satellite data aide by the analysis of morphotectonic indices (Keller, 1986).
Geomorphic studies with a special emphasis on tectonics play a very
important role in understating the processes and the landscape development
as the present day topography is the result of the interaction between
tectonics and erosional processes (England and Molnar, 1990). In fact, it
is believed that the tectonic processes are much faster than the surface
processes as the rate of mountain building activity is eight times higher
than the rate of maximum denudational process (Schumm,1963). The
morpho-dynamics of drainage basins are controlled by tectonics to a large
extent. Therefore, it is essential to understand the crustal movements and
the on-going surface processes to arrive at reasonable conclusions in the
development of landscape of an area. The present study is an attempt to
understand the landscape development in the evolution of Tut drainage
through geomorphological interpretations.
Location and Extent
The Tut watershed is located in the northwestern part of Mizoram
between 92°30'- 92°42' east longitudes and 23°10'- 24°02' north latitudes
(Fig.1) covering parts of the districts namely, Mamit and Lunglei spreading
in an area of about 846 km2. The watershed is stretched in north south
direction covering 4.17% area of the total geographical area of Mizoram.
The area falls in Survey of India toposheets 83D/12, 84 A/5, A/6, A/7, A/9,
A/10, A/11 and 84A/12 on 1:50,000 scale. The watershed is bounded on
the north and east by the Tlawng watershed, south by Mat watershed and
on the west by Teirei watershed. The main river of the watershed, i.e. Tut
is originated at an elevation of 900 m above mean sea level near Changpui
village in Lunglei district of Mizoram. The Tut river is a tributary to the
river Tlawng. The river flows from south to north over a length of about
117 km and joins the river Tlawng near Tlangkhang village in Mamit
district.
1229
Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Tut drainage basin.
Methods of study
The geomorphological features in the area have been delineated
with the help of Survey of India toposheets, and satellite image (IRS P6,
LISS-III, FCC, Geocoded) interpretation with field checks. The geomorphic
indices such as valley floor width to height ratio, basin elongation ratio,
hypsometric curves and hypsometric integral, basin asymmetry factors have
been calculated using the standard procedures and formulae, suggested by
the eminent workers in geomorphic and tectonic studies like Hurtrez, et.
al., (1999), Verrios, et. al., (2004), Delcaillau, et. al., (2006), Bhatt, et. al.,
(2007), Derakshani, (2010), Dehbozorgi, et. al., (2010), Perez-Pena, et.
al., (2010), Altin, (2012), Mumipour, et. al., (2012), Rachan Raj, (2012).
Joshi, et. al., (2013). The digital elevation models at 30 and 90 m resolutions
acquired by Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) have been used
to prepare slope layer, stream profiles and also to delineate the
morphotectonic elements such as fauls/fractures/lineaments in the study
area. ArcGIS 9.3 software tools have been used for terrain analysis and to
1230
interpret the significant morphotectonic features from the digital elevation

models.
Landforms provide certain important clues to understand the terrain
conditions by studying their characteristics and the associated geomorphic
processes. Geomorphic studies are useful to draw significant inferences
particularly regarding physical environment of an area. Landscape changes
associated with tectonic influences can be studied through various
geomorphic indices that can provide a quantitative approach for
characterizing the influence of tectonics on landscape morphology and
drainage evolution. The Tut drainage basin was divided into 7 fifth order
sub-basins for geomorphic analysis (Fig 2.). The fundamental geomorphic
parameters namely Valley floor Width to height ratio, Asymmetry factor,
Hypsometric curve and Integral, Stream length gradient index and Basin
Elongation ratio for each of the sub-watersheds were calculated as shown
in Table 1.
Table 1. Formulae for computation of various geomorphic indices of 5th order sub basins.
Geomorphic Mathematical Measurement Explanation

indices derivation* procedure
1. Valley floor- Vf = 2Vfw/ Define the ratio of the width
Width to height [(Eld”Esc)+ of the valley floor to the mean
ratio (Vf) (Erd”Esc)] height of two adjacent divides.
The index reflects differences
between broad floored
canyons with relatively high
values of Vf, and V-shaped
canyons with relatively low Vf
values
2.Asymmetry Af =100 Define the ratio of the area of
factor (AF) (Ar/At) the basin to the right (Ar)
(facing downstream) of the
trunk stream to the total area
of the drainage basin (At). The
index was determined to
detect tectonic tilting
transverse to the flow at
drainage basins
3.Hypsometric X=a/AY=h/H Describes the distribution of
Curve elevations across an area of
land. Convex hypsometric
curves characterise relatively
‘young’ weakly eroded
1231
regions, S-shaped curves

characterize moderately
eroded regions, and concave
curves characterize relatively
‘old’ highly eroded regions.
4. Hypsometric HI = (Hmean– It is the defined as the area
integral (HI) Hmin)/(Hmax under the hypsometric curve.
“ Hmin) Higher values of HI indicate
that most of the topography is
high relative to the mean.
Intermediate (straight or S-
shaped curves) to low
(upwardly concave curves)
values are associated with
more evenly dissected
drainage basins
5. Stream length SL=(ΔH/ΔL)/L The SL index is defined as the
gradient index product of channel slope at a
(SL) given point and the channel
length to the source of the
stream.
6. Basin Re=2x“(A/π)/Lb The elongation ratio is the
Elongation Ratio dimensionless ratio and the
diameter of a circle having the
same area of the basin to the
maximum length.
Valley floor width –to-height ratio (Vf)

It is the ratio of valley floor width to valley floor height. It is one
of the most useful geomorphic indices sensitive to tectonic uplift (Bull
and McFadden, 1977). This index can be used to identify relative uplift
and to discriminate between V and U shaped valleys. In general, the broad
valley shows a high valley floor width-to-valley height ratio related with
tectonic quiescence, (because lateral erosion has time to occur) conversely
low ratios are seen in steep narrow valleys associated with recent tectonic
movement (Meyer, 1985; Rhea, 1993).
The computed values of selected valley sections in 5th and the 6th
order basins in the study area range from 0.42 to 0.67 as seen in table 2.
The values obtained in the study indicate that the valleys are involved in
active incision perhaps due to ongoing tectonic uplift in the area (Bhatt, et.
al., 2007).
1232
Table 2. Valley floor width to height ratios of 5th order sub-basins.

Sl. No. Name of the sub-basins Vfw(m.) Eld(m.) Erd(m.) Esc(m.) Vf
(Max. Elevation in m.)
1. Ba1-Tlubing Lui (1362m.) 0.2 460 460 460 0.42
2. Ba2-Chal Lui (998 m.) 0.2 220 220 220 0.50
3. Ba3-Dap Lui (848 m.) 0.3 200 200 200 0.46
4. Ba4-Raiseh Lui (1024 m.) 0.3 240 240 240 0.67
5. Ba5-Zawngek Lui (774 m.) 0.3 380 180 280 0.60
6. Ba6-Tuichar Lui (1355 m.) 0.2 320 320 320 0.46
7. Ba7-Telva Lui (1044 m.) 0.2 280 280 280 0.43
Elongation Ratio (Re)

The elongation ratio is the ratio between the diameter of circle
with a surface equal to that of the watershed area and catchment length
(Schumm, 1956). The high elongation ratio indicates the relative dominance
of erosion and processes of catchment integration over uplift. In areas of
an active tectonic regime, the stream development show elongated drainage
basins, which are apparently dominated by incision with response to local
base-level subsidence (Ramirez-Herrera, 1998). According Bull &
McFadden (1977) the values less than 0.5 indicate the areas of tectonically
active, the values between 0.50 and 0.75 indicate the areas with slightly
active and the values above 0.75 reveals the areas which are tectonically
inactive.
It is seen from the table 3 that a majority of the sub-watersheds are
less elongated. It is inferred that the erosion process is going on
simultaneously with tectonic activity. The elongation ratio of the entire
basin is 0.34 which indicates that the area is tectonically active as a whole
(Bull & McFadden, 1977).
Table 3. Elongation ratios of 5th order sub-basins.
S. No. Name of the Watershed Watershed Elongation Basin Shape
sub-basin area (Au) Length (Lb) Ratio (Re)
Sq.Km. Km.
1. Tlubing Lui (BA1) 238.84 28.25 0.61 Elongated
2. Chal Lui (Ba2) 27.36 6.50 0.90 Circular
3. Dap Lui (Ba3) 25.90 10.30 0.56 Elongated
4. Raiseh Lui (Ba4) 35.87 9.00 0.77 Less elongated
1233
5. Zawngek Lu (Ba5) 14.78 6.00 0.72 Less Elongated

6. Tuichar Lui (Ba6) 56.40 12.00 0.70 Less elongated
7. Telva Lui (Ba7) 22.31 7.00 0.76 Less elongated
8. Tut basin 846 96.0 0.34 Highly
elongated
Drainage basin asymmetry

Drainage basin asymmetry can be accessed through transverse
topography symmetry and asymmetry factors.
Topographic Symmetry Factor (T)
Topographic symmetry factor is the ratio between the distance from
midline of drainage basin to midline of active channel and distance from
basin midline to basin divide (Cox, 1994). The T value 0 indicates the
symmetric nature and the value > 0 indicates the asymmetric nature of the
basin (Cox, 1994).
The values of Topography symmetry factor of the 5th order sub-
basins in the study area range between 0.24 and 0.97. It is clear from the
data presented in table 4, that all the sub-basins in the watershed show
asymmetric nature.
Table 4. Transverse topographic symmetry of 5th order sub-basins.
S. No. Name of the sub-basin Da Dd Topographic
symmetry (T)
1. Tlubing Lui (BA1) 4.8 10.7 0.44
2. Chal Lui (Ba2) 2.2 8.3 0.26
3. Dap Lui (Ba3) 0.8 3.3 0.24
4. Raiseh Lui (Ba4) 1.6 3.2 0.97
5. Zawngek Lui (Ba5) 1.5 2.2 0.68
6. Tuichar Lui (Ba6) 6.8 7.0 0.47
7. Telva Lui (Ba7) 1.6 2.5 0.64
Asymmetry Factor (AF)

Asymmetry factor is the ratio of right hand side area of drainage
basin looking downstream to the total area of drainage basin. Asymmetry
factor is used to evaluate ground tilting in response to tectonic activity or
lithological control over the basin (Hare and Gardner, 1985; Keller and
1234
Pinter, 2002; Dehbozorgi, et. al., 2010; Perez-Perna, et. al., 2010). The
values of the Asymmetry factor (Af) above or below 50% indicate that the
basin is asymmetric (Cox, 1994).
The values obtained for 5th order basins in the study area range
from 24.26% to 74.60% which indicate that a majority of the sub-basins
are asymmetric nature except the sub-basins Tlubing Lui (Ba1) and Chal
Lui (Ba2) whose values are close to symmetric nature (Table.5). The sub-
basins Zawngek Lui (Ba5) and Tuichar Lui (Ba6) are strongly asymmetric.
The asymmetric nature of the sub-basins could be due to titling of the
basins in the direction of shifting of stream courses (Joshi, et. al., 2013)
as shown in the figure 3.
Table 5. Computed asymmetry factor of 5th order sub-basins.
Sl.No. Name of the Sub-basin Area right of Area of the Asymmetry
the trunk stream total basin factor (Af) in
(Ar) in km2 (At) in km2 percentage
1. Tlubing Lui (BA1) 125.43 239.18 52.44
2. Chal Lui (Ba2) 13.93 27.38 50.87
3. Dap Lui (Ba3) 31.45 56.40 55.76
4. Raiseh Lui (Ba4) 10.25 25.90 39.57
5. Zawngek Lui(Ba5) 9.96 14.78 67.38
6. Tuichar Lui (Ba6) 26.76 35.87 74.60
7. Telva Lui (Ba7) 5.41 22.30 24.26
Hypsometric curves and hypsometric Integral (HI)

It is known as area vs. elevation analysis of a basin which indicates
the stage of geomorphic development and the action of various forces
(tectonics, lithology and climate) on the topography of a basin. Hypsometric
integral is a quantitative analysis of fluvial activity of a region, which can
be estimated by the geomorphic stages of development and erosion status
of drainage basins (Pike and Wilson, 1971). According to Langebein (1947)
hypsometry is an expression of overall slope and forms of drainage basin
development. The hypsometric curve indicates the volume of soil mass in
the basin to the amount of erosion that had occurred in a basin against the
remaining mass (Hurtrez, et. al., 1999). The shape of the hypsometric curve
helps to understand the cycle of erosion and the temporal changes in the
slope of drainage basins. The computed values of hypsometric integral
along with the stage of development of the 5th order basins are presented
in table 6 and figure 4. The values of various sub-basins in the study area
1235
Fig 2. Fifth order basins in the study area. Fig 3. Direction of titling 5th order sub-
basins.
range between 0.47 to 0.70. The hypsometric integral values range from 0
to 1, where the values close to ‘0’ represent the highly eroded regions and
the values close to ‘1’ weakly eroded regions, similarly, the hypsometric
integral values above 0.6 indicate that the ‘youth stage’ and the values
between 0.35 and 0.6 indicate ‘mature stage’ and the values below 0.35
reveal ‘monodnock stage’ in the landscape development (Strahler, 1952).
A majority of the sub-basins are in youth stage except Ba1, Ba6
and Ba7. The sub-basins Ba1, Ba6 and Ba7 show mature stage of
development. It has been observed that in the sub-basins Ba1, Ba6 and
Ba7 erosion is relatively less perhaps due to the presence of siltstones/
shales which are resistant to erosion whereas, in the sub-basins Ba2 to
Ba5 erosion is prevalent due to the presence of sandstones which are
prone easily to weathering and erosion and also due to ongoing tectonic
activity.
Table 6. Hypsometric integral values of 5th order sub-basins.
S. No. Name of the sub- H max. H min. H mean HI Geologic
basins (m) (m) (m) stage
1. Ba1 - Tlubing Lui 1387 186 766.31 0.48 Mature
2. Ba2 - Chal Lui 1054 186 740.25 0.63 Youth
3. Ba3 - Dap Lui 1038 80 752.77 0.70 Youth
1236
4. Ba4 - Raiseh Lui 1024 35 709.50 0.68 Youth

5. Ba5 - Zawngek Lui 774 75 511.66 0.62 Youth
6. Ba6 - Tuichar Lui 1355 100 699.77 0.47 Mature
7. Ba7 - Telva Lui 1189 20 640.66 0.53 Mature
The hypsometric integral value of the Tut main river in the 6th order
basin is 0.47, which indicates the mature stage of development with channel
incision as well as lateral erosion.
Fig. 4. Hypsometric curves of 5th order sub-basins.

Stream length-gradient index (SL)
Stream length-gradient index is one of the significant parameters
used to infer stream power and rock erodibility (Hack, 1973) in an area.
This is sensitive to minute changes or perturbations in the channel slope
(Burbank and Anderson, 2001; Harkins, et. al., 2005). The stream length-
gradient index values increase as streams flow over active uplifted areas
and vary with rock resistance (Keller and Pinter, 2002).
1237
The values of stream length gradient index of the main streams in

th
the 5 order sub-basins vary from 126 in Ba3 to 961 in Ba5 sub-basins.
The average values of each sub-basin are presented in the table 8.
Table 7. Stream length-gradient index of 5th order sub-basins.
Sl.No Name of the sub- basins with Range Stream
maximum elevation (m) Length
Minimum Maximum Gradient (SL)
average value
1. Ba1-Tlubing Lui (1362m.) 227 303 265
2. Ba2-Chal Lui (998 m.) 133 596 321
3. Ba3-Dap Lui (848 m.) 126 406 269
4. Ba4-Raiseh Lui (1024 m.) 215 300 257
5. Ba5-Zawngek Lui (774 m.) 549 961 755
6. Ba6-Tuichar Lui (1355 m.) 158 504 331
7. Ba7-Telva Lui (1044 m.) 279 375 327
Fig.5. Longitudinal Profile of Tut River

1238
Conclusion
The systematic analysis of the data on geomorphic indices,
landforms and morpho-tectonic elements has revealed certain important
terrain characteristics in the landscape development along with the ongoing
tectonic activity in the area. The tectonic geomorphic indices reveal certain
clues to understand the geomorphic development and the stage of sub-
basins in the evolution of Tut basin and the simultaneous landscape
development. The hypsometric analysis of the basin as a whole reveals
the mature stage of the basin but at sub-basin level still it is at youth stage
due to predominant distribution of resistant rock formations of siltstones
and shales. As a whole the Tut basin is elongated though circular shapes at
sub-basin level. The highly elongated nature of the basin signifies that the
area is tectonically active which is further supported by the existence of
number of faults and fractures. Moreover, a majority of the major streams
in the area are structurally controlled by faults to a large extent. The drainage
of the area is characterized by trellis to sub-parallel which indicates that
there is a strong structural control over the area. The valleys are involved
in active incision perhaps due to on-going tectonic uplift which is evidenced
by the presence of a number of knick points along the majority of stream
channels as seen in the longitudinal profiles of the streams in the area. The
basin asymmetry values of 5th order sub-basins show the tilting of the basins
in the directions. The direction of tilt coincides with the direction of shifting
of stream courses in the area which indicates that there is a definite tilt as
a result the stream tend to flow in the same direction following the gradient.
In fact, the main course of the river Tut is progressively shifting towards
west of the basin in the southern parts whereas in the northern parts shifting
towards east. Perhaps this drainage anomaly at several places could be due
to tilting and faulting. It is, therefore, surmised that the area is tectonically
active and the landscape particularly in the middle and lower reaches
attained mature stage of development.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the Head, Department of
Geology, Mizoram University for extending Remote Sensing and GIS
laboratory facilities to carry out this work. The first author is grateful to
the University Grants Commission (U.G.C.), New Delhi and Mizoram
University for the financial assistance provided during the course of the
study.
1239
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1241-1251, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
96
A Study on Relief Characteristics and
Erosion Status of Tuirini Watershed,
Mizoram
Vanlaltanpuia1, Ch. Udaya Bhaskara Rao2, P.Rinawma3
1
Research Scholar, 2Assistant Professor, Supervisor and 3Professor,
University, Aizawl-796004.
Abstract
The Tuirini watershed spreading in an area of about 411 km2 in Mizoram
is vulnerable to high rate of erosion due to high degree of slope in
addition to heavy precipitation and the sedimentary nature of the terrain.
An attempt has been made in this study to analyze the significant
topographic parameters such as absolute relief, relative relief, dissection
index and average slope using the techniques of remote sensing and
geographical information system in order to understand the appropriate
causes for the high rate of erosion in the watershed. It is surmised that
the higher values of dissection index and high degree of slope indicate
that the area is prone to severe erosion.
Keywords: Absolute relief, relative relief, dissection index, average
slope
Introduction
The topography produced by stream channels, erosion and
associated processes of weathering, mass-movement and sheet run-off is
extremely complex, both in geometry of the forms and in the interrelations
of the processes which produce the forms (Strahler, 1952). A study of relief
characteristics is a requisite for understanding the nature of the erosion
1242
vulnerability. Differences in topographic elevation results in variation of

certain relief characteristics like absolute relief, relative relief, dissection
index and average slope, etc. Erosion studies are essential in various terrain
analyses. In the present study, elements those directly related to relief
characteristics are analyzed for understanding the appropriate causes for
the high rate of erosion in the watershed.
Study area
The Tuirini watershed lies between 23o 28’ 40" – 23o53’15" north
latitudes and 92o49’15"-93o58’15" east longitudes (Fig.1). Geographically,
it lies in the central part of Mizoram covering some parts of Serchhip and
Aizawl districts. The watershed stretches in N-S direction in an area of
about 411 km2 of only 1.94% of the total geographical area of Mizoram.
The study area falls in survey of India topographical maps 84 A/13, 84 A/
14 and 84 A/15.
The area is composed of mountainous terrain with an average
altitude of about 1000 metres above mean sea level. The highly undulated
mountain ranges are inclined in north-south which run parallel in series.
Geologically, the area is composed of various sedimentary rocks
predominantly of arenaceous type belongs to Upper Bhuban stage of the
Surma Group ( Ganju, 1975). The area experiences humid tropical moderate
climate characterized by short winters and long summers with an average
annual rainfall of about 250 cm.
Fig.1 Location map of Tuirini watershed.

1243

For determining the relief characteristics of the area, survey of
India topographical maps at 1:50,000 with contour interval of 20 m and
Aster GDEM at 30 m resolution were used. Absolute relief has been taken
out from topographical map with a contour interval of 20 m and relative
relief within a grid has been generated with the help of Fishnet tools in
ArcGIS software. After computing the value of each point, IDW method
has been used to demarcate the area. Dissection index has been calculated
with raster calculator and also by IDW method. Slope map was generated
using a grid based digital elevation model in a raster environment. The
erosion status map has been prepared based on the integration of slope
layer and the dissection index distribution layer by weighted overlay
method.
Absolute Relief
Absolute relief gives the elevation of any area above the sea level
(Das,2014). As seen in figure 2 and from table 2, the maximum elevation
of 1905m is seen in the northeastern part and the minimum is 95 m
found in the northwestern part. It has been observed that the relief
increases from valley bottom to top of the mountain in the eastern and
western parts of the area while the highest class of relief i.e., above 1600
m is seen in the northern, eastern and southern parts. In fact, the eastern
side is topographically higher than the western side. The absolute relief is
classified into five classes like very low class containing below 400 m
above msl. This class covers an area of 56.29 km2 and mostly found along
the main river channel. Low class (400 – 800 m) covers the largest area of
217.53 km2 which is more than half (52.93%) of the total study area. The
medium class (800 – 1200 m) occupies an area of 9.58 km2 area and found
mostly on the hill ridge of the western and the eastern parts of the area.
High class (1200 – 1600 m) is found only in the central, northern and
southern parts covering an area of 21.65 km2.. Very high class indicating
above 1600 m covers only 5.95 km2 (1.45%) of the study area.
Table 1: Absolute Relief
Class Height in metres Area in km2 %
Very Low < 400 56.29 13.70
Low 400-800 217.53 52.93
Medium 800-1200 109.58 26.66
1244
High 1200-1600 21.65 5.27

Very High > 1600 5.95 1.45
Total 411 100
Fig.2 Absolute Relief map of Tuirirni watershed.
Relative Relief
Relative relief is also termed as local relief and is defined as the
range between the highest and the lowest points in a unit area (Mustak,
2102). It is one of the most important parameters of the relief
characteristics of an area computed without considering sea level
(Singh,1992) and used for the overall assessment of morphological
characteristics of terrain and degree of dissection. The study area is divided
into five categories as shown in figure 3 and from table 2). Very low class
containing below 150 m elevation above msl is found in the central and
eastern hill ridges in an area of only 0.55 km2. Low class (150 – 300 m)
covers 70.51 km2 . Medium class (300– 450 m) has the largest area coverage
of 249.61 km2 which is almost one-third (60.73%) of the study area.
High class (450– 600 m) is found in the central, northern and south central
parts and also seen as an isolated patch in the western hill ranges. It
covers 83.26 km2 of area under study. The very high class ( above 600
1245
m) covers a very small extent of 6.07 km2 area mostly found in the
northeastern and the southeastern parts of the study area.
Table 2: Relative Relief
Class Height in metres Area in km2 %

Very Low < 150 0.55 0.13
Low 150-300 71.51 17.40
Medium 300-450 249.61 60.73
High 450-600 83.26 20.26
Very High > 600 6.07 1.48
Total 411 100
Fig.3 Relative Relief map of Tuirini watershed.

1246
Dissection Index
Dissection Index (DI) is the ratio between the relative relief and
absolute relief and gives better understanding of the physical features
(Das,2014). It is an important morphometric indicator of the nature and
magnitude of dissection of terrain (Singh, 2000). The values of Dissection
Index varies from 0 (complete absence of dissection) to 1 (vertical cliff at
sea level). DI also expresses the relationship between the vertical distance
of the relief from the erosion level and relative relief. Generally, low DI
corresponds with the subdued relief or old stage, and with low relative
relief. Conversely, the areas with high DI indicate high relative relief where
slope of the land is steep (Deen, 1982). DI can be obtained by the following
formula.
Dissection Index (DI) = Relative Relief / Absolute Relief
The values obtained for the study area varies from 0.02 to 0.77.
It has been classified into 5 categories like Very Low, low, medium, high
and very high (Fig.4 and Table 3). Very Low DI class found in the central
part of the eastern hill ridge covering only 0.41 km2. Low DI class covers
40.35 km2 area of watershed. This class is seen mostly in the eastern hill
ranges. Medium DI class has the largest area coverage of 188.51 km2
which is almost half (45.87%) of the total area. This class is found mostly
in the southern, eastern and western parts along the valley. High DI class
covers an area of 143.22 km2. The area is found along the main river
valley. Very high DI class covers around one-tenth (9.37%) of the study
area, which occupies an area of 38.51 km2 . Very High DI is mostly
concentrated in the central, northern parts along the river valley.
The high values of DI, mostly from medium to very high class is
prone to high rate of erosion. This unit covers about 90.09% of the total
area. Thus, both the absolute and relative relief are the important factors
useful to identify the areas prone to high rate of erosion in the study area.
Table 3: Dissection Index Values.
Class Dissection Index Value Area in km2 %
Very Low < 0.15 0.41 0.1
Low 0.15 - 0.30 40.35 9.82
Medium 0.30 - 0.45 188.51 45.87
High 0.45 - 0.60 143.22 34.85
Very High > 0.60 38.51 9.37
Total 411 100

1247
Fig.4 Map showing the distribution of Dissection Index values in Tuirini watershed.
Average Slope
The average slope may be defined as the vertical inclination
between the hill top and valley bottom (Thakurdesai, 2016), explained by
the horizontal line spacing of the contours and expressed generally in
degrees. In general, closely spaced contours represent steeper slopes and
sparse contours exhibit gentle slope. The degree of slope controls the
amount of run-off, velocity of flow of river as well as the intensity of the
processes of erosion, transportation and deposition. Thus, it plays crucial
role in landform development (Sinha, 1994).
Slope is one of the most important factors causing erosion and the
intensity might increased by accompanying high rate of rainfall and
deforestation. The average slope map shows the distribution of various
slope classes in an area. The values of the slope angles derived from Aster
GDEM grid square are classified and tabulated (Table.4). As the terrain
highly undulating, the degree of slope is generally high and there is a
possibility for high rate of erosion.
1248
The area is classified into five slope classes like Very low, low,
medium, high and very high (Fig.5 & Table 4). Very low class (< 15o )
covers 67.64 km2 of the area. This class is found along the deep river
valleys and also the areas nearby mouth of the river. It is also found
concentrated in the western side of the eastern hill ranges. Low class (15o
– 30o) occupies more than half (58.195%) of the total area (239.18 km2).
This class is evenly distributed in the entire study area. Medium class (30o
– 45o) covers 100.08 km2 of the study area. This class is found near the hill
ridges and over the undulating terrain in the area. High and very high
classes cover an area of 4.09 km2 and 0.01 km2 respectively. These two
classes are sparsely distributed and mostly found on the top of the hill
ranges and also in the northern part of the study area.
Table 4: Average Slope.
Class Slope in Degrees Area in km2 %
Very Low < 15 67.64 16.457
Low 15-30 239.18 58.195
Medium 30-45 100.08 24.350
High 45-60 4.09 0.995
Very High > 60 0.01 0.002
Total 411.00 100
Fig. 5 Average Slope map of Tuirini Watershed.

1249
Erosion Status
The analysis of slope and the dissection index values reveal
significant clues to assess the erosion status of the watershed. These two
thematic maps were integrated through weighted overlay method in to
find out the erosion prone zone. The entire area has been divided into five
broad erosion intensity zones such as Very low, low, medium, high and
very high (Fig.6 and Table 5). Very low and low zones of erosion covers a
total area of 63.15 km2. It has been observed that the degree of slope and
the DI value are found to be less in this zone. Mostly, these are seen in the
hill ranges with less degree of slope. The medium zone covers the
maximum area of 272.69 km2 (66.35%) is generally found between medium
to high DI values and low to high degree of slope zone. High and very
high zone occupies an area of 75.16 km2 (18.29%) which is mostly found
in the very high DI value regions and high degree of slope zone.
Table 5: Erosion Status.
Erosion Intensity Zones Area in km2 Areal extent (%)
Very Low 0.29 0.07
Low 62.86 15.29
Medium 272.69 66.35
High 74.75 18.19
Very High 0.41 0.10
Total 411.00 100.00
Fig.6 Erosion Intensity Zones in Tuirini Watershed.

1250
Conclusion
From the analysis of the relief characteristics of the study area, it
is revealed that Tuirini watershed is vulnerable to high rate of erosion due
to the existing topographic relief with steep slope. The high dissection
index values corresponding to the medium to very high class of slope covers
about 90.09% of the area of the study perhaps due to high topographic
relief, high rate of precipitation and the sedimentary nature of the terrain.
Though , the highest class of average slope (above 60o) covers only 0.01
km2 and the low class (15o-30o) covers large area of 239.18 km2, it is
presumed that the area is likely to prone to high rate of erosion. Hence,
it is presumed that the area is highly vulnerable to erosion. Thus, the
dissection index values and average slope play a significant role in
understanding the relief characteristics and also to assess the subsequent
rate of erosion in the study area.
References
Bhunia , Gouri Sankar., Samanta, Sailesh., & Pal, Babita (2012) Quantitative Analysis of
Relief Characteristics Using Space Technology, International Journal of Physical
and Social Sciences, Vol. 2, Issue 8, August, pp. 350-365.
Das, Prasenjit (2014) A Study on Morphometric Characteristics of Sonitpur District, Assam,
European Academic Research, Vol. II, Issue 5, August, pp. 6333-6348.
Deen, M (1982) Geomorphology and land Use: a Case Study Mewat. Thesis submitted to
the centre for the study of regional development, JNU, New Delhi.
Eadara, Amminedu., and Karanam, Harikrishna (2013) Slope Studies of Vamsadhara River
basin: A quantitative Approach, International Journal of Engineering and
Innovative Technology (IJEIT), Vol. 3, Issue 1, July, pp. 184-189.
Ganju, J.L. (1975) Evolution of the Orogenic Belts of India. Geol. Min. Met. Soc.India,
Bulletin No. 48, 1975, pp.17-26.
Kinthada, Nooka Ratnam., Gurram, Murali Krihna., Eedara, Amminedu., & Velaga,
Venkateswara Rao (2013) Remote Sensing and GIS in the geomorphic analysis of
micro-watersheds for hydrological Scenario assessment and characterization- A
study on Sarada river basin, Visakhapatnam district, India, International Journal
of Geomatics and Geosciences, Vol.4, No.1, August, pp. 195-212.
Mustak, S.K., Baghmar, N.K.,and Ratre, C.R. (2012) Measurement of Dissection Index
of Pairi River Basin Usinng Remote Sensing and GIS, National geographical
Journal of India, Vol.58, Part (2), June, pp. 97-106.
Senthilvelan, A. (2015) A GIS Based Study on Slope Characteristics of Porandalar
Watershed, Amaravathi Sub-Basin, Tamil Nadu, Indian Journal of Applied
Research, Vol. 5, Issue 12, December, pp. 1-3.
Singh, Sarvesh (1997) Slope Analysis of Kanhar River Basin, National Geographical
Journal of India, Vol. 43 (4), December, pp. 361-370.
1251
Singh, Chandra Prakash (2002) Applied Geomorphology: A Study, B.R. Publishing

Corporation, Delhi.
Singh, S., (1992) Quantitative Geomorphology of the Drainage Basin, reading on Remote
Sensing Application, T.S.Chouhan and K.N.Joshi, Eds., Scientific Publishers,
Jodhpur, India.
Singh, S., (Ed.) (2000) Geomorphology , Prayag Pustak Bhawan., Allahabad, pp. 642.
Sinha, N.K.P and Singh, C.P. (1994) Slope Categories and Slope Development in South
Mirzapur Region, U.P., Geographical review of India, Vol. 56, No. 4, Dec, pp. 1-
13.
Strahler, A.N. (1952) Hypsometric (Area-Altitude) Analysis of Erosional Topography,
Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 63, pp 1117-1142.
Thakurdesai, S.C and Pise,S.K (2016) A Study of Relief and Slope of Upper Kundalika
River Basin, Raigad, Maharastra, International Journal of Interdisplinary Research
in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC), Vol.2, Issue 1, June, pp 2395-4345..
1252
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1253-1265, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
97
Diversity and Dynamics of Rural
Landscapes in the Brahmaputra
Floodplain, Assam
Sourav Saha and N. Deka
Department of Geography Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014,
Assam, India, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The Brahmaputra floodplain in Assam is overwhelmingly dominated
by rural landscapes of diverse nature. As the floodplain is characterized
by very high drainage density and presence of large number of wetlands,
forest areas and grasslands on the one hand and various kinds of human
responses to the floodplain environment on the other, the diversity of
landscape development is quite obvious. The distribution of large
number ethnic groups with different socio-cultural background has
notably added to the landscape diversity in the valley. Interestingly,
the rapid growth of population, particularly in the fertile floodplains,
has diversified the pattern and intensity of landuse leading to
remarkable change in the floodplain landscapes.
With the growing demand for natural as well as agricultural resources
there have been perceptible changes in the indigenous landuse
practices, which are visibly manifested in the pattern of landscapes.
Thus, maintaining necessary sustainability in the rural landscape system
has become a challenging task. The present study is an attempt to
investigate the pattern of rural landscape diversity and its dynamism
at micro spatial level. The study is based on primary information
collected through household survey carried out in a floodplain village
of the valley.
Keywords: Landscape diversity, Changes, Brahmaputra floodplain,
rural landscape.
1254
Introduction
The Brahmaputra Valley is basically dominated by the village
landscape which comprises 20,472 numbers of villages as in 2011 covering
an area of 55,087.73 sq.km and accounting for 98.03 % of Valley’s total
geographical area. At present, these villages are inhabited by 22.66 million
people that share 88.01% of the Valley’s total population. The villagers
have been traditionally developing the most peculiar and complex
landscapes based on the concerned ecological and physical settings in the
rural areas of the Valley. Rural landscapes of the Brahmaputra valley are
the outcome of diverse landuse for various productive purposes, dominantly
the agriculture (Deka, et al., 2010). However in recent years, the growing
pressure of population on agricultural land, increasing demand for food
and habited lands, rural-urban migration, changing socio-economic and
political conditions of the State have caused remarkable changes in the
functions and forms of the Valley’s rural landscapes. Besides, the
fragmentation of landholdings, rural depopulation, agricultural land
abandonment, introduction of modern agricultural inputs and implements
and negligence to traditional knowledge and belief systems have changed
the traditional village landscapes and rural systems of many countries of
the world (Ellis, et al., 2000; Roberts, 2004; Antrop, 2004; and Primdahl,
2014). Thus, the village landscapes of the Brahmaputra Valley, which are
the main productive zones, have been facing tremendous challenges for
the declination of rural self-sustainability, biophysical productivity,
ecological diversity and food security (Deka and Bhagabati, 2010).
Although, the village landscapes of the Valley have been facing a
number of problems they still possess immense prospects regarding the
resource potentiality and livelihood sustainability if these can be managed
and utilised properly from sustainable development perspective. The
present study is therefore an attempt to investigate the diversity and nature
of changes of the rural landscapes of the Brahmaputra Valley and their
influences on the rural livelihoods.
The Village
In order to make a detailed study on the diversity, changes and
sustainability of the village landscapes of the Brahmaputra Valley, a
floodplain village, called Jatia Bhangra has been selected for investigation.
The village is located under the jurisdiction of Kamlpur Revenue Circle
of Rangia Sub-Division in Kamrup district, Assam (Fig.1). It is situated in
northern floodplain of the Lower Brahmaputra Valley region. The village
is confined within 26025/ 45.90// N and 260 27/ 18.4//N latitude and 91044/
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0.33//E and 91042/ 38.67//E longitude. It is at a distance of about 35 km

towards north from Guwahati city and 45 km towards south from Bhutan
Himalayan foothills. The village covers a total geographical area of 5.76
sq. km with a population of 3,086 persons. The total number of households
of the village in 2016 is 666 distributed in14 chuburis (hamlets).
The present study is based on personal field observation and
primary data collected through well-structured questionnaire and schedule
during 2015-16. Relevant secondary data were procured from the
Directorate of Census and Kamalpur Revenue Office, Govt. of Assam.
Required base materials for the study were generated and compiled from
sources, like Survey of India’s toposheets with scale 1:50,000, Google
Earth image and revenue maps.
Fig.1: Location of the village

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The village landscape was intensively mapped through plot (dag)

survey to get the detail picture of landuse and land cover, ownership pattern,
cropping pattern and landholding size of different land categories (Deka
and Bhagabati, 2010). In the field, with the consultation of the owners of
each dag the data/ information about the land use pattern and their changes,
land cover, land classes, etc. have been collected and finally a detail
landscape map of the village was designed. The methods of Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were applied
for the appraisal of the present status, problems and prospects of the present
status, different components of the village landscape. Some Focus Groups
(FG) among the people of different age-sex compositions and occupations
were made to acquire required information towards the landscape diversity
and dynamics of the village and their impacts on rural livelihood. Apart
from these, oral interviews among some aged-old persons were conducted
to know the changes in landscape.
Landscape Diversity
Landscape diversity is the result of varied physical settings and
dynamic interaction of nature and culture. The village landscapes reflect
the traditional landuse pattern, resource base, ecological conditions,
indigenous knowledge and belief systems, culture and traditions, people’s
perception towards lands and rate of development in the rural areas. Jatia
Bhangra village represents a typical landscape having all the rural
characteristics and floodplain physiognomies. The floodplain environment
with subtropical humid climatic conditions have provided suitable base
for the development of characteristic physical landscape within the village.
Based on the micro-variations of the physical settings within the village
and perception of the villagers to the local ecology, they have developed a
mosaic of peculiar cultural landscapes. As many as 9 important micro-
landscape features have been discovered in this village (Fig-2). These are
settlement, home garden, wetland, kitchen garden, agricultural land,
community land, grazing land, thatch land (khertoli) and small forest patch.
Each micro landscape has its own ecological peculiarities, utility pattern,
locational significance and shape and size characteristics. The rural life
and livelihoods are intrinsically connected with these micro-landscapes.
Wetlands (Khal-Beel-Pukhuri)
Different types of natural wetlands, such as khal (natural pond),
beel, pitoni (marshes), hola (water-logged area) are found in the village.
These wetlands are occurred under the fluvial activities of some tiny
channels and also by the actions of floods of Sessa river. These wetlands
1257
are endowed with diverse aquatic flora and fauna. The villagers use these
wetlands for fishing, providing drinking water to the cattle, irrigation and
collection of aquatic vegetables. The wetlands landscape of the village is
also enriched by man-made ponds (pukhuri) which are usually located
near the homestead. Usually such ponds are dug by the people during the
time of construction of their houses in order to raise the base of the
homesteads to protect them from flood water. There are as many as 302
man-made ponds, 86 naturally occurred ponds, and 25 marshes in the
village The villagers rear fishes in phukhuris mainly for consumptions,
although some amounts are sometimes sold in case of financial crisis.
The banks of some ponds are planted by different types of plants, such as
banana, coconut, bamboo, and many fire wood trees and grasses naturally
grow on the banks of such ponds. Besides the pisciculture, these ponds are
used for various purposes, such as bathing, washing of clothes and utensils,
supplying water to kitchen gardens and soaking of seeds, woods, and
bamboos (Deka, 2012).
Miscellaneous Trees Groves (Janghaltoli)
Some small tree patches are found on the banks of the river Sessa
and they form a belt parallel with the river banks. Different variety of
floral species, such as bamboo (Bambusoideae), banyan (Ficus
benghalensis), simulu (Bombaxceiba), plum (Ziziphusmauritiana), banana
(Musa paradisiacal), sisu (Dalbergia sisoo), khaira (Acacia catechu), teteli
(Tamarindusindica), jori (Ficus hispida), gamari (Gemlinaarborea), kadam
(Anthocephaluscadamba), etc. are found in these forest patches which
have provided the habitat for a variety of faunal species, such as monkey
(Macaca Fascicularis), squirrel (Squiridae), snakes (Serpentes), fox
(VulpesVulpes), hepa, jahamalla, lizards (Lacertilia), frogs(Rana
Temporaria), different insects and many birds. The tree groves form a
significant component of natural landscapes of the village and play an
important role to the rural life by providing them the fire woods,
construction materials, fodder, medicinal plants and fruits.
Grassland (Khertoli)
These are comparatively elevated lands which support for the
growth of various grass species mainly the thatch, locally known as kher.
These grasslands provide the habitat of various small animals and birds.
The grasslands located on the river banks are considered as community
land, but some time individual farmer also occupy some portion of grassland
for the growth of kher to use for making thatched-roof houses (kherighar).
These lands are also the important source of fodder to livestocks. But
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recently, under the influence of modernization in housing the number of

kherighar has been gradually disappearing. Therefore, number and areas
of khertoli are declining very significantly. At present, the khertolis cover
an area of only 0.52hectare (4 bigha).
Residential Lands (Gharbheti)
At present the village has 666 households distributed over 14
chuburis (hamlets).Houses of every hamlet are distributed along the village
katcha road and thus form linear pattern without disturbing the productive
paddy fields. People usually build their homes on slightly higher elevated
land (autumn rice fields) along the village roads. One of the most peculiar
characteristics of settlement of the village is that the entire households are
fenced by traditional fencing made with bamboo, jetropha plant and dry
leaves of banana and betel nut. Various fruits and flower trees are also
planted in the homesteads.
Home Gardens (Bosti)
Presence of home gardens in the backyard of almost all the
households is an important feature of the village landscapes of the
Brahmaputra Valley (Deka and Bhagabati, 2011). Home gardens consist
of large variety of plant species which provide fruits, building materials,
cash crops, fire woods, medicinal plants, and also some cultural and
religious plants to the rural folks. Home gardens can be considered as
productive botanical gardens of village, where people used to plant different
types of tree species to fulfill their daily needs. At present Jatia Bhangra
village has 460 home gardens. The average landholding size of home
gardens of the village ranges from 0.01hectare (10 lecha) to 0. 26 hectare
(2 bigha).
Kitchen Garden (Sakonibari)
Almost every household of the village has kitchen gardens either
in front or back side of homestead. Kitchen gardens are cultivated by
different seasonal vegetables, like potato, cabbage, carrot, chilly, radish,
leafy vegetables, ginger, garlic, tomato, ridge gourd etc. (Deka and
Bhagabati, 2011). The kitchen gardens are fenced with bamboo fencing
and surrounded by different types of trees in order to protect them from
stray cattle and other domestic animals. Some kitchen gardens are also
seen near the ponds or other water sources so that required water can be
supplied to them during winter season. Presently the total numbers of
kitchen gardens in the village are 538.
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Fig 2: Village Landscape
Agricultural Landscape (Khetimati)

Agricultural landscape is the most dominant one in the rural areas
of the Brahmaputra Valley. The agricultural landscapes were developed
by the villagers based on the micro-ecological settings of the villages of
the Valley. The agricultural activities in this village were solely operated
by the indigenous methods before 1980s. Still the agricultural landscapes
in the remote and densely populated villages like Jatia Bhangra exhibit
1260
diverse and intensive cropping pattern. Based on the slight variations in

elevation, soil quality, flood level, the farmers have classified the
agricultural lands into different types for cultivating various crops. Thus
agricultural practices of the village form some micro agricultural landscapes
which are named as seedling bed (kothiatoli), winter paddy field (salitoli),
autumn paddy field (ahutoli), rabi crops fields and kitchen garden.
Seedling beds are generally developed in slightly elevated lands
usually near ponds and natural wetlands (khal-beel). The land is chosen
near the source of water so that required water for seed beds preparation
can easily be provided. The average size of seedling beds ranges from
0.05 ha to 0.10 ha. It is seen that the autumn rice fields are slightly higher
elevated agricultural lands where people cultivate autumn paddy (ahudhan).
At present, these ahutolis of the village are getting completely transformed
to HYV rice fields. But still the villagers name these fields as ahutolis.
The size of autumn rice fields of the village varies from 0.13 ha to 0.53 ha.
Because of higher elevation of these fields people usually prefer the ahutolis
for establishing homes. The winter paddy fields of the village are the major
suppliers of rice. These fields are getting fertile by the deposition of
alluvium by floods. The average flood water level on these fields is 3.5
feet. During winter season most of the sali rice fields remain fallow and
some portions of these are used for cultivation of mustard, lentil, coriander
etc. The size of winter rice fields of the village varies from 0.13 ha to 0.80
ha.
Grazing Land (Bakorimati)
The traditional agricultural systems of the Brahmaputra Valley
are closely associated with livestock and fishing. The grazing lands
(bakorimati) are seen on elevated uncultivated lands which are kept for
grazing for domesticated animals like, cow, bullock and goat. Due to higher
elevation and sandy alluvial soil condition, water retaining capacity of
these lands is very low. The size of grazing lands of the village ranges
from 0.05ha (2 katha) to 0.16ha (6 katha).
Community Landscapes (Rajahuyathai)
The community landscapes of the village includes temple,
Namghar, mosque, shmoshan (cremation ground), kabor (burial ground),
Eidgah field, rajahuyapukhuri (public pond) school, primary health centre,
gaonponchyat, hat (periodic market) and club. Community landscapes
reflect the socio-cultural and religious belief systems, tradition and status
of socio-economic development of the village. Inhabited by the people of
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diverse caste and religious compositions the village contains different types
of community landscapes. At present there are two public burial grounds
and two public cremation grounds, three public ponds under this landscape
of the village.
Changes in Landscapes
Since the time of human habitation in the village, the natural
landscapes of the village have been transformed gradually by the villagers
according to their growing needs and aspirations. Very recently, the process
of modernization, urbanization of Guwahati city and development of
networks and vehicle facilities and changing perception and behavior of
people have accelerated the rate of change in the village landscapes (Fig.3).
The settlements of the village have been experiencing significant changes
in terms of number, structure and house types. It is seen that during 1800
and 1900 only 65 households were developed in the village. The growth
rate of households from 1910 to 1950 was very slow. Only 67 new
households were settled within this long 40 years. Within the period of
1950 to 1980, 125 households were setup in the village. After 1980 the
numbers of households started increasing rapidly. In between 1980 to 2010
the total number of newly developed dwellings in the village was 315.
The rapid growth of homesteads in the village is due to the population
growth and separation of families from joint to nuclear one. The trend of
forming nuclear family systems leads to the increasing number of
households in the village.
With the growth of newly occurred households in the village the
number and area of traditional home gardens have also been concomitantly
increasing. The home gardens have also faced different types of changes
in terms of planted trees, production of crops and management practices.
The production of home gardens is reduced by the attract of squirrels,
monkeys, insects and diseases (Table:1).Another important change in home
garden is the fragmentation of landholding size caused by the family
separation. Thus, the traditional fruits and firewood trees of the home
gardens are now getting replaced by many economically valuable wood
trees.
Table 1: Change in areas and production of selected crops of home gardens
Year Area in bigha Production of some selected trees
Betel nut Betel leaf Coconut(in jor)
( in kaown) (in got)
2001 37.2 296 2590 6750
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2016 35 105 875 1800

% change -5.9 -64.52 -66.21 -73.33
Source: Based on 50 sample households survey, 2015-16.
Note: 1 got=400 betel leaf, 1 kaown= 1600 betel nut, 1jor= 2 coconut, 1 bigha= 0.13hectare
The agricultural landscapes of the village have been changing both

structurally and functionally under the influence of modernization and
new market economy in agricultural sectors. Agricultural plots are getting
fragmented into tiny ones. Because of the adaptations of modern
agricultural methods, especially due to the use of power tiller instead of
traditional wooden plough, the numbers of bullocks are decreasing which
have ultimately made grazing lands unused. Therefore the size and number
of grazing lands have been decreasing (Table: 2). Very recently, the villagers
started planting wood trees on the remaining grazing lands for economic
benefits in future.
Table 2: Changes in number, area, possession of grazing lands by households and cattle
population
Year No. of Area in Grazing land and cattle Total no. of
Grazing hectare cattle grazed on the population
lands grazing land possessed by
households
No. of No. of
households households
possessing who don’t
grazing lands have grazing
lands but
depend on
other’s
grazing lands
No. of No. of
households household
2001 53 15.6 41 9 530
2016 35 7.41 32 13 177
% change -33.96 -52.5 -21.95 +44.44 -66.60
Source: Sample household survey, 2015-16
The modernization in agriculture has changed the traditionally

evolved cultivation methods, local crop variety and productivity of
agricultural lands as well. The application of HYV seeds and chemical
1263
RCC house
Depopulation
Assam type
house
Planted
garden
tree-
Thatch roof house Kutcha house
with wood tree

with tin roof
Home garden
Wood tree
Grazing land
garden
(Bakorimati)
Residential +
Settlement Traditional
agricultural
home garden
land
Forest patches
Residential
(Janghal toli)
houses
Traditional
landscape Kitchen garden
Grass land
Agricultural
land+ tree
(khertoli) Pond (pukhuri/khal)

garden
with local fish

species
alien species
Agricultural
Pond with
landscape
Seedling bed
(Kothiatoli) Autumn rice
field (Ahu toli)
Winter rice
field(Sali toli
Seedling +winter HYV rice field

vegetable
HYV Sali rice+local Sali
rice field
Agricultural land abandonment

INDEX
Fig.3: Landscape diversity and their changes in transitions
Fertilizer and pesticides has increased the crop production

significantly. As the production of HYV rice has been increasing recently
the farmers therefore do not give preference in cultivating other crops,
except small amount of mustard and some winter vegetables. Most of the
lands remain fallow during the winter season. Thus, although the rice
production has been increasing significantly but at the same time production
of others crops is getting decreased.
Sustainability Issues
The village landscapes are intrinsically associated basically with
the traditional agricultural systems and rural livelihoods. Therefore the
gradual disappearance of the traditionally developed methods of cultivation
has induced a negative impact on the diversity and sustainability of village
landscape. Although the production of local crops was less in traditional
methods but their close association and adaptability with culture and to
1264
the ecological settings should not be ignored. The outmigration of

economically well-off people and also the younger generation to the urban
centers for seeking better livelihood and job opportunities has caused some
serious problems, like agricultural land abandonment and rural depopulation
in the village. Similarly, the plantation of economically valuable trees has
also made negative impact on the village’s ecology and economy. Although
the production of man-made wetlands are increasing due to the introduction
of alien species and modern management practices, but the local aquatic
plants, animals and fishes of the natural wetlands of the village become
gradually extinct due to the impact of application of chemical pesticides
and fertilizers in agricultural fields. Thus the sustainability of different
landscape components has been getting degraded since last few decades.
Conclusion
The micro-landscape components of the village depict the
landscape diversity and their intrinsic relationship with the rural life and
livelihoods. Based on the micro-ecological settings of the village people
have developed different types of indigenous landuse patterns and practices.
However, under the influence of the rapid population growth, agricultural
modernization and urbanization, the landscapes of the village have been
experiencing remarkable changes in biophysical productivity and crop
diversity. Therefore it is now realized that the existence of traditional
landscapes and their management practices bear immense importance from
the view point of rural ecology and economy of the Brahmaputra Valley,
and therefore these should be continued to some extend for the sustainable
livelihood of the villagers.
References
Deka, N. Bhagabati, A.K.(2010) Farming Practices in a Floodplain Village of Assam
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1267-1285, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
98
Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Channel
Morphology of Raidak River-II in
Alipurduar District, West Bengal, India
Ajit Kumar Singha and E. Iswarjit Singh
Department of Geography, Sikkim University, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The Raidak River-II channel is dynamic in nature due to fluvial process
of erosion and deposition at different rates. This dynamic change is
mainly influenced by the volume of water, size and quantity of erosional
materials contained in river Raidak-II in different season especially in
monsoon. At Alipurduar district, there are numbers of bar, islands of
various size have been formed and also transformed their shape, size
and location in every year. The channel of Raidak river-II is not static
also. It has been migrated in different direction. In order to understand
the morpho-dynamics of the Raidak river-II channel at Alipurduar
district, a period of 40 years (1978-2016) has been taken for analysis.
The study is based on both primary and secondary data. The temporal
change of the channel morphology have been studied from
topographical map and LANDSAT MSS, TM, ETM+ digital data in
three different periods i.e,1978-1990, 1990-2001 and 2001-2016.
Different morphological features of the channel have been computed
from SOI topographical map, Google earth image, LANDSAT images
in four different years – 1980, 1990, 2001 and 2016. Primary data
were collected during field visit in 2016 in different seasons (pre-
monsoon and post monsoon). The study is mainly discussed on the
channel morphology and temporal change of channel morphology.
Keywords: Channel morphology, fluvial process, temporal change
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Introduction
The hydro-morphology of a river channel is intimately linked with
the form and behavior of the river channels along with volume of water
that shape them. It is very dynamic because channel forms are quite
changeable. Various processes of deposition, reworking and erosion are
involved in the formation and development of channel morphology.
Sediment deposits on floodplain surfaces by various processes of accretion,
the main ones being vertical, lateral and braid bar increase.
River channel morphology is the shape or form of a river along its
length and across its width. Transported materials are used in deposited
river bed and thus shaping its morphology. The transported materials are
deposited either temporarily or permanently along the course of a river
when it can no longer be transported. The shape of a stream channel at any
point in the channel network is a result of a balance between the erosive
force of moving water and the material over or through which the water is
moving (Tamang, 2013). In reach the channel morphology also control by
dependent and independent variable (Moriwasa, 1985).
As the Raidak river debouches onto the Alipurduar and Coochbehar
plain, the fall in gradient and incompetence force to carry material, provides
greater scope for the water to spread laterally. Thus, along the lower course,
the river attains the braided pattern with several bars and islands developed
from irregular deposition and also successive divisions and rejoining of
flows within the main braided channel which has increased the size of bars
downstream. Such bars are unstable and change their size, shape and
location due to varied channel erosion both during high flows (monsoon
months) and also due to anthropogenic impacts (mostly boulder lifting
activities). In this study mainly focus Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Channel
Morphology of Raidak River-II in Alipurduar District. Mainly discuss on
bar and island change.
Physical based research in the area of fluvial geomorphology has
pointed out the historical trends in fluvial processes, channel morphology
and bank erosion. Pioneering study in fluvial geomorphology by Leopold
and Wolman (1957) is the most noteworthy along with the work of Chorley
(1969), Gregory and Walling (1973), Schumm (1977), Brice (1981) Hooke
(2006), Morisawa(1987) and David Knighton(1984)etc.
Location of the Study Area
The Alipurduar district of west Bengal represents a zone between
the Himalaya Mountain and the Brahmaputra plain. It displays the typical
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characteristics of the piedmont alluvial fans of the Himalayan foothills.

This part of foothill zone located to east of Jaldhaka river is known as the
duars in Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar district of West Bengal.
Figure -1 Location Map of the Study Area
The Raidak river originates in Mt. Akungphu at an altitude of 6400

1
metre of the Himalaya which is located at the boundary between Bhutan
and Tibet. The Raidak debouches into India at ‘Bhutan Ghat’ region of
Jailpaiguri district and it is known as Raidak. In Bhutan the Raidak river
known is Wang Chhu or Wong Chhu. At Tiyabari (Jalpaiguri) the river
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divided into two branches-Raidak-I and Raidak-II. The Raidak-II flow

through Alipurduar and Coochbehar plains and join with Sankosh river at
Bainaguri ( Boxirhat, Coochbehar) and finally join into Brahmaputra in
Bangladesh as Gangadhar river. The Raida K-I river is flow through
Alipurduar and Coochbehar plain and joined with Torsa river. Kulkuli,
and Ghoramara are the main tributary of Raidak-I river.
The present study concentrates on the lower part of the raidak
river, from Bhutan ghat to Barobisa with a length 34 km and is bounded by
89Ú45´ E to 89Ú 49´ E and 26Ú 27´ N to 26Ú 42´ N . The lower part of the
raidak river mainly covered Kumargram Block of Alipurduar district and
Tufanganj-II Block of Coochbehar district. In this study mainly discuss in
Alipurduar District.
Methodology
Field visit is one of the most important sources of the any study.
For systematic study, analysis and interpretation of the present problem
varied specification of spatio-temporal data are used involving maps, images
and flow behavior data of the respective river are used. Temporal variation
of channel position along with channel bed, bars/island, banks as well as
channel morphology were analyzed for the last 40 years four different
LANDSAT image.
Channel morphology, Channel dynamic, channel type and channel
pattern change during the 1980 to 2016, had been determined by using
topographical maps surveyed and published by
Table -1 LANDSAT images
Agency Year Date of acquisition Scale Band combination
LANDSAT-2 MSS 1978 22.02.1978 60M 2,3,4
LANDSAT-5 TM 1990 14.11.1990 28.5M 1,2,3
LANDSAT-7 ETM+ 2001 20.11.2001 28.5M 1,2,3
LANDSAT-8 ETM 2016 20.10.2016 28.5M 5,6,7
Survey of India (SOI), and satellite imagery (LANDSAT IMAGE,

MSS, TM, ETM,) obtained from USGS. Satellite Imageries which had
been used in this study are listed in the table-1.All these maps are digitizing
in ArcGIS software version 10.2 and prepare final thematic map. The bar
change and island change thematic map also prepared from Google Earth
1
Annual flood report of 2013, Irrigation and waterways directorate , Government of West
Bengal.(2014), pp-5
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image in different years. Bar and island change had been measured from
Google earth images from 2007-2014. Four cross-section sites have been
taken to understand the channel width, depth, shape, size, bar formation
and channel bifurcation. They are-
(i) Bhutan ghat, foothill region and starting point of Raidak-II
(ii) Joydebpur, extensive braided site
(iii) Hemaguri, confluence site of many sub-channel
(iv) Chokchoka, narrowest channel width
All the cross-section has taken in the month of May, 2016. Rise
fall method has used for formulating the channel cross-section. The velocity
was measured in monsoon season (16, 17, 18 July 2016) and post monsoon
season (10, 12, 13 December, 2016) on this cross-section and used Rise
fall method to draw a cross-section.
Simple statistical techniques has used in the study and with simple
graphical techniques.
For discussion, 5 people (ages 55-60) are in selected from each 4
site and discuss with irrigation official staff.
Table -2 Morphological features
Parameters Upper part Lower part
Special extent Bhutan Ghat to Joydebpur to
Joydebpur Chokchoka
Reach length (in km.) 19 15
Channel sinuosity 1 1.2
Channel type Mixed and bed rock Alluvial
Active channel width (in meter) 2000 1200
Number of secondary channel 4 2
Dominant bed materials Grabbles and boulders Sand and pebbles
Morphological appearance Anabranching Braided
Stream gradient(in degree) .6-.9% 0.8 to -1%
Average valley width(in metre) 1900 1100
Annual monthly average rainfall 350 350
(in mm)
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Discussion
Channel Morphology
The Raidak-II river channel in Alipurduar District is mainly
characterized by the highly depositional features. Channel bar and alluvial
island is the common features of this river channel. From Bhutan Ghat to
Chokchoka different sizes of island and bars are found. Some of these are
large size. They are transient in nature and subjected to low flow deposition
and high flow removal. The alluvial channel island is mainly covered by
grass and some open mixed jungle. In Joydebpur region, island mainly
covered by Raidak reserved forest and open mixed jungle. Alluvial island
of Hemaguri is mainly covered by all grasses and some trees. Now days
some island is covered by settlement and agricultural practice. Some of
these are in Joydebpur, Hemaguri, is covered by settlement. Channel cutoff
is one of the most important morphological features. In order to have a
proper understanding of such morphological features in detail, Raidak-II
river course in Alipurduar District divided into two parts (i) upper and (ii)
lower part.
Morphology of the Different Parts
Upper Part
The uppert part of the Raidak-II river in Alipurduar District is
extented from Bhutan ghat to Joydebpur and total length of the upper part
is 19km. The average slope of this part is 0.6-0.9 percent. The average
valley width is 950 metre and average depth is 1.4 metre(pre-monsoon/
post monsoon). The sinuosity index of this part is 1.2. The upper part is
bearing some morphological characteristic which are different from lower
part. In this part the river thelweg bifurcate in different channel due to
huge amount of deposition. Different sizes of alluvial island are found in
this region. Near Bhutan many tributaries are joinied with to uppert part
of the Raidak-II channel and this tributaries supply huge amount of erosional
material and water in the rainy season and change the morphology of this
part. Of this part the erosive behaviour of the channel is valley widenning
due to sudden fall in gradient of river course, the large volume of water
start lateral spreading and depositional bevaviour is agradation sediment
carried by river get deposited in the course itself and mid channel bar
formation. In this part the bed matrial are mainly boulder and grabbles.
The channel bars/islands are more or less parmannt. Grasses and vegetation
are grown on it. Some of bars / islands of this part are under reserved
forest. The river attained alluvial braided stage but due to permanency of
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Figure- 2 Channel Morphology (1978-2016)
bars and island, they are anastomoshing. Many small tributary also bifurcate
and are of this join to main stream. But actually large number of joining
take place in that part. It was observed in field visit premonsoon and after
monsoon at this part the active channel mainly found in the left side.
Lower Part
The lower part of the Raidak-II river in Alipurduar District is extent
from Joydebpur to Chokchoka. It bears distinct characteristic from upper
parts. The lotal length of this part is 15 km and the sinuosity is 1.2 . the
average slope of this part is 0.6-0.8 percent. The average width of this part
is 900 metre and average depth is 1 metre(pre-monsoon/post monsoon). In
this part the river flow two or more channels with bars and small island. In
this part, still maintain valley widenring as erosive behaviour of the channel
and depositional bevaviour is agradation and mid channel bar formation.
In this part the bed material are mainly sand and pebbles. Diffent types of
bars are found in this part that are mid channel bar, point channel bar,
newly form bar, old bar deposit. All channel bar are transient in nature,
that change their size and shape due to high flow in the monsoon season
and also by human activity. It also maintain characteristics of braided as
bars and island form but not permanent.
Channel Pattern
Channel pattern is spetial distribution of channel network. It may
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be straight, meandering and braided. River channels exhibit great range of

plan form or pattern due to range of variation in quantity of sediment, flow
and topographic characteristic, gradient, volume of water, geological
structure etc.
The alluvial channel pattern of a river is usually considered as
straight, meandering or braided( Morisawa, 1985). Alluvial channel patterns
has been classified into different category by different geomorphologist.
Leopold and wolman(1957) have classified river channel into three types
on the basis of sinuosity index, these are (i) straight channel (sinuosity
index is <1.05) (ii) sinuous channel (sinuosity index is between 1.05-1.50)
(iii) meandering channel (sinuosity index is >1.5) . The formula of sinuosity
index is-
SI= Lc/Lv
Where, SI is sinuosity index, Lc is channel thalweg length and Lv is valley
length.
According to A.D. Mial (1985) have divided alluvial channel into
five major categories on the basis of geomorphic characteristics, sinuosity
index, sediment load type and erosional and depositional behaviour. These
are (i)straight channel (ii) sinuous channel (iii) meandering channel (iv)
braided channel and (v) anabranching channel.
The Raidak-II river flows through the plain of Alipurduar and
Coochbehar district in different channel pattern. According to above
geomorpholist formula of channel pattern classification, in Alipurduar
District the Raidak-II channel can be divided into two channel pattern
(i)anabranching and (ii) braided. Anbranching channel is developed from
Bhutanghat to Hemaguri and braided channel pattern developed from
Hemaguri to Chokchoka.
Channel Cross-Section
The shape of the cross-section is described through the ratio of the
channel width to depth. The flow in channel is directly propotional to the
force which the water exerts on the bed and to its ability to transport
sediment (Leopold and Wolman,1957). The Raidak-II channel is typically
braided type with a number of water covered channels that are separeted
by sandbar, alluvial vegetated covers island and bars. Here mainly discuss
Four cross-sections which were taken for analysis. Field observation was
done in these different section, pre-monsoon and post monsoon are at
Bhutanghat, Joydebpur, Hemaguri and Chokchoka.
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Table-3 Element of Hydraulic Geometry

Station Depth Width Velocity Velocity Bed materials
(metre) (in metre) (metre/ (metre/
second), second),
July-2016 December-
2016
Bhutan ghat 1.35 530 2.5 1.67 Grabbles and
boulders
Joydebpur .95 1355 1.3 0.95 Grabbles and
boulders
Hemaguri 1.01 1360 1.1 0.72 Sand and pebbles
Chokchoka 1.52 430 .95 0.48 Sand and pebbles
At Bhutanghat the cross-section width is 530 metre and the average

depth is 1.35 metre. The velocity is 2.5 metre per second (Table-3). In the
cross-section showing highest depth in the left bank of the channel (Figure-
3). In the time of the field visit its ovserved that the main flow in left side.
This section shows that erosional activity in active on left bank and shifting
of bankline is on left side. The bed material are mostly pebblesand boulders
(Figure-14).
Figure-3 Cross-section at Bhutanghat

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Figure-4 Cross-section at Joydebpur
At joydebpur the cross-sectional width(1355 metre) is higher than

Bhutan Ghat. At this reach the river channel are bifurcated into many sub
channel with separated by vegetated island and mid channel bars. In this
cross-section depth of the channel veries in different point, average depth
is 0.9 metre (Table-3) and highest depth is found at right and left side of
the channel. Average velocity at this point is 1.3 metre per second. The
bed materials are also more or less similar with bed material of Bhutan
Ghat (Figur-14).
At Hemaguri the shape of the cross-section is same as Joydepur,
at this point the channel is highly braided. The channel is flow in diifferent
channel which separated by channel bars. Average depth of the channel is
1.01 metre and average velocity is 1.1 metre per second. At this point the
channel width is 1360 metre (Table-3). At this section onward the bed
material mainly sand and pebble (Figure-14).
The shape of the cross-section at Chokchoka is different from others
cross-section. At this point the channel depth is high and channel width is
narrow. Average depth is 1.52 metre and average velocity is .95 metre par
second. At this point channel width is 430 metre. Bed material of this
section also sand and pebble (Figure-14).
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Left Bank Right Bank
Figure-5 Cross-section at Hemaguri
Left Bank Right Bank
Figure-6 Cross-section at Chokchoka
Channel Morphology Change

Channel morphology changes with respect to time and space play
an important role in stream flow dynamic.The Raidak-II river channel
change its morphology in different scale due to different factors. Different
morphological changes has identify of Raidak-II river channel from
different sources, these are topographical map, landsate image, google earth
and field visit. Some of these changes analysis in two part(upper, lower).
These changes are alluvial island change, bar change, pattern change,
channel width change etc. The morpholological change of the Raidak-II
river in two part are different from each other.
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Bar and Island change

Upper part
The upper part of the Raidak-II river change its morphology
continuously. In these part some particular change are found. Channel bar
of the Raidak-II in upper part mainly found in the left side. In this part of
channel every year form a new bar and eroded channel bars. In this part
has found large and small size alluvial island and they change their shape
and size every year. In the rainy season island are affected by over flow.
Alluvial island are mainly affected by the process of leteral migration and
over flow in monsoon season. River bars changes shown from 2007 to
2014 on the basis of Google image. In this part channel thalweg is also
change location. Acoording the figure-7,8 and 9 we can see that the change
of the channel island and channel bars. The figure 7 is showing that the
island of the year 2007, there has nine island but in the year same place we
can see only one big island in 2014. The channel thalweg also changed the
shape and location.
Figure-7 Bar/Island change near Bhutanhhat

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The channel pattern of the Raidak-II river in upper part is changible. The
channel pattern of the Raidak-II river mainly change due to bar formation
and letaral migration. At Present day the channel get a new planform in
upper part. The active channel in left side in 2007 had been changed in
2014. Figure 7, it is observed that bar/island which were formed in 2007
are decreasing the size in the left side of river whereas on right side extensing
and expension of bars/island are taking place in 2014. Active channel was
also shifted from 2007 to 2014 and right side of bank(Figure-7). Most of
island which were formed in 2007 were bifurcated in 2014. It observed
that huge bar formation took place in 2014. The active channel had been
shifted toward the left bank in 2014(Figure-7).
Figure-8 Bar/Islandchange near new Figure-9 Bar/Island change at Joydebpur

Land Tea Garden
Lower Part
In this part of river channel morphology is mainly characterized
by different middle and side channel bar. In this part of the channel every
year form different channel bars formed. In the monsoon season all bars
are covered by water and eroded due to high flow. In this part, mainly
showing the bars change from 2013-2014 by the help of Google earth image.
The bar change are showing in the figure 10. According to the image we
can see that the channel bar in 2013 are change their shape and size. Some
channel bar size is increasing and some bars size decrease. In the 2014
some newly channel bar formation is showing, in the 2013 map where was
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channel thalweg and active channel are showed at Hemaguri area but in
the 2014 map showing new channel bar. Comparatively middle portion is
more stable than upper part. The changes in bar/island formation and
shifting of active channel are also less which can be observed around
Hemaguri, Chengmari and Chokchoka(Figure-10).
Figure-10 Bar/Island change at Chengmari
The Raidak-II river channel its morphology continuously change

in alipurduar plain. In this part has found large and small size alluvial
island and they change their shape and size every year. In the rainy season
island are affected by over flow. Alluvial island are mainly affected by the
process of leteral migration and over flow in monsoon season. River bars
changes shown in 2007-2014.
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Figure-11 Bar change at Hemaguri Figure-12 Bar change at Chokchoka
Channel Width Change

Channel width in different years( in metre)
Table-4 Channel Width in Different Year
Section 1978 1980 1990 2001 2016
Bhutanghat 1806 1803 1258 1216 1384
Joydebpur 1675 2095 1202 2526 1355
Hemaguri 1008 1027 1358 1394 1360
Chokchoka 200.83 278.9 397.23 427.85 430
It is also obsereved that the average width of the Raidak-II river

channel is changible. From 1978 to 2016 the channel width increase and
decrease at different point (Table-4). Channel width change is the most
important indicator of bankline shifting. The present study is shown the
channel width of Raidak-II channel at four point which data are collected
from topographical map, land sate image and GPS survey (2016).
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Figur-13 Channel width change(1978-2016).
Causes of Channel Morphology Change

Different factors is responsible for changing the morphology of a
river channel. According to M. Morisawa(1985) “the morphology and
dynamics of rivers are not only related to each other but are also dependent
upon environmental variables such as climate, lithology, topography,
landuse and vegetation”. All these variables interact to each other and make
a specific fluvial system. Now a day one of the most important factors is
human to change the morphology of a channel by their different activity.
According to Schum(1998), “the changes of river channel form may be
caused by natural and human activity. It may be stable at one extreme or in
the process of total change as part of metamorphosis at the others”.
The channel morphology of the Raidak-II river in Alipurduar
district has been change by different factors. They are (i). Frequent flood,
(ii). Decrease of gradient, (iii). Huge amount of deposition, (iv). Humann
activity etc.
(i) Frequently Flood
Frequently flood is one of the most factor to change the river
channel in lower part. The Raidak-II channel almost every year are affected
by flood. In this time the channel island, bars and bankline has been changed
its location, size and shape. The main cause of flood in this region is heavy
rainfall in the rainy season and recieved huge amount discharge from upper
catchment.
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(ii) Decrease of Channel Gradien

Channel gradient is the main factors for erosional and depositional
activity. The decrease in channel gradient at the outlet from the mountain
causes a decrease in sediment transport capacity and extensive deposition
of erosional material transported from the upper part. The Raidak river
graidient is highly variable. The Raidak river debouches in to india at Bhutan
ghat and flow through Alipurduar and Coochbehar plain. At this reach the
channel gradient suddenly decrease and deposited huge amount of erosional
material. For this the leteral erosion is highly activated and the channel
bankline migrated west and east direction. For this mid channel deposition
the channel flow in the monsoon season overlap the channel island and
natural lavees.
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(iv) Human Activity

Present day channel morphology also change by human activity.
The Raidak-II channel morphology is change by some human activity
mainly boulder lifting and agriculture (Figure-15). Huge amount boulder
has been collected by local peoplein the pre-monsoon and post monsoon
season. In the time of field it was ovserved that huge amount boulder is
collected from Maynar ghat, Joydebpur, Hemaguri and Chokchoka.
(iii) Huge Amount Deposition
The lower part of the Raidak river is mainly deposited erosional
material which transported from upper part. The main source of the
erosional material is landslide in the upper part. In the lower part the channel
mainly deposited erosional material in mid channel.
Conclusion
Raidak-II river channel is mainly characterized by different sizes
of bar and island. Sandbars are developed within the channel. The upper
part of the river mainly characterized by alluvial island some of them are
permanent and some are unstable and mainly covered by vegetation. The
alluvial island of the upper part mainly changed by the process of lateral
erosion in the period of over flow during rainy season. At this part the
river channel mainly active on the left side where new mid channel bars
are also developed. The lower part is mainly characterized by braided
channel. At this part different bars are found and channel bars continuously
change their size, shape and location due to over flow in the rainy season.
The size of bed load is decrease from upper part to lower part. In upper
part mainly boulder and pebbles whereas in the lower part are dominated
by sand and pebble. The morphodynamic of river are mainly influenced
by various factors such changing volume of water in different season, rate
of deposition and erosion, gradient of channel besides anthropogenic
factors. The rate of morphodynamic of the river Raidak II need to monitor
in order to reduce the damage of property which take place every year.
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Morisawa, M., (1985), “ Rivers: Form and Process”, Longman Group Limited.
Morisawa, M., (1968), “Streams: their dynamic and morphology” McGrow-Hill Book
Company
Schum, S.A. (1985), “Patterns of alluvial rivers” Annual review earth planet science, vol-
13, pp-5-27
Tamang, L. (2013) “effect of boulder lifting on the fluvial characteristics of lower balason
basin in Darjeeling district, west Bengal” phd thesis, university of north Bengal.
1286
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1287-1297, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
99
Mapping of Vegetation Changes in
Lakshadweep using Remote Sensing
Tipu Sulthan. M.M(1), M.Muthukumar(2)
(1)Ph.D Research Scholar, (2) Assistant Professor
Centre for Geoinformatics, Department of Rural Development, The
Gandhigram Rural Institute –Deemed University, Gandhigram,
Dindigul, Tamil Nadu-624 302
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The Lakshadweep Islands are known as the Coral Paradise of India
with a fragile ecosystem including a large association of corals, marine
animals and all the natural resources are vulnerable to climate change.
The mapping of area under change, location and condition of the natural
resources are of paramount importance in order to explore and manage
sustainably. Vegetation of an area directly indicates the availability of
natural resources especially water resources in that area. The present
scenario tells the impacts of climate change in vegetation, water
resources and land resources which are highly effected during the past
two decades. The remote sensing and GIS are the most efficient
technology and toolset for assessing the status for integrated resource
management, environmental conservation and sustainable rural
development. The present study is focused to assess the changes in
vegetation for a period of 15 years. The study has progressed by
processing the satellite data, field survey and GIS analysis. The satellite
images are classified using automatic feature extraction method in
ERDAS Imagine software, then processed to map the changes in
ArcGIS, finally the vegetation changes are derived for the past 15
years and the result is visualized in GIS layout.
Keywords: Natural Resource Mapping, Environmental Monitoring,
Remote Sensing, GIS, Change Detection
1288
Introduction
The natural resource mapping is mandatory for find, explore and
manage them with sustainable development view in order to conserve and
utilize the resources effectively. The Remote Sensing and Geographical
Information System (GIS) are best suited techniques to map the natural
resources with short duration and effective man power. Remote Sensing is
the technology by which information of earth features can be derived
without physical contact. GIS is the set of tools to collect, store, process,
analyze Geodata for spatial decision making.
Lakshadweep Islands are one of fragile ecosystem from India where
the natural resources such as vegetation, coral reef, ground water and land
resources are vulnerable to climate change. The ground water quantity
and quality is changing day by day accordingly most of the coastal
settlements are found with saline well water. Many of plant species are
endangered, bird species are disappeared from the environment. Global
Warming and Greenhouse effects are having big roll in environmental
change. Deforestation, urbanization and ground water depletion are acting
together and climatic parameters are changed abnormally.
Natural Resources are the primary resources that already exists on
the environment without the action of mankind. This includes the materials
and components such as land, water, air, vegetation, animals, birds and
minerals which found within the environment. All the man-made products
are composed of materials taken from natural resources. The socio-
economic development of any country is always depend upon the natural
resources available within the country. But the current situation of the
resources shows that, the nations are focusing and accessing the resources
even it is located in some other country which will be progressing by certain
policies and laws. The anthropogenic activities are deploying the natural
resources in a gradually increasing. The forests are being reduced day by
day for several purposes such as agriculture, timber, fuel wood and
industrialization. It is mandatory that, the available resources should be
mapped for knowing where, what, how much exists and how being used.
This helps to manage the consumption and the information will be used
for the conservation and sustainable development of the resources.
The identification and mapping of the locations of natural resources
are not easy because all the resources are not distributed uniformly in nature.
Each every resources has got its own distribution and location on the surface
of earth. Therefore, the remote sensing and Geographical Information
System are used to map the natural resources within short time and easy
1289
way. The remotely sensed images are covering a large area in the scene
that helps to identify all the features located in that geographical area.
Even using advanced spatial technologies, in a single study it is
not easy to cover all the natural resources, so in the present study focused
only the vegetation and its changes over the period of 16 years from 2000
to 2015 with the help of Remote Sensing & GIS.
Classification of Resources
Based on origin
a. Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living
and organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials
that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and
petroleum are also included in this category because they are
formed from decayed organic matter.
b. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from nonliving,
nonorganic material. Examples of abiotic resources include land,
fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron,
copper, silver, etc.
Based on stage of development
a. Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a
region and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum
occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but until the
time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential
resource.
b. Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been
surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used
in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as
wood processing depends upon the technology available and the
cost involved.
c. Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be
developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource.
d. Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed
but cannot be used by organisms due to lack of technology. eg:
hydrogen.
Based on renewability
a. Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished
1290
naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc.,

are continuously available and their quantity is not noticeably
affected by human consumption. Though many renewable
resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources
are susceptible to depletion by overuse. Resources from a human
use perspective are classified as renewable only so long as the rate
of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption.
b. Nonrenewable resources – Nonrenewable resources either form
slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are
the most common resource included in this category. By the human
perspective, resources are nonrenewable when their rate of
consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery~ eg: fossil
fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is
extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are
considered nonrenewable. Some resources actually naturally
deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable
of these being radioactive elements such as uranium, which
naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals
can be reused by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot
be recycled.
Review of Literature
Ramakrishnan and Rishikesh Bharti (2014) describes about how
the hyperspectral data can be used for mineral exploration. The study shows
white mica minerals mapping using HyMap in Pilbara Craton, Australia
and mapping of carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulphates, altered minerals,
and ore materials by HyMap data in Daykundi area, Afghanistan.
AshokaVanjare et.al (2012) has conducted a study using Landsat
images from 1973 to 2011 covering 39 years and 2182 sqkms area of
Bangalore region for the LU/LC as well as detected the changes occurred
over the area.
Min Kook Kim (2010), has conducted a study on Monitoring
Vegetation Change by using temporal data in Cadillac Mountain, Acadia
National Park.
Aseefa M.Melesse et.al (2007) has conducted a study on Remote
Sensing Sensors and Applications in Environmental Resources Mapping
and Modelling usig datasets from Landsat 7 and SPOT. The study outputs
where brought land use land cover map of Indiapolis, USA, and vegetation
cover in Econlockhatchee river sub-basin, Florida etc.
1291
Lefsky M.A et.al (1998) has conducted a study on Natural Resource

Management using Remote Sensing and GIS in Andrews Experimental
Forest, Oregon, USA using high accuracy data derived from LiDAR
technology. They measured the distribution of vegetation material in vertical
axis and created three dimensional perspective of vegetation cover.
Pol. R. Coppin and Marvin E Bauer (1994) performed a study on
Change Detection in Forest Ecosystem with Digital Imagery in North
Central USA forests. They described how the digital image can be utilized
for extracting vegetation information and the methods followed to derive
the information.
Study Area
Fig.1: Study Area

1292
The Kiltan Island is located between 72 o 59’42.057"E 11 o

29 49.832"N and 73o0’59.202"E 11o28’6.058"N in Lakshadweep, where
’
the population is 5930 in 2014. Lakshadweep, the group of 36 islands is

known for its exotic and sun-kissed beaches and lush green landscape.
The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means ‘a hundred
thousand islands. India’s smallest Union Territory Lakshadweep is an
archipelago consisting of 36 islands with an area of 32 sq km. It is a uni-
district Union Territory and is comprised of 12 atolls, three reefs, five
submerged banks and ten inhabited islands. The islands comprise of 32 sq
km. The capital is Kavaratti and it is also the principal town of the UT. All
Islands are 220 to 440 km away from the coastal city of Kochi in Kerala,
in the emerald Arabian Sea. The natural landscapes, the sandy beaches,
abundance of flora and fauna and the absence of a rushed lifestyle enhance
the mystique of Lakshadweep. The islands are well connected by regular
flights from Kochi. Helicopter transfer is available from Agatti to Kavaratti
throughout the year. Lakshadweep has a tropical climate and it has an
average temperature of 27° C - 32° C. April and May are the hottest with
an average temperature of 32° C Generally the climate is humid warm and
pleasant. As the climate is equitable during monsoons, ship-based tourism
is closed. October to March is the ideal time to be on the islands. From
June to October the South West Monsoon is active with an average rainfall
of 10-40 mm. The relative humidity is 70-75%. Annual rainfall decreases
from South to North. On an average, 80-90 days a year are rainy. Winds
are light to moderate from October to March.
The main occupation is coconut processing and fishing other than
government and commercial services. But the first one is facing big
challenge due to several reasons including plant diseases and death of the
coconut tree due to climate change etc. The annual collection of copra is
becoming decreased due to all of these reasons.
Methodology
The satellite image of the study area downloaded from USGS
website for two periods 2000 and 2015. (Fig.2 & Fig.3).
The downloaded satellite images are processed in ERDAS
IMAGINE software and the vegetation features are extracted from the image
using automatic feature extraction technique.
1293
Fig.2: Landsat Image of 2000
Fig.3: Landsat Image of 2015

1294
The extracted vegetation features for the years 2000 and 2015 are
shown in the Figure:4 & 5.
Fig.4: Vegetation 2000
Fig.5: Vegetation 2015

1295
The two outcomes are brought in ArcGIS (GIS Software) and

processed for change detection in spatial analyst with minus technique.
Finally the vegetation changes are found and mapped out (Fig.6).
The changes between the two periods were identified using change
detection technique in ArcGIS. The output shows that the vegetation in the
island is decreased.
Findings
The north end of the island is found with decrease in grass, shrubs
and coconut tree. The south eastern coast of the island is found with decrease
of coconut tree and grass. The west coast of the island is found with decrease
in shrubs and other inside area of island are found with no change. (Fig.6)
Fig.6: Vegetation Change

1296
Limitation of the Study

The present study is utilized very low resolution data (30 meter
spatial resolution) by which exact information with high accuracy is not
achieved. But the dataset is well suitable for this task. The high resolution
data is needed for high accuracy output.
Conclusions
The vegetation is changing with urbanization and climate change.
The coastal area is highly vulnerable to destruction of vegetation.
Construction of beach roads is causing the cutting down of trees which
shows a clear view in output. The cutting down of trees should be reduced
and tree plantation must be promoted. The coastal zones and beaches should
be planted with trees especially the plants which prevents soil erosion where
the rural development programs can be implemented which will be also an
employment opportunity for residents accordingly the sustainable
development is guaranteed. This study is suggests to promote Remote
Sensing & GIS based studies of natural resources in Lakshadweep where
the scientific and systematic exploration and management of resources
can be assured.
References
Min Kook Kim (2010), Monitoring Vegetation Change by using Remote Sensing.
Pol. R. Coppin and Marvin E Bauer (1994) Change Detection in Forest Ecosystem with
Digital Imagery.
Introduction, Mohamed Elias (1986), “GIS and Remote Sensing for Natural Resource
Mapping and Management”.p.no1 [Online] http://fsweb.rsac.fs.fed.us, referred on
[Accessed; 30-01-2017]
Imran A.Dar, K. Sankar, Mithas A. Dar.Remote sensing technology and geographic
information system modelling : An integrated approach towards the mapping of
ground water potential zones in hardrock terrain, Mamundiyar basin. (Journal of
hydrology 394 (2010)285-295).
Ramakrishnan and Rishikesh Bharti (2014) “Hyperspectral Remote Sensing and Geological
Applications” (Current Science, Vol. 108, No. 5, 10 March 2015).
AseefaM.Melesse(2007) “Remote Sensing Sensors and Applications in Environmental
Resources Mapping and Modelling” (Sensors 2007, 7, 3209-3241, ISSN 1424-
8220).
M.A Lefsky, WB Cohen, SA Acker, TA Spies (1998) “Natural Resource Management
using Remote Sensing and GIS” (Seventh Forest Service Remote Sensing
Applications Conference, April 10.1998).
Soraya Violini (2013), Deforestation; Change Detection in Forest Cover using Remote
Sensing
1297
Farooq Ahammed (2012). Detection of Change in Vegetation Cover using Multi Spectral
and Multi Temporal Information for District Sargodha, Pakistan. 3, 557-572,
Hassan Ahmadi (2010). Vegetation Change Detection of Nekha Riverin Iran by Using
Remote Sensing & GIS. (Journal of Geography & Geology- Vol-2, No-1, November-
2010).
1298
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1299-1311, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
100
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
of Soil from Grain Size Analysis
G. Nengzouzam1, Y. Pordung2, R. Phawa3, A. Bandyopadhyay4,
A. Bhadra5
1
Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North
Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli
(Itanagar), Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India,
2,3
UG students, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North Eastern
Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli (Itanagar),
Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India,
4,5
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North
(Itanagar), Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Hydraulic conductivity is the ease with which water/fluid can move
through porous spaces in soil. It is generally determined either through
an empirical approach by which hydraulic conductivity is correlated
to soil properties or through an experimental approach whereby
hydraulic conductivity is calculated by experimentation. In this study,
25 set of soil samples with sand texture from top soil (0 – 30 cm) were
collected from different locations of Pare river basin, Arunachal
Pradesh. Sieve analysis of soil samples was performed to determine
their classification and particle size distribution characteristics. The
results showed reliability in predicting the Ksfrom soil properties. The
following equation was developed from multiple linear regressions
1300
on data (R² = 0.71): where

, and are the soil particle diameter(mm) for which 10%,
50% and 60% of all the soil particles are finer by weight and Ks is the
saturated hydraulic conductivity (m/day). The regression analysis
showed that d10 played a more significant role with respect to and
could be treated as the most effective parameter. Further, when all
three parameter were used as input for predicting, estimated was better
than single and two parameter linear equations.
Keywords: Hydraulic conductivity, Pare river basin, sieve analysis,
particle size distribution and linear regression.
Introduction
Soil is a complex, living, changing and dynamic component of the
agro-ecosystem. A thorough understanding of the ecology of the soil
ecosystem is a key part of designing and managing agro-ecosystems in
which the long-term fertility and productive capacity of the soil is
maintained, or even improved. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, of soil
may be defined as the ability of a porous media to transmit water through
its void. It is necessary for modelling the water flow in the soil, both in the
saturated and unsaturated zone, and transportation of water-soluble
pollutants in the soil. It also an important parameter for designing of the
drainage of an area and in construction of earth dam and levee. It is of
paramount importance in relation to some geotechnical problems, including
the determination of seepage losses, settlement computations, and stability
analyses (Boadu, 2000).
Many different techniques have been proposed to determine its
value, including field methods (pumping test of wells, auger hole test and
tracer test), laboratory methods and calculations from empirical
formulae(Todd and Mays, 2005). Since direct measurement of hydraulic
conductivity is time consuming and, indirect methods such as predicting
from readily available soil properties e.g. particle size distribution have
been developed. There have been attempts to estimate saturated hydraulic
conductivity based on particle size distribution and many showed that the
hydraulic conductivity is related to the grain-size distribution of granular
porous media (Freeze and Cherry, 1979) which was found to be very useful
in the estimation of K. The field methods is not only limited by the lack of
precise knowledge of aquifer geometry and hydraulic boundaries (Uma et
al. 1989) but the operation is also costly. Laboratory methods were also
found to show formidable problems in obtaining representative samples.
However, a method where empirical formula are developed for estimating
K by using particle size distribution characteristics was found to overcome
1301
the above problems (Odong, 2008). This method is comparably less

expensive and do not depend on the geometry and hydraulic boundaries of
the aquifer. Also, information about the textural properties of soils or rock
is more easily obtained which makes it a potential alternative for estimating
hydraulic conductivity of soils is from grain-size distribution.
This relationship has been studied and several regression equations
have been developed by many researchers such as Hazen (1892), Ahuja et
al. (1989) and Sperry and Peirce (1995). Hazen (1892) proposed a single
linear relationship between the two as:
(1)
Where, is expressed in cm/sec, c is a constant varying from 1.0 – 1.5 and
is the soil particle diameter (mm) such that 10% of soil particles are finer
by weight. The equation was later extended by Shepherd (1989) by
performing power regression analysis.
Puckett et al. (1985) found that the percentage of clay size particles
was the best predictor of by using regression analysis of six sets of soil
samples at seven different locations in Alamaba lower coastal plain. A
field data across U.S. was analyse by Rawls and Brakensiek (1989) and
developed a regression equation relating porosity and the particle size
distribution to . A two parameter power regression equation between and
soil particle size diameters was also proposed by Alyamani and Sen (1993)
using a 32 set of sandy soil samples obtained in Saudi Arabia and Australia
whose equation is given as:
(2)
Where, is the x-intercept of the straight line is is formed by joining and

of the grain size distribution curve (mm), is the soil particle diameter such
that 50% of soil particles are finer by weight (mm).
Ahuja et al. (1989) developed multiple linear regression for South
Eastern U.S. sandy soils and reported that the lower content of both silt
and organic matter and lower values of bulk density increased. Also,
Salarashayeri and Siosemarde (2012) estimated the by using the
relationship between and soil particle diameter where he studied 25 sets
of sandy soil samples and obtained a multiple linear regression equation
as:
(3)
1302
They showed that plays the most significant role with respect to .
In view of the above facts, the present study has been taken up with the
following objectives:
1. To develop the particle size distribution curves for various soil
samples.
2. To determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil from grain size
analysis.
Material and Methods
Description of Study Area
The study area selected for this study is Pare watershed which is
situated at the south-western part of Arunachal Pradesh, India. It lies in the
upstream of the Dikrong river basin extending from 93o 13’ 9.39" E to 93o
47’ 8.99" E longitude and 27o 9’ 32.5" N to 27o 22’ 11.08" N latitude. The
total area of the watershed is 773.5 sq. km. The outlet of the watershed is
situated at Hoj (93o 47’ 7.92" E longitude and 27o 15’ 18.24" N latitude)
and is shown in Fig. 1 along with river network and watershed boundary
of the area. Pare watershed is a mountainous watershed where the hill
ridges are situated haphazardly as hill ridges starts either parallel or in
opposite direction as soon as one hill ridges end. Due to this typical
topography, the rivers are highly undulated.
Fig. 1 Study area (Pare watershed)
Data Acquisition
Twenty five soil samples from top soil (0-30 cm) were collected from
different location (Fig. 2) at different elevation of Dikrong River Basin,
Arunachal Pradesh, India. The collected soil samples were packed in
1303
polythene bags and taken to the laboratory for analysis.
Fig. 2 Soil sampling locations of Dikrong river basin
Development of Particle Size Distribution Curves

A sieve analysis is a practice used to assess the particle size
distribution of a granular material. It can be performed on any type of non-
organic or organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays,
granite, feldspars, coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain
and seeds, down to a minimum size depending on the exact method. In
order to develop the particle size distribution curves, sieve analysis method
was employed in this study.
A representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve which
has the largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller
openings than the one above. At the base is a round pan, called the receiver.
The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes
the column, usually for some fixed amount of time. After the shaking is
completed, the material on each sieve is weighed. The weight of the sample
of each sieve is then divided by the total weight to give a percentage retained
on each sieve. The size of the average particle on each sieve is then analysed
to get a cut-off point or specific size range, which is then captured on a
screen.
Percentage finer than each sieve size is calculated as below:
(4)
1304
(5)
(6)
After calculating the percentage finer, the values were plotted

against particle size on a semi-log paper. From the graph, and were
determined. Soil texture was classified according to the International
Society of Soil Science (ISSS) classification system. The soil texture was
found to have sand texture.
Determination of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured by the constant
head method. The samples were first wetted by capillarity for 24 hours.
This was done from the bottom so that air could escape from the upper
surface. The water is then allowed to flow through the soil with maintaining
a constant pressure head and saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured
when outflow rate becomes constant. Saturated hydraulic conductivity is
calculated by using the following formula:
(7)
Where, is saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, cm/min, V is the

volume of water in cm, L is the height of soil sample in cm, A is the cross-
sectional area of a cylindrical soil sample in cm², t is time in min and “h is
the head difference in cm.
Results and Discussions
Generation of particle size distribution curves
The particle size distribution curves for 25 soil samples were
generated. Using Sigma plot, percentage finer was plotted against particle
size which was on log scale. Data points were fitted according to sigmoidal
fit as per the equation shown below:
(8)
Where, y is the percentage finer (%); x is the particle size diameter, mm;
and a, and b are parameters.
Obtained values of a, b and for 25 soil samples are shown in Table
1. Generated particle size distribution curves are shown in Fig. 3(a—y).
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Table 1 Parameters of particle size distribution curves

Sample no. a b x0
87 105.048 -0.956 1.306
85 97.158 -1.757 0.439
5 87.401 -1.248 0.421
28 123.740 -1.061 1.517
37 118.782 -1.158 1.336
43 142.479 -0.995 2.356
1 87.594 -1.363 0.377
57 93.802 -2.445 0.260
10 115.877 -0.761 4.193
45 107.654 -1.243 1.058
51 80.595 -1.562 0.479
49 120.191 -0.873 0.847
53 95.323 -4.426 0.248
69 135.106 -0.878 1.623
95 136.072 -0.626 1.383
100 100.143 -1.360 0.596
103 139.413 -0.890 1.877
19 117.768 -0.941 1.070
105 104.431 -1.479 0.713
76 109.216 -0.844 1.573
9 107.194 -1.106 0.972
22 95.930 -1.242 0.289
31 104.645 -1.128 0.346
47 101.828 -1.422 0.682
7 101.105 -2.364 0.203
1306
1307
Fig. 3 Particle size distribution curves for the 25 set of soil samples
From the generated particle size distribution curves, the value of

d10, d50 and d60 for each soil sample were determined. Saturated hydraulic
conductivity, Ks values were obtained using constant head method. Table
2 shows the general statistics of d10, d50, d60 and Ks.
Table 2 Summary of statistics of d 10, d 50, d 60 and Ks.
Statistics d10, d50, d60 Ks
Maximum 0.189 2.918 4.605 5.674
Minimum 0.024 0.204 0.242 0.187
Average 0.114 0.789 1.126 0.943
Std. Deviation 0.043 0.535 0.846 1.072
1308
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity from Grain Size Analysis

Using Excel, regression analysis was performed on different dataset
and following equations were developed to estimate saturated hydraulic
conductivity from particle sizes:
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
6 (16)
(17)
(18)
Where, d10, d50 and d60 are the soil particle diameter (mm) for which 10%,
50% and 60% of all soil particles are finer by weight and Ks is saturated
hydraulic conductivity in m/day.
For 25 sample points, observed saturated hydraulic conductivity
values were compared with predicted saturated hydraulic conductivity by
all the ten developed equations (Eqns. 9—18). Results of comparisons are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Comparison of predicted with observed
Equation No. R2
9 0.277
10 0.384
11 0.632
12 0.793
13 0.637
1309
14 0.787
15 0.645
16 0.665
17 0.637
18 0.710
Comparison of observed vs. predicted values of saturated hydraulic
conductivity on a 1:1 scale has been shown in Fig. 4(a—j). The results
showed that among single parameter linear regression equations (Eqn. 9,
10 and 11), saturated hydraulic conductivity can be predicted better from
values. Considering single parameter quadratic equations (Eqn. 12, 13
and 14), performance of is the best, next is d60 and then . Comparison
between linear and quadratic single parameter equations showed that
saturated hydraulic conductivity values were predicted better using
quadratic single parameter equations than single parameter linear equations.
The results also showed that among two parameters linear equations
(equations 15, 16 and 17), performance of prediction of are almost
similar. Coefficient of determination is maximum for Eqn. 16 (where
and values were used). The value of R2 is slightly larger for Eqn. 15
(where and values were used) compared to Eqn. 17 17 (where
and values were used). So, it can be concluded that plays a more
significant role with respect to , can be treated as the most effective
parameter in calculations. The results also showed that when all three
parameter were used as input to the multiple linear equations (Eqn. 18) for
predicting , estimated was found better than single and two
parameter linear equations.
1310
Fig. 4 Comparison of estimated with measured with the developed equations.
References
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distribution of hydraulic conductivity using effective porosity data. Soil Science.
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Alyamani, M. S. and Sen, Z. (1993). Determination of hydraulic conductivity from complete
grain-size distribution curves. Ground Water. Vol. 31 (4): 551-555.
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1311
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Hazen, A. (1892). Some physical properties of sands and gravels, Massachusetts State
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Conductivity based on Grain-Size Analysis. Journal of American Science. Vol. 3
(3): 54-60.
Puckett, W. E., Dane, J. H. and Hajek, B. F. (1985). Physical and mineralogical data to
determine soil hydraulic properties. Soil Science Society of America Journal. Vol.
49 (4): 831-836.
Rawls, W. J. and Brakensiek, D. L. (1989). Estimation of soil water retention and hydraulic
properties. Unsaturated flow in Hydrologic Modeling Theory and Practice P. 275-
300.
Salarashayeri, A. F. and Siosemarde, M. (2012). Prediction of soil hydraulic conductivity
from particle-size distribution. International Journal of Environment, Chemical,
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Shepherd, R. G. (1989). Correlations of Permeability and Grain Size. Ground Water. Vol.
27(5): 633-638.
Sperry, J. M. and Peirce, J. J. (1995). A model for estimating the hydraulic conductivity of
granular material based on grain shape, grain size, and porosity. Ground Water.
Vol. 33 (6): 892-898.
Todd, D. K. and Mays, L. W. (2005). Groundwater Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Uma, K. O., Egboka, B. C. E. and Onuoha, K. M. (1989). New statistical grain-size method
for evaluating the hydraulic conductivity of sandy aquifers. Journal of Hydrology.
Vol. 108: 343-366.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1313-1320, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
101
Economic Dynamicity of Sunderban: A
Perception Study
Baisakhi Biswas
M.Sc in Geography, Bhairab Ganguly College
Abstract
The dynamicity of an economy due to natural hazards is determined
by a complex set of influences. Being a dynamic platform of riverine
aspects the admixture of sweet and saline water, sever tropical cyclones,
devastating floods result a problematic condition for the people living
in the fragile environment of Sunderban cost. Major natural disasters
have sever negative short run economic impacts. Due to such frequent
disasters the loss of soil fertility and loss of crops ultimately affects
the local economy of that region. It has changed the land use pattern
as well as the socio-economic structure and livelihood of that region.
The main objective of the study is to represent the dynamically
changing scenario of socio-economic pattern of Sunderban region and
suggest some mitigating methods to sustain it. Some secondary weather
data and some primary data about the socio-economy and livelihood
of that region are analyzed in this study. It is found that the people are
in search of alternate economy instead of the prevailing traditional
process.
Keywords: Fragile environment. Frequent disaster. Life and property
loss. Changing scenario. Alternate economy.
Introduction
Literally ‘Sunderban’ means the ‘beautiful forest’ in Bengali
language. However there are controversies regarding origin of the name
1314
‘Sunderban’. Many believe that the name ‘Sunderban’ have originated from
the name of the tree ‘Sundari’. According to another belief the name might
have been came from the Sanskrit word ‘Samunderban’, meaning ‘forest
near the sea’. The deltaic Sunderban of eastern India is characterized by
low, flat, alluvial plain covered by natural Mangrove swamps and marshes.
The huge area of 9630 sq km consist of a group of islands is the meeting
place of fresh and salt water. Being the perfect region of amalgamation of
the trio of hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere the area is usually hit by
several atmospheric hazards like cyclone, flood, and storm surge etc of
medium to large intensities. A further 6,000 square kilometers of contiguous
mangrove forests are spread across neighboring Bangladesh. The Indian
administrative region of Sunderban lies within the State of West Bengal.
There are 102 islands of which 48 islands are with forestry and rest 54
islands are reclaimed as habituated zone, with agricultural land.
Study Area
The study area is Kultali block of Baruipur sub division, South 24
parganas, West Bengal. Coordinates: 21.9°N 88.40°E. Kultali is one of the
most inhabitated costal block. This area is vulnerable to the natural
calamities like flood, cyclone storm, embankment erosion.
Figure 1. Location map of Kultali (Source: www.mapsofindia.com)
OBJECTIVE
The present paper deals with the occupational profile and social
structure of Kultali. Economy is such an indicator which determines the
status of living. The main objective of the study is to represent the
dynamically changing scenario of socio-economic pattern of Sunderban
which is mainly resulted by the frequent natural hazards. Not only that, it
will try to find out the changes in economic sectors as a part of adaptation
with the changing environment. It deals with the question how people
change their economy in response to the vulnerable nature.
1315

The present paper will analysis the basic character of traditional
economy of Sunderban region, as well as, it also looks into the recent
changes that occur in the economic composition of Kultali. The present
paper is based on an intensive field survey in Kultali. Near about fifty
households are taken into consideration to collect the raw data. Primary
data have been generated through questionnaire based survey where the
sample size has been selected on the basis of random sampling techniques.
At the same time it also to be said that it is not possible to prepare such a
paper without getting secondary data from different official document which
has created the database of this present analysis. On the basis of available
statistical data, an intensive analysis has been done to represent the changing
pattern of economy.
Physical Environment
The climate of Sunderban is marine tropical. The coast is tidal
influenced. The general tidal amplitude is 2.4 m which becomes >4 near
the funnel mouths of estuaries and big rivers (Saha S. and Bhandari G.,
The dynamics of changing economy of Sunderban in the context of natural
hazards, 2012). The monsoon shower increases the intensity of tidal activity.
Wind velocity is also high during summer and monsoon season. MIT said
that the average temperature to have increased from 31.0 degree C to 32.6
degree C between 1980 and 2007 before the monsoon. Beside this we can
observe that the average temperature of the water surrounding Sunderban
gradually increases over the time. The increase in this sea surface
temperature (SST) has been much higher than the global average. In
according to Indian Meteorological Department (2001), the SST increases
0.5 degree C in the eastern part of Indian Sunderban. Devastating cyclones
occur from May to September.
Population Growth
Theoretically in such vulnerable condition of nature the people
who belong to economically or socially backward classes leads very poor
quality of life. Before 19th century, Indian Sunderban had no human
population or habitation. After that people are encouraged to settle down
in this place. Poor farming communities from other parts of the state as
well as from neighboring states came and settle in the Sunderban. These
people were put to work on clearing the forests and developing the land
(Human development report, South 24 Parganas, 2009).
1316
Table 1. Population growth in Kultali

Name of the block Population Area in Population Population Area in Population
(2001) Sq.km density (2011) Sq.km density
(2001) (2011)
Kultali 187989 306.18 614 229053 306.18 748
*Data source: Census report 2001, 2011 & calculated by author
The studied block belongs to Baruipur subdivision which holds

614/sq.km population density in 2001 and 748/sq.km in 2011. It indicates
the increasing tendency of population in the area.
Changing Economy of Kultali Block

In the Indian part of Sunderban agriculture is the main stay of
livelihood. Mono-cropping is practiced here and rice is the main cultivated
crop as per the favorable climatic condition. If we emphasis on the economic
structure of the area we found that agriculture plays a major role as an
economic feature in that region. There is a favorable condition of rice
farming prevails in that region, that is why the local people choose this
traditional option and have been enlisted themselves as the main worker
of that region.
Table 2. Role of agriculture in economy of the block Kultali
Block Cultivator Cultivator as Agricultural Agricultural Per capita
2011 % of total labour 2011 labour as % cultivable
worker of total worker land
(hector)
Kultali 13838 15.78 19102 21.78 0.09
*Data source: District census handbook S 24 pgs, 2011 & calculated by author
1317
The following table shows that the agriculture and agriculture

related job is the mainstay of the people of Kultali block still now. The
male-female people of working class population are mainly depended on
agricultural sector; either they are cultivator or agricultural labour.
LEGEND
*Source: primary survey and 2011 census
From the census, as well as primary data, it has been observed that
the number of people depending on agricultural activity is decreasing. The
number of people engaged in secondary or tertiary sector is quit higher
than the agricultural labour.
The area Kultali is very much prone to natural hazards and the
people faces a serious problem in their way of life. Embankment fails due
to sever cyclonic storm, the saline water of sea enters into the agricultural
field through tidal affect. As a result productivity of the land decreases and
crops are lost. Now people of Indian Sunderban have no option to go with
their earlier choice of agriculture. They have to find some other way to get
their job in their changing environment. So, a significant change should be
observed in occupational pattern of the people of Kultali block. The number
of main worker decreases and a parallel increase of marginal workers refer
that the landless people have chosen an alternate economic system for
their livelihood. Thus the main workers have been converted into marginal
workers with the changing nature of climate. The transformation from main
to marginal worker is taken under consideration for the span of 1991 to
2011.
1318
LEGEND
* Source: Census report 1991, 2001, 2011 & calculated by author
In the present time according to 2001 and 2011 census

unemployment is a serious problem in Kultali. More than half of total
population is unemployed (fig 4). People who are literate enough have
found their job outside the village in various tertiary activities in Kolkata
and other district head quarters, block head quarters and also in other states
outside West Bengal. Persons who are not so literate have to migrate outside
regions. They find their jobs as labourers.
Though the area is surrounded by rivers or water bodies fishing
become a major occupation of the people living in the block. Due to lack
of irrigation the farmers can cultivate crops only once in a year and due to
prohibition of entering into the forest for honey collecting the people have
to move outside or go for fishing in the off season. Thus some number of
people shifted their occupation from agriculture to fishing. Collection of
‘meen’ has been very popular. But now fishing also faces some problem
due to the admixture of sweet and salt water and huge salinization of the
sweet water of the pond. Poor class landless labors have to work in very
low wedges.
On the other hand it can be observed that the deviation of work
participation between the male and female inhabitants has been also reduced
for most of the Sunderban blocks of South 24 Parganas. So, it can be said
that women of Sunderban blocks have already come forward to join with
the main stream economy of Sunderban region and playing a very significant
role to survive in such a challenging situation.
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* Source: Census report 1991, 2001, 2011 & calculated by author
The female population is engaged in meen collection, catching

fish, embroidery work, fishing-net weaving, sailing boats etc (primary
survey). The above diagram represents the increasing rate of female working
force in economical sector in the studied block.
In short, it can be concluded that the inhabitants of Indian
Sunderban has been facing great difficulties to live with the identity of a
farmer and has been experiencing the curse of poverty and insecurity (Gupta
S. and Sarkar G., Climate Change and Economic Adaptability of Indian
Sunderban, 2014).
Conclusion
The future existence of Kultali is completely depended by the
changing climate of that region. The dynamic and complex process of
climate change has been changing the basic economical structure of this
mangrove kingdom. The paper gives stress on the dynamically changing
economic pattern of the studied block. It has been observed by the primary
survey and secondary information that the major portion of population of
the studied block is still depending on their traditional agricultural based
economic sector. As we all know that the level of development is not so
satisfactory in the southern most part of West Bengal the people have to
depend on the traditional economic composition.
Since 1997 Sunderban is a World Heritage Site. The present work
has emphasized on the various economic activities regarding the
1320
development of Sunderban area. The poor communities of the studied area

is not so much developed as expected after implementing several
development program by the Central and State government. Therefore, the
government and NGOs should come forward to provide alternative
livelihood opportunity for income generation to the inhabitants of the coastal
area.
References
1. Gupta, S. and Sarkar, G. (January 2015), Role of Female Participation in the
Changing Economy of Sunderban Blocks of South 24 Parganas, West Bengal,
India, IJRSM, Volume 3, Issue 1, PP 1970-1977.
2. Gupta, S. and Sarkar, G. (August 2015), Environmental Change And Struggle For
Existence: A Case Study Of Pakhiralaya And Rangabelia Village, Gosaba In
Sunderban Area Of West Bengal, Volume 4, PP 350-354.
3. Saha, S. and Bhandari, G. (2012), The Dynamics Of Changing Economy Of
Sunderbans In the Context Of Natural Hazards, PP 3-5.
4. Mondal, B.K. (2012), Indian Sunderban: Development Perspectives, PP 14.
5. Bhusan, C. 2012. Living with changing climate, Center for Science and
Environment, 2012
6. District Statistical Handbook, South 24 Parganas, 2009
7. Human Development Report, South 24 Parganas, Govt. of West Bengal, 2009
8. Census Of India 2001 West Bengal, District Census Handbook, South 24 Parganas
9. Census Of India 2011 West Bengal, District Census Handbook, South 24 Parganas
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1321-1338, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
102
Shifting Land Surface Temperature (LST)
due to Change in Urban Land Use: A Case
Study of Bidhannagar Township,
West Bengal
Mahua Bardhan1, Sujay Sadhu2 and Dr Nandini Chatterjee3
1
Dept of Geography, Netaji Satabarshiki Mahavidyalaya, N 24 Pgs
(corresponding author’s email- [email protected])
2
Dept of Geography, University of Calcutta
3
Dept of Geography, Taki Govt. College
Abstract
Remote sensing is useful for understanding spatio-temporal land cover
change in relation to the basic physical properties of the surface
radiance and emissivity data. Land Surface Temperature (LST) is used
to determine the temperature distribution and change in local or global
scale. In this paper, the LST in spatial and temporal dimensions has
been analysed for Bidhannagar, a planned satellite township of Kolkata.
The township is spread over about 33 sq. km. area. Landsat TM and
ETM+ images (thermal bands) have been used to estimate LST for the
years 1990 and 2010 and ward-wise variations have been identified. It
is revealed that changing pattern of LST is closely correlated with the
changing vegetation, water body and built up pattern (NDVI, NDWI
and NDBI) in the study area. In addition to the increasing impervious
built-up surface the vertical extension of buildings due to urban
densification within the town contributes to increase of LST in the
recent years.
Keywords- LST, Satellite Township, Built-up, Vertical extension,
Gentrification
1322
Introduction
Remote sensing is useful for understanding spatio-temporal land
cover change in relation to the basic physical properties of the surface
radiance and emissivity data. Land Surface Temperature (LST) is used to
determine the temperature distribution and change in local or global scale.
It is also defined as the temperature of the interface between the Earth’s
surface and its atmosphere and thus it is a critical variable to understand
land-atmosphere interactions and a key parameter in meteorological and
hydrological studies, which involve energy fluxes (Niclòs et al., 2009).
Thus, LST is not the same as the air temperature that is included in the
daily weather report. Air gets warm owing to radiation exchange from
land to atmosphere. So LST is a general climatic term that refers to the
temperature measured in the air close (1 m) to the earth surface in an open
area (earthobservatory.nasa.gov).
LST is used to determine the temperature distribution and the
change in local or global scale. It is used in climate and climate change
models in particular. LST, calculated from remote sensing data, is used in
many areas of science; such as; hydrology, agriculture, climate change,
urban planning, forestry, oceanography etc. Obtaining surface temperatures
and using them in different analysis is important to determine the problem
associated with the environment.(Orhan et al. 2014) Over the last decades,
continuous urban expansion at rates much higher than population growth
has resulted in a massive urban footprint on most parts of the world
(Adebowale,Kayode,2015) which results in increasing land surface
temperature in urban areas.
In urban climatology, trends of land surface temperature (LST)
are an important issue as it modulates the lower atmospheric temperature
in urban area. The earth surface absorbs the incoming solar radiation and
gets heated according to the nature of land surface. The most imperative
problem in urban areas is increasing surface temperature due to alteration
and conversion of vegetated surfaces to impervious surfaces. Built-up
surface has the maximum capacity to retain insolation in urban areas and
subsequently it becomes more heated than any other surface material. Thus
urban landscape modifies the local thermal environment and creates urban
heat island (UHI).(Sadhu,2016). Mallick et al. (2009), investigating the
characteristic difference in LST over Delhi (India), confirmed the influence
of land covers on the UHI phenomenon. This has been affirmed with
different land uses influencing UHI differently as a result of the surface
properties (Hung et al., 2006). Ngie et al(2015) showed that the slight
1323
increase in the LST values over the CBD in Durban to its surrounding
areas is an indication of UHI effect in this metropolitan city. The seasons
(winter and summer) certainly contributed to this effect as proven by the
differences in the magnitudes yielded from the various seasons.
In this paper, the LST in spatial and temporal dimensions has been
analysed for Bidhannagar, a planned satellite township of Kolkata. It’s
changing nature due to urban densification within the planned geographical
territory has also been discussed and the relation of LST with other land
use changing indices like NDVI, NDBI, NDWI have also been focussed.
Planned densification is a process for implementation of locally-appropriate
levels of density over time, in key locations, allowing market supply and
demand to co evolve. Density is increasingly desired by municipalities
and urban betterment programs- but it is becoming harder to accomplish.
It is applicable for the present study area also.
Objectives of study
1. To study the shifting pattern of LST in the township
2. To detect the land use changes from 1990 to 2010(20 years)
3. To correlate the shifting pattern of LST with other attributes of
land use changes
Database
The work has been done using Landsat satellite images which are
freely downloaded from the archive of United States Geological Survey
(USGS). The images used are orthorectified (Projection: UTM-45N, Datum
& Ellipsoid: WGS 1984) dated 13/12/1990 & 11/11/2010 (path 138,row
44)
Methodology
Landsat TM and ETM+ images (thermal bands) have been used to
estimate LST for the years 1990 and 2010 and ward-wise variations have
been identified. Quantam GIS(2.8.1) and ARC GIS 10.1 software are used
to prepare the layout of the maps.
LST calculation: The first step is to convert the DN values to radiance
values using the bias and gain values specific to the individual scene. The
second step is conversion of radiance data of each pixel to surface
temperature in degree Kelvin. Finally the LST would be converted in degree
Celsius.
1324
Figure 1: Flow chart of LST calculation (Sadhu, 2016)
a) Landsat Calibration: Initially Landsat Calibration has been done to

convert DN values to Spectral Radiance or exoatmospheric reflectance
using the following
equation:
CVR= ((LMAX - LMIN) / (QCALMAX – QCALMIN))*(QCAL -
QCALMIN) + LMIN..........................................(1)
Where, CVR= The cell value as radiance; QCAL= The calibrated and
quantized scaled radiance in units of digital numbers; LMIN= Spectral
radiance scales to QCALMIN; LMAX= Spectral radiance scales to
QCALMAX; QCALMIN= The minimum quantized calibrated pixel value
(typically=1); QCALMAX= The maximum quantized calibrated pixel
value (typically=255).
B) Radiance to Kelvin Temperature Conversion:
Next, Spectral Radiance has been converted to Temperature in
Kelvin by following formula.,
T = (K2)/In {(K1/ L) +1} ............................... (2)
Where –
T= Surface Temperature in Kelvin
K2 and K1 are constants and the values for Landsat TM are
K1 =607.76
K2 =1260.56
c) LST in Degree Celsius:
The temperature thus derived as Kelvin is converted to Deg Celsius
by the following formula-
LST = (T-273.15).................................(3)
1325
Where:
LST = Land Surface Temperature in 0C
T = Surface Temperature in Kelvin
After calculating the LST, NDVI, NDBI & NDWI have been
calculated with specific band combination and maps are created in QGIS
2.81 software. On the other hand, Land use/Land cover maps are prepared
for three years i.e 1990 & 2010 by supervised classification (maximum
likelihood method). The correlation between the phenomena is shown with
linear regression to establish the interrelation between the variables and to
depict the overall changing environmental scenario of the township. The
entire work has been shown in the following flow chart-
Figure 2: Methodology of study
The study area

Bidhannagar is a combination of a post independence planned city
called Salt lake (area-12.5 sq km) with middle / upper class dwellers on
one hand and the economically weaker section of people of the added area
(21 sq km) on the other, situated at the eastern fringe of Kolkata in West
Bengal, India.This sharp distinction in the society has given an uniqueness
to the character of this erstwhile Municipal area, now under newly formed
Bidhannagar Corporation,2015. Bidhannagar was basically conceived of
as a planned township of five Sectors-I, II, III, IV & V and 71 blocks.
Later, an area of 21.5 sq km was added to it in 1995. In 2006, Sector V,
which is the Industrial Sector was separated from Bidhannagar. The planned
township enjoys an organized growth due to zoning of land-use whereas
1326
the added areas are sprawled with unorganized growth. The slums of
Dattabad, on the fringe of the planned township along the E.M. Bye Pass
are densely populated with deplorable living condition
Figure 3: Location of the study area
Results and discussion

In this study the shifting LST pattern of the town in last 20 years has
been analysed and spatio-temporal variation has been identified..It is
revealed that though the town has a master plan before it’s inception it is
being deviated for the demand of increasing population and change in built
up areas, greenery and water body effecting the rising LST in the whole
township.
Shifting LST pattern in the township:
Table 1: Yearwise LST (in oC) pattern in Bidhannagar (1990-2010)
Year Maximum Minimum Range Mean Standard Deviation
(in oC) (in oC) (in oC) (in oC) (in oC)
1990 28.44 23.33 5.11 24.58 1.37
2010 34.24 27.98 6.26 30.25 1.2
In 2010, the range of land surface temperature in Bidhannagar

area was from 27.98°C to 34°C,when the mean and standard deviation of
LST distribution were 30.25°C and 6.26°C respectively. Maximum LST is
observed in the western and southern parts of this planned township i.e
Sector I and Sector IV whereas the northern and eastern parts and the
wetland area represent low LST. Not only the range of temperature increases
in last 20 years but also the spatial pattern of LST has shifted from eastern
to northern and southern part of the planned area as these areas have
maximum built up density due to the sudden increase in land value and
emerging in the vacant land near bypass for accommodating the neo-middle
1327
class people working in the nearby IT sector.The comparative diagram

also reflects that in last 20 years the average LST value has increased
(Max,Min and Mean) because of the changing land use factors like built
up areas ,greenery, water body etc
Spatial and temporal pattern of LST distribution: In 1990, the range of
land surface temperature in Bidhannagar area was 28.44°C to 23.33°C,
when the mean and standard deviation of LST distribution were 24.58°C
and 5.11°C respectively. Maximum LST is found in the eastern part of
planned township i.e Sector V and Sector III whereas the northern and
western parts, along with the vast waterbody in the added area, represent
the minimum or lowest LST region.
Figure 4: Yearwise variation in LST pattern
So both, in 1990 and 2010 it is clearly revealed that northern, some

sector of western and eastern parts of the planned township have very high
thermal inertia, as no such fluctuation of LST distribution is observed in
the rest of the wards and thus more uniform land surface temperature is
distributed on those particular regions in comparison to rest of the town.
LST Profile along Selected Area
Selected profiles are drawn in thrhee different places of the
township to show the correlation of LST and land use categories directly
from the high resolution image(google earth). The chosen places are the
central park and ward no 18.It is clearly visible from the profiles and related
images that the waterbody has lowest LST values following the vegetated
1328
Figure 5: Pattern of LST in BMA (1990) Figure 6: Pattern of LST in BMA (2010)
area with lower and built up with higher LST values.The concrete
impervious surface has the highest LST.The profiles are supporting the
micro level LST variation acording to various land use/landcover.
Centreal Park during construction of metro station
1329
Sector IV area near EMP bypass
Changing land use pattern in the township

The township has a total area of 32.40 sq km including central
park and sector V .Supervised classification of two successive years
identified six land use classes- Waterbody, Agricultural land, Greenery,
Dense built up,Built up with open space and vacant land.It can be depicted
that from 1990-2010 water bodies and greenery have reduced gradually
with increasing dense built up and agricultural land.Some wetlands in
remote north east have been converted to farmland,hence increasing the
area and the vacant lands are filled up with multi-storeyed to accommodate
the growing population of the town (present population 2,15,514 according
to census 2011)
1330
Table 3: Land use category in Bidhannagar township area(sq km)

Year Water body Agricultural Greenery Dense Built up Vacant land
land built up with open
space
1990 12.53 0.41 6.14 1.1 10.92 1.27
2010 9.49 2.57 2.78 4.68 11.83 1.02
Source: calculated by author
Figure 9: Comparative change analysis of land use categories(yearwise)
The land use pattern in the town shows drastic changes from 1990
to 2010 in the listed 6 categories.The declining trend is found in the area
of water bodies (12.53 to 9.49 sq km), greenery (6.14 to 2.78 sq km) and
vacant land. But most remarkable is the reduction of green space for
different developmental schemes like road, east -west metro, high rise
construction and increasing area for dense and mixed built up land. As the
geographical area is fixed, vertical extension is introduced in the wards of
eastern and southern parts for accommodating more people in recent years
as those in search of job or urban facilities like improved health & education
facilities,efficient administration etc.
The area under agriculture (peri-urban farming) has increased (from
0.41 to 2.57 sq km) in from the reduction in water bodies and open land,
specially at in the vast wetland area in the eastern fringe of the town where
the wetlands have been converted to agricultural land as pisciculture is not
a profitable livelihood option for the dwellers. This change has a direct
impact on the shifting LST pattern in the township which has been discussed
further
1331
Figure 10: Land use pattern of Bidhannagar (1990)
Figure 11: Land use pattern of Bidhannagar (2010)
Different indices of Land use/Landcover and their changing pattern

in the study area:
Changing pattern of NDVI:Normalized Differerntial Vegetaion
Index(NDVI) is a simple graphical indicator usually used to analyze remote
sensing measurements, and assess if observed target includes green
vegetation or not. It is suitable to detect the health of the vegetative cover.
NDVI is one of the outputs that run into the model to retrieve LST using
equation –
NDVI= (NIR- R/NIR+R)
1332
Where is NIR=Near Infra-red band and R= is the red band

The NDVI values have decreased from 0.49(1990) to 0.39 (2010)
revealing the decreasing trend of vegetative cover in the town. The value
of NDVI greater than 0.2, indicate the vegetative surface which reduces
the LST, absorbing the solar radiation. From 1990 to 2010 the NDVI values
of some wards have decreased and the vegetation surface has reduced
specially in the Central Park, Sector V & ward nos 1,5 ,19 and 20 due to
developmental activities, construction of highrises and flats, encroachment
of slum hutments etc.
Figure 12: Spatial distribution of NDVI (1990)
Figure 13:Spatial distribution of NDVI(2010)
Changing pattern of NDBI

Land covers in urban areas tend to change more drastically over a
short period of time than elsewhere because of incessant urbanization.
1333
Due to urban expansion built up or impervious surface is increasing day

by day. Built-up areas and barren land experience a drastic increment in
their reflectance from band 4 to band 5 while vegetation has a slightly
larger or smaller DN value in band 5 than in band 4. This pace of increment
greatly exceeds that of any other covers.The extent of urban land area is
often linked to the impervious surface area that can be used to quantify
and map urbanization However, such mapping is still challenging due to
spatial, spectral and temporal var iability in built-up ar eas.
(Bhatti,Tripathy,2014) To assist urban built-up area mapping, Zha, Gao
and Ni (2003) developed the NDBI on the footprints of the NDVI that
used Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) near-infrared (NIR) band 4 (low
reflectance in built-up area) and mid-infrared (MIR) band 5 (high
reflectance in built-up area).
NDBI = (TM5"TM4)/(TM5+TM4)
In this study it is revealed from the NDBI maps of Bidhannagar
that the positive value has increased from 1990 to 2010 indicating densely
built up areas increasing all over the town(except wetlands) and the vacant
plot have also reduced due to more housing mainly accommodating the
migrated people from other states for the immense facilities and purchasing
power.These have a direct influence on the LST as the closely spaced
buildings and metal roofed houses along with the large car-shed of metro
stations at Bengal Chemical, city centre, Karunamayee and Sector V have
peak LST distribution along with ward nos 1, 2, 3 ,4,19 and 20.The
developmental activities have changed the previous low rise open nature
of the study area and accelerated the trend of increasing LST.
Figure 14:Spatial distribution of NDBI (1990)

1334
Figure 15:Spatial distribution of NDBI (2010)
Changing pattern of NDWI

Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) has been developed
to delineate open water features and enhance their presence in remotely
sensed imagery based on reflected near-infrared radiation and visible green
light. NDWI may allow turbidity of water bodies to be estimated from
remotely sensed data (McFeeters 1996). NDWI is sensitive to changes in
liquid water content of vegetation canopies. It is complementary to, but
not a substitute for NDVI (Gao 1996).Here in Bidhannagar the huge area
(app 20 sq km,17% of total EKW) under wetland is found in the eastern
fringe which is the part of East Kolkata wetland. Here The NDWI is
expressed as follows (McFeeters 1996):
Figure 16: Spatial distribution of NDWI (1990)

1335
Figure 17: Spatial distribution of NDWI (2010)
NDWI= (Green-NIR)/(Green+NIR) where Green is a green band

such as TM band 2, and NIR is a near infrared band such as TM band 4.
McFeeters (1996) pointed out that the NDWI could be used for detecting
water turbidity.It is suggested that the NDWI may also provide researchers
with turbidity estimations of water bodies using remotely-sensed digital
data.(McFeeters 1996)In the study area about 20 sq km in the eastern part
covers ward no 17 with about 30 small and large sized wetlands (known as
bheri ) where mainly pisciculture with wastewater is practiced and due to
this the township has positive NDWI values and the change in last 20
years from 0.26 to 0.30 indicates specific water bodies(Nalban Bhery,Natar
Bhery,Goltala Bhery etc) are desilted at that time to increase fish
productivity and also have floating vegetation. It is also observed that the
wetlands are fragmented due to socio-political conflict, agricultural
activities and encroached settlement, hence increasing the value.Ward nos
22,23 and 24 have some small water bodies ensuring comparatively higher
NDWI values than the rest of the town.
Correlation of LST with Land use and NDBI, NDVI and NDWI:
LST is positively correlated with indices like NDBI and inversely
related to the land use change indices like NDWI & NDVI.
It is generally found that a negative correlation is there between
NDVI and LST which indicates LST is increasing with decreasing NDVI
values.At western and southern wards the maximum value of LST is
observed with minimum NDVI value at the same areas.(2010)
.
1336
There is a negative relation between NDWI and LST which reveals

with increasing NDWI values, the LST will decrease. NDWI represents
wetted area in the urban environment during daytime which act as relatively
cooler surface, with a trend to decrease the LST.NDBI shows a positive
relation with LST as the built up impervious nature of the land increases
1337
surface temperature. In the last 20 years urban densification has increased

the built up area and also the LST. Basically old, some closely spaced
multi-storeyed have high potentiality to retain solar radiation and therefore
they release more thermal energy. Relatively low rise buildings with more
inter space along with greenery reduces absorption of solar radiation in
the western and southern parts of the town whereas more elevated buildings
have been set up in sector III & IV and more than 200 trees are cut for the
construction of east west metro, thus decreasing the green space and
reducing the NDVI value.
Conclusion
There are some limitations to estimate LST through thermal remote
sensing.Still thermal remote sensing techniques give a relative scenario of
surface temperature distribution in Bidhannagar.It is revealed that changing
pattern of LST is closely correlated with the changing vegetation, water
body and built up pattern (NDVI, NDWI and NDBI) in this area. In addition
to the increasing impervious built-up surface the vertical extension of
buildings, due to urban densification within the town, contributes to increase
of LST in the recent years. Mainly gentrification of affluent Marwari
communities in the town since late nineties, due to emergence of civic
amenities and urban facilities and proximity to the CBD of the metropolis,
changed the land use character and increased densification. The emergence
of IT industries in sector V area attracts floating as well as permanently
migrating people from other areas of the State. Changes in land use pattern
and environmental degradation for “development” can lead to future threat
as both LST and air temperature are experiencing upward trends in the
township.
Acknowledgement
The authors express deep gratitude to Dr Laxminarayan Satpati,
Professor and H.O.D, Dept of Geography, University of Calcutta for his
guidance and suggestions to complete this paper.
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Gao, B. C.,(1996), NDWI—a normalized difference water index for remote sensing of
vegetation liquid water from space. Remote Sensing of Environment, 58, 257–266
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– Building the Capacity Hanoi, Vietnam, 19-22
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the delineation of open water features. International Journal of Remote Sensing,
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Contemporary Perspective(115-127),Dept of Geography,University of Calcutta
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Remote Sensing 24,no. 3: 583-594.
Weblink: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov (As accessed on 01.04.2016)
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1339-1349, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
103
Changing Occupational Trend of the Brass
Artisan Moria Community of
Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with special
reference to Lakhimpur District
Jyoti Saikia and Sailajananda Saikia
Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi Central University, Rono Hills,
Doimukh, Arunachal Pradesh.
Corresponding author: Email- [email protected]
Abstract
Change of occupational pattern, today is a common trend in every
developing society. As like this, the Brass artisan of Brahmaputra Valley
of Assam is also no difference in this regard. The trusted Canon and
Gun maker during the Ahom rulers and now the traditional brass item
manufacturer of Assam, the Morias are now economically very
backward. Now a day, most of the new generations have been switching
over to other tertiary activities. But, a less number of Morias are still
trying to revive their traditional work.
An attempt has been made in this paper to discuss the present trend of
changing occupational pattern of the Morias and the causes behind
this occupational shift and also to discuss the traditional occupation
and poor economic conditions of the Brass artisans.
Keywords:- Moria Community, Brass Craft, Economic Backwardness,
Traditional Occupation, Occupational Shift.
Introduction
Brahmaputra valley of NE India occupies a rich cultural heritage
1340
along with their wide ethnicity of population. Due to the multi-ethnic group
of people the culture, tradition, history of this region is very complex for
study. Most of the places of this region are agro based like other parts of
the country. Agriculture is the predominant means of livelihood plays a
vital role in the development as well as the socio-cultural perspective of
this region. Apart from the agriculture, people of this region have been
practicing traditional craft works consider as their means of livelihood.
This traditional craft work includes weaving, pottery, brass and bell metal
work, bamboo and cane culture etc. As the passage of time and the rapid
growth of economic some of these activities have been flourishing and
others have gradually been exhausting. Thus, most of the people have now
been adopting better means of livelihood for their strengthening of
economic. On the other hand, by adopting these other economic activities
a severe impact has also been laying on the social existence of the people
of this region.
Most of the societies of Indian culture are based on caste based
economic system. Similarly, Assam is also renowned through the caste
based economic system. For example, the occupation of ‘Kaibarta’ is
fishing. ‘Hira’ and ‘Kumar’ communities practices pottery as their means
of livelihood. The ‘Kamar’ uses iron to make agricultural and domestic
tools and the ‘Sonari’ makes all the gold and silver ornaments as their
ancestral activities. Likewise, weaving is another traditional household
activity that has been practicing during the ancient Ahom kingdom. Weaving
is the vibrant and colorful activity of Assamese culture that flourishing the
Assamse culture as unique to the other.
Brass and bell metal works have highly been developing in Assam
from the Ahom kingdom. It is an ancestral occupation of the Moria Muslim
community. According to the Assam history tells, the Moria Muslims are
the earlier warriors during the battle of ‘Hatbor’ and ‘Dui Muni Sila’ of
Silghat in 1532 AD. According to the history, the Muslim invades were
repulsed by the Ahom and their general Turbaq was killed. Thus, the Ahom
captured 900 Muslim soldiers in that war and later they were settled in
different part of Assam. They married the local Assamese Hindu girls and
became as integral part of the society. History says that earlier they were
engaged to cut the grass for the elephants of Kings. Next, they were engaged
as cultivator, but their ignorance of agricultural practices was forced to
steal mud from other paddy fields instead of Ploughing land. The field
(Khat) were the Moria people carried Mud (Boka) for cultivation is known
as Bokakhat and the area from where the mud were collected is known as
Moria Hola. Later, king came to know about their skill in machine work
1341
and employed them as cannon and gun maker in which they showed well
performances. Thus, they started manufacturing household and decorating
brass items and gradually became as a traditional occupation of Assam.
As the consequences of globalization people switches over their
traditional brass works to other tertiary means of economic activities for
better socio-economic instability. Thus they have been shifting their
occupation and ignoring their ancestral activity which is the basis of their
communal identity.
Statement of the Problem
Moria Muslim community or the brass artisans of Assam are
particularly very poor by socially, economically and educationally. They
are categorized as the MOBC according to the central selected list.
Study Area
The study area has been selected in the Lakhimpur district of the
northern upper Brahmaputra valley of Assam. Total numbers of 6 Moria
villages of the district covering 100% areas of their settlement have been
selected for the study.
1342
Map Georeferenced and Digitized in GIS Software ILWIS
Data Based and Methodology

A total sample size of 58 Moria households has been selected from
Lakhimpur district. Both primary and the secondary data have been used
for the study in order to get present livelihood pattern, socio-economic
conditions and changes in the occupational pattern of the Moria community.
General information of the study area and the Moria community has been
collected from various secondary sources like Moria association’s census,
Government records and articles in book, journals and newspapers and
other reliable sources. Primary data have been collected from the different
Moria villages of lakhimpur district through questionnaires.
Brief Description of the Study Areas
There are 6 Moria villages found in the Lakhimpur district. In
these 6 villages there are around 550 houses of Moria people. Out of whish,
we have studied only 58 numbers of households. There are 324 numbers
of people were found in total, out of which 176 numbers are male occupies
54.32% and rest of 148 numbers are female occupies 45.68%. Total numbers
of 6 peoples are engaged with traditional Brass Metal works. Most of the
people engaged with business and other tertiary activities. Literacy rate
among the elder generation is very less than that of the new generation.
1343
But, most of the students leave their studies in the very early stages. Except
the new generation the females had not been to go to school. Therefore,
most of the females are seen uneducated.
Table 1: Age sex distribution of the study area of Lakhimpur district
S. No Name of Village HH Sex Age Group(Years)
Surveyed
M F 0-5 6- 11- 19- 26- 46- 60+
10 18 25 45 60
1 Kakoi Rajgar 10 35 24 2 13 16 5 17 3 3
Balijan
2 Kakoi Rajgar, 6 16 18 4 10 7 10 1 2
Jaluabasti
3 Kadam Tengabasti 14 38 35 9 3 16 17 16 8 4
4 Nakari 8 26 20 3 4 9 6 19 4 1
5 NLP CD Road 7 19 16 1 5 9 4 13 2 1
6 Dhakuakhana 13 42 35 4 7 13 20 20 9 4
Total 58 176 148 23 32 73 59 95 27 15
Source: Field Survey, 2016
Table showing, total number of male population is 176 and the

female is 148. Thus total population that studied is 324. Hence, the sex
ratio of these Moria villages of Lakhimpur district is 841. Therefore, the
sex ratio is too small to compare with the sex ratio of India i.e. 940. Out of
the 6 villages Kakoi Rajgar Jaluabasti has the highest sex ratio i.e. 1125
and Kakoi Rajgar Balijan has the lowest sex ratio i.e. 686.
Almost 56% of total populations are working group which lies
between the age group of 19-60. Therefore, all the villages get best work
supports for the economic strengthening of the Moria villages of Lakhimpur
district. Almost 40% of total populations are below the working group,
among which most are the students. Only 6% of total population are aged
which are above 60.
Present Occupational pattern of the Moria Villages of Lakhimpur
District
The following table shows the present occupational trends of the
Moria villages of Lakhimpur district. Table studies only the total working
populations excepting students and child before schooling.
1344
Table 2: Occupational structure of the study area

SL No Occupation Male % Female % Total %
1 Cultivator 6 5.56 6 3.06
2 Wage Labourer 5 4.63 5 2.55
3 Brass Worker 6 5.56 6 3.06
4 Electrician
5 Machine Repairer 6 5.56 6 3.06
6 Garage Worker
7 Livestock Trader
8 Tailoring 13 12.04 13 6.63
9 Book Binder
10 Business 48 44.44 48 24.49
11 Govt. Servant 7 6.48 7 3.57
12 Private Service 3 2.78 3 1.53
13 House wife 79 89.77 79 40.31
15 Unemployment 14 12.96 9 10.23 23 11.73
Total 108 100.00 88 100.00 196 100.00
Source: Field Survey, 2016
1345
Out of the total working male population of the 6 villages 44.44%

are engaged in business sector and followed by tailoring occupation covered
12.04%. Only 5.56% of male populations are engaged with traditional brass
metal works. Other people are engaged with different works like agriculture,
wage labour, government and private service sector etc. Where, only 6.48%
are engaged in government service sector. 12.96% of male are unemployed
and rest are other economic activities bearer.
On the other hand 89.77% female are categorized in house wife
among the total working females. Rests 10.23% are unemployed. No other
female are engaged with different occupational activities.
It has been found in our study that there are very less number of
people that engaged in traditional brass metal works. Among all 6 Moria
villages of Lakhimpur district only 6 numbers of persons have been
practicing the brass metal activities. Almost all the young generations are
neglecting this traditional identity of Moria people. Due to the lack of
proper education and materials the younger generations likely to go the
other tertiary activities instead of traditional brass work.
On the other hand, the Moria people are no so far interested in
academic carrier. Most of the people leave their education in the very early
stages. Today, it seen that most of the students of below 20 are continuing
their studies up to graduation level. It is fact that all the Moria villages are
economically very poor. Hence they are emphasizing other economic
activities instead of good academic carrier.
Distributional Pattern of the Brass Metal Workers of the Moria
Villages
There are total numbers of 6 Brass Metal workers among all the 6
Moria villages in Lakhimpur district. But, the brass Metal workers are not
evenly distributed. They are distributed only in three villages. The pattern
of distribution of Brass Metal workers in Lakhimpur district is shown with
the help following Statistical Analysis.
The Residual method of statistic is used to analyze the distributional
errors of the observed data of any statistical sample. Here, in our exercise
two statistical samples are selected for distributional errors. One is the
total numbers of male workers and another is number of Brass Metal
workers in per villages. This statistical method explains how much the
Brass metal workers should have within the total working males of each
village.
1346
Table 3: Total male and brass metal workers

S. No Name of the Total Total XY X2 Y2 v R Abs
Villages Workers Brass R
(X) Workers
(Y)
1 Kakoi Rajgar 15 3 45 225 9 0.79 2.21 2.21

Balijan
2 Kadam Tengabasti 25 1 25 625 1 1.48 -0.48 0.48
3 NLP CD Road 11 0 0 121 0 0.52 -0.52 0.52
4 Kakoi Rajgar 10 0 0 100 0 0.45 -0.45 0.45
Jaluabasti
5 Nakari 18 0 0 324 0 1.00 -1.00 1.00
6 Dhakuakhana 29 2 58 841 4 1.75 0.25 0.25
Total 108 6 128 2236 14 6.00 0.00 4.90
Intercept (a) -0.23 Error % 81.74
Slope (b) 0.07 Here, Y= Fit % 18.26 a + b.X
=-0.23 + 0.07X
‘Y’ is the calculated value of Y
R’ indicates residual (Errors)
“Abs R” is the absolute value of R
RESIDUAL SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTIONAL PATTERN OF

BRASS METAL WORKERS OUT OF THE TOTAL WORKERS
1347
From the above data set and the graph it is seen that only two
villages have the Positive sign of residual of Brass Metal workers. Which
are Kakoi Rajgar Balijan and Dhakuakhana. Kakoi Rjagar Balijan has
highest numbers of Brass Metal workers. Therefore, the Residual is also
highest positive sign among the total Brass Metal workers. But, other four
villages have negative sign of residuals. Though, Kadam Tengabasti has
one Brass Metal worker. Both these positive and negative sign of residuals
are the errors of distribution. Thus, the total numbers of Brass Metal
Workers are very less and aren’t evenly distributed.
From the above data table it is seen that the total distributional
error of the observations are 81.74%. Only 18.26% observations are fit
according the total village wise distribution of the working male population.
The maximum error indicates the distribution of Brass Metal workers in
the 6 Moria villages is very much uneven. The calculated value of Y i.e.
‘v’ indicates the total numbers of Brass Metal workers should have in each
of the village among the total working male population. But, Kakoi Rajgar
Jaluabasti, NLP CD Road and Nakari have no any Brass Metal workers
and signify negative residuals.
Causes of Occupational Shifting of Moria People of Lakhimpur District
The identity of the name of the Moria has been arising from their
traditional brass and bell metal work. To contesting with the present
economic scenario, Moria people have gradually been ignoring this
traditional practice of work. Except other places of Assam, Morias of
Lakhimpur district very much neglecting in their traditional work. Among
all the 6 villages of the district only 6 persons of 3 villages are practicing
this activity, but not as primary occupation at all. Low income, poor
entrepreneurship, lack of availability of brass sheet, frequent price hike,
decreasing demand of brass metals, stagnant low wage of brass artisans all
these can accelerating the contemporary people for neglecting their
traditional brass metal manufacturing.
From the field survey in the villages of Lakhimpur district, it is
bring to light that a very less number of persons have now been practicing
the traditional brass craft work. But, they don’t have any permanent craft
industry. The income of the brass metal worker is also very less, i.e. less
than 2000 per month. While a wage laborer earns at least 6000 per month.
Excepting two villages of Lakhimpur district most of the persons of other
four villages choosing bamboo and cow business for their means of
livelihood. They earn more than 10000 rupees per month. On the other
hand, the persons of other two villages mainly practicing tailoring and
1348
other tertiary activities for their livelihood. Cultivators and Govt. Service
holders are very less in number, though they earn a sufficient amount of
income for living.
Thus the Morias of Lakhimpur district have gradually been shifting
their economic activities from traditional brass craft work to other tertiary
activities for their better means of livelihood.
Conclusion
The occupational shift of Moria people has been identified through
the field study in the villages. In our study, it is seen that the traditional
brass work contributes least amount of annual income which accelerates
in decreasing the interest in brass metal making. Thus the Moria people
proceeds better means of livelihood for their economic stability. Business
is the higher means of livelihood for the Moria people of Lakhimpur district
and makes the changing situation of traditional brass metal manufacturing.
Educational backwardness is another barrier for the development of the
Moria villages of Lakhimpur district. Females are mostly deprived from
the educational facilities. This also can be a barrier for the stability of the
traditional craft work of the Moria people. Demand of the brass metal
products can gradually be reduced due to the alternative means of other
materials. On the other hand, lack of proper training and the interest of the
young generation can suppose to destroy the brass metal industry of the
Moria people in Lakhimpur district.
Our study can bring it to light that no government policies and
bank facilities can be implemented for the gradual development of the
brass metal industry. Except a few people of the villages others don’t have
any interest to grow their traditional identity. Most of the people are
interested in other better means of livelihood so that they make themselves
economically strong. With support to the interested of a few people, if the
government takes any responsibility to strengthening the industry then the
glorious brass metal work will be survived.
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1351-1358, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
104
Ecosystem Services from Homestead
Production System – a Case in a
Deforested area of Bangladesh
Md Abiar Rahman1* and Masakazu Tani2
1
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University,
Gazipur, Bangladesh
2
Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract
Ecosystem services are the benefits that people receive from nature.
In the recent years, a big decline in biodiversity is observed due to
human activities, and species are becoming extinct much faster than
at any time in the past. Homestead is a diversified and complex
production system that provides various services and functions. A study
was designed to investigate the ecosystem services in a homestead of
southeast region of Bangladesh where deforestation is a big concern.
A total of 50 households covering two villages near the Teknaf reserved
forest were surveyed from June to August 2016 using a well-structured
interview schedule. The data revealed that household settlement has
been started since 28 years ago with an average of 0.15 ha of homestead
area. Among the tree species 66% were native. Tree density was high
(776 trees/ha) in the homesteads due to dominance of betel nut tree,
although the Shannon Index (0.67) indicates a low tree diversity. A
large numbers of crop, tree, poultry and livestock are found in the
homestead that supply food, fodder, fuel etc. All the households use
firewood for cooking, of which only 26% are supplied from
homesteads. A well-designed homestead could accommodate more
trees for various ecosystem services and functions and ultimately restore
1352
forest ecosystem and biodiversity.

Keywords: Homestead, tree diversity, deforestation, Teknaf forest,
ecosystem services.
Introduction
A homestead is an important production unit in Bangladesh, which
covers an area of 0.27 million ha, equivalent to 2% of the country’s total
land mass, and provide approximately 75% of the nation’s forest products
(Kabir et al. 2016). Around 20 million households maintain home gardens
in the country, which has an urban population of about 25.36 million and a
rural population of 21.90 million (Kabir and Webb 2008). Massive
degradation and depletion of natural forest resources have caused a number
of meteorological and health hazards, posing difficult challenges for
maintaining ecological sustainability (Foysal et al. 2013). The conservation
of cultivated plants within Bangladesh’s home gardens not only preserves
a vital resource for humankind but as a sustainable source of fruits and
vegetables, these gardens also play an important role in safeguarding
households’ food security.
Ecosystem services are benefits that people receive from nature
and include, for example, food production, the provision of clean water,
and climate regulation, as well as opportunities for cultural, spiritual and
recreational experiences (CCI and BirdLife International 2011). In recent
years, a lot of flora and fauna have either become extinct or have reached
an endangered state because of human activities and environmental changes.
As a result, ecosystem services have also changed markedly, and many are
in a reduced or degraded state. Measuring and monitoring ecosystem
services can have many positive outcomes, It can promote better planning
decisions that support both biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service
delivery; help to identify and inform management strategies to enhance
economic sustainability and human well-being; provide information on
additional benefits accruing from traditional approaches to biodiversity
conservation; identify those affected by land use management decisions,
thereby helping to spread costs and benefits more fairly among stakeholders;
and provide information to raise awareness and build support within the
public and the government for evidence-based policy and management
decisions (CCI and BirdLife International 2011).
The Teknaf peninsula is situated at the southeast corner of
Bangladesh where forest, agriculture and marine ecosystems are found in
a narrow space. Human settlements have been established in and around
the reserved forest area as well as far from forests. As a result of
1353
overexploitation, forest resources and diversity have undergone a dramatic

decline during the last couple of decades on the Teknaf peninsula. As a
degraded area, it has been declared as ecologically critical area (ECA).
Various homestead components such as trees, crops, livestock, and poultry
may help to reduce pressure on forests by providing various products and
services. We can assume that homestead production systems and services
vary according to the distance of homesteads from forests in the Teknaf
peninsula. The aim of the study was to investigate the homestead production
systems in and around the forest villages of the Teknaf peninsula in terms
of ecosystem services.
The study was designed to investigate homestead production
systems and ecosystem services on the Teknaf peninsula. A total of 50
households from two forest villages (Rangikhali and Rajarchara) of the
Teknaf peninsula were randomly surveyed (Fig. 1). The survey was
conducted from June to August 2016 using a structured interview schedule.
For this study too, focus group discussions were held with members of
households, and physical monitoring was conducted and measurements of
various plants were taken.
Fig. 1 Study location in the Teknaf peninsula

1354
Species richness was measured using the formula D = s/N where

D denotes species richness, s is the number of different species represented
in a homestead, and N denotes the total number of individual organisms in
a homestead. Species diversity was measured using the Shannon index, H
= PiLn5Pi, where Pi denotes the number of individuals of one species/
total number of individuals in the samples. The relative prevalence of
species (RP) was calculated as the number of species in a homestead/total
number of species in a homestead × 100. Plant and animal resources were
monitored in the homesteads to know the ecosystem services. All data
were analysed by using SPSS computer software.
Plant resources in terms of number and density per homestead are
shown in Table 1. Among the plant resources, the highest number of trees
(61 per homestead) were found for fruit species followed by timber (20
trees per homestead) species. Few medicinal and other tree species were
recorded in some homesteads. Similarly, density of fruit tree per ha was
remarkably higher (563) than timber (185) and medicinal tree species.
Turning to livestock and poultry, hens were prevalent in the homesteads
(80%) followed by goat (26%) and cow (20%). Few homesteads had buffalo
and duck also (Fig. 2).
Table 1 Plant resources found in the studied homesteads
Species Number/homestead Density (Number/ha)
Timber 20 185
Fruit 61 563
Medicinal and others 3 28
Fig. 2 Distribution of the households according to having livestock and poultry

resources in the studied homesteads
1355
While deforestation is a major problem on the Teknaf peninsula,

the ecology of this area remains suitable for cultivating various plant
species. As in other parts of Bangladesh, exotic native plant species are
found on the Teknaf peninsula. However, the existence of native species is
remarkable in the study area compared to other mainland areas. We found
only 34% exotic species, while native species were dominant in the
homesteads (66%). Some of the most common native plant species found
on the Teknaf peninsula include tula, bamboo, betel nut, bilimbi, painna
gola, and hibiscus (Table 2).
Table 2 Incidence pattern of plant species found in homesteads in the Teknaf peninsula
Species Homestead (%)

Exotic 34
Cotton tree 36
Bamboo 50
Betel nut 64
Bilimbi 36
Painna gola 14
Hibiscus 18
Biodiversity is an important asset that aids human survival and

well-being in many ways. The benefits derived by humans from nature are
referred to as “ecosystem services.” They can be divided into processes
(e.g., soil formation) underpinning services (e.g., crop production), which
in turn provide goods (e.g., food), often in conjunction with other inputs
(e.g., labor). Ecosystem services can be valued in monetary (market and
nonmarket) as well as non-monetary terms to indicate their contribution to
economic, health, and social well-being (CCI and BirdLife International
2011). Ecosystem services have different impacts on practitioners,
depending on who they are, where they live, and when they use the services.
However, these services and their impacts are often overlooked.
Table 3 shows the relative prevalence, species richness, and
diversity index of plant species grown in the homesteads of the study area.
People in forest villages plant more fruit trees to obtain other benefits, as
they are easily able to access fuelwood and timber supplies from nearby
forests. As a result, the richness and diversity of fruit and medicinal plant
species were more evident in the homesteads. Households are evidently
inclined to plant fast-growing species to procure fuelwood and timber
supplies. Therefore, many of them are interested in planting exotic species.
1356
Table 3 Plant species diversity found in homesteads of the Teknaf peninsula

Timber species Relative prevalence Species richness Shannon index
Timber 21.57 13.77 0.34
Fruit 73.06 47.21 0.23
Medicinal 2.78 1.80 0.10
A homestead provides a wide range of services and supplies. Fruit,

timber, vegetables, meat, milk, eggs, and fuelwood are some of the common
products that households obtain from homesteads, although these supplies
are insufficient to meet households’ demands (Fig. 3). No fodder or fish
were found in homesteads in the studied homesteads of the Teknaf
peninsula.
Fig. 3 Different services obtained from homesteads of the Teknaf peninsula
Homestead played a vital role in providing various supplies and

services since time immemorial in Bangladesh. Plant species and diversity
in homesteads vary from place to place and are largely influenced by
ecological and socioeconomic factors. They also vary among homesteads,
even those with similar ecologies, maintained by households within the
same socioeconomic group, depending upon individual needs and
preferences. Home gardens supply most of the products for meeting
subsistence needs for many Bangladeshi households after agriculture. A
vast majority of rural households in Bangladesh that cultivate crops on
their land remain unemployed for a considerable portion of the year because
of the seasonality of production activities and labor requirements.
1357
Homestead farming is the best solution to this unemployment situation

through the cultivation of both vegetables as well as fast-growing fruits,
enabling household members to remain employed throughout the year
(Miah and Hussain 2010). Species richness in home gardens has a signiûcant
positive correlation with households’ economic conditions. The economic
statuses and patterns of households are often reûected in the plant diversity
of their home gardens (Aworinde and Erinoso 2013; Riu-Bosoms et al.
2014), although the exact nature of this relationship is not known. The
augmentation of income increases the likelihood that farmers will adopt
high quality planting materials relating to diverse species. Farmers who
have more land, higher incomes, and spare family labor can afford to plant
and maintain more trees for home garden production (Linger 2014). Our
results revealed that the richness of plant species in home gardens would
increase with increased household landholdings and incomes. People are
not interested in timber and fuelwood species as they get those easily from
the nearby forest. Over dependency on forest for fuelwood, timber and
other non-timber forest products making the forest degraded.
Conclusions
It is important to quantify ecosystem services provided by a site in
its current state, as this may facilitate household decision making. On the
Teknaf peninsula, ecosystem services provided by homesteads can help to
reduce pressure on forest resources within a highly degraded forest
ecosystem. Homestead ecosystem services can support the conservation
or restoration of a site. The study also found a high level of plant species
diversity on the peninsula. Homesteads in forest villages evidenced dense
and diversified populations of fruit trees and timber species. Homesteads
clearly offer an option that entails the rational use of small areas of land,
along with the provision of various services. These services include
livelihood support as well as soil and water conservation, biodiversity
conservation, energy supplies in rural areas, afforestation, carbon
sequestration, landscaping, and environmental improvement. Thus, the
development of an economically viable and ecologically sustainable
homestead production system should be one of the policy objectives relating
to the conservation of natural resources and their sustainable management
in Bangladesh and in other tropical and subtropical regions.
References
Aworinde, D. O. and Erinoso, S. M. (2013) Relationship between species composition
and homegarden size in Odeda Lga of Ogun State Nigeria. Bayero J Pure Appl Sci
6(2), 10–18
1358
CCI and BirdLife International. (2011) Measuring and monitoring ecosystem services at
the site scale. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Conservation Initiative and BirdLife
International.
Igwe, K., Agu-Aguiyi, F. and Nwazuruoke, G. (2014) Social and economic implications
of home gardening on the livelihood of farm households in Abia State, Nigeria.
Developing Country Studies 4(1), 66–71.
Kabir, M. E., Rahman, M. M., Rahman, M. A. U. and Ando, K. (2016) Effects of Household
Characteristics on Homegarden Characteristics in Kalaroa Upazila, Satkhira District,
Bangladesh. Small-scale Forestry, 1-19.
Linger, E. (2014) Agro-ecosystem and socio-economic role of homegarden agroforestry
in Jabithenan District, North-Western Ethiopia: implication for climate change
adaptation. Springer Plus 3, 1–9.
Kabir, M. E. and Webb, E. L. (2008) “Can homegardens conserve biodiversity in
Bangladesh?” Biotropica, 40 (1), 95–103.
Foysal, M. A., Hossain, M. L., Rubaiyat, A. and Hasan, M. B. (2013) Economics of
Homestead Forestry and Their Management Activities at Fatickchari Upazila of
Chittagong District, Bangladesh. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2(4), 161-
176. doi: 10.11648/j.aff.20130204.12.
Miah, M. G. and Hossain, M. K. (2001) Study of the indigenous knowledge on the
homestead forestry of Narsingdi region, Bangladesh. South Asian Anthropogist.
1 (2), 129 – 135.
Riu-Bosoms, C., Calvet-Mir, L. and Reyes-Garcýa, V. (2014) Factors enhancing landrace
in situ conservation in home gardens and ûelds in Vall de Go´sol, Catalan Pyrenees,
Iberian Peninsula. J Ethnobiol 34(2), 175–194.
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1359-1368, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
105
Acute Toxicity Study of Various Extracts
of Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. F. on
Swiss Albino Mice.
Nambam Bonika Devi and Ganesh Chandra Jagetia
Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Tanhril-796004
E mail:[email protected].
Abstract
The acute toxic effects of different doses of various extracts of
Colocasia gigantea (CG) was studied in mice. Their acute toxicity
was determined after orally and intraperitoneally in normal mice. The
intraperitoneal administration of different CG extracts showed a dose
dependent increase in the acute toxicity in mice. The toxic effects of
chloroform and aqueous extracts were highest when compared to
ethanol extract of Colocasia gigantea. The LD50was 0.823g/kg b. wt.
for ethanol extract, whereas it was 0.625 g/kg b. wt. for chloroform
and 0.710 g/kg b. wt for aqueous extracts respectively. The chloroform,
ethanol and aqueous extracts of Colocasia gigantea. were nontoxic
up to 2g/kg. b. wt when administered orally.
Keywords: Acute toxicity, Colocasia gigantea, intraperitoneal, ethanol
and LD50.
Introduction
Medicinal plants have been used in traditional medicine for
hundreds of years with reputation as efficacious remedies although modern
scientific basis may be lacking for efficacy. Medicinal plants are the prime
source of bioactive compounds and serve as raw materials for new drug
1360
discovery (Ramawat et al.,2009). Plants have been used for treating various
ailments from the prehistoric times and continue to play an important role
in human healthcare as more than 70% of the present day medical drugs
are of plant origin. In the indigenous medicine all over the world, plants
have been used against the treatment of many kind of diseases including
cancers for more than 2000 years. Ayurvedic, Unani and Chinese systems
also use numerous plants for the treatment of cancers.
The use of traditional medicines and medicinal plants in most
developing countries as therapeutic agents for the maintenance of good
health has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). Plants and natural
products are still in great demand due to their safety, efficacy and lesser
side effects (Thillaivanan and Samraj, 2014) and about 80 % individuals
in the developing countries still depend on plants to treat different diseases
(Kim, 2005). The side effects due to most cancer drug toxicity also act as
a driving force to the use of alternative medicine for better cure. The plant-
based, traditional medicine systems continues to play an essential role in
health care, with about 80% of the world’s inhabitants relying mainly on
traditional medicines for their primary health care (Owolabi et al., 2007).
Interest in medicinal plants as a re-emerging health aid has been fuelled by
the rising costs of prescription drugs in the maintenance of personal health
and well being and the bioprospecting of new plant-derived drugs (Lucy
and Edgar, 1999).
Colocasia gigantea (also called giant elephant ear or Indian taro)
is a 1.5-3 m tall herb with a large, fibrous, inedible corm, producing at its
apex a whorl of large leaves. The leaf stalk are used as a vegetable in some
areas in South East Asia and Japan. Colocasia gigantea belongs to the
Araceae family, similar to Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (Taro). C.
gigantea grows commonly in Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries.
In the Pacific islands, the tubers are cooked and eaten as a starch. In India
and Bangladesh, the tubers are used as a main ingredient in curries and
stews. In Thailand, C. gigantea is considered as a minor food crop and is
mainly utilized as a stem vegetable (Kay, 1987). C. gigantea’s stem is
often used for making homemade Thai food called “Bon curry”. In the
Pacific islands, the tubers are cooked and eaten as a starch (Manner, 2011).
In Thai traditional medicine, C. gigantea tuber is heated over a fire. It is
used to reduce “internal heat” (fever) and also for the treatment of
drowsiness. Fresh tuber has been shown to ameliorate stomach problems,
combat infection, and accelerate the healing of wounds. In the northern
region of Thailand, fresh or dried tuber is used for the treatment of phlegm
by mixing it with honey. The young leaves of Taro are rich in vitamin C
1361
and the roots are rich in a starch composed of amylase (28%) and
amylopectin (72%). Taro contains thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin
(vitamin B2), niacin, oxalic acid, calcium oxalate and a sapotoxin. The
tubers contain aminoacids and high molecular weight proteins which inhibit
human salivary (and the porcine) pancreatic amylases. The corms contain
the anthocyanins pelargonidin 3-glucoside, cyaniding 3-rhamnoside, and
cyaniding 3-glucoside. Hydroxycinnamoyl amides have been obtained from
the inflorescences and two new dihydroxysterols have been isolated from
the tubers.
Collection and Preparation of Extracts
The identification of plant was done by Assistant Professor
Athokpam Pinakyo Devi, a well-known botanist of DM College of Science,
Imphal- West, Manipur, India and which was further authenticated by the
Botanical Survey of India, Shillong. The non-infected matured rhizomes
of Colocasia gigantea were collected and cleaned. The cleaned and non-
infected rhizomes were spread into the stainless steel trays and allowed to
shade dry at room temperature in dark in clean and hygienic conditions to
avoid entry of insects, animals, fungus, and extraneous terrestrial materials.
The exhaust and free air circulation was allowed. The dried rhizomes were
powdered in a grinder at room temperature. A sample of 100 g of rhizome
powder was extracted sequentially with chloroform, ethanol and water in
a Soxhlet apparatus. The extracts (CGE) were then evaporated to dryness
under reduced pressure and stored at -80°C until further use.
Preparation of Drugs and Mode of Administration
The different extracts of Colocasia gigantea were dissolved in
appropriate solvent immediately before use. Chloroform (CGC) dissolved
in pure DMSO and ethanol (CGE) and aqueous (CGA) extracts were
dissolved in autoclaved distilled water alone. Each animal from each group
received different treatments according to body weight orally and
intraperitoneally.The animal care and handling were carried out according
to the guidelines issued by the World Health Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland and the INSA (Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi,
India). Swiss albino mice were bred before use in a controlled environment
of temperature (24-25ºC), 50% humidity and light. Usually 5-6 animals
were housed in a sterile polypropylene cage containing paddy husk
(procured locally) as bedding material. Six to eight weeks old male and
female Swiss albino mice weighing 20-30 g were selected from the inbred
colony for experimentation. The animals were fed with commercially
available food pellets and water ad libitum. All animal experiments were
1362
carried out according to NIH and Indian National Science Academy, New
Delhi, India guidelines.
The acute toxicity of C.gigantea extracts was determined (Prieur
et al., 1972 and Ghosh, 1984) according to Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines No. 420-425 both orally
and intraperitoneally. Albino mice selected by random sampling technique
(n=10) of both sexes (5 males and 5 females) were used for each extracts.
The animals were fasted for 18 hours (both food and water withdrawn)
prior to oral administration and intraperitoneal injection of different extracts
of C.gigantea. The control group received sterile physiological saline (SPS).
Animals were observed continuously for first two hours and every 6 hours
until 24 hours, and daily thereafter, for a total period of 14 days for the
development of toxic symptoms. The data were collected for the toxic
manifestations including alteration in the behavior, tremors, convulsions,
salivation, diarrhea, lethargy, sleep, time of onset and length of recovery
period. All observations were systematically recorded with individual
records being maintained for each animal. The animals were weighed before
and after fasting to estimate their weight loss. If mortality was observed in
2-3 animals then the dose administered was assigned as toxic dose. If
mortality was observed in one animal, then the same dose was repeated
again to confirm the toxicity. The LD50 for each extracts was calculated
using probit analysis.
Results and Observations
Oral administration of the different extracts of Colocasia gigantea
showed no signs of toxicity up to 2g/kg bwt. The acute toxicity assay after
the intraperitoneal mode of administration was carried out by up and down
method. The LD50 was 0.823g/kg b. wt. for ethanol extract, whereas it
was 0.625 g/kg b. wt. for chloroform and 0.710 g/kg b. wt for aqueous
extracts respectively.
Discussion
In view of the increasing popular consumption of medicinal plants
as alternative therapy, it is necessary to conduct systematic research to
support the therapeutic claims and also to ensure that the plants are indeed
safe for human consumption (Wills et al., 2000; Sim et al., 2010).
Investigation of acute toxicity is the first step in any toxicological
investigation of an unknown substance. The index for acute toxicity is
LD50. Historically the LD50 was determined with high degree of precision
Table 1: Effect of ethanol rhizomes extract of Colocasia gigantea on the acute toxicity in mice.
Lose g/kgbwt Mortality (%) on different days
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total Remarks
3 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 Aggressive, Dull and died within
first day.
2.5 - 30 - - - - 20 - - - - 20 - - 30 Aggressive, dull and 70% died
before 14 days.
2 - - 20 - - - - - 20 - 10 - - - 50 Aggressive, dull and 50% died
before 14 days.
1 - - - 20 - - - - 20 - - - - - 60 Dull, lethargic and died before
14 days.
0.5 - - - 10 - - - - - - 10 - - - 80 Dull, lethargic and 40% died
before 14 days.
0.2 - - - - 10 - - - - - - - - - 90 Dull and died before 7 days.
0.15 - - - - - - - 10 - - - - - - 90 Dull and died before 10 days.
0.1 - - - - - - - - - 10 - - - - 90 Active and 10% died before 14
days.
1363
Table 2: Effect of chloroform rhizomes extract of Colocasia gigantea on the acute toxicity in mice.
1364
Doseg/kgbwt Mortality(%) on different days

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total Remarks
3 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 Aggressive, dull and all died
within first day.
2.5 - - 30 - - 20 - - - 20 - - - - 30 Aggressive, dull and 70% died
before 14 days.
2 - 30 - - - - 10 - - - 20 - - - 40 Aggressive, dull and 60% died
before 14 days.
1.5 - - 20 - - - 20 - - 10 - - - - 50 Dull, lethargic and 50 % died
before 14 days.
1 - 20 - - - 10 - - - 10 - - - - 60 Dull, lethargic and 60 % died
before 14 days.
0.5 - - - 10 - - - - - - - 10 - - 80 Dull and 20 % died before 14
days.
0.2 - - - 10 - - - - - - - - - - 90 Active and 10% died before 7
days.
0.15 - - - - - - 10 - - - - - - - 90 Active and 10% died on 7 days.
0.1 - - - - - - - - - - 10 - - - 90 Active and 10% died before 14
days.
Table 3: Effect of aqueous rhizomes extract of Colocasia gigantea on the acute toxicity in mice.
Doseg/kg bwt Mortality(%) on different days
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total Remarks
3 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 Aggressive, dull and all died
within 3 hrs.
2.5 100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 Aggressive, dull and all died
within first day.
2 20 - - - 30 - - - 10 - - - 10 - 30 Aggressive, dull and 70% died
before 14 days.
1.5 - 20 - - - - 10 - - - - 20 - - 50 Dull, lethargic and 50 % died
before 14 days.
1 - 10 - - - - 20 - - 10 - - - - 60 Dull, lethargic and 60 % died
before 14 days.
0.5 - - - - 20 - - - - - - - - - 80 Dull, and 20 % died before 7
days.
0.2 - - - 10 - - - - - - - - - - 90 Active and 10% died before 7
days.
0.15 - - - - - - 10 - - - - - - - 90 Active and 10% died on 7 days.
0.1 - - - - - - - - - 10 - - - - 90 Active and 10% died before 14
days.
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Table 4: Acute toxicity of different solvent extracts of Colocasia gigantea administered orally in Albino mice.
1366
Extract/Group Sex Dose Body weight (g) Survival

(g/kg.bwt.) Before fasting After fasting Loss (18hr)
Control (SPS) M 0 30 27 3 > 14 days
32 29.8 2.2 > 14 days
28.2 25 3.2 > 14 days
F 30 25.9 4.1 > 14 days
25.8 22.2 3.6 > 14 days
27 24 3 > 14 days
Chloroform M 2 29.4 27.5 1.9 > 14 days
33 30 3 > 14 days
29.3 27.4 1.9 > 14 days
31 29.6 1.4 > 14 days
29.6 27.5 2.1 > 14 days
F 27 24 3 > 14 days
27.6 26.3 1.3 > 14 days
29 27 2 > 14 days
26.2 23.5 2.7 > 14 days
27.6 25.7 1.9 > 14 days
Ethanol M 2 34.2 31.3 2.9 > 14 days
32 30.6 1.4 > 14 days
29.7 26.8 2.9 > 14 days
27.5 25.2 2.3 > 14 days
28.7 26.9 1.8 > 14 days
F 33.1 31.3 1.8 > 14 days
30.7 28.7 2 > 14 days
32.4 30.6 1.8 > 14 days
35.4 33.7 1.7 > 14 days
32.8 30.5 2.3 > 14 days
Aqueous M 2 35.3 32.5 2.8 > 14 days
33.6 30.7 2.9 > 14 days
34.5 31.2 3.3 > 14 days
29.7 27.8 1.9 > 14 days
28.8 26.3 2.5 > 14 days
30.5 28.8 1.7 > 14 days
31.6 29.4 2.2 > 14 days
33.6 30.2 3.4 > 14 days
28.7 26 2.7 > 14 days
29.6 25.9 3.7 > 14 days
1367
1368
and used to compare the toxicities of compounds relative to their therapeutic

doses. It is now realized that high precision may not be necessary to compare
toxicities.
Different extracts of Colocasia gigantea administered with a single
oral dose showed no signs of any toxicity at 2 g/kg b. wt. in Swiss albino
mice. However, the intraperitoneal mode of administration revealed
significant toxicity for all the extracts i.e aqueous, chloroform and ethanol,
where the toxicity was higher than 0.1 g/kg body weight. Based on the
toxicity study, the chloroform and aqueous extracts showed highest toxicity
as compared to ethanol extract with LD50 of 0.625 g/kg b. wt. for chloroform
extract, 0.710 g/kg b. wt for aqueous extract and 0.823 g/kg b. wt. for
ethanol extract, respectively after intraperitoneal administration.
References
Kay DE. (revised by Gooding EGB). Crop and product digest No. 2-root crops. 2nd ed.
London: Tropical Development and Research Institute; 1987.
Manner HI. Farm and forestry production and marketing profile for giant taro (Alocasia
macrorrhiza). In: Elevitch CR, editor. Specialty crops for pacific island agroforestry
[Internet]. Holualoa, Hawaii: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR); 2011.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1998) Harmonized
Integrated Hazard Classification System For Human Health and Environmental
Effects of Chemical Substances. OECD, Paris.
Owolabi J., Omogbai I., and Obasuyi O.,(2007). African Journal of Biotec. 6 (14):1677-
1680.
Ramawat K.G., Dass S., Mathur M. (2009): The chemical diversity of bioactive molecules
and therapeutic potential of medicinal plants. In: Ramawat KG. Herbal drugs.
Ethnomedicine to modern medicine. Berlin: Springer. 420.
Thillaivanan S and Samraj K (2014). Challenges, constraints and opportunities in herbal
medicines-a review. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 2(1):21-4.Kim, 2005.
Sim KS, Nurestri AM, Sinniah SK, et al (2010) Acute oral toxicity of Pereskia bleo and
Pereskia glandifolia in mice. Pharmacognosy magazine. pp. 67-70.
Wills RB, Bone K, Morgan M (2000) Herbal products Active constituent, mode of action
and quality control. Nutr Res Rev 13: 47-57
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1369-1379, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
106
Comparison of Rainfall Records of
Mizoram, India by means of Isohyetal
Maps Generated using GIS Technique
F. Lalbiakmawia, Assistant Hydrogeologist
PHE Department, Aizawl 796001, Mizoram, India
Abstract
Climate is one of the most important factors which controls human’s
activities like agriculture, forestry, supply of water, industries, etc.
The elements of climate that control the economic development of a
region are mainly rainfall and temperature. Mizoram is blessed with
abundant rainfall and the amount of annual rainfall varies from place
to place due to variation in elevation and topography.
Rainfall data of Mizoram has been recorded by different agencies.
Since, rainfall data is highly crucial for planning different kinds of
developmental schemes, well-organized rainfall record and reliable
isohyetal map is highly essential.
The objective of the study is to compare rainfall data recorded by
different agencies using a GIS technology in order to establish
trustworthy isohyetal map of the state.
All the rain gauge stations were plotted in a GIS environment with the
amount of average annual rainfall as their attribute. Then, Isohyetal
maps were prepared for the entire state from each of the records
separately. Spatial interpolation technique through Inverse Distance
Weighted (IDW) approach has been used in the present study for
generating spatial distribution of rainfall.
1370
The resulting maps prepared based on different records show different

isohyetal maps for the state. These diverse maps indicate the
dissimilarity of records of different agencies for the same environmental
factor. However, these maps may be fine-tuned to composed
dependable maps showing the average amount of rainfall in order to
carry out different developmental activities for the entire state.
Keywords: GIS; Interpolation; Isohyetal map; Mizoram; Rain gauge.
Introduction
There is increasing recognition that climate has a central role in global
economic and social sectors. One of the most important elements of the
climate that control the economic development of a region is rainfall. The
climate of Mizoram is controlled by its location, physiography, pressure
regime in the North West India and Bay of Bengal, warm and moist maritime
tropical air masses from the Bay of Bengal, local mountains or hills and
valley winds. In addition, the Chin Hills, Arakan Yoma Hill Tracts and
Chittagong Hill Tracts also play an important role in shaping the climatic
condition of the state (Pachuau, 1994; Tiwari, 2006). Mizoram enjoys a
moderate climate owing to its tropical location. It is neither very hot nor
too cold throughout the year. The state falls under the direct influence of
the south west monsoon. As such the area receives an adequate amount of
rainfall which is responsible for a humid tropical climate characterized by
short winter and long summer with heavy rainfall.
1371
Advent of geospatial technology like Geographical Information

System (GIS) allows fast and cost effective survey and management for
natural resources (Ramakrishna et. al., 2013). This technology has been
applied quite extensively by many researchers in analyzing rainfall
(Bhargava et al, 2013; Rathod and Aruchamy, 2010; Gurugnanam et al,
2010; Taher and Alshaikh, 1998; Gad and Tsanis, 2003; Mahalingam et al,
2014). The technique can also be utilized not only to draw isohyets but
also to measure the area between isohyets lines (Abkar et al, 2006). The
same technique has been proved to be of immense value for the development
of surface water resources as well. (Sharma and Kujur, 2012).
Mizoram lies in the southernmost part of northeast India. The state
is bounded by Myanmar in the east and south and Bangladesh in the west.
The northern side and north eastern side are bounded by Assam and Manipur
respectively. The state has geographical area of 21,081 sq. km (0.64% of
the country’s geographical area) and it lies between the coordinates of 21°
58 & 24° 35 N Latitude, and 92° 15 & 93° 20 E Longitude, with the
tropic of cancer passing through the state at 23° 30 N latitude. Mizoram
has the most variegated hilly terrain in the eastern part of India. The hills
are steep and are separated by rivers that flow either to the north or the
south creating deep gorges between the hill ranges. The location map of
Mizoram is given is Figure 1.
Mizoram has the most variegated hilly terrain in the eastern part
of India. The hills are steep and are separated by rivers that flow either to
the north or the south creating deep gorges between the hill ranges. Hence,
the physiography of the study area can be broadly divided into hills and
valleys. All the hills within the state are structural hills and as the as the
name implies, they are of structural origin, associated with folding, faulting
and other tectonic processes. The average height of the hills is about 900
meters. The lowest point within the state is Bairabi (40m above msl) on
the bank of Tlawng river in Kolasib district while the highest peak is
Phawngpui (Blue Mountain) in Lawngtlai distict with an elevation of 2157
meters above msl.
The rainfall varies place to place in Mizoram due to variation in
elevation and topography within the state. There is good rainfall all over
the state; hence the entire area receives an adequate amount of rainfall
during the monsoon season. The study of the available rainfall data reveals
that the heavy rainfall starts from the second part of May and ended in the
first part of October. Precipitation is heavy during summer. The coincidence
of the occurrence of south west monsoon and the summer makes the climate
1372
favourable for inhabitants of the state since the temperature is kept down
to a considerable extent by the usual rains. Normally July and August are
the rainiest months while December and January are the driest months
(IMD, 2013).
The monsoon wind is the most important wind that prevails in
Mizoram. The winds are generally light with some slight strengthening in
force during latter part of summer and southwest monsoon season.
Sometimes winds become strong due to dominant convective motion over
hilly terrains. Winds are mainly easterly in the mornings while they are
westerly in the evenings throughout the year. Westerly and southwesterly
components are seen during the pre-monsoon season and early monsoon
season in the mornings, whereas, in the monsoon season a southwesterly
component is also seen in the evenings. As the pressure becomes low over
plain areas and high over hilly terrains during pre-monsoon and southwest
monsoon seasons so that winds become moderate to strong. The summer
monsoon is characterized by highly variable weather with frequent spells
of drought and heavy rains. Besides this, the winter monsoon also prevails
which is a gentle drift of air in which the winds generally blow from the
north east. This retreating monsoon cause sporadic rainfall especially in
Mizoram and other north eastern states producing sometimes heavy cyclonic
rains (IMD, 2013).
As evidence from the earlier records, Mizoram state is vulnerable
to impact of tropical cyclone which develops in North Indian Ocean (Bay
of Bengal). Cyclones are associated with strong winds, torrential rains and
storms. Though the impact has not yet been devastating, it has often led to
loss of properties and even lives. The impact of cyclone has often led to
damages to houses, power line cut-off, blockage of road, damages to
crops and plantations, loss of live stocks, etc. Generally these winds come
from the north western part of the state as the winds originate from the
Bay of Bengal.
Methodology
Base map of the study area was generated from thematic maps
extracted from Natural Resources Atlas of Mizoram prepared by MIRSAC.
Isohyetal map from Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Mizoram, rainfall
data collected from Science and Technology Department of Mizoram,
rainfall data published by Indian Meteorological Department and
Agriculture Department of Mizoram, Survey of India topographical maps
and various ancillary data were also referred in the study.
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Prominent GIS softwares like Quantum GIS and ArcInfo 10.1

version were used for analysis and mapping. Hand held GPS device was
also utilized in the field for locating rain gauge stations and for ground
verification.
The base map was geo-referenced and digitized by using QGIS
software and exported to ArcInfo 10.1. Isohyetal map acquired from
Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Mizoram, 2014 prepared by PHE
Department of Mizoram and Central Ground Water Board was first scanned,
georeferenced and then digitized in GIS environment. This formed one of
the different parameters for comparing various rainfall records of Mizoram.
Location of rain gauges utilized by Science & Technology of
Mizoram, Indian Meteorological Department and Agriculture Department
were first identified and plotted as point features in a GIS environment.
The average annual rainfall record of each point features were incorporated
as attributes. Using the point locations and their respective rainfall attributes,
isohyetal map of the study area is generated. Different isohyetal maps based
on different rainfall records are then compared for selecting the final rainfall
map of Mizoram.
The rain gauge stations measure rainfall only in their locations,
and so it is necessary to adopt some mathematic model to calibrate rainfall
for the entire region. The rain gauge stations imported as point features
with their respective rainfall attributes were then analyses using spatial
interpolation technique using ArcGIS software. There three common
interpolation methods, namely Inverse Distance weighted, Krigging and
Spline. In the present study, Inverse Distance weighted (IDW) from Arc
GIS Spatial Analysis extension was used. Inverse Distance Weighted
method is one of the most commonly used techniques for interpolation
of scatter points. The results of the IDW are highly acceptable to the
scientific community (Mahalingam et al, 2014).
Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Aizawl 11.00 27.64 99.54 191.39 373.65 449.54 519.64 557.57 529.54 295.48 67.31 29.24 3155.33
Champhai 10.94 20.15 71.65 126.91 252.18 357.17 372.95 389.73 401.12 234.72 62.38 19.98 2319.87
Kolasib 9.02 36.65 101.44 215.50 342.05 431.05 463.65 514.71 444.93 218.43 36.74 19.86 2834.02
Lawngtlai 10.25 18.12 47.15 116.66 327.59 474.26 482.78 390.54 353.42 205.32 54.64 5.80 2510.26
Lunglei 6.68 15.69 65.24 107.54 307.55 466.02 478.40 465.24 419.00 226.35 47.74 13.12 2618.56
Mamit 9.84 14.62 86.09 235.19 443.41 429.69 396.35 527.65 485.65 311.25 25.97 9.22 2974.94
Saiha 11.70 24.15 51.88 103.83 371.35 457.10 434.39 450.13 398.13 230.26 71.44 12.21 2616.57
Serchhip 5.90 20.93 81.60 116.05 330.12 426.29 405.63 395.00 330.08 184.79 62.79 21.56 2380.74
Table 1:Mizoram Rainfall data recorded by Mizoram Meteorological Centre, Directorate of Science&Technology
1374
Therefore, the present study has used the IDW technique to measure
the spatial variations in rainfall within the state using the rainfall data
from different rain gauge stations. IDW method is based on the assumption
that the interpolating surface should be influenced most by the nearby
points and less by the more distant points. The interpolating surface is a
weighted average of the scatter points and the weight assigned to each
scatter point diminishes as the distance from the interpolation point to the
scatter point increases. Several options are available for inverse distance
weighted interpolation. The options are selected using the Inverse Distance
Weighted Interpolation Options dialog. The value of the inverse-distance
weighting power controls the region of influence of each sampled
location as its value increase the region of influence decreases until it
becomes the area which is closer to the target location than to any
other location, a null value causes the method of interpolation to be
equivalent to averaging the sample values. (NRSC, 2011).
Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Aizawl 12.70 40.90 141.60 183.90 381.70 346.30 356.50 433.00 309.20 176.70 53.10 18.20 2453.80
Aizawl (Obsy) 8.90 30.50 94.40 162.60 286.50 363.00 322.50 303.60 211.80 51.90 13.50 214.9 2149.80
Neihbawih Farm 15.20 47.30 141.90 216.30 390.50 430.40 500.60 512.90 447.00 267.40 78.40 31.60 3079.50
Sairang 14.80 17.10 87.00 172.80 320.60 356.80 298.10 397.60 322.10 224.10 46.80 7.00 2274.80
Sialsuk 15.60 31.90 116.30 195.60 409.00 725.80 699.80 686.30 490.80 322.20 82.50 12.80 3788.60
Aizawl Dist 13.40 33.50 116.20 186.20 357.70 444.50 431.10 470.50 376.50 240.40 62.50 16.60 2749.10
Champhai 13.90 23.00 86.40 124.70 254.10 351.50 372.40 341.30 306.70 277.70 66.40 23.70 2191.80
Chhimtuipui 2700.00
Bilkhawthlir 10.10 38.90 106.70 189.60 283.80 401.70 401.50 438.90 343.50 208.10 52.60 14.80 2490.20
Kolasib 16.70 44.50 149.30 178.60 353.50 471.80 468.90 469.60 398.10 236.00 39.90 11.30 2838.20
Kolasib Dist 13.40 41.70 128.00 184.10 318.60 436.70 435.20 454.20 370.80 222.10 46.20 13.10 2664.10
Lawngtlai 8.40 27.40 66.50 123.30 319.70 437.70 493.80 408.50 365.80 231.30 65.90 9.10 2557.40
Mamit 2500.00
Tlabung 6.50 21.60 78.30 109.00 294.10 512.90 524.30 513.50 357.80 255.00 33.90 3.60 2710.50
Hnahthial 4.50 20.70 79.70 108.20 293.90 270.60 343.90 338.80 338.20 212.10 71.70 6.50 2058.80
Lunglei Hydro 2.80 25.40 100.60 107.10 263.60 444.50 565.20 470.20 469.90 220.10 122.80 11.70 2803.90
Lunglei Serkawn
8.00 19.60 90.60 138.70 387.60 601.90 622.80 604.60 477.10 305.40 65.10 12.40 3333.80
Lunglei Dist 5.50 21.83 87.30 115.80 309.80 457.48 514.00 481.80 410.75 248.15 73.38 8.55 2726.75
Serchhip 3000.00
Table 2:Mizoram Rainfall data recorded by Indian Meteorological Department
Based on the spatial distribution of rainfall, isohyetal maps were

prepared using GIS spatial analyst. Results and discussion are as follows:
The isohyetal map shown by CGWB may be derived from a
regional rainfall map. The amount of rainfall in this map is low as compare
to the maps generated from other sources. From this isohyetal map, it is
evident that the western part of the study area received more rainfall than
the eastern part.
The isohyetal map generated from IMD data shows that the amount
of rainfall is higher in the western part of the study area than the eastern
part. The rainfall amount is evidently higher around Sialsuk and Serchhip
area. Area around Serkawn (Lunglei) and Neihbawih (Aizawl) also has
prominently higher rainfall.
1375
1376
The map generated from Agriculture Department’s record shows

that rainfall is higher in the north western part of the state. Area in and
around Neihbawih and Sialsuk has a very high rainfall amount as shown
by the isohyetal map.
Figure 2: Isohyetal map based on report of CGWB
Figure 3: Isohyetal map based on IMD data

1377
Figure 4: Isohyetal map based on Agriculture Dept. data
Figure 5: Isohyetal map based on MMC, Sc & Tech dept., data
The map generated from Mizoram Meteorological Centre

(Directorate Science & Technology) has shown that the amount of rainfall
is higher in the northern part of the state than the rest of the study area. The
rainfall amount is comparatively higher around Aizawl city.
Except the isohyetal map extracted from the report of Central
1378
Ground Water Board, Bull’s eye effect is observed in all the maps generated
base on the data from other agencies. This effect leads to the occurrence of
isohyets which are closed around the meteorological station that is not
acceptable in analysis of the pluviometric regime in the real relief.
Conclusion
All the isohyetal maps show higher amount of rainfall in the western
and northern part of the study area. Hence, eastern part of the state received
relatively less amount of rainfall.
Bull’s eye effect observed in the map is considered as unrealistic
result given by IDW method. However, it may be remembered that the
weather forecasts and records used to comprise ‘heavy rainfall at isolated
places’. Heavy rainfall at isolated places may have effect on the isohyetal
map.
It can be concluded that GIS spatial interpolation method can be
used to prepared reliable isohyetal map of an area. Besides the present
spatial interpolation technique (ie Inverse Distance Weight), another spatial
interpolation technique called Krigging can also be utilized for preparing
isohyetal map of an area.
Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to Mizoram Meteorological Centre,
Directorate of Science & Technology and Agriculture Department of
Mizoram.
References
Abkar, A., Habibnejad, M., Solaimani, K., Baniasadi, M. and Ahmadi, M. Z. (2006) Analysis
of Depth-Area-Duration Curves of Rainfall in Semi-Arid and Arid Regions using
Geostatistical Methods: Sirjan Kafeh Namak Watershed, Iran, Journal of
Environmental Hydrololgy,Vol.14 (2):1-8.
Bhargava, N. , Bhargava, R., Tanwar, P.S. and Sharma, A. (2013) Rainfall Spatial Analysis
using GIS, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer and
Communication, Vol. 2(5): 2197-2200.
Gad, M.A. and Tsanis, I.K. (2003) A GIS methodology for the analysis of weather radar
precipitation data, Journal of Hydroinformatics, Vol. 5(2): 113-126
Gurugnanam, B., Suresh, M., Vinoth, M. and Kumaravel, S. (2010) High/low rainfall
domain mapping using GIS at Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India, Indian Journal of
Science and Technology, Vol. 3(5): 542-545.
Indian Meteorological Department (I.M.D) (2013) Climatological Summaries of States
Series - No. 19: 403-444.
1379
Mahalingam, B., Ramu, B. and Jayashree (2014) Rainfall Variability in Space and Time,
A Case of Mysore District, Karnataka, India. Current Trends in Technology and
Science, Vol.3 (3): 205-209.
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) (2011) Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water
Mission (RGNDWM) Project, Methodology Manual P. 56.
Pachuau, Rintluanga (1994) Geography of Mizoram. R.T. Enterprise Publication, Aizawl,
Mizoram P. 1.
Ramakrishna, Nagaraju, D., Mohammad Suban Lone, Siddalingamurthy, S. & Sumithra,
S. (2013) Ground water prospectus studies of Tattekere watershed, Mysore district,
Karnataka, India using Remote Sensing and GIS. International Journal of Remote
Sensing and Geoscience, Vol 3: 6-10.
Tiwari, R.C. (2006) Analytical study on variation of climatic parameters at Aizawl, Mizoram
(India). Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research,Vol. 22 (1&2): 33-39.
Rathod, I.M. and Aruchamy, S. (2010) Spatial Analysis of Rainfall Variation in Coimbatore
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Vol. 3 (2017) : 1381-1387, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
107
Dynamics of Organic Wastes Treatment on
Soil Characteristics and Growth of
Brassica oleracea
Angom Sarjubala Devi*1, Yaiphabi Akoijam1 and
Elangbam Jadu Singh2
1
Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University,
2
Department of Botany, D.M. College (P.G.) of Science, Imphal,
Manipur. e-mail:[email protected]
Abstract
Wastes materials of organic in origin is been considered as a resource
for agricultural fields inspite of discarding away as wastes. In the
present study four different types of organic wastes namely sugarcane
bagasse, fish scales, wastes flowers and pineapple peels were collected,
air dried till constant weight and shredded into small pieces. They
were treated with soil and put in earthen pots. Saplings of Brassica
oleracea(cabbage) having same growth stage were planted in the pots.
Three pots without treatment of the wastes were maintained as control
pots and same saplings were planted in these pots. The change in soil
properties and growth pattern of the saplings were observed. It was
found that, maximum increase in soil organic C (0.53kg/ha) was found
in the pots treated with flower wastes and minimum (0.16kg/ha) in
sugarcane bagasse treated pots. Maximum increase in total N was found
in fish scales treated pots(261.67kg/ha) and least in sugarcane bagasse
treated pots(52.34kg/ha). Maximum increase in height of Brassica
oleraceawas found in the pots treated with fish scales(31.0cm) and
least in sugarcane bagasse treated pots (19.6cm). The results obtained
indicates that fish scales and flower wastes can be used in crop fields
of Brassicaoleracea.
1382
Keywords: fish scales, organic C, pineapple peels, sugarcane

bagasse, wastes flowers.
Introduction
Organic waste is a product of human existence, some are available
in plenty and are just simply thrown away. With the present global shift
towards green energy production and utilization, there is need for emphasis
on the economic, health and environmental benefits of proper utilization
of market decomposable waste as a resource that can be utilized (Egun,
2009). Organic waste materials mainly of animal and plant origin are
potential sources of organic matter and plant nutrients. Traditionally, the
waste materials are used as a source of nutritional elements and/ or soil
conditioner directly or indirectly in the field. The benefits derived from
utilisation of organic materials for improvement of soil fertility and crop
production have been well discussed by many authors(Tandon,1992;Tianet
al.,1992;Maftounetal.,2006; Bastidaet al., 2008;Chaturvediet al., 2009).
Supplementing the nutrient requirement of crops through organic fertilizers
such as crop residues, manures and composts plays a key role in sustaining
soil fertility and crop productivity. The present study focus on the impact
of treatment of four types of organic wastes on the growth pattern of cabbage
(Brassica oleraceaL.) as well on soil properties.
Experimental site
Earthen pot experiment was carried out in Dhanamanjuri College
of Science, Imphal West. The Imphal West district has an area of 558 sq.
kms. at an elevation of 790m above the mean sea level. It lies between
24030'N to 25000'N latitudes and 93045' E to 94015' E longitudes. The annual
rainfall ranges from 108.5 cm to 143.4 cm. The average temperature is
20.40 C.
Experimental design
Sugarcanebagasse (sugarcane b.), fish scales (fish s.),
flowerswastes (flower w.) andpineapple peels(pineapple p.) were collected
and air dried till constant weight and shredded into small pieces. Sixteen
earthen pots were filled up with the wastes and dried soil at a ratio of 50g
of each type of dried and shredded wastes with one kg of dried soil making
four pots for each types of wastes treatment. Another four potswere filled
up with soil without any wastes treatment in order to make control pots.
All the twenty pots were kept for one month in order to let the wastes
1383
decompose as well as to stabilise the soil in the control pots.

Crop plantation
Saplings of Brassica oleracea having same growthstage were
collected and planted in the pots in the month of December, 2015. They
werewatered regularly and the growth pattern based upon the increase in
height and number of leaves were recorded twice in a month for four months
and productivity(dry biomass) was determined after harvesting the crop.
Soil analysis
The soil samples from the different pots were collected at the end
of the experiment and determined for pH by using pH meter, moisture
content by using oven dry method,organic carbon(C) by following Walkley
and Black’s method,total nitrogen (N) by Kjeldahl’s Digestion Method,
available phosphorus (P) by using Olsen’s method given in Anderson and
Ingram (1993) and exchangeable potassium (K) by using Flame
Photometer. The data obtained were statistically analysed for finding
significance of variation and correlation between the plant and soil
characteristics due to treatment of wastes materials.
By comparing between the control and treated pots it was observed
that soil moisture was more in the wastestreated pots (Table 1). There
was maximum increaseof soil moisture in sugarcane b.treated pots (16.8%
) (Table 2) followed by flower w. (11.5%), pineapple p. (11.0%) and least
was observed in fish s. treated pots (1.65%). Soil pH in sugarcane b. and
pineapple p. treated pots were slightly basic whereas the control pots, fish
s. and flower w. treated pots were acidic showing an increase in of pH
from control in the sugarcane b. and pineapple p. treated pots. The fish s.
and flower w. treated pots provides the optimum pH level of crop and soil
i.e., slightly acidic soil for crop feilds.
Organic C was found to increase in all the treatments compared to
the control pots. Maximumincrease was observed in flower w. treated pots
(0.53 kg/ha) followed by pineapple p.(0.23kg/ha) and fish s.(0.23kg/ha)
and leastincrease was observed in sugarcane b. treated pots (0.16kg/ha).
Total N also increased in all the treatments except in sugarcane b.
There was an increase of 261.67kg/ha of total N in fish s. treated pots
which was the maximum followed by flower w. treated pots with 52.67kg/
ha and pineapple p withwith an increase of 52.34 kg/ha. Available P and
exchangeable K were also found to increase in all the treatments compared
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Table 1.: Soil physico-chemical properties (± standard error).

Sl. No. Treatments Moisture (%) pH Organic C (%) Total N (kg/ha) Available Excha. K (kg/ha)
P(kg/ha)
1. Control 17.07±2.28 6.76±0.07 0.40±0.16 156.66±25.7 3.70±0.30 70.33±1.70
2. Sugarc. b. 33.36±1.89 7.26±0.16 0.56±0.05 146.33±15.0 4.86±0.67 162.33±25.4
3. Fish s. 18.72±3.79 5.24±0.80 0.63±0.05 418.33±78.1 101.70±2.3 95.33±19.32
4. Flower w. 28.56±1.95 6.66±0.10 0.93±0.50 209.33±15.0 11.46±1.85 449.33±56.1
5. Pineapple p. 28.05±1.42 7.14±0.26 0.63±0.05 209.00±29.7 4.93±0.73 517.33±61.1
Table 2.: Change in soil physico-chemical properties due to treatment of wastes.

Sl. No. Treatments Moisture(%) pH Organic C(%) Total N (kg/ha) Available Excha.K (kg/ha)
P (kg/ha)
1. Sugarcane b. 16.29 0.50 0.16 -10.33 1.16 92.0
2. Fish s. 1.65 -1.52 0.23 261.67 98.00 25.0
3. Flower w. 11.49 -0.10 0.53 52.67 7.76 379.0
4. Pineapple p. 10.98 0.38 0.23 52.34 1.23 447.0
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to the control pots. A drastic change was observed in the fish s. treated
pots where an average increase of 98.0 kg/ha of available P was observed
which was followed by flower w. with 7.76kg/ha, pineapple p. with 1.23
kg/ha and least was observed in sugarcane b. with 1.16 kg/ha.Maximum
increase in exchangeable K was observed in pineapple p. treated pots with
447.0 kg/ha followed by flower w. with 379.0 kg/ha, sugarcane b. with
92.0 kg/ha and least was observed in fish s. treated pots with 25.0 kg/ha.
Analysis of variance shows significant variation of soil moisture
(F 4,10
=17.68), pH (F 4,10=43.06), total N (F 4,10=15.02), available P (F
4,10
=1824.38) and exchangeable K (F 4,10=55.44) among all pots at the
significance level of p<0.01.
Increase in theheight of Brassica oleracea were found in all the
treatments compared to the control pots except in sugarcane b. treated
pots (Table 3). Maximum increase in height of the crops were observed in
fish s. treated pots with 8.67 cm (Table 4) followed by flower w. treated
pot with 1.33cm and least increase was observed in pineapple p. treated
pot with 1.00cm. Number of leaves of the crop also increased in all the
treatments except in sugarcane b. treated pots compared to the control
pots. Maximum increase was observed in flower w. treated pots with 4
more leaves followed by pineapple p. and fish s. treated pots with 2 more
leaves in each.The dry biomass of harvested crop in the flower w. treated
pots have the maximum biomass having 12.1 g followed by fish s. with
11.0g, pineapple p. having 10.16g, control pots having 9.70g and lowest
in sugarcane b. treated pots with 7.06g showing that in the sugarcane b.
treated pots the biomass was lower than the control pots.
Analysis of variance indicates significant variation of recordings
of increase in height (F 4,10=11.29) and number of leaves (F 4,10=10.65) at
the significance level p<0.01.
Table 3.: Height, no. of leaves and biomass of Brassica oleracea in different treatments
(±standard error).
Sl. No. Treatments Height (cm) No. of leaves Biomass (g)
1. Control 22.33±1.70 20±1.24 9.70±1.51
2. Sugarcane b. 19.6±0.94 18±2.05 7.06±1.71
3. Fish s. 31.0±2.16 22±1.24 10.90±2.30
4. Flower w. 26.66±2.35 24±0.47 12.1±1.44
5. Pineapple p. 23.33±1.70 22±0.94 10.16±1.65
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Table 4.: Change in height, no. of leaves and biomass in Brassica oleracea due to
treatment.
Sl. No. Treatments Height(cm) No. ofleaves Biomass(g)
1. Sugarcane b. -2.73 -2 -2.64
2. Fish w. 8.67 2 1.20
3. Flower w. 1.33 4 2.40
4. Pineapple p. 1.00 2 0.46
Table 5: Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (r) between crop and soil characteristics
(n=4), * indicates significance at p<0.05.
Crop charac. Soil moisture (%) Organic C (%) Total N (kg/ha) Available P (kg/
ha)
Height -0.93* 0.35 0.90* 0.83*
No. of leaves -0.47 0.79* 0.36 0.18
Biomass -0.60 0.76* 0.49 0.33
There was negative correlation between height, number of leaves

and biomass of the crop with soil moisture (Table 5), showing Brassica
oleraceadoes not need excessive water for growth. Soil organic C was
found to have positive correlation with number of leaves and biomass of
the crop. Total N and available P were also found to have positive correlation
with height of the crop.
Since treatment of flower w. leads to maximum increase in organic
C of soil, in reference to the correlation results above it can be stated that
this waste does not have a negative effect on soil and crop. Therefore
flower w. can be treated safely in cropfeilds of Brassica oleracea. The
wastes have high exchangeable K content, however there was no significant
negative correlation observed with ex. K content in soil with growth
parameters of the crop.Maftounet al., (2005) have found that combined
use of municipal waste compost and poultry manure with P fertilization
improve the growth and chemical composition of spinach. Chaturvediet
al., also found increase in nutritional quality of tomato crop by using organic
residue of tobacco waste. Bastidaet al., (2008) observed an average increase
of 70% in organic matter content in soil after a single application of raw
municipal solid waste in semi-arid conditions.
The treatment of fish s. leads to maximum increase in total N and
available P in soil and leads to an increase in height of the crop. It shows
that these wastes have high N and P content. Therefore this wastes can be
mixed with low N and P content wastes like pineapple waste in order to
1387
provide the soil and plants a normal supply of N and P.

Although treatment of sugarcane b. does not have positive impact
on the growth of cabbage as well as N content in the soil there was maximum
increase in the soil moisture. It shows that moisture retaining capacity is
more in this type of waste. This type of wastes can be used as soil coverings
in treatment fields as well as soil layerings in order to retain soil moisture
for longer duration. In dry lands also it can be recommended for covering
soil inorder to save soil moisture.
Therefore from the results obtained it can be conclude that
treatment of soil with the four types of wastes amterials leads to an overall
increase in the quality of the soil. The treatment of flower waste and fish
scales have positive impact on the growth of the crop cabbage, whereas
pineapple peels does not have any significant negative impact on the crop.
Sugarcane bagasse is not suitable for treatment incropfeilds of cabbage.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the help and support
provided by ICAR, Lamphelpat, Imphal Centre for allowing analysis of
soil in their laboratory.
References
Anderson, J. and Ingram, J. S. I. (1993)Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility.Handbook of
methods.C. A. B. International, London, UK.P.302.
Batisda, F., Kandeler, E., Hernandez, T. and Garcia, C. (2008) Long term effect of municipal
solid waste on microbial abundance and humus associated enzyme activities under
semiarid conditions. Microbial Ecology, 55(4)651-661.
Chaturvedi, S., Kumar, V. and Satya, S. (2009) Composting effects of Pongamiapinnata
on tomato fertilization.Architecture of Agronomy and Soil Science, 55(5) 535-546.
Egun, N. K. (2009) Assessment on the Level of Recycling and Waste Management in
Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 28(2)77-82.
Maftoun,M.,Moshiri,F,Karimian,N and RonaghiA. M.(2005) Effects of Two Organic
Wastes in Combination with Phosphorus on Growth and Chemical Composition
of Spinach and Soil Properties.Journal of Plant Nutrition, 27(9) 1635-1651.
Tandon, H. L. S. (1992) Components of integrated plant nutrition. In: Tandon H. L. S.
(ed.) Organic Manures, Recycliable Wastes and Biofertilizers. Fertilizer
Development and Consultation Organiszation 204, Bhanot Corner 1-2, Pamposh
Enclave ,New Delhi, India.p.148.
Tian, G., Kang, B. T and Brussard, I.(1992) Biological effects of plant residues with
contrasting chemical composition under humid tropical conditions. Decomposition
and nutrient release. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 24(10)1051-1060.
1388
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1389-1401, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
108
Relation of Soil Bulk Density and
Elevation with some Soil Physico-
Chemical Properties in Pare River Basin
of Arunachal Pradesh
L. G. Kiba1, N. K. Mondal2, V. Khatso3, A. Bandyopadhyay4, and
A. Bhadra5
1
Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North
(Itanagar), Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India,
2,3
UG students, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North Eastern
Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli (Itanagar),
Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India,
4,5
Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, North
(Itanagar), Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
[email protected], [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract
Bulk density of a soil varies with the soil structural conditions.
Knowing the soil properties, one can carry out proper soil management
to increase crop productivity. Characterization of spatial variability
and relationship with elevation is essential for crop planning and
management. The main objective of this study was to assess the
1390
relationship of the bulk density of soil with texture, porosity, pH,

organic matter content and NPK. Here, soil sampling was carried out
in a mountainous watershed and analyzed in the laboratory for 108
soil samples (1-30 cm). The mean and median values of the soil
properties of the watershed vary little indicating symmetrical
distribution of soil at the point of sampling. Soil porosity and void
ratio were highly related with the soil bulk density with negative
correlation. Sand and silt content of the area were negatively correlated
with the elevation indicating higher content at the valley areas. Clay
content was found generally higher at the higher elevation. Bulk density
was found lower in higher elevation regions. Soil pH inversely varies
with the soil bulk density and varies directly with altitude while soil
organic carbon content varies inversely with the elevation.
Key Words: bulk density, porosity, organic matter content, pH, NPK.
Introduction
Soil, which is non-renewable within human time scales, can be
defined as the material found on the earth surface that are composed of
organic and inorganic materials that provide the medium for plant growth.
Soil quality has been defined as the capacity of the soil to function within
ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity,
maintain environmental quality and promote plant, animal and human health
(Doran and Jones, 1996). Soil fertility is commonly defined as the inherent
capacity of a soil to supply plant nutrients inadequate amounts, forms and
unsuitable proportions required for maximum plant growth (Von Uexkuell,
1988).
Soil should provide favorable environment for root development
so that it may exploit the soil sufficiently to provide the plant’s needs for
water and nutrients. Soil texture is important in determining the water
holding capacity of soil. Soil made of clay-sized particles will have more
total pore space than soil made of sand-sized particles. Bulk density is an
indicator of the amount of pore space available within individual soil
horizons. Clayey soils will generally have lower bulk densities than sandy
soils. ). It was observed that difference in fertilization, cropping system
and farming practices were the main factors influencing soil fertility quality
at field scale (Liu et al., 2010).
Jenny (1941) stressed the importance of human impact on the five
state factors of soil formation: climate, organisms, topography, parent
material and time. Subsequent authors have proposed ways to express
human impacts on soil through qualitative methods (Sandor, et al., 2005;
Amundson and Jenny, 1991; Yaalon and Yaron, 1966). More quantitatively,
numerous studies have outlined the changes cultivation causes in individual
1391
soil properties. Cultivation has been shown to increase bulk density

(Cihacek and Ulmer, 1986); decrease soil carbon content (Fenton et al.,
1999).
In a review of SOC management, Reeves (1997) found that SOC
content was the most commonly chosen indicator of soil quality. Soil
organic matter, which contains SOC, has been shown to play a key role in
soil tilth and productivity (Tisdall and Oades, 1982). SOC is considered
an important pool for carbon storage and exchange with atmospheric carbon
dioxide as well.
In hilly terrain, the productivity of crops depends upon the
availability of soil moistures as well as the nutrient status of soils. The
properties of soils vary in space due to variations in topography, climate,
physical weathering processes, vegetation cover, microbial activities and
several other biotic and abiotic variables. The physical properties and
chemical composition largely determine the suitability of a soil for its
planned use and the management requirements to keep it most productive.
The major agricultural problems at the study area (Pare Watershed)
are shortage of land for crop cultivation and livestock grazing, decline of
soil fertility and rainfall variability resulting in low yield production.
Gebeyaw (2006) reported that increasing population pressure and shortage
of land, deforestation and cultivation activities are being carried out on
steep slopes, practice of fallowing and crop rotation being eliminated.
Therefore, this study was initiated in the Pare watershed to estimate the
physico-chemical properties of soil in Pare basin and also to assess the
relationship of bulk density with soil texture, porosity, pH, organic matter
content and NPK.
Methodology
Study Area
Pare watershed is located at the south-western part of Arunachal
Pradesh, India. It lies between 93o 13’ 9.39" E to 93o 47’ 8.99" E longitude
and 27o 9’ 32.5" N to 27o 22’ 11.08" N latitude. The total area of the
watershed is 773.5 sq. km. The average annual rainfall of the area is 2542.8
mm and the temperature ranges between 10 °C and 32 °C (Dabral et al.,
2008). The topography is undulated with elevation ranges from 255 m to
2895 m above mean sea level. The Papumpare district falls under mid
tropical hill zones.
1392
Soil Sampling and physico-chemical analyses

One hundred and eight soil samples from top soil (0-20 cm) were
collected from different location at different elevation of Pare watershed,
Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. The collected soil samples
were named and taken to the laboratory for analysis. Elevation of the
sampling points varied from 293 to 1428 m above sea level. Elevation
above 1428 m was not sampled due to inaccessibility. Core cutter of
diameter 5.08 cm and length 20 cm was inserted at 108 sampling sites.
Fig. 1 Soil sampling locations of Pare Watershed
The soil physical properties determined in the present work

includes bulk density, moisture content, specific gravity, textural class,
porosity and void ratio.
The soil bulk density is the weight of wet soil measured at the
field (M) divided by the total soil volume (V). It is generally desirable to
have soil with a low BD (<1.5 g/cm3) (Hunt and Gilkes, 1992) for optimum
movement of air and water through the soil. The most common method of
measuring soil BD is by collecting a known volume of soil in a sample box
and determining the weight. Bulk density of all the samples was calculated
as;
(1)
where, ρ = Bulk density of soil in g/cm3, M = Weight of Soil (g) and V=

Volume of soil sample box (cm3).
Moisture content was determined using gravimetric method. In
order to ensure complete drying, the soil samples were kept in the oven for
24 hours at 105 oC. The mass of the dried soil samples after oven-drying
1393
was measured. Moisture content of all the samples was calculated as;
(2)
where, w= Moisture content (%), a = wt. of empty box, b = wt. of moist

soil + wt. of box and c = wt. of dry soil + wt. of box.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a
stated temperature to the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled
water at a stated temperature. It is required in the calculation of soil
properties like void ratio, degree of saturation etc. The specific gravity of
all the samples was determined using pycnometer method. Specific gravity
was calculated using the following formula;
(3)
where, G = Specific gravity of soil, M1= Mass of empty box, M2= Mass of
Box + dry soil mass, M3= Mass of Box + Soil +Water and M4= Mass of
box +Water.
The textural class of the soil was determined by using Hydrometer
method. Hydrometer method is considerably faster than other methods
and is fairly accurate and therefore adopted for most of the purposes. The
percentage of sand, silt and clay were calculated by following formula;
g/l (4)
g/l (5)
g/l (6)
g/l (7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Where, r = temperature correction, C= Temperature in °C, RB= Calibration
1394
correction, R1= Hydrometer reading at 4 minutes, R2= Hydrometer reading

at 2 hours, A= % silt + clay, B= % clay, C= % silt and D= % sand.
On the basis of sand, silt and clay percentage, soil is classified
into number of textural classes like clay, clay loam, silty loam etc. After
finding out the relative percentage of clay, silt and sand, the basic soil
texture of the soil was determined by using the triangular textural diagram.
Soil void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to
the volume of solids. Void ratio of all the soil samples was calculated
using the following equation:
(12)
Where, e= void ratio (decimal), G= Specific gravity, = Density of water

(g/cm3), w= Water content (fraction) and = Bulk density of soil (g/cm3).
Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a
material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume,
between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0 and 100%. Porosity of the
soil sample was calculated as:
(13)
where, n = Porosity and e= void ratio.

Determination of soil pH using pH meter
Soil pH is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions (H+) present
in a solution. In more common terms, it is a measure of alkalinity and
acidity. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Most plants grow best in the range
of 6.5 to 7.0.
Soil pH is usually measured potentiometrically in slurry using an
electronic pH meter. The pH meter is calibrated using standard buffer
solutions. 50 g of soil sample was taken in a 100 ml beaker and 100 ml of
distilled water was added and the solution was kept for 24 hrs. Electrodes
were dipped into the buffer solution of known pH and the readings were
adjusted with the help of standardized knob. The readings were interpreted
from Table 1.
1395
Table 1 Interpretation of pH
12 Interpretation
<6.5 Acidic
6.5- 7.5 Normal
>7.5 Alkaline
Organic carbon and organic matter content of the soil sample

The determination of soil organic carbon is generally based on the
Walkley-Black chromic acid wet oxidation method. Oxidisable matter in
the soil is oxidised by 1 N K2Cr2O7 solution. The reaction is assisted by the
heat generated when two volumes of H2SO4 are mixed with one volume of
the dichromate. The remaining dichromate is titrated with ferrous sulphate,
which has an inverse relation with the amount of C present in the soil
sample.
From the equation:
 + 3CO2
1 mL of 1 N Dichromate solution is equivalent to 3 mg of carbon,

where the quality and normality of the acid/dichromate mixture used are
as stated in the method, the percentage carbon is determined from the
following:
(14)
Where, N = Normality of K2Cr2O7 solution, T = Volume of FeSO4 used

in sample titration (mL), S = Volume of FeSO4 used in blank titration
(mL) and ODW = Oven-dry sample weight (g).
Determination of macronutrients
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) was determined
using the soil testing kit acquired from Environmental Concepts, Division
of Luster Leaf Products, Inc. 2220 Techcourt, Woodstock, 1L 60098 800-
327-4635, www.lusterleaf.com. Reagents and all the apparatus required
were included in the soil testing kit. The procedure given in the soil-testing
manual was strictly followed. The determination of N, P, and K was carried
out using the color chart given in the manual.
1396
Determination of Correlation Coefficient between Soil Parameters

and Bulk Density
The aim of this study was to develop a relationship between soil
bulk density and other soil physical and chemical properties. Here, bulk
density was be selected as dependent variable while soil texture, porosity,
organic carbon and available nutrients (NPK) as the independent variables.
The relationship between bulk density and different soil parameters was
be determined using correlation coefficient “r” which is defined as follow:
(15)
where, n is the number of pairs of data (x,y); y is the dependent variable

(Bulk density) and x are the other soil properties.
Relationship of moisture content with soil bulk density and elevation
Positive correlation is observed between moisture content and
elevation and negative correlation between bulk density and moisture
content with correlation coefficients of 0.446 and -0.270 respectively. Slight
increasing trend of moisture content with increasing elevation and slight
decreasing trend of bulk density with increasing soil moisture are shown
in Fig.3.
Fig. 3 Relationship of moisture content with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of sand proportion with soil bulk density and elevation

Negative correlation is observed between moisture content and
elevation and positive correlation between bulk density and moisture
content with correlation coefficients of -0.121 and 0.021 respectively. Slight
decreasing trend of sand proportion with increasing elevation and slight
increasing trend of bulk density with increasing sand proportion are shown
1397
in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Relationship sand with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of silt proportion with soil bulk density and elevation

Negative correlation is observed between silt proportion and elevation and
negative correlation between bulk density and silt proportion with
correlation coefficients of -0.090 and -0.121 respectively. Slight decreasing
trend of silt proportion with increasing elevation and slight decreasing
trend of bulk density with increasing silt proportion are shown in Fig.5.
Fig. 5 Relationship of silt with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of clay proportion with soil bulk density and elevation

Positive correlation is observed between clay proportion with both
elevation and bulk density with correlation coefficients of 0.341 and 0.076
respectively. Slight increasing trend of clay proportion with increasing
elevation and slight increasing trend of bulk density with increasing clay
proportion are shown in Fig.6.
1398
Fig. 6 Relationship of clay with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of void ratio with soil bulk density and elevation

Positive correlation is observed between void ratio and elevation
and negative correlation between bulk density and moisture content with
correlation coefficients of 0.601 and -0.791 respectively. Slight increasing
trend of void ratio with increasing elevation and slight decreasing trend of
bulk density with increasing void ratio are shown in Fig.7.
Fig. 7 Relationship of void ratio with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of porosity with soil bulk density and elevation

Positive correlation is observed between porosity and elevation
and negative correlation between bulk density and porosity with correlation
coefficients of 0.614 and -0.776 respectively. . Slight increasing trend of
porosity with increasing elevation and slight decreasing trend of bulk
density with increasing porosity are shown in Fig.8.
Fig. 8 Relationship of porosity with elevation and bulk density

1399
Relationship of pH with soil bulk density and elevation

Positive correlation is observed between pH and elevation and
negative correlation between bulk density and pH with correlation
coefficients of 0.148 and -0.118 respectively. Slight increasing trend of
pH with increasing elevation and slight decreasing trend of bulk density
with increasing pH are shown in Fig.9.
Fig. 9 Relationship of pH with elevation and bulk density
Relationship of organic carbon with soil bulk density and elevation

Negative correlation is observed between Organic carbon and
elevation and negative correlation between bulk density and organic carbon
with correlation coefficients of -0.059 and -0.086 respectively. Slight
decreasing trend of organic carbon with increasing elevation and slight
decreasing trend of bulk density with increasing organic carbon are shown
in Fig.10.
Fig. 10 Relationship of organic carbon with elevation and bulk density
Marginal positive correlations were found for sand and clay

percentage only when the soil properties were correlated with bulk densities
of the soil. Soil properties such as void ratio, porosity and soil organic
carbon were highly correlated in opposite direction meaning higher the
bulk densities lower will be their values and vice-versa. In case of elevation,
negative correlations were found for soil properties such as sand and silt
percentages, bulk density and nitrogen, phosphorous and organic carbon
1400
content. At higher elevation, the sand and silt percentages decreases which
may be attributed to erosion of coarser soil particles while higher contents
in the lower elevation may be due to deposition of such particles. Clay
content are found higher in the higher elevation areas resulting to higher
porosity and lower bulk density of the soils at higher elevation (Table 2).
Table 2 Correlation Coefficient between various soil properties with bulk density and
elevation
Soil properties Bulk Correlation Elevation Correlation
Density, (m)
(g/cc)
Sand 0.021 Positively Correlated -0.121 Negatively Correlated
Silt -0.121 Negatively Correlated -0.090 Negatively Correlated
Clay 0.076 Positively Correlated 0.341 Positively Correlated
Void Ratio -0.791 Negatively Correlated 0.601 Positively Correlated
Moisture Content -0.270 Negatively Correlated 0.446 Positively Correlated
Porosity -0.776 Negatively Correlated 0.614 Positively Correlated
Specific Gravity 0.253 Positively Correlated
Bulk Density -0.498 Negatively Correlated
Nitrogen -0.160 Negatively Correlated -0.004 Negatively Correlated
Phosphorus -0.024 Negatively Correlated -0.260 Negatively Correlated
Potassium -0.159 Negatively Correlated 0.102 Positively Correlated
pH -0.118 Negatively Correlated 0.148 Positively Correlated
Organic Carbon -0.086 Negatively Correlated -0.059 Negatively Correlated
References
Amundson, R., and Jenny, H. (1991). The place of humans in the state factor theory of
ecosystems and their soils. Soil Science, 151: 99-109.
Chaudhari, P.R., Ahire, D.V., Ahire, V.D., Chkravarty, M., and Maity, S. (2013). Soil Bulk
Density as related to Soil Texture, Organic Matter Content and available total
Nutrients of Coimbatore Soil. International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, 3(2).
Cihacek, L. J., and Ulmer, M.G. (1998). Effects of tillage on profile soil carbon distribution
in the Northern Great Plains of the US. In R. Lai, J.M. Kimble, R. F. Follett, and
B. A. Stewart (ed.) Management of Carbon Sequestration in Soil. CRC Press,
Boca Raton.
Doran, J.W., and Jones, A.J., (1996). Methods for Assessing Soil Quality. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am., 5-18.
1401
Fenton, T. E., Brown, J.R., and Mausbauch, M.J. (1999). Effects of long-term cropping
on organic matter content of soils: implications for soil quality. In R. Lai (ed.) Soil
Quality and Soil Erosion. CRC Press, Boca Raton, , p. 95 – 124.
Gebeyaw T. (2006). Soil fertility status as influenced by different land Uses in maybar
areas of south wello zone, north Ethiopia. MSc Thesis Submitted to School of
Graduate Studies, Alemaya University, Ethiopia, p. 71.
Hunt, N. and Gilkes, R. (1992). Farm Monitoring Handbook. The University of Western
Australia: Nedlands, WA.
Jenny, H. (1941). Factors of Soil Formation. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Liu, E., Yan, C.Y., and Mei, X.R. (2010). Long-term effect of chemical fertilizer, straw,
and manure on soil chemical and biological properties in northwest China.
Geoderma, 158: 173- 180.
Reeves, D. W. (1997). The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in
continuous cropping systems. Soil Tillage Research, 43:131-167.
Sandor, J., Burras, C. L., and Thompson, M. (2005). Human impacts on soil formation,.
In D. Hillel (ed.) Encyclopedia of soils in the environment, Vol. 1. Elsevier Ltd.,
Oxford, UK, p. 520- 532.
Tisdall, J. M. and Oades, J.M. (1982). Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in
soils. Journal of Soil Science, 33:141-163.
Von Uexkuell, H.R. (1988). Nutrient cycling in soil management and smallholder
development in the Pacific Islands. In: IBSRAM (International Board for Soil
Research and Management) Proceedings. Bangkok, 21p.
Yaalon, D.H., and Yaron, B. (1966). Framework for man-made soil changes and outline of
metapedogenesis. Soil Science, 102:273-277.
1402
Vol. 3 (2017) : 1403-1411, ISBN:81-7019-584-1
109
Scope of Resource Re-generation by
following 3R Policy from Urban Solid
Wastes – A Study on Kolkata Municipal
Corporation, West Bengal, India
Samik Chakraborty1 and Uday Chatterjee²
1
P.G. Department of Applied Geography, School of Regional Studies and
Earth Sciences, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack – 753 003, Odisha,
India E-mail - [email protected]
2
Department of Geography, Bhatter College,Dantan, Paschim
Medinipur – 721 426, West Bengal, India
Abstract
‘3R’ refers to Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. ‘Reduce’ stands for
minimizing resource wastage, ‘Reuse’ indicates optimum usage of
resources in their original form and ‘Recycle’ means converting wastes
into new products. Nowadays, huge amount of solid wastes are
generated regularly at every urban centres, around the world and
conventional open dumping is followed by most of the municipalities,
which is ultimately responsible for several environmental threats such
as land, water, air, odour and visual pollution. But this curse can be
converted into blessings when waste will be managed methodically.
Even it can strengthen our economic backbone also. The present study
has been carried out on two wards of Kolkata Municipal Corporation
i.e. ward number 115 and 122. The prime objective of the study is to
suggest some sustainable policies for managing waste in Kolkata.
Primary information is collected through door to door questionnaire
survey from households. The Solid Waste Management Department
and the Information Technology Department of Kolkata Municipal
1404
Corporation have provided secondary data. People’s attitudes and

initiatives outsourced from responsible authority to convert wastes
into recourses are taken as indicators. The major findings revealed
that the potentialities of sustainable waste conversion are quite
satisfactory in case of Kolkata but a proper master plan is needed to
be formulated immediately.
Keywords – Solid waste generation, disposal, recycling, 3R policy,
management.
Introduction
According to a survey report of the ‘United Nations Development
Programme’, solid waste management is the second biggest urban problem
after unemployment, all over the world. These days, municipal authorities
are facing tremendous difficulties to manage this. First of all, the amount
of solid waste generation is turning huge day by day with rapidly increasing
urban population. Next, the disposal lands or the dumping grounds have
become overloaded and there are no other options to create new dumping
grounds due to unavailability of lands in urban areas. The day is not far
away when the conventional methods will fail to manage solid waste in a
proper manner. So it is high time to think about new ideas to prepare a
proper master plan on solid waste management which will be an ideal
assemblage of the old and the new methods. From that point of view it
seems that the process of recycling will be the best policy to overcome
such problem. Recycling is associated with other two methods i.e. reduce
and reuse of resources and all three are called together as 3R policy. To
achieve this, at first, the unreasonable and excessive use of resources need
to be reduced. Then, it should be kept in mind that the resources must be
utilized to their optimum level and finally, waste products will be converted
into usable again. The prime objective of the 3R policy is to ease the entire
management system of solid waste by reducing the amount of waste as
well as the wastage of resources.
Present Study
Keeping the above facts in mind, the present study focuses on the
scope of resource recycling in Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC). In
this study it has been tried to examine that the existing effort of waste
recycling by the responsible municipal authority as well as people’s attitude
towards. Ward numbers 115 and 122 of Kolkata Municipal Corporation
are taken as the study areas for this purpose.
Kolkata is one of the metropolitan cities in India as well as the
capital of the state of West Bengal. The city is located at 22º34' North
1405
latitude and 88º24' East longitude. Elevation ranges from 1.5 meters to 9
meters above the mean sea level. Hooghly is the only river as well as the
main waterway in Kolkata which also creates the western boundary of this
city. The KMC area is about 187.33 square kilometers having 44,86,679
populations with a density of 23950.67 persons per square kilometer. The
population growth rate of the city during last decade is 7.6 percent. Kolkata
is divided into 16 boroughs and 144 electoral wards. The city generates
more than 2700 metric tons of municipal solid waste daily at a rate of 450
to 500 grams per capita per kg.
Among 144 electoral wards, ward numbers 115 and 122 of Kolkata
Municipal Corporation are located next to each other at the southern part
of Kolkata. These two neighbouring wards are under the borough number
13.
Objectives – The objectives of the study are as follows:
3.1. To know the existing management practices of solid waste in
ward numbers 115 and 122.
3.2. To quantify the average amount of daily domestic waste
generated by the ward inhabitants.
3.3. To identify the composition of degradable and non-degradable
wastes in these two wards.
3.4. To examine the people’s attitude towards storage, disposal and
recycling of wastes.
1406
Database
This study is based on primary as well as secondary sources of
data.
Primary information is collected through questionnaire survey from
300 households. 150 households are selected from each ward by dividing
them into high, middle and low income groups and 50 households are
taken from every single income group. Above 50,000 rupees monthly
income is taken as high income groups, the income ranges between 20,000
to 50,000 rupees as middle income groups and below 20,000 rupees as low
income groups respectively.
Secondary information is collected from various sources such as
West Bengal Pollution Control Board, Solid Waste Management
Department and Information Technology Department of Kolkata Municipal
Corporation, Statistical Handbook of Kolkata, 2004, District Census
Handbook, Kolkata, 2011, Administrative Atlas of India, Census of India
and from the official website of Kolkata Municipal Corporation.
Methodologies – The indicators of this study are as follows:
5.1. Percentage of daily domestic waste generated by various
income groups.
5.2. Percentage of degradable waste composition among various
income groups.
5.3. Percentage of non-degradable waste composition among
various income groups.
5.4. Percentage of storage system followed by the inhabitants of
5.5. Percentage of disposal systems followed by the inhabitants of
5.6. Percentage of people’s idea of waste recycling among various
income groups.
5.7. Percentage of people’s idea of significance of waste recycling
among various income groups.
Analysis and Major Findings
Existing Management Practices of Solid Wastes - Solid Waste
Management workers in each ward collect domestic waste from every
1407
household. There are several road side bins (locally called as ‘Vat’) and
mobile containers at some intervals in every ward which are used as primary
point of storage after collecting waste from households. Only in ward
number 115 there has been a newly constructed compactor station where
wastes are brought to minimize its volume and to make water free by
compressing them. It also curtails the number as well as the transport cost
of daily trips to dumping ground for waste disposal. But the residents of
the ward number 122 are deprived of this facility because no compactor
plant is still now constructed over there. From the primary collection points
wastes are transported by trucks and finally dumped into ‘Dhapa’. This is
the only one dumping ground for Kolkata Municipal Corporation and its
neighbouring municipalities as well, which is about 34.2 hectares, located
on the eastern fringes of Kolkata. Overseers with their assistants called
Sub-Overseers monitor the entire process of solid waste management in
each ward under the supervision of the ward Councillor.
Among 144 wards, the ward number 115 is one of the model wards
along with five others in Kolkata Municipal Corporation where the facility
of waste segregation between degradable and non-degradable is done at
household levels. To execute this, a white bucket is given to each household
from the municipality to preserve non-degradable waste separately into it
and that kind of waste is also collected separately.
Amount of Daily Domestic Waste Generated – An approximate value of
daily domestic waste generated was asked for answering to each respondent.
On the basis of their provided information, the following table is prepared
which shows the range wise percentage amount of daily domestic wastes
which is generated at households. This table reveals that the majority of
households generate solid wastes between 0.5 kg to 1 kg on a regular basis
in these wards whereas 25 to 30 percent generates less than 0.5 kg. These
are the representative of most of the households in these wards. Another
observation is that almost 90 percent of the households in both wards
generate solid wastes up to maximum 2 kgs.
Composition of Degradable Wastes – The major types of degradable
wastes in these wards are classified as vegetable peels, fish scales, food
waste, flower, tea leaves and tree branches. The percentage value of each
category has been calculated to identify the mostly created types of waste
in descending order at household level. Table 3 reflects that in ward number
115, low income groups produce the major amount of degradable wastes
followed by the medium and high. Similar trend is found in ward number
122 also. In ward number 115, tree branches, vegetable peels and fish
1408
scales are produced as maximum by high, medium and low income groups
respectively. On the other hand, in ward number 122 vegetable peels are
generated maximum by high and middle income groups while amount of
generating fish scales is maximum among low income groups. But as a
whole, amount of vegetable peels is the highest in both of these wards.
Composition of Non-Degradable Wastes – There are so many types of
non-degradable wastes found in these two wards such as plastic, paper,
card-board, aluminum foil, clothes or cotton, glass, thermocol, metals,
wood, dust, e-waste etc. As per the above table, in ward number 115,
generation of non-degradable wastes is maximum among low income
groups followed by the middle and high, whereas in ward number 122 this
is maximum among high income groups followed by the low and middle.
Plastic and paper are the major two types of non-degradable wastes which
are generated mostly in all wards by all income groups.
Storage of Solid Wastes – As it is known that in ward number 115, facility
of waste segregation is already being provided but unfortunately it is not
followed by everyone. The white bucket which was given to each household
to preserve non-perishable wastes separately, in most of the cases
inhabitants use it for their other household purposes. But on the contrary,
about 25 percent of people in ward 122 keep non-perishable wastes
separately, despite not provided with such kind of facility by the responsible
municipal authority. The following table is showing the storage as well as
the segregation process followed by the dwellers of these wards. There
was a simple question which was asked for answering to respondent during
field survey that whether they preserve degradable and non-degradable
waste together or separately? From the provided answers it is found that in
ward number 115, 64 percent of residents keep both kind of waste separately
and rest 36 percent keep together. This is mostly done by the high income
groups followed by the low and middle. But in ward number 122, only 24
percent inhabitants keep both kind of wastes separately whereas 76 percent
keep together. Apparently it seems that people of ward number 115 are
more responsible than 122. But it is necessary to understand that in ward
number 122, 24 percent of households follow the waste segregation system
on their own even though there is no segregation facility provided by the
municipal authority. On the contrary, after being provided with waste
segregation facility in ward number 115, there are still 36 percent of people
who keep both kinds of waste together. In ward number 115, waste
segregation is mostly done by the high, low and medium income groups
respectively whereas in 122 the same is done by high, middle and low
income groups respectively.
1409
Modes of Waste Disposal – Modes of waste disposal have been analyzed

to understand people’s awareness towards protecting the environmental
quality as well as recycling. Usually, inhabitants dispose their domestic
wastes into tricycle vans of door to door waste collectors. At times, people
dispose wastes into nearby vats also. There are so many areas in these
wards where the refuse collectors are irregular and during monsoon,
waterlogging interrupt and delay the waste collection process and then
inhabitants are forced to go to nearby vats for disposing waste. But there
are also some such kind of people, irrespective of caste, class and education,
who prefer to throw waste into drain, pond, vacant land and even on road
to save time or by nature, which ultimately makes the environment dirty
and polluted. In contrast, there are also some responsible people, who use
the degradable wastes, especially vegetable peels as fertilizer for growing
plants. Very few inhabitants give vegetable peels to their cattle to eat. In
both of these wards there are some people who either burn non-degradable
waste to keep their premises clean or use as fuel in mud ovens. Although
it’s a good sign for waste reduction but in spite of that it should be
remembered that burning of waste causes environmental pollution. It is
observed from the table number 6 that in ward number 115 and 122, 79.94
and 75.10 percent of people respectively dispose their domestic wastes
either into tricycles of refuse collectors or into roadside bins. But there are
still 10.22 and 24 percent of people in ward number 115 and 122
respectively who throw waste into vacant land, drain, pond or even on
road. This tendency is higher among the medium and low income groups
compared to the high, in both of the wards. People who use degradable
wastes like vegetable peels and tea waste as manure, number of them are
more in 115 than 122. Similarly, the occurrence of burning waste is also
high in 115 than 122. Last but not the least, amount of burning waste is
more than amount making fertilizer in 115.
Peoples Attitude towards Resource Recycling – It has been tried to
identify how many people in both of these wards have any idea of recycling
or not. Besides, it was also asked whether it has any significance. Then it
was found that in ward number 115, almost 60 percent of inhabitants think
that, recycling has some great importance. But unfortunately, rest of the
people don’t have any minimum idea of it. Whereas in ward number 122,
there are still 36 percent of people who don’t think that recycling has any
significance.
Significance of Reduce, Reuse and Recycling of Solid Wastes – In fine,
it was asked to the natives of both the wards to specify their concept of
significance of reduce, reuse and recycling. The following views were found
1410
from the survey.

From the obtained answers, it has been tried to know which are
the most important from the above opinions in descending order. So, another
table has been prepared which shows the top most significance of 3R not
only in wards but also among various income groups as well. From the
table number 9 it is reflected that the maximum people in both wards think
that the 3R policy will help to make fertilizers from wastes, first.
Next, the amount of waste generation will be reduced and finally
new resources can be created from waste products by recycling. This trend
is found almost same among all income groups in both of these wards.
Suggestions and Conclusion – From the above discussions, it can be
concluded that both of these wards are equally potential to become a model
ward in Kolkata Municipal Corporation in terms of resource regeneration
from waste recycling. Various valuable opinions on recycling have come
out from the inhabitants which reflect their positive attitude and a lot of
awareness about it. The process of segregation which is being provided by
the municipal authority of ward number 115 to their residents, is worth the
praise. Municipal authority should start that kind of segregation process
immediately in ward number 122 also. But, on the contrary, still now, there
are some obstacles in front of the municipalities to achieve complete success
of 3R policy which need to be resolved as soon as possible. Besides, many
people don’t follow the existing segregation system. Conducting awareness
programs or formulating strict laws including monetary penalties are needed
for those who throw wastes into vacant lands, drains, ponds and even on
roads. Various resource creating plants from wastes, especially fertilizers
need to be built. There is no compactor station in ward number 122 still
now. Keeping this in mind, the responsible municipal authority should
take immediate actions to build a compactor station over there. But the
aforesaid suggestions can be achieved only when the municipal authorities
will work together with their inhabitants.
References
Aruna D., Reddy B. T., Swamy A.V.V.S., (2013), “Study of Municipal Solid Waste
Management Scenario of Kakinada City”, International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications, ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 1, January-February
2013, pp.931-940.
Bundela P.S., Gautam S.P., Pandey A.K., Awasthi M.K., Sarsaiya S., (2010), “Municipal
Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities – A Review”, International Journal of
Environmental Sciences, ISSN: 0976-4402, Integrated Publishing Services, Vol.
1, No. 4, 2010, pp.591-606.
1411
Das S., Bhattacharyya B. K., (2013), “Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and
Management in Kolkata, India”, International Journal of Emerging Technology
and Advanced Engineering, ISSN: 2250-2459, Vol. 3, Issue 2, February 2013,
pp.147-152.
Ghosh S., Maji T., (2011), “An Environmental Assessment of Urban Drainage, Sewage
and Solid Waste Management in Barddhaman Municipality, West Bengal”,
International Journal of Environmental Sciences, ISSN: 0976-4402, Integrated
Publishing Association, Vol. 2, No. 1, September 2011, pp.92-105.
Kaushal R. K., Varghese G. K., Chabukdhara M., (2012), “Municipal Solid Waste
Management in India – Current State and Future Challenges: A Review”,
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, ISSN: 0975-5462,
Vol. 4, No. 4, April 2012, pp.1473-1489.
Maity S. K., Bhattacharyay B. K., Bhattacharyya B., (2011), “A Case Study on Municipal
Solid Waste Management in Salt Lake City”, International Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, Chennai, ISSN: 0975-5462, Vol. 3, No. 8, August 2011,
pp.6208-6211.
Maity S. K., Bhattacharyay B. K., Bhattacharyya B., (2012), “A Case Study on Municipal
Solid Waste Management in Chandan Nagar City”, International Journal of
Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management, ISSN: 2319-4847, Vol.
1, Issue 3, November 2012, pp.1-4.
Mathur V., (2012), “Scope of Recycling Municipal Solid Waste in Delhi and National
Capital Region (NCR)”, Integral Review - A Journal of Management, Lucknow, e-
ISSN: 2278-6120, p-ISSN: 0974-8032, Vol. 5, No. 2, Dec.-2012, pp.27-36.
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Natural Resources Management

for Sustainable Development

Department of Geography and Resource Management

All rights reserved. No. part of this publication may be

ISBN 81-7019-584-1 (India)

Natural resources are depleting at alarming rates because of their

(Theme: Natural Resources Use Pattern,

Chapter 2: Integrated Watershed Management by

Chapter 3: Design and Implementation of Water Resources

Chapter 4: Rational Resource Management and the

Chapter 5: Site Suitability Analysis for Identifying

Chapter 6: Protection of Ox-bow Lake with Sustainable

Chapter 8: Sustainable Management of Sundarbans

Chapter 9: Identifying the Causes of Water Scarcity

Chapter 10: Ground Water Prospecting using Remote

Chapter 11: Conservation and Sustainable use of

Chapter 12: Natural Resource Management and Rural

Chapter 13: Community Based Ecotourism as a Means

Chapter 14: Tribes, Sacred Jungles and Natural Resources

Chapter 15: Homegardens: Traditional Systems for

Chapter 17; Need of Effective Public Policies on

Chapter 18: Forest Resources, Traditional Medicines and

Chapter 19: Flowering and regeneration of bamboo

Chapter 20: Tree Species Diversity and Composition

Chapter 21: Soil Erosion: A Lose of Natural Resource

Chapter 22: Spatio-Temporal Changes in Pichavaram and

(Theme: Agriculture and Livelihood

Chapter 25: Changes in Shifting Cultivation in

Chapter 26: Jhum Cultivation and Changing Livelihood

Chapter 27: The Role of Value Chain Analysis in

Chapter 28: Impact of Oil Palm Plantation on Rural

Chapter 29: Improving Agriculture through

Chapter 30: Analysis of Agricultural Employment

Chapter 31: Assessment of Land Capability and

Chapter 33: Importance of soil Seed Bank in Shifting

Chapter 43: Sustainable Utility Index Value of

Chapter 44: Ecological Restoration and Livelihood

Chapter 45: Empowering the Poor through Rural

Chapter 46: Impact of Ponds and Livelihood Issues

Chapter 47: Impacts of Tourism on Rural Development

Chapter 48: Assessment of Sustainable Livelihood

Chapter 49: Issues of Sustainable Livelihood in the

Chapter 51: A Critical Review on Biodiversity in

Chapter 52: Biodiversity: Utility, Threats, Conservation

Chapter 53: Diversity of Tree and Shrub Species and

Chapter 54: Floral Biodiversity in Buffer Zone of

Chapter 55: Diversity of the Understory Vegetation in

Chapter 56: A Study of Land Use and Land Capability

Chapter 57: Participation of Women in Water Resource

Chapter 59: Cultivation of Oil Palm in Mizoram

Section 1: (Theme: Climate Change)

Chapter 61: Does Global Warming a Blessing for

Chapter 62: Multi-temporal Standardized

Chapter 63: Climate Change Impact on Migratory

Chapter 64: Risk perception of flood and its

Chapter 65: Media and Climate Change:

Chapter 67: Impact of Climate Change on Human Comfort

Chapter 68: Understanding Global Warming in Local

Section 2: (Theme: Population and Socio-