10689.19216 Text PDF

xiv Advertisement.
STIRLING
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FOR ALL STEAM

RAISING PURPOSES^
The illustration shows one of thj4ev v
Stirling Boilers during erection fbP > ,
Brighton Corporation Electricity Works,
67 b lbs. pressure, 87$*F. steam tempera¬
ture, evaporation 180,OCX) lbs. per hour.
THE STIRLING BOILER CO.

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32 & 33, Ferringdon Street, London, E.C4 i
TEXTBOOK OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LONDON
PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE
Tc be purchased dircctlv from H.M. STATIONERY at the following addresses
Adastral House, Kingsway, London, W.C.s, * > ,ge Street, Edinburgh .•
York Street, Manchester i; i, St. Andrei “scent, Cardiff
80, Chichester Stieet, lJrlf r
or through any Bookselli^^ |
1923
r
*
By Command of the Army Council
The War Office,

Ill
CONTENTS
Part I.—Workshop Practice
CHAPTER I
Metals Used in Mechanical Engineering
sec. page
1. Ferrous Metals. 1
2. Non-Ferrous Metals . 5
3. Non-Ferrous Alloys . 7
CHAPTER II
Mechanical Drawing
4. Mechanical Drawing and Conventional Signs 9
CHAPTER III
Production of Castings
5. Principles of Design .12
6. Patternmakers’ Work.14
7. Principles of Moulding that a Patternmaker
must know.16
8. Patternmakers’ Details.20
9. Moulders’ Work.22
10. Iron Founding .34
11. Brass Moulding and Founding .. .. 39
12. Miscellaneous .41
13. Foundry Layout.42
CHAPTER IV
Blacksmiths’ Work
14. Introduction .43
15. Smiths’ Tools . 45
16. The Air-Blast .49
17. Smiths’ Work .51
18. The Power Hammer . - 59
19. Layout of Shop.61
CHAPTER V
Boilermakers’ Work
20. The Shop, Tools and Materials .. .. 64
21. Types of Work.66
IV
CHAPTER VI
I-Ieat Treatment
sec. PAGE
23. Hardening.74
24. Tempering.76
25. Normalizing and Annealing.78
26. Case-Hardening.79
27. Alloy Steels .8J
CHAPTER VII
Soldering, Brazing and Welding
28. Introduction .. .. .. .. 83
29. Soldering.83
30. Relining White Metal Bearings .. 87
31. Welding by Gas and Electricity .. 90
32. Oxy-acetylene Welding. 91
33. Electric Welding.104
34. Metal Cutting by Gas and Electricity .. 110
35. Gas and Electric Welding and Cutting
Compared .. .. .. .. .. ..112
CHAPTER VIII
Fitters’ Shop Work
36. Work and Tools.113
37. Bench Work .116
38. Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Hand .. 123
39. Measuring and Gauging.128
40. Standard Limits, Fits and Tolerances .. 132
41. Overhaul of Steam Engine Slide Valve .. 133
CHAPTER IX
Machine-Shop Work
42. Machines and Tools .140
43. The Lathe.147
44. Planing and Shaping Machines.171
45. Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Machine .. 173.
46. Milling Machines.182
47. Grinding Machinery .188
48. Manufacturing Machinery .. . 196
49. Testing Machine Tools .. .. . 198
50. Power to Drive Machinery .. . 201
V
CHAPTER X
Wood-Cutting Machinery
sec. PAGE
52. Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening .. 204
53. Circular Saws .209
54. Band Saws.222
55. Log Frame Saws.227
56. Woodworking Machinery for Joinery .. 228
57. Safety Precautions for Woodworking
Machinery.232
. CHAPTER XI
Workshop Economics
58. Factory Organization Generally .. .. 235
59. Cost Accounts .239
60. Repair Workshops.241
Part II.—Heat Engines

CHAPTER XII
Elementary Thermodynamics of the I.C. Engine.
61. Fuels.249
62. Explosive Mixtures .250
63. Laws of Gases .253
64. Cycles of. Operation .254
65. Practical Efficiencies.261
CHAPTER XIII
Practical Strokes and Valve Timing
66. Four-stroke Cycle Engines .260
67. Two-stroke Cycle Engines .. .. .. 265
68. Valve Timing .267
CHAPTER XIV
Types and Rating of I.C. Engines
69. Types of I.C. Engines.269
70. Rating of I.C. Engines.’. .. 272
VI
CHAPTER XV
Governing, Lubrication, Air Filtering, Cooling and
Silencing of I.C. Engines
SEC. PAGE
71. Governing.278
72. Lubrication.288
73. Air Filtering .300
74. Cooling .301
75. Silencing .308
CHAPTER XVI
Gas Engines and Producers
76. Gas Engines and Producers.311
CHAPTER XVII
Petrol Engines
78. Principles of Carburation and Induction
Systems.317
79. Types of Carburettor.324
80. Fitting and Tuning Carburettors .. .. 330
81. Petrol Supply to Carburettors .. .. 332
82. Ignition in Petrol Engines .. .. .. 334
83. Magneto Ignition Systems .339
84. Faults in Magneto Ignition Systems .. 350
85. Battery and Coil Ignition Systems .. .. 352
86. Valve Timing in Petrol Engines .. .. 355
87. Starting Petrol Engines .357
88. Petrol Engine Faults.359
89. Maintenance of Petrol Engines .. .. 361
90. High-speed Petrol-Paraffin Engines .. .. 364
CHAPTER XVIII
*
Oil Engines
92. Ignition and its Control .367
93. Running and Care of Oil Engines .. .. 374
94. Mechanical Aids to Starting.379
Vll
CHAPTER XIX
Heavy-Oil Engines
sec. PAGE
96. Semi-Diesel Engines .384
97. Diesel Engines, Air - Injection, General
Principles.389
98. Diesel Engines, Air-Injection, Instructions
for Working . 394 .
99. Diesel Engines, Solid-Injection, General
Principles.397
100. Diesel Engines, Solid-Injection, Instructions
for Working .405
101. High-speed Diesel Engines .407
102. Diesel Engines, Routine Inspection and Main¬
tenance .410
103. Solid-Injection Diesel Plant, Layout .. 419
CHAPTER XX
Overhaul of I.C. Engines
105. Dismantling the Engine.. .. 421
106. Principal Repair Operations.423
107. Reassembling and Testing Engine .. .. 435
CHAPTER XXI
Steam Boilers
108. Elementary Properties of Steam .. .. 437
109. Boiler Principles.441
110. Feed Water.444
111. Shell Boilers .448
112. Fire-tube Boilers.450
113. Water-tube Boilers .452
CHAPTER XXII
Care, Working and Management of Boilers
114. General Rules .456
115. Inspection and Insurance .460
116. Coal-fired Boilers.461
117. Oil Fuel . .. 467
vm
CHAPTER XXIII
Boiler Fittings
sec. page
118. Fittings on the Boiler.474
119. Injectors and Feed Pumps .478
CHAPTER XXIV
Boiler Auxiliaries >
120. Nature and Use of the Common Auxiliaries .. 481
121. Automatic Stoker and Special Grates .. 484
122. Natural, Induced and Forced Draught .. 486
CHAPTER XXV
Reciprocating Steam Engines
123. Introduction .. .. .. .. .. 491
124. Elementary Thermodynamics of the Steam
Engine .491
125. Practical Efficiencies.496
126. Cylinder Condensation.498
127. Engine Details .499
128. Governing.499
129. Lubrication.500
CHAPTER XXVI
Valve Gears
130. The Slide Valve and Expansion Gears .. 502
131. Corliss and Drop Valves and Central Exhaust 507
CHAPTER XXVII
Condensers
132. Object of Condensers.509
133. Types of Condensers .509
134. Condenser Accessories.510
CHAPTER XXVIII
Care and Running of Steam Engines
135. Portable and Semi-Portable Engines 514
136. High-Speed Engines .516
IX
CHAPTER XXIX
Layout and Installation of Steam Plant
sec. page
137. Pipes and Valves.519
138. Pipe Lines.522
139. Station Layout.524
CHAPTER XXX
Engine Testing
141. Measurement of Indicated Horse-Power .. 528
142. Measurement of Brake Horse-Power .. 532
143. Testing Steam Plant .533
144. Testing Internal Combustion Engines .. 536
CHAPTER XXXI
Selection and Erection of Engines
145. Selection of Prime Movers .545
146. Engine Foundations .546
Part III.—Application
CHAPTER XXXII
Transmission of Power
147. Principles of Transmission .553
148. Line Shafting and Plain Bearings .. .. 555
149. Ball, Roller and Thrust Bearings .. .. 561
150. Clutches '.565
151. Belt, Rope and Chain Drives.569
152. Toothed Gears .579
153. Indirect Transmission Systems .. .. 587
154. Practical Application.588
CHAPTER XXXIII
Lubrication
155. Principles of Lubrication .592
156. Properties of Lubricating Oils .. .. 593
157. Systems of Lubrication.600
158. Selection and Care of Lubricants .. .. 603
159. The Recovery Treatment of Lubricating Oils 605
CHAPTER XXXIV
Air Compressors and Pneumatic Tools
sec. page
160. General Principles .608
161. Compressor Sets.613
162. Care, Working and Management of Air Com¬
pressors .616
163. Pneumatic Tools.618
CHAPTER XXXV
Refrigerating Machinery
164. General Principles 623

165. Types of Machines. . 623
166. Compression Machines 624
167. Choice of Refrigerant 626
168. Performance of Refrigerating Machines 628
169. Constructional Details 629
170. Condensers 633
171. Evaporators 637
172. Accessories 638
173. Absorption Machines 640
174. Air Expansion Machines 641
175. Operation of Plant 641
176. Faults in Running 644
177. General 645
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
I. Standard Screw-Threads and Tapping Sizes 648
II. Table of Wire and Plate Gauge Standards .. 650
III. Patternmakers’ Tools and Stores .. .. 652
IV. Moulders’ Tools and Stores.654
V. Blacksmiths’ Tools and Stores .. .. 655
VI. Personal Tools required by a Boilermaker 656
VII. Tools required by a Fitter and Fitter-
Driver, R.E.658
Bibliography .. 686
xi
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
A. Carbon Content of Cast-iron and Steel .. 4
B. Particulars of Roots Blowers .. .. 50
C. Particulars of Centrifugal Blowers .. 50
D. Colour Temperatures of Steel .. .. 75
E. Details for Tempering Tool Steels .. .. 77
F. Annealing Temperatures for Plain Carbon
Steels .79 *
G. Particulars of Solders and Fluxes .. .. 84
H. Melting Points of Metals and Alloys .. 85
I. Consumption of Gases and Electrodes in Oxy-
Acetylene Welding .103
J. Consumption of Gases in Oxy-Acetylene Cut¬
ting ■ • .. .. .. .. .. •■ 111
K. Cutting Speeds of Various Tools in Feet per
Minute .146
L. Power Required to Drive Machine Tools .. 202
M. Power Required to Drive Circular Saws .. 218
N. Power Required to Drive Log Band Saws .. 225
O. Power Required to Drive Re-Saws .. .. 225
P. Tension for Large Band Saw Blades .. 226
Q. Speed of Small Band Saws .226
R. Details of Small Band Saws .. .. .. 226
S. Power Required to Drive Log Frame Saws 227
T. Particulars of Fuels used in I.C. Engines .. 251
U. Typical Data of 4-stroke I.C. Engines .. 273
V. Monthly' Maintenance Sheet and Cleaning
Table for Diesel Engines.418
£ X
. Saturated Steam Table.439

. Sample Performances of Steam Engines on
Maker's Tests.539
Y. Sample Performances of Steam Boilers on
Maker's Tests.540
Z. Comparative Table of Engines.546
Za. Service Lubricants .604
Zb. Properties of Refrigerants.647
Zc. Performance Figures for Ammonia Plant .. 647
XU
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE
1. Conventions used in Mechanical Drawing .. 10
2. Details of Moulders’ Work 17
3. Details of Moulders’ Work 21
4. Production of Castings 31
5. Cupola and Crucible Furnace .. 35
6. Improvised Crucible Furnace .. 40
7. Details of Smiths' Hearths 44
8. Smiths' Tools . 47
9. Smiths’ Work . 53
10. Details of Smiths' Work 57
11. Drop Forging . 60
12. Lay-out of Smiths' Shop 62
13. Boilermakers’ Work 65
14. Boilermakers’ Work 71
15. Remetalling Bearings 89
16. Low Pressure Acetylene Welding Plant .. 93
16a. Autogenous Welding Details .. 94
16b. Oxy-Acetylene Welding Details 95
16c. Welding Details. 99
17. Consumption of Ouasi-arc Electrodes 109
18. Fitters’ Tools . 115
19. Fitters’ Tools . 119
20. Die Stocks for Pipe Screwing .. 127
21. Fitters’ Tools 130
22. Dial Test Indicator 131
23. Fitters' and Turners’ Work 135
24. Turners’ Tools 142
25. Turners’ Work . 151
26. Lathes . 154
27. Turners’ Work . 156
28. Screw Cutting . 166
29. Milling and Grinding 175
29a. Twist Drill . 179
30. Machine Tools . 180
31. Milling and Shaping 185
32. Grinding Work . 190
33. Sawyers’ Work . 205
34. Sawyers' Work . 212
35. Sawyers’ Work . 213
36. Types of Circular Saw .. .. facing page 224
37. Sharpening Machines and Woodworking Tools
after PI. 36
38. Band Saws and Mortising Machines .. after PI. 37
39. Variety Woodworker and Overhand Planer
after PI. 38
X1U
PLATE PAGE
40. Types of Saws .after PI. 39
41. Horizontal Oil Engine.255
42. Indicator Diagrams, 4-stroke Cycle Engines 256
43. Typical Valve Timing Diagram .. .. 263
44. Indicator Diagrams, 2-stroke Cycle Engines 264
45. Compression and Explosion Pressures, 4-
stroke Cycle Engines.274
46. Governors of Campbell and Tangye Engines 283
47. Hornsby Ackroyd Governing and Fuel
System .. .. .. 284
48. Tangye Fuel Pump . 285
49. Quantity Governing, Crossley Gas and
Petrol-Paraffin Engines . 286
50. Lubricating Devices . 292
51. D.V.4. Crossley Forced Lubrication System 295
52. Davey Paxman Forced Lubrication System 297
53. Mechanical Lubricator. 298
54. Water Cooling Systems 304
55. Water Cooling Systems. 305
56. Typical Silencer, Exhaust Pit and Blow
Lamp .. .. .. .. .. .. 309
57. Suction Gas Producer. 313
58. Carburettors . 319
59. Multiple Jet and S.U. Carburettors 325
60. Zenith Carburettor . 326
61. Solex Carburettor . 329
62. Autovac . 333
63. H.T. Magneto . 340
64. Ignition Wiring Diagrams . 344
65. Wiring Diagrams of H.T. Magneto 345
66. Inductor Magnetos, etc. . 349
67. Battery and Coil Ignition System 353
68. Valve Timing Diagrams. 356
69. Sparking Plugs and Crossley Vaporizer 365
70. Hornsby Ackroyd Oil Engine. 369
71. Faults on Oil Engines as shown by Indicator
Diagrams.370
72. Tangye Oil Engine Details .373
73. Typical Air Starting Arrangements .. .. 381
74. Tangye Semi-diesel Engine Details and
Timing Chart.386
75. Vertical 2-stroke Semi-diesel Engine .. 387
76. Timing and Indicator Diagrams of Air-
injection Diesel Engine .390
77. Lay-out of Air Injection Diesel Engine .. 391
78. Air-injection Diesel Engine Details .. .. 392
79. Typical Diesel Indicator Diagram .. .. 398
XIV
PLATE PAGE
80. Timing and Indicator Diagrams of 2-stroke
Solid-injection Diesel Engine .. .. 399
81. Paxman Spring Injection .402
81a. Paxman Spring Injection .403
82. Blackstone Horizontal Solid-injection Heavy
Oil Engine .facing 404
83. Davey Paxman Vertical Solid-injection Heavy
Oil Engine .after PI. 82
84. Ruston Vertical Solid-injection Heavy Oil
Engine .. .. .. .. .. after PI. 86
85. Benes Fuel Pump.408
86. Gardner High Speed Solid-injection Heavy
Oil Engine .facing 410
87. Lay-out of Heavy Oil Engine .. .. facing 418
87a. Lay-out of Power Station .. .. after PI. 87
88. Lay-out of Power Station (Underground)
after PI. 87a
89. Ames Dial Gauges.facing 422
90. Engine Overhaul Operations, Crankshafts
and Journals.424
91. Engine Overhaul Operations .. .. facing 430
92. Honing Machine and Valve Grinding Machine
after PI. 91
93. Engine Overhaul Operations. 433
94. Properties of Steam . 440
95. Circulation of Water in Steam Generation 443
96. Shell Type Boilers . 449
97. Shell Type Boilers assisted by Water Tubes 453
98. Water Tube Boiler . 454
99. Boiler Operation. 458
99a. Boiler Operation. 464
100. Coal Firing Boilers . 465
101. Coal Firing Boilers . 466
102. Oil Firing Boilers . 470
103. Oil Firing Boilers . 471
104. Boiler Fittings. 475
105. Boiler Fittings. 476
106. Boiler Fittings and Auxiliaries 483
107. Diagrams of Theoretical Chimney Draft Power 488
108. Reciprocating Steam Engine Details .. 492
109. Steam Indicator Diagrams .493
110. Mollier Diagram.facing 494
111. Diagrams of Slide Valve Settings .. .. 503
112. Forms of Valve and Valve Gear .. .. 505
113. Central Exhaust Engine, Condensers, &c. .. 511
114. High Speed Steam Engine .517
115. Steam Pipes, Valves and Fittings .. .. 520
XV
PLATE PAGE
116. Boiler Room and Engine House Lay-out .. 525
117. Engine Testing Gear and Diagrams .. .. 529
118. Performance Curves and Heat Balance for
I.C. Engines .537
119. Engine and Machine Foundations .. .. 549
120. Bearings and Couplings.554
121. Types of Clutches .566
122. Belt Transmission 570
123. Rope and Chain Transmission.575
124. Gears and Gearing .581
125. Gears and Gearing .582
126. Lubrication .. .. .. .. .. .. 597
127. Compressed Air Plant.610
128. Broomwade Portable Compressor .. facing 614
129. Section of Sleeve Valve Compressor .. 615
130. Principles of Compression and Absorbtion
Types of Refrigerating Machines .. .. 625
131. Entropy Temperature Diagram and Metiiyl
Chloride Refrigerator .. .. facing 626
132. Performance Curves, Ammonia Refrigerator 630
133. Small Ammonia Compressor .632
134. Condensers for Refrigerating Plant facing 634
135. Valves for Refrigerating Plant .. .. 639
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PART I.—WORKSHOP PRACTICE
CHAPTER I
METALS USED IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1. Ferrous Metals
1. These include iron and steel in all their many varieties,
the element iron forming the principal constituent of all of
them, together with carbon, silicon, sulphur, and numerous
other constituents, metallic and non-metallic.
2. Pig iron is the raw product of the blast furnace, in
which the iron is extracted from its ores. From pig iron
wrought iron is produced by purification process, and cast
iron by melting and mixing in a cupola.
Pig iron contains about 3-5 per cent, to 4 per cent, of
carbon as an essential constituent; also silicon, sulphur,
phosphorus and manganese as impurities. Both combined
and uncombined (or “ graphitic") carbon are present in
various proportions, causing the pig to vary from “grey ,"
through " mottled” to “ white.” Grey pig may contain only
0-3 per cent, combined carbon, while white pig contains
combined carbon only. The greater the proportion of
combined carbon, the harder and more brittle the iron.
(See also Sec. 10, para. 8.)
From 1 per cent, to 3 per cent, of silicon is usually present,
and increases the fluidity. It tends to turn combined carbon
into graphitic, but if it exceeds 5 per cent, it makes the iron
very hard and brittle.
Sulphur has the opposite effect, i.e. it turns graphitic into
combined carbon, and makes the iron hard and white; it
also decreases its fluidity when molten.
Phosphorus increases fluidity*but decreases strength;
useful for.fine castings, up to 1 per cent.
Manganese increases the proportion of combined carbon,
and helps to eliminate sulphur.
3. Cast iron is generally similar to pig iron, but the
proportions of carbon are controlled in the foundry, both
by mixing various grades of pig iron and scrap,, and by control
1
2 Sec. 1.—Ferrous Metals
of the temperature and rate of cooling. The total carbon
content is usually reduced by the action of the cupola to
about 3 per cent, to 3-5 per cent., and the combined carbon
should not exceed 0-8 per cent, in the finished casting, or it will
be too hard to machine. (See also Sec. 10, para 8.)
Cast iron is harder than wrought iron, but brittle and
weak in tension, and cannot be forged.
4. Malleable cast iron is cast iron produced from white
pig in which the carbon content is reduced below 1 per
cent, after casting, by an oxidizing process. (See Sec. 12,»
para. 2.)
5. Wrought iron is a comparatively pure form of iron, con¬
taining from 0-1 per cent, to 0*25 per cent, of carbon, which
is present entirely in the combined form, i.e. as carbide of
iron. It also contains various impurities, phosphorus,
sulphur, and silicon being the most important. At high
temperatures wrought iron assumes a pasty condition and
cannot be cast, but it is ductile at ordinary temperatures,
and can be readily worked at red-heat and welded at white-
heat. It resists corrosion better than steel. It is not hardened
by heating and quenching.
Its ductility is seriously affected by excess of impurities.
Carbon should not, as a rule, exceed 0-15 per cent., and the
other non-metallic impurities together should not exceed 0-25
per cent.
(>•25 per cent, of Phosphorus will make it cold short.
0*03 per cent, of Sulphur will make it red short.
0-35 per cent, of Silicon will make it cold short.
6. Pure iron.—Perfectly pure iron is not a commercial

product, but iron containing only 0-16 per cent, of impurities
is obtainable under the name of ingot iron. It is produced
in a molten condition by a special open-hearth process and
cast. It is ductile and easily welded, and it offers great
resistance to corrosion.
7. Steel is a general term applied to alloys of iron and

carbon, in which the carbon does not exceed 2-0 per cent., and
is present almost entirely in the combined condition, while
other elements are frequently present, in quantities greater
than the carbon, as essential constituents. Manganese,
silicon, phosphorus and sulphur are usually present as im¬
purities.
Steel is produced by adding carbon to wrought iron or by
the decarburization of cast iron.
As the carbon content increases, the hardness increases
progressively and the ductility and toughness decrease. The
Sec. 1.—Ferrous Metals 3
tensile strength also increases at first but reaches a maximum

at 0*9 per cent, carbon.
A carbon content above 0-2 per cent, gives the steel the
property of hardening when heated and then suddenly cooled.
8. Mild- steel or low-carbon steel contains less than
0-25 per cent, of carbon, and a minimum of constituents other
than iron. It has a granular or non-fibrous structure and
being free from impurities in the form of slag, which often
disfigure wrought iron, it can be machined to a better finish
and will take a high polish. It rusts more readily than .
wrought iron. It can be forged and welded but not cast.
9. Medium carbon steel contains from 0-25 to 0-60 per
cent, of carbon, and is harder and stronger than mild steel,
but can be machined without difficulty in the unhardened
state. It can be hardened by heating and quenching, but
not to a high degree of hardness. Readily forged, welded
with some difficulty, cast with difficulty.
10. High-carbon steel or tool steel contains from
0-60 per cent, to 1-6 per cent, of carbon, and is often graded
into six “ tempers ” according to its carbon content (the term
as used here having no connection with its use in connection
with heat treatment).
Particulars of plain carbon steels are given in Table A on
page 4.
11. Other constituents of carbon steels.—All the
above grades of mild and carbon steel contain from 0-25 per
cent, to 1*20 per cent, of manganese (the higher proportion
being used for spring steels), which increases tenacity and
elasticity, but in excess makes the steel difficult to machine ;
also traces of phosphorus and sulphur, which are impurities
and make the steel brittle if present in excess.
12. Alloy steals.—This tenn covers a great variety
of steels which- contain, in addition to carbon, ’manganese,
and impurities as in the case of carbon steels, other metallic
constituents in sufficient quantity to affect the properties
of the steel to a noticeable extent. The proportion of carbon
affects the susceptibility to heat treatment just as in the case
of carbon steel, but the different alloys vary somewhat in
characteristics in this respect. In general, these steels are
stronger and harder than straight carbon steels of similar
carbon content. The principal types are given in the following
paragraphs.
13. Nickel steel.—Up to 5 per cent, nickel gives a steel
of high tensile strength, suitable for machine parts. With
30 per cent, nickel, the steel has a marked resistance to
corrosion by sea-water and is used for the, armouring of
4 Sec. 1.—Ferrous Metals
submarine cables. With 34-38 per cent, nickel, the alloy

has a negligible coefficient of thermal expansion and is used
in measuring instruments. It is known as Invar.
14. Nickel chrome steel.—Up to 3-50 per cent, nickel
and' 1-50 per cent, chromium. Higher tensile strength and
toughness than nickel steel. Very sensitive to heat treatment.
Suitable for parts subject to shocks.
Table A.—Carbon content in cast iron, carbon steel and

mild steel and their various uses
Per¬ R.A.O.D. vocabulary

centage Known as Uses
of car¬ Nomen¬ Identifica¬
bon clature tion colour
0-20 Mild steel Steel, mild Red and Boiler plates.
blue.
0-25 do. do. do.
{Axles, rolled
sections, struct¬
ural steel.
0-30 do. do. do. Tyres.
0-5-0-6 Med. carbon Steel, spring Brown lJlate springs.
steel.
rBlacksmith’s,
Boilermaker’s
and miner’s
0-7-0-8 do. Steel, tool, Blue and tools, cold
carbon, No. yellow. chisels, shanks
3 temper. for tools tipped
with high-speed
steel, wood-
. working tools.
i
General engin¬
eering tools,
0-9-10 do. No. 2 tem¬ Yellow J cutters, taps,
per. | reamers, drills
and punches,
1 shear blades.
Tools talcing
light or finish-
10-1-2 High-carbon
steel.
No. 1 tem¬
per.
Red and
yellow. I
ing cuts on all
metal-working
machines.
3-5 Cast iron —
15. Cobalt steel.—Up to 5 per cent, cobalt increases the

tensile strength and toughness and is used for tools requiring
keen cutting edges. 35 per cent, cobalt steel has high
magnetic retentivity and is largely used for permanent
magnets.
16. Chromium steel.—Contains 0-60 per cent, to 3 per
cent, of chromium, which gives greater penetration of the
Sec. 2.—Non-Ferrous Metals 5
effect of heat treatment, together with great strength and

toughness. Used for heat-treated forgings requiring great
strength and toughness, also ball and roller bearings and
races. 3 per cent, chromium steel is used for armour-piercing
projectiles.
17. Stainless steel.—A special chromium steel, con¬
taining 11 per cent, to 14 per cent, of chromium, which is
practically proof against corrosion under ordinary conditions.
If the carbon content falls below 0-10 per cent, it is known
as “ rustless iron."
18. Chrome-Vanadium steel.—Contains 0-80 per cent,
to 1*10 per-cent, of chromium and 0-15 per cent, to 0*18 per cent,
of vanadium. . Very similar properties to nickel and nickel-
chrome steels. With high carbon content it makes a good
tool steel.
19. Nitralloy.—A special aluminium - chromium - steel
alloy which can be case-hardened by the absorption of
nitrogen (see Sec. 27).
20. Manganese steel contains 11 per cent, to 14 per
cent, of manganese. Without heat treatment it is a hard-
steel of little ductility or toughness, which cannot be softened
by heating and slow cooling ; if heated to 1050° C. and
quenched in cold water, it becomes exceedingly tough and
ductile, while remaining extremely hard. Its hardness,
however, is of a peculiar nature, in that it can be easily
marked with a file or chisel and gives a low Brinell reading,
but is difficult to machine except with special tools, and is
extremely resistant to wear. The hardness appears to be
developed by the action of the tools or wearing surfaces. It
is, therefore, much used for rails, especially at points. It is
almost unique in combining the qualities of great toughness
and great hardness. It is practically non-magnetic.
21. High-speed tool steels.—These are steels, which,
after proper heat treatment, are extremely hard and retain
their hardness at a red-heat, only softening at about 1200° C.
They can therefore be used for much faster and deeper cuts
than carbon tool steel. They actually cut best at a red-heat.
Their composition and heat treatment (see Sec. 27) vary
with different makes, but they usually contain from 8 per cent,
to 19 per cent, of tungsten, together with about 5 per cent,
of chromium, and smaller proportions of manganese and
vanadium.
2. Non-Ferrous Metals
1. Copper is a soft ductile metal, which is obtainable
commercially about 99*95 per cent. pure. It has a good
resistance to corrosion. Cold-working (as in drawing into
6 Sec. 2.—Non-Ferrous Metals
wire) increases its hardness and tenacity considerably ; it can
be resoftened by annealing, which in the case of copper means
heating red-hot and quenching. It is an excellent conductor
of heat and electricity, and is largely used for electric cables
and wires. For machine parts it is principally used as a
constituent of brass and bronze.
Copper castings are normally porous and unsatisfactory,
but sound castings can be produced by adding 1 per cent, of
boron suboxide flux.
2. Zinc is a soft, weak metal, which can be cast or worked
into sheets. Its tensile strength is greatly increased by*
rolling and annealing. It is ductile between 100° and 150° C.,
but brittle outside these limits. It has a good resistance to
atmospheric corrosion at ordinary temperatures, the initial
film of oxide forming a protective film, but can be burnt in
air, and is readily attacked by acids.
The following three methods can be used for covering
iron and steel with zinc as a protection against corrosion :—
(а) Direct spraying of zinc on the surface.
(б) Galvanizing: the plates or articles being dipped in
molten zinc.
(c) Sherardizing: the articles being embedded in powdered
zinc together with some oxide, and heated to 840° F.
3. Tin is a soft metal with a low melting-point and good
resistance to corrosion, retaining a bright surface for a long
time. It is chiefly used for coating other metals to protect
them from oxidation, or as a constituent of alloys.
4. Nickel is a hard metal, which oxidizes superficially
in the air, but corrodes very slowly.
Principally used for electro-plating and as a constituent
of alloys (including nickel steel, see Sec. 1, para. 13).
5. Chromium is an extremely hard metal, which is
practically proof against atmospheric corrosion. It is
principally used for electro-plating, and as a constituent of
various alloy steels. (See Sec. 1.)
6. Aluminium is the lightest metal commonly used for
machine parts. It can be cast or cold-wrought, but having
little strength in the former condition, is seldom used, so-called
aluminium castings being usually alloys. Wrought into sheets,
tubes, &c., it has many uses, and may have a tensile strength
as high as 18 tons per sq. inch. It is soft and fairly ductile,
and resists atmospheric corrosion very well, but is easily
attacked by acids and alkalis. Mercury eats it away very
rapidly by forming an amalgam, a very small quantity being
sufficient to destroy a large aluminium vessel.
Aluminium is largely used in alloys.
Sec. 3.—Non-Ferrous Alloys 7
7. Lead is a very heavy, soft and ductile metal, with a
low melting point and good resistance to corrosion, though a
film of oxide forms rapidly on exposure to air. The ease
with which it can be worked renders it extremely useful for
pipe and sheet work in building construction, but owing to its
weakness it is little used in mechanical engineering, except
in alloys, or occasionally for balancing purposes where weight
is needed and strength is unimportant.
3. Non-Ferrous Alloys
1. The number of alloys available and their infinite
variety of composition and properties, render it useless to
attempt any detailed account of them. Only the main classes
can be indicated.
2. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, containing over
50 per cent, of copper (66 per cent, being used for cast brass).
Brass with a small proportion of copper is hard and brittle;
with a large proportion of copper it is soft and ductile, if
pure and well annealed.
Iron, tin or lead are frequently present up to 2 per cent.
Brass is suitable for castings and machines well.
Brass castings become very brittle when heated to dull
red-heat.
3. Bronze, strictly speaking, is an alloy of copper and
tin, but the term covers a great variety of alloys of copper
with other metals, such as zinc, aluminium, manganese, &c.
Phosphor-bronze contains copper (over 90 per cent.), tin, and
a trace of phosphorus, and is a hard malleable alloy, which
makes good intricate castings, machines easily, and resists
corrosion well. Manganese bronze is really a brass containing
60 per cent, copper, to which a small quantity of manganese
has been added. It can be forged and can be made stronger
than mild steel, but is less ductile. Used for many machine
parts, where mild steel would be liable to corrosion.
Aluminium bronze contains 2-50 per cent, to 12 per cent, of
aluminium, and is malleable and resists corrosion. Gun-
metal contains copper, tin and zinc, and is similar to phosphor-
bronze, but cannot be forged.
4. Magnalium.—A group of alloys of aluminium with
small quantities of magnesium, copper, tin, nickel and lead.
They are lighter, tougher and stronger than aluminium, and
can be cast, forged, machined and welded.
5. Duralumin.—90 per cent, of aluminium with copper,
manganese and magnesium. Can be hardened by suitable
heat treatment. Can be forged and drawn, hot or cold. As
strong as mild steel with one-third of the weight.
8 Sec. 3.—Non-Ferrous Alloys
6. Elektron.—An alloy of magnesium (about 75 per cent.),
aluminium, manganese, zinc and silicon. It is considerably
lighter than aluminium and can be cast, forged, rolled and
pressed.
7. Aluminium-silicon alloys are suitable for castings
owing to their low contraction.
8. Bearing metals.—These may be brasses or bronzes,
as described above, phosphor-bronze being a good example,
or white metals containing tin, lead, antimony and coppen
in various proportions. The bronzes are hard and will
wear well under heavy loads, while white metals bed them¬
selves to the shaft better, cause less friction, do not wear the
shaft so much as bronzes, and* if they overheat, will melt
superficially, and as a rule the shaft will escape damage. On
the other hand they are more liable than bronze to fail, if at
all tight or insufficiently lubricated. If the bearing becomes
slack white metal is liable to fail through hammering. (See
also Sec. 30.)
9. Solders.—Easily fusible alloys used for joining metal
surfaces by applying in a molten condition. There are three
main groups:—
(a) Brazing or spelter solder, for use with brass, copper,
iron and steel; contains copper, zinc, and sometimes nickel
or tin.
(b) Silver solders, for use with silver, gold, copper and
iron ; contains copper, silver and zinc.
(c) Tin-lead solders, for use with tin, lead, copper, brass,
&c.; contains from 35 per cent, to 90 per cent, of lead alloyed
with tin.
See Table G, page 84.
There are also solders for aluminium and other special
purposes.
For Bibliography, see page 686.

CHAPTER II
MECHANICAL DRAWING
4. Mechanical drawing and conventional signs
1. Mechanical drawing.—Drawings required by the
mechanical engineer may be either fully detailed and
dimensioned for use in the workshop or may be merely
illustrations showing the general effect the designer wishes
to produce. The former type only will be considered in this
volume.
The object of all dimensioned drawings is to put the
designer’s ideas clearly and accurately before the workman
who has to turn these ideas into concrete forms.
Machine drawings will be used by the man at the bench,
and must be simple. They should not contain a single
superfluous line or dimension, but must, nevertheless, include
all the information necessary to enable thp workman to con¬
struct the work represented by the drawing.
All dimensions should, as far as possible, be clear of the
drawing. It is essential that the number required, together
with the material of which it is to be made, be written legibly
against each separate detail, c.g. “ 6 off, brass Details
should be well spaced on a sheet and lettered A, B, &c.
Standard size sheets should be used.
The scale should be clearly written oil every sheet. If
drawn full-sized, the fact should be stated. It should be
clearly understood that dimensions must never be measured
off a blue print. Such measurements, owing to the contraction
of the paper during the printing process, will be quite
inaccurate.
The date on which a drawing is completed should be written
upon it, and any alterations made subsequently should
likewise be dated.
All drawings should show by whom and on what date the
dimensions were checked, together with the signature or
initials of the draughtsman. It is thus possible to trace the
responsibility for errors in drawings.
All drawings should be numbered to facilitate filing and
reference.
Ornamental work, elaborate shading, &c. should be
avoided. Clear bold lines should be employed, and the
draughtsman must bear in mind that his original drawings
will not be put into the hands of the workman. The latter
10 Sec. 4—Mechanical Drawing and Conventional Signs
Plate 1.
CONVENTIONS USED IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
VISIBLE LINES
invisible lines
CENTRE LINES IN
pfNc/4. on red ink.
DIMENSION LINES.
EXTENSION OfZ
WITNESS LINES
-] 'p~i
riNo sometimes \Prths on motion. rig 2. Eg. 3.
SPINDLE HE* H°
WITH SO. ENO sene in
5mm
filq. S.
3 ÔP£T
WOOD SECTION
cast mon w iron. STEEL. BRASS OR WHITE

COPPER, ETC ME T*\L
^■7 METALS IN SECTION
BROKEN
if TUBE. PART SECTIONED
TlsS/no
SPOKEN smart.
It
SPOKEN SQUARE BMP
(metal) (metal)
CENTRES QOMENSIONB
rig. 8, breaks or CIRCLES
Sec. 4.—Mechanical Drawing and Conventional Signs 11
will usually be supplied with a blue print reproduction from

the draughtsman's original drawing. The original must,
therefore, be clear so that a good tracing can be taken from
it. When only a few prints are required pencil and paper
tracing will be good enough.
2. Conventional signs.—Certain conventions are usually

employed in machine drawing. Some of them are shown on
PI. 1.
When several small dimensions are shown in line, the
overall dimensions should be given as well; this saves time
in checking. Fig. 1 shows the different forms of lines used
to indicate different parts in a drawing. Figs. 2 to 6 and 8
are self-explanatory. Figs. 9 to 11 show the method of
dimensioning small circles, thin plates, angles, curves, &c.
Fig. 7 shows a method of hatching sometimes employed
together with a colour wash to illustrate different materials;
this method should be adopted sparingly, as it may lead to
confusion. A better method is to write legibly against each
different part the name of the material of which it is con¬
structed.
Fig. 12 shows the method of hatcliing to illustrate the
section of a flange coupling for shafting.
3. Limits.—Limits should be marked for all dimensions

which require to be accurately machined.
4. Blue Prints.—Blue prints can be bleached locally for
alteration by treating with dilute soda solution applied with
a brush. Alterations to the outline can be made by using
this solution in the drawing pen. Blue prints on paper issued
to the shops must be mounted or they will not last long. A
satisfactory method is to mount the print on cardboard,
sticking a blank sheet of paper on the back of the cardboard
to prevent warping. The whole can then be varnished,
preferably with clear cellulose, to avoid discolouring the print.
Blue prints can also be made on linen-backed paper.

CHAPTER III
PRODUCTION OF CASTINGS
5. Principles of design
1. Introductory.—The economical production of service!
able castings is dependent on:—
i. A good design for the finished product.
ii. A pattern of suitable material and construction, made
in such a way as to facilitate the work of the moulder.
iii. Careful moulding and casting.
iv. Correct composition of the metal or alloy most suitable
for the finished article.
In the designing of a casting, it is not generally practicable
to calculate its size from the stress which it has to bear.
Correct proportioning is a matter of judgment and experience.
The various stresses set up by the contraction of molten
metal on cooling, and the direction in which the iron crystals,
on cooling, tend to set themselves, must be understood by the
designer; any design which is at all complicated should be
the outcome of co-operation between the draughtsman,
patternmaker, and moulder.
2. Effects of crystallization.—When molten metal
solidifies in a mould it crystallizes out, and the crystals so
arrange themselves that their longer axes are perpendicular
to the surfaces of the casting.
For instance, in an angle casting, which has sharp comers,
the crystals set themselves as shown on PI. 2, Fig. 1, and,
consequently, lines of cleavage are formed at the corners,
which must reduce the strength of the casting.
As far as the design permits, all corners must be rounded,
as shown on PI. 2, Fig. 2, and it will be seen that no definite
lines of cleavage are formed. This is the first rule of design.
In some cases this rule will affect not only the comers but
the whole design, e.g. when hydraulic cylinders are made of
cast iron, the casting will be as shown on PI. 2, Fig. 4 and
not as shown in Fig. 3; in the latter case the end would be
forced out.
3. Effect of contraction.—When a thick casting is
made, the exterior solidifies first during the cooling process ;
then the interior gradually solidifies and contracts, and
its volume becomes insufficient to fill the already solidified
envelope. This gives rise firstly to internal stresses, and then
12
Sec. 5.—Principles of Design 13
to a drawing-away of the metal inside the envelope, so that

jagged-sided cavities are formed, as shown on PI. 2, Fig. 5.
This drawing is inevitable where heavy masses of metal
must be employed from considerations of strength or weight.
In such cases, the remedy lies with the moulder {see Sec. 9).
Drawing will also occur when a member of light section is
cast with one of much heavier section, as shown on PI. 2,
Fig. 6 ; in such a case, section B cools quicker than the more
massive section A, causing a depression in the surface and a
weak patch underneath at C.
In order to obviate drawing as much as possible :—
i. Keep the section of the casting constant.
ii. Avoid thick masses of metal.
These constitute the second rule of design.
If (i) cannot be done, make the change of section gradual,
as in the pipe flange shown on PI. 2, Fig. 7. When (ii) cannot
be done, the moulder must avoid draws by using a feeding
gate.
The third rule of design is:—Either make sure that the
members of a casting are correctly proportioned to obtain
even rates of cooling and contraction, or ensure that free
contraction, independent of other members, is possible.
For instance, a pulley wheel has its rim and boss united
by the spokes. If the boss is designed too heavy and, there¬
fore, cools after the other lighter components, any of the
spokes may be drawn apart from the rim, as shown on PI. 2,
Fig. 9. If the rim is too heavy in relation to the other
members, the resistance of the previously contracted spokes
may split the rim when it contracts, as shown on PI. 2, Fig. 8.
In this case, the contraction of one member must bring
stresses on the others, unless the contraction of all is simul¬
taneous ; even though an actual parting of metal may not
take place, severe strains will be set up which will weaken the
casting and render it much more liable to fail unexpectedly.
It is for this reason that pulleys and flywheels are usually
cast with curved spokes (PI. 2, Fig. 10), as these can give
better than straight ones.
As close-grained grey cast-iron contracts less than white
iron, the former should be specified for castings in which the
members are not free to contract.
4. To sum up, the three rules of design are :—
Rule 1. Round all corners.
Rule 2. Keep the section constant.
Rule 3. Allow for free contraction.
5. The brass furnace can be used for small cast-iron
articles up to about 100 lb. in weight, but the process is
lengthy and wasteful of fuel.
14 Sec. 6.—Patternmakers’ Work
In military establishments it will frequently be found
economical to replace a light steel casting by one in copper
alloy.
6. Patternmakers’ work
1. Introductory.—A patternmaker must possess skill at
working in wood and have a knowledge of machine drawing
and design, foundry work, and machine-shop work. He
must co-operate closely with the moulders, and will, there¬
fore, usually work under the foundry foreman, although n
large base workshop employing several such tradesman would
have a foreman patternmaker.
2. Materials.—Mahogany, yellow pine, and deal are the
woods most commonly used in patternmaking, but any well-
seasoned timber with suitable grain and hardness applicable
to the work in hand can be utilized.
Mahogany is the best, as it has little tendency to warp or
shrink ; it is easy to work and is hard enough to withstand
wear ; but it is expensive, and its use is, therefore, restricted
to small and intricate patterns and to those which are
continually being used. Small portions of large patterns
which have the most wear are sometimes edged with
mahogany ; small detachable pieces arc also made of it.
Yellow pine, while not so good as mahogany as regards
warping and working, is cheaper, and should be employed
for the majority of good patterns and core-boxes which are
to be used a moderate number of times (say 100).
Deal is used for simple patterns and core-boxes from which
only one or two moulds are required, and from which repeat
castings at long intervals are not likely to be wanted. It
warps and shrinks considerably in store, but is cheap.
Patterns used for repeat work, e.g. grenade castings,
dug-out roof-beam supports, &c., are best made of white
metal or brass, cast from wooden patterns and then machined
under the supervision of a patternmaker. In this case, the
original wooden pattern must be given a double contraction
allowance, as there is contraction both in the casting of the
pattern and of the final castings.
3. Tools and equipment.—Details of patternmakers’
tools are given in Appendix III. Civil patternmakers provide
their own hand tools.
With the hand tools enumerated in Appendix III, and
given reasonable time, a good patternmaker will produce
any ordinary pattern required in the service, but a lathe of
some sort is essential if considerable output is required.
Where patternmakers are employed in the service, ae
metal lathe will always be available, and a great deal of the
Sec. 6.—Patternmakers* Work 15
patternmakers’ turning can be done on this, provided that the
wood hand-turning tools (Appendix III, List C) are available.
In a pattern shop of large size, the following tools should be
provided:—
A 6-inch centre wood lathe, capable of taking a 2-foot
6-inch diameter face-plate for dealing with such articles
as pulleys.
A small band saw, for cutting quickly and roughly to size.
A wood trimmer.
A small circular saw.
4. $0tting out.-—A patternmaker should be provided
either with a machine drawing of the article to be made
or with the duplicate casting or part, which will usually
be broken. Before starting to work, he makes a full-sized
drawing of the pattern (not the casting) on a board, adding
all necessary allowances. This is termed setting out.
The pattern itself will not be an exact reproduction of the
drawing, which shows the shape of the machined and finished
casting. The patternmaker has to interpret the drawing,
i.e. to think out the shape and construction of the pattern,
and, in so doing, he has to allow for contraction, machining,
and withdrawal of the pattern.
5. Contraction.—As most metals contract on cooling,
the mould, and hence the pattern, must be made larger than
the finished casting by the amount of contraction which will
take place.
Normal contraction figures are :—
Cast iron in bed-plates, frames, girders, &c. .. 1/120
Cast iron in pipes, cylinders, &c. .. .. 1/96
Brass .1/80
Gun metal ., .. .. .. .. .. 1/72
Copper .1/64
Steel '.1/48
Aluminium .. .. ,, .. .. 3/128
In practice, contraction allowance can be ignored, as a
contraction rule which adds the allowance automatically is
used for setting out.
The correct contraction scale for the particular metal being
dealt with must, of course, be used.
The patternmaker must know the metal to be cast, and
this information should be written on the machine drawing,
together with the number of castings required.
6. Allowance for machining.—Where a machined
surface is required on the finished article, additional metal
must be allowed, to enable a roughing cut to rejnove the skin
16 Sec. 7.—Principles of Moulding
and a finishing cut to be taken. The amounts normally

allowed are:—
Cast iron or steel— Inch.
External ..
For boring la
Brass or copper alloy— l_

External Tii
1
For boring 8
For long thin castings, where warping may be unavoidable

the machining allowance should be increased. The larger
allowance in boring is to compensate for any displacement
of the core. Each case must be considered on its merits,
using the above figures as a guide.
Machined surfaces are usually shown on the drawing by a
red line or a small letter, “ f The pattern should be made
in such a way that surfaces which require machining should
be cast in the bottom of the mould, as any faults that may
occur will be at the top of the mould.
7. Withdrawal of pattern.—To facilitate the withdrawal
of a pattern from the mould, taper is given where vertical,
cylindrical, or flat faces are used; this taper varies from -J- inch
to \ inch per foot, depending on the depth of the face and the
use to which the article is to be put.
7. Principles of moulding that a patternmaker must know

1. Complete pattern in one box.—{Simple self-coring
pattern.)—A patternmaker must know the various processes
and devices employed in the foundry.
A few examples of moulding methods will therefore be
considered from a patternmaker’s point of view. Details wh ich
concern the moulder alone are not given.
PI. 2, Fig. 11 (a) shows the casting of a bracket.
The pattern will be of exactly the same shape as the
required casting (which has not to be machined), but slightly
larger to allow for contraction.
The moulder takes his bottom moulding frame or drag
{see PI. 2, Fig. 11 (&)) and places it upside down on a board.
The face, ff, of the pattern is placed on the board inside the
drag, and sand is rammed up round it. The drag is turned
over, and parting sand is sprinkled over the surface. The
cope, or top frame, is placed in position on the drag, filled
with sand, and rammed ; then it is removed, and holes are
made in it for the molten metal to be poured through (PI 2,
Fig. 11 (c)).
In this example, no part of the pattern projects into the
sand in the top frame or cope, which simply forms a cover.
Sec. 7.—Principles of Moulding 17
Plats 2.
Details of Moulders Work.

18 Sec. 7.—Principles of Moulding _
The pattern has now to be withdrawn. It is first tapped

to loosen it, and then drawn out of the sand. Unless the
sides of the pattern are tapered, portions of the sand will
usually stick to them and damage the mould.
2. Patterns requiring loose pieces and a core—PI. 2,
Fig. 12 (a) shows a more complicated form of bracket in plan
and elevation, and the pattern for it.
This casting cannot be treated like that in para. 1, as the
projection, F, would tear away the sand above it.
The pattern, PI. 2, Fig. 12 (b), will, therefore, be provided
with a loose piece skewered on. In the first operation (see
para. 1), enough sand must be rammed up round the loose
piece to keep it in position, and the skewer will then be drawn
out. The main pattern will be withdrawn first, and then the
loose piece, F, will be fished for and removed.
As a hole (for boring) is to be cast in the bracket end, the
finished mould must be solid at that part. To represent the
hole, a core, PI. 2, Fig. 12 (c), of correct size is made of baked
sand or clay, suitably stiffened. The core-box, PI. 2, Fig. 12 (d),
in which ihe moulder forms the core, is made of wood by the
patternmaker.
A core-print forms part of the pattern, and in this the core
is placed. The finished mould with core in position is shown
on PI. 2, Fig. 12 (e).
The use of loose pieces should, if possible, be avoided.
3. Moulding with pattern in two boxes, by turning
over.—In the examples given in paras. 1 and 2, no portion of
the pattern has projected into the cope. PI. 2, Fig. 13 (a)
shows a cast iron single-flanged trolley wheel.
The pattern is made solid, and has core-prints ; a core-box
(not shown) forms part of the pattern. It will be seen that,
in order that the pattern may draw, the moulder’s joint must
be through B (the major axial plane). PI. 2, Fig. 13 (b).
The moulding process is :—
Operation 1 ; the pattern is reversed and pressed into sand
in the cope up to the line BB. PI. 2, Fig. 13 (c).
Operation 2 ; the drag is placed in position after the
moulder’s joint has been made and sprinkled with parting
sand, and sand is rammed round the pattern in the drag.
,
PI. 2 Fig. 13 (d). 6
Operation 3 ; the box is turned over, the cope is removed,
its sand is emptied, the joint at the top of the drag is made
and sprinkled with parting sand, and the cope is replaced and
rammed up. PI. 2, Fig. 13 (e). The cope is then removed,
the pattern is drawn from the drag, the core is placed in
position, and the cope is replaced. PI. 2, Fig. 13 ( f).
Sec. 7.—Principles of Moulding 19
4. Split patterns.—PI. 2, Fig. 14 shows the split pattern
for a pipe casting. It is jointed by means of dowels and
sockets. To mould, the socket half of the pattern is placed
with its flat face on a board and is rammed up in the drag,
which is then turned. The top half of the pattern is fitted
in position, the moulder’s joint is made, and sand is rammed
into the cope. The cope is removed, and thus there is a
half-pattern embedded in both cope and drag. These are
removed separately, the core is inserted, the cope is replaced
in the drag, and the mould is ready for casting.
Now it is obviously possible to cast the pipe with a solid
(unsplit) pattern. It will, however, be less convenient for
the moulder to handle, and will take him longer. On the
other hand, the ' split pattern will take the patternmaker
longer to produce than the solid one. In practice, if one pipe
was required, and a Ayooden pattern adopted, the solid
pattern would be used ; if 50 pipes were wanted, the split
pattern would be used. It depends on which method is the
cheaper in the end.
5. Moulding with pattern in three boxes.—PI. 2,
Fig. 15 shows a double-flanged trolley wheel and its pattern,
which is split symmetrically. In this case, a three-part box
with a middle part will be required by the moulder, and the
middle part’s height must be equal to the distance between
the moulder’s two joints, BB and CC.
The first operation is similar to that of the example given
in para. 3, except that one half-pat tern only is employed.
PL 2, Fig. 15 (a).
In the second operation the cope and middle part are
rammed up. PI. 2, Fig. 15 (b). The method of drawing the
patterns is obvious, and the third operation shows the core
inserted. PI. 2, Fig. 15 (c).
6. False-core method.—The double-flanged trolley wheel
can be moulded in' two boxes with a pattern similar to that
used in the example given in para. 4 (split down the
middle).
One half of the pattern is moulded in the bottom box in the
usual way, the sand down to aa, PI. 2, Fig. 16 (a), is removed
as shown, and the whole surface is sprinkled with parting sand.
The other half-pattern is then put in position, and sand is
rammed in to form the second parting which slopes down to
form the widest part, bb, of the top flange. Parting sand is
sprinkled on surface bb ; the cope is put on and rammed up.
By taking off the top box, the upper half-pattern can be
removed. By replacing the top box, turning the mould
upside down, and removing the bottom box, the bottom half-
pattern can be removed. _ .
4- ^ 34?
20 Sec. 8.—Patternmakers’ Details
7. Strickling and striking-up.—The patternmaker must
also know the principles of strickling, striking-up, loam
moulding, and plate moulding, described in Sec. 9. PI. 2,
Fig. 17 shows a skeleton pattern for a solid panel, which is
obviously much cheaper to make than a solid one. The sand
between the frame members is removed by means of the
shaped board, a, known as a strickle.
The making of the strickle is the work of the pattern¬
maker. PI. 3, Fig. 1 shows a strickle for reducing the depth
of gear teeth in the sand, so that a casting smaller than the
existing pattern may be produced. 1
PI. 3, Fig. 2 shows the pattern (or the core) of a curved
pipe being slricklcd up, the bent iron bar serving as a template.
Two such half-pipe or core patterns are made and cemented
together by the moulder. If flanges and core-prints are
required, they can be fixed by the patternmaker in co-opera¬
tion with the moulder.
PI. 3, Fig. 3 shows a striking board, which is also made by
the patternmaker for the moulder’s use in striking-up circular
patterns or cores in loam.
The proper grasping of patternmaking problems is a
matter of experience, and their solution must generally be
left to the patternmaker and moulder.
Only the simplest cases have been dealt with, but all the
main principles have been embraced.
8. Patternmakers’ details
1. Constructional joints, &c.—Owing to changing
atmospheric conditions, articles of timber frequently warp,
shrink or swell.
The aim of the patternmaker should be to construct
patterns capable of resisting the dampness of the foundry
sand and the beat of the pattern store, and strong enough
to resist rough usage and the fair wear and tear of repeated
use.
Timber is stronger with the grain than across the grain
and this must be borne in mind throughout.
i-j°r.^s1tance' ê frame, PI. 3, Fig. 4 (a), if cut from the
aaa v 1 have no Pe™anence of form. The side members,
AAA, have not the grain in the direction of their length. The
bmlt-up frame, PI. 3, Fig. 4 (b), is strong, permanent in form,
and built on correct lines.
In curved work, where considerable distortion will occur
owing to shrinkage, it is the practice to build-up with a
number °i small curved sections, in which the grain runs
differently in contiguous sections.
PI. 3, Fig. 5 shows a built-up pattern, and PI. 3, Fig. 6 a
core* dox.
Sec. 8.—Patternmakers’ Details 21
22 Sec. 9.—Moulders’ Work
2. Finishing patterns.—Varnishing of patterns should
be completed before they go to the foundry, to protect them
from the damp of the moulds.
Two coats of shellac varnish (shellac in methylated spirits)
are usually given to those for important work.
Some such simple expedient as marking core-prints red,
and the rest of the exterior of the pattern black, is generally
adopted to help the moulder.
3. Storing patterns.—Patterns should be stored in
cool, dry, well-ventilated rooms fitted with shelves. A set
of patterns for one job may involve several pieces ; thus, a
plummer block and bearing will have top, bottom, bushes,
loose pieces, core-boxes, &c., and all these should be tied
together and labelled.
A pattern register should be kept, showing clearly the
job for which each set was made and the number and nature
of the separate articles in each set, so as to avoid losses. If
this is done methodically, much time will be saved, especially
in large shops.
4. Altering patterns.—It will often happen that a job
is received in a shop for casting, and that patterns nearly
the same as those required are available in store. The rule
should be to make additions only to existing patterns in order
to adapt them ; never cut into an existing pattern unless it is
absolutely certain it will never be required again, as patterns
are expensive to produce.
9. Moulders’ work
1. Tools, equipment, and stores.—Moulders in different
parts of Great Britain call the same tools by different names.
The personal tools of a moulder are given in Appendix IV.
2. Types of iron moulding.—Iron moulding comprises
three distinct branches, viz. :—
i. Green sand.
ii. Dry sand.
iii. Loam.
In addition to these, there is chill casting.
Green sand does not refer to the colour of the sand, but
means that the metal is cast in a damp mould. This is the
normal practice with iron.
Dry-sand moulding implies that the mould is dried
thoroughly before metal is run into it, and is employed where
a fine surface is required and also for heavy and expensive jobs.
Loam moulding does not require a pattern in the ordinary
sense; strickles and sweep boards are used with wet loam,
straw, &c. It is confined to symmetrical articles.
Sec. 9.—Moulders’ Work 23
Chill casting is the process of casting metal in metal

moulds; the quick-cooling action causes an intensely hard
surface to be formed on the casting.
3. Foundry sands.—In green-sand moulding, the sand
of which the moulds are made must be fine-grained, free from
lumps, and of such a consistency that it holds together when
damp. It must be infusible when in contact with molten
metal, and the mould must be sufficiently porous to allow the
gases formed by the metal in the mould to escape.
The most suitable mixtures obtainable from sands in any
locality are- obtained only after much experimenting; the
military engineer must follow local practice. A casting can
be produced, however, in almost any type of yellow-coloured
sand which will hold together when damp and retain the shape
of the pattern. If such sand cannot be found, the addition
of a little clay will improve the adhesive properties of otherwise
suitable sands which may be available.
Sea sand is not suitable.
A practical test for quality of sand is to pour some molten
metal through a pouring runner and a sprue into an open
mould. If the metal lies quiet, or does not blow or bubble
more than three times it is suitable for use. The thickness
of the metal layer need not be more than one inch.
A foundry floor is covered with sand to a depth of from two
to three feet. It is used repeatedly for filling moulds; its
black colour is caused by the coal dust with which the facing
sand is mixed. Floor (or backing) sand constitutes the body
of the mould, but the actual surfaces which come in contact
with molten metal are made of facing sand.
Facing sand is the true moulding material; its composition
and consistency is varied by the moulder to suit the work in
hand. For large castings, the weight of molten metal
necessitates a strong sand which has good binding power and
which will not crumble away. Smaller castings are better
made in sand which has less binding power, and which, in
consequence, is more porous and, therefore, better adapted
for carrying off the gases formed in the mould on casting.
The moulder is responsible that his mixture of facing sand
is of the right consistency. A rough recipe for general small
work in iron is six parts floor sand, four parts new sand, and
one part coal dust.
The ingredients are ground up in a sand-mixing machine,
or they may be mixed by hand where necessary. Coal dust
is used to prevent the sand in contact with molten metal from
being fused, and thereby making the surface of the casting
rough, i.e. sand-burnt.
When heated by the molten metal, the coal dust produces
gas which forms a cushion between the sand (which is fusible
24 Sec. 9.—Moulders* Work
to a certain extent) and the molten metal. Excess of coal

dust prevents light castings from running sharply and may
result in “ cold shuts ” (that is, failure of two bodies of molten
metal to run together).
Parting sand is the material used to prevent any inquired
portions of a mould from adhering. It usually consists of
baked red sand, brick dust or burnt sand from the fettling
shop. A thin layer is sprinkled on the surface of the mould
wherever a joint is required between the respective parts.
Parting sand must be dry.
4. Green-sand moulding can be subdivided into :—
i. Turning over.
ii. Bedding in.
iii. Moulding in open sand.
Moulding by turning over is performed in boxes (or flasks),
which are described in Sec. 7.
The bottom box or drag has cross bars, as shown on PI. 3,
Fig. 7, to retain the sand. The top box or cope has ribs for
the same purpose, so placed as to facilitate ramming the sand ;
the ribs do not extend far enough to foul the pattern. Pro¬
jecting pins on the drag register with holes in the lugs of the
cope.
Small boxes have no cross bars or ribs.
Moulding boxes are made of cast iron, with the sides left
rough to facilitate adhesion, or of wood.
5. Details of moulding by turning over.—The moulding
of the flanged pipe, PI. 2, Fig. 14, will now be considered from
the point of view of the moulder.
Operation 1.—The portion of the pattern carrying the
dowel sockets is placed face downwards on the turn-over
board inside the drag, which is supported on its face edge on
the board. Damp facing sand is rammed round the pattern
so as to cover it for about 1| inches; the remainder of the
mould is then rammed up with floor sand which has been
previously riddled, and the bottom surface of the drag is
smoothed off with a board.
A blunt vent wire is inserted in the sand in a large number
of places. The object of this is to allow outlets for the gases
formed in casting ; it is known as venting.
Operation 2.—The drag is turned over so that the half-
pattern comes on top. The top half of the pattern is fitted
to the bottom half, and parting sand is sprinkled lightly over
the surface of the mould. The cope is placed in position on
the drag. The runner stick (if used) is placed in a vertical
position, clear of the mould, where the pouring gate is required,
and pushed about half an inch into the drag to mark the
position of the sprue. The top half of the pattern is covered
with facing sand and the mould is completed with door sand
as in operation 1, riser sticks being inserted over each flange;
the top surface in the cope is levelled off with a board, and
vented as above. Alternatively, the pouring gate may be
cut with a brass tube of the required size after the mould has
been completed. Sometimes in the case of small castings,
the moulder will withdraw the pattern before selecting the
position for the pouring gate.
Operation 3.—The runner stick and riser sticks (if any)
are gently tapped and removed. The cope is then removed,
turned over and placed, pattern upwards, alongside the drag.
Before the pattern is removed, the edges of facing sand next
to the pattern are swabbed lightly with a sponge or wet
brush, to ensure that they will not break away on the pattern
being withdrawn.
In drawing the pattern, care must be taken that it is
lifted vertically, and that none of the sand comes away with it.
The moulder first loosens the pattern by inserting the point
of an iron pin in the wood, and by tapping the latter all
round so as to give the pattern a little clearance sideways;
he then lifts it clear by the dowels, or by a spike inserted into a
hole, if one has been made in the pattern for that purpose.
(Large patterns have special rapping and withdrawing plates
fitted {see PI. 3, Fig. 8), the withdrawal being carried out by
means of rods screwed in the tapping plate.)
Operation 4.—By means of a trowel, the moulder now cuts
a channel from the down runner to the edge of the mould.
He has probably damaged the edges of the mould in drawing
the half-patterns. These must be trued up, and the sand in
the bottom of the moulds blown away with hand bellows.
Operation 5.—The surface of the mould has now to be
coated with plumbago, by sifting through a muslin bag. This
is to ensure that the molten metal does not come into contact
with the sand, which it would partly fuse. In this respect
the plumbago helps the coal dust in facing sand, which alone
is not sufficient to produce the desired result.
The core, made as described in para. 13, and painted with
blackwash (i.e. a mixture of plumbago and water), is inserted
in position, supported by the impressions left by the core-
prints.
Operation 6.—Preparing the mould for being cast. The
cope is placed on the drag. The runner stick and riser sticks
(if any) are temporarily replaced and the pouring and riser
bushes lined with sand and bell-mouthed, after which the
sticks are removed. The object of these bushes is to obtain
sufficient pressure of metal to ensure that all cavities in the
26 Sec. 9.—Moulders1 Work
top of the mould are filled up, and to intimate when the
mould is full. They would not be fitted for shallow castings
when extra pressure is not required, the metal being poured
direct into the hole left by the runner-stick.
In this case the pouring cup should be made as shown on
PL 3, Fig. 18. A depression is made at “ a ” so that metal
will not flow down the runner until the depression has been
filled, by which time, the man using the ladle can ensure a
steady flow.
■When the metal is poured into the mould, it tends to
float the cope and force it off the drag. To prevent this,
either weights must be laid on the cope or it must be joined
to the drag by cotters through the pins.
The mould is now ready for the operation of casting, which
if dealt with in Sec. 10.
6. Use of lifters, nails, and sprigs.—The example
given in para. 5 is of the simplest nature, and is intended for
comparatively small castings only.
With bigger and more complicated patterns, the weight of
unsupported sand in the cope would be too great, and recourse
is had to lifters, which are pieces of round iron, bent and
hooked on to the bars of the cope, as shown on PL 3, Fig. 10.
With still larger moulds, grids (see PL 3, Fig. 9) are cast
and hung from the bars of the cope for the same purpose.
In all work where there are small isolated bodies of sand,
and narrow weak edges, projections, &c., cut nails, from \ inch
to 6 inches in length and known as sprigs, are inserted at the
time of moulding, and also after the pattern has been with¬
drawn. Should the mould crack or show signs of giving way,
nails are thrust in to strengthen it and to prevent the sand
from being washed away by the rush of the metal.
7. Chaplets.—These are used to support long or bent
cores, where the print is insufficient to hold them firmly.
Pl. 3, Fig. 11 and PL 4, Fig. 13 (a) show the method of using
them. A small footing of wood or iron is placed under the
chaplet in the case of large work.
For pipes 6 feet long or over, additional chaplets should be
placed on the top, to prevent the core from lifting.
Chaplets should be made of non-rusting material, and be
tinned all over before insertion. Rust would cause blow¬
holes.
8. Venting.—There is always a free escape for gas from
the top of the cope. The drag, however, rests on a sand bed,
and gas coming through vent-holes finishing on the bottom
of the drag must have a clear path through the sand floor.
This is effected by venting the floor, as shown on Pl. 3, Fig. 12,
or by making grooves in the bed.
There is also an avenue for the escape of gas between

the drag and cope. A channel is therefore made round the
pattern on the surface of the sand in the drag, and thence to
the edges {see PL 3, Fig. 13) ; a curved vent iron is inserted
in the groove, so as to get underneath the pattern. This, of
course, must be done with the pattern in position, and is
especially important when the bedding-in process is em¬
ployed.
9. Runners, risers, &c.—Pouring-runners should
conform to the following :—
i. Their number, size, and position must be such that
all portions of the mould can be filled with metal
while it is still thoroughly fluid.
ii. Their position'must be such that the entering metal
does not immediately come into contact with sharp
edges of the mould, thereby washing them away.
iii. Their size and position must be such that drawing
cannot occur at the points where they join on to the
mould.
iv. Their position must be such that the pouring cup can
be kept full, otherwise slag, which normally floats
to the top, will find its way into the mould.
If metal is poured from the top direct into a deep mould,
it will immediately begin to cool in the bottom of the mould ;
but as long as sufficiently hot and fluid metal continues to be
poured in, a satisfactory casting should result.
If the pouring gate supplies two or more channels which
divide and reunite at the opposite side of a long pattern,
as in PI. 3, Fig. 14, a cold shut may result at the junction
if the metal has cooled and become insufficiently fluid to
unite. If the runner cannot be made large enough to ensure
a rapid flow of metal, two or more runners should be provided
and the metal poured into both simultaneously.
On PI. 4, Figs. 11 and 12, if the runners were placed to
deliver directly to a flange, the metal would tend to wash
away the sharp comers and to fall direct on to the hard core,
a steady flow of metal in the mould would not be maintained,
and the pouring cup would tend to empty too quickly.
A horizontal runner is, therefore, provided, which is fed
by the pouring-runner, the metal entering at the side.
The pouring-runner for a pulley would be placed over the
boss, which is the heaviest portion, so that the runner could
be made big enough and a draw avoided. If it were placed
at the flange, and were of sufficient size to fill the mould quickly
enough, it would be so much heavier than the section of the
rim that a draw would occur.
In cases where the size of the pouring-runner is so limited,

several small brandies may be taken from the main channel
to various places in the mould (see PI. 3, Fig. 15).
A riser is a vertical opening situated either at the highest
point of the mould or opposite the pouring-gate, and its chief
object is to show when the mould is full of molten metal.
It also allows air and gas to escape while the metal is being
poured and, further, it helps to prevent drawing. It is some¬
times necessary to cover the riser with a piece of paper and a
ball of sand to prevent air from being sucked in.
10. Feeding-gates.—Feeding-gates are sometimes re¬
quired in addition to ordinary runners and risers (see PI. 3,
Fig. 17).
Their object is to feed with molten metal under pressure
those places whidi are most liable to draw. Where the
additional head of metal is not sufficient to effect this, a
wrought iron rod is inserted through the feeding-gate and
given an up-and-down movement in the molten metal.
The effect is to preserve a passage to the inside of the boss
until its outside surface actually sets, so that shrinkage can
be made up by metal under pressure in the riser.
11. Bedding-in.—In the process of green-sand moulding,
called bedding-in, a drag is dispensed with, the cope being
pegged down to correct register. It is useful in the case of
big castings for which suitable boxes do not exist. The sand
is dug up and loosened to a sufficient depth, and into it the
pattern is beaten with mallets, care being taken that it is kept
level. As soon as a rough impression of the mould is obtained,
from one inch to two inches of facing sand is riddled over the
whole area, and the pattern is beaten down again. It requires
skill to bed it evenly.
The face is then strewn with parting sand, and the cope is
put in, set with stakes, and rammed, &c. The bottom half
is vented. Venting is facilitated if the whole mould is in a
cinder bed.
12. Uses of open-sand moulding.—The process of
moulding in green sand by bedding-in without a cope has a
very limited application. The top of the mould is uncovered
and the top face of the casting must, therefore, be horizontal;
castings are irregular and porous because they are not cast
under pressure and because their surfaces set before all hot
gases have been expelled.
Castings made in open sand are, therefore, only employed
for very rough work, such as moulding-boxes, back-plates,
core-plates, and rough weights.
13. Gores.—Cores are used in a mould to prevent molten
metal from flowing into places required to be hollow in the
Sec. 9.—Moulders’ Work
finished casting. They may be oi any required shape, and are
usually made in core-boxes, Pl. 2, Fig. 12 (d), by ramming up.
For repeat work they are made in core machines (see PI. 3,
Fig. 19).
The same conditions must exist in cores as in the moulds
themselves. The substance of cores must be stiffened with
rods, grids, or nails. Vents of sufficient area must be provided
to carry off gas and air, and the cores must be secured against
the pressure of liquid metal.
A good composition for small cores, such as those shown on
PI. 2, Fig. 12 (c) and PI. 3, Fig. 16, is two parts yellow sand,
two parts floor sand, and one part horse manure. Cores are
rammed up damp, clay-water being used, if necessary, to give
the required cohesion. They are then baked in a core-oven.
A good design of a core-oven is shown on PI. 6, Fig. 3.
For field use a coke brazier, supplying heat to a sheet-metal
drying chamber in which the cores are placed, is quite effective.
The baking process will tend to make the cores brittle;
cores are, therefore, reinforced with iron wire of varying size;
this is necessary in all but the smallest cores (those less than
4 inches long).
Reinforcement of cores of complicated shape is difficult,
so binders or core-gums are mixed with the sand, &c. instead
of water. Linseed oil is a good binder.
Venting is effected by stabbing straight cores, before
heating, with one or two venting wires down the middle;
this forms a duct through which the gases from the porous
core can escape into the air.
Bent cores are rammed up in halves, a waxed string is
inserted (see PI. 3, Fig. 16), and the two portions in their
half-boxes are stuck together with clay-water. After baking,
it will be found that the string is either burnt or can be easily
removed. Cores are painted with blackwash of plumbago and
water after baking.
14. Dry-sand moulding.—This is used for heavy work
and that which is wanted specially sound and free from blow¬
holes. The mould is made in exactly the same way as in
the green-sand method, but the sand mixture is different,
containing manure or sawdust, which bums when baked,
leaving venting passages.
The sand mixture for small work can be 2 part9 floor sand,
2 parts new yellow sand, and 1 part dung or sawdust.
The whole mould is baked in the same way as a core,
and then it is painted, while hot, with blackwash consisting
of clay-water and plumbago. Venting must be provided for.
15. Plate and machine moulding.—These two methods
can be carried out in green sand or dry sand,’ and, being
30 Sec. 9.—Moulders* Work
adaptable to repeat work, result in a great increase of output

by each moulder.
In plate moulding the pattern can be divided into two
portions, one on either side of a pattern-plate made of wood
or metal, PI. 4, Fig. 1.
The pattern-plate, provided with drilled lugs which register
with those on the cope and the pins on the drag, is placed
between the cope and the drag, the surface is sprinkled with
parting sand, and then both the cope and the drag are rammed
up on to the plate. >
The cope is turned, the plate is removed, plumbago is
sprinkled on the mould, and the cope is replaced. Thus the
number of operations has been greatly reduced.
The design of runners requires experience.
Rapid moulding as above will use up a large number of
boxes. Therefore, recourse is had to split boxes, which are
removed from the moulds on their arrival in position on the
casting floor, and used repeatedly.
When withdrawing the cope from the plate, and the plate
from the drag, great steadiness is required to avoid breaking
the edges.
Moulding machines, PI. 4, Fig. 2, are worked on the same
principle, except that two plates are used (usually on separate
machines). Hand-ramming is used round the patterns;
but the sand for box filling is pressed in by a lever, a, and a
board, h, and the patterns and mould are separated by a
straight mechanical movement or, in some cases, by means
of a hydraulic ram, c.
As a further preventive against damage to the edges of the
mould, on the best machines the pattern-plate is withdrawn
through a stripping-plate, PI. 4, Fig. 3, which can be turned
with the mould.
On PI. 4, Fig. 2, the pattern-plate is placed, pattern
upwards, on c, and the stripping-plate and mould are supported
on the rods dd. To draw the pattern, the hydraulic pedal
is pressed, and the stripping-plates and mould are withdrawn
from the pattern-plate without jerking.
Where these machines are installed, a core-making machine,
PI. 3, Fig. 19, is usually required to keep pace with the
moulding.
16. Loam moulding will not often be practised by the
military engineer, but, where one or two castings of a sym¬
metrical nature are required, loam patterns, made by the
moulder himself and moulded in green sand, can be used
instead of expensive wooden patterns.
This process is especially suitable for pipe-work. The core
is first formed on a core bar made of perforated pipe, which is
supported on trestles. A hay-band covering is first wrapped
Plate 4.
tightly round the bar and, over this, a coating of loam is
applied as the bar is revolved.
A good composition for loam cores is yellow sand mixed
with clay-water containing one-fifth of its volume of horse
dung and cow hair. Loam is added until the board, a on
PI. 3, Fig. 3, set to the correct distance, trues up the edge
of the revolving core. The core is dried in the stove (it will
be seen that the ends of the core-pipe form the core-prints),
and is then given a coat of blackwash.
To make the pattern itself, the core, after baking, is put>
back on the trestles, and another layer of loam is added to the
required thickness of the pipe. The whole is baked, and any
flanges required are made by the patternmaker and fixed by
nails to the loam pattern.
The pattern is then moulded in the usual way, the thick¬
ness-piece is peeled off (the blackwash forming the parting),
and the core is placed in position.
Bent-pipe patterns can be made in a similar way in loam
by the strickle, PI. 3, Fig. 2. Tfte core and pattern are made
in halves and stuck together by the moulder with blackwash
17. Faults to look for when inspecting castings.—
A good specification for castings states :—
The castings shall he clean and sound, both externally and internally.
They shall be free from honeycombing, blow-holes, scabs, cold shuts, draws,
and other defects.
No stopping-up or plugging shall be permitted. No casting shall be
made in open sand. Cores shall be cast-in accurately.
The metal shall be re-melted once in the cupola, and free from admixture
of inferior material. It shall be uniformly tough and close-grained. It
shall be of such strength that a turned bar having an area of 2 square inches
shall bear a tensile strain of not less than 16,000 lb. per square inch.
A test bar, 2 inches deep by 1 inch thick, placed on supports 3 feet wide,
shall bear a cross-breaking strain of not less than 28 cwt., with a deflection
of not less than | inch before breaking.
Drawing.—The fault termed drawing has been dealt with

in Sec. 5, para. 3. Its presence can be detected by a depression
in the surface, and if it occurs at a point where strength is
required, the casting should be condemned.
Honeycombing and blow-holes are caused by insufficient
venting, and by lack of head. Honeycombing, or sponginess,
consists of a large number of small holes on the surface,
PI. 4, Fig. 6, which probably lead into large blow-holes in the
interior. , Honeycombing and blow-holes will usually appear
at the top of a casting, where the pressure is least. If honey¬
combing is of any depth, the casting should be rejected. In
any case, pins should be inserted to ascertain if honeycombing
extends to blow-holes.
Honeycombed surfaces can be worked-up with a hammer ;
the inspecting officer should, therefore, look for hammer marks
Sec. 9.—Moulders* Work 33
at the top of a casting, and tap it hard all round with a hammer
to ascertain if hollows exist behind a thin film of metal.
It is better not to pass work in which honeycombing and
blow-holes occur, even if they are found in portions of the
casting not subjected to load, as their existence indicates that
the casting may be also blown in a more vital part.
Scabbing, PI. 4, Fig. 4, may occur on all parts of a casting.
It is caused by the washing away of sand, due to weak sand,
hard ramming, or bad venting.
Its presence indicates that sand is embedded somewhere
in the casting, and this should be sufficient for it to be con¬
demned. The roughened surface can be chipped off with a
chisel, &c.; this surface can, however, be seen by the inspecting
officer.
Cold shuts, PI. 4, Fig. 5, occur when two streams of metal,
which are not hot enough to unite properly, meet in a mould.
In such cases, the casting is practically fractured, and
should be condemned.
18. Miscellaneous economies.—It is often possible to
cast direct from a broken casting, thereby avoiding the
expense of a pattern.
PI. 4, Fig. 7 shows a broken bracket. The centre is
blocked up with a square block of wood for which a core-box
can be readily made. The core-prints, FF, are formed by a
round piece of wood. Round extensions to the core, to
correspond with the prints, can be stuck on with clay-water.
Cores and prints for the bolt-holes can be inserted if
required.
A broken pipe, PI. 4, Fig. 8, is given wooden prints and
used as a pattern, the core being made in halves by a strickle.
In small work of this nature there is little contraction, and a
slight increase in size to allow for machining can be made by
increased rapping of the pattern in the mould.
PI. 4, Fig. 13 shows how a pattern for a long pipe can be
used for moulding a shorter one. The process is known as
stopping-off. The pattern is moulded first; then a new flange
is moulded by the stopping piece B, the portion D of the
mould being filled in with sand.
Buming-on is the practice of casting new metal on a
damaged casting.
It is used where it is more convenient and economical than
making a-new pattern and mould.
In the case of the pipe flange, PI. 4, Fig. 14, the new mould
is made in loam against the casting. A pouring-runner and
a flow-off channel are provided. The casting is first heated
in a core-oven ; the new mould is made up quickly, red-hot
weights being placed as near as possible to the broken part
to preserve its heat. A large quantity of molten metal is
34 Sec. 10.—Iron Founding
poured into the runner and allowed to flow through the mould
and then to waste. The portion of the original casting inside
the mould is gradually heated up to fusing point, and, when
this occurs, the pouring is stopped.
This process requires great skill on the part of the moulder.
It is likely to be more successful with the copper alloys than
with those of iron.
10. Iron founding
1. The cupola. PI. 5, Fig. 2 (see also PI. 6, Fig. 2), shows
a simple design of cupola installed in the Workshops S.M.E.,
which is suitable for melting 25-30 cwt. of iron an hour. It
is constructed of f-inch steel sheet, lined with 4^-inch fire¬
brick set in fireclay, and mounted on a steel pedestal, the legs
of which are set in concrete.
The drop bottom is of |-inch steel sheet. The tuyeres,
slag hole, tapping hole, running spout (let through the
foundry wall) and coloured sight glasses are all indicated
in the figure.
2. Blowers.—The air-blast for a cupola is provided by a
blower, which maybe either of the Roots’ or centrifugal type.
See Sec. 16 for particulars of blowers. The Roots' blower has
the advantage of a more positive action, and in the past has
been largely used, but the modem tendency is to use centri¬
fugal blowers, which have a higher efficiency, are cheaper and
easier to maintain and are much quieter in operation.
3. Relining a cupola.—The firebricks should be laid in
the best quality of fireclay which should be thoroughly mixed
with water, and thin enough to ensure close joints. Each
layer of bricks should be bedded upon the clay grouting
as quickly as possible, and as each brick is laid it should be
lightly tapped down with a hammer to ensure a solid bearing.
Instead of using a trowel to spread the thin clay, the bottom
and one side or end of each brick may be dipped into the clay
before being laid. The joints between bricks should never
be more than \ inch thick.
A clearance of \ to £ inch should be left between the bricks
and the shell of the cupola. This space is filled with grouting
made of about equal parts of fireclay and old firebricks ground
or broken up small.
4. Drying the lining.—After a cupola has been lined it
should be dried as slowly and completely as possible, other¬
wise the lining will be burnt much more by the first blow
than need be the case.
To carry out the drying, the drop doors are closed and
covered with sand to a depth of 2 to 3 inches to prevent the
heat from warping them. Wood is placed on the sand in an
Sec. 10.—Iron Founding 35
open manner so as to allow it to catch fire easily and then a

charge of coke or coal, 12 to 18 inches, is added. When the
fire is well under way more fuel should be added to form a
bed of ignited fuel about 2 feet deep. Finally, all draught
passages should be closed and the fire left to bum out before
dropping the bottom to get the cupola ready for a blow.
5. Preparing a cupola for first blow.—After the (hying
out, the surface of the lining should be given a thin coating
of purimachus cement or grouting made with ganister or
fireclay. A handful of salt should be put in the pail of water
used to wet the ganister or clay. This treatment will put a
glaze on the face of the lining, which is very effective in
resisting the cutting-out or burning effect of the first blow,
which is always harder on the lining than subsequent blows.
The shorter the first blow can be made the better, and care
should be taken to keep the blast as mild as possible.
6. Charging a cupola.—The drop bottom must first be
fixed in position and covered with 4 'inches of sand which
is well rammed at the comers. The charge consists of pig
iron and scrap, foundry coke or coal and limestone. The
purpose of the limestone is to float upon the surface of the
molten metal, dissolve the impurities and form a slag which
is periodically tapped off.
A small coke fire is started on the sand bottom and a bed
charge of about 3 cwt. of coke is made up. The coke is
allowed to bum for about 1 hour to warm everything up and
then the breast hole is made up with ordinary moulder’s sand
or clay, kept in position by a steel plate. A metal charge of
about 4 cwt. of mixed pig and scrap iron is then placed on top
of the bed charge together with 7 lb. of limestone. This is
followed by a charge of about 56 lb. of coke, then by another
charge of 4 cwt. of metal and so on until sufficient charge has
been fed in.
The tapping hole is then closed with a clay stopping plug
or " bot ” and the main blast turned on.
In time, the iron will begin to melt, drops falling down
through the coke to the bottom.
The cupola is fed at the top with fresh coke and iron as
required. The operator can watch the amount of molten
iron in the bottom through the sight glass D.
When it is required to run out metal, the bot is spiked and
the metal run into a ladle (PI. 4, Fig. 9) which has been lined
with yellow loam 1 inch thick. When the ladle is full, a new
plug of clay is inserted in the tapping hole.
As metal is run off, coke, iron and limestone are fed into
the top, and this process is continued as long as there are
moulds to fill.
Sec. 10.—Iron Founding 37
At the end of a blow, the bottom is dropped and any
remaining slag, &c., falls out.
The slag must not be allowed to set in the cupola or it will
probably have to be relined.
7. Gleaning a cupola after a blow.—The slag sticking

to the lining must be chipped off, care being taken not to
remove the glaze (or cinder) coating of the lining. The glaze
that a blow or two will produce on the surface of the lining
will protect it better than daubing. The cupola having
been picked out to the proper form, the next operation is to
fill up all the holes and daub the surface of the melting zone
with ganister. The smaller the amount of daubing the better.
It should rarely be allowed to exceed \ inch in thickness at
any part. The tuyeres should then be cleaned and the slag
hole and tapping holes repaired with ganister. When the
melting zone becomes burnt out so badly as to enlarge it
4 inches or more beyond the general lining, thus permitting
the blast to escape between the charge and the lining, it
should be repaired with split bricks 2 inches thick. These
should be bedded with good clay against the solid lining, thus
reducing the diameter of the melting zone to its original
value.
8. The mixing of metal.—For service purposes grey pig
iron will normally be used. This can be obtained in four
grades, viz.:—
No. 1 pig, which shows a highly crystalline fracture, the
crystals being large and evenly distributed. It is very dark
grey in colour, due to the large, lustrous flakes of graphite,
which are easily distinguishable on the fractured surface with
the naked eye.
The iron when melted is very fluid, and makes fine sharp
castings for ornamental work where strength is not required.
It is deficient in strength and hardness.
No. 2 pig has qualities which are a medium between Nos. 1
and 3.
No. 3 pig, which contains less free graphite than Nos. 1
or 2, and appears lighter in colour at a fracture, since the
flakes are smaller. The crystals are smaller, and the fracture
is more regular.
The metal is slightly less fluid when hot than No. 1 pig,
but it is harder and stronger. It is fairly easily machined.
It should be mixed with scrap iron for general work.
No. 4 pig is harder and stronger than the others, and can
only be used by itself for rough castings which do not require
machining; mixed with soft scrap it hardens the resulting
metal.
To summarize, grey iron is easy to melt and has com¬

paratively little contraction, is soft and easily machined but
has a low tensile strength. White iron has opposite properties.
These simple rules refer to scrap as well as pig, although,
other things being equal, scrap is harder than pig.
A good mixture for general work is :—
No. 3 pig .50 per cent.
Selected scrap .. .. .. 50 per cent.
»
For best machine castings use :—
No. 3 pig .. .. .. .. 75 per cent.
Selected scrap .25 per cent.
The best scrap is that from old engines and machinery;
the worst is that from old pipes, which should be avoided.
When breaking up scrap, the type of fracture is noted,
and different piles are made of varying greyness and hardness.
A decision is then made as to what proportion of each grade of
scrap should be added to the pig iron to obtain the necessary
degree of hardness, &c. for the work in hand, bearing in mind
that the cupola has a slight hardening effect.
Metal can be fairly well mixed in this way by an experienced
foundryman, and application of the foregoing principles will
enable an experienced man to modify the nature of the
castings he produces. Whenever possible, however, laboratory
control should be secured.
When making up a charge, an allowance of 20 per cent,
loss must be made. If a solid pattern of soft wood is used, a
rough method of arriving at the weight of the casting can be
obtained by weighing the pattern and multiplying by 16.
9. In pouring molten iron, the main principles are :—
i. Allow as little slag as possible to enter the pouring-
runner, by skimming the molten iron with a rect¬
angular bar of iron as it is being poured.
ii. Do not pour too hot, or contraction will be aggravated ;
do not pour too cold, or the metal will not properly
fill the mould.
(The correct temperature for small castings will be
indicated by the formation of a lined film of oxide on
top of the metal in the ladle.)
iii. Pour steadily, and always keep the feeding-cup full.
If this is done, slag and dirt will float on the top;
otherwise it will go into the mould.
Gas will be given off from the top and vents of the mould ;
this should be lit, otherwise the foundry would be filled with
CO, which is a poisonous gas.
Sec. 11.—Brass Moulding and Founding 39
Castings should be left to cool in the sand, as this has an

annealing action which removes internal strains due to
contraction.
10. Fettling consists of the removal of fins, runners, risers,
and sand from the casting, and generally cleaning it up. The
runners are sometimes hit off with a hammer, but when this
is done care should be taken to see that the adjoining portions
of the casting arc not damaged. In the case of brass castings
and thin iron castings the runners must be sawn off. The
burnt sand may be removed by a wire brush or scaling tool,
but a sand blast is preferable. The irregularities are chipped
off or ground off on the emery wheel.
In the manufacture of repeat articles a tumbler is employed
in which many castings are rotated at one time; it will
remove sand cores and smooth off irregular comers.
Castings are finally treated with a wire brush, and should
be delivered to the machine shop free from sand. When sand
is embedded slightly in the surface, machining is extremely
difficult.
11. Brass moulding and founding
1. General.—This section describes the production of
castings in any of the usual copper-tin or copper-zinc alloys,
and in aluminium.
The methods of using green sand, dry sand, and loam are
practically the same as in iron moulding; the green-sand
method is the one usually adopted.
Any yellow loamy sand, not too close in texture, is suitable,
but no coal dust should be added. About one-eighth of
flour is sometimes mixed with the sand when a fine surface is
required.
For brass and copper alloys, the moulds are faced with
flour or French chalk; for aluminium, with French chalk or
plumbago.
Moulds for copper alloys require a high pouring-runner
to give ample pressure in the mould. Aluminium is so fluid
that it can be poured with very little head.
The metals are placed in a crucible and heated in a coke
fire. When the metal is molten it is usually poured direct from
the crucible, the limiting content of which is 100 lb.
The correct temperature for pouring is indicated by the
formation of a wavy skin in the case of copper alloys, by a
purple skin in the case of aluminium, and by the smouldering
(not burning) of paper thrown on the surface in the case of
white metal.
The fumes of molten brass are poisonous, and good ventila¬
tion is therefore essential. If brass casting is a frequent
operation, a minimum of 2500 cu. feet of air spice per person
40 Sec. 11.—Brass Moulding and Founding
Plate 6.
Improvised Crucible Furmce.
viPROviseo cmuctauc rua*/*ce.

Sec. 12.—Miscellaneous 41
employed should be allowed, and a good ventilating system
should be provided. This is governed by regulations under
the Factory and Workshop Act, published in the form of a
notice, which should be posted in the shop.
,
2. Crucible furnaces.—PI. 5 Fig. 1 shows a crucible
furnace, and is self-explanatory. The bricks, preferably
fire-bricks, are lined with fire-clay. A is the ashpit, B the
firebars, C a natural-draught flue.
It is to be noted that E. & M. companies carry certain
foundry plant, including crucibles, small moulding boxes and
an electric blower. The necessary furnace must be improvised
by excavation in the ground or otherwise.
For field service use a satisfactory type can be made by
digging an inclined or stepped excavation, and building therein
a brick wall and firebars, PI. 6, Fig. 1 ; old 5-gallon oil
drums can be utilized to make a chimney about 12 feet high.
To charge the crucible, 1 foot of coke is laid on the firebars
and lit. The crucible, made of fireclay and plumbago, is
placed on this and packed round with coke, and the metal is
placed in it. The damper is opened and the metal should be
melted within an hour.
Additional metal can then be added to the molten metal
in the crucible to make up the charge.
Crucibles for brass work are very brittle, especially when
damp. New crucibles should be heated up very gradually,
near (not in) a furnace for 24 hours before use, to avoid
cracking; old ones, when quite cold, should not be put into
a hot fire.
A crucible is withdrawn from the furnace with crucible
tongs, and the metal is poured in the usual way, great care
being taken to skim away the slag.
As stated before, crucible furnaces are also suitable for
iron melting when the quantities involved are under 100 lb.
Portable oil:fired crucible furnaces can be obtained.
Crucible furnaces are, however, so easy to build or improvise
that the heavy and expensive portable type will not be of
much use to the military engineer.
12. Miscellaneous
1. Steel castings.—The difficulties experienced in the
production of steel castings are chiefly (a) the large amount
of contraction, owing to the high temperature of molten steel,
(6) the frequency of blow-holes.
Moulds for steel are made mainly in dry sand, faced with
silica paint or tar. High pouring-runners are used, special
arrangements for skimming slag are adopted, and the molten
metal is poured from the bottom of a ladle with straining
42 Sec. 13—Foundry Layout
baffles. Owing to the specialized nature of the process, steel

castings cannot usually be made in an army workshop.
2. Malleable castings are made of cast iron, from which

the carbon is drawn away from the surface by a process which
may be described as the opposite of case hardening. This is
effected by packing the castings with red hematite ore in a
closed metal-container which is maintained at a red heat for
several days.
Malleable castings are used for articles of rather com¬
plicated shape, which would be expensive to forge by hand,
and which have to resist shock. The modem tendency is to
substitute steel castings or drop forgings.
13. Foundry layout

1. The fixed equipment of a military foundry will consist
of:—
i. A cupola.
ii. A brass furnace.
iii. A drying-oven for moulds and cores.
iv. A core-maker’s bench.
v. A sand-mixer.
vi. A travelling overhead crane.
vii. A fettler’s bench.
viii. A dry emery wheel.
The floor will be of sand about 2 feet deep; water and
compressed air should be laid on.
The cupola should be outside the building, but capable of
being tapped from the inside.
The drying-oven doors should be flush with one of the
walls, and the drying-oven built out as an annexe. A core¬
oven for small cores may be provided as well.
Special attention should be given to labour-saving arrange¬
ments for handling pig iron, scrap, and coke, which should be
stored near the cupola and, if possible, at such a height as to
avoid vertical lift for charging.
The building itself should be fireproof, relatively high, well
ventilated, and well lighted.

CHAPTER IV
BLACKSMITHS* WORK
14. Introduction
1. Blacksmiths’ work consists mainly in the working
of bars, &c. of wrought iron and mild steel into the required
shape, whilst hot, by means of hammer blows.
O Tlifl cmittic’ in i+r> r»Af ^r\n>l hnc the
hii-ujcusl piuviueu uimer oy nana-aciudieu oenows [Hb m lue

Forge, double bellows) or by a geared-up centrifugal blower
(as in the Forge, field, G.S.). Generally speaking, work up
to the limit of size for hand-smithing can be heated in portable
forges.
For convenience, however, and where output rather than
portability is aimed at, it is desirable to provide fixed forges,
constructed of metal or brickwork, in shops designed for
permanent or semi-permanent use.
PI. 7, Fig. 1 shows a common type of full-sized metal
hearth, which can be obtained from manufacturers, or built
up in a workshop. The top of the hearth is about 2 feet
6 inches above floor level, and the floor of the hearth is flat,
and from 9 to 12 inches below the top edge. The air-blast,
which is provided by a mechanically-actuated blower of some
sort, is conveyed through the tue-iron which projects about
10 inches through the back of the hearth. The tue-iron, or
tuyere, is conical in shape, often water-cooled, PI. 7, Fig. 2,
to prevent it from, burning away, owing to contact with the
flame, and is erected at such a level that the hole for exit of
air is about 4 to 6 inches below the top edge of the hearth.
The hearth is 3 feet 6 inches square.
The amount of air entering the tuyere, or tue-iron, can be
regulated by a butterfly or slide valve, PI. 7, Fig. 6, in the
pipe connecting the shop air-main and the tue-iron.
3. Accessories of the hearth are
i. A water tank, conveniently placed near the forge, for
quenching.
,ii. A coal box.
iii. A water tank, or bosh, at the back for cooling the
tue-iron (if it is water-cooled).
iv. A poker.
v. A coal slice.
43
4 Sec. 14.—Introduction
Plate 7.
Det/uls or Sm/ths Hearth
atfeie irot4 coding
V 3
\>
heart h
brick
back ro*
rooce
h, 5•
3 tuc- moi4 to rir in Fig 4.
)»
* ?V.6.
_an
-—— -
J Slide valve ros
ftUIST REGULATION .
fcRlCK l-EARTM-
Sec. 15.—Smiths’ Tools 45
A sheet-iron cowl is placed above the top of the hearth,
and should be fitted with a sheet-iron chimney of sufficient
length to clear the smoke properly, or connected by piping to
an exhaust fan.
PL 7, Fig. 3 shows a type of brick hearth, which is easily
built and gives satisfactory results. Such hearths are usually
built in pairs, for economy of flue arrangements. A hollow
space should be left underneath for the storage of ashes, &c.
The cast-iron hearth-back, PI. 7, Fig. 4, is fixed to the brick¬
work by means of bolts. The tue-iron, shown on PI. 7, Fig. 5
(not waterrcooled in this case), is inserted in the hearth-back.
An angle-iron coping, shown on PI. 7, Fig. 3, runs round the
outer top edge of the brickwork forming the hearth.
Both the above mentioned hearths are of the back-blast
type ; bottom-blast types, in which the tue-iron is underneath
the fire, are equally common.
4. The fuel used is small coal, coke, charcoal, or breeze.
If coal is used it should be bituminous and free from sulphur,
&c., which is very detrimental to the working of iron.
5. The hearths described in this section, PI. 7, Figs. 1 and
3, are only types. The design might be modified by giving
Fig. 1 a brickwork back, or Fig. 3 a cowl and chimney instead
of a flue.
15. Smiths’ tools
1. Smiths’ tools have different names in different parts of
the country. Those used here are the service names.
The anvil, PI. 8, Fig. 1, is made of wrought iron or steel,
with a double-shear steel top welded on and hardened. It is
placed on a metal or timber anvil block, of such a height that
the top of the anvil is about 2 feet above floor level.
A lj-cwt. anvil is not suitable for taking big work where
heavy blows are required. An anvil weighing 2\ cwt. is the
smallest size suitable for permanent shop work. The anvil
top must be perfectly true (it works hollow in course of time)
and the edges must be square.
A is the horn or beak, B the core, and C the tail. The
square, D, upon which work is cut is not hardened, to avoid
damaging the cutting tools. The square hole, E, takes the
shanks of bottom tools. Another square hole, near the
beak, and a round hole at F are useful, but must be specified
when ordering; they are useful for punching over. The
quality of an anvil can generally be judged by its ring.
A good anvil when struck with a hammer will give a clear,
sharp sound, and a defective one a dull sound.
2. Hammers.—The hammer in most common use is the
hand hammer (hammer, fitters’, 32-oz.), which has a broad,
46 Sec. 15.—Smiths* Tools
slightly-rounded face at one end, for general work, and a small

rounded end, or ball pane, for small work, such as countersunk
riveting, at the other end (PI. 8, Fig. 2).
The hammer, smiths’, sledge, 10-lb., and the hammer, smiths',
uphand, 7-lb., PI. 8, Fig. 3, are for striking heavy blows. In
this connection, it must be pointed out that a smith working
single-handed can cope only with very small work which can
be hammered into shape by means of a hand hammer. For
heavy work he requires a man to strike for him with a 7- or
10-lb. hammer, whilst the smith turns the work, and indicates
the spot where the blow should come by tapping it with his
hand hammer.
3. Blacksmiths* tongs. Tongs may be divided broadly
into three classes, according to the shape of the nose or bit
• which holds the work :—
i. Flat or square ; PI. 8, Figs. 5 and 6.
ii. Round hollow bit; PI. 8, Fig. 7 (a).
iii. Angle or V (or square) hollow bit; PI. 8, Fig. 7 (b).
All tongs should be properly fitted to the work they have
to hold, and should come in contact with it throughout the
whole length of the jaw (PI. 8, Fig. 6 (a) shows correct and (b)
and (c) incorrect methods).
It will be found advantageous if the bits of flat tongs have
a longitudinal central groove, as this gives a better grip of the
work. To relieve the hand of the smith from the constant
pressure which would otherwise have to be exerted on the
tongs when holding the work, a ring is fitted over the handles,
and is driven up until tight. The anvil, or pick-up, tongs,
PI. 8, Fig. 8, are not intended for gripping work when forging,
but for picking up hot articles, tempering, &c.
The measuring tools used are the rule, smiths’, brass,
2-fold, 2-foot, the gap gauge (N.I.V.), PI. 8, Fig. 10, and the
double callipers (N.I.V.), PI. 8, Fig. 11.
4. The cold set, PI. 8, Fig. 12 (b), and the anvil cutter,
or hardie, Fig. 12 (a), are each used to cut cold bars.
The anvil cutter has a square shank which fits into the
hole in the anvil.
The cold set is made of hardened and tempered steel.
Its cutting-edge is ground to 60°, and should be slightly
convex to prevent the comers from chipping off. It is better
without an eye for a handle. The handle consists of a thin
iron bar fixed as shown.
Care should be taken to see that the cold sets and anvil
cutters are not used on hot material, or the temper will be
drawn.
5. The hot set, PI. 8, Fig. 13, is used for hot working.
It is driven in deeply, several blows being given at the same
Sec. 15.—Smiths' Tools 47
Plate 8.
48 Sec. 15.—Smiths' Tools
spot; by the time the bar has been turned completely round,
the set has almost severed it. In use the set becomes hot;
therefore, after every four or five blows it is cooled in water.
A hot set is made of tool steel, not hardened as it would
soon lose its temper, and its edges are ground to 30° and of
slightly convex form. It is preferably made with an eye for
a wooden handle.
6. Fullers, PL 8, Fig. 14, are very blunt chisels with well-
rounded edges ; their size is denoted by the size of the groove
they are capable of making. They are made both as top
and bottom tools, and are used for indenting work in certain
operations, hereafter described.
7. The flatter, PL 8, Fig. 15, is used for flattening and
finishing plane surfaces, and for removing hammer marks.
8. The set hammer, Pl. 8, Fig. 16, is a similar but smaller
tool, used for forming shoulders and getting into corners.
Flatters and set hammers are sometimes required with square
edges, but, whenever the work will permit, the comers should
be well rounded to avoid any tendency to start a fracture
in the work.
9. Swages, Pl. 8, Figs. 17 to 21, are made as both top and
bottom tools for finishing work of circular, square, hexagonal,
or other forms. The top and bottom tools are sometimes
united, as in the dolly. Fig. 20, or the spring swage, Fig. 21 ;
with the latter the smith is able to work single-handed.
10. The swage block, Pl. 8, Fig. 23, is usually made of
cast iron and should be installed in every smithy ; it embodies
a wide range of shapes and sizes, and avoids the use of the
large number of bottom swages that would otherwise be
required.
11. A collar swage is shown on Pl. 8, Fig. 22.
12. Punches are made either round or square. The work
to be punched is raised to a bright red or white heat and
placed on the anvil, and the punch is driven half-way through ;
it is then reversed, and a dark spot in the iron shows the
position of the hole, which enables the smith to set the punch
to pierce the metal so that the hole is accurately punched
through. During the second operation, the work is laid either
on a bolster, Pl. 8, Fig. 24, or placed over the hole in the
anvil (or swage block), and the punch then passes freely
through.
13. Drifts are used to finish holes that have been punched
smaller than the required dimensions. They may be taper
or parallel, and of any desired section. Drifts are smooth,
and being driven through the punched holes, enlarge, shape.
Sec. 16.—The Air-Blast 49
and smooth them while the metal is red hot. Smooth drifts
are rarely absolutely parallel, or their withdrawal would be a
matter of great difficulty; the sides are usually tapered
about 4°.
14. The smiths' mandrel, PI. 8, Fig. 25, is a conical
casting employed chiefly in making rings. Small taper
mandrels, or beak irons, which fit in the square anvil hole, are
also used.
15. An adjustable support, PI. 8, Fig. 26, for long work,
a vice, standing, 80-lb., and a tool stand will, together with the
above tools and a mechanically-driven blast-producer, complete
the initial equipment of most smithies.
16. Appendix V gives the tools, &c. to be ordered when a
shop is being equipped. • The N.I.V. hand \ools can usually
be made by the smith.
16. The air-blast

1. A small smith’s fire requires about 45 cubic feet of air
a minute, and a large one about 90 cubic feet, both against a
pressure of 1| oz. to 6 oz. (2-5 inches to 10 inches of water).
Small fires with the blower close to them work well with
1£ oz.; large fires will require 3 oz. Allowing for pipe
friction, &c., 100 cubic feet per minute should be taken as the
basis for the normal fire having a 1 J-inch tuyere pipe.
The blast can be produced either by a Roots' blower,
PI. 8, Fig. 27, or by a centrifugal blower, PI. 8, Fig. 28.
The Roots’ blower has the advantage of a positive action ;
it is, however, noisy and subject to wear.
The centrifugal blower is silent running, its wear is
negligible, and it is lighter for a given output than the Roots’
blower. Owing to its non-positive action, if undue friction is
caused in the air main through bends, obstructions, &c., the
necessary volume of air will not be obtained.
On the other hand, the centrifugal blower automatically
maintains a fairly constant pressure at varying outputs,
so that if several fires in a group supplied by a common blower
are out of action, the blast is not increased at the remaining
fires as would be the case with a Roots’ blower. Centrifugal
blowers are more commonly used than Roots’ blowers in
modem installations.
The method of drive, relative speed, &c. will often decide
which is the best type to instal.
Details of each type are given in Tables B and C on p. 50,
from which comparisons can be made.
These tables must be taken as approximate only, since
makers will vary the details slightly. It is a good practice
3—(579)
\ ‘
Sec. 16.—The Air-Blast
6c® i
SJI-s rt |
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36 in.
46 in.
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5 in.
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36 in.
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Table B.—Particulars of Roots' blowers
29 in.
36 in.
4 in.
o n
*
355
o
X
eo
10 in.
O O If T
on -t
w t
3 in.
CN
300
225
190
1 1
OONxi rj
8 in.
O O +J .3 '
d
130
300
0-35
^ ni
|X 1 1 _ja_ 6 in.
Si-Si.
2 in.
wm
300
95
0-25
1 1
+j03 £jCD -44

- ^ •
.
►iameter of impeller.
v u .
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6 3
18 *
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m . u ,ad .5 a® . 63
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u
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>2 » a Q« m «3q
Sec. 17.—Smiths1 Work 51
to allow 25 per cent, more power, owing to belt friction, wear,

shafting, &c. Where it is desired to blow a cupola with the
same blower that delivers air to the smithy, a Roots' blower
should be specified.
2. The main blast pipe should be taken in a trench or
in the open at the back of the hearths; it should be of the
same diameter as the outlet of the blower. The connection
to each forge is usually by lj-inch pipe, tapped straight into
the blast main ; in the connecting pipe, the regulating slide,
PI. 7, Fig. 6, is placed.
"When a Roots’ blower is installed, it is good practice to
put a dead-weight relief valve in the blast main, to prevent an
excessive air pressure at any one forge when the others are
shut off. Excessive air-blast tends to bum away the surface
of the metal being worked, and to form scale.
The arrangement of the smithy is dealt with later, but it
should be noted here that bends in the blast main should,
as far as possible, be avoided, especially where a centrifugal
fan blower is employed. The blast main should invariably
be carried from 4 to 6 feet past the last fire.
17. Smiths' work.

1. Work performed by a smith not provided with a power
hammer will consist of a combination of some of the following
operations:
i. Upsetting or jumping-up.
ii. Drawing-down.
iii. Cutting-out.
iv. Bending.
v. Punching and drifting.
vi. Welding.
If a power hammer is provided, add
vii. Stamping.
2. Upsetting is the operation of swelling or increasing the
thickness of a bar in one place, its length being at the same
time reduced. It is only used when the increased thickness
required is not great in proportion to the original dimensions.
If it is the end of a bar that is required to be upset, the end
is heated to a bright red heat and hammered, or the smith
holds the bar vertically and strikes the heated end on an
anvil. PI. 9, Fig. 1 {a), (b), and (c). If the work is bulky
and short, it is held vertically on the anvil by the smith,
while the striker hammers the upper end, Fig. 1 (b). Only
a small portion of the work can be done at each heat, and the
operation is repeated until the required shape is produced.
52 Sec. 17.—Smiths* Work
3. Drawing-down is the process of increasing the length

of any piece of iron, and at the same time reducing its cross-
section.
The simplest example is the formation of a point to a
square bar. The bar is heated to a bright red, and the metal
is beaten down at the edges, the work being turned frequently
and struck an approximately equal number of times on
each face, to prevent the metal spreading out sideways, as
the length increases and the thickness decreases.
If the bar B, PI. 9, Fig. 2, is to be drawn-down to shape A,
it is placed between top and bottom fullers and indented
where the change of section is required (PI. 9, Fig. 5). The
bar must not be laid on the edge of the anvil as shown in
PI. 9, Fig. 3, or the material will be damaged as it would be
with a set.
Sets are not used in such indenting, as they would divide
the fibres of the metal; round-faced fullers simply alter the
direction of the fibres without breaking their continuity.
The preservation of the continuity of fibre is of primary
importance in forged work ; what may appear to be round¬
about methods will often be resorted to in order to preserve
that continuity. Fibrous iron may readily be damaged by
nicking with a sharp tool. A bar of iron, nicked round and
broken off suddenly, shows fractured surfaces as highly
crystalline as those of cast iron. When the work has been
indented with the fuller, the metal along A is drawn-down or
thinned by a succession of blows from a hand or sledge hammer.
Fullering and hammering not only lengthens the bar, but also
spreads it sideways. If the bar is to be equal-sided, the
widening has to be prevented by rapidly hammering the sides
alternately with the faces. After every few blows given on
the faces, the smith turns the bar quarter round during the
brief interval between two blows, and the iron receives several
blows upon the edges as a corrective to those given on the
faces. Drawing-down is always commenced from the end
of a bar, as much as possible being done in one heat.
With long bars or special work, it may be found advan¬
tageous to use the fullers to a greater extent to help in the
actual drawing-down. PI. 9, Fig. 5 shows this and is self-
explanatory.
The drawn-down bar will be rough and show hammer
marks; finishing is done with the flatter. A round bar is
drawn-down in a similar way, swages being used for
finishing.
4. The process of cutting-out is performed by chisels
(sets) and gouges; portions of the work are cut away com¬
pletely in trimming to shape, or in some cases a split may be
made and opened out, or the ends may be bent to the shape
54 Sec. 17.—Smiths' Work
required. This method is very suitable for thin work, where

welding would be difficult. With iron, a hole must first be
punched to terminate the cut and to avoid the tendency to
split along the direction of the fibres.
5. Bending can in certain cases be satisfactorily carried

out cold, but it is preferably done at bending heat, i.e. dull
red. Bends may be made over the anvil edge or on the beak,
on the swage block, &c., PI. 9, Fig. 6 [a), (b), and (c). In all
cases the metal on the outer side of the bend is subject to a
drawing-down action, that on the inner side being upset, PI. 9,
Fig. 7. Hence a right angle formed from a straight bar on the
anvil edge will take the shape shown on PI. 9, Fig. 9. The
square bend or angle must, therefore, be made with a forged
comer to supply the additional material required on the
outside, which is either worked up with light hammers, PL 9,
Fig. 10, or, before bending, the bar may be upset at the place
where the bend is to be made, PI. 9, Fig. 8.
Rings and eyes are bent over the beak of the anvil if of
small size, or round a mandrel.
PL 9, Fig. 12 shows a bending block, in which work is bent
to any desired contour, over a replaceable block, A, by means
of a lever and roller.
Pl. 9, Fig. 13 shows a bending block, consisting of a cast
iron plate drilled to take stout pegs, and is self-explanatory.
The decision as to whether material is to be bent hot or cold
must depend largely on its size. For cold bending of bars,
plates, &c., the machine shown on Pl. 11, Fig. 1, may be
used.
6. Punching, drifting, and drilling. The operation of

punching has been partly described in Sec. 15. If the hole is
deep, the hot iron closes round the punch, which should be
withdrawn after every 3 or 4 blows, and cooled in water.
Withdrawal of the punch will be facilitated by sprinkling
powdered coal where the hole is to be punched. Methods of
producing punched holes vary according to requirements.
When a hole is punched with the tool shown on Pl. 8, Fig. 24,
the metal removed is equal in area to the punch end, and the
width of the bar is only very slightly increased, Pl. 9, Fig. 14;
the bar is, therefore, weakened. If a conical punch is used, and
the hole drifted afterwards, no metal is removed, and the
edges of the hole are swelled in such a way as not to weaken
the rod. Similarly, in producing a long slot, if area reduction
is immaterial, a succession of holes can be punched and the
intervening metal removed with a set. When it is desired
to retain the area, two punched holes are made at either end,
a set being used to unite them. The slot is then heated again,
Sec. 17.—Smiths' Work 55
jumped-up, and trued-up with a drift (see PI. 9, Figs. 15,

16, and 17).
7. Welding is one of the principal operations performed
by the smith. Most metals, when heated to melting point,
change almost at once from solid to liquid state. Wrought
iron, however, passes through an intermediate state, in which
it becomes pasty; if two pieces in this condition be placed
together, they will adhere when hammered. It is most
important that the metal should be heated to the proper
temperature for welding, as hammering will not join two
pieces which’ are insufficiently heated; if overheated, the
iron will be burnt and rendered useless. The metal which
remains pasty over the widest range of temperature is the
most easily welded, and in this respect wrought iron has a
great advantage over steel. Wrought iron is weldable from
a white heat, that is to say just below that at which sparks
are given off, to a point 100° F. below it. The welding heat
for steel is at a point where red heat begins to change to white
heat. After removal from the fire, operations must be quickly
carried out, or the heat at which a sound weld could be made
will have passed. The next essential to the production of a
sound weld is that the surfaces in contact should be perfectly
clean ; for instance, coal containing sulphur on the hearth
will be detrimental to a good weld. Iron oxidizes at a high
temperature, becoming covered with a thin film of scale (oxide
of iron). This must be removed, otherwise a defective weld
would be the result. Wrought iron can be heated up to a high
enough temperature to melt this oxide without burning the
iron; with steel, especially tool steel, a temperature high
enough to melt the oxide would bum the steel. This necessi¬
tates using a flux to dissolve the oxide at a lower temperature,
forming a slag which is easily expelled under pressure of hammer
blows. The danger of burning is increased when the air-blast
is too strong and th$ fire is oxidizing. Silver sand is the flux
for iron; borax, or a mixture of 4 parts of borax to 1 part of
sal-ammoniac, for steel. In order that air, scale, and dirt
may be excluded from the joint, it is necessary to make the
surfaces to be welded slightly convex ; contact is then first
made at a point, and slag, &c., is squeezed out as the remainder
of the surfaces are joined under pressure of the hammer
blows. To remove any scale that may be formed, the smith
should use a wire brush just before contact is made.
To sum up, the essentials for a good weld are :—
i. A dear fire.
ii. A proper welding heat.
iii. Exclusion and removal of air, dirt, and scale.
iv. Quick smart work.
56 Sec. 17.—Smiths' Work
There are several types of welded joint:—

i. Single-scarf weld, PL 9, Fig. 18. In this the length
of the scarf equals 1£ times the bar thickness.
ii. Double-scarf weld, PI. 9, Fig. 20.
iii. Butt weld, PI. 9, Fig. 19.
iv. T weld for flat bar, PI. 10, Fig. 15.
v. T weld for round bar, PI. 10, Fig. 16.
vi. Jump weld, which is another form of T weld; PI. 9,
Fig. 21 shows the correct and Fig. 22 the incorrect
way of making a jump weld. ,
After welding, the work is finished off by means of
appropriate swages, &c.
8. Strength of welded joints.—A butt weld is not so
strong as a lap or scarf weld ; on being tested, it usually breaks
at the joint. A good scarf weld will often be as strong as
the solid bar ; but for design purposes, it is better to assess
the strength of a weld at 75 per cent, of that of the solid bar.
This allows for different standards of workmanship.
9. Conditions of work.—The method employed by a
smith for any particular job will depend on the tools available,
the shape of iron in store, the purpose for which the article
is required, and the provision of a striker or not. The
fibrous nature of wrought iron should be constantly borne in
mind. It is stronger in the direction of its fibres than across
them in the ratio of 21 to 17; any nicking with sharp tools
will cut through the fibres and cause a tendency to fracture
at that point. The direction in which work is subjected to
the greater stress should always coincide with the longitudinal
direction of the fibres. Curved work should not be cut from
the solid, if it is possible to bend it to shape. To illustrate
this, PI. 9, Fig. 23 shows a crankshaft slotted from the solid,
and PI. 9, Fig. 24 a bent one. The former tends to snap off
at the shoulders, the latter does not.
In forging the eye of a winch handle, PI. 9, Fig. 25, instead
of making a solid end and drilling and filing a square hole, the
bar is bent round a mandrel and welded, thus preserving the
continuity of the fibre.
PI. 9, Fig. 26 shows the correct way of forming a fork
from the solid bar.
PI. 9, Fig. 27 (a) and (b) shows the correct and incorrect
way of forging a key which has to take side stresses.
10. Smithing with iron and steel.—Generally speaking,
mild steel does not possess a visible grain except under the
microscope, and its method of working differs from that for
wrought iron. The average smith does better work with
wrought iron, especially as regards welding. While wrought
Sec. 17.—Smiths* Work 57
Plate 10.
£u*vf|
58 Sec. 17.—Smiths’ Work
iron can be worked almost up to fusing point, each different
sample of steel seems to work best at a particular tempera¬
ture, but never beyond a full red heat; otherwise it will
become burnt and crumble to pieces under the hammer.
Neither steel nor iron should ever be hammered at a so-called
blue heat, i.e. after it has ceased to show red, or it will be
much weakened. For these reasons, work has to be performed
more quickly on steel than on wrought iron, and probably
two heats will have to be given to it, whilst only one is
necessary with iron. As a very rough guide, steel is better*
fitted for small, delicate, and intricate forgings, since there is
not the same tendency to split along the fibres as with iron.
For large work, iron is better, since it can be hammered through
a greater temperature range.
11. Examples of work.—The following examples will
serve to show how the smith executes some typical jobs :—
Forging a bolt in sizes up to | in.—PI. 9, Fig. 28 (a) to (/).
{a) Iron bar of correct dimensions.
(b) Jumping-up the end to form the bolt head. (Alter¬
natively the head may be jumped-up in the vice
using grip plates.)
(c) Head beaten down in heading tool.
(d) Head trued and new heat taken.
(e) Head shaped in hexagon swage.
{/) Edges rounded in cup tool.
In the case of medium sizes (J inch to 1 inch) a quicker
method is to weld the head on. In large sizes (over 1 inch) it
is usually necessary to draw-out from the solid.
Forging a nut.—PI. 9, Fig. 29 (a) to (/).
(a) Material.
(b) Bend hot and nick.
(c) Weld round mandrel.
(d) Shape hexagon in swage.
(e) Round edges in cupping tool.
(/) Finally true the centre hole by drifting.
In the foregoing examples, the size of nut and bolt-head
will of course be obtained from the standard tables.
Forging a pipe hook.—PI. 10, Fig. 1 (a) to (e). The
figures are self-explanatory.
Forging a double-eye.—PI. 10, Fig. 2 (a) to (e).
Forging a shackle.—PI. 10, Fig 3 {a) to (g).
Forging a box spanner.—PL 10, Fig. 4 (a) to (g).
Bending angle iron.—This is best done round a cast iron
block, PI. 10, Fig. 5. The angle iron is heated where it is
to be bent, and one end is clamped to the block, the other
end being hammered round; as it bends, it will be found that
Sec. 18.—The Power Hammer 59
the top flange will tend to pucker up on the inside; this
is counteracted by a few blows with a sledge hammer.
Irregularities on the outside are removed by a flatter. In
making a square comer, a 45° piece is cut out, the bend is
made, and the edges of the nick are scarfed’ and welded (see
Fig. 5).
18. The power hammer
1. The power hammer is a very useful machine where
heavy material has to be worked; it may be either steam
or pneumatic. The latter can be electric-motor driven,
and is made in various sizes complete with motors in
self-contained sets. A handy size is the 3-cwt. hammer,
i.e. a hammer in which the weight of moving parts is
3 cwts. A set of tools suitable for such a hammer is shown
on PI. 10, Figs. 6 to 13. Work for the 3-cwt. hammer can
be heated in an ordinary smith’s hearth. Where a very
large number of repeat articles is required, the power hammer
can be used for stampings or drop forgings, which are made
between dies of cast steel. Three pairs of dies go to a set.
The white-hot metal is rough-shaped and then placed in
roughing dies. Metal is squeezed out at the ends from between
the faces of the dies. Next, stripping dies are used to remove
the metal fin, and finally finishing dies. Heating between
the processes will be necessary.
2. Drop hammers.—In works where drop forging is
regularly carried out, it is usual to employ drop hammers
for the work. In these, the hammer head, which may weigh
several tons, is hoisted by ropes or belts and allowed to fall
freely, whereas in the normal power hammer, the hammer
head is carried on a piston rod and is forced down by steam
or air pressure. In drop forging, there is normally only a
small thickness of hot metal between the edge of the hardened
dies, and if a piston type hammer is used, the jarring effect
on the piston rod is much greater than in ordinary forging,
where heavy blows are only struck when a considerable
thickness of hot (and therefore soft) metal is interposed
between the hammer and the anvil. In time this jarring
may lead to fatigue fractures, and drop hammers are therefore
used to avoid this danger.
3. Simple die-sinking is an expensive process, and
should only he resorted to where a sufficient number of
forgings is required to justify the initial expense. The sets
of dies would normally be obtained from manufacturers;
but, in emergencies, it is possible to make them in very solid
chilled cast iron, with wrought iron bands shrunk round
them. Another way is to make a master forging in, hardened
Sec. 18.—The Power Hammer
Die Foil Bend kmc giroca bmckcts

Sec. 19.—Lay-out of Shop 61
tool steel which can be driven into a hot steel block by blows
under the power hammer, thus forming the die.
4. As an example of a modified drop forging, the formation
of an eyebolt under a power hammer is given. Round bar
is used, and is first shaped like a on PI. 11, Fig. 3, the forging
being done in the die, b. This die, as well as the other one
shown, consists of two blocks of steel fastened together
with a spring handle. The inside faces of the blocks are
formed to shape the piece as shown. The bar is revolved
about 90° between each two blows, and the hammering is
continued until the die faces just touch. For the second
step, the ball is flattened to about the thickness of the finished
eye between the bare hammer dies. The hole is then punched
under the hammer with an ordinary punch. The forging is
finished with a few blows in the finishing die, d, which
is so shaped that, when the two parts are together, the hole
formed is exactly the shape of the finished forging.
5. Where large numbers of the same article are to be
bent to shape, much time will be saved by the adoption of
simple jigs or formers, round which to bend the work; this
method will, moreover, result in absolute uniformity of the
finished pieces, which would be difficult to produce in any
other way.
As an example, take a hook, a, to fit round the flange of an
I beam. Two cast iron blocks, b, are cast to shape, and
fitted with handles. The iron or steel bar, cut to correct
length, is heated up and placed on the lower block. The
top block is then hammered into position and the bar is bent
to the shape of the jig ; see PI. 11, Fig. 2.
,19. Lay-out of shop

1. The smiths’ shop will normally be used by boilermakers
also. The type lay-out, PI. 12, shows the most convenient
arrangement. The hearths are placed in pairs, and are
2 feet from the side walls to allow room for the main blast
pipe, tuyere cooling tanks, &c. With 4-feet square (external)
hearths, a distance of 20-feet centre to centre of double hearths
is allowed. The smith works with his back to the fire, the
beak of the anvil being always on his left. The position of
the anvils is as shown. A clear zone 8 feet wide must be
left from the anvil outwards to allow for the swing of the
striker’s sledge hammer. A 2-foot 6-inch way is made down
the centre of the shop for traffic. Benches are placed between
the forges, and fitted with a standing vice (one between two
smiths). Windows light the bench, but are at the back of the
smith when not working at the bench; he will, however, get
62 Sec. 19.—Lay-out of Shop
Sec. 19.—Lay-out of Shop 63
enough light in this case from the opposite windows. Each

smith has a tool rack above the benches, on the wall. This
arrangement gives a shop with a span of 36 feet. With forges
against one wall only, a span of 20 feet should be allowed.
The actual arrangement must, of course, depend on circum¬
stances ; but the minimum working spaces are given on PI. 12,
and will serve as a guide in laying out. A power hammer, a
drilling machine, a shearing and punching machine, a grinder,
a tool-hardening furnace, and a case-hardening furnace are
shown. The bending rolls and block will normally be kept
outside the shop. Some designers place hearths back to
back down the centre of the shop, but this method makes
supervision more difficult.
2. A smiths’ shop should be well lighted and ventilated.
Smoke will normally be discharged by the cowls over the
hearths, through separate sheet-iron chimneys, to the outside
of the shop; in addition the roof should be provided with
louvres or ventilating skylights to lead off the smoke. The
floor should be of rammed earth mixed with ashes. The
spaces between the forges and at the back of them may be in
concrete on which to stand tools, surface plates, vices, &c.
3. Exhaust fans.—Instead of using separate chimneys
to each fire, it is common practice to carry all the smoke and
fumes by means of exhaust piping, to a common chimney,
using a fan to induce a draught. This is more effective in
clearing the fumes, and gives a clean, well-ventilated shop.
The fan may be either centrifugal or of the propellor
type. The former gives a better suction and should be used
if the exhaust pipe is long or has many bends. The propellor
type requires less power to deal with the same volume, but
produces a very small suction ; if this type is used, the exhaust
piping must be as straight and short as possible.
In any case, th.e exhaust fans are much larger than the
blowers required for the same number of fires, as a much larger
volume of air has to be dealt with, though at a lower velocity
and, therefore, smaller pressure difference.
The exhaust piping should be approximately equal in
cross-section to the sum of the cross-sections of the outlets
from the cowls of the fires.

CHAPTER V
BOILERMAKERS ’ WORK
20. The shop, tools and materials
1. Scope of work.—The work of a R.E. boilermaker will
normally be limited to repairs to existing boilers.
He may also be required occasionally to carry out platers’
work in the construction and repair of bridge structures.
Under normal service conditions, the boilermakers' shop
should be combined with the smithy, under the one foreman ;
if it is a separate shop, it should be near the smithy, to which
boilermakers should have access for any work which requires
a forge, an anvil, or smiths' tools.
The repairs to boilers normally include:—
i. Replacement of broken rivets.
ii. Replacement of broken or corroded stays.
iii. Caulking the edges of plates.
iv. Removing, replacing, and expanding boiler tubes.
v. Patching the outside shell of a boiler.
vi. Patching the firebox plates.
vii. Repairing tube plates.
viii. Replacement of extensively damaged plates.
ix. Building up or thickening plates by oxy-acetylene
or electric welding.
After any repair work has been executed, a hydraulic
test should be applied to the boiler.
2. Personal tools.—Every boilermaker needs the tools
listed in Appendix VI for his own personal use. Some of
these tools are expensive, and it is not necessary for each man
to have all of them in his tool chest when working in the shop.
Those marked with an asterisk would, therefore, usually be
kept on shop charge, and would be drawn when required in the
shop or when a boilermaker is sent to execute repairs to a
boiler outside the shop.
Those tools which are special to the trade are illustrated
on PI. 13, Figs. 4 to 11. Other tools used are similar to those
used by fitters or blacksmiths.
3. Shop equipment.—
i. The equipment must include a supply of those tools
given in Appendix VI, which are marked with an
asterisk as not normally kept in a boilermaker's
chest.
64
Sec. 20.—The Shop, Tools and Materials 65
66 Sec. 21.—Types of Work
ii. In addition, a small and mobile shop should

contain:—
(а) Forges, field, G.S., Mark IV, unless com¬
bined with a smiths’ shop.
(б) Lamps, brazing, for local heating of plates.
(c) Machines, drilling, hand (or power driven),
capable of drilling up to 1-inch diameter
holes in steel.
(d) Machines, drilling, portable, electric, to drive
from the workshop lorry.
iii. Larger shops may be provided with some of the
following:—
(a) A large cast iron block for flattening and
flanging plates.
(b) Rolls for bending plates.
(c) Compressor and pneumatic drills, and
chipping and riveting hammers.
(d) A shearing and punching machine.
These are heavy equipment, and cannot easily be
carried in a lorry. Their use must, therefore, be
confined, as a rule, to base workshops or those
served by a railway.
4. Materials.—The mild steel which is generally used for
boiler repairs should be of the best quality, with a tensile
strength of not less than 24 tons and not more than 27 tons
per square inch. Its extension before fracture should be not
less than 25 per cent, in a length of 8 inches.
The following tests are normally sufficient to show whether
steel is suitable or not for use in boiler work :—
The test bar or test strip of plate 1 finches wide should be heated
cherry-red, and quenched in water at about 80° F. The plate strip
must then stand bending cold to a curve, the inner radius of which
is one and a half times the thickness of the plate, PI. 13, Fig. 1.
Rivet steel bar must stand bending double, when cold, over a
bar of its own diameter, PI. 13, Fig. 2, and when hot till the two
shanks touch, PI. 13, Fig. 3.
Rivets, steel, boss-head, in sizes rising by sixteenths from
yg to | inch in diameter, and Rivets, steel, countersunk-head,
in sizes of J, yj, and \ inch in diameter, are articles of store.
21. Types of work

1. Design of joints.—In repair work it is generally
sufficient to follow the design of the joints already in the
boiler, unless these have shown signs of weakness.
Sec. 21.—Types of Work 67
For fixing patches, a single riveted lap joint is universally

used ; the dimensions of the rivets are as follows :—
Diameter of rivet shank d — \\t, for plate of normal
thickness, or d — l-2y/tfor exceptionally thick plate.
Rivet holes should be — inch larger than the rivet shank,
and should have a width of plate at least equal to d between
holes, or between any hole and the edge of a plate. All fin
or rag at the edge of a hole must be removed, and the strength
in shear of the rivet is increased if the edge of the hole is
rounded off, slightly.
2. Proportions of rivets.—The heads of boss-head, or
snap-head rivets should be 1 *75d at the base, and 0-6d thick.
Countersunk-head rivets should be T5d at the broadest part,
and the depth of the countersink 0-5i.
The length of shank needed is the total thickness of the
plates, plus 1 \d for snap-head rivets, or plus d for countersunk-
head rivets.
3. Cutting out rivets.—To cut out an old rivet, the head
should first be cut off, using a sett chisel, PI. 13, Fig. 7, and
a 7-lb. hammer. The chisel must not be allowed to cut into
the plate. If the rivet is still tight, it should be drilled as
deep as the thickness of the plate with a drill of diameter \d.
It should then be driven out with a hammer and punch.
A very long rivet may need deeper drilling, especially if
it was originally closed hydraulically, a process which makes
rivets fit their holes very tightly. •
4. Closing a rivet.—Before a rivet is closed, a drift
should be driven in the hole to ensure that it is fair. A cold
rivet should then be tried in the hole to ensure that it is the
right size. The rivet should be brought from the forge with
the point at welding, heat; it is then driven well home, being
firmly held up by a dolly of sufficient weight while the point
is knocked down as quickly as possible, preferably using two
hammers,, if three men are available. When fairly knocked
down, and while still firmly held up, the head should be shaped
with a snap.
There should be sufficient metal in the rivet to enable
both a complete head the shape of the snap and a small fin
to be formed, as shown on PI. 13, Fig. 12. The edge of the
«nap should never be allowed to reach the plate. It is
unnecessary to remove the fin.
The concentricity of the head and stem of rivets can be
judged by the regularity of their heads. Careless or unskilful
riveting may result in irregular spacing or slight staggering
of the rivet heads, due to the rivet bending while being dosed,
as shown on PI. 13, Fig. 13.
The main principle of good hot riveting is that the stem

of the rivet shall still be quite hot when the work is finished,
so that in cooling it will tend to grip the plates firmly together.
A loose rivet emits a characteristic dull sound when struck
with a hammer.
5. Replacing stays.—Both heads of the stay should be
cut off and drilled down as described in para. 3. The threads
left in the plate can then be picked out with a diamond
chisel.
If this work is carefully done, the threads in the plate
should be intact. If the threads are badly corroded, or if
they have been damaged in drilling or picking out, the hole
must be reamered out a larger size, tapped, and an equivalent
larger-sized stay fitted.
Threads not appreciably damaged should be trued by
being passed through a tap of the same size. Since the pitch
of the threads in the firebox and shell plates must be
continuous, a long tap must be used, so that its full-sized
threads may be still in the plate first threaded while the
threads are being started in the other.
PI. 13, Fig. 14 shows a reamer and long tap combined.
The whole operation of enlarging and tapping both holes
consists of passing this tool once right through them. This
can be done by hand, or much more expeditiously by means
of a pneumatic or electric drilling machine. The new stay
should screw home tight enough to require a key to turn it.
The kfy is applied by means of a cap nut, as shown on PI. 13,
Fig. 15. When in position, the stay should project at both
ends about half its diameter as shown. Each end of the stay
should now be riveted well down in turn, the other end
meanwhile being well held up by means of a heavy dolly.
On no account must a stay be struck unless so held up, or the
threads will be damaged.
6. Caulking and fullering.—The edges of a patch, or
of an old plate which leaks at a joint, may be made tight
by caulking. This operation must be carefully performed,
since much damage may be done by unskilful or careless work.
Before a caulking tool is applied, it is essential that the plate
should be slightly bevelled. Caulking should never be carried
out when the boiler is hot.
In new plate work, the edge should be planed, chipped, of
filed, as shown on PI. 13, Fig. 16.
Old plates can sometimes be bevelled by chipping, if
sufficient metal has been left beyond the rivet holes, but this
must not be done if the joint will be weakened thereby. A
partial bevel may be given by fullering, as shown on PI. 13,
Fig. 17.
Sec. 21.—Types of Work
A fuller may be considered to be a chisel whose edge has

been ground off at a slight angle, so that it has one edge
slightly acute and one obtuse. All comers and edges should
be rounded off. The more acute edge should be applied to the
middle of the plate, and a toe formed as shown.
A caulking tool is of the same form as a fuller, but narrower.
It should be similarly applied, but nearer the joint, to increase
the prominence of the toe. It should then be reversed, with
the acute edge downward, and given not more than one or two
blows in each place to burr back the toe and seal the joint;
PI. 13, Fig. 18.
Careless or excessive caulking may produce three bad
faults:—
i. If the tool is placed too high, the toe may be cut off,
and the work rendered fruitless ; PI. 13, Fig. 19.
ii. If the tool is driven into the under plate, a groove will
be cut, as shown on PI. 13, Fig. 20. This weakens
the plate and encourages rapid corrosion.
iii. If the tool is correctly placed but is driven too much,
the upper plate tends to buckle, as shown (exag¬
gerated) on PI. 13, Fig. 21. Thus more harm than
good is done, and it will be impossible to caulk the
joint again.
7. Removing boiler tubes.—The edges of a boiler tube
should be carefully driven inwards with a half-round chisel,
care being taken not to touch the plate.
The removal of old tubes is facilitated by the use of a
tube drawer.
8. Replacing boiler tubes.—The ends are most easily
expanded in the plate by means of a tube expander, PI. 14,
Fig. 1. This apparatus is placed with the rollers in the
mouth of the tube, and the central spindle is rotated and
simultaneously forced in to wedge the rollers farther apart.
To expand small tubes, a set of drifts may be used if
no tube expander is available. The drifts should be clean
and well oiled. During the operation the other end should
be held up.
Care should be exercised that the tube is expanded
sufficiently to make a tight joint, but not enough to deform
the plate. Over-expanding of tubes leads to cracks between
the holes in the plate.
Where there is a possibility of the ends of the tubes being
burnt, ferrules, either plain or capped, may be fitted, or
alternatively the ends of the tubes may be beaded. Ferrules
are driven in after the tubes have been expanded. Beading
may be done with a hand beading tool or swage or with a
beading tool of the type shown in PI. 14, Fig. 2.
Tubes should be slightly longer than the outside measure¬

ment over the tube plates, so that they may project at each
end J inch for small tubes, and \ inch for large tubes which
are to be beaded.
9. Plugging cracks.—Cracks should be stopped from
spreading by drilling and plugging a small hole, nearly clear
of the crack at both ends, as shown on PI. 14, Fig. 3, after
which the crack may be chain plugged, as shown on PI. 14,
Fig. 4, or otherwise repaired.
10. Patching a boiler shell.—
i. The patch must be of sufficient size to provide
a good joint on all its edges, and the rivets must
be placed in sound undamaged plate of the shell.
ii. The shape of the patch should be decided and
chalked upon the boiler. A paper template should
then be cut to fit the chalked outline.
The patch, of good soft iron plate or ductile
steel, and about two-thirds the thickness of the
boiler-shell plate, should be cut to the template,
bevelled on all edges, and roughly swaged to fit
the curve of the boiler.
iii. The patch should then be held in position against
the boiler, and the holes should be carefully
marked, keeping a suitable pitch and taking
care that sufficient metal is left beyond the holes,
both in patch and boiler, to provide ample
strength. All the holes should then be drilled
in the patch, and two or three holes, far apart,
may be drilled in the boiler, using the patch as a
template ; see PI. 14, Fig. 5.
iv. The patch should then be heated in a forge or muffle
furnace, applied to the boiler, bolted through the
drilled holes, and hammered down quickly to fit
snugly all round.
v. The remaining holes should now be drilled in the
boiler, after which the patch is taken off again.
All burring and sharp edges must be removed,
and the surfaces cleaned with sal-ammoniac
solution to remove scale.
vi. The patch, while black hot, should then be bolted
down tight through all holes. One bolt at a
time should then be removed and replaced by a
rivet, as described in para. 4.
vii. Finally, the patch should be caulked all round.
11. Firebox patches.—When patching fireboxes, the
old metal beneath the patch should be removed as tax as
possible, leaving sufficient only around the edges for adequate
Plate 14.
PATCH Kf //. PLATE M17LV TbAMENEB

riveting. The object of this is to avoid a double thickness

of metal which might result in overheating and consequent
troubles.
It is particularly important that no packing or jointing
paste of any kind should be used under the patch. Any such
jointing would insulate the edges of the patch from the boiler,
and so cause the fire to overheat the patch.
12. Temporary patches.—Locomotive boilers, and some
others, are difficult to patch without removing the firebox,
because it is generally impossible to close the rivets, since
one side of the plate is generally inaccessible.
When only a small patch is needed, not exceeding two
square feet in area, and the patch can be adequately supported
.by stays, the great expense and loss of time which would be
incurred in removing and replacing the firebox is not generally
warranted.
Small patches are generally fixed temporarily with
setscrews, screwed into tapped holes in the boiler or firebox
plate. The setscrews should be smaller in diameter than the
normal rivets for the same thickness of plate. A section
is shown on PI. 14, Fig. 7.
Such patches should be watched carefully; occasionally
the setscrews may be tightened up, if necessary, and the
edges lightly caulked.
When it becomes necessary to remove the firebox for
repairs, the setscrews should be replaced, one at a time, by
rivets of correct diameter.
13. Repair of tube plates.—If a tube plate shows a
tendency to crack extensively, the part affected should be cut
out and replaced. The whole plate can only be renewed
after removal of the firebox from the boiler. This is seldom
necessary if the outside edges and flanges of the plate are
still good.
The old plate may be cut out along the outer tube holes,
and used as a template for drilling the new plate to take the
tubes. The standard overlap of not less than three times the
diameter of the rivet must be allowed. This is sometimes
difficult when some of the tubes are very near the edge of the
old plate. The rivets must in this case be fitted in the metal
between tube holes ; see PI. 14, Fig. 8. Rivet holes should
be drilled simultaneously through both plates, and bolts
placed in a few holes at once and tightened, thus ensuring
that the patch does not move while the remainder are being
drilled, and that all holes will be fair.
A bolt should then be placed in every hole, the patch well
hammered down to make it fit, and the bolts tightened as
much as possible.
Each bolt in turn may now be removed, and a rivet closed

in its place.
Generally, a patch of this type can only be caulked from
inside the boiler. It is advisable to supplement the strength
of the patched plate by beading both ends of some or all of
the outer tubes.
14. Corner patches.—Where a patch must override the
joint between two plates, it can only be made watertight by
scarfing down the edge of the overriding plate, as shown on
PI. 14, Fig. 9.
In the' case of an outer-shell patch, tightness may
be improved by smearing with a paste, composed of wet
sal-ammoniac mixed with fine steel filings or grindings, before
the patch is finally applied ; this mixture forms a rust cement.
15. Fitting new plates.—Flanging must generally be
done by hand, since a press is seldom obtainable under service
conditions. The portion of the plate to be flanged should be
heated clear red, and placed upon the edge of a cast iron
block, the overhang being gauged carefully, as shown on PI.
14, Figs. 10 and 11.
A heavy weight should be placed upon the plate, as near
the edge as possible, to prevent the centre from hogging or
rising up, and the flange quickly bent down a little by rapid
blows of wooden mauls. Several re-heats may be necessary
before the full degree of flanging is obtained. The greatest
possible length of flange should be turned in one heat.
The block should be moulded to the radius of the turn
required. In emergency, a heavy timber block may be used,
resting upon a stone or concrete floor.
All edges to be caulked should be bevelled, and finally
the plate should be well annealed.
16. Building up by welding.—The process of welding
by oxy-acetylene flame or electric arc may be used in boiler
repair work for two purposes.
i. For joining the edges of plates where riveting is difficult
or impossible.
ii. For building up the thickness of plates which are
locally wasted or grooved.
The work is not usually carried out by a boilermaker, since
it constitutes a separate trade. The boiler-shop staff should
bear in mind, however, that work which presents great
difficulty, dud would necessitate long delays if carried out
by the patching or renewal of plates, may sometimes be done
easily and quickly by welding, if suitable plant and personnel
sufficiently acquainted with its use are available.

CHAPTER VI
HEAT TREATMENT
22. Introduction
1. Steel is considered to be an alloy of iron and iron carbide.
Whereas pure iron is a soft and ductile metal with a high
melting point (1,530° C.), iron carbide is intensely hard and
brittle and its addition to iron has the effect of lowering the
melting point. When the iron carbide, called “ cementite,"
is in solid solution in the iron, it confers properties of hardness
and brittleness upon the resulting steel; when it is just mixed
up with the iron in grains or crystals it makes the resulting
product stronger under tensile stress but reasonably soft.
Steel, therefore, can be made hard or soft according as to
whether the cementite of its composition is in solution or just
mechanically mixed with the iron, and its condition can be
controlled by “ Heat Treatment.”
In all heat treatment operations the temperature must be
very accurately controlled, especially in the case of modern
alloy steels.
2. Critical range.—When steel is heated, the temperature

at which the cementite goes into solid solution is called the
upper critical temperature or point of decalescence. Upper
critical temperatures are given in Table F, page 79.
The temperature at which the cementite comes out of
solution again on cooling is called the lower critical tempera¬
ture or recalescence point. The interval between these two
temperatures (about 30° C. for commercial plain carbon steels)
is called the critical range. Owing to the latent heat of
fusion, the temperature remains approximately constant for
several minutes at both ends of the critical range, hence the
names decalescence and recalescence. The greater the carbon
content the lower the temperature.
23. Hardening
1. If the steel is to remain hard when it has cooled down,
the cementite must be kept from coming out of solution in
the iron. This can be effected by cooling the steel so quickly
through the critical range that there is no time for the change
to take place. The rate of cooling determines the degree of
hardness.
74
Sec. 23.—Hardening 75
The process of hardening consists in heating the steel

slowly and uniformly up to a point slightly above the upper
critical temperature (see Table F), and quenching it suddenly
in some cooling medium. In the case of carbon steels,
hardening by this method is only effective when the percentage
of carbon lies between 0*2 and 2*0 per cent. The extent to
which hardening occurs increases with the proportion of
carbon in the metal.
2. The temperature for hardening common articles of
carbon steel can be roughly gauged by the brightness of the
heated metal (see Table D), but for the proper heat treatment
of special steels this method is not sufficiently accurate. In
this case a pyrometer should be used, and the maker’s instruc¬
tions strictly followed.
Table D.—Various colours and temperatures of steel when

heated
Temperature
Colour
°C. °F.
Just visible red 500 to 600 932 to 1,112

Dull cherry-red 700 to 750 1,292 to 1,382
Cherry-red 750 to 825 1,382 to 1,517
Bright cherry-red 825 to 875 1,517 to 1,607
Brightest red .. 900 to 950 1,652 to 1,742
Orange 950 to 1.000 1,742 to 1,832
Light orange .. 1,000 to 1,050 1,832 to 1,922
Lemon .. 1,100 to 1,200 2,012 to 2,192
White .. 1,200 to 1,300 2,192 to 2,372
If during the hardening process the metal is heated above

the upper critical temperature, the grain tends to become
coarse, and this reduces the strength. In. practice, as a rapid
cooling sets in immediately the steel leaves the furnace, the
article must be heated slightly above the critical temperature,
and quenched before it cools below the critical temperature
and returns to its former state.
3. Although small articles such as chisels can be hardened
satisfactorily by heating in a forge and quenching, modem
practice is to heat the article uniformly in a muffle furnace,
such as that shown in PI. 10, Fig. 18, fitted with a pyrometer.
In a properly constructed electric, gas or oil-heated furnace
the temperature can be very closely regulated.
It should be noted that mild steel (up to 0*2 per cent,
carbon) cannot be hardened in this way.
The usual quenching baths are water, oil, or brine, other
substances being used for special purposes. Brine will absorb
76 Sec. 24.—Tempering or Drawing
heat quicker than water, and water quicker than oils.

Quenching in brine therefore gives the maximum hardness,
but it should be remembered that very rapid cooling may
result in uneven contraction, producing surface cracks.
The choice of the quenching bath will depend upon the
composition of the steel and the shape of the article. Clear
cold water, free from oil and grease, is commonly used for
ordinary carbon steels. Brine may be substituted when
additional hardness is required. Sperm or lard oil arc
commonly used for springs, and raw linseed oil is excellent
for cutters and other small tools. In the case of repetition
work, care must be taken to keep the bath at a constant
temperature.
24. Tempering or drawing

1. When a piece of carbon steel has been hardened by
quenching in water it is glass hard and very brittle, owing
to the complete fixation of the cementite. Metal in this state
is useless for cutting tools, and some of this hardness has to
be sacrificed to obtain toughness, by letting some of the
cementite out of solution. This is effected by re-heating to
a temperature well below the critical temperature followed
by any rate of cooling. Re-heating temperatures for various
articles are shown in Table E.
Given suitable quenching media it is possible to produce
the correct degree of toughness during the hardening opera¬
tion itself, but the special fluids required for this purpose are
not usually available in the service.
2. In practice, tempering may be carried out in one of the
following ways:—
i. Point tempering.—In this process, hardening and temper¬
ing are combined in one heat. The part to be treated
is raised above the upper critical temperature, after
which the point or cutting edge only is quenched.
The point is then quickly polished to a bright surface
with a stone. The heat in the body of the tool
returns by conduction to the point, which is re-heated,
and coloured oxide films appear on the polished
point. From these colours, the temperature of the
metal can be estimated (see Table C). When the
colour corresponding to the required temperature is
obtained, the whole tool is quenched.
ii. Hot plate tempering.—In this method, the hardened
article is laid on a hot metal plate and re-heated by
conduction to the required temperature. As before,
the temperature can be estimated by the colour of
the oxide layer.
Sec. 24.—Tempering or Drawing 77
Table E.—Details for tempering tool steel for various purposes
Tempera¬ Tempering
Oxide tint ture Uses of steel bath
°C. °F. Lead | Tin
Pale yellow .. 220 428 Small edge tools ; small 7J

lathe, planing, and
slotting tools.
Straw 230 446 Razors and surgical 81
instruments.
Golden yellow 243 470 Penknives, hammers, 10
taps, and reamers ;
large lathe, planing,
and slotting tools;
small drills; dies,
miners' drills,
chasers, rimers,
plane irons, wood-
borers, and scrapers.
Brown 254 490 Scissors, shears, cold 14
chisels, large drills,
shear blades,
punches, and wood¬
cutting tools.
Brown dappled 266 510 Axes, planes, and 19
with purple wood-working tools ;
lathe tools for
copper.
Purple 277 530 Table knives, large 30
shears, wood-turn¬
ing tools, and cold
chisels for soft iron
and brass.
Blue .. 288 550 Swords, coiled springs, 48
augers, boilermakers'
snaps, firmer chisels,
smiths’ tools, cold
sets, laminated
springs, and fine saw-
blades.
Dark blue 29*9 570 Hand saws and screw 50 I 2
drivers.
Boiling
Pale blue
J ust visible red
316
500
600
932
Too soft for tools
Big spiral springs
{ linseed oil.
in the dark
iii. Lead alloy bath tempering.—The steel to be tempered is

heated in a bath of molten lead alloy, the melting
point of which corresponds to the tempering tempera¬
ture required. As soon as a uniform temperature has
been reached, the article is taken out and allowed to
cool.
The advantage of this method is the uniformity of
heating obtained.
78 Sec. 25.—Normalizing and Annealing
----Him_
iv. Sand bath tempering.—The sand bath is another com¬

mon method of tempering for small work, the sand
being heated in an iron container with an open top.
By this method a piece to be tempered, e.g. a punch,
can be given different tempers throughout its length,
by placing the article vertically in the sand.
25. Normalizing and annealing

1. The operations of casting, forging, welding, rolling,
stamping, wire-drawing, &c., make steel hard and brittle
and set up internal strains.
The process of relieving these strains and rendering the
steel soft and ductile is called normalizing or annealing.
These terms are somewhat loosely used but they are accurately
defined as follows:—
1. Normalizing means heating the steel above the critical
range and then allowing it to cool slowly in still air at
ordinary atmospheric temperature.
The upper critical temperature must not be exceeded
by more than 40° C. or so and the heating should last
15 minutes or more depending upon the size and shape
of the article.
ii. Annealing means heating as for normalizing but cooling
very slowly (for 24 hours or more) in the furnace (with
the heat shut off).
In both cases the cementite comes out of solution, the
crystalline structure is refined, the metal is softened and
internal strains are removed.
The difference is merely one of degree, the process being
more complete with annealing than with normalizing.
If facilities exist, slow cooling in the furnace is always
preferable for the lower carbon steels used in structural work
where strength test requirements arc most important, but if
an article has not to be machined or otherwise worked, air
cooling will suffice in many cases.
As a compromise, in cases where the heating is done in a
smith’s hearth, the article may be embedded in lime or ashes
to lessen the rate of cooling.
2. In the absence of precise information the following
Table F, may be used as a guide when annealing plain carbon
steels.
Sec. 26.—Case Hardening 79
Table F.—Annealing temperatures for plain carbon steels
Upper critical Normalizing or annealing

Percentage of temperature : temperature
carbon
0-12
°C.
880
° F.
1,620
warn895-910
°F.
1,640-1,670
0-2 845 1,550 855-870 1,570-1,600
0-3 810 1,490 820-835 1,510-1,540
0-4 775 1,430 800-815 1,470-1,500
0-5 765 1,410 775-795 1,430-1,460
0-6 1 755 1,390 765-775 1,410-1,430
0-7 745 1,370 I
0*8 740 1,360 > 750-765 1,380-1,410
0-9 730 1,350 J
and above :
In high carbon steels (0-7 per cent, carbon and above)

the presence of a large proportion of cementite renders them
difficult to machine even when fully annealed as above. It
is, therefore, usual first to normalize them and then to subject
them to a prolonged (several hours) heating at about 700° C.,
just below the lower critical temperature. This latter
process is sometimes known as spheroidizing since it
breaks up the grains of the cementite iron mixture into
globules or “ spheroids" in which condition the steel is
much softer and therefore easier to machine.
26. Case hardening

1. It was observed in Sec. 23, para. 3, that mild steel
contains too low a percentage of carbon to be hardened, also
that hardened carbon steel lacks toughness.
If it is desired to produce articles having the toughness
of mild steel and a hardened surface {e.g. cam shafts and
gudgeon pins) some method of case hardening must be used.
The following process, which applies to mild steel, wrought
iron, and alloy steels of low carbon content, may be divided
into :—
i. Carburizing, which means converting the outside of a
mild steel, &c., bar to high carbon steel by direct
absorption of carbon. It is carried out by heating
the steel to redness in contact with some substance
rich- in carbon, or one that will give off carbon
monoxide.
This results in a mild steel or wrought iron core
having a skin of high carbon steel.
ii. Subsequent heat treatment to obtain the qualities
desired.
80 Sec. 26.—Case Hardening
2. Carburizing is usually carried out by packing the

articles together with bone dust, charcoal, or some case-
hardening compound (e.g. “ Kasenit ”) in iron boxes rendered
air tight by luting the lid with clay. The parts must be
cleaned before packing, and should be so packed that they
are completely surrounded with compound, not touching each
other or the side of the box. Test-pieces should be included,
one at each end of the box, so that the depth of case can be
ascertained by fracture. The box is heated to about 900° C.
in a muffle furnace, and the time of “ soaking ” depends on
the depth of case required. A box 12 in. by 12 in. by 6 in.
containing mild steel shafts 1| in. in diameter would produce
a case approximately -—-in. thick in 6 hours.
On removal of the box from the furnace, it should be
allowed to cool, after which the lid is unsealed. Heat treat¬
ment is now necessary because the prolonged soaking at bright
red heat will have caused the grain of both the core and the
case to grow into large crystals. The refining is carried out
in two operations, viz. :—
i. To refine the core.—Re-heat in an open muffle to the
upper critical temperature of the core (870-880° C.)
and quench in oil.
ii. To refine the case.—Re-heat to the upper critical
temperature of the case (760-780° C.) and quench in
oil or water to harden it. Water will give the
greater hardness but involves the greater risk of
distortion.
■ This second heating is necessary because the case,
having a higher percentage of carbon than the core,
will therefore have a lower critical temperature and
the first operation will have left the case in a coarse
grained condition.
If the first quenching be in oil and the second in water, the
part should be thoroughly freed from oil before the second
re-heat, otherwise soft spots on the surface may result.
3. A thin case may be produced quickly by the prussiate
of potash method. Yellow prussiate of potash crystals are
melted in a cast iron pot in the fire, and the article is immersed
in it and the whole kept at a red heat for about 75 minutes
depending on the depth of case required. The article may
then be quenched immediately, or re-heated and quenched
as before.
4. The effects of case hardening can be localized by the
following methods:—
i. Plating method.—Before carburizing, the article is
copper or nickel plated, and the plating removed
from the surface to be hardened.
Sec. 27.—Alloy Steels 81
ii. Coating the portions which are to remain soft with
asbestos or fireclay.
This method is not so reliable as the plating
method.
27. Alloy steels
1. Small percentages of other metals are added to steels
to improve their properties and facilitate heat treatment.
Such steels are expensive, and to get the full value out of
them it is essential that they should be subjected to the correct
heat treatment, which varies according to their composition
but is clearly laid down by the makers.
2. High-speed tool steels.—High-speed tool steel is
an alloy of steel with tungsten and chromium and it has the
following characteristics — 1
i. It is self-hardening.
ii. It is hard when red hot.
A normal composition is 19 per cent, tungsten, 5 per cent,
chromium and 0-67 per cent, carbon.
High-speed steel can be distinguished from carbon steel
by the dull red spark which it gives oil when ground on an
emery wheel. Carbon steel gives a brilliant white spark.
High-speed steel is usually supplied in the annealed con¬
dition together with instructions for heat treatment; in the
absence of such instructions the following procedure is
recommended:—
Forge to shape at a bright red heat (never less than about
845° C.), using a heavy hammer and working as quickly as
possible. It must be borne in mind that this material is very
liable to crack through blows or sudden changes of temperature.
To harden, heat up the whole tool gradually and evenly
to about 855° C., and then rapidly heat up the point of the
tool to about 1,300° C: or until it appears to be on the point
of fusing. Then cool in a blast of dry cold air or in whale oil.
Water or even damp air may produce cracks.
Tempering is only necessary in the case of tools with
slender edges, or when it is required to produce a smoother
finish on a fairly soft steel.
Re-heating is necessary, and makers' instructions should
be followed.
Grinding of high-speed tools must be carried out with care
as any undue heating may cause cracks.
3. High-speed steel tips for machine tools.—Owing
to the high cost of high-speed tool steel, considerable economy
can be effected by using lathe, &c., tools consisting of a shank
of either mild steel or medium carbon steel, such as No. 3
temper carbon steel, with a high-speed steel tip brazed on.
‘ -(579)
82 Sec. 27.—Alloy Steels
Mild steel can be used if the section is sufficiently large,

but may bend if over-stressed.
The shank is forged and ground to the shape of the tool,
with the tip ground down to about half depth or rather less
for a distance of about one inch, forming a seating for the tip ;
the surfaces of the seating being ground smooth and flat; the
re-entrant angle may be radiused to improve the seating,
though this is not essential.
The tip is cut off to length from bar machined on the
surfaces which will bed on the seat, the edge connecting these
surfaces being radiused to fit. The tip should be slightly wider
than the seat.
The tip is then laid on the seat with a layer of about ~ of
an inch of brazing compound in between and may be bound
on with wire, though this is unnecessary in most cases. A
suitable brazing compound is Super Welding Brazing Alloy
(supplied by Alfred Herbert, Coventry).
The tool is heated to red heat, the tip pressed or hammered
down on to the seat, and then given the heat treatment
(hardening and tempering) necessary for the particular type
of high speed steel of which the tip is made.
Pressing home the tip may often be done at the hardening
temperature instead of at a red heat.
The tip may then be ground to shape, using plenty of
coolant to prevent the formation of surface cracks.
4. Nitralloy.—This aluminium-chromium alloy, briefly
referred to in Chap. I, is case hardened by the absorption of
nitrogen from ammonia gas. The surface obtained is much
harder than anything previously known in metallurgy. It
will cut glass or even quartz and cannot be touched with
special testing files. The Brinell figure is from 900 to 1,100,
which is about double that obtained with ordinary nickel-
chrome case-hardened steel.
The nitration process is carried out in an electric furnace
at a temperature of 500° C. for a period of 90 hours or less
according to the depth of case required.
Apart from the extreme hardness obtained the great
advantage of the process is that it requires a comparatively
low temperature which obviates distortion, even with pieces
of intricate design. In particular, crankshaft journals may
be case hardened and duralumin connecting rods can be run
direct on to nitralloy crank pins without anti-friction linings.
Nitralloy steel retains its hardness up to 600° C., whereas
other steels hardened by quenching begin to lose hardness at
180-200° C.

CHAPTER VII
SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING

28. Introduction
Soldering, brazing and welding are different methods of
joining metal parts to others of the same or of different kinds.
The processes of soldering and brazing differ from that of
welding; in the former the jointing is effected by an alloy
known as “ solder ” or " spelter " having a lower melting
point than the metals joined, while in the latter the metal used
for the joint is the same as that of the parts joined. This
second form of joint is called an autogenous joint or weld.
The essential for a strong joint made by either method is
actual metallic contact at the joint surfaces. Before a joint
is made, the surfaces to be joined must be clean, bright, and
free from any oil, grease or oxides. Metallic oxides invariably
form when the surfaces to be joined are heated up, and these
must be removed by means of fluxes. These fluxes are placed
on the surfaces of the heated joint, melt, and then pick up the
metallic oxides as they form. The oxides float on the liquid
flux and the actual surfaces of the joints are thus kept clean,
so that an alloying action can take place, or so that the actual
fused joint free from oxide can be formed.
The solders, spelters and fluxes in most common use arc
given in Table G, and some melting points which will be
found useful in soldering and brazing are given in Table H.
29. Soldering
1. Soft soldering.—Soft soldering is usually done with a
copper soldering iron or bit (see PI. 16A, Fig. 1); the bit is of
copper, since this metal is a good conductor of heat. Owing
to the fact that a copper bit readily oxidizes, and that the
film of oxide so formed is a bad conductor of heat, it is neces¬
sary to coat the nose of a hot bit with soft solder or tin. This
operation is called timing the bit. The tin on the bit does
not oxidize nearly so quickly as the copper forming the bit,
and, therefore,, the heat of the bit is not insulated by the
non-conducting oxide.
To tin the bit, first heat it to below red heat, clean the
nose with a file and rub it in some suitable flux, such as sal-
ammoniac, and then let the solder melt over the nose.
It is important not to overheat the soldering iron. This
must be kept well below a red heat or the tin will be burnt
83
84 Sec. 29.—Soldering
Table G.—Particulars of various kinds of soldering,

composition of solders, fluxes, and metals joined
Description
Composition of Metals
of Fluxes
solder joined
soldering
Soft soldering Tinman's solder:— Tin - plate, Zinc chloride,

35 per cent, to 50 zinc, copper, resin, and sal-
per cent. lead. brass, and ammoniac. Am-
65 per cent, to 50 iron. monium chlor¬
per cent. tin. ide is a good
The lesser lead flux for joining
percentage is copper and iron,
known as fine dilute hydro¬
solder, the higher chloric acid for
lead percentage zinc and zinc-
is known as coated articles,
coarse solder. and Russian
Plumber's tallow for heavy
solder:— lead-work.
65 per cent, to 75
per cent. lead.
35 per cent, to 25
per cent. tin.
Silver soldering Solder for general Gold, silver, Borax or, for very
work:— copper, hard solders,
Copper, 43 per iron, and powdered glass.
cent. alloys of | Solder filings may
Silver, 9 per these be mixed with
cent. metals. borax.
Zinc, 48 per
cent.
Solder for thin
sheets of mild
steel:—
Copper, 90 per
cent, to 95 per
cent.
Silver, 10 per
cent, to 5 per
cent.
Solder for small
brass work:— i
Copper, 50 per
cent.
Silver, 30 per
cent.
Zinc, 20 per cent, i
Sec. 29.—Soldering 85
Table G.—continued
Description
Composition of Metals ‘
of Fluxes
solder joined
soldering
Hard soldering, Spelter or brass for Brass, cop- Borax with pow-
or brazing general iron- per, iron, dered spelter, or
work :— and steel. borax alone.
Zinc, 35 per cent. Acid fluxes should
Copper, 65 per not be used on
cent. electrical work.
For brazing cop¬
per •
Zinc, 40 per cent.
Copper, 60 per
cent.
White spelter:—
Copper, 35 per
cent.
Zinc, 57 per cent.
Nickel, 8 per
cent.
Table H.—Melting points of some metals and alloys
°F.
D
1. Fine solder 334 170
2. Tinman's solder .. . 374 190
3. Plumber's solder 437 225
4. Tin 446 230
5. Lead . 626 330
6. Zinc . 788 420
7. Silver solder (copper 43 per cent., silver 9 per
cent., zinc 48 per cent.) 1,580 860
8. Spelter (copper 60 per cent., zinc 40 percent.) 1,652 900
9. Spelter (copper 65 per cent., zinc 35 per cent.) 1,679 915
10. Silver 1,760 960
11. Brass (copper 67 per cent., zinc 33 per cent.) 1,778 970
12. Silver solder (copper 90 per cent., silver 10 per
cent.) •• •• •• •• •• •• 1,030
13. Cast jron. 2,192 1,200
14. Mild steel . 2,732 1,500
86 Sec. 29.—Soldering
off the nose of the bit, oxides will form, and the bit will
require to be re-tinned.
The surfaces of the pieces to be joined must be thoroughly
cleaned, tinned, and then securely fixed. They must then be
neatly coated with flux where the solder is required to run, and
placed together. The tinned bit is then held against the work
till the latter is well heated. A drop of molten solder is then
allowed to come off the bit and will spread over the joint
where the flux has been placed. Then draw the bit along
the joint to make the solder run where it is wanted. A stick
of solder held against the hot bit keeps up the supply of
molten solder on the joint.
Always work the molten solder down hill.
On completion of work, all traces of flux, especially acid
flux, must be carefully removed.
2. Hard soldering or brazing.—As with soft soldering
the secret of successful brazing is the thorough cleaning of the
parts to be joined. The solder or spelter is applied in the form
of rod or filings. The filings must not be too fine or they will
be oxidized before they are able to flow as molten metal to the
joint. Moistened borax must be freely applied to the solder
and to the joint. The parts to be brazed are given a coat of
borax paste, clamped or bound together and placed on the
hearth surrounded with firebrick, charcoal, or other non¬
conducting material to reduce the rate of cooling during the
brazing operation.
The whole joint is then heated to a bright cherry-red by
a paraffin blow lamp or by a gas blow pipe. Experience is
necessary to judge the correct temperature, and care must be
taken not to melt the parts being joined. This remark
applies particularly to brass which has a melting point not
greatly exceeding that of the spelter. When the correct
temperature is reached a mixture of borax and spelter is
applied to the joint. The spelter melts and permeates the
joint, forming a hard soldered or brazed junction. When the
borax is allowed to remain on the work until it is cold it will
be found to be glassy and difficult to remove. Some common
salt thrown on to the work just after the spelter sets will
obviate this trouble.
3. Silver soldering.—Silver soldering is akin to brazing
and is carried out in much the same manner. The melting
point of most silver solders is a little lower than that of spelter,
and the operation is somewhat easier to carry out than brazing.
A silver soldered joint, however, is not so strong as a brazed
one. The most economical method of applying the silver
solder is to cut off a narrow strip and fix it in the end of a thin
iron rod slotted at the end. When working with thin brass.
Sec. 30.—Re-lining White Metal Bearings 87
great care must be exercised not to overheat the joint, as the

temperature required to melt the silver solder is only a little
less than that required to melt the brass.
4. Strength of joints.—A joint made by soft soldering is
the weakest, and is only used for small work. A joint made
by silver soldering is intermediate in strength between soft
soldering and brazing, but is easier to work than a brazed
joint. A joint made by brazing, or hard soldering, is the
strongest.
5. Typical examples of soldering and brazing work.
' Seams in lead pipe.
l. Soft soldering. Tubes in a motor-car radiator.
Joint in electric wire.
Joint in shank of brass key.
n. Silver soldering. New tooth in brass gear wheel.
Brass nipples to copper tubes.
( Parts of bicycle frame.
iii. Brazing.
\ Pipe joints subject to vibration.
6. Working temperature of joints.—It will be clear
that the working temperature also affects the choice of method.
If a temperature exceeding (say) 150° C. (300° F.) is likely to
to be reached when the joint is in use, it must be either silver
soldered or brazed.
30. Re-lining white metal hearings
1. White metal bearings are commonly used for high-speed
shafts, especially if of fairly large diameter. They are almost
universal for the main bearings, and common practice for the
big-end bearings, of modem internal combustion engines.
Though unable to withstand the pressures and temperatures
for which bronze bearings are suitable, they have several
advantages; friction is less, the soft, almost fluid nature of
the metal enables it to adapt itself to the journal more
closely, and if a bearing does run hot, the metal melts and
runs, but is too soft to damage the shaft as a bronze bearing
would.
2. White metal bearings are usually carried in a shell, in
two halves, made of cast iron, cast steel, or bronze. This
shell is lined with the white metal, which is poured in in the
molten state, as described below.
3. White metals are alloys of widely varying composition,
the principal constituents being tin, lead, copper and
antimony. For high-speed work, an alloy containing 80 per
cent, of tin and no lead may be used, while for low-speed work
60 per cent, of lead and 20 per cent, of tin is suitable. There
We many proprietary brands, and any of the makers of repute
88 Sec. 30.—Re-lining White Metal Bearings
will supply a metal suitable for a given purpose. The mixing

of the metals is not work for the military engineer.
Metal from old bearings should not be used again.
4. Preparing the shells for re-metalling.—The shells
must first be cleaned thoroughly with the help of a blow-lamp,
all old metal, oxides, and grease being removed. Cast iron
and steel shells may require “ pickling ” in hot caustic soda
solution. The parts which are not required to take the metal
are then whitewashed or coated with blacklead, and the* shell
is heated, preferably in an oven, or, if not too large, by »
immersion in a bath of molten tin ; failing an oven or a large
enough bath, it may be heated by means of blow-lamps applied
to the outside of the shell, but it is not easy to get uniform
heating by this means. The shell should be heated to a
temperature sufficient to melt tin (240° C.).
The shell should then immediately be brushed over with
flux (killed spirits of salts, Fluxite, or other proprietary flux)
and tinned with pure tin. The tinning is best carried out
by dipping again in the tin bath for a few seconds ; if this is
impracticable, it can be tinned with an iron, keeping the shell
hot by a blow-lamp applied to the outside.
The tinning must be thorough and complete; any bare
spots are liable to result in a ruined bearing. It may be
necessary to dip the shell again. Cast iron shells must be
tinned quickly.
Immediately after tinning, the bearing should be wiped out
with a clean rag to remove all flux and surplus tin, and then
given a light coating of tin without flux.
5. Running in the metal.—The halves of the bearing are
clamped to a mandrel (a piece of steel shaft or piping) about
| to J in. smaller in diameter than the journal, with two
pieces of steel plate between the faces (see PI. 15). These
plates should be coated with black lead. The whole is then
placed on a face plate and sand or clay packed round the
bottom of the shells to prevent the metal from running out.
Pre-heating of the jig is most essential before filling.
The metal should, if possible, be run in immediately after
tinning, without allowing the shell to cool. If allowed to
cool it must be heated again before pouring, but this is likely
to lead to oxidation. The running temperature of the metal
depends upon its composition, but is usually from 300° to
330° C. (not higher or the metal will be damaged). The metal
should be stirred frequently during the heating operation.
The molten metal should be poured in as quickly as possible,
running the ladle round the opening, to keep the head of metal .
equal on both sides. A wire should be worked up and down
in the metal to aid the escape of gas and air. As the metal
Sec. 30.—Re-lining White Metal Bearings 89
Plate 15.
90 Sec. 31.—Welding by Gas and Electricity
cools and contracts, it will be found possible to add a little

more. When in a pasty condition, it should be pressed down
into the shell with a piece of wood.
6. Finishing the bearing.—When cool, the bearing is
removed from the mandrel, the two halves are clamped
together (with shims, if fitted, between them, as in the engine)
and machined on a lathe to a tight fit in the journal, and
finally scraped in to a running fit, as described in Sec. 37,
para. 9.
31. Welding by gas and electricity
1. Welding is of great use, both in production and repair
work, but the success of the welded joint depends mainly
upon the integrity and skill of the operator. The ease with
which a bad weld can be effected and the great difficulty of
determining by its appearance whether it is sound or not,
constitutes a danger. Well-trained operators are therefore
essential, particularly for repair work, and adequate manual
dexterity can only be maintained by constant practice.
Among the numerous applications of welding are the
following : filling up blow-holes in castings; repairing cracked
cylinders and water jackets; building up worn shafts, gear
wheel teeth, &c.; repairing boilers, pipes, girders, &c., in situ ;
restoring incorrectly machined parts ; making large steel tanks
where riveted joints would otherwise be used, thus effecting a
great saving of time ; “ fabricating ” the stators of electrical
machines, engine frames, &c.
There are two distinct types of welding, viz. : gas welding
and electric welding.
2. Protection of operators.—In both systems the
operator must be protected from ultra-violet and infra-red
rays, heat and glare, and from particles of hot metal.
The eyes in particular must be protected by using goggles
or a screen with tinted glasses, but in heavy welding and in
cutting work it is desirable to use fireproof gauntlets and
aprons as well.
The best protection from the oxy-acetylene flame is
afforded by yeUowish-green or sage-green glass of as dark a
shade as the operator can work with. These glasses, however,
are not sufficient protection for electric arc welding for which two
superimposed glasses are required, one dark ruby and the
other green, the latter being on the eye side of the goggles or
screen. In all cases a clear glass should be added on the
work side to prevent splashes of molten metal from damaging
the more expensive tinted glasses. In electric arc welding
where one hand only is required for the actual welding opera¬
tion, it is usual to use a welding screen with correctly coloured
Sec. 32.—Oxy-acetylene Welding 91
glasses instead of goggles. When welding is carried out in
the vicinity of other workmen it is also advisable to use some
form of screen to isolate the welding.
3. Fuel gases.—In gas welding either hydrogen, coal or
acetylene gas may be used as fuel, but for various reasons
acetylene is the most convenient for service purposes. Some
particulars of these gases are given in the following
table:—
Flame temperature
Gas Approx, calorific value
B.Th.U. per cubic foot With air With oxygen
•
°C. °C.
Coal 550 1,600
Hydrogen 290 1,700 ISEIBkI
Acetylene 1,450 2,300
(The temperature readied with the electric arc exceeds 4,000° C.)
No great precision can be claimed for these figures, but

relatively they are approximately correct.
32. Oxy-acetylene welding

1. There are two main systems of oxy-acetylene welding,
one the low pressure system, in which acetylene is generated
locally from calcium carbide, and the other the high pressure
system, which uses factory made acetylene supplied in steel
cylinders.
2. Oxygen supply.—In both systems the oxygen is
supplied in steel cylinders, the most common standard size
containing 100 cubic feet of free gas compressed to a pressure
of 120 atmospheres (1,800 lb./sq. in. approx.). The approxi¬
mate weight of this size of cylinder is 118 lb., the diameter
7 in. and the length 53 in. The contents can be roughly
gauged from the indicated pressure, e.g. if the pressure is
50 atmospheres the contents will be about 100 x
= 42 cubic feet.
The pressure is reduced to a value within the control of
the blow-pipe tap by passing through a regulator screwed to
the cylinder.
PI. 16B, Fig. 1, shows a typical modern oxygen regulator
as supplied by the British Oxygen Company. No low pressure
gauge is fitted but 6 regulator settings are provided, marked
I to 6, suitable for passing hourly 150, 500, .1,000, 1,500,
92 . Sec. 32.—Oxy-acetylene Welding
2,000 and 2,500 litres of gas respectively at the pressures

indicated in Table I.
Having set the regulator to suit the blow-pipe tip in use,
the operator makes the final adjustment at the blow-pipe
tap.
Fittings for oxygen cylinders have right-handed threads and
are painted black.
3. Acetylene supply.—i. Low-pressure system.—The work¬
ing principle of the acetylene generator is the same as that of
an ordinary acetylene lamp. An outline of a large generator,
together with all auxiliary plant, is illustrated in PI. 16.
For successful welding the supply of acetylene should be slow
and regular, otherwise the heat generated by the chemical
action will be excessive. Usually a gallon of water is allowed
per pound of carbide, and this yields about 4-8 cubic feet of
free acetylene at a pressure of 7 to 10 in. of water.
Acetylene generated from commercial carbide must be
purified before being used for welding. Solid particles are
removed by passing the gas through some porous material,
e.g. cotton wool or felt. Chemical impurities such as ammonia
and sulphur compounds are absorbed by passing through a
purifier filled with Heratol or other purifying compound.
Heratol is a solution of chromic acid absorbed in porous
earth. It is strongly acid and must be handled carefully.
One pound of Heratol will purify 110 cubic feet of
acetylene.
Care must always be exercised in handling acetylene plant.
The gas is explosive and poisonous; good ventilation is
therefore essential. Copper pipework must not be used as
copper forms with acetylene an explosive compound which
detonates when subjected to shock.
To avoid flash-back an hydraulic back pressure valve
is invariably placed in the pipe line between the acetylene
gas-holder and the blow-pipe. The object of this is to prevent
the oxygen from blowing back into the gas-holder and pro¬
ducing an explosive mixture if the blow-pipe tip should become
blocked. PI. 16A, Figs. 3a and 36 show the details of
an hydraulic valve. If the blow-pipe becomes stopped up,
the oxygen comes back through the acetylene pipe, c, by
overcoming the forward acetylene pressure from the gas-holder.
On reaching the body of the valve, d, the oxygen blows the
water out of the tube, a, and so escapes to the atmosphere;
at the same time water is forced up the pipe, e, and so seals
the acetylene pipe from the gas-holder. Every time the plant
is used the tap, /, should be opened to ascertain whether the
water level in valve is correct.
Water required to fill up to the proper level is poured in
through the pipe, a.
OW- PRESSURE acetylene: welding plant.
Sec. 32Oxy -acetylene Welding
93
94 Sec. 32.—Oxy-acetylene Welding
Plate 16a.
t
OXY-ACETYLEHE WELDING DETAILS

section through
WELDING REGULATOR.
Ref. 3258/64.
A.—Outlet connection.
B.—Special valve seat — proof
against ignition risk; also
incorporates patent non¬
turn device.
fj C.—Safety valve—preventing
^ accumulation of pressure
| D.— Out let valve.

N E.—Specwt reinforced dia-
F.—High - pressure gauge indi¬

cating Contents of Cylinder
G.—Fly-nut and nipple for in¬
serting regulator in valve
H - Pressure adjusting screw.

f(Q.
fts. /i A cutting regulator is similar,
<5 but an outlet pressure gauge is
provided between the outlet
Connection A and the safety
valve C.
Fig 2 Mode? B high pressure welding blowpipe
/tg. <3^ ti Type Cutting blowpipe

ii. High-pressure system.—In this system the acetylene

is supplied in steel cylinders filled with a porous material,
such as Kapok. The Kapok is saturated with acetone which
has the property of dissolving large quantities of acetylene,
and the gas in this form is known as dissolved acetylene.
The approximate weight of a cylinder containing 120 cubic
feet of gas is 120 lb., the diameter 8| in. and the length
40| in. (There are 8 standard sizes of D.A. cylinders con¬
taining from 3| to 200 cubic feet.)
The amount of gas taken from a dissolved acetylene
cylinder can be estimated from the loss of weight in use.
One pound of acetylene equals about 14-5 cubic feet at normal
temperature and pressure. The initial pressure in the
cylinder is 225 lb./sq. in. at 60° F., and a regulator valve is
therefore necessary to lower the pressure to a suitable value
for control at the blow-pipe.
Fittings for acetylene cylinders have left-handed threads and
are painted red.
The advantages of the high-pressure system are :—
(1) The plant is portable.
(2) The gas requires no purification.
On the other hand the cost of acetylene in the dissolved
form is about three times as great as when generated locally,
and therefore the low-pressure system is preferred for
stationary work where large quantities of acetylene are
consumed.
iii. Care of cylinders and regulators.—Both oxygen and
acetylene cylinders must be handled with great care. They
must be kept cool but must not be exposed to the weather.
When in use they should be kept as nearly upright as possible.
Repairs to regulators and cylinder valves should not be
attempted locally. The cylinder valve should always be
closed when the cylinder is not in use and when returned for
refilling.
In no circumstances must any oil or grease be used on any
of the fittings, either on the cylinder valves, regulators,
tubing or blow-pipe. Oil and oxygen together form a very
inflammable mixture.
Empty cylinders should be handled with the same care as
full ones.
Cylinders are generally loaned, demurrage charges being
paid when they are retained above a certain period.
The British Standard Specifications dealing with gas
cylinders and fittings are detailed in the bibliography on
page 687.
4. Blow-pipes.—The blow-pipe used in the low-pressure
system is quite different from that used in the high-pressure
system. The former works on the injector principle. The
oxygen rushing through the pipe A (PL 16A> Fig. 2) draws
in the low-pressure acetylene through the pipe B.
The British Oxygen Company's Model B blow-pipe for
high-pressure work is illustrated in PI. 16B, Fig. 2. In its
design is embodied a device for arresting back-firing which
virtually takes the place of the hydraulic seal in the low-
pressure system. The standard outfit comprises two shanks
of different length and 9 interchangeable tips for welding
materials up to 1 in. in thickness.
Tips, when choked, should never be reamered out with
a hard instrument. Copper wire may be used.
Particulars of tips, gas consumption, &c., in the high-
pressure system are given in Table I, which applies particularly
to mild steel. It is impossible to tabulate figures for all
materials and conditions but the table may be used generally
for estimating purposes.
In all cases the working capacity of a tip varies somewhat
according to the nature of the work and the skill of the
operator. If the work is pre-heated the gas consumed for
welding is reduced. It will be noted that modem regulator
settings are the same for oxygen and acetylene and equal
volumes of the two gases are consumed. In the low-pressure
system the consumption of oxygen is some 10 to 15 per cent,
greater than that of acetylene.
5. General method of welding.—i. Preparing the work.

—The parts to be welded must be carefully cleaned from rust
and dirt. No attempt should be made to reweld pieces which
have previously been welded or brazed, without first cutting
away all of the old metal. To obtain a weld of maximum
strength it is usually necessary to weld through the whole
section of the joint, and in order to effect this the edges of the
parts to be welded are bevelled so that when the edges are
placed together the included angle is about 90° for plates
from ~ to f in. thick and 45° for plates from | to in.
(PI. 16A, Figs. 4 and 5).
This allows the flame to reach the bottom of the “ V."
When the nature of the work permits, the bevelling may,
with advantage, be done from both surfaces, forming a
double “ V " (PI. 16A, Fig. 6).
In the case, of cast iron and steel, pieces $ in. thick or less
may be welded without making the “ V.” In brass and bronze
no work less than \ in. thick and in aluminium nothing less
than £ in. thick should be bevelled.
In repair work the “ V ” groove may sometimes be cut
with a cutting blow-pipe. When welding a crack, the
extremities of the crack should be drilled to prevent-extension.
The preparation of angle welds is shown on PI. 16A,

Figs. 7 and 8. That shown in the latter is the better practice,
but its preparation is more expensive. PI. 16A, Fig. 9,
shows a pipe joint, Fig. 10 a pipe elbow, Fig. 11 teeing into a
pipe. Fig. 12 welding a flange. Fig. 13 rods up to f in. diameter.
Fig. 14 rods f in. diameter and over.
Pieces of different thickness are not easily welded together,
as one fuses before the other.
Contraction must be considered when preparing welds.
As an example consider the repair of the fracture A in PI. 16A,
Fig. 15. When the bar A is heated it will expand, thus
closing the fracture. When the metal fuses, the two parts
of A tend to close in still more to relieve the stress due to
expansion. When the joint solidifies on cooling A contracts
and stresses the remainder of the frame. To prevent this
result it is necessary to pre-heat the whole article to as high a
temperature as possible before welding is begun.
ii. Welding rods.—When, as is usual, the joint has been
prepared for welding by bevelling, additional metal must be
used to fill up the " V ”. The kind of metal used for this
purpose depends upon the metal being welded and it is
usually supplied in the form of rods ~ to § in. in diameter.
iii. Welding fluxes.—In all methods of welding, prevention
from oxidation is of primary importance. Not only does the
presence of oxide reduce the strength of the weld but it
renders the joint peculiarly liable to corrosion. As it is not
always possible to incorporate in the welding rod all the ele¬
ments necessary to prevent oxidation, it is generally necessary
to use certain chemical compounds in the form of pastes and
powders to act as deoxidizing agents.
In the present state of our knowledge of the art of welding,
however, we are compelled to use proprietary brands of
welding rods and fluxes if the best results are to be obtained.
iv. Regulating the flame.—To commence work, turn on
both oxygen and acetylene at the blow-pipe and light. The
flame will probably have an excess of acetylene which should
be reduced until the flame of the blowpipe has a clearly
defined cone at the orifice. Final adjustment of the oxygen
pressure to suit the tip in use should now be made. (See
Table I.)
Unless special instructions are given to the contrary, a
neutral flame should always be used.
Excessive acetylene will carburize the weld, and excessive
oxygen will oxidize the weld.
PI. 16C, Fig. 1, shows roughly the appearance of the
flame (a) with an excess of acetylene, (b) with an excess of
oxygen, and (c) neutral (correct). In each case the tip of
the small inner white cone is the hottest part of the flame.
(a). Excess Acetylene (Carbonizing Flame).

. The flame is long and brilliant, the inner cone
ts also Cong u/tlhcut a distinct outline. If used,
the work will be hardened and cUactioured.
(v). Excess Oxygen ( Oxidizing Flame).

The flame is short and pale, the inner cone is _
also short with violet tinge. If used, sparks will
be produced off metal, wdicaUng burning.
(■c). Correct Adjustment ( Neutral Flame).

The flame is of medium length and pale the inner
cone es sharply defined < length according to
St2e cf blowpipe).
^^tjectTOde
Fu}J Deposit
ffm Metal cons.
-Electrode
Slag Protection _ covering
5 I Front sJhis space must
be Kept clear
of &ag.
f
'-PendmiLcn.
R$.Z Crater
Fog.3. Diagram cf weld blowingdlndwn^^l of

If the flame is not properly regulated or the tip gets

momentarily obstructed by a spark, the blow-pipe may back¬
fire and go out. When this occurs, the acetylene pipe should
be shut off at once, and a few seconds allowed to elapse
before reopening it and relighting the blow-pipe. On stopping
work, the acetylene cock must be closed before the oxygen
cock.
v. Applying the flame.—The blow-pipe is held in the right
hand and the welding rod in the left and the weld is made by
pushing the blow-pipe, not by pulling it, making a circular
movement with the flame, combined with an advancing one,
thus making a series of elliptical curves. (PI. 16A, Fig. 17.)
The angle of inclination of the blow-pipe should have
particular attention. An angle of about 20° gives the best
results. The welding of the rod and of the edges of the
material being welded must take place simultaneously, the
molten metal being puddled with the welding rod (PI. 16A,
Fig. 18), thus breaking up the oxide film and raising all the
impurities in the weld to the surface. These impurities
appear as bright red spots which should be brushed away.
When feeding, care must be taken not to apply the flame
direct to the rod or it will be overheated.
6. Welding cast iron.—It is desirable, as far as possible,
to fill the weld with iron which will have, when the work is
finished, the same composition as the casting. If, however,
a casting of grey iron is welded with a rod of the same material,
the resulting weld is found to be hard, due to the conversion
of grey iron into white iron. To avoid this a feeding rod of
ferro-silicon is generally used when the part is to be machined
after welding. The presence of silicon in cast iron tends to
prevent the combination of the carbon with the iron and this
favours the production of grey iron.
Manganese, if present in cast iron, tends to produce white
iron by causing the free carbon to dissolve.
The work, unless small, must be pre-heated and cooled
slowly on completion. A pre-heating oven is illustrated in
PI. 16A, Fig. 16.
If the proper welding flux cannot be obtained, a flux
consisting of equal parts of ordinary washing soda and baking
soda (bicarbonate of soda) with a little borax added, does
fairly well as a makeshift.
The flux is applied on the end of the welding rod; it
should be used sparingly and not thrown on to the molten
metal.
7. Welding malleable cast iron.—Malleable cast iron
can be welded with an iron feeding rod, but the resulting weld
is hard and brittle and cannot be machined. If heated for
some time near the melting point malleable cast iron reverts
to its original state of white cast iron. For this reason the
only satisfactory method of repairing a malleable iron casting
is to use a filling material which will alloy with it far below
its melting point. A manganese-bronze alloy has been
largely used in the past, but a much better material known as
Si/bronze is now available (supplied by the Suffolk Iron
Foundry, Ltd.). This is an alloy of copper, zinc and tin
which melts at 700° C. The process is as follows: the
fracture is heated to a bright red by the blow-pipe, a little
flux is sprinkled on and the welding rod applied. If the
bronze remains in a globular state, the work is not hot enough,
but if it spreads and adheres to the work the temperature is
correct and the groove should be quickly filled. Excessive
temperatures must be avoided.
It will be noted that this process is strictly “ brazing,” not
" welding.”
8. Welding wrought iron and steel.—In the welding
of ordinary wrought iron and mild steel, a feeding rod of the
same material may be used. Good results are obtained,
however, by using a feeder of Swedish iron or soft iron rod as
free as possible from carbon. No flux is required.
On account of the danger of damaging high carbon steels
by overheating much greater care must be exercised than
with low carbon steels which are not so easily damaged in
this way.
Unless the work is less than J-in. thick it is essential
to bevel the edges, otherwise the resulting weld will not be
sound owing to cold " shuts ” at the bottom of the V.
Steel does not form a comparatively large melted pool as
in the case of cast iron, and for this reason, and also because
of its rapid solidification, it is necessary to be careful about
welding the edges of the pool.
It must be borne in mind in repairing a steel article that
if the qualities of the steel are due to careful heat treatment,
these qualities cannot be retained after welding, even if further
heat treatment be attempted. A weld is a casting, and
re-heating to about 1,800° F. (985° C.) is necessary to break
up the coarse structure of the weld, this temperature being
excessive for the proper heat treatment of the original steel.
9. Welding galvanized or tinned iron sheets.—
Before welding these the coating of zinc or tin, as the case
may be, must be removed for a distance of about an inch on
either side of the proposed joint. In the case of galvanized
iron, if this precaution be not observed, a poor weld will
result, and there is danger of poisoning from zinc fumes.
In the case of tinned sheet, the tin does not volatilize but
forms, with the iron, an alloy which consists of very large

crystals separated by numerous cracks. A welding rod of
Swedish iron is generally used, without flux.
10. Welding copper.—Owing to the high conductivity
of copper, a larger blow-pipe tip must be used than for iron
and steel. Owing to the rapid loss of heat from copper it
is usually economical to pre-heat the work. If the thickness
of the material exceeds --in. the edges should be bevelled.
The feeding rod is usually of phosphor copper. A pure
copper welding rod may be used but it is not so effective.
No flux is really necessary if the surfaces are properly
cleaned, but a flux consisting of common salt, sodium borate
and boracic acid, applied sparingly on the end of the welding
rod may sometimes be found to facilitate the work. It is
most essential that a neutral or slightly reducing flame should
be used as copper oxidizes very readily. The weld will have
the strength of cast copper; to increase the strength and
ductility the joint may be hammered at a dull red heat.
11. Welding copper alloys.—The copper alloys usually
met with are brasses and bronzes, the former containing zinc
and the latter tin. When welding brass, some of the zinc
is burnt and zinc oxide is given off in the form of poisonous
white fumes. For this reason a welding rod rich in zinc is
used, such as one of manganese bronze.
There is no loss due to volatile oxide in the case of bronze.
An indication that the correct welding temperature has
been reached with copper alloys is given by the formation
of bubbles on the surface of the molten metal, and at this
point the feeding metal must be added. Plain borax may
be used as a flux but it should be prepared for use by melting,
cooling and then powdering. This avoids foaming up of the
flux upon the weld.
12. Welding aluminium.—Aluminium is the most
difficult of the common metals to weld owing to the rapid
formation of oxide on the surface of the metal when heated.
Under the influence of the welding flame the molten metal
tends to form into globules, each surrounded by a film of
oxide which is difficult to break down. Aluminium melts at
1,170° F. (630° C.) and the oxide at 5,000° F. (2,760° C.).
A welding rod of pure aluminium is generally used and a
special flux applied by dipping the end of the welding rod into
a vessel containing the flux. Pre-heating is generally desirable,
but a temperature of 900° F. (480° C.) must not be exceeded
or the aluminium will become fragile and sink or be deformed
under its own weight. As prolonged heating tends to make
aluminium brittle the welding must be carried out as quickly
as possible. When the weld is completed all traces of flux must
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104 Sec. 33.—Electric Welding
be washed away with warm water and a brush. The part
should then be re-heated and allowed to cool slowly.
13. Welding aluminium alloy castings.—The above
notes on welding aluminium apply equally well to aluminium
alloys, but special aluminium alloy welding rods must be used
with appropriate fluxes.
14. Welding lead.—The autogenous welding of lead is
commonly known as lead burning.
Although first introduced for jointing lead pipes, tanks,
&c., in chemical works where acids and fumes would attack
soldered joints, the process is now replacing ordinary plumbing
and soldering in many other operations with a great saving of
time and labour.
• The seams in sheet lead burning are of two kinds, butt
and lap, and the two edges are not usually bevelled. The
lap joint should be used in both horizontal and vertical seams
on a vertical surface. The only preparation necessary is the
cleaning or shaving of the edges of the metal near the joint.
A plain lead feeding rod is used and the flame must be
absolutely neutral. No flux is required.
The ordinary standard oxygen and acetylene cylinders may
be used but a special lead burning outfit must be employed.
This includes special regulating valves for both oxygen and
acetylene cylinders, and a special blow-pipe with a number of
interchangeable tips (generally 5). Nos. 1 and 2 tips are used
with 2 and 3 lb. lead and No. 5 tip with 20 to 30 lb. lead. The
lead burning outfit can be used for thin sections of other metals
up to -- in. in thickness.
Table I gives the approximate consumption of gas with
the various tips. It will be noticed that the gas consumption
is relatively small compared with that required for welding
the harder metals.
33. Electric welding
1. There are two main processes of electric welding, viz.:
(1) resistance welding, in which the welding heat is generated
by the contact resistance at the junction to the passage of an
electric current, and (2) arc welding.
Resistance welding is possible with almost any metal, but
arc welding is really only suitable for ferrous metals and
alloys.
2. Resistance welding includes spot, butt and seam
welding. The process is really similar in principle to forge
welding, the temperature of the work being raised to a suitable
value and the welding effected by pressure or percussion.
Resistance welding is largely used in factories for repetition
work which can be carried out in automatic machines by
semi-skilled labour. A.C. is invariably used owing to the
Sec. 33.—Electric Welding 105
facility with which the large currents required can be obtained

conveniently and economically from static transformers
connected to the ordinary public electricity supply.
3. In arc welding, as its name implies, the work forms
one of the electrodes of an electric arc. When this system was
first introduced the other electrode used was a carbon rod,
and additional metal was added by a feeder rod as in the oxy-
acetylene system. The work was originally made negative
and the carbon rod positive, but subsequently the rod was made
negative to minimize the amount of carbon carried into the
weld.
Carbon arc welding is still sometimes used for certain
purposes where no, particular strength is required, such as in
filling blow holes in castings, but for general purposes it cannot
now compete with metal arc welding, in which the carbon
rod is replaced by a metal rod which also acts as the feeding
rod.
The great drawback to the carbon arc is that it produces
a very porous and brittle weld owing to the combination of
the molten metal with volatilized carbon and with oxygen
from the atmosphere.
4. Metallic arc welding.—i. Polarity of the work.—
Although satisfactory welding can be done with A.C., dis¬
tinctly better results are obtained with D.C.
The mechanism of the transfer of metal across the arc is
not yet fully understood, but the difference of temperature
between the electrode and the more massive work appears
to be the chief condition necessary for the transfer.
When welding with D.C. and bare or lightly covered
electrodes it is usual to connect the positive (the hotter) pole
to the work, to assist the operator in fusing through the mill
scale or other impurities on the surface of the parent plate,
which have a relatively high melting point. On the other
hand with flux covered electrodes the acid slag formed cleans the
parent plate chemically, and it is therefore possible to make
the electrode positive, thus increasing the rate of deposition
and consequently the speed of welding.
ii. Electricity supply.—Mainly in order to minimize
oxidation the welding arc is kept as short as possible (J to \ in.).
A voltage of the order 17 to 25 volts is sufficient to maintain
this short arc, but to strike it a much higher voltage is
required.
Considering first a D.C. supply, the arc voltage is much
lower, than that of ordinary electricity supply systems, and it
is therefore necessary to use a large series resistance or a
motor generator. The waste of energy is considerable in
either case. Further, as the full supply voltage appears
between the electrode and the work when the arc is broken,
it is unwise to practise welding on supply voltages higher than
110 volts through a series resistance.
Not only docs a high voltage increase the liability to draw
a long flaming arc which will overheat and bum holes in the
work, but it increases the danger from electric shock.
If the local supply is A.C. it is preferable to use a double
wound static transformer or a motor generator. It is per¬
missible to use a series resistance on voltages up to 110 volts
A.C., but it must be pointed out that A.C. is definitely more
dangerous than D.C. of the same maximum voltage, and the
former must never be used inside boilers or where the operator
has to work on lofty staging.
In situations involving special risk from electric shock,
D.C. at a voltage not exceeding 50-60 volts should be used.
The use of A.C. for welding is not recommended for service
purposes, particularly in exposed situations. Apart from the
increased danger from shock, A.C. welding is more difficult to
learn, and the results are not so uniformly reliable as those
obtained with D.C. welding.
Moreover, flux-covered electrodes must be used with A.C.
With D.C., plain electrodes may sometimes be used in
emergencies with satisfactory results.
The best work is done with a special D.C. welding genera¬
tor with a drooping voltage characteristic, i.e. a voltage which
falls as the current rises, giving a voltage of about 60 on open
circuit and 15-30 volts when the welding current is flowing.
An inductance is generally inserted in series with the arc to
increase the voltage to 100 momentarily if the arc goes out.
This is necessary with flux-covered electrodes to pierce the
slag layer.
The Home Office " Memorandum on Arc Welding ”
(Form 329) has been drawn up for the guidance of those
concerned with the provision and observance of precautionary
measures. This memorandum should be carefully studied.
iii. Electrodes.—Bare mild steel electrodes can be used in
emergencies, preferably in conjunction with a flux such as
borax or black oxide of manganese, but the welds obtained
are not so uniformly satisfactory as those effected with paste
or flux-covered electrodes.
Paste-covered electrodes are largely used, the object of the
paste coating being to minimize oxidation, firstly by protect¬
ing the electrode itself, and secondly, by forming a gaseous
envelope around the molten metal to keep it from contact
with the atmosphere. Many kinds of solutions and pastes
are in use to make up coating compounds, one of the simplest
(used for mild steel) being a mixture of lime 65 per cent, and
silica 35 per cent.
Flux-covered electrodes have a thick covering usually

consisting of an asbestos base impregnated with deoxidizing
substances. The best known type of flux-covered electrode
is that used in what is called the quasi-arc system which will
be briefly described as a typically good system.
iv. Quasi-arc system.—The electrodes used in this system
are covered with a mineral flux having singular chemical
properties, whereby a weld of the highest mechanical strength
and purity is obtained. The flux is in the form of a suitably
treated asbestos yarn, spirally wound on the core and there¬
fore not easily detachable as is the case with paste flux. The
electrodes are supplied in standard lengths of 18 in. and with
cores of various diameters according to the size and nature
of the work. The composition of the electrode is arranged
to suit the particular material being welded, and the different
kinds are distinguished by colours. Mild steel electrodes
(coloured blue) are used for the general welding of wrought
iron and mild steel and carbon steel electrodes (red) for re¬
inforcing worn parts of machinery, teeth of steel gear wheels,
&c. Special electrodes fyellow) are supplied for the repair
of iron castings. The particular advantages claimed for
these electrodes are :—
(a) Low melting temperature, which reduces expansion
and contraction of the casting to a minimum.
(b) Metal deposited is soft and ductile and able to yield
to stresses introduced by contraction.
(c) Metal deposited is machinable.
(d) Special flux prevents formation of white iron.
Practically any ferrous alloy can be welded electrically
providing suitable welding electrodes are employed.
The flux coating of the quasi-arc electrodes melts at a
lower temperature than the iron and when hot becomes a
secondary conductor1 of electricity. The flow of molten slag
(which appears bright red) forms a sheath protecting the arc
and the molten metal (which appears dark red) from atmo¬
spheric oxidation and also fluxes away dirt and oxide from
the weld. A small wire of aluminium, which is incorporated
in the electrode assists in preventing oxidation.
In addition, the molten slag sheath provides a stabilizing
effect on the arc and enables it to be kept burning at a lower
current than is possible with bare or lightly covered electrodes.
It also tends to localize the heat.
During welding, the tip of the electrode is kept just below
the surface of the molten slag and the appearance of the
screened arc gives the name quasi-arc to the process.
v. General method of welding.—Owing to the cleansing and
fluxing action of the asbestos sheathing it is unnecessary to
clean the work before welding.
The size of the electrode to be used will depend upon the
amount of metal to be deposited, but in the case of work
liable to be distorted overheating by the use of too large an
electrode must be avoided.
If the work to be welded is of considerable thickness the
joint must be built up by successive runs of metal.
Plate 17 gives electrode sizes, current and other particulars
for butt welding. Lap welds are carried out more quickly
than butt welds and with a smaller electrode consumption.
The electrode, held in a suitable holder, is connected to the
positive pole of the supply and the work to the negative. It
cannot be too strongly impressed upon the operator that he
must.use a proper non-conducting screen fitted with correctly
coloured glasses, otherwise his eyes will, very soon, be seriously
injured.
Electrical contact is first made by touching the work with
the end of the electrode, held vertically, thus allowing the
current to flow and an arc to form (when working out of doors
the arc should be protected from the wind or the work will be
extremely difficult). Directly the arc is struck, the electrode,
with the tip just below the surface of molten slag, is brought
towards the operator in the direction in which the weld is to
be made, and then kept at an angle of 45° or so with the work.
(See PI. 16C, Fig. 2.) This is in order to keep the molten
metal and the slag in front of the electrode.
The electrode should be gripped with just sufficient force
to hold it, but the wrist should be free. A light touch and a
side to side movement with the point of the electrode gives
the best results in distributing the heat and depositing metal
equally on both sides of the seam. (See PI. 16C, Fig. 3.)
Sufficient current should be used so that the weld metal
runs freely with no tendency to pile up. If too much current
is used the metal will run fiercely and be uncontrollable.
When more than one layer of weld metal is deposited the
slag from the previous layer must be chipped off before the
next is applied. A special chipping hammer, clear glass
screen and wire brush are supplied for this purpose.
For further details the maker's instruction handbook
must be referred to.
5. Electric welding of non-ferrous metals is seldom
attempted. Copper and copper alloys can be welded, using
a tinned copper flux-covered electrode, but it is a delicate
operation owing to the high temperature of the arc and the
consequent danger of piercing the work. The difference of
temperature between the welding and fusing points is small and
it is difficult to strike a mean between fluid and sluggish metal.
110 Sec. 34.—Metal Gutting by Gas and Electricity
6. Aluminium definitely cannot be welded with the
electric arc. The heat is so great that the metal is vaporized
and destroyed before a joint can be made.
34. Metal cutting by gas and electricity

1. Metal cutting by gas.—If a jet of oxygen be directed
upon wrought iron or mild steel, previously well cleaned and
heated to redness, the metal will ignite and, acting as its
own fuel, it will bum away rapidly, forming iron oxide.
Theoretically, this burning should continue so long as
sufficient oxygen is supplied, without additional heat from
outside, but the oxide, unless removed, will stop the action.
Fortunately, the oxide melts at a lower temperature than the
wrought iron or mild steel, and being in liquid form when the
•metal is molten it is blown away by the oxygen jet provided
that sufficient heat is applied to keep it fluid. The necessary
heat is provided by an oxy-acetylene flame.
The process of cutting by gas is only really economical
when the oxide has a melting point lower than that of the
metal. High carbon steels whose melting points are appreci¬
ably lower than that of mild steel and in the neighbourhood
of the melting point of the oxide do not cut very well, and
cast iron can only be cut with great difficulty and with a relatively
large gas consumption. Most other metals, including copper,
brass, bronze and aluminium, do not burn in oxygen in the
manner described above and therefore cannot be cut by gas.
A special blow-pipe is used for cutting, with two orifices
in the nozzle—one in the centre for the oxygen igniting jet
and the other, an annular orifice, for the oxy-acetylene heating
flame.
PI. 16B, Fig. 3, shows a cutting blow-pipe. Model H, as
supplied by the British Oxygen Co., for cutting mild steel
up to 7 in. thick and cast iron up to i\ in.
As far as the heating flame is concerned, the blow-pipe is of
the injector type, and it can be used on both low-pressure and
high-pressure systems. The central oxygen jet is separately
controlled.
To make a cut.—The surface of the metal should first be
well cleaned. Then the heating flame is applied, and when
the metal is nearing fusion the central oxygen jet is turned on.
As soon as ignition of the metal begins, the process can be
made progressive along the line it is desired to cut. Excessive
speed or irregular advancement will cause a stoppage of the
cutting, due to the oxygen meeting metal not hot enough to
bum. The oxygen jet should be turned off when this happens
as it only tends to make the metal cooler. To restart, it will
be necessary to go back a little way along the line of the cut
and re-heat before turning on the oxygen jet again.
Sec. 34.—Metal Cutting by Gas and Electricity 111
For metal cutting operations the working pressures and

the rate of consumption of oxygen are considerably greater
than for welding operations—therefore, although the acetylene
regulator as used for welding is quite suitable for the acetylene
supply required for cutting, it is necessary to replace the
oxygen regulator and to use one of larger capacity and capable
of maintaining higher working pressures than are required
for welding. Such oxygen regulators are always provided
with two gauges, one for indicating the pressure of gas in
the cylinder and the other the working pressure.
Table J gives the approximate gas consumption, speed of
cutting, &c., for mild steel up to 2 in. and cast iron up to 3 in.
in thickness.
Table J.—Oxy-aceiylene cutting

Approximate consumption of gases, working pressures, &c.
Material Nozzle Speed Gas consumption

Oxygen per foot run
and thick- Distance pressure of
ness cut Size from work cutting Oxygen Acetylene
ins. ins. ins. lb./sq. in. minutes cu. ft. cu. ft.
per ft.
run
Mild steel
i
i
32 A 24 1 0-75 0-2
i 1
TG 28 1 1-0 0-3
1 A A 32 n 2-2 0-5
2 A 32 45 2 50 1-0
Cast iron
3 110 5 30-0 10-0
Up to 1* ff
1J to 3 A i 120 7 50-0 15-0
2. Metal cutting by the electric arc.—For cutting

purposes it is preferable to use the carbon arc. A voltage
of 35-40 volts is required and for mild steel a current of 400
amps, up to f-in. thick and 600 amps, from 1 in. to 4 in. The
arc length should be as great as can be maintained and may
vary from \ in. to 2 in. according to the kind of work being
done. The time required to cut one foot run is approximately
1*25 minutes for \ in. and 3-75 minutes for 1 in. iron or steel.
Flux-covered metal electrodes can be used for cutting with a
current strength about half that required when using carbon
electrodes, but the electrode consumption is very high.
Cutting by the electric arc is quite a different process from
that of cutting by gas, and in the case of mild steel it is some¬
what more expensive. The great success of gas cutting is
largely due to the blowing away of the molten metal and oxide
by the oxygen jet. In arc cutting no such action is present,
112 Sec, 35.—Gas and Electric Welding Compared
hence gravity must be relied upon to clear the molten metal
from the cut, which should therefore, where possible, be
started from the lower side of the work in order that the
molten metal can fall freely away.
The great advantage of arc cutting is that it can be applied
equally well to almost any metal. As stated above, cast iron
is difficult to cut by gas, but it is quite easy to cut electrically.
The cut obtained by the electric arc is not so neat as that
possible with gas owing to the tendency of the arc to oscillate
from side to side. There are many cases, however, where the
roughness of cut is immaterial, particularly in demolition work, ,
and the cutting up of scrap iron castings is done more quickly
and cheaply by electricity than by gas.
When cutting with the electric arc, special attention must
be paid to protection for eyes, skin and clothes.
35. Gas and electric arc systems of welding and cutting

compared
The great advantage of arc welding over gas welding is
that the heat is more localized. The temperature of the work
is higher with arc welding but the quantity of heat required is
less, and as it is spread over a more restricted area there is
not the same liability to distortion of the work. The need
for pre-heating is less and the speed of welding greater.
For the repair of boilers in situ, arc welding is pre-eminent,
and it is becoming standard practice in building construction.
There are, of course, many welding operations which can
be done equally well with electricity as with gas, and in large
workshops it is common practice to use both systems, gas on
the smaller sections (say) up to \ in., and electric on the larger.
As stated before, the arc is not suitable for welding non-
ferrous metals. On the other hand, the arc can be used for
cutting any metal, and it is preferable to gas for cutting high
carbon steels and cast iron.
Gas is undoubtedly much superior to the arc for cutting
wrought iron and mild steel, and is more often used for this
purpose than the electric arc.
For general service in the field there is no doubt that, in
the present state of our knowledge, the high pressure oxy-
acetylene outfit is most suitable on account of its portability
and its greater general utility. But the possibilities of arc
welding and cutting should not be lost sight of in emergencies
if a supply of electricity is available, as the very simple equip¬
ment which will be required can frequently be extemporized
locally.

CHAPTER VIII
FITTERS’ SHOP WORK

36. Work and tools
1. Definition.—Strictly speaking, fitting is the operation
of reducing accurately by manual work a rough casting,
forging, or other piece of metal to the required shape and
dimensions by the removal of the surplus metal, but the term
covers various other operations such as assembling parts
and adjustments to engines and machinery.
2. Operations.—The operations included in fitters’ work
are:—
i. Chipping.
ii. Filing.
iii. Scraping, lapping, and polishing.
iv. Drilling, reaming, tapping, and screwing.
3. Holding work.—The vice.-—Work is nearly always
held for hand-fitting in a parallel-jawed vice, as shown on
PI. 18, Fig. 14. A quick release for the screw is sometimes
provided, which is convenient but not essential. The jaws
should be faced with hard milled-steel strip to prevent slipping,
but a pair of clamps, either of copper or lead, should always
be available for use in order not to mark finished work.
4. Personal tools.—
i. Hammer and chisels.—Fitters generally use a ball pane
hammer, PI. 18, Fig. 1, either 16 or 24 oz. in weight, with a
straight shaft about 12 inches long. The face should be
slightly convex and hardened.
Cold chisels are of five main shapes, as shown on PI. 18,
Fig. 2, and these are sufficient for all ordinary work. They
are made by drawing-down from octagon bar of medium tool
steel; then they are rough ground, hardened, and their edges
are tempered to a brown or purple colour to suit nature of
work.
The apex angle of the edge is generally 70° for cutting
cast steel or cast iron, 60° for wrought iron or mild steel, and
50° for brass and other soft metals. For fine work, rather
sharper angles may be used. Cutting edges should be
slightly convex.
In fiat, side, and cross-cut chisels, the edge should be
slightly broader than the body, so that the chisel will not jam;
but the edge must not be too much splayed out, or the comers
will break off.
5—(579) 113
114 Sec. 36.—Work and Tools
ii. Files.—Files are made from very hard steel in a large

range of sizes and varieties. To identify a file completely,
it is necessary to specif}':—
(a) The length (usually from 3 inches to 18 inches).
(b) The cut; this may be singlc-cut, double-cut, the usual
cut for fitters' work, or rasp, used chiefly for wood
and other soft materials. Any of these three types
of cut may be found in different degrees of fineness,
described as coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth, and
and dead-smooth. (See PI. 18, Fig. 10.) ,
(c) The type of file.—Files may be of various sections,
as shown in PI. 18, and are usually tapered ; hand
files are flat, parallel sided, and tapered in thick¬
ness ; flat and square files are tapered in width and
thickness ; warding flics are tapered in width only ;
while mill flics are not tapered. A gulleting file is
round and parallel; -around file is round and tapered.
Tapered files are slightly bellied.
Files may have an edge uncut for filing close up
to a finished surface without damaging it. These
are known as safe-edge files.
A round edge is sometimes provided in mill files
for finishing slots, and in saw files for gulleting teeth.
A worn file produces a smoother surface than a
new one on steel, but will not cut brass or cast iron,
for which new files should be used.
Files for use with mild steel are made with the cuts
at a more acute angle than those for use with cast iron.
iii. Hacksaw.—A hacksaw may be regarded as a parting
file, with all safe edges except one. Being thin, it needs a
frame to keep it straight, and needs careful handling to avoid
breakage.
iv. Scrapers.—PI. 18, Fig. 11 shows some types of
scrapers, mostly made from old files. The edges should be
dead hard, or only very slightly tempered, and the apex angle
nearly 90°.
v. Punches.—Centre punches should have an apex angle
of 90° for heavy work and 60° or less for fine work only.
A list of tools required by a fitter for personal use only is
given in Appendix VII.
5. Shop tools.—In addition to personal tools a fitter
may need other tools occasionally. Such tools should be kept
in a shop tool-store, to be drawn only when required and
returned when finished with.
i. Scribing blocks.—A scribing block, B on PI. 18, Fig. 12,
is used to make horizontal lines upon a casting or forging, such
as keyways, centres of shafts, &c.
Sec. 36.—Work and Tools 115
Plate 18.
116 Sec. 37.—Bench Work
ii. Marking-out tabic.—The casting, &c. is placed upon a

marking-out table, T on PI. 18, Fig. 12, the top of which is
usually of cast iron, machined truly flat and set up horizontal.
The scribing block can then be slid along the table, and its
point will trace a horizontal line.
iii. Drills.—Drilling is usualfy carried out with a drilling
machine, but a fitter may occasionally be obliged to drill by
hand.
iv. Drilling standard and brace.—PI. 18, Fig. 13 shows a
drilling standard, S, for hand-drilling by means of a ratchpt
brace, R.
v. Reamers and laps.—Reamers are trueing drills for
finishing holes accurately to size which have first been drilled
slightly small, PI. 19, Fig. 13. An ordinary reamer cuts near
its point only, the parallel shank being merely a guide for
the point.
Taps arc reamers with threads on them to form a corre¬
sponding thread in the hole.
Taps are provided full and medium taper, and also plug for
finishing blind holes, PI. 19, Fig. 14.
37. Bench work

1. Hand-fitting. -When a fitter receives a casting or
forging, and a drawing of the finished article, he must first
decide how much material will have to be removed from each
face. He should then choose one face to use as a base. If the
shape of the casting permits, a line should be scribed all round
to show the amount of metal to be removed ; to do this the
casting is treated with quick-drying white paint and a scriber,
or sharply-pointed piece of steel wire, is drawn round, guided
by a straight-edge or steel rule. Brass wire gives a very
distinct mark on iron and steel.
The work is then so mounted in a vice that the. scribed line
is horizontal and a little above the top of the jaws of the vice.
A few small centre-punch marks should be made along the
line, as it may become difficult to see if the paint gets rubbed
off, PI. 18, Fig. 15.
2. Chipping a surface.—If the surface is very hard, or
coated with fused sand, or in any case if a large amount of
metal is to be removed, a hammer and cold chisel should be
first used to bring down the metal to ^ in. or less above the
finished size. A good fitter can chip a narrow surface to
within 0*02 inch of accuracy.
The hammer should be used with a free swing vertically
upwards over the right shoulder, and in delivering a blow the
eye should be directed on the work, not on the chisel-head.
Sec. 37.—Bench Work 117
The chisel should be held loosely so that the point or edge is

in contact with the surface of the work, and one of the ground
faces nearly, but not quite, parallel with the surface, PI. 18,
Fig. 15, and this provides a relieving angle, A, of about 5°, or a
little more as may be found necessary, to make the edge bite.
The other ground surface will then form a wedge with a
cutting angle, B, equal to the apex angle of the tool, and the
angle C is the angle of rake, which ensures the separation of the
chip, by breaking it off or curling it up, according to the
brittleness or ductility of the material which is being chipped.
Obviously, the more acute the apex angle B, the more
freely will the chisel cut, but if it is too acute, the edge will be
weak and break easily.
On mild steel or cast steel a small amount of thin oil may
greatly assist the work ; it is easily supplied by occasionally
pressing the edge of the chisel into a pad of oily cotton rag
kept upon the bench for the purpose.
A chisel should be chosen of a shape suitable for the
particular work in hand.
The chisels shown on PI. 18, Fig. 2 are intended for the
following types of work :—
i. Flat, for ordinary flat surfaces and edges.
ii. Round nose, for round grooves and curved hollow work.
iii. Diamond, for V grooves and cutting into sharp corners.
iv. Side, for flat surfaces difficult of access, such as the
sides of keyways.
v. Cross-cut, or cape, chisel, for rectangular grooves, such
as keyways.
Large surfaces are difficult to chip flat. The work is
facilitated if a number of grooves are first chipped to the
required depth by a cross-cut chisel, and the metal between
the grooves then removed by a flat chisel.
3. Filing a surface.—The least metal should be left for

filing that will ensure the production of a fair surface, since
the removal of metal with a file is a slow and laborious process.
The file should be regarded more as an instrument of
precision for finishing than as a tool for removing metal.
The mounting of the work in the vice is a matter of great
importance. It must be firmly held, with the surface to be
filed truly horizontal.
The file should be held preferably with the first finger of
the right hand laid along the side, the other fingers clasping
the handle in the palm, and the forearm nearly horizontal
and close to the body. The left hand should be used to apply
pressure at the far end of the blade, using the palm with a
large file, and a finger and the thumb with a small one.
The file must remain horizontal throughout a stroke,

gradually shifting the pressure from the left hand to the right.
A stroke should be produced by a slight movement of the
right arm from the shoulder and by a sway of the body towards
the work, the force of each stroke being about equal. Strokes
should be long, slow, and steady, the pressure being applied
only on the forward motion.
At first a fairly rough cut file should be used, and then the
work, when nearly down to size, can be given a good finish
by using a smoother one.
The surface, when finished, should be perfectly horizontal 1
and dead flat. The flatness can be tested during the progress
of the work by laying a straight-edge upon the surface. There
should be no rock at all; little light should be visible between
the straight-edge and the work, and then only as a uniform
streak all along the edge. Such a surface can only be obtained
by keeping the file level throughout every stroke.
Some materials quickly choke the teeth of files. To clear
them, a wire brush, known as a file card, may be used. When
filing wrought iron and mild steel, clogging can be much
reduced by filling the clearances between the teeth with chalk,
but this reduces the speed of cutting. Chalk should never
be used with cast iron.
4. Using a taper file.—It is much easier to produce a
flat surface with a taper file than with a dead flat one. There
is always a tendency to rock the file slightly, and so produce
a convex surface. The curved surface of a well-tapered file
tends to make a concave surface and counteracts any slight
rocking.
For correcting errors, the belly of a taper file makes it
possible to file down high places on the work without affecting
the rest of the surface.
Many files warp during the hardening process, which is
done after they are cut. One iace may, therefore, be hollow
and the other bellied. The hollow side is useless for flat
filing, but may be utilized for work of a round or irregular
outline. Most of the files shown“in the Vocabulary of Stores
are taper. Mill files are parallel.
5. Safe edges.—Safe-edged files have one or more edges
left uncut, so that they may be used close up to a finished
shoulder without damaging it. The safe edge of a new file
should be carefully ground down and the corners slightly
rounded, otherwise the teeth would overhang the comers
and score the shoulder of the work.
6. Draw filing.—File marks may be removed from the
surface of the work by draw filing, PI. 19, Fig. 1, a fine-cut file
being drawn sideways across the surface. A little metal is
removed, only very fine file marks are left, and, if carefully
done, a highly finished surface is obtained.
7. Emery finishing.—A polished surface can be pro¬
duced after draw filing by rubbing with a piece of fine emery
cloth, or with leather rubbed with emery oil-paste, wrapped
round the file. But a good fitter disdains the use of emery.
8. Scraping a surface.—When a flat surface is required
to be more accurate than can ordinarily be produced by filing
alone, it should be filed as flat as possible, draw-filed, and then
scraped to fit a face-plate.
Face-plates are usually made of cast iron, PI. 19, Fig. 2,
ribbed or otherwise made stiff enough to bear considerable
pressure without warping, and very carefully finished to a
dead-flat surface.
The face-plate should be rubbed over with the palm of the
hand, slightly moistened with a thin paste of oil and red lead,
or preferably Venetian red, if available. Only the smallest
amount of paste that will colour the plate should be used.
The face-plate is then applied to the surface of the work,
or the work to the plate if more convenient, and moved about
a little while in contact. On separating the surfaces, high
spots on the work will be coloured by the paste from the
plate. These high spots should be carefully scraped down by
short strokes with the scraper, as shown on PI. 19, Fig. 3,
the coloured metal only being removed. All the strokes should
be in the same direction.
The face-plate should then be applied again, and the high
spots will now be smaller but more numerous than before.
They should be similarly scraped down, the strokes being made
in another direction.
The operation should be repeated until the coloured spots
appear as highly polished metal, and are very small and
evenly distributed over the whole surface.
Curved surfaces can be similarly scraped to fit any standard
surface of opposite curvature. If the surfaces are such that
no relative movement can be made, the colouring paste can
be made to transfer itself from the master surface to the high
spots on the work, by forcing the surfaces together by a blow
from a wooden mallet.
9. Scraping a bearing.—A special case of scraping
curved surfaces is the scraping-in of a bearing. Some know¬
ledge of the principles of lubrication is essential if success is
to be obtained (see Chap. XXXIII).
New bearings on productive work should require very little
scraping-in if they are machined according to the B.S.I.
standards of clearance fits (see B.S.I. Spec. 164). Take, for
example, a l|-in. shaft and bearings. A good clearance fit
would be obtained from the following limits U. Q. The U hole

for l|-in. has a high limit of +1-4 thousandths and a low
limit of 0, and the Q shaft has a —IT thousandths high limit
an d a —2T -thousandths low limit. Guided by these tolerances
on the work, very little scraping should be necessary.
Terms such as B.U.V.W. holes and F.E.D.C. shafts should
always be used in place of “ Running Fit,” “ Push Fit,” &c.,
which have no precise meaning.
When new bearings and shafts have to be made, the
assembly drawing should be marked H inch B.F., or whatever
clearance, interference or transition fit is decided upon.
To fit a bearing, first mark the ends as machined (sec
Sec. 43, para. 17), check for size, part them, try on journal
and in housing, keeping the marked ends always together.
Next, drill and cut oil- or grease-ways (PI. 19, Fig. 5)
(usually in top half), chamfer the inside edges of the parting
faces, to within J in. of the ends and round off sharp edges
which would scrape the oil or grease off shaft when revolving.
If two or three bearings are concerned, bed in all bottom
halves first taking care that they are right home and then line
through (PI. 23, Fig. 6). Next, clean all journals, lightly
rub some colouring lead on each, place bearings in position
and turn shaft round a few times. Look for any high or low
markings and pack up or scrape out as may be necessary.
Changing the bearings round may be sufficient in some cases.
Now put on top half-brasses and caps as marked, screw all
securing nuts down hand-tight with thumb and fingers and
turn shaft by hand to check freedom. Note particularly that
in the final adjustment the parting faces must meet, metal
to metal, the requisite running clearance being obtained by
scraping the bearing surface. If a bearing is tight a thin
liner may be used between the parting faces, but this should
seldom be necessary in new work.
When the shaft turns freely, add half a turn with spanner
on each nut and 'again check for freedom. If shaft is still
quite free, all the nuts may be screwed home.
The shaft must now be turned through a number of com¬
plete revolutions (if necessary, by means of a carrier or clamp)
and the caps and top half-brasses then taken off and any high
marks removed with a half-round or three-square scraper.
Trouble is sometimes caused through the top half-brass being
bruised when chipping the oil grooves.
Now clean all parts with a paraffin rag, lightly oil the
journals and reassemble.
AU bearing nuts must be locked, after screwing home by
lock-nuts or split-pins or both.
10. Marking out.—Accurate fitting cannot be carried
out unless the work be previously marked out correctly to
correspond with the dimensions as shown on the drawing.

The common tools and appliances required are surface plates,
straight-edges, scribing blocks (PI. 18, Fig. 12), scribers,
centre-punches, squares, dividers, trammels, parallel strips
and V blocks.
The combination set, illustrated in PI. 21, Fig. 3, is also
very useful for marking out. It comprises square-centre and
protractor heads, all used in conjunction with one steel rule.
When one face of a casting or forging has beep filed true
it can be used as a base upon which to construct the figure of
the finished article.
The work is first set up on the surface plate either resting
direct on the table or supported on parallel strips, V blocks
or suitable packing. The surfaces on which marks are to be
made are treated as in para. 1 above.
Horizontal lines are usually made with the scribing block,
and vertical lines by means of a square and hand scriber
(PI. 19, Fig. 7). When using a square, care should be taken
that the base does not foul the work.
Points such as the intersections of surfaces or the centres
of holes are found by using compasses, cither of the wing type
or of the bar or trammel type, by ordinary geometrical
methods. All such points, when found by means of inter¬
secting lines, are marked by means of a fine centre-punch,
and a few punch marks should be made along every line to
ensure its permanency, since the scribed lines are easily
obliterated when handling or working upon the metal.
Holes should be indicated as follows :—
i. By a clear centre-punch mark at their centres.
ii. By a scribed circle showing the actual diameter.
iii. By another circle, a little larger.
iv. By fine centre-punch marks showing the intersection of
these two circles with the vertical and horizontal
centre lines, PI. 19, Fig. 8.
11. Completion of other surfaces.—The work can now
be removed to the vice again, and the remaining surfaces
chipped and filed down to size. The scribed lines will be
sufficient guide for chipping and rough filing until the work
is about 0-01 inch oversize, after which more accurate methods
of measurement will be necessary.
When any measurements are being made, it must be borne
in mind that the first surface to be finished is the new datum
to which other parallel surfaces should correspond. Similarly,
the first surface to be finished in another plane becomes the
datum for other surfaces parallel to that plane.
In order that any solid object may be completely deter¬
mined in shape and size, three such datum-planes are necessary.
Sec. 38.—Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Hand 123
Comers will only be truly square if these datum-planes are

truly at right angles. Therefore, great care should be
exercised to ensure that the second datum is made truly square
to the first, and, similarly, that the third is square to both the
preceding ones.
The scribed lines alone are not sufficient to ensure this.
Towards the completion of each surface the fitter's square
should be frequently applied at many different places, and
any error corrected by filing more heavily upon the high spots.
The square is best used by holding up the work between
the eye arid a good light, such as a window or lamp. Little
light should be visible anywhere between the square and
work, and that only as a nearly uniform streak.
It is essential that a surface once adopted as a datum shall
not be touched again with a file. It will be observed that the
first scribed lines are made upon the rough surface of the
casting. As each face in turn is worked upon, the marks
upon it will be removed. If any of these marks are required
for guiding work upon other faces, the casting must be taken
back to the marking-out table, and the missing lines scribed
afresh, the casting standing upon the datum-plane to which
the line should be parallel.
38. Drilling, reaming and lapping by hand

1. Types of work.—A fitter or driller must be able to
drill holes accurately as regards position and direction, ream
them accurately to size, tap them to any desired depth by
means of taps, and spot face the work near the holes, when
necessary.
A fitter must also be able to cut screws and bolts by
means of stocks and dies.
2. Drilling.— Holes are normally drilled in a drilling
machine or in a lathe, as described in Sec. 43.
In the absence of a drilling machine, or if the nature of
the work does not permit it to be placed on the machine, holes
can be drilled by hand, using a drill post and ratchet drill
for larger holes. Portable electric or pneumatic drills, which
can be used with a drill post or in the hand, in the same
manner as hand-operated drills, are great labour savers if the
necessary power supply is available.
Care is required to maintain accurate direction with breast
and ratchet drills.
The hole centre should first be marked with a scriber and
a centre-punch. Then, with a pair of dividers, a circle is
scratched upon the surface ^ in. larger in diameter than that
of the required hole. A few light centre-punch marks on the
circle will be useful as a guide.
124 Sec. 38.—Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Hand
Since the lips of the drill slope back from the point, a
shallow cup-like depression is first produced, whose diameter
is less than that of the drill. The drill should now be with¬
drawn and this depression examined to ascertain whether it
is central with the marked circle. If it is much out of the
centre the depression should be cut central with around-nosed
chisel, or preferably a hand drill about |-inch diameter. This
practice is commonly known as drawing the hole. The outside
edge of the drill must not be allowed to reach the work till
the depression is truly central.
An error of 0-01 inch in the position of a hole should not be
permitted in ordinary work.
3. Drills.—There are numerous types of drill, but the
fluted drill is the type normally used for all ordinary purposes.
Occasions may arise, however, especially in the field, when a
fluted drill is not available. In these circumstances flat drills
may be found useful.
A flat drill can be knocked up quickly to any desired size,
or an available flat drill may be altered in a few minutes, either
by grinding or dressing. A flat drill may, if necessary, be
given a glass-hard cutting edge which will stand harder usage
than the average twist drill.
As there is nothing to keep the point central, however, this
type of drill cannot be relied upon to drill straight holes and
it can only be used for rough work.
Fluted drills are either spirally fluted (PI. 19, Fig. 12) or
straight fluted (PI. 19, Fig. 11). Straight fluted drills are
used for drilling soft materials such as brass and copper, and
spirally fluted or twist drills for iron and steel. The spiral
flutes enable the cutting edges to have rake, and thus reduce
the amount of power required. The flutes also assist by their
screwing action in removing chips from the hole and so
facilitate the drilling of deep holes. This type of drill cuts
fairly accurate holes, because the shank is guided by the first
part of the hole drilled and the point is thus kept in line.
Further remarks on drilling and instructions for grinding
fluted drills are given in Sec. 45.
4. Reaming holes.—A reamer is a finishing tool for
trueing a hole that has been drilled to nearly the correct size.
This is necessary because no drill can be relied upon to
make a hole truly round, straight, and exactly to size. The
drilled hole should be not more than about ^ inch below the
finished diameter, because a reamer cannot be expected to
remain accurate long if it is subjected to the wear of removing
much metal.
PI. 19, Fig. 13, shows a hand reamer. It is slightly tapered
near the point to enable it to enter the drilled hole. The
remainder of its length is parallel if a parallel hole is required,

or tapered if a tapered hole is required. The long parallel
shank of a straight reamer is guided by the side of the hole
as it works farther in, and so keeps the hole straight. If
a blind hole is required to be parallel throughout its length,
a parallel reamer, without end taper, must be used finally
to cut out the bottom to size.
A reamer should be well lubricated (except in cast iron).
It should be turned slowly by means of a key, K, with two
equal arms. Equal force should be applied to both arms,
so that there may be no bending stress on the reamer. If
only one arm were used, the hole might not be trued in the
required line, through being started askew, and would thus
tend to bend and so cut too large a hole, or the reamer might
be broken. The reamer should always be turned in the same
direction. Instructions for grinding reamers are given in
Sec. 45.
5. Tapping holes.—Taps are reamers with threads upon
their flutes, which cause them to leave a corresponding thread
in the hole, PI. 19, Fig. 14. Since they must cut the full depth
of the thread, and so must remove more metal than a plain
reamer, the flutes are made deeper and wider to accommodate
chips. One of the set also needs more taper than a plain
reamer, since there must be more difference in the size of the
tap and the drilled hole. Taps are normally made, therefore,
in sets of three, viz.:—
i. Taper.
ii. Second taper.
iii. Plug, or parallel.
They should be used in this order, and in the case of very
deep holes (i) and (ii) may advantageously be used alternately
till (ii) reaches the bottom of the hole, when (iii) should be
also used.
Taps should be worked backwards and forwards to clear
the chips, taking a forward turn of about 180° clockwise,
and then turning the tap backwards, counter-clockwise, nearly
an equal amount.
Taps arc very weak, because the screw thread and flutes
leave only a thin core of steel to take any twisting or bending
stress. They must, therefore, be used very gently and with
plenty of oil (except in cast iron). If a tap binds at all, it
should be screwed right out of the hole, and the hole should
be cleared of chips before the tap is used again.
6. Size of holes for tapping.—The hole, as first drilled,
should be twice the depth of a thread smaller in diameter than
the screw it is to take. The depth of the Whitworth form of
126 Sec. 38.—Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Hand
thread is 0*64 x pitch. Thus, the drilling size for a 1-in.

1*28
Whitworth thread, 8 to the inch, is D — 1-28p — 1-g- —
1 — 0*16 = 0*84 ; nearest fractional size ~ jn.
7. Stocks and dies.—Dies are tools working on the same
principle as taps, but cut the male threads. For moderate
sizes they usually take the form of a split nut with grooves cut
through the threads to leave cutting edges and provide
clearance for chips. Being short, they have little taper, so
can only cut a shallow thread in one passage over the screw.
They are then screwed back and closed slightly before taking
the next cut. The stock is a special double-handed wrench
for holding the dies, adjustable to take a range of sizes and to
tighten the die on the work. (See FI. 19, Fig. 15.)
Dies should not be started upon the end of a bolt, but a
little way down, to ensure that their axis is in line with that
of the screw. The thread is cut by a backward and forward
movement, as with a tap.
After several cuts, each the whole length of the screw
required, the threads begin to assume the correct form. As
soon as they begin to be rounded at the top, they should be
gauged, either with the nut that is to go on, in the case of a
bolt, or preferably with a hardened gauge nut.
If accurate standardization is required, it can be ensured
by making the last cut with a die nut, FI. 19, Fig. 16, whose
size will not alter appreciably in cutting a fairly large number
of screws.
A die is made of tool steel. Il has holes drilled in it which
intersect the threads, providing cutting edges and also
clearance for the chips.
8. Die plates.—Very small screws are often made by
means of a die plate, PI. 19, Fig. 17, which is a collection of
die nuts, cut in one plate for convenience. For each size
there are usually two holes, one tapered and the other parallel
or nearly so. The rod for these small screws should be of
a diameter of about D — \p. The metal to build up the
thread to full diameter is provided by the squeezing action
of the plate. The; rod should be slightly tapered at the
extreme end to allow it to enter the taper hole.
9. Large dies.—Dies for large diameter threads, such as
pipe threads, usually consist of four or more narrow segments,
each with one cutting edge and no grooves, the space between
the segments providing the clearance. These are carried
in stocks of special design, allowing the dies to be adjusted
simultaneously by one movement.
PI. 20, Fig. 1, shows a Hart “ Duplex ” die stock for pipe
threads up to 2 inches. Fig. 2 shows a “ Beaver ” die stock for
Plate 20.
HART DUPLEX DIE STOCK
[Permission of Messrs. W. H. Willcox & Co., Lid.]

Fig. 1
BEAVER DIE STOCK

128 Sec. 39.—Measuring and Gauging
pipe threads from to 4 inches. The latter has a geared down

ratchet drive which, besides giving the necessary mechanical
advantage to allow one man to screw a large pipe in one cut,
allows the die stock to be used in a confined space (c.g. a pipe
trench). Another feature of the " Beaver ” die stock is the
use of a lead-screw to guide the rotating portion of the stock
on the proper thread, the usual practice being to allow the
dies to guide themselves. The lead-screw makes for greater
accuracy, especially with long threads.
39. Measuring and gauging

1. Measuring instruments.—Instruments for measuring
the thickness, length, &c., of the work, to ensure that the
correct form is being built up upon the chosen datum-planes,
consist of:—
1. Callipers.
ii. Gauges.
2. Common hinged-callipers.- PI. 19, Fig. 18. There
are two types of these, one for measuring outside of work and
the other for measuring inside. They arc used as follows:—
i. By opening the callipers by hand so that they will
roughly fit over or go into the work to be measured.
ii. By gently tapping one leg against a bench ; the
callipers are thereby made to get a better fit over
or into the work.
iii. The final fit is best obtained by a screw adjustment;
ordinary callipers, however, are not fitted with this.
Accuracy can only be obtained with these instruments by
care in holding them so that the points truly touch opposite
spots on the surface of the work, and by cultivating a sense of
touch. The points must not be forced on to the work. The
callipers must be so adjusted that the points touch with a
slight drag only, because any pressure would spring the points
a little. They would then spring back when removed, and the
measurement made would be inaccurate.
The distance between the points, when satisfactorily
adjusted to the work, is measured by a finely-divided steel
rule, PL 19, Fig. 19. Measurements made in this way are
rough, and cannot be relied upon to give a reading to within
0-01 inch of accuracy.
A more accurate method is to compare the work with a
standard made of a piece of metal, generally a block of
hardened steel, ground accurately to dimensions, by applying
the callipers to the work and standard in turn; a difference
of 0-001 inch can thus be felt. Two or more such standards
may be placed together to make up any desired thickness.
Sec. 39.—Measuring and Gauging 129
3. Vernier callipers.—PI. 19, Fig. 20, shows a sliding
calliper (N.I.V.) fitted with a vernier, V, by means of which
measurements can be made to within 0*001 inch of
accuracy.
The calliper should be gently closed upon the work, and
should slide off without binding but with a distinct feeling of
drag. A screw adjustment, S, assists greatly in obtaining the
setting. The divisions upon the vernier scale are 0*001 in.
smaller than those upon the calliper scale or rule. Therefore,
if the 0 mark upon the vernier is a little beyond a division. A,
upon the rule and the 1 mark is level with the next division,
the 0 mark must be 0*001 in. beyond A. If the second
mark corresponds with a division on the rule, the 0 mark must
be 0*002 inch beyond A.
To read the vernier, write down the measurement indicated
by the rule division A before the 0 mark on the vernier in
decimal form thus, 0*025. Count the vernier divisions up
to that one which best corresponds with a division on the rule,
.and write down the number of thousandths which this shows
the 0 mark is beyond A, thus 0*011 (the eleventh division
being the best lined with one on the rule). Add these two
figures, thus, 0*025 + 0*011 — 0*036, which is the required
measurement.
4. Micrometer callipers.—PI. 19, Fig. 21, and PI. 21,
Fig. 1, show a micrometer, or screw, calliper, which is consider¬
ably more accurate than the sliding vernier type. The screw has
a milled head, A, and sometimes a second ratchet head, which
slips at a definite pressure, and so enables a man who has little
sense of touch to screw down the calliper on to the work
without any risk of straining it, and always with the same
pressure, viz., that at which the ratchet slips. The sleeve, S,
in which the screw turns, is graduated, generally in fortieths
of an inch, i.c. at every 0*025 in., and this is the pitch of the
screw. The head of the screw is divided into 25 equal parts
by marks on the bevelled edge, and these are numbered back¬
wards ; each represents 0*001 in.
Inside micrometers, for measuring the diameters of
cylinders, &c., and micrometer depth gauges are calibrated
in the same manner.
When the calliper has been removed from the work the
reading is interpreted as follows :—
Multiply the number of whole spaces visible on the barrel
by 25, add the number of spaces between the zero line of the
thimble and the line coincident with the line of graduations
on the barrel. This gives the result in thousandths of an inch.
Examples of micrometer readings arc given in PI. 21,
Fig. 2.
130 Sec. 39.—Measuring and Gauging
Plate 21.
FITTERS TOOLS.
Fig £. Micrometer Readings

Plate 22.
Sec. 39.—Measuring and Gauging 131
It will be noticed that whereas with the sliding vernier

calliper it is often difficult to decide which of the divisions
correspond best, there can be no doubt with the micrometer
calliper, whose divisions are so distinct that a fairly accurate
determination can be made of the number representing
1/10,000 in., and the size of the work could be expressed at
0-0402 in., with only a slight doubt as to the last figure.
The foregoing procedure must always be followed when
measuring. On no account must a micrometer calliper be set
to a stated size and then be pushed on or into the work; the
instrument would be permanently damaged by such treatment,
and the measurement obtained would not be accurate.
The instrument may be calibrated by making it read 0
when the points have been brought gently together. A means
of adjustment is generally provided, either in the nut or in the
anvil or fixed point, P. If no adjustment is provided and
there is an error, the amount should be noted and the correction
applied to every reading.
5. The dial test indicator.—This indicator is specially
serviceable to fitters and engine erectors, for determining the
inaccuracy in a surface, or the movements of a spindle or
arbor.
PJ. 22, Fig. 1, shows a dial test indicator, mounted on a
horizontal arm, and Fig. 2 illustrates one of its uses. See also
Pis. 89 and 91.
The dial indicates thousandths of an inch, and the zero
can be set to any desired position. The spindle of the dial
indicator usually has a maximum movement of about \ in.
6. Gauges.—When a large number of articles of the same
dimensions has to be turned out, fixed measuring instruments
may be used, which are known as gauges.
PI. 19, Fig. 22,. shows a gauge of the type known as a
limit gauge. It .is not possible to make any article exactly
to size, mid an error of 0-001 in., 0-002 in., or more,
according to the required accuracy or the skill of the workman,
is usually permitted.
Having decided the amount of permissible error above and
below the theoretical size, a limit gauge with two gaps, one a
little larger than the other, can be made. The larger gap,
often stamped go, should slide easily on to the work ; the
other, marked not go, should not fit on to the work.
Gauges must on no account be forced on to the work. Not
only would the indication be useless, but the gauge would be
permanently damaged.
Gauges are made generally of tool steel, filed and scraped
or machined nearly to size while soft. They are then
hardened, and afterwards lapped to the required size as
132 Sec. 40.—Standard Limits, Fits and Tolerances
accurately as possible with emery and oil, and then with an

oilstone.
PI. 19, Fig. 23, shows an external and internal gauge, A,
for measuring a shaft or pin, and the hole, B, in which it is
to fit. In such a standard 2-in. gauge intended for engine
work, A might actually measure 2 in., and B should then
be larger, c.g. 2-003 in. The shalt must then be at least
0-003 in. smaller than the hole if it will go into A, and B will
enter the hole. It does not follow, however, that the clearance
between the shaft and the hole will be only 0-003 in. It may
be much more.
If both work and gauge arc* smooth and parallel, an
experienced man can judge by the amount of pressure needed
to apply the gauge what difference there is between the work
and gauge. It is better for men of low skill, especially where
good standardization is required, to use limit gauges for both
the shaft and the hole.
40. Standard limits, jits and tolerances

1. British standard fits.—The British Standards
Institution has published a specification (No. 164 of 1924)
of standard limits and fits for engineering. A chart, No. 164B,
gives the actual tolerances of hole and shaft in a form
suitable for posting in a workshop.
The British Standard Holes are listed in the chart in three
groups, as follows :—
(a) Unilateral, in which the nominal size of the hole is
the low limit, the tolerance being always a plus
amount.
(b) Bilateral, in which the nominal size of the hole lies
between the high and low limits, the tolerance being
plus and minus.
(e) Oversize, in which the low limit of the hole is larger
than the nominal size.
In each group three or four grades of workmanship are
provided for, each grade being identified by a letter. Thus a
“ B ” hole is a unilateral hole of the highest class of workman¬
ship, the tolerance on a 3-in. hole being only 0-9 of a
thousandth of an inch. A “ U ” hole has a tolerance of
double this amount, a “ V ” hole has double the tolerance of a
“ U ” hole, and a “ W ” hole double this again.
The chart gives a table of British Standard Shafts and
their limits, the same shafts being used for either a unilateral,
a bilateral, or an oversize hole. This table gives fourteen
pairs of high and low limits for each nominal size of shaft,
and the fit is determined by the particular pair selected, the
Sec. 41.—Overhaul of Steam Engine Slide Valve 133
hole being the constant once the class of workmanship has

been decided.
The Specification recommends :—
i. That the unilateral system be adopted.
ii. That old terms such as “ drive fit,” “ push fit,” and
" running fit ” be abandoned, and be replaced,
where classes of fit have to be described in general
terms, by the expressions :—
(a) Interference fit, where there is a negative
allowance (obstruction) between the
largest possible hole and the smallest
possible shaft, the shaft being the larger.
(If)’ Transition fit, where the limits allow of
either an interference or a clearance fit
being obtained.
(c) Clearance fit, where there is a positive
allowance between the largest shaft and
the smallest hole.
The hole most commonly used in engineering practice is
the ** U ” hole (unilateral system). The chart includes
a table in which the fits of the fourteen shafts in a “ U ”
hole are compared with the fits formerly described as drive,
push, or running fits. Thus, what used to be called a push fit
is equivalent to the fit of a “ K ” shaft in a “ U ” hole, which
is a transition fit.
By the adoption of the British Standard system, vagueness
is abolished and accurate interchangeability is made possible.
Gauges for workshop use must have their own tolerances
within the limits laid down for the work, in order to ensure that
no work is passed out which falls outside the limits specified
in the table.
41. Overhaul of steam engine slide valve

This operation is taken here as an example of fitters'
work. Further examples will be found later in the book as
below:—
Sec. 49.—Testing machine tools.
Sec. 102.—Routine, inspection and maintenance of
Diesel engines.
Chap. XX.—Overhaul of I.C. engines.
Sec. 148, paras. 7, 8 and 9.—Erection and overhaul of
line shafting.
1. Adjusting slide bars.—The slide bars of a steam
engine wear hollow in the centre, and should be trued upon
a surface grinder. Otherwise they may be trued by lapping
134 Sec. 41.—Overhaul of Steam Engine Slide Valve
down with emery cloth wrapped round a file and oiled. They
should be fitted to a face-plate or wide straight-edge. After
grinding the bars, their sharp comers should be filed off to
avoid damage to the hands while assembling them. Normally
one bar will hang on its studs, while the other will rest on the
frame casting on its original packing. The piston should be
placed in the cylinder and keyed to the crosshead, PI. 23,
Fig. 7. The bars are then lined up as follows :—
i. The crosshead is placed successively at each end and
the middle of its stroke, and the following particulars should
be noted in each position :—
(n) Whether the piston rod is central in the gland, and,
if not, the direction and amount of eccentricity.
(b) Whether the crosshead surfaces are in good contact
with the bars throughout, shown by smearing the
bars with grease and observing the trace of the slide
blocks on the grease.
(f) Whether the vertical faces of the crosshead at the
gudgeon pin are true, i.e. at 90° to the line of crank¬
shaft.
ii. Liners, or thin plates of metal, L, art; placed between
the bars and their seatings, chosen to correct the observed
errors as well as possible, the retaining nuts are tightened,
and the tests in (i) are repeated.
Any errors still observed should be cm reeled by filing the
liners, or adding more thin plates, till the alignment is satis¬
factory. For the final test the slide block surfaces should be
coloured with red lead, and moved from end to end. The
following effects should be obtained :—
(a) The piston rod should keep in the centre of the gland
throughout the stroke.
(/>) Red lead smears should show upon all bars throughout
their length, and be reasonably even all over their
surfaces.
(c) A straight-edge placed through the gudgeon pin seating
should remain parallel with the crankshaft through¬
out the stroke.
(d) There should be little tendency to binding between
the crosshead and bars. Rinding in the centre is of
little importance, because the bars will spring. Any
binding at the ends, where the bars are rigidly held,
must be corrected by lapping.
iii. The slide blocks must be given overrun by filing away
the bars as shown at 0. Otherwise the bar would wear and
leave a shoulder or hump at the end, which would cause
knocking.
Plate 23.
Fittcrs jnd Turners Work.

t .«
Z PLAN or CAPSTAN LATHE
^ _<^w_ J
fig / capstan lathe Type OF WORK
r i.
ng 1
Arrt& I
fcbming
TE^z=zr3
J T I Fig J tqamvu fop testing
_C 1 “ SC PC w THREADS 1n—'1 iJ=3
d □a_Q_J
sr**Ti£AJr f£3<tf
□
TEST-TCOl CUTTING OR TOP
Kg 6 LEVELLING BEARINGS
I RiA
P fv* ~ *> » ~S>
hq S NEW PORT -FACE.

vS
Kg 7. setting glide a firs.
Kg/0 SETTING GLIDE VALVES.
Kg e WORN CYLINDER ,r^\ 0 ]) -
r* 0X6 rr
Ao //, a a justing rw t2 effect or inaccuracy
s ECCENTRIC RODS. S
r,tii effect oh crank weds or bearings out or line

(GREATLY EXAGGERATED)
ABODE
ROSE BEARING IN CORRECT ALIGNMENT
0 CRANK WEBS NORMAL
t LOW BEARING CAUSING CRANK WEBS 6 TO OPEN ON TOP
CENTRE AND CLOSE ON BOTTOM CENTRE
0 HIGH BEARING CAUSING CRANK WEBS d TO 'InSC ON. TOP
CCNTRE AND OPEN ON BOTTOM CCNTRC
THE CRANK WEBS r BEING AI THE CHANCE OF CURVATURE
MAY NOT SHOW ANY CTTECT
2. Re-facing slide-valve ports.—The face upon which
the slide valve of a steam engine moves wears down and
requires attention to the following points :—
i. The face may be hollowed or grooved, so that steam
escapes between the valve and its seating. This can be
corrected as follows :—
(a) If the inaccuracy is small, by scraping both valve and
seating to a face-plate, as described in Sec. 37, para. 8,
and then to each other.
(b) If the inaccuracy is large, by re-surfacing in a shaping
machine or surface grinder if available, and finishing
by scraping, as in (a).
ii. The face may have worn down in the centre, leaving a
shoulder, S, at one or both ends, PI. 23, Fig. 8. This causes
knocking, and may also allow steam to escape, producing loss
of power in the engine and heavier fuel consumption. The
shoulder should not merely be removed, but should be cut well
down by chipping and filing, so that the valve distinctly over¬
runs the working face. This will ensure that a fresh shoulder
will not be soon worn. See PI. 23, Fig. 10.
iii. The face may have worn down so that the wall between
the passages and the face is too thin, and the form of the ports
may have become inaccurate. This can only be remedied
by fitting a new face, as follows :—
(a) The face is smeared with red lead paste, and a sheet
of paper is pressed down on it to give a colour
template showing the ports as they are.
(b) A drawing is made from this template, showing the
ports as they apparently should be.
(c) A wooden pattern is made to the drawing, and from
this a plate of hard cast iron is cast.
(d) The plate, P on PI. 23, Fig. 9, is machined on both
sides, the ports in it arc cleaned out by filing, and
one side is scraped to fit the old face, or vice versa.
[c) Holes are drilled in the new face to take tapered peg
screws, S, being carefully placed so that they will
have a good hold in the solid metal of the old face.
{/) Tapping holes are drilled in the old face, using the
new one as a template, and then tapped.
(g) The peg screws are driven hard home, nicked with a
hacksaw, broken off, and filed down flat. A little
red lead between the faces will improve the joint.
(h) The new face, which may have been distorted in
screwing it down, is scraped to fit a surface plate.
(i) The valve is scraped, first for convenience to fit a
surface plate, and then to fit the new face accurately.
3. Errors in slide valves.—When re-erected, the slide

valves of an engine are certain to be inaccurate unless great
care is taken to adjust them. The whole object of an overhaul
will be lost unless the valves are accurately set.
The normal errors found, after an overhaul, are as
follows:—
i. The ports do not open equally at both ends of the travel
of the valve. Variation may have occurred due to :—
(a) Re-bushed holes for pins being at slightly altered
distances.
(b) Rods straightened being a little drawn out in the
process.
(c) A new valve having a slightly different shape from the
old one.
(d) Re-faced ports not being quite in the old places.
(e) No allowance having been made in semi-portable
engines for expansion of the boiler, the valves having
been set when cold.
ii. The time of admission, cut off, and exhaust may have
been considerably altered, owing to :—
(a) Slight differences between the new valves and faces
and the old ones, giving a different amount of lap.
(b) Errors in setting eccentrics, i.c. in angular advance.
4. Setting slide valves.—To set a valve, the rod should
be smoked with a candle, a trammel made, as shown at
T on PI. 23, Fig. 10, and placed with one of its points
resting in a centre-punch mark on the valve gland. The
procedure is then as follows :—
i. The crankshaft is rotated until one port is in the position
of cut off, ascertained by the grip on a strip of thin sheet metal
held in the port. A mark, A on PI. 23, Fig. 10, is made on the
smoked rod with the trammel, and the angle of the crankshaft
is noted, or a mark,, X on PI. 23, Fig. 7, is made upon a slide
bar, level with one end of the main side block.
ii. The shaft is slowly rotated backwards. As the valve
nears the end of its stroke, the trammel is kept marking the
rod until the valve commences to return, the extreme mark
made being shown by B. The distance between mark A,
made in (i), and mark B is the amount of the opening of the
valve.
iii. Operations (i) and (ii) are repeated for the other end
of the travel of the valve.
The two amounts of opening are compared by careful
measurement.
In the case of an engine on a bed which is likely to remain
at the same temperature as the rods, the two openings should
be the same.
In a portable or semi-portable engine in which the boiler

is also the engine bed, allowance must be made ior the
expansion of the boiler under steam, thus :—
Length, from middle of cylinder block to crankshaft, L
inches.
Temperature difference, between rods and boiler, T° F.
For example, the probable temperature of the rods will be
120° F. and that of the boiler at 150 lb. 360° F. The difference
T° will be 240° F.
Expansion allowance is L X T x 0-000007 — E. *
For example, if L is 100 in. and T is 240° F., then
E -- 240 x 100 x 0-000007 -- 0-17 in.
In this case, the port nearer to the crankshaft should be
adjusted to have an opening, when cold, of 0-17 in. more
than the average of the two, i.e. of 034 in. more than the
opening of the farther port. When the boiler is heated, it will
expand 0-17 in., and will add that amount to the opening of
the farther port, and take it from the nearer one.
iv. Adjustment can be made in two different ways.
(a) Many valve rods have nuts which locate the position
of the valve, as shown on PI. 23, Fig. 10. The nuts on that
side which has too much opening should be slacked back the
required amount, and those on the other side screwed forward
to the valve.
The nuts must not grip the valve, or it cannot seat itself
upon the face without bending the rod.
The lock nuts must he well tightened, or the setting will alter
when the engine is running.
(h) More or less packing, P on PI. 23, Fig. 11, can be
placed between the eccentric strap, S, and the cross, T, of the
eccentric rod. Care must be taken that the packing is of
even thickness, or the rod will be thrown out of line and will
wear its pins rapidly.
The other end of the rod, when free, should fall naturally
into correct line with the valve rod.
On PI. 23, Fig. 12, some springing would be needed to
place the rod in line, owing to inaccurate packing.
v. The eccentric sheave may need adjustment. Eccentric
sheaves may become loose through wear on key or keyway,
necessitating a larger key.
In many semi-portable engines the eccentrics are adjust¬
able, being held in position by a bolt against a plate or lug
on the shaft.
In the former case, the sheave should be temporarily
fixed to the shaft, by bolting the halves together sufficiently
tightly to operate the valve without slipping, and the effect
tested as follows, the link gear being in full forward

position:—
(a) Smoke or colour the side of a slide bar, and ascertain
the travel of the crosshead by revolving the crank¬
shaft slowly near each dead centre, making marks
for the position of one end of the crosshead, Y on
PI. 23, Fig. 7. The farthest mark made indicates
the limit of travel.
(b) Compare Y with the mark X made in (i) indicating the
point of cut off. This should normally be at about
half stroke.
(c) Obtain marks similarly, by revolving the shaft back¬
wards from dead centre until a thin strip of metal is
grippcci in the inlet port, at either end in turn, to
show the point of inlet. This should normally be
about 1/20 stroke before dead centre, the crank being
from 20 to 30° from the dead centre position, this
being the angle' of lead. For a high-speed engine
the lead may be more, probably 40 to 45°.
(d) When these observations are satisfactory, the position
of the eccentric must bo marked by scribed lines
on the shaft and sheave. The new key can then
be fitted to hold the sheave.
(c) If a reverse eccentric is provided, it should be located
similarly with the link lever in full reverse position.
(/) At the first opportunity, indicator diagrams should be
taken with the engine running at normal speed and
at a suitable load in full forward, in full reverse, and
in half-forward gear. These diagrams will show if
any error has been made in setting.

CHAPTER IX
MACHINE-SHOP WORK
42. Machines and tools

1. Machine tools.—Machine tools for working on metal
arc designed to perform much the same operations as hand-
fitting. They are used to save time and cost of pro¬
duction, as they enable more power to be applied than a
man can apply with hand tools. Further, since either the
tool or the work (whichever is made to move) is guided by
metal slides, the degree of manual skill required from the
operator is less. His skill is shown not so much by the
accurate movements of the hands, wrhich require long practice
to achieve, as by his competence in setting both work and tools
to obtain satisfactory results.
Machine tools fall naturally into three main categories:—
i. Those employing tools with one cutting edge only,
analogous to the chisel or scraper. Examples are
lathes, boring machines, planers, shapers, and
slotters.
ii. Those employing a series of cutting edges, analogous
to the file. These include all types of milling
machines, broaches, drills, and reamers.
iii. Grinding machines, using wheels of emery, car¬
borundum, &c.
2. Gutting tools.—Angles.—All cutting tools, whether
for use by hand or in a machine, and whether they have only
one cutting edge or many, are designed upon the same
principles.
On PI. 24, Fig. 10, X illustrates a cutting tool removing a
shaving of metal and leaving a fair surface behind it.
It will be obvious by comparing it with Y that the tool
can only cut properly if the extreme edge, and nothing else,
is in contact with the finished surface. In consequence, it
is necessary to grind the heel of the tool to the angle A,
known as the relieving angle, which must be carried right
through to the cutting edge. The angle B, known as the tool
angle, forms the wedge which separates the chip or shaving.
Obviously, the more acute this angle, the less power will be
needed to drive the tool through the material, but the tool
140
Sec. 42.—Machines and Tools 141
will be correspondingly weaker and its edge more easily

broken off.
The angle C, known as the angle of rake, provides the
separating force which turns the chip away or breaks it off.
An equal reaction is produced which tends to drive the edge
farther into the work. There is always a certain amount of
spring in both tool and work, and also some backlash in the
screw which adjusts the position of the tool; in order to force
the tool into the work to begin cutting, considerable pressure
must be applied by this screw.
If there is too much rake, the reaction of the chip when
cutting begins may equal or exceed the pressure between the
edge of the tool, and the finished surface. In this case the
spring in the work and tool will force the latter farther into
the former, and it maybe drawn in still farther by the reaction
of the chip. Then the spring will act the other way, and will
eventually break the chip or tool. The tool will spring out
again, and the cycle will recommence.
This effect is known as digging in if the tool breaks or the
machine is stopped, and chatter if the tool springs out unbroken
and continues cutting in jerks.
In either case the finish of the work is not good, the, fool
and machine suffer, and the power absorbed may be increased.
This defect may be overcome by increasing the tool angle,
t.c. by diminishing the rake or relief, or both. It is better to
avoid it and ensure the utmost rigidity by fixing a travelling
steady on the saddle immediately behind the work and tool,
or by so designing the tool that any increase in resistance,
sufficient to cause springing, draws the edge slightly out of the
work. The latter principle is illustrated on PI. 24, Fig. 11,
which shows an old-fashioned spring tool for light finishing
cuts.
The angles found suitable for the most common materials
are given in the following table :—
A r
Material or work
(relief) (tool angle) (rake)
Degrees. Degrees. Degrees.

Wrought iron and mild steel 5 60 to 70 15 to 25
Soft cast iron 5 70 10
Hard cast iron 5 85 0
Cast and alloy steels 5 70 15
Brass and gunmetal 5 85 to 90 0
or negative.
3. Form of tools.—PI. 24, Figs. 2 to 9, illustrate some

common forms.
142 Sec. 42.—Machines and Tools
These few forms, made right-handed or left-handed as

desired, will do all ordinary lathe and planing-machine work
required in a service machine shop.
It will be noted that the tools shown in Figs. 4 and 9 cut
on one edge only, while the others cut both on the nose and
side. It is essential that the angle of rake, suitable for the
material, should apply to every edge that cuts. Where two
edges do equal cutting, this can be ensured by grinding the
top so that its line of greatest slope bisects the angle between
the two edges, PI. 24, Figs. 3 and 12.
This rtiethod of grinding also causes the actual edges of the
tool to slope, and, therefore, little rake should be given. The
relieving angle should never be omitted. This angle can
always be put on the tool, whatever its shape.
It is essential that tools should always be ground by a
man who understands the principles. Therefore, only
highly skilled turners and fitters should be entrusted with this
work.
In shops large enough to warrant the provision of a tool¬
room, only the toolmaker should be allowed to grind tools,
and he .should be carefully selected for his knowledge and
skill. A card showing the angles for various metals should
be hung near the grinder. Enlarged drawings show them
best; mere statements of angles mean little to the average
man.
All tools should be standardized and the somewhat
common practice of grinding tools to unauthorized shapes
should be strictly forbidden. Special tools will sometimes
be necessary. In such cases, a special order, with sketch,
signed by an officer or the shop foreman should be given
to the toolmaker as his authority to make the tool re¬
quired.
The standards must include :—
i. A complete set of tools for mild steel.
ii. A complete set of tools for cast iron and tool
steels.
iii. A complete set of tools for brass.
Gauges should be available when grinding tools and in
a large shop it is advisable to fix a complete set of standard
tools to a.board, on which should be marked the angles, the
name of each tool, and the material the set is to cut.
4. Gutting speeds.—The rate at which a tool removes

metal is determined by the product of the cutting speed, the
depth of cut, and the traverse, i.e. the width of the turning or
chip.
i. The permissible depth of cut and traverse depend upon

the rigidity of the machine and work, and also upon the
material. They are determined by the largest area of metal
that will be entirely crushed under a pressure that can be
exerted by the machine without undue spring in the work and
tool. Naturally, large machines are more rigid than small
ones, and they can generally stand heavier cuts.
The cutting speed is decided chiefly by the rate at which
the heat generated by the cutting can be conducted away ;
this varies with differences of temperature. Therefore, the
cutting speed may be increased by :—
{a) Providing in the work and tool an ample metal path
for the heat to flow away from the tool edge.
(6) Diminishing the amount of heat generated by carefully
attending to the form of the cutting edge and by
lubricating the paring edge.
(c) Cooling the tool with a good pump supply of metal
cutting compound.
{d) Allowing a higher temperature (and hence a greater
heat flow) at the tool edge by using a high-speed tool
steel, which will retain its hardness at a temperature
which would draw the temper of a simple carbon steel.
(e) Providing several different edges, any one of which will
only cut for a short time and then has time to cool
down while the others operate in succession, as in a
milling cutter or a circular saw.
(/) Suitably treating the work before machining, c.g. high
carbon steel may be annealed before machining to
soften it, and hardened again if necessary when the
machining is complete. Iron castings may have
their hard skin removed by pickling or heat treatment
may be applied.
Of these methods, (a), (b), (c), and (/) can be applied in
any shop, (d) is of little value in machines designed for carbon
steel tools, and {c) is more a matter of choice of the type of
machine.
ii. The greatest output of metal removed by a machine per
horse-power hour supplied should be obtained by setting the
largest cut and traverse that the nature of the work and
capacity of the machine will allow and using a correspondingly
low speed, but only experience can tell which are the best
conditions for working.
iii. A sharp point on a tool wears out sooner than the rest
of the edge. Roughing tools for heavy cuts must, therefore,
be well rounded to equalize the wear throughout the edge as
nearly as possible.
iv. The formula given below for lathe tools applies only to
heavy cuts made slowly with a roughing tool. For light
finishing cuts, the speed should be half that given by the
formula and'never more than the maximum given.
Cutting speed, maximum feet per minute = V
Area of chip (depth of cut X traverse per
rev. in square in.) = A
Constant depending on metal worked and
tool steel used - C
Values of C, using carbon steel tools, are :—

For soft steel or wrought iron .. .. 4*5
,, hard steel .. .. .. .. .. 2*6
„ soft cast-iron .. .. .. .. 3-2
„ hard cast-iron .. .. .. .. 1*9
„ medium bronze .. .. .. .. 4-4
,, soft brass .. .. .. .. .. 9-0
For high-speed steel tools, these values may be doubled.

Table K gives cutting speeds for different tools and
conditions. It is based on the formula given above, but
corrected for the lighter cuts. The speeds given are for
carbon-steel tools, and may be doubled for high-speed steel
tools.
Example.—To find the speed for roughing 2-in. round mild steel bar
in a lathe to 1J in., i.e. cut $ in., using traverse, with carbon steel
tool.
1
A =
ffx
V = = 4-5 x 5 = 22*5 feet per minute. 2-inch round bar is
about 6 inches or 0-5 feet in circumference. Therefore revolutions

22-5
per minute of work = — 45.
Uj
5. Particulars to be given when demanding machine

tools.—When submitting a demand for a machine tool, the
fullest possible information should be given as to the general
purposes for which it is required and whether for ordinary or
high-speed work.
The method of driving should be stated, and if from line
shafting the diameter and speed of shaft given. If from an
existing driving pulley, the speed, diameter, and width of this
will be required ; if motor drive, full particulars of electric
supply available.
6—(579)
Sec. 43.—The Lathe 147
A list of any accessories specially required and the following

leading particulars should be furnished :—
Lathes .. Type of headstock.
Height of centres.
To admit in length between centres.
Gap in bed.
Whether screw-cutting gearbox is
required.
Face-plates, chucks, &c. required.
Planers To plane in width.
To plane in length.
To plane in height.
Shapers Length of stroke.
Longitudinal traverse.
Size of table.
Dividing head required.
Slotters Length of stroke.
To admit in diameter.
To admit in height.
Drilling machines Type of machine (radial, pillar, or
sensitive).
Largest hole to be drilled.
To admit in diameter.
To admit in height.
Radius of arm of radial machine.
Milling machines Horizontal or vertical.
Transverse traverse.
Longitudinal traverse.
Vertical adjustment.
Dividing head.
A Universal miller is an expensive type of machine, but is
very frequently used on account of the large variety of work
with which it will deal.
43. The lathe

1. Range of work.—The lathe is a machine tool designed
originally for turning cylindrical work. A standard sliding,
surfacing, and screw-cutting lathe can be used :—
i. Without any special attachments, for :—
(a) Turning cylindrical work.
(b) Turning taper work.
(c) Boring cylindrical and taper work.
(d) Drilling, reaming, and tapping holes.
(e) Formed work that can be cut with a formed tool.
(/) Facing work that can be held *>n a face-plate or
angle plate.
148 Sec. 43.—The Lathe
(g) Cutting screws internal and external of any

desired form and pitch. For metric pitches a
translating wheel containing 127 teeth is
usually required.
ii. With the addition of milling cutters and an arbor,
for:—
(a) Cutting keyways in small shafts.
(b) Cutting grooves in any work that can be fixed
on the slide rest.
(c) Surfacing flat or formed work that can be fixed
on the slide rest.
iii. With the addition of a taper turning attachment,
for:—
Turning long taper or formed spindles.
iv. With the addition of a copying attachment, for :—
Formed work of irregular outline, c.g. a gunstock.
v. With the addition of a milling attachment and dividing
head, for:—
(a) Cutting spur, helical, and angular gears, worms,
and worm wheels.
(b) Cutting flutes in twisted drills, reamers, and
taps.
(c) Making milling cutters of all types.
vi. With the addition of a grinding attachment, for :—
(a) Grinding cylindrical and taper work, inside,
outside, or facing.
(b) Grinding all tools and milling cutters.
But operations (v) and (vi) are carried out more satis¬
factorily in a universal milling machine and a universal
grinding machine respectively.
2. Principle.—The work is normally held between centres
and rotated by means of a driver, D, on PI. 24, Fig. 13, fixed
to the end of the work near the headstock, H. It may,
however, be held on a face-plate or in a chuck, PI. 27, Figs. 1
and 2, the free end being supported by a centre, if necessary.
Long work will also need steadies, or intermediate bearings,
to support it in the middle of its length, S on PI. 24, Fig. 13.
Modem lathes have hollow headstock spindles through which
bars can be passed and held in a chuck while machining the
ends. This also enables collet chucks to be used. (See
para. 15, below.)
The tool is caijied by a saddle, S on PI. 25, Fig. 3, which
moves along ways or guiding surfaces, C and D, machined
upon the bed. The bed, B, is normally a massive cast iron
box-shaped structure, having:—
i. A table formed at one end to carry the headstock.
ii. A depression, G, known as the gap, to allow work of
large diameter to be carried upon the spindle, see
PI. 27, Fig. 6.
iii. Carefully machined ways for the saddle and tailstock.
In England, lathes are described by the height of the
centres above the bed, e.g. a 6-in. lathe. In an American
catalogue, this would be described as a 12-in. lathe.
3. Centres.—The head centre revolves with the work and,
therefore, any eccentricity in its position will affect the
accuracy of the work. It should be tested by means of an
indicator, or centre tester, T on PI. 24, Fig. 15, placed in the
toolpost and brought up to the centre. Any eccentricity
will be magnified by the long tail, which will sweep round in a
circle if the centre is not true. Untrue or blunted centres
should be ground true in the lathe where the centres belong,
the grinding being done with a centre grinder.
The tail centre, or stationary one, should be precisely the
same height as the axis of the spindle, and for parallel turning
should be truly in line with it. This alignment can be
roughly checked by sliding the tailstock towards the head.
The centres should meet precisely at their points.
Centres are usually of 60° apex angle. Hollow or female
centres are sometimes used, as shown on PI. 24, Fig. 16. Work
must be prepared for turning between centres by drilling a
small hole in each end, truly central and deep enough to clear
the centre point. These holes are reamed out to fit the centre
and bear upon its coned surface, as shown on PL 24, Fig. 17.
The two operations of drilling and reaming can be done
simultaneously by means of a centre drill, PI. 24, Fig. 18.
4. Headstock.—The headstock, PI. 25, Fig. 1, contains
a spindle, S, free to revolve in two bearings, B, placed
sufficiently far apart to ensure true running. The nose, N, of
the spindle is screwed outside to carry face-plates or chucks,
and bored inside to carry a centre, which is usually standard
Morse taper ; provision is also made for taking the end thrust
of the centres.
In a simple lathe, the spindle carries a " stepped” pulley,
having three or four steps, by means of which the spindle can
be driven at different speeds by belt from another stepped
pulley on a countershaft. The headstock usually also
contains back gears, PL 25, Fig. 2, by means of which slower
speeds may be obtained. In this case the pulleys carried on
the spindle must be free to revolve at a different speed. A
device, L, on PI. 25, Fig. 1, is provided for locking the pulley

and the driven gear, G, together when the back gears are not
in use. Plate 26, Fig. 1, shows a modern lathe of simple type.
In some lathes the back gears can be thrown out of mesh
by sliding the back shaft longitudinally, in others by moving
the shaft away from the spindle by revolving headstock
bearings. One or two trains of back gearing may be provided,
giving, with the direct drives, a range of eight or twelve spindle
speeds (with a four-step pulley).
More expensive modern lathes are often fitted with " all-
geared " headstocks, in which all changes of spindle speed
can be made with the gears, no stepped pulleys being used.
The gears are changed by means of two or more handles,
each having several positions. Changes must be made with
the spindle stationary. PI. 26, Fig. 2, shows a lathe of this
type.
In this case the headstock is usually provided either with
fast and loose pulleys, or with a single pulley and a friction
clutch, and can be driven direct from the main shafting without
using a countershaft.
The headstock also normally carries the gears which
operate the lcadscrew and the splined shaft (see para. 6,
below). For screw-cutting, the necessary train of gears to
give the desired pitch are placed upon stub spindles and
brought into mesh by revolving the arm (M on PI. 28, Fig. 1)
which carries them. In more expensive lathes, the screw¬
cutting gears are often mounted permanently on shafts under
the headstock, and the required gears for a large range of
threads can be put into mesh by placing levers in different
positions. A loose gear wheel will also be necessary to
change the range of threads from English to metric measure¬
ments, or for any odd threads not included in the range.
For ordinary turning, a range of three or four speeds is
frequently provided by means of permanent gears, and further
speeds can be obtained by changing gear wheels.
5. Saddle.—The saddle or carriage is guided by shears
or ways upon the bed, the form of which affects the accuracy
and life of the lathe.
PI. 25, Fig. 3, shows a section through the saddle, S, and
bed, B, of a well-designed lathe. Broad surfaces, A, carry the
weight, while the surfaces C and D guide the saddle with more
accuracy and much less friction than if only C and E existed.
There should be contact at E. The saddle is held down by F
and G. The leadscrew, L, is placed near to C and D to
minimize cross stress, which produces inaccuracy and friction.
The surfaces H and K provide a means for clamping the
tailstock and steadies without interfering with C and D, so
that the saddle can be very long and consequently firm.
Plate 25.
6. Saddle traverses.—Three methods of longitudinal

traverse are generally available, viz.:—
i. By a leadscrew.
ii. By a rack and pinion.
iii. Top rest (by hand).
The leadscrew should only be used for screw-cutting. It
should be very carefully cut; it soon loses its accuracy if
continually used.
The rack is generally bolted to the bed, R on PI. 25, Figs. 3
and 5.
The drive is from the headstock through a splined shaft,
on which is a pinion, free to slide, but keyed, and carried
along the shaft by the saddle. Through gears this drives
the pinion which engages with the rack. The leadscrew is
put in operation by closing upon it a split nut, PI. 25, Fig. 4,
carried under the saddle, while the rack pinion is controlled
by a clutch in the apron.
7. Slide rest.—Upon the saddle, on ways, W on PI. 25,
Fig. 5, at right angles to those on the bed, is carried the slide
rest, O, and on this the toolpost, T. For surfacing work the
cross traverse is put in operation by tightening a second clutch
in the apron, P, of the saddle, which drives a cross feedscrew.
8. Compound slide rest.—In many lathes a further
slide, Q on PI. 25, Fig. 5, operated by hand only, is carried
by the first slide rest. This compound slide rest- is capable
of being swivelled by hand for taper cutting to any angle
within its limits.
9. Hand traverses and clamps.—Every traverse is
obtainable on a standard lathe by turning hand-wheels, or
cranks, without using the power shaft clutches. The tool
can thus be set to the desired cut, whether for turning or
facing. When the tool is set, the traverse which is not in
use may be clamped to ensure that the tool setting does not
alter.
The saddle may generally be clamped by a lever on the
apron, which tightens up one of the gibs engaging the pro¬
jection, F or G on PI. 25, Fig. 3, on the bed. A similar clamp
is usually provided to tighten one of the gibs of the slide rest.
On PI. 25, Fig. 5, the top slide may be clamped by tightening
the screws, U, with a screwdriver, thus forcing the gib, V, on
to the shears.
10. Toolposts.—There are several types of toolpost in
use ; PI. 25, Fig. 5, shows the normal English type. It is of
great importance that the tool should be set at the correct
height. PI. 25, Fig. 7, shows a tool correctly set, its rake and
clearance angles being true. PI. 25, Figs. 8 and 9, show
how these angles are completely altered if the tool is too high
or too low. In the English type, the toolpost is normally
made so that it will hold a standard tool too low, and it is
necessary to insert suitable packing under the tool. Packing
of precisely the correct thickness must be used ; otherwise
work would be delayed and spoilt, and tools would not last
long.
In many American and other types of lathes a cupholder,
PI. 25, Fig. 6, is fitted, by means of which the tool can be
canted to bring the point to the desired height. This is not
good practice, as it alters the angle of rake and the clearance.
11. Cuts and traverses.—The largest cut that should be
taken in a standard modern lathe is one-fortieth of the height
of centres, e.g. in an 8-inch lathe, 8/40 or ~ inch.
The largest traverse, when taking this maximum cut,
rt 1
should not exceed e.g. for an 8-inch lathe, 9q inch. Large
traverses may be used for shallow cuts, but the area given by
A X must not be exceeded. Service lathes,
40 160 6,400
especially those of mobile units, are normally of light con¬
struction, and are not intended for heavy cuts, portability
having been studied in their design more than large output,
e.g. in a light 8-inch lathe the cut should not exceed £ inch,
and inch may be regarded as the normal traverse for this
cut.
12. Plain turning between centres.—Accurate cylindri¬
cal tinning can only be performed by following carefully a
systematic sequence of operations and tests.
The lathe centres should first be checked and if necessary
re-ground.
Both centres should be ground, in turn, when fixed in the
mandrel pocket of the headstock, using a centre grinder on a
toolpost. The tail centre should be ground first and then
replaced in the tailstock (free from dirt and lightly oiled).
When the revolving centre has been ground, the alignment
should be checked as follows: Slide tailstock up so that tail
centre is within ~ in. of revolving centre, and clamp. With
the aid of a piece of white paper observe if the centres are in
line. If not, unclamp tailstock and make the necessary
lateral adjustment with the offsetting screw on its base,
clamp up and re-check.
Example.—To turn a spindle, about 12 in. long, If in.
diameter, from a 2-in. mild steel bar.
(1) Cut off material by hand or machine saw to required
length plus - in.
(2) Mark the centre of each end with a bell punch (PI. 25,
Fig. 10) or by a centre-head square (PI. 25, Fig. 12),
if available, or by some geometrical method (PI. 25,
Fig. 11), make light centre-punch mark and test
again to ensure that it is truly central.
(3) Centre the spindle accurately, either by self-centring
chuck (if the hollow mandrel on the lathe is big
enough), or otherwise by 4-jaw independent chuck,
and fix a steady on the projecting end. Then,
using tailstock with a drill chuck carrying a centre
or other drill, drill the ends as shown on PI. 24,’
Fig. 17.
In long lengths this can be done by a breast or
other drill.
(4) Fill the centre holes with grease, fix a driver (PI. 24,
Fig. 13) and place the bar in the lathe between
centres. Screw up the tail centre until it grips
the work firmly but without binding.
(5) Place a right-hand knife tool in the tool post and
square the end down to the centre, removing only
enough metal to be cutting everywhere.
(6) Put in a round-nosed roughing tool (cuts in either
direction) traverse slide rest to the left, feed tool
up and take a light cut for about half the length of
the bar.
(7) Run saddle clear to tailstock, turn bar end for end,
refix in centres and again traverse to left, keeping
on the same cutting feed for remaining length of bar.
Now measure up accurately and make any
necessary tailstock adjustments.
If a definite ridge appears near the centre of the
bar where the two cuts join, the tailstock must be
moved laterally by the offsetting screw; if the
work is larger at the tailstock end than in the centre,
the tailstock must be brought towards the cutting
tool—and vice versa.
(8) Next use a straight-nosed roughing plain angle tool,
turn down the shaft at about 50 ft. per minute to
l*13/16-in. diameter.
(9) Face the other end as in (5) to correct length.
(10) To finish off, use a right-hand finishing tool with a
top rake of about 25° and take a cut equal to half
the oversize measured above (i.e. ~ in.). Run at
half the original speed and use an ample supply
of lubricant (a soapy compound is the best on mild
steel).
By having a positive cut on the work a smooth
and true highly polished surface should result.
SIMPLE HACK GEARED LATHI-:
2.— Single pulley head and serevv-culling gear box.

[Permission oj Messrs. Dean, Smith & Grace, Keiglilev-i
Sec. 43—The Lathe 155
13. Face-plate and chucks.—Short work of compara¬

tively large diameter is normally held in the. lathe by means
of a face-plate or a chuck screwed upon the nose of the
spindle.
PI. 27, Fig. 1, shows a bearing, B, bolted to an angle plate,
A, upon a face-plate, F. A balance weight, W, should be
placed opposite any eccentric load upon the face-plate, other¬
wise the lathe will vibrate and the work will revolve in an
irregular manner.
PI. 27, Fig. 2, shows a short cylinder held in a chuck,
which is really a special face-plate with movable jaws upon
its face, with which the work may be gripped.
Chucks are of two main types: (a) independent jaw
chucks, (b) self-centring.
In the case of an independent jaw chuck, as actually shown
on PI. 27, Fig. 2, each jaw is moved separately by a screw,
whose head, S, can be seen. Thus, objects of irregular shape
can be held, and any work which has already been turned
can be brought truly central by careful adjustment.
In self-centring chucks, all the jaws move simultaneously
and are generally controlled by a scroll inside the body of the
chuck. They are convenient for holding short lengths of
bar, if the part gripped is to be turned afterwards, or if the
work is to be cut off when finished, leaving the rough stub
in the chuck. They can seldom be relied upon to hold finished
work truly.
A third type, known as a combination chuck, has both
separate and simultaneous movements. A round bar can
thus be gripped by means of the scroll, and any fine adjust¬
ment to bring the work central can be made by means of the
independent screws. Similarly, work of irregular shape can
be held when the scroll is released.
14. Collets.—For accurately centring round work of
small diameter, a collet chuck is necessary (see PI. 24, Fig. 14).
This is used in a hollow headstock spindle in conjunction with
a special collet for each diameter of work to be handled. The
collet is a split sleeve, bored internally to fit the work, and
coned externally. By means of the collet chuck, which
passes through the hollow spindle and grips the collet, the
collet is drawn into the hollow spindle until the coned outer
surface, fitting tightly into the spindle, causes the collet to
close and grip- the work and itself.
15. Mandrels.—Small work that has been drilled or
bored can be held for turning upon a mandrel revolving
between centres. PI. 27, Fig. 3, shows a plain drive fit
mandrel, slightly tapered. PI. 27, Figs. 4 and 5, show other
types, for coned work, &c.
Plate 27.
16. Taper turning.—Short steep tapers should be cut
by setting over the compound slide rest at the required angle
and traversing the tool by hand (see PI. 25, Fig. 5).
The setting over of either the slide rest or tailstock is
difficult to do accurately. Therefore, after the roughing cut,
the taper should be carefully measured by marking two points
on the work a considerable distance apart, preferably near
the ends of the work, and measuring the diameter carefully
at these points. Any slight error in taper can then be
remedied by a slight adjustment of the tailstock before
applying the finishing cuts. A second readjustment may also
be necessary.
It is absolutely essential for taper turning to have the
cutting edge of the tool the exact height of the centres, or a
true taper will not be obtained.
17. Boring.—Boring may be carried out in a lathe in the

following ways:—
i. Work revolved on a face-plate or a chuck on the
spindle, a boring tool being in the toolpost, PI. 27,
Fig. 2. The height of the tool is of great importance,
and the heel of the tool may require grinding away,
as shown, to ensure clearance.
ii. Work bolted -to the saddle, and bored by a cutter held
in a bar revolving between centres, PI. 27, Fig. 6.
The work must be packed up to the right height,
rigidly fixed, and in line laterally with the axis of
the cutter-bar. The bar must be about twice the
length of the work; this limits the length of the
work.
The cutter is normally carried in a hole in the
bar, and clamped by a setscrew or wedge. The
depth of cut is controlled entirely by the amount
the cutter projects, the diameter of the bore produced
being twice the distance from the centre line to the
cutter point.
Example.—Boring a bearing.—Take the two halves as
received from the foundry, file the rough off each end and
clamp in a vice on a shaping or a milling machine. Set up
with spirit level lengthwise and crosswise, and take a clean cut
off both lips. Using a depth gauge for measuring, machine
both halves- to ~ in. less than the diameter required to suit
the shaft journal.
Then solder the two halves together.
After cooling, set up centrally in lathe in an independent
4-jaw chuck and machine projecting flange to size. Then
reverse the bearing, clamping the machined flange in chuck
158 Sec. 43.--The Lathe
and set up truly as follows : Set a scribing-block pointer dead

to height of lathe centre and pass it along the soldered seam
on all sides. If true to the seam everywhere, the two halves
of the bearing should be similar in size and the bearing truly
central in the lathe.
To check this, revolve lathe mandrel through half a turn
and use the scribing block again. The pointer should still
be true to the soldered seam ; if not, adjust by dogs of chuck
and check again.
When truly set up, secure the bearing in the chuck taking
care not to throw it out of centre. Then face off and bore
out to given tolerance. The machining of the outside
diameter and clearance between flanges is left until last as
this adds strength and helps to prevent the two halves of the
bearing from parting before the boring operation is completed.
The bearing should be marked as machined before being
unsweated.
18. Drilling.—Drilling may be done in several ways in a
lathe, and the following three examples are given :—
i. The drill is revolved in the headstock, either held in a
chuck or fitted into the tapered hole in the spindle,
the work being fixed to the saddle.
ii. The drill is held still in the chuck or tapered hole in the
tailstock spindle, or in V blocks upon the saddle,
while the work is revolved by the headstock in a
chuck or on the face-plate.
iii. Long cylindrical work can be mounted as for turning
between centres, but with a twist drill in the tailstock
instead of a centre. Care is required to ensure that
the hole starts centrally. A small stiff drill, such
as that shown on PI. 24, Fig. 18, should be run in a
little way first, if a larger drill is to be used afterwards,
to ensure a fair start. Holes so drilled are seldom
truly central near the tailstock, unless a steady is
used. A boring bar, used after the drill, will true up
the hole.
Special drilling chucks are often used, similar to those
normally fitted to sensitive drilling machines, PI. 29, Fig. 14.
Reaming and tapping may also be carried out as in drilling
machines. See Sec. 45, paras. 16 and 18.
19. Former turning.—An article of curved or irregular
outline can be turned, as shown on PI. 27, Fig. 8, by means of
a former tool, T, whose edge is ground to the required outline.
It is seldom worth the trouble of making the tool unless a
large number of similar articles are to be produced.
If the edge of the tool is very broad, it is difficult to obtain

sufficient rigidity in the work and tool to avoid vibration,
which spoils the surface of the work.
20. Radius turning.—An outline in the form of a circular

arc can be produced by means of a radius turning attachment,
such as is shown on PI. 27, Fig. 9, traverse being obtained
by a worm-feed, W, which rotates a turntable, T, fixed to the
saddle.
Similar work of larger radius can be produced by controlling
the cross movement of the slide rest, S on PI. 27, Fig. 7, by
means of a pivoted arm, A.
21. Taper-turning attachment.—On lathes fitted with
a taper-turning attachment external and internal tapers can
be cut without offsetting the tailstock. This leaves a true
bearing on the centres and saves time in not having to adjust
the tail centre every time a taper job has to be done.
The attachment is fixed to the far side of the lathe and
comprises a sliding block on a former bar which can be
swivelled through a small angle by a fine-threaded adjusting
screw. Scales graduated in degrees per ft. and inches per ft.
are engraved on the base of the attachment, upon which the
foAner bar swivels.
The compound slide rest has an extension which can be
secured by a screw either to the saddle of the lathe for ordinary
cylindrical turning or to the sliding block of the former bar
for taper turning.
The hand slide is used to adjust the cut when the compound
i est is locked to the sliding block and the work then proceeds
as in ordinary traverse turning.
Very accurate tapers up to about 4 in. per ft. can be turned
by this attachment.
22. Facing.—Work to be faced is usually held on a face¬

plate, or it may occasionally be held in a chuck. The facing
is done by traversing the slide rest, and this traverse should be
adjusted to suit the cut. The Speed should be correct for the
external circumference of the work.
In the case of very large work it may be advisable to
increase the speed as the tool nears the centre. The tool
must face the correct way, i.e. its rake must slope from both
cutting edges, PI. 24, Fig. 12, and the side rake will be for a
right-hand traverse.
23. Screw cutting in the lathe.—Screw threads are cut

in a lathe by utilizing the leadscrew traverse for the saddle.
Since the leadscrew drives by means of a split nut, the feed
can be reliably and positively set any number of times.
The leadscrew has a definite number of threads to the inch.

The pitch of the leadscrew, or distance from thread to thread,
is generally \ in. for lathes with centres 8 in. high and
upwards, \ in. for lathes with centres 6 in. high, and £ in. for
small lathes with centres 3 or 4 in. high.
Thus, in a 6-in. lathe with a J-in. pitch leadscrew, if the
screw revolves at the same rate as the work the saddle will
move \ in. for every spindle revolution, and the tool will
trace a |-in. pitch thread on the work. To cut 8 threads to
the inch, or —in. pitch, the leadscrew must turn at half the
rate of the work, and so on for other pitches.
If a 24-tooth pinion is placed upon the keyed extension at
the back of the lathe spindle, A on PI. 28, Fig. 1, a 48-tooth
pinion upon the end of the leadscrew, C, and an idle pinion, B,
of any convenient size, such as a 36-tooth, upon a stub shaft
on the arm, M, then the ratio
revs, of screw 24 36 1
revs, of work 36 X 48 2
As the leading screw has 4 threads per inch, this ratio will give
the required thread, 8 to the inch.
For pitches that cannot be obtained by the ratios of any
two available gears, a fourth pinion must be introduced, as
shown on PI. 28, Fig. 2. The spindle or driving pinion, A,
may be offset by means of a spacing collar, W, so that it
engages with D. D and B are keyed so that they must
revolve together, and B drives C.
A B
The ratio R — Xt.. Thus, to obtain 9 threads to the
inch on the work, the iollowing gears could be used :—

4, — P
_ - A B 24
_ v - — — y —
32
9 D C 36 48'
If a left-hand thread is to be cut, the leadscrew must
revolve in the opposite direction and the screw is cut from
left to right. This can be attained by using the reverse
tumbler gear, or, as shown on PI. 28, Fig. 3, by placing an idle
pinion, E, so that it meshes with B, and swinging the arms so
that B is thrown out of mesh with C, while E engages C.
X3 A B E _ A
The ratio is unaltered: R £) X £ X
C "-D
the direction of motion of the leadscrew is now reversed.
24. Forms of screw thread.—For manufacturing reasons

it is essential to have standard dimensions and forms of screw
threads.
The following are the principal forms of thread used in

Great Britain
i. British Standard Whitworth Vec Thread.
ii. British Association Vee Thread.
iii. Cycle Engineers’ Institute Vec Thread.
iv. Square Thread.
v. Acme Thread.
vi. Buttress Thread.
i. British Standard Whitworth Vee Thread.—The apex
angle of this thread is 55° and the core diameter C — D — 2d,
where D is the overall diameter and d the actual depth of the
thread. Other particulars arc given in Fig. I.
P..
Theoretical depth h — 0-96P (P — pitch).

Actual depth d ^ 0-64 P.
Rounding at crest and root --- a --- -- 0-16P.
Radius at crest and root = (M373P.
Fig. 1.—British Standard Whitworth Thread.
The following British Standard Threads are of Whitworth

form:—
(a) British Standard Whitworth (B.S.W.) Thread.
(B.S.S.92).—This is the form of thread most
generally used in British Engineering work.
Partiqulars are given in Appendix I.
(b) British Standard Fine (B.S.F.) Thread. (B.S.S.84).—
The pitch of the B.S.F. threads is finer than that of
the B.S.W. threads, e.g. a £-in. bolt has 12 threads
per in. when screwed B.S.W. and 16 threads per
in. when screwed B.S.F. Corresponding values for
1-in. bolts are 8 and 10. (See Appendix I.) The
greater number of threads to the inch results in a
stronger bolt, enables finer adjustments to be made
and reduces the tendency to become unscrewed
by vibration. B.S.F. threads are used in high-
class machine work, in mathematical and scientific
instruments, motor vehicles and lock nuts for
machine tools.
(c) British Standard Pipe (B.S.P.) Thread. (B.S.S.21).—

Used for iron and steel pipes (commonly known as
“ gas " threads). This thread has a relatively fine
pitch to reduce the depth of cutting; £-in., |-in.,
and f-in. pipes have 14 threads to the inch and
pipes of 1 in. diameter and upwards 11 threads to
the inch. (See Appendix I.)
(d) British Standard Brass (B.S.B.) Thread.—There is
no B.S. Specification for this thread, but it is
largely used for thin brass and copper tubes, e.g.
the barrels of optical instruments and electric
lampholders. The number of threads to the inch
is 26 for all diameters of tube. The service
equipment for cutting this thread is known as
“ Tools, screw cutting for brass and copper tubes.”
(e) British Standard Thread for Copper Pipes and
Tubes. (B.S.S.61).—For domestic purposes. There
are three series, for low, medium, and high pressure
pipes. For particulars the specification must be
referred to.
(_/) British Standard Thread for Steel Conduit for Electric
Wiring. (B.S.S.31).—Sixteen threads to the inch
for sizes from f-in. to lf-in. diameter.
It may be noted that iron and steel pipes are specified by
their inside diameter, except in the case of steel conduit for
electric wiring: the latter, and brass, copper and compo
pipes by their outside diameter.
ii. British Association (B.A. Thread). (B.S.S.93).—This
thread is similar in appearance to the Whitworth thread, but
the apex angle is 47|°.
Theoretical depth h = M36P.

Actual depth d = 0-6P.
Rounding at crest and root a — 0*27 P.
Radius at crest and root — 0-182P.
Fig. 2.—British Association Thread.
Sec. 43.-The Lathe 163
It is used in sizes up to J-in. diameter, mainly for instru¬

ment work. B.S.W. threads in the smaller sizes are con¬
siderably coarser in pitch than B.A. threads, consequently the
latter hold better and are stronger for the same outside
diameter owing to the larger cross section under the threads.
B.A. threads are graded by numbers from 0 to 15, even num¬
bered threads being most commonly used in the service,
e.g. a 2 B.A. screw has a full diameter of about 4-7 m.m. and
a pitch of 0-81 m.m. (approximately 31-3 threads to the inch).
(See Appendix I.)
iii. Cycle Engineers Institute Standard Thread.—There is
no B.S. Specification for this thread, particulars of which are
shown in Fig. 3. and in Appendix I. Note that the apex
angle is 60°.
Rounding at crest and root a = 0- 1666P. Radius at crest and root = O’ 1666P.
Fig. 3.—Cycle Engineers’ Institute Standard Thread.
iv. Square Thread.—This form of thread is used to trans¬
mit motion, e.g. on the feed mechanism of machines, vice
screws, screw jacks, etc. It is not so strong as the Whit¬
worth thread, but it offers less frictional resistance to motion.
As the name implies, the height of the teeth in a square
thread is equal to the width. (Fig. 4.)
if TTHTTI111111 nfiTTT
d — depth = 0-5P. w — width = 0*5P.
Fig. 4.—Square Thread.
There is no standard, but the pitch is often taken as twice

that of a standard Whitworth thread of the same diameter.
(See para. 28 for multiple start threads.)
v. Acme Thread.—Used instead of a square thread for

lead screws. It is easier to engage with a split nut than a
square thread. The apex angle is 29°.
vi. Buttress Thread.—Used to take pressure one way only,

c.g. in the breech mechanism of guns. Apex angle = 45°.
Theoretical depth h = P.
Actual depth d — 0-75P.
Angles at crest and root truncated to depth a — 0-125<£.
Fig. 6.—Buttress Thread.
For a given length of nut, the shearing strength of

a buttress thread is twice as great as that of a square
thread.
vi. Other forms of Thread.—Other forms of thread may still

be found in use for special purposes, but are not likely to be
met with in the service.
vii. Foreign Threads.—The two principal foreign forms of

thread are:—
(a) The Sellers Thread, which is the U.S.A. standard
thread. The apex angle is 60° and the actual
depth = 065P. The angles at crest and root
are truncated to form flats Jth of the pitch in
width. The number of threads to the inch is
approximately the same as for B.S.W. threads of
the same diameter. (See Appendix I.)
{b) The International Standard (Metric) Thread.—This
thread is used largely on the Continent. It is
similar to the Sellers thread except that the
groove at the bottom is rounded. A metric
thread on a 12-mm. diameter bolt has a pitch of
1*75 mm., i.e. about 14J threads to the inch, and
a 24-mm. bolt has about 8| threads to the inch.
Compare with B.S.W. £-in. and 1-in. bolts which
have 12 and 8 threads to the inch respectively.
(See Appendix I.)
25. Form of threading tools for V threads.—The point
of the tool must conform to the shape of the standard thread
which is to be cut. The apex angle must be correct for a V
thread, or the sides properly squared for a square thread.
The point must be rounded off correctly for the bottom of a
British thread.
The rounding off of the tops of threads is generally done
separately, after the full depth has been cut to the outline
shown on PL 28, Fig. 5.
Since the tool cuts with its point and both sides, it is
important that the clearance, or relieving, angle shall be
carried right round.
It is difficult to apply the desirable angle of rake to both
sides ; therefore, none is given in small tools, but in very large
ones the top may be cupped or ground slightly hollow, as
shown by the dotted line on PI. 28, Fig. 5. A small angle of
rake may be given at the point, but this should not be
excessive. The tool should be set so that the top is truly at
right angles to the direction of the thread, which is never
perpendicular.
A thread gauge, G on PI. 28, Fig. 6, should be used to
check the form of the tool and thread while being cut, and to
ensure that the sides of the thread are equally inclined.
26. Gutting V threads.—When lathe, tool, and work have
been properly set, with the carrier, or other means of driving
the work, rigid enough to ensure that it will not slip relatively
to the spindle, the tool can be brought up to the work and set
for a fine cut, but clear of the end. The lathe should be run
Plate 28.
SCRfW CuTT/NQ.
Fig. I. scrlm-cu i r/.-sa qcsmj fig 3 lcft-haho rum40. •

at a slow-cutting speed, such as 10 ft. per minute. The split-

nut in the saddle is then closed upon the leadscrew, and the
tool traces a fine spiral line upon the work. The operator
must be ready with one hand upon the nut lever and the
other upon the slide-rest wheel. Both feed and cut must be
taken off simultaneously when the thread is long enough.
This operation must be quickly performed if the thread is
to be cut close up to a shoulder, otherwise the tool may dig
into the shoulder and twist the work in the carrier, or the tool
may be broken. The saddle is then run back for another
cut.
The slide-rest feedscrew wheel of most lathes is graduated
in thousandths of an inch, so that it is easy to set the tool back
to the same position as before, and then advance it a little so
as to cut a little deeper. If not graduated, a chalk mark may
be made upon the top'of the wheel before starting. The wheel
may then be re-set by bringing the chalk mark to the top, and
then a little farther, so as to give a suitable increase of cut, such
as 0-02 for a 1-in. screw, 8 threads to an inch. The chalk
mark may now be rubbed off, and another made on what is
now the top of the wheel.
Before the leadscrew is engaged again, it is important to
ensure that the new cut will follow exactly in the track of the
first.
If the thread to be cut is a multiple of that on the leadscrew,
no error can be made, and the nut can be closed at once. If,
however, an odd thread is being cut, such as the 9 threads to
the inch calculated in para. 23, the threads on the work and
leadscrew will only coincide once in every inch, or once in
4 turns of the leadscrew. If the nut is dropped into one of the
three other turns, it will cut an entirely new spiral and spoil
the work.
If marks are made on the work and leadscrew the first time
they are engaged, and these marks are always brought on
top before the nut is dropped in, the work and screw will
register every time. A more accurate method is to chalk
the tooth nearest the top (or nearest horizontally, as con¬
venient) on the pinions on the spindle and leadscrew.
After a few cuts, the thread begins to assume the desired
form. The depth should be ascertained by measuring either
the diameter of the core or the distance from the bottom to the
opposite tops of the threads with thread callipers, as shown on
PI. 28, Fig. 7.
When the core is about 0*01 oversize, fine cuts should be
taken, giving the smallest feed that will ensure a cut, measuring
after each run, and stopping when the core is 0*001 oversize.
These fine cuts will improve the surface and be more accurate
than the roughing cuts.
27. Chasing V threads.—The thread may now be finished

and left rounded at the top by using a chaser, C on PL 28,
Fig. 4, which is merely a forming tool, very carefully made to
the correct shape for the threads.
The lathe may be speeded up to about 40 ft. a minute or
more, and the chaser engaged on the first thread, with a
gentle firm pressure, and allowed to run along the work,
guided by a hand-turning rest. A good hand-turning rest
may be improvised by placing a bar of steel, B, of suitable
length, in the toolpost, and fixing it parallel with the work.
The first cuts will only round the tops. As soon as the
chaser begins to cut on the sides of the threads, the latter
should be carefully measured, in several different places, at
the tops. If a thread is large in any place a very light cut
may be taken again there only, taking care that the chaser
does not run on to places that are already down to size. This
can best be done by marking the large place and running the
chaser over the whole length, but with only the heel of the
tool touching when no cutting is to be done, and allowing
the edge to bite when desired by raising the handle a little.
If the chaser is correctly formed, the tops and bottoms will
come to size together.
28. Cutting square threads.—Square threads are cut

in a lathe in the same manner as V threads, using a cutting
tool of suitable shape.
The surface of a square thread is normal to the axial force
against which the screw acts and there is no oblique or bursting
pressure on the nut as with the V thread. There is also less
friction and less wear with this form of thread, but they are
more expensive to cut.
They are used chiefly to transmit motion.
Multiple threads.—The durability of a screw thread depends
upon the area of its bearing surface, i.c. upon the depth of
the thread. But the deeper the thread is cut, the smaller is
the cylinder diameter below the thread, and for this reason
multiple threads are used when a large lead giving a quick
traverse is desired.
Pitch and lead of screw threads.—These terms are frequently
misunderstood. The pitch of a thread is the distance from
the centre of one thread to the centre of the next. The lead
of a screw is the distance the nut travels in one revolution.
The pitch and lead are clearly the same with a single thread,
but with a double thread the lead is twice the pitch, and so on.
Cutting multiple threads.—When cutting multiple threads
it is necessary that the first (driver) wheel on the lathe mandrel
should contain a number of teeth divisible by the number of
threads in the lead, e.g. a treble thread could be cut with a

driver having 30, 45 or 60 teeth.
The number of teeth in the gear wheel on the leadscrew
will depend upon the relative values of the lead of the screw
to be cut and the pitch of the leadscrew of the lathe.
Example.—To cut a double square thread.—To cut a

double thread, say, with £-in. lead, assuming the pitch of
leadscrew of the lathe to be \ in.
Select two wheels with the same number of teeth, say, 40,
mount one (the driver) on the lathe mandrel and the other
on the leadscrew. Any convenient intermediate wheel may
be used on the stud to gear up.
For a double thread, the width of the cutting tool must be
equal to one-quarter' the lead of the screw to be cut, i.e.
s in. plus 0-002 inch tolerance for a $-in. lead.
Cut the first thread to its full depth of £ in. There will
be two complete turns per inch of length.
Having completed the first thread, chalk two diametrically
opposite teeth on the driver, and the two adjacent teeth on
the intermediate wheel between which one of the marked
teeth on the driver engages. Then drop the swing frame,
give the mandrel exactly half a turn and gear up again with
the two marked teeth on the intermediate wheel engaging
the other diametrically opposite marked tooth on the driver.
The second thread may then be started, and care must be
taken that it is cut to the same depth as the first. The second
thread will be diametrically opposite to the first.
It will be noted that the pitch of this double thread is £ in.,
the lead of the screw is | in. and the cylinder diameter below
the threads is £ in. greater than it would be on a single-
threaded screw with the same lead.
29. Keyway . cutting and surfacing.—Keyways and

similar grooves in flat surfaces may be cut in a lathe by means
of a fly-cutter, C on PI. 28, Fig. 8, which is carried by a
boring-bar, B, see also PI. 27, Fig. 6.
The work is fixed to the slide rest, S, traversed across the
lathe bed, instead of along it as when boring, and fed against
the cutting movement of the cutter. The tool or cutter should
be made precisely to the form of the keyway if it is to be cut
at one traverse. There is no objection, however, to making
several successive traverses if the groove to be cut is very
deep or wide.
The width of the tool is only limited by the strength of the
cutter-bar. Therefore, wide surfaces can be so machined at
orie pass, provided sufficient rigidity can be attained. This is
the same operation as milling.
30. Milling attachment.—Gear cutting is most easily

carried out by means of a lathe milling attachment, PI. 29,
Fig. 1. The blank or disc, B, is held on an arbor between the
lathe centres, and located by means of a dividing plate fixed
to the headstock, as shown on PI. 31, Figs. 5 and 6.
For small gears, the cutter, C, may be carried with its
axis horizontal, and be passed over the top of the blank.
For cutting large gears, this necessitates a very high pillar
for the attachment. More rigidity can be attained, therefore,
by revolving the cutter about a vertical or inclined axis.
Its plane must pass through the line of lathe centres, PI. 29,
Fig. 2. See Sec. 44, para. 7.
For cutting worms, the headstock spindle must revolve
■slowly to give the feed against the cutter. The cutter must
be carried by the saddle, traversed by the leadscrew, precisely
as for cutting screw threads with a plain tool, but all move¬
ments are slow. The headstock spindle should be driven
through a worm gear, and the ratio of movement of the lead-
screw obtained in the ordinary way through gears on the
screw-cutting arms, PI. 28, Fig. 1.
The plane of the cutter must be tilted to the angle of the
thread, see PL 28, Fig. 5.
Helical and angular gears are merely worms of very steep
pitch. Wormwheel cutting requires a special attachment, see
Sec. 46, para. 11.
Flutes in twisted drills are merely worms of a special
section and of very steep pitch. Those in straight flute
drills, reamers, and taps are parallel to the axis, and correspond
to spur-gear cutting.
The flutes should be milled to full depth in blanks of rather
larger diameter than the finished product, because (a) the
milling produces a burred edge which must be subsequently
removed, and (b) the blanks must be milled soft and hardened
afterwards, and are almost certain to warp. This burring and
warping is corrected in grinding down to the required diameter.
Milling cutters with circumferential teeth are mounted
and cut as described for spur gears, or helical gears in the case
of spiral mills. They must be cut from slightly oversized
blanks while soft, and then hardened and ground (see above).
Blanks for face cutters or end mills are similarly mounted,
but the cutter is traversed by means of the slide rest cross-feed.
The milling attachment should be set to revolve its spindle
in a vertical axis, and the cutter brought approximately to
the height of the lathe centres.
Note.—Milling cutters cannot undercut. Therefore, if any rake is
to be given to the teeth of a milling cutter blank, the operating cutter
must be tilted or put out of centre to produce a surface which, though
radial to the cutter, is raked on the blank, PI. 29, Fig. 3.
For details of milling cutters, speeds, &c., see Sec. 46.
Sec. 44.—Planing and Shaping Machines 171
44. Planing and shaping machines

1. Range of work.—Planing and shaping machines are
designed to machine surfaces which can be produced by a
succession of straight-line cuts.
The work that can be done by them includes plain
surfacing, keyway slotting, bevelling, and the development of
irregular or curved surfaces of such a nature that every stroke
of the tool can be in a straight line, such as spur gears.
2. Planers.—A planer, PI. 30, Fig. 5, is a machine in
which the work is moved longitudinally to produce the cut,
and is carried by a travelling carriage, C, which runs on ways
upon the surface of a bed, B. The traverse is supplied by a
transverse movement of the tool, which is carried by a saddle,
S, upon a cross rail, R, over the work.
The tools employed are generally similar to lathe tools,
but are forged so that the cutting edge is vertically under the
back of the tool against the tool-box. Power is supplied,
generally through pulleys and a train of gears, to a pinion
upon the side of the bed, which engages with a rack fixed under
the carriage. The transmission includes a reversing gear,
such as a double fast and loose pulley system, which is thrown
over at each end of a stroke by adjustable stops. A, upon the
carriage.
The tool cuts in one direction only, and the speed of the
stroke in this direction must be a suitable cutting speed for the
tool. In the reverse direction there is no such limiting factor,
and there is no load due to cutting; hence the power trans¬
mitted by the pulleys is sufficient to return the carriage at a
greater speed. The transmission is normally geared to reverse
at about twice the speed permissible on the cutting stroke.
The working belt should leave its fast pulley before the
reversing one is thrown on ; this avoids conflict between the
belts and excessive slipping. The wear on the belts is heavy
in any case.
The saddle is usually traversed by a leadscrew, L, which is
turned a little during each reverse stroke of the bed by a ratchet
gear, G, the stroke of which is adjustable to give the desired
traverse. The saddle carries a swing frame, F, upon which is
the tool-box, T.
The detail of a typical planer head construction is shown
on PI. 30, Fig. 6.
The tool-box may be tilted to a limited extent to adjust
the direction of the tool point. It carries pivoted in it an
apron, E, sometimes called a clapper, which can swing out
on the return stroke to free the tool from the work. Upon the
apron is the toolpost, T.
The tool-box should be so tilted that when the apron lifts,
172 Sec. 44.—Planing and Shaping Machines
the tool is not only drawn up from the surface of the work, but
also swings away from the cut.
3. Shapers.—Shapers are straight-line cutting machines
in which the tool is moved to produce the cut, carried by a
ram, R on PI. 30, Fig. 7, which is driven by a rack and pinion
in the case of large machines, with reversing gear like that of a
planer, giving a suitable forward speed for the cut and a quick
return. In small machines the ram is moved by some device,
such as the vibrating link and crank shown on PL 30, Fig. 8,
which supplies the desired quick return. The great unsup¬
ported length of the ram deprives the machine of the rigidity
and accuracy of the planer.
The ram-head, H on PI. 30, Fig. 7, carries a swing frame,
slider, tool-box with apron, and toolpost as described for a
planer.
The table, T, is often of box form, generally capable of
being elevated and tilted to any desired angle, and cut with
wards on the top and all three sides, to which vices can be
fixed. It is provided with screw adjustment for height, and
in American type machines is carried upon a traversing saddle.
In English type machines the table is stationary, and the ram
is carried in a traversing saddle.
4. Slotters.—A slotting machine is a shaper, whose ram
has a vertical movement, the working stroke being made down¬
wards towards a table, which is generally provided with feed
traverse in either direction, and also feed rotation, PI. 30,
Fig. 9. It is particularly adapted to cutting keyways in the
bosses of pulleys, and holes and outlines of irregular shapes,
rectangular, circular, &c.
The design of the machine ensures great rigidity.
5. Holding work.—Large work is generally bolted down
to the surface of the table. Smaller rectangular work is
normally held in a machine vice, PI. 29, Fig. 9. Round work,
such as shafts to be key-slotted, is held between centres, or
clamped down to a ward in the table, PI. 31, Fig. 2, or to
V blocks.
6. Special work.—Circular arc outlines may be cut in a
pjaner or shaper by fitting an attachment, as shown on PI. 31,
Fig. 3, which is carried in the toolpost. The inserted tool
point, I, sweeps out a circular arc when the head, H, is turned
by means of a hand-operated worm gear, W.
Spiral slots may be shaped in shafts by fitting a device
which turns the shaft between the centres with a reciprocal
motion corresponding to the strokes of the ram.
7. Shaping spur gears.—Gears may be shaped by
mounting the blank on a mandrel held between centres, and
Sec. 45.—Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Machine 173
locating the blank by means of a dividing head, PI. 31, Fig. 6.

See also para. 9.
The tool should be of the right form to produce the teeth,
and should be fed into the blank to the required depth.
Then the blank is rotated through the correct angle, and
another tooth is shaped. In cutting a new gear to replace a
broken one, the precise form of the teeth must be very carefully
reproduced.
8. Shaping bevel gears.—Bevel gears can only be
produced accurately by means of a special shaping machine.
9. Dividing head.—For gear cutting, accurate rotary
location of the blank is essential. This is secured by means of
an indexing head.
PI. 31, Fig. 4, shows a plain indexing head for holding work
between centres on the table of a planer, shaper, or milling
machine. The headstock spindle carries a dividing plate, D,
keyed to it, containing regularly-spaced holes into which an
indexing plunger, P, can be placed in succession.
PI. 31, Fig. 5, shows an indexing attachment to fit
directly upon the mandrel holding a blank, working upon the
same principle.
PI. 31, Fig. 6, shows a worm dividing head, by means of
which very fine adjustments can be made, and a large variety
of divisions can be obtained from any one plate ; e.g. if 40
turns of the worm crank, C, produce one of the worm wheel, W,
and there are 18 holes in the circle equally spaced round the
plate, D, a movement of the spring plunger, P, from one hole
to the next causes only 1/720 of a revolution of the spindle.
To cut a 36-tooth gear, each movement must be 20/720
revolution = 20 spaces, or one revolution of C and two spaces
farther.
For cutting spirals, the worm is driven by coupling it to
the traversing gear, so that it turns at the correct rate, as for
screw cutting. See Sec. 43, para. 23.
45. Drilling, reaming and tapping by machine

1. Methods.—Holes may be drilled, reamed, and tapped
as follows:—
i. By hand, using a standard and ratchet brace or a
breast or a portable power drill for drilling, and a
key for reaming and tapping.
ii. In a lathe, provided that the work can be held in a
chuck, or bolted to the saddle in a suitable position.
iii. In a drilling machine.
Drilling by hand is explained in Sec. 38, which should be
studied before this section, to which it forms an introduction.
174 Sec. 45.—Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Machine
2. Drilling, &c. in the lathe.—Three methods of drilling

in a lathe are given in Sec. 43, para. 18. Reaming may be
done similarly, but the reamer is often allowed to float, i.c. it
is not guided after it has entered the hole. This may be
provided for by placing the reamer in the mouth of the hole,
with a key upon its squared end, and bringing up the tail
centre to a centre hole drilled in the head of the reamer. The
key may be held by hand, or prevented from turning by
means of a hand rest, which may be extemporized, as shown
on PI. 28, Fig. 4.
3. Drilling machines.—In these the drill is normally
carried in a vertical revolving spindle, while the work rests
on a horizontal table. There are two principal types -
i. Pillar drilling machines, in which the spindle is carried
by a fixed arm, and can move vertically to feed the
drill into the work, but has no lateral traverse. The
work is moved on the table to bring the correct point
under the drill. (Sec PI. 29, Fig. 6.) In a sensitive
drill the drill is fed in by hand, being controlled by
a lever giving a quick, light control, which allows
the pressure essential on the drill point to be felt
by the operator. Larger machines may have an
automatic feed or a slow hand feed by a wheel, but,
in general, pillar drills are of the sensitive type, and
of moderate size. The table can be adjusted
vertically to suit the size of the work.
ii. Radial drilling machines, in which the spindle is carried
by a saddle, which slides along a radial arm. The
arm can be rotated about a central pillar ; the drill
can thus be traversed laterally in all directions, and
centred over any point on the work, which remains
stationary on the table. The drill spindle can be
fed down through the saddle by hand or automatic
feed, and in some cases the arm can also be raised
and lowered to suit the size of the work ; in others
the table can be raised and lowered. Radial drills
arc suitable for working on large, heavy jobs which
cannot conveniently be moved about on the table,
and are expensive machines built for heavy work.
{See PI. 29, Fig. 5.)
Multiple spindle and horizontal drilling machines are used
for special work in production workshops, but are not likely
to be met with in the service.
4. Spindles.—The spindle, C on PI. 29, Fig. 6, to carry
the drill is usually solid, and passes through a driving quill, D.
It can slide vertically through this quill, but is forced to turn
with it by a key and keyway, K.
Plats 29.
This driving quill is carried in bearings in the arm or

saddle, and receives the power through the belt and pulleys,
or, in larger machines, through bevel gearing, B, as shown.
The spindle carries upon it another quill, the feed quill, F,
which does not rotate, and in modem machines has ball¬
bearing thrust washers to take the weight of the spindle when
running idle, and the thrust of the feed when drilling. The
feed quill has usually a rack cut upon it, with which a pinion, E,
engages, to raise or lower the quill and spindle. This pinion
is usually revolved by a hand lever, L, and in large machines
it has also a power drive. The lower end of the spindle has
a Morse taper hole into which the shanks of drills fit tightly.
5. Drive.—The spindle is sometimes driven by an endless
belt, passing over suitable guide pulleys, from a horizontal
shaft carried on the frame. This shaft carries cone or stepped
pulleys, and so does the countershaft from which the power is
taken. Thus various speeds may be obtained. See PI. 25,
Fig. 1. Large machines may also contain back gears, as in a
lathe, for obtaining large torque at low speeds for drilling
large holes.
6. Drilling speeds.—The revolutions of the spindle are'
limited bj' the speed of the outer corners of the lips of the
drill, which should not normally exceed 25 ft. per minute
when cutting mild steel, 20 ft. when cutting cast iron, and
50 ft. when cutting soft brass. This corresponds to 96
revolutions a minute for a 1-in. drill cutting mild steel, 76
cutting cast iron, and 192 cutting brass. Other sizes of
drill may be speeded in inverse proportion to their diameter,
e.g. J-in. drill cutting mild steel, 4 X 96 — 384 r.p.m.
Special high-speed drills may be run much faster, at 50,
100, or even 300 per cent, more than the above figures,
according to their quality.
7. Feed.—The rate of feed is limited by the work the
square point of the drill can do without overheating. A
1-in. carbon-steel drill is usually fed at 1/90 in. per
revolution, and others at vi

?-g- a J-in. drill at 90
=i
90
— jgQ in. per revolution.
8. Pilot drilling .—The power actually required at the

drill point is approximately proportional to the amount of
metal removed per minute, if the hole is drilled in one opera
tion. The power required may be considerably reduced by
drilling a small hole first, and then putting through the larger
drill. The time taken for a large hole on a given machine is
thus much reduced. More accuracy is also obtained, since

the small drill can be better centred, and the small hole guides
the point of the larger drill.
9. Holding work.—Work must be so held that the drill
passing through it will not damage the tabic of the machine.
This may be best arranged for rectangular work by placing
it upon rectangular machined blocks of cast iron, which keep
the work square, G on PI. 29, Fig. 6.
Work of other shape may need special holding devices to
ensure square holes, such as V blocks for round work, PI. 29,
Fig. 7, V standards for long work, PI. 29, Fig. 8, and a machine
vice for irregular-shaped work, PI. 29, Fig. 9.
10. Drilling jig .—"When several articles are to be made
to a standard design,'a jig plate should be used to ensure
similarity, PI. 29, Fig. 10.
The plate may be of cast iron or mild steel, but if many
similar articles are to be made, the holes should be bushed with
hard steel, otherwise they would wear rapidly in soft plates.
The jig plate must be accurately located by some means,
such as contact with definite surfaces or shoulders. If the
actual position of the holes is not important, but only their
relative positions, pins of the same diameter as the holes may
be placed in the first two holes drilled as soon as the drill is
withdrawn. This will ensure location for the remainder of
the holes.
11. Types of drill.—The three normal types of drill are
described in Sec. 38, para. 3.
Twist drills are used exclusively for machine drilling.
12. Trepanning and boring with a fly-cutter.—Large
shallow holes may be bored in small machines by trepanning
with a fly-cutter, PI., 29, Fig. 11. Deeper holes will need all
the metal to be removed, PI. 29, Fig. 12. A hole is first
drilled the size of the cutter-bar, which should fit it closely,
but without binding.
13. Spot-facing.—A fly-cutter may be used similarly for
spot-facing the surfaces of a casting round a hole, to give a
proper flat bearing for a nut, the bar being fitted, if necessary,
with a bush to fit the hole.
14. Drill chucks and sockets.—A drill too small in
diameter to fit the Morse taper hole in the spindle may be held
by means of adapters or sockets, PI. 29, Fig. 13. Drills
smaller than £ in. are generally made with a parallel shank,
and are held in a drill chuck, PI. 29, Fig. 14. This type of
drill chuck has three jaws, which are closed on the drill by
turning the body, B, by hand. The tail or shank, S, fits the
taper of the hole in the spindle of the machine.
7—(579)
15. Sharpening drills.—
i. Drills must be kept sharp in every respect. On PI. 29,
Fig. 15, and PI. 29A, Fig. 1, it will be seen that the point of a
twist drill is a straight line square to the axis, and is the
intersecting line of two surfaces. The lips slope back at 59°
to the axis. Each lip is a cutting edge, with a clearance
angle of 12° to 15° to ensure that only the edge touches the
bottom of the hole, and an angle of rake to make it cut freely.
The edge should be straight from the point to the outside sur¬
face of the drill stem. Both edges must be of the same length
and at the same angle, or the drill will not cut accurately to size.
ii. PI. 29, Fig. 16, shows a mutilated twist drill, which has
the following faults :—
(a) The point is rounded through feeding too fast.
(b) The comers of the lips are rounded through speeding
too high.
(c) The lips are unequal, the result of unskilled grinding.
(d) The relieving or clearance angle has been destroyed.
iii. The effect of these faults will be :—
(a) It will require great force to drive forward the blunt
point.
(b) The rounded lips will make the drill jam in the hole.
(c) The hole will not be straight, round, or true to size,
and one lip will do most of the work.
{d) The drill will glaze its hole instead of cutting it,
since the edge cannot enter the metal.
PI. 29A, Fig. 2, shows what happens when the point of a
drill is central but the cutting edges ground to different
angles, and Fig. 3 shows the result of grinding the cutting
edges to equal cone angles but different lengths.
iv. PI. 29, Figs. 17 and 18, show a drill-sharpening attach¬
ment for a tool grinder, to enable the correct form, as shown
on PI. 29A, Fig. 1, to be obtained.
(a) The drill is held in a trough, V, which holds it at the
correct angle of 59° to the surface of the wheel.
(b) A stop, S, holds the drill up against the wheel, and
ensures equality of the lips and correct centring
of the point, provided both drill lips are placed
vertical when grinding.
(c) The relieving or clearance angle is obtained by
swivelling the trough, V, about the pivot, P. The
heel of the lip can be ground down, but the stop, T,
prevents any swivelling the other way, and so
prevents any rounding off of the edge, which has a
relieving angle equal to R, adjustable by setting the
stop, T. The angle increases farther away from
the edge, to give better clearance, by the angle B,
through which V is swung while grinding.
Plate 29a.
180 Sec. 45.— Drilling, Reaming and Tapping by Machine
Plate 30.
MstcwNe Tools
figs RLGMrJC. M*8CHH>r

16. Reamers.—Reamers are used like drills, but not to

remove a large amount of metal. They are merely used to
straighten and true holes; therefore, a drill must be used
first till the hole is 1/64 in. undersize.
A reamer should be run slowly, with plenty of oil, and fed
rapidly by hand. It should preferably be passed straight
through a hole, and not be drawn out backwards. Blind
holes should be reamed, and the reamer should be withdrawn
quickly while still revolving.
Machine reamers are generally given a little clearance to
their teeth, and, therefore, must not be revolved backwards,
or chips will jam behind the teeth and score the hole.
PL 29, Fig. 19, shows (a) a parallel solid reamer, (&) a
tapered reamer for trueing Morse taper holes, and (c) a large
shell reamer to fit on to a mandrel.
There are also various forms of adjustable reamers, with
inserted teeth, which can be forced out a little by screwing
in a central coned spindle. They are unlikely to be available
in a service unit.
On no account must a reamer be sharpened by grinding or
whetting the outside surface. Its accuracy would be entirely
spoilt by such a procedure. Reamers are better blunt than
too sharp. They should, when necessary, be re-sharpened, as
shown on PI. 32, Fig. 10, by a properly qualified tool grinder.
17. Broaches and broaching.—The process known as
" broaching," or the machining of surfaces by a tool having
a number of successive cutting teeth of gradually -increasing
size, is now being extensively adopted in production work.
The process is used for castcllating nuts, spanner jaws, cutting
keyways and squaring holes, and for many other jobs which
would otherwise have to be done by drilling and slotting.
Even for round holes, the broach is now superseding the
reamer, as the latter lias a tendency to score a hole. In
broaching, no scoring can take place and a smooth and true
surface is obtained.
Broaching is done by two methods, the “ pull" and the
" push.” The " push " type broach was originally known as
a " drift." The “ pull ” type which is now most commonly
used, is longer than the push type, and is machine driven.
18. Tapping.—Machine taps should be fitted to a spring
tapping attachment, and if possible the tap should be passed
straight through only. Blind holes are better tapped by
hand.
It is important that the tap should be free to follow its
threads. Therefore, either the tap should be free to descend
or the work to rise on the tap. PI. 30, Fig. 1, shows nuts being
tapped on a sensitive drilling machine, held in a box jig, which
182_Sec. 46.—Milling Machines__
allows them to run up the tap, while preventing them from

turning.
19. Screwing.—Bolts and pipes are screwed normally in
special screwing machines, but may also be screwed in a
lathe, or a large drilling machine by means of dies.
i. PI. 30, Fig. 2, shows a screwing machine for pipe-work,
&c. The pipe or rod is held in a V-jawed vice, and
the dies in a head, which is capable of revolving.
ii. In lathe work on bars, it is more usual to revolve the
bar, passed through the hollow spindle and held in a
chuck. The dies are then stationary, and are
allowed to advance.
iii. Modem types of box dies, PI. 30, Fig. 3, as fitted to
turret and automatic lathes, are arranged to extend
a spring as they run on to the work, and a trigger is
provided, which releases the dies when a stop is
reached. The dies then open automatically, and
the spring pulls them off the work.
20. Portable drilling machines.—Portable pneumatic
and< electric drilling machines are useful for the erection of
bridges and other large structures, or for any work which is
too large to bring to a fixed machine.
PI. 30, Fig. 4, illustrates an electric drill. A small motor
drives the drilling spindle through reducing gearing. Arms, A,
are provided for holding the machine. A back-centre with
screw extension should be provided for use under a standard,
as shown on PI. 18, Fig. 13.
46. Milling machines

1. Principle.—Milling cutters operate upon the principle
of the fly-cutter, PI. 28, Fig. 8. A simple milling cutter is a
cylinder having, as shown on PI. 31, Fig. 7, upon its circum¬
ference a number of teeth, or cutting edges, each one formed
according to the principles of cutting tools outlined in Sec. 42,
para. 2.
End-cutters have their teeth, or edges, upon one end of the
cylinder.
In operation, the cutter is made to revolve at a uniform
speed. This motion produces the cutting action, so that the
cutting speed is the product of the revolutions per minute and
the circumference of the cutter in feet; S == feet per

minute.
Each edge of a circumferentially toothed cutter is in action
during only a small portion of a revolution, and then completes
the revolution freely, while the other teeth in succession are
Sec. 46.—Milling Machines 183
operating upon the work. Thus, any one edge, after operating
for a short period only, enjoys a period of rest, during which
the heat generated passes away, partly into the air or any
cooling fluid which may be provided and partly into the body
of the cutter. Thus, when the tooth comes into action again,
it will be comparatively cool.
During the next period of action, the amount of heat
generated by cutting may exceed the amount conducted away,
but no harm will be done, provided the excess of heat is
insufficient to raise the temperature of the cutting edges to
such an extent as will draw their temper. Obviously,
therefore, in otherwise similar conditions, a circumferential
milling cutter can cut the same metal faster than a turning or
planing tool, whose edge is in action for long periods. On the
other hand, the edges of an end-milling cutter, PI. 31, Fig. 8,
are not only in action continuously, or nearly so, but they
follow one another before the heat developed in the work can
be much dissipated. The metal worked upon becomes very
hot, and assists little in conducting away heat from the cutting
edge of the tool. Therefore, in end-milling, the metals cannot
be cut so fast as by turning or planing.
Small end-mills are merely many-toothed drills, see Sec. 45.
Large end-mills are sometimes used for machining flat surfaces,
but so long as they cut on the whole face or end of the cylinder,
they must be run at drilling speeds.
2. Machines.—Milling machines are usually similar to a
planer or shaper, in which a milling cutter is substituted for
a plain tool.
In nearly all milling operations the work, i.e. the object
which is being worked upon, is fed slowly and continuously
towards the cutter, and in a direction opposite to that of the
cutting movement of the teeth, PI. 31, Fig. 9.
Each tooth in succession removes a chip of metal; teeth
of the same length .remove equal amounts of metal, provided
they are equally spaced round the cutter and the feed is
uniform.
The pressure of the cutting edge resists the action of the
feed, and thus takes up any backlash in the feed mechanism;
thus a truly uniform rate of feed is ensured. If the feed were
in the same direction as the movement of the teeth, the
work would occasionally be drawn forward by a tooth to the
extent of the backlash, the feed would be unsteady, and some
teeth would cut more metal than others. The heavy load
thus put upon the cutter and machine might stop the machine
or cause breakage.
3. Cutters.—In any milling operation, the feed and the
rotation of the cutter combine to produce a surface whose
184 Sec. 46.—Milling Machines
contour in cross-section is a precise reverse of that of the teeth

on the cutter.
i. A plain cylindrical cutter will, therefore, leave a plane
surface if the feed is in a straight line.
ii. Cutters may also be designed to cut moulded surfaces
of any simple contour. They are known as formed
cutters. Some types are shown on PI. 31, Fig. 10.
iii. Cutters are carried in the milling machine upon arbors,
PI. 31, Fig. 11. Two or more may be placed upon
the same arbor if desired; the operation of such
assemblies of cutters is known as gang milling.
Complicated outlines can thus be produced from a
few simple and standard cutters.
The cutters are held tightly between a shoulder
on the arbor and a nut, collars being used to space the
cutters as desired, or to fill up any space between the
shoulder or nut and a cutter. These collars help to
stiffen the arbor.
For heavy milling work, the cutters are keyed
to the arbor to ensure that they cannot slip. It is
essential that the hole in every cutter shall be truly
central, and shall fit the arbor well; otherwise, all
the work would be done by a few teeth, and any
eccentric cutters would bite deeper than they should.
4. Teeth.—The teeth of milling cutters are generally made

with little or no rake, both for convenience in manufacture
and to keep ample strength in the teeth.
The relieving angle is produced during manufacture by
backing-off, a grinding operation shown on PI. 32, Fig. 11.
The tooth is located with the edge a little beyond the vertical
to ensure a relieving angle, A on PI. 31, Fig. 12, of about 5°.
The teeth are re-sharpened by grinding on the cutting face
only, so that their profile may be left unaltered. They must
not be ground anywhere else. Between each tooth and the
next is a deep groove, to provide space ior the chips as they
curl off the work.
To ensure that a tooth bites, the depth of cut must be
considerable. Therefore, a few large teeth, with ample chip
clearance between them, cut better than small teeth, whose
clearance is generally insufficient to hold the chip.
The normal number of teeth in a cutter of diameter D
inches is V288D for cast iron and mild steel and Vl28D for
brass.
Cutters of considerable length are often made with spiral
teeth, as shown on PI. 31, Fig. 13. This causes smoother
cutting, since the chips come off in long spiral rolls, and the
action is more continuous. The spiral chips are, however, a
Plate 31.
M/L L INC AND SHAP/NG.

186 Sec. 46.—Milling Machines
disadvantage, because they tend to pin in between the teeth
and interfere with the work. To avoid this, the teeth are
sometimes interrupted or nicked, as shown on PI. 31, Fig. 14.
By this device the chips are broken up.
Large cutters may also be made with inserted teeth,
generally of high-speed steel, set in a body of a tougher
carbon steel.
The teeth of deep cutters, such as parting cutters or circular
saws, should be wider than the body of the cutter ; compare
the lathe parting tool shown on PI. 24, Fig. 9. This can be
ensured by grinding the flat side of the cutter body slightly
concave.
5. Cutting speeds and feeds.—The normal cutting
speeds are given in Table K, page 146.
The rate of feed is usually expressed in revolutions of the
cutter per inch of feed, normally about 40 for a 3-in. diameter
cutter working on mild steel. The actual rate of feed varies
from | in. to 3 in. per minute, and depends upon the width
of the cut and the capacity of the machine.
If a cutter, properly set and sharpened, is not cutting
steadily the cutting speed should be reduced, and the feed
slightly increased if the machine can provide the necessary
increase of power, and the work and arbor can stand the
stress.
6. Circular milling.—Circular surfaces may be produced
by a milling process as easily as in an ordinary lathe.
In this case the work is carried between centres, in a chuck,
or upon a face-plate, and is slowly revolved as the milling
cutter removes the metal. PI. 29, Fig. 1, shows a milling
attachment for a lathe. PI. 31, Fig. 16, shows a small
profiling mill operating upon work fixed to the revolving table
of a vertical milling machine.
7. Profile milling.—Irregularly shaped forgings can be
machined true on their exterior in a vertical milling machine,
a controlling object being used as a pattern. For example,
cams may be conveniently machined to proper shape and
dimensions by using a template cam fixed on the machine
table as a guide.
8. Milling in the lathe.—A lathe can be used as a plain
milling machine, without any attachments, by carrying the
cutter on an arbor between centres, as shown on PI. 28, Fig. 8,
the work being fixed to the slide rest, and the cross-traverse
feed used. See Sec. 43, para. 30.
9. Milling spur gears.—Spur gears are normally milled.
The blank or disc, B on PI. 31, Fig. 16, held on an arbor
between centres, is located by a dividing head. The cutter, C,
is formed to the precise shape of tooth required, and

carefully adjusted to cut to the correct depth into the blank.
The cutter is then fed into the work, and moves in a
direction parallel with the tooth until it has passed right
through the blank. To avoid spoiling the work, it is advisable
to make the first cut a little shallow, and then make a second
pass after measuring the depth of tooth formed, making the
necessary fine adjustment of the table to ensure the correct
depth. The dividing head is then revolved through the
necessary angle, e.g. 10° for a 36-tooth gear, and the next
groove cut. No subsequent adjustment or second passes
should be necessary for this or for any other tooth.
10. Milling worms and spiral gears.—Worms and
spiral gears are cut similarly to screw threads by traversing the
blank and simultaneously revolving it. The operation is,
therefore, easily performed in a lathe (see Sec. 43, para. 30).
11. Milling a worm-wheel.—A worm-wheel may be
generated on a milling machine if a positive power feed is
available for rotating the work.
The work can be done equally well in a lathe, fitted with an
attachment by means of which the blank can be revolved
positively through gearing and at a definite ratio to the
revolutions of the lathe spindle. PI. 32, Fig. 1, illustrates the
principle. The blank, B, is geared to a master worm-wheel, M.
The worm milling cutter, or hob, H, is mounted on the same
arbor as a master worm, W. H is an exact copy of W, except
that portions of the thread of the worm are cut away to form
milling teeth.
When the arbor is revolved, W causes M to revolve, and B
also revolves, driven by the gearing from M. H, therefore,
reproduces the form of the teeth of M on the periphery of B.
The arm, R, carrying the gears connecting M and B, must be
capable of movement, so that B can be fed in towards H by
turning the slide-rest traversing screw, S.
A worm so produced will not be very accurate, because all
irregularities in the teeth of H will be reproduced in B. This
can be avoided and greater accuracy obtained by slowly
traversing the saddle carrying M and B. Thus every time a
tooth on B comes round it will be machined by a different
part of H, and any irregularities, whether of H, W, or M, will
be evenly distributed.
The unavoidable irregularities in the gearing between M
and B may be similarly evenly adjusted by using a master
worm-wheel with a different number of teeth to B, and gearing
M and B in the same ratio. Thus, if B is to have 40 teeth, M
may have 36, if the gearing is selected so that B makes one
revolution to 40 of the arbor.
188 Sec. 47.—Grinding Machinery__
12. Machine sawing.—All toothed metal saws, whether

reciprocating or rotating, may be regarded as milling cutters.
The same cutting speeds may be applied, but the feed should
be slow, because the teeth of saws are generally fine, and
cannot accommodate large chips between them. Some
device is often used to clear the teeth of large saws, such as a
star pinion at right angles to and running in mesh with the
teeth.
47. Grinding machinery
1. General principle.—Every grinding machine can be
considered as a milling machine in which an abrasive wheel
takes the place of a milling cutter.
An abrasive wheel may be considered as a milling cutter
in which, instead of a few steel cutting edges, many thousands
of small cutting edges have been substituted, each consisting
of the point of an exceedingly hard crystal, each crystal being
embedded in a matrix, formed into the shape of the wheel.
In consequence of the small size of the cutting points, and,
therefore, the small cut made b}^ each one, very high cutting
speeds arc possible ; the normal speed of the circumference
of the wheel is 5,000 ft. per minute for external cylindrical
work, and 4,000 ft. for surfacing. The extreme hardness
of the cutting points enables work to be carried out upon
material which no steel tool could cut.
Grinding is the only method of machining hardened steel.
Steel tools, spindles, bearings, &c., must necessarily be
hardened, and in the process of hardening they usually warp a
little. Therefore, such tools, &c., after being forged, machined
approximately to shape and size, hardened, and tempered
as desired, are finally ground to their finished shape and size.
The fineness of the cut taken by each crystal point is such
that no appreciable pressure need be exerted by the point
on the work. In consequence, the most delicate work can
be ground without appreciable deformation or inaccuracy,
due to whip or springing of the work or machine.
The accuracy obtainable is, therefore, of a much higher
order than that of a machine using steel cutting tools.
Although each point makes a very small cut, the large
number of the points and the high speed at which they cut
enables metal to be removed very rapidly. In consequence,
if the wheel is pressed into the work, a large amount of heat
is generated; also if the wheel is made to work upon one
portion of the work for a long period, that portion becomes
very hot. The consequences of this are :—
i. The temper of the work may be spoilt by local over¬
heating.
ii. Local heating produces local expansion, and, therefore,
deformation of the work, which destroys its accuracy.
Sec. 47.—Grinding Machinery 189
To avoid any such local overheating, work requiring great

accuracy, such as a long spindle or a large surface, is normally
ground down only about one-thousandth of'an inch at each
pass of the wheel, measured on the diameter. Whether the
wheel or work traverses is immaterial as far as the operation
of grinding is concerned, provided the wheel never remains
cutting at any one spot for any appreciable time.
2. Cylindrical grinding.—PI. 32, Fig. 2, shows a
universal grinding machine, which, with its centre heads,
H and J, constitutes a lathe specially designed for the use
of an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. An ordinary lathe
can be used for this purpose but it is not so suitable (see
para. 5).
3. Traverse and Feed.—The Table T, carrying the head-
stock and tailstock, can. be traversed both longitudinally and
transversely. Change of direction of longitudinal movement
is carried out automatically at the end of each pass and the
transverse movement necessary for feeding the work to the
wheel can be effected by hand or automatically as desired.
The grinding wheel has vertical movement only (which is
required for surface grinding). While it is being traversed
to and fro longitudinally the work is held between centres
and revolved so that the work and the wheel turn in opposite
directions at the point of contact. A copious supply of coolant
must be used to prevent overheating and consequent dis¬
tortion of the work.
Excellent results as regards finish are obtained by letting the
wheel run over the work several times without cross-feeding.
The work is usually allowed to overrun the wheel a little
at the end of each pass to complete a cut. If the wheel is
allowed to overlap the work by more than about one-third of
its width, however, external cylindrical work becomes slightly
tapered at the ends and internal work becomes bell-mouthed.
The work must never be allowed to run on clear of the wheel
or the edges of the latter will be broken off.
4. Wheel spindle speed.—In some modern machines the
wheel spindle always revolves at the same speed for any one
standard size of wheel. The rim speed is usually set at 6,000
ft. per minute for a new wheel for external work. The
wheel can be used till it is only two-thirds of its original
diameter, giving 4,000 ft. per minute. The accepted average
of 5,000 ft. is thus obtained, and any small corrections are
made in the speed of revolution of the work, which must, in
any case, be altered for almost every new piece of work.
5. Grinding in the lathe.—The slides and spindle
bearings of a grinding machine are specially protected from
the grit and abrasive dust produced by the wearing down of
190 Sec. 47.—Grinding Machinery
Plate 32.
Gff/no/NC Work.
the wheel. Since an ordinary lathe is not so protected, it

should he used sparingly for grinding work. In the absence
of a special machine, however, cylindrical wprk can be ground
in a lathe, if a grinding attachment, as shown on PI. 32, Fig. 3,
is placed in the toolpost, or the milling attachment, PI. 29,
Fig. 1, may be used.
The belt driving the wheel must be allowed to traverse
with the saddle. This can be arranged for by (i) driving
from a long drum, D on PI. 32, Fig. 4, on the countershaft,
or (ii) permitting the pulley on the countershaft to traverse,
taking its drive from a spline or keyway in the countershaft.
6. Revolution and travel of work.—No definite speeds
can be laid down for the revolution of the work, since the
best speed depends upon the size and material of the work and
the grade of the wheel.
Normal practice is from 20 to 140 ft. per minute surface
speed, a higher speed being used generally for large diameter
work than for small. The travel of the wheel or work longi¬
tudinally must be correlated to the revolutions of the work.
Normally, the travel per revolution of the work is from two-
thirds to the full width, W on PI. 32, Fig. 5, of the face of the
wheel. If the travel is less than half the width, the wheel
tends to wear convexly, since the edges have more work to do
than the centre. If it is more than the full width, part of
the work is not ground.
7. Internal grinding.—Holes may be ground internally
by means of an internal grinding spindle, PI. 32, Fig. 3, either
in a lathe or cylindrical grinding machine, if the work can be
carried upon the face-plate or chuck.
Work difficult to revolve upon a lathe spindle, such as a
block of cylinders, is best ground on a special cylinder grinding
machine, the principle of which is shown on PI. 32, Fig. 6.
The grinding wheel quill, G, is driven independently by a
belt, B, kept taut by jockey pulleys and weights. G runs on
a rigid spindle, O, whose eccentricity with regard to the main
spindle, S, is adjustable. The work remains at rest; the
eccentric movement of the grinding spindle, O, produces the
necessary travel of the wheel round the cylinder.
8. Surface grinding.—Plain surfaces may be ground
satisfactorily by substituting a grinding wheel for the cutting
tool in a planer or shaper, provided a sufficiently rapid cross
traverse can be obtained. Surface grinding machines are
of the same general form as planers or shapers, with special
dust protection for the sliding surfaces.
Normally, the work is made to traverse longitudinally a
little more than its length (to ensure that it is ground right up
to the end), with a speed of about 60 ft. per minute.
There are two methods of ensuring equal grinding aH over

the width of the work :—
i. The grinding wheel is made to traverse rapidly to and
fro across the work, so that its trace is a wave line
overrunning the work a little, PL 32, Fig. 7.
ii. The wheel is made to cut upon its flat side, and is wider
than the work, A on PL 32, Fig. 8. The wheel, W,
is cup-shaped, to allow it to be held on to the spindle
by a nut and washer inside the cup.
Method (ii) has the advantage that the surface speed of
the wheel docs not decrease as it wears down. It entails the
provision of more power, since a larger area of the wheel is
always in contact, but it enables softer wheels to be used and
greatly increases the rate of removal of metal.
9. Tool grinders.—Machines for grinding ordinary lathe
tools, twist drills, &c., are usually of the pillar form shown on
Pl. 32, Fig. 9.
A rest, R, is provided, which can be set to any angle, so
that every face of the tool can be ground as desired without
any guesswork. The side of the wheel should be used for
any work requiring great accuracy ; cup wheels are, therefore,
more suitable than discs. See also Sec. 45, para. 15.
10. Universal grinders.—Universal grinding machines
can be made to grind plain surfaces, slots, &c. Flat work is
bolted or clamped down to the table. Cylindrical work can
be done by fixing to the table a headstock and a tailstock
carrying centres. Irregular work, such as grinding the teeth
of cast gears, sharpening milling cutters, taper reamers, taps,
&c., can be done by adding a dividing plate to the headstock.
Wheels of the necessary form must be obtained, and kept
to the correct shape by occasional trueing. Pl. 32, Fig. 10,
shows a method of sharpening a tap. PL 32, Fig. 11, shows a
milling cutter being relieved, or backed-off, and Pl. 32, Fig. 12,
shows one being ground upon the cutting face. The necessary
rests are not shown in these figures.
11. Selection of wheels.—In modem practice, emery
is seldom used in wheels. Purer forms of abrasive crystals,
known as carborundum, corundum, alundum, &c., are
employed.
• Wheels are classified according to—
i. Grade, which is a measure of the hardness of the
matrix.
ii. Grain, or grit, which refers to the size of the crystals
in the wheel.
12. Grade.—Grade affects the rate at which metal may
be removed, and should be carefully selected to suit the work.
Hard wheels hold the crystals more firmly and, therefore,

longer. If they are too hard, the crystals are still held after
{a) they have become blunt or glazed when taking a light cut,
(b) the spaces between them have filled with metal when
taking a heavy cut. In either case the wheel ceases to cut.
Soft wheels allow the crystals to break out easily. They
do not glaze or fill, but wear away rapidly. Small diameter
work or narrow wheels necessitate a fairly hard wheel, while
for large diameter work, the larger area of matrix in contact
enables a softer and, therefore, freer cutting matrix to be used.
When the material of the work is hard, the wheel glazes
easily, and, therefore, a soft wheel should be used, in spite of
the fact that it will necessarily wear rapidly.
For grinding soft material, a harder wheel can be used,
because the crystals will not blunt so quickly and, therefore,
need not break out so soon ; hence the wheel will last longer.
Generally, the softest wheel that will stand the stress without
unduly rapid wear or without breaking up gives the freest
cutting and the best result.
Fast revolution or traverse of the work causes greater
stress upon the wheel, and so increases its rate of wear. Slow
revolution of the work, therefore, makes possible the use of the
softer grades of wheel.
Makers of grinding wheels manufacture a very large range
of wheels and should be consulted—full details of work and
machine being given—to enable the most efficient selection
to be made.
The following general statements may be taken as a
guide :—
Hard wheels are used on soft materials and soft wheels
on hard materials.
Wheels to hold sharp edges and corners should be fine and
hard.
The larger the area of contact, the softer and coarser the
wheel.
Rapidity of cutting is increased by using a softer or coarser
wheel.
Finish is improved by using a finer and softer wheel at a
higher speed and lower traverse and with ample lubricant.
Increasing the wheel speed gives the effect of a harder
wheel, and decreasing it gives the effect of a softer wheel.
The operator must be able to recognize the symptoms at
once and apply the correct remedy to obtain the best result
upon each piece of work, as a small difference in hardness may
necessitate a change in work speed.
13. Grain.—The size of grain affects the rate of cutting.
Naturally, large grain makes a heavier cut possible without
filling up the spaces between the crystal points with metal.
Small grain necessitates very fine feed, and, therefore, little

metal is removed, but it leaves a fine polish if the other details
are correct.
Grain is measured by the mesh of a sieve through which
the abrasive will pass, 100 being a fine grain and 10 a coarse.
A moderately coarse grain, such as 36, will give free cutting
and a good enough surface for all ordinary7 purposes, such as
spindles and bearings. For rougher work, such as sharpening
chisels and large roughing tools, 16 will grind faster than 36,
with less likelihood of spoiling the temper of the steel.
14. Width.—The widest wheel should be used that can
usefully be applied to the work in the machine available.
Wide wheels take more power to drive, but produce more
work in proportion and better surface, because they make it
possible to set a larger travel and, therefore, more even
distribution of the heat evolved.
15. Mounting wheels.—To ensure safety and reasonably
long life for an abrasive wheel, it must be mounted upon the
spindle with great care. The wheel must be held entirely
by two side plates, which should be at least half the diameter
of the wheel, and they should grip the wheel near their outer
rims only, as shown on PI. 32, Fig. 6, and fit the spindle firmly.
The wheel itself should not touch the spindle, as if a wheel
is forced on there is a danger of starting cracks. It is con¬
sidered good practice to use a wheel with a larger hole than
the shaft, filled with lead, and accurately bored out to fit the
shaft. Between each side plate and the wheel should be
placed a sheet of rubber or several thicknesses of soft blotting
paper. Thus no metal touches the abrasive wheel, it is
reasonably free to expand in every direction, and all pressure
is well distributed by soft materials. The plates are normally
held together by a shoulder and nut, with spacing collars if
necessary. The nut must not be tightened more than is
needed to hold the wheel reasonably secure.
Balancing is best achieved by drilling shallow recesses in
the wheel near its centre, filling them with a little more lead
than is necessary, and cutting out the lead afterwards to the
correct weight, as found necessary. A little attention to the
balance may be necessary after each dressing or trueing.
A wheel which is in the least degree eccentric on its spindle
will naturally grind only upon part of its circumference, and
hence produce chattering. If it is quite true but out of balance
it will cause its spindle to spring, and this will also produce
chatter. A small amount of chatter spoils the surface of the
work; a large amount may break the wheel. It is important,
therefore, that wheels shall be true, both on the edge that is
to do the work and also in thickness, which affects the balance.
16. Dressing wheels.—A wheel is dressed with a hard
steel wheel or boss dresser, which is pressed against the wheel
while the latter is revolved at about half normal speed.
The dresser crushes the matrix, and so the wheel can be formed
approximately as desired, and a sharp crystalline surface is left.
17. Trueing wheels.—A wheel is trued with a blunt
diamond point in a suitable steel holder, taking a very light
cut at normal speed. A fixed rest must be used for trueing
formed wheels. Castings can be fettled and rough tools can
be ground on a merely dressed wheel. Accurate work
requires a diamond-trued wheel, properly balanced and running
in closely fitted bearings.
18. Lubricant.—It is not only necessary when grinding
accurate work to keep the metal below the temperature that
would spoil its temper, but, moreover, the temperature of the
whole work must be kept uniform during any one pass of the
wheel, in order to prevent distortion, due to local heating and
expansion. The temperature of the lubricant is unimportant,
provided there is a copious and absolutely continuous supply.
A reciprocating pump is not suitable, because the liquid
arrives in gushes. A centrifugal pump, giving an absolutely
continuous stream, is essential. A good lubricant is a solution
of common soda in water (1| lb. to the gallon). If the water
is hard, 2 per cent, of soluble oil should be added. This
solution will prevent rusting of both the work and the machine.
After use, the lubricant contains grit and metal grindings,
and it should be allowed to drop these in a large settling tank
before it is pumped round again. The use of clean oil enables
a wheel to cut more freely and to produce a smoother surface.
19. Guards.—Grinding wheels should never be used
without effective guards. The best type is one which com¬
pletely encloses the wheel, except for the small part of its
circumference which must necessarily be left exposed to enable
it to reach the work, as shown on PI. 32, Fig. 9.
A wheel may burst at any time, and the fragments will
then fly with great force. The guard must be strong enough
to stand the shock of a wheel breaking up in it. Good guards
also diminish the danger of affecting the lungs of operators
by keeping in the abrasive dust, which lubricant does not
entirely do. An operator should wear a mask or respirator if
employed continuously on grinding work and should always
wear goggles. Guards should be made of steel or wrought
iron, not cast iron.
20. Belt drive.—It is essential that grinding wheel
spindles shall be driven with the least possible amount of
vibration or jolting, since either reduces the quality of the
work and increases the danger of the wheel breaking up.
196 Sec. 48.--Manufacturing Machinery
It is also essential that the speed of the wheel shall be reason¬

ably constant, i.e. that belt slip shall not be excessive or
irregular.
Leather belts are normally used, driving on to small
pulleys on the spindles. These belts must be kept sufficiently
tight, either by arranging good drives as nearly horizontal
as possible or by fitting well-arranged jockey pulleys of large
diameter, kept up to their work by springs or weights. The
belts must be light, very flexible, endless, and of uniform
weight throughout. Long diagonal glued j oints must be made,
and no other method of joining leather belts must be permitted.
Light canvas belts must be made up endless, by overlapping
the canvas throughout the length of the belt, as this gives
even weight throughout.
21. Electric drive.—Grinding wheel spindles are often
driven by means of small electric motors, the armatures of
which are built up on the spindle. Such a machine may
give excellent results, provided that:—
i. The armature is truly balanced.
ii. The bearings are massive, true, and properly adjusted
to give easy running without perceptible play.
iii. The bearings and the whole motor are adequately
protected from abrasive dust and metal grindings.
Otherwise, the bearings would wear excessively, and
the poles of the motor would clog with the steel dust
which would be drawn into them.
48. Manufacturing machinery

1. Scope.—Semi-automatic and automatic machines are
devised to enable :—
1. Unskilled labour to turn out accurate work in repeat
orders, when once the machine has been set up for
the particular piece by a skilled man.
ii. A skilled man to turn out more work by attending
several machines, any one of which requires attention
at regular intervals only.
2. Semi-automatic devices.—The elementary principle
is seen in the lathe shown on PI. 27, Fig. 6. The stop, T, can
be placed upon the bar, U, so that when the boring operation
is completed the finger, V, on the saddle will engage T and
push over the lever, W, and stop the traverse. The lathe
will then run idle, and no damage will be done if the operator
is unskilled, or if he is attending another machine when the cut
finishes.
3. Capstan lathes.—PI. 23, Fig. 1, shows a capstan lathe
as an example to illustrate para. 1 (i). This lathe is of a
Sec. 48.—Manufacturing Machinery 197
semi-automatic type. It requires a skilled man to set the

tools for any particular piece of work, after which a man with
very little skill can turn out any number of articles of that
particular kind.
The capstan, C, can carry six automatic tools, and there
are two cross slides. The knob, shown on PI. 23, Fig. 3, is
typical of the work that can be done by semi-automatic and
automatic machines. Referring to PI. 23, Fig. 2, the
operations are:—
i. The automatic chuck, K, is opened by pulling the
lever, L. The bar of the stock, B, is run forward
against the stop, S, which controls the length
protruding from the chuck, and the chuck is closed
again. The capstan is run back by means of the
handwheel, H, and automatically turns through 60°,
presenting the next tool to the work.
ii. The drill, D, is brought up to the work by turning H,
and drills out the hole. It cannot be driveu in too
far, because the stop. A, comes up against J,
when the operation is complete.
iii. The saddle carrying C is run back again, turns, and
presents the next tool, a box-tool, T, which is also
provided with a stop like A. T then turns down
the end of the bar to the correct length and diameter
for the screw, leaving the faces, E and F, completed.
iv. The capstan is withdrawn, and the next advance brings
up the steady bearing, V, which engages the part
turned down in (iii).
v. The slide holding the forming tool, W, is then brought
up to the work to turn the curved portion by means
of the lever, M. This slide has also stops which
prevent the work being turned too small. The
work has now the appearance shown on PI. 23,
Fig. 3, which also shows the tool and steady.
vi. The capstan next presents the automatic die-box, X,
which cuts the threads on the screwed portion,
flies open when it comes up against the shoulder, F,
and permits withdrawal without stopping the
spindle.
vii. The other slide, carrying the parting tool, Y, is then
brought up by pulling the lever, Z, and cuts off
the completed work.
The box-tool, T, is shown enlarged, inset on
PI. 23, Fig. 2. The tool has one edge to face, E.
F is faced by the same edge that pares off the bulk
of the metal. Steady rollers run on the completed
work, and so enable a very heavy cut to be taken.
198 Sec. 49.—Testing Machine Tools
4. Automatic machines.—The action of a fully auto¬

matic machine is similar to that of a capstan lathe, except
that instead of a man advancing the capstan each time by
turning a hand-wheel, cams fixed to a slowly-revolving drum
engage a projection on the saddle carrying the capstan, and
make it advance and withdraw precisely as required—quickly
when doing no work, and at a suitable feed speed when
cutting. An automatic device is also fitted to change the
spindle speeds to suit different operations, such as drilling and
former turning. The chuck is also opened automatically
after each piece has been cut off, the bar running forward,
pulled by a weight, until stopped by S on PI. 23, Fig. 2. Time
may be saved by combining operations, as, for instance, in
the case explained above, the drill, D, might be mounted in
the same face of the capstan as the box turning tool, T, and
so operate simultaneously ; also the die-box, X, can be
arranged to run forward during the early part of the forming
operation of W, and before the cut is very broad.
Similarly, if the hole were to be tapped, the tap, carried
on the empty face of the capstan (PI. 23, Fig. 2), could be run
in during the forming, the tap revolving the same way as the
work, but at half-speed, since taps must cut slowly ; then the
tap could be withdrawn without affecting the work, by
speeding up the tap to twice the work speed.
Very complicated gearing would be required in this case,
but could be effected easily by means of shifting belts in a
machine specially designed for automatic tapping.
49. Testing machine tools

1. Testing lathes.—Machine tools become inaccurate in
the course of time, owing to wear and the occasional heavy
stresses due to accidents, such as tools cutting in and breaking.
The following tests, applicable to a lathe, can also be applied
with slight adaptation to any other machine tool.
i. Testing head centre.—Test made with a centre tester,
PI. 24, Fig. 15.
(a) If the centre is not true, grind accurate and test again.
(b) When true, remove the centre, turn it through 180°,
replace, and test again. Any inaccuracy now shows
that the hole in the spindle nose is inaccurate.
(c) Clean out the hole carefully, and repeat tests (a) and
(6). The inaccuracy may be due to dirt alone.
(d) If still inaccurate, the indication is that the spindle is
warped, and the taper hole needs grinding with an
internal grinding attachment, after the bearings
have been adjusted.
Sec. 49.—Testing Machine Tools 199
ii. Testing tail centre.—Place in the tailstpck a centre

which has been ground true in an accurate lathe, and turn up
between centres a cylindrical bar of steel, taking care that the
tool is precisely at the height of the centres. Measure the
diameter of the turned bar at the ends with a micrometer
calliper. Any difference in diameter indicates that the tail
centre is not truly opposite the headstock. No attempt should
be made to remedy this until the lathe bed has been trued.
iii. Testing lathe bed.—
(a) For lateral accuracy.—Turn up between centres a
cylinder of steel as long as can conveniently be
held, and large enough in diameter to be stiff
against whip, e.g. of a diameter about equal to the
height of centres. Measure carefully the diameter
every few' inches. Any irregularity in the
diameter indicates that the vertical sides of the
shears, C on PI. 25, Fig. 3, are worn hollow in
places. A regular increase or decrease in diameter
merely indicates inaccuracy of the tail centre
setting.
(b) For vertical accuracy.—Take a light cut with a tool
specially made to cut at either top or bottom of
the work, instead of at the side as usual, PI. 23,
Fig. 4. Measure as in {a). Any irregularity
indicates wear of the top surface. A, of the shears,
PI. 25, Fig. 3. A regular taper indicates that the
tail centre is high or low.
iv. Testing the leadscrew.—The threads can only be tested
for accuracy in a special thread-testing machine. Being used
for screw-cutting only leadscrews retain their accuracy for
long periods, but it is necessary to ensure that the faces of
the thrust collars are in good condition.
v. Testing the shears on the saddle.—Face a disc of steel
firmly held in a good chuck or on a face-plate. Inaccuracy
in two forms should be looked for:—
(a) The disc may be found to be hollow or humped in the
centre, indicating that the shears are not at right
angles to the spindle. The error may be in the shears
or in the spindle, or partly in both.
(b) The disc may have circular high bands, due to wear
of the shears on the saddle and of the gibs on the
cross slide. The gibs get slack and require renewing
periodically.
vi. Testing alignment of headstock with bed.—Place a stiff
bar of steel in a chuck and turn it down, using the back centre
200 Sec. 49.—Testing Machine Tools
to support it, till true all over. Slack back the tail centre
and take a light cut all along. Any considerable taper
indicates inaccurate lateral alignment. A very slight increase
in diameter towards the tailstock end may be caused by whip
in the work. Vertical alignment can be similarly tested with
a tool as shown on PI. 23, Fig. 4.
vii. Testing alignment of tailstock with bed.—Draw the quill
of the tailstock well back into the body, and turn up a test
piece of work between centres, measuring it carefully.
Unclamp the tailstock from the bed shears and force it away
from the work bjr screwing forward the quill. Take another
light cut in this position. Any considerable taper, or change
of taper, indicates that the quill does not run out parallel
with the bed.
2. The operations described in para. 1 (ii), (iii), (v), (vi)
and (vii) correctly indicate the principles involved, but they
are somewhat old-fashioned and are all much more easily and
accurately carried out by means of a standard mandrel (PI. 27,
Fig. 3) and a dial test indicator (PI. 22).
3. Trueing up a lathe.—The first surfaces to be trued
should be those of the bed shears, since these form the main
framework of the lathe, and no subsidiary surfaces, such as
saddle or slide-rest vees, can be satisfactorily tested until the
bed is true.
i. Top surfaces.—A long, wide straight-edge, or narrow,
long face-plate, should be lightly smeared with red lead or
Venetian red, applied to the top surfaces after careful cleaning
and moved about a little after application. The top surfaces,
all treated as one face, should be scraped to fit well to the
face-plate everywhere.
In the removing of metal it must be borne in mind that
the final surface must be parallel with the axis of the head-
stock spindle, and that the bed is more likely to be worn down
near the centre and at the headstock end than under the
tailstock ; see para. 1 (vi).
ii. Side surfaces.—The surface which normally controls
the accuracy of the cut is that shown at D on PI. 25, Fig. 3.
This surface should be scraped up to fit a straight-edge,
observing the same precautions as in (i), viz., that it is made
parallel to the axis of the spindle if the headstock is fixed.
iii. Secondary surfaces.—The under side and the outer
edge, C on PI. 25, Fig. 3, of the bed are secondary to the top
and inner edge, D, respectively. They must first be brought
parallel to their primaries, A and D, by callipering the
thickness of metal between them, and scraping down in
certain chosen spots. The surface can then be fitted to a
straight-edge.
Sec. 50.—Power to Drive Machinery 201
The best test of the accuracy of this work is to assemble the

saddle, tighten its gibs slightly, and move it by hand along the
bed. Any local binding or looseness shows inaccuracy.
iv. Saddle and slide-rest vees.—
(a) The primary vees, which take the pressure and guide
the tool, should be trued first, beginning with
those under the saddle and working upwards in
rotation to the top slide.
(b) The vees on the top of the saddle must be truly at
right angles to the side of the bed.
(e) Both the saddle and slide-rest vees must be straight,
and brought true to a surface plate.
(d) The secondary vees, which the gibs engage, must
then be brought truly parallel to the primaries,
and surfaced.
(e) Each adjusting gib should be trued to a surface plate.
v. The spindle should be ground or lapped true, and its
bearings fitted as described in Sec. 37, para. 9.
50. Power to drhe machinery

1. The power required to drive any machine can be
obtained from its maker, or failing that, an examination of
the driving arrangements will usually afford sufficient guide,
e.g. if a machine is belt-driven, it can usually be assumed that
a single leather belt is intended to be used, and the power
which can be transmitted by this can readily be ascertained
(see Sec. 151). A good rough rule is 1 H.P. per in. width of
belt, for single leather belts up to 3 in. wide.
The power required for a given machine will depend on
whether carbon steel or high-speed steel tools are to be used,
and in the latter case also on whether the design of the machine
will permit the tools to be used at their maximum cuts
and speeds. Old-fashioned machines designed for carbon steel
tools (of which many may be met in the service) will not
stand the strain of these heavy cuts, but usually have sufficient
margin of strength to permit the power to be doubled if
high-speed tools are used; a modem machine of the same
size, unless lightly built either for cheapness or for portability,
will usually allow the maximum cut to be taken, but there is
no point in providing the necessary power (which may be
6 to 8 times .that required for carbon steel) if high-speed tools
are not available.
Small machines frequently do not allow for the maximum
cuts with high-speed tools, the reason being that the work
dealt with in these machines is usually too light to stand the
strain.
202 Sec. 50— Power to Drive Machinery
Tabic L gives suitable powers for various machines, the

minima being for old-fashioned light machines using carbon
steel tools, and the maxima for modem heavy duty machines
with high-speed tools.
Taijlk L.—Power required to drive machine tools

Rathe, (5-in. centre .. 1- 5
Rathe, 12-m. ccntic.. 2-12
Planer, 2 feet >; 2 feet (one tool box) 3- 5
Planer, 5 feet x 5 feet (two tool boxes) 15-2(1
Shaper or skitter, 12-in. stroke 3- 5
Sensitive drill, taking 1-m. diametci 1- 2
Radial drill, taking 2-in. diameter 4 «
-
Cylindrical grinding machine, 8-in. swing 2- 5

„ ,, ,, 15-iu. swing 5-15
Stirlate grinding machine, 12-in. wheel .. 15
From this table and from other considerations, the total

maximum horse-power lor all the metal-working machines
in a shop can be estimated.
2. Diversity factor. -Unless there aie special reasons to
the contrary, it is sale to assume a di\crsity factor of three,
that is, to assume that one-third of the machines will be
working at full power at any one period, and to instal horse¬
power sufficient to meet tiiis assumed demand. In the case
of a sawmill the conditions are rather diherent, and are dealt
with in Chap. X.
3. Having estimated the power required, a suitable prime
mover must be chosen (if no electric power supply is available).
See Part II, Chap. XXXI, for considerations affecting the
choice.
It should bo remembered that steam engines can work up
to their full rated power without undue wear, but that oil, gas,
and. petrol engines should not be continuously pressed to
their full rated power, if long life and freedom from break¬
down is aimed at.
Suppose X horse-power is required to drive a shop. If
steam is used, instal an engine rated at X horse-power, plus
any allowance for extensions. If an oil or gas engine is used,
instal an engine rated at H.P. If a petrol engine, instal

o(J
an engine rated at 2X H.P.
hor the application of electrical power, reference must be
made to the Textbook of Fleetrical Engineering.
CHAPTER X
WOOD-CUTTING MACHINERY
51. Introduction
1. The circular saw is required in engineer workshops
both in peace-time and war; its various processes are, therefore,
described at length. The process requiring most attention
is the sharpening and setting of the saw. The band saw will
be little used for large work, owing to difficulties of installation
and the skill required for manipulation and sharpening. Ex¬
perience has shown that the large band saw is not suited to
military requirements, although in civil establishments its two
advantages, less power to drive and less sawdust formed, are
now recognized. Small band saws, not designed for the
conversion of timber but for sawing small pieces into intricate
shapes, arc of great use in connection with joinery manufacture
and patternmakers’ work.
2. The frame saw, used for conversion of logs, &c., may,
like the large band saw, be met with by the military engineer ;
he should know its principles of working, but it will not
normally be a machine with which he works.
The various joiners’ machines, c.g. planers and thicknessing,
morticing, tenoning, and moulding machines, will be met with
in peace-time.
3. Woodworking machinery, although apparently
simple to work, really requires considerable knowledge of
detail and skill to work successfully. Great care on the part
of the operator is. also required, or serious accidents will
occur. It is for this reason that only sawyers and wood
machinists, who realize the danger, should normally be
permitted to manipulate woodworking machinery.
52. F onus of saw teeth and their sharpening

1. The teeth of all saws used for cutting timber, whether
hand, circular, band, or frame, are made and sharpened in
accordance with the following principles :—
i. For ripping timber, or sawing in the direction of the
grain, the tips of the teeth are sharpened to a chisel
point, PI. 33, Fig. 1 ; the tips do the cutting,
removing small chips of wood.
203
204 Sec. 52.—Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening
ii. For cross-cutting timber or sawing across the grain, the

teeth are sharpened to a sharp point and have a
sharp edge, l5]. 33, Fig. 2 ; the point and edge cut
through the fibres of the wood, removing sawdust
only.
A cross-cut saw is unsuitable for ripping.
A rip saw is frequently used for cross-cutting, but
it is not so suitable for this purpose as a cross-cut
saw.
iii. Jf the thickness of the saw is the same at the teeth
edge as the remainder, the latter will bind in the
cut that has been made by the teeth. To avoid this,
the width of the cutting edge of the blade is made
greater than that of the remainder ; the most usual
method is to bend alternate teeth out on opposite
sides, PI. 33, Fig. 1. This is known as giving .scl
to the saw.
iv. II the space between two adjoining saw teeth is too
small, sawdust will tend to jam in that space and
impede the cutting action. Hence the teeth are
made to project some considerable distance from the
body of the blade, in order to increase the area
between the front of one tooth and the back of
another.
2. The procedure for sharpening hand saws for general use
is given in para. 4 ; such saws are required both for ripping
and for cross-cutting. If much ripping is to be done by hand,
the teeth of the hand rip saw should be filed straight across,
without bevel, in the manner described in Sec. 53 for circular
rip saws.
3. The saw, cross-cut, 3 feet and the saw, cross-cut, 5 feet,
both service articles, have what is known as the M tooth,
PI. 33, Fig. 3, and cut in both directions of the stroke.
The cutting edge is curved; care is necessary to ensure
that all teeth are exactly the same length, as short teeth will
not do their share of the cutting. The correct method of
sharpening is shown on PI. 33, Fig. 4, and tracings of the
teeth, when new, are shown on PI. 33, Fig. 3 and PI. 35,
Figs. 4 and 5. The edges of the teeth are bevelled off at 45°
to obtain a sharp point with which to cut through the
fibres of the wood. If the teeth are filed so that they become
longer than shown on PI. 33, Fig. 4, they will be unduly
weak, especially when cutting hard wood. As the poinis
arc continually sharpened, the teeth will become shorter,
less acute, and less capable of taking a sharp point. Moreover,
as the gullets become shallower, there will be a greater
tendency for sawdust to choke the saw and impede the
Sec. 52.—Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening 205
Plate 33.
[Figs. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, and 17 reproduced from "Sates; their Care and
Treatment" by permission oj Messrs. William Rider & Son, Ltd., London, E.C.4.
Fig. 16 reproduced by permission of Messrs. A. Ransome & Co., Ltd., 63, Queen Victoria
Street, London, E.C.4.]
206 Sec. 52.—Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening
cutting action ; this will be more marked when cutting soft

and wet woods than when cutting hard and dry woods.
The teeth should be kept as far as possible to the original
trace given on PI. 35, Figs. 4 and 5, except that with very wet
soft woods the depth and acuteness of the teeth may be
increased, and with hard woods decreased. The procedure
to adopt with old and worn cross-cut saws is as follows :—
i. Range down the tips of the teeth with a file until they
are all the same length. The saw' should be gripped
in some form of improvised vice, as shown on PI. 33,
big. 5.
ii. File down the centre tooth of the M with the file held
straight across, until the correct depth, PI. 33, Fig. 4,
is obtained. Then file the side teeth and gullets.
iii. File two 45° bevels on each tooth, the bevels on alter¬
nate teeth being on different sides, PL 33, Fig. 4.
iv. Set alternate teeth in opposite directions ; this is done
by the saw set, PL 33, Fig. 6. The amount of set
varies according to the hardness of the wood to be
cut. A simple gauge, PL 33, Fig. 7, although not
essential, is useful in obtaining uniformity.
Cross-cut saws with rahcr teeth arc sometimes met with,
PL 33, Fig. 8. The raker teeth are made shorter than the
cutting teeth by an amount not exceeding in. and their
sole function is to clear away the sawdust, not to cut. Such
teeth are usually swage set, PL 34, Fig. 1. Raker teeth are
useful for wet and soft woods. It will be found that service
cross-cut saws, when first used, have the centre tooth of the
M shorter than the others, and are given ordinary side or
spring set.
4. Hand-saw sharpening.—The three most common

cases are the following, and they will be treated separately :—
i. Wien the teeth simply require pointing to increase the
cutting power.
ii. When the teeth, owing to frequent pointing, become
irregular (as shown at a on Pl. 35, Fig. 1) and
require a more extensive adjustment.
iii. When the teeth are so very irregular as to require
removal and replacement by new ones.
i. Secure the saw in a vice between two strips of wood at
a suitable height, and hold the file in such a manner that the
plane of the cut made by the file exactly corresponds with the
existing surfaces; first cut the teeth on one side and then
reverse the saw and cut those on the other side.
Sec. 52.—Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening 207
ii. Fix the saw as in (i). Hold the file at right angles to
the blade in both directions, as shown at a and a on PI. 35,
Fig. 2, and cut down between each two teeth till all are
exactly the same size, irrespective of their relative heights,
as shown at b on PI. 35, Fig. 1. This method is much better
than taking alternate teeth, as in (i). The cutting face of the
teeth must be filed so as to fall backward about 12°, thus
making an angle of 78°, as shown at c on PI. 35, Fig. 1 ; this
is done by setting the bevel at tlic proper angle and testing
the filing from time to time. This angle gives the best results
for general work.
Next reduce the teeth to a common level, which is done by
lightly rubbing off the higher points with a file run down the
whole length of the saw and carefully re-sharpening them,
removing a portion from each side of the tooth, as shown by
the dotted lines at b on PI. 35, Fig. 3. This keeps the teeth
the proper size, or as they were when first produced. Several
such runnings down will make a good, even, level surface,
which should be either straight or slightly convex, as the
tendency is for the saw to wear hollow.
To set the saw.—This is done by bending the teeth alter¬
nately outward with the aid of a saw set, or, if it is done
judiciously, with a punch made by breaking olf the point of a
worn-out file, tempering it and grinding it ilat. In the latter
case, the saw should be held on the end grain of a piece of
hard wood, and the punch struck with a light hammer. For a
dovetail saw this method is better than using a set, as the
teeth are so small that unless the set exactly fits the blade,
the latter is likely to be bent and crippled, instead of the
tooth only being bent. This will occur with all saws if the
set is too low down on the teeth.
If the timber to be cut is dry, very little set is necessary,
as it increases the labour of cutting and wastes the material;
it is, however, important that all the teeth should have the
same amount of set, and it must be remembered that inferior
sharpening often leads to the mistaken idea that a saw requires
more set.
The teeth should now be adjusted to the proper angle for
cutting, and an angle must be given which will answer for all
general purposes, but which can be altered to meet special
cases.
Start with the handle of the saw on the right hand, and,
with the handle of the file 30° below the horizontal (see b on
PI. 35, Fig. 2), and with about the same inclination toward
the point of the saw (as shown at b), cut on the back of the
tooth which is set away from the operator and which is
nearest the handle. This cut should be as shown (correctly)
208 Sec. 52- Forms of Saw Teeth and their Sharpening
on PI. 35, Fig. 3, where 1 and 2 are correct and 3 and 4 are
faulty.
While this cut is being formed, a like cut is being produced
on the front of the tooth immediately behind this one, and
the two surfaces should be so cut that when one of them is
completely bevelled the other is in a like condition ; it is
necessary for the whole of the squareness to be removed to
ensure good results. The treatment of one of these hollows
between two teeth is the same for all the others. Alternate
hollows are dealt with on one side of the saw and then or the,
other.
If this operation is properly executed, the cross-section
will be as shown at b on PI. 35, Fig. 1. A needle laid in the
channel between the teeth should traverse the whole length
of the saw when the handle is raised.
iii. When the teeth of the saw are in a very bad condition,
it is quicker to remove them entirely and replace them with
new ones.
To do this, file off the old teeth so that the surface of the
blade is perfectly clean, and start the cutting from the handle
end.
A half-rip saw requires about 2 teeth to the inch.
A hand saw requires about 4 teeth to the inch.
A panel saw requires about 8 teeth to the inch.
A tenon saw requires about 10 teeth to the inch.
A dovetail saw requires about 16 teeth to the inch.
Thus the division of an inch by these numbers gives the
space each tooth should occupy.
Take the hand saw as an example. Cut the first hollow
\ in. wide, and the extremity nearest the point of the saw
will represent the point of the first tooth (see c on PI. 35,
Fig. 3). Now start another hollow a little distance from the
intended point, as shown, and gradually work back to the
handle end, thus forming the tooth immediately behind.
When this is done, the hollow can be made \ in. wide as
before, and the process is repeated until all the teeth are cut
in, when the second process can be carried out to complete the
operation.
It is better first to measure the teeth to ensure that they
are all the same size.
5. The pit saw is still a service article, and is shown on
PI. 33, Fig. 9. It is used for ripping only, and the form of its
teeth and their sharpening is similar to that of the circular
rip saw, described in detail in Sec. 53.
It may be useful in mountainous countries where the
transport of machine-driven saws is impossible. It may also
Sec. 53.—Circular Saws 209
be useful for breaking down large trunks of trees which are

beyond the capacity of machine-driven sawrs.
A log is sawn by being placed over a saw pit. Two men
are required, one standing on the log and the other in the saw
pit below. The stroke of the saw should be from 3 to 4 feet.
The cutting is done by the downward stroke, and the return
upward stroke is held clear of the cut to avoid blunting the
teeth.
53. Circular saws
1. Circular saws are secured to the revolving spindle of
the saw bench by means of a nut, A on PI. 33, Fig. 10, which
presses the saw against the collar, B. A steady-pin is provided
on B to prevent .the saw from revolving on the spindle. The
saw has a central hole for the spindle to pass through, and a
steady-pin hole. The spindle and steady-pin must be a good
fit in their respective holes in the saw. Hence, in ordering
saws for any particular bench, the following information
(which also includes points to be dealt with later) should
invariably be given :—
i. Whether the saw is for ripping or cross-cutting.
ii. Whether for hard or soft wood.
iii. Saw diameter.
iv. Spindle-holc diameter.
v. Steady-pin diameter.
vi. Distance between centres of spindle and steady-pin.
vii. Gauge of saw.
viii. Shape of teeth.
ix. Distance between points of teeth.
It is usually advisable to send paper templates of (iv), (v),
(vi), (viii) and (ix).
However well the spindle and steady-pin may fit their
holes, there will be some play when the saw is in position. To
ensure that a saw is cutting as quickly and smoothly as
possible, the point of each tooth must be equi-distant from the
centre of rotation ; hence, a circular saw must always be put
on to its spindle in the same way, which should be as follows :—
Revolve the spindle until the steady-pin is uppermost;
place the saw in position, and force it back against the direction
of rotation, so that the front of the steady-pin hole is bearing
hard against the steady-pin. Then, still holding the saw
back on the pin, screw up the collar nut.
2. The shapes of typical teeth for cross-cut and rip circular
saws are as shown on PI. 33, Figs. 11, 12, and 14 ; Fig. 12
represents a tracing from a 36-in. rip saw for soft wood.
It will be noted that the front edge of the cross-cut saw, if
8—(579)
210 Sec. 53.—Circular Saws
produced, is in front of the spindle hole, whilst in the case

of the rip saw the front edge of the tooth, if produced, is
behind the spindle hole. The following table shows suitable
gauges and number of teeth for saws of varying diameters
for general work in soft and medium woods; rough,
knotty, and hard woods require saws from one to two
gauges stouter.
Kip saws ('ross-cut saws
1 liainetur lYul.li Thickness Teeth Thickness *
In. No. S W.G. No. S. W.G.

12 44 17 72 10
10 44 17 78 10
IK 44 10 84 15
20 44 J5 00 14
24 41 14 00 13
20 44 14 90 13
2K 44 13 02 12
:«> 44 13 90 12
36 48 12 100 11
42 48 11 108 10
48 48 10 112 9
54 52 0 120 8
00 5f5 8 120 7
Generally speaking, the harder and less fibrous the wood

to be sawn, the farther should the teeth faces of cross-cut
saws slope back, and the more upright should those of rip
saws be.
The military engineer must usually be prepared to accept
the tooth form supplied by the manufacturer. On arrival
oi a new saw, a tracing of the teetli and a template should be
made, to serve as a record when re-gulleting is required.
Otherwise, teeth would tend to become uneven after repeated
sharpening. After long service, it will be necessary to modify
the size of the tooth as the saw diameter decreases ; this may
be done as shown on PI. 33, Fig. 13. A template of three
teeth on a pivoted arm will ensure that teeth are sharpened
and gulleted to a uniform and correct shape, PI. 33, Fig. 15.
New saws are received from makers unsharpened, but
with set given. The set will have to be verified after
sharpening.
3. Sharpening a rip saw by filing.—Assuming that
the saw is not so far worn that the gullets require attention.
First clean off any gummy deposit that may be on the teeth
or in the gullets with a clasp knife and paraffin. Place the saw
in position on the spindle, as described in para. 1, set the saw
in motion, and gently apply a piece of emery or grindstone
to the edge. The stone should be held up against the teeth,

care being taken to keep it square, so as to make the tops
of the teeth parallel ; at the same time it should be given
a sideway movement to prevent the saw cutting a notch in its
edge. The process should be continued until the tops of the
teeth are running perfectly concentric with the saw spindle ;
this can easily be ascertained by examining the points of the
teeth. The stoning-down process must be continued until
the mark made by it appears at the extreme point of every
tooth.
The saw is now ready for filing, and should be placed in a
cramp, PJ. 33, Fig. 16. PI. 33, Fig. 17, shows an improvised
wooden cramp which acts well in practice. The to]) of the saw
should be about 45 in. above floor-level, and the vice 12
inches wide. The files most commonly used lor sharpening
saw's are triangular, round, half-round, and mill saw files. All
files so used should have rounded edges, so as to avoid the risk
of making sharp corners or nicks in the gullets. Files, saw,
topping 10-in. with two round edges, are very suitable for
this work.
At this stage it must be remembered that a sharp chisel
point is required, the line of the point being at right angles
to the diameter of the saw. The teeth have already been
given set, hence the tips of the teeth can be filed with the file
held horizontally, which is an advantage. Should the teeth
be unevenly set at this stage, it is advisable to roughly set
them to the final position, so that the chisel points of each
tooth may all be absolutely square across when cutting.
In filing, first attend to the face of the tooth and file it
straight across, at right angles to the saw, until the edges
are sharp right angles. Work round every tooth in turn,
taking as little as possible off each and preserving the
shape of the gullet. The inclination of the teeth should not
be altered.
The tips of the teeth have now to be filed in such a way
that—
i. A sharp chisel point is produced.
ii. The points of all teeth arc exactly the same distance
from the centre of rotation of the saw.
iii. The shape of all teeth is uniform.
The stoning-down process has left a mark on each tooth,
and to comply with (i) and (ii) the top of the tooth is filed
from front to back so as to form a chisel point which is
perpendicular to the plane of the saw (not to the tips of the
teeth which are set over). Filing is continued until the mark
of the stoning-down on the front face of the tooth is just
eliminated. It is better to file the tops of all the teeth set
Plate 34.
Figs. 2 and 12 reproduced by permission of Messrs. C. D. Monmnger, Lid., 59, l'arrmgdon

Road, London, F.C.I.]
Plate 35.
towards the sharpener first, and then reverse the saw in the
vice and file the others.
Regarding (iii), the inclination of the back of the teeth
should be adjusted to a template. A clearance of 5° is generally
sufficient, PJ. 34, Fig. 19. If this is exceeded, the tooth is
apt to become weak or to have insufficient hook or forward
inclination ; it is on the hook that the speed of the cutting
depends. Saws thus filed can be re-sharpened with a few
light strokes of the file. This re-sharpening process can be
carried out three times before the saw requires stoning*
down.
It is the practice of some sawyers to put a bevel on the
face of rip-saw teeth [i.c. not to file them straight across), and
also to put a bevel on the top of the teeth (i.c. not to file
them at right angles to the blade when the teeth are set).
Whatever the merits of this practice, it should not be practised
in the service.
4. Setting.— The set of the teeth should now be verified.

The notch in the saw' set, PI. 33, Fig. 6, corresponding to the
thickness of the sawr plate, is fitted over the point of the tooth,
and held about in. from the top of the tooth ; with a
gentle pressure of the hand, each tooth is lxnt outwards in
the desired direction (alternate teeth being bent in the same
direction), and the actual amount the}' are bent must be
verified by a gauge, PI. 33, Fig. 7, so that absolute uniformity
is obtained. The edge of a properly set saw, in plan, is as
showm on PJ. 33, Fig. 1.
Spring setting.—No hard and fast rule can be laid down as
to the amount of set to be given in any particular case, as it
w'ill vary with the diameter and thickness of the saw and the
kind of wood being cut. As a guide, however, a 36-in. saw,
cutting soft timber, should be given a set of ~ in. on each side.
If the saw is then found to bind, more set must be given.
It is good practice to reduce the set to the least amount
consistent W'ith freedom of working, in order to avoid sawdust
losses. If too little is given, however, the saw will tend to
run very hot ; an}' projections in the saw will be burnt and
appear as blue eyes, and distortion of the saw will usually
follow, necessitating re-hammering.
There are many types of patent saw7 set on the market, but
the type shown on PI. 33, Fig. 6, is the most satisfactory.
Set gauges are usually made by the sawyer.
Swage setting, in which the teeth are not bent outwards,
but their tips are splayed, as shown on 1*1. 34, Fig. 1, is adopted
sometimes for forest work, and gives very quick cutting. Saws
so treated remove slightly more sawdust than when spring set.
Special appliances arc required for re-setting the teeth.
The inserted tooth saw, PI. 34, Fig. 2, which cannot be set
in any other manner, possesses the following advantages -
i. The diameter is constant for the whole of the life of the
saw.
ii. Re-gulleting is eliminated.
iii. A worn or broken tooth can be easily replaced.
iv. The separate points can be made harder than is possible
with teeth which form a part of the saw, and they,
therefore, require repointing less frequently.
v. The bod}' can be made of a less brittle material.
5. Gulleting a rip saw.-—Rip saws should be re-gulleted

when, owing to repeated sharpening, the gullets are not
sufficiently deep to carry away sawdust from the cut, thereby
impeding the cutting action of the saw. As a general rule,
the depth oi gullet should not be more than £ to jj in. less
than that of the original tooth, a template of which should
have been preserved. Saws are re-gulleted by one of tin*
following methods :■—
i. A fly press, in which case the teeth shape is stamped out.
ii. Filing.
iii. A gulleting machine, PI. 37, Fig. 1.
If templates are non-existent, the shape of the teeth should
be based on PI. 33, Figs. 12 and 14. The bottom of the gullet
should be well rounded.
PI. 34, Fig. 3, shows a common fault, the square gullet,
having a sharp angle at a. Not only does sawdust bank up
in the angle, but cracks are liable to start there.
When gulleting by hand it is inadvisable to gullet each
tooth in turn owing to the' risk of destroying the tension by
the heat generated.
Gulleting by machine is dealt with in para. 14.
6. Sharpening. a circular cross-cut saw.—The pro¬

cesses are :—
i. Stoning-down, as in the rip saw.
ii. Filing bevels on the front and back faces of each tooth,
so that a very sharp point is formed at the extreme
tooth tip for severing the fibres. Filing is continued
until the stoning-down mark is just eliminated. The
bevels are filed to an angle of 45° to the plane of the
saw.- A bevel is not carried down in the gullet,
but is tapered off to nothing, PI. 33, Fig. 2. A bevel
of 45° should never be exceeded, as the saw would
then tend to dig in. Teeth with a smaller bevel are
better for hard wood ; they cut slower but use less
power.
7. Setting cross-cut saw teeth.—The bevelled edges are

on the inside, alternate teeth being set in the same direction.
About one-half the set required for rip saws is given to cross¬
cut saws, i.e. to a 36-in. saw, about — in. on each side.
After repeated sharpenings the teeth will become stubby
and less acute, resulting in clogging and slower cutting. When
it is necessary to re-cut the teeth, they should be filed down to a
template, straight across and neglecting the bevel. When the
teeth have been filed to shape, the bevels are re-cut.
8. Circular saw benches can be divided into—
i. Those intended for both ripping and cross-cutting.
ii. Those intended for cross-cutting only.
Normally an engineer workshop will be provided with
the former. Cross-cut benches will only be installed in base
parks, &c., where the output is large.
PI. 34, Fig. 4, shows a type of plain bench suitable for rip
saws up to 48 in. in diameter. The fence. A, guides the
timber and holds it square to the blade, and it is adjustable
as regards distance from the saw and inclination to the bench.
A riving knife, B, to part the timber after cutting and to
prevent the saw' from binding, and an adjustable guard, C,
must be fitted in pursuance of regulations issued by the Home
Office Order, Section 79 of Factory and Workshops Act, 1901.
The portion I) is removable and discloses the collar nut at the
end of the spindle, which is carried in two bearings and a third
outboard bearing at the pulley side. Sometimes rollers are
placed, as at FF, to facilitate the passage of timber off and
on to the benches. Cross-cutting can be carried out on these
benches, but the length and other dimensions of the work is
limited, to prevent fouling in the driving pulley. Plain
benches of this type supply most of the needs of the military
sawmill.
For sawing up felled timber into scantlings, a form of rack
bench, with either hand feed or automatic feed, PI. 36, Fig. 1,
is used. Saws for such benches are made up to 72 inches in
diameter; no fences are provided. Makers will supply
portable benches of this t}'pe for pioneer work in forests, in
which case the heavy metal frame is replaced by timbers
obtained locally.
Circular benches with roller feed, PI. 36, Fig. 2, are useful
for sawing thin boards from deals, planks, or battens, and are
made up to 48 in. in diameter.
Self-acting chain (or rope) feed benches, PI. 36, F'ig. 3,
will cut small logs and deals at great speed, and can also be
used as a plain saw bench. They are made up to 60 in. in
diameter.
Machines for cross-cutting with circular saws are shown on
PI. 40, Fig. 3, in which the work is brought to the saw, and on
PI. 40, Fig. 2, which shows the pendulum saw, the method
of use of which is obvious. It is seldom advantageous to instal
such machines in engineer shops, other than those at base
parks.
9. Cutting speed.—The correct peripheral speed for

circular saws is 9,000 to 11,000 ft. per minute. Saw makers
manufacture their saws to run most efficiently at that speed.
If a rip saw in good condition be held vertical with the bottom
teeth resting on the floor, it will be seen that the rim is still
and the centre is loose ; the latter can be pushed and pulled in
and out, whilst the former remains stationary. When
running at normal speed, the saw becomes stiff throughout,
owing to the action of centrifugal force, and the cutting edge
is held stiff. If this looseness, or tension, were not given, the
edge would tend to wobble and cut unevenly. Tension is
obtained by hammering, and this process is described in
para. 10. If the saw is run under the speed for which it
has been tensioned, it may not stiffen and the centre will tend
to heat up ; if it is run above the designed speed, the edge
will wobble.
10. Tensioning a saw, referred to in para. 9, consists in

leaving the rim tight and gradually expanding the metal
from the rim to the centre by hammering the saw in a series
of concentric circles. Opportunities are not likely to occur
in the service for sawyers and wood machinists to practise
this highly-skilled trade.
Saws will be supplied by the makers already tensioned to
run at 10,000 ft. per minute. In course of time, saws will
lose tlieir correct tension, owing to friction, heat, and use,
and must be sent to the makers for re-hammering.
On active service, if many saws are in use, it will prove
economical to enlist specially a saw-hammerer to work at base
parks, for the re-tensioning of all saws which have become
either damaged or have lost their tension. As a guide to the
Workshop officer, saws should be re-hammered when (a) they
appear buckled or (b) they have projecting places. Thus,
when a saw has a permanent dish on one side, or when the
rim wobbles when cutting at normal speed (assuming the
bench to be running true), or when the centre is obviously
tight and the'rim wobbles when the saw is held vertically,
the bottom teeth resting on the ground, the saw requires
re-tensioning.
11. Power to drive.—The power required to drive a

circular saw of a given diameter will vary with the nature and
dampness of the wood, the rate of feed, and the condition of
218 Sec. 53. Circular Saws
the saw. Table M shows both the size of the cut that can
be made with a saw of a given size and the maximum power
required under normal commercial conditions. If the saw
has only rarely to take wood of the maximum size that
can be dealt with, the power can be considerably reduced by
merely lessening the rate of cutting on such occasions.
Table M.—1 *owcr required to drive circular saws
It ip saws
Depth of
Ihanictei Speed i land Itoller Pack ( ut
feed feed bench
* * *
Ins It.l’.M. 11.1’. 11 I'. 11 1’. Ins.

12 3,200 3 — - 5
IK 2,200 5 — —
24 1,650 10 15 - - 10
30 1,300 12 20 — 13
3(S 1,100 16 28 — 15
42 920 20 32 - 17
48 820 25 40 32 20
54 700 — -
* 40 23
80 600 — - -
■
48 27
72 500 —
—
55 30
Note.— For cross-cut saws take one-half the figures in columns

marked’*.
12. Packing a circular saw.— -The object of packing is

to keep the saw running steadily whilst cutting, and not, as
is sometimes supposed, to warm up the saw to compensate for
any inequalities of tension. Provided that the saw is properly
tensioned, there is no need to pack it so tightly that friction
causes the saw to heat up and expand. The saw should be
quite rigid between the packings, which should be so adjusted
as to prevent any side play of the saw, but, nevertheless, they
should not bind the saw.
Packings, a on PI. 34, Fig. 5, are placed on each side of the
cutting-half of the saw, extending from near the spindle to the
bottom gullets of the teeth. Strips of wood, b on PL 34, Fig. 6,
are screwed a short distance below the level of the table top
to support the packings and prevent them being carried away
as the saw revolves. Packings are made of a pliable substance,
such as gaskine, hemp, old rope, leather, cloth, or felt, the first
two being those most usually employed.
The best method of packing is to make two plaited ropes,
and to press or hammer them into shape so as to fit the spaces
between the saw and the bench ; the ends should be tied to
prevent fraying. I he shaped ropes are then placed one on
each side of the saw, and compressed by means of a pointed

stick until just holding the saw (which should then have no
perceptible side motion), care being taken to maintain a
uniform pressure throughout. The top of the packings must
be just below the bench surface.
It is good practice to lubricate the packings with a mixture
of thin oil and paraffin, but not with thick oil. The back of
the saw does not require to be packed, but it is usually
steadied with two pieces of leather, cc on PI. 34, Fig. 7, nailed
to the wooden pieces, bb, about half-way between the spindle
and the gullets. Wooden mouthpieces, dd (Fig. 5), should
be fitted in the gaps, so that they come up to the packings and
prevent them being drawn past the teeth of the saw.
Different-sized saws on the same bench will require different
mouthpieces.
In the case of badly-tensioned saws a skilled sawyer will
be able to adjust his packings so as to generate heat, and
make the saw run true. It is not, however, advisable to
permit this ; the remedy in such cases is to have the saw
re-hammered.
It will be obvious that if a thinner or thicker saw is
substituted for the one in use, the packings must be replaced
or readjusted. Some sawyers keep a pair of packings for
each saw they work with.
Saw benches are sometimes met with which are packed by
means of leather-tipped set screws ; this method is very
efficient so long as the saws are in really good condition.
13. Working circular saws.—The bearings will require
as much attention as those of all high-speed machinery.
They are best lubricated with oil, lubricating, compound (C. 160,
see Table ZA). Care is required to keep out grit and sawdust.
Loose bearings will cause uneven cutting. If bearings,
especially that next to the saw, become heated, the heat will
be transferred to the saw, and uneven cutting will result.
Wood, either in trunk or scantling, should always be examined
for nails before sawing is commenced.
For sawing straight stuff, first put on the saw, pack it, and
arrange the lcnce so as to come about £ in. past the teeth ;
if it is too far past, there is a tendency for the saw to bind and
run hot. Next adjust the fence until it is truly parallel with
the saw ; if it is found difficult to keep the timber up to the
fence whilst sawing, adjust the front of the fence 1/16 in.
nearer the saw than the back. As timber is pushed through
the saw by the sawyer, it should be held well up to the fence
by his mate, or puller-through. It should be given a steady
feed, i.e. as fast as the saw will take. A sharp look-out must
be kept for knots and the feed slowed down when cutting
through them. For the last 2 ft. or so of the cut, the mate
220 Sec. 53.--Circular Saws
walks to the other end of the bench and pulls on the wood,
whilst the sawyer holds the end to be cut against the fence,
finally pushing it into the saw by means of a push stick ;
working with short stuff, he should push it through from the
back with a stick, for safety. In sawing long stuff and thick
stuff, small steel wedges should be driven into the cut to open
it out and prevent the saw binding. The riving knife, when
fitted, will also serve this purpose.
When logs are cut before they have been properly seasoned,
the side towards the heart wood tends to bulge and that
towards the sap wood to hollow. The sawyer will, therefore,
meet with straight timber of section as shown at a on PI. 34,
Fig. 8, straight timber of skew section, timber bent in the
direction of its length, and twisted timber.
Pieces like a should be sawn by putting the concave side
against the fence, which for this purpose should preferably be
fitted with ribs, PI. 34, Fig. 4. Timber bent in the direction
of its length should be sawn with the convex side of the long
bend to the fence.
Stuff like c, which is convex both sides, can only be properly
sawn by making two points of contact on the ribs of the fence.
If it is required to saw small logs, a square batten should be
cut first for the log to rest on and so prevent rolling.
In sawing long thick stuff (c.g. a piece of 14-in. by I4-in.
pitch pine or a thick log) the sawyer and puller-through should
be assisted by helpers, who should support the projecting end
of the baulk. The helpers should be under the control of the
sawyer, and trained not to move the log sideways or to lift
it higher than the table. Trolleys, PI. 36, Fig. 3, are probably
better than men for this purpose, as moving and lifting are
avoided.
The following precautionary measures should be taken when
working circular saws. Use the right hand to take stuff from
the right side of the saw and the left hand for stuff on the other
side.
In cutting any wood that will take the hand near the saw,
use a short stick, with a slot at the end to prevent it from
slipping. If it is necessary to hold short stuff in the fence,
use a good block of wood instead of the palm of the left hand.
14. Saw-sharpening machines are made in two types,
viz., hand and automatic. The hand variety only, PI. 37,
Figs. 1 anti 2, will be considered.
It is claimed to be possible completely to gullet and sharpen
circular rip, circular cross-cut, and frame saws with the aid
of this machine. In the service, however, the gullets and
points of the teeth only should be dealt with by machine,
the tops of the teeth being finished off with a file. The hand
saw-sharpening machine, or, as it should more properly be
named, the hand gulleting machine, is, therefore, comple¬

mentary to the process described in Sec. 52.
The machine consists of a hinged and balanced arm. A,
carrying the grinding wheel, B. The arm is fitted to a circular
swivelling plate, C, an index and pointer being provided to
indicate the inclination of the wheel.
In the swivelling arrangement, the hinged arm. A, can
have its travel downwards regulated by stops. A spindle, D,
adjustable for height and fitted with a nut and washer, serves
to hold the saw rigid, and is mounted on a pivoting arm, E,
which is also provided with an index and pointer, and is
required for putting bevel on the sides of the teeth.
The grinding wheel should run at 5,000 ft. per minute
and be of the grade and grit recommended by the makers.
Care should be taken that it is not clamped too tightly on the
spindle, or else it may disintegrate when running at speed ;
leather washers should be inserted between the clamps and
the wheel to cushion it. The wheel should run absolutely
true, and it should revolve with its bottom edge away from
the operator, who should wear goggles ; it should have a
rounded edge, and be in. to £ in. thick, or one-third the
breadth of the gullets.
On the assumption that the saw has already been stoned-
down, as described in para. 3, it is then clamped in position, a
circular bush is inserted on the spindle of the vice, in order
correctly to centre the saw, and the hinged arm. A, of the
machine is so adjusted as to bring the face of the grinding
wheel parallel to the back of the gullet, which it will enter
when A is lowered.
The machine having been set in motion, the operator
takes hold of the saw with his left hand and the hinged arm, A,
with his right hand. He should then lower the wheel until
it is a short distance below the point of the tooth, when the
saw is turned round gently until it just touches the side of the
wheel. The wheel is first raised to sharpen the point and then
lowered to the gullet, and the saw is moved round with the
wheel grinding out the gullet to a template, until the back of the
tooth is reached. The arrn is then raised, and, as the saw
continues to revolve, the wheel is allowed lightly to touch the
back of the tooth, but not the top, which is finished by hand
filing, as described in Sec. 52. Each gullet is dealt with in
rotation, care being taken that only light cuts arc taken, or
the teeth will be heated up and lose their temper. For this
reason, if much metal is to be removed, a little from each gullet
should be removed at a time, and the saw rotated three or
four times.
Gulleting machines can be provided with a vice, PI. 37,
Fig. 2, for taking pit, cross-cut, hand, and mill frame saws.
222 Sec. 54.—Band Saws
and they are then suitable for topping, gulleting, and bevel-
hng.
It will be found that the abrasive wheels will glaze and
lose their cutting power alter a time ; their cutting surface
must then be trued up with a diamond dresser or the edge of a
file.
54. Band saws
1. Introductory.—Band sawing machines may be divided
into :—
i. Log band saws with a separate log carriage on wheels,
for ripping only.
ii. Band re-saws for cutting down slabs into thin boards,
with roller feed.
iii. Small machines, using narrow band saws, for cutting
intricate shapes, as in patternmaking and some
phases of joinery ; such saws will require a blade
with teeth designed to cut both with and across the
grain oi the wood.
Of these, (i) and (ii) may be found in permanent military
mills and base park workshops, but will not be otherwise used
by the military engineer.
A property qualified saw fitter is required to make these
machines run successfully ; he should be able to sharpen, set,
hammer, tension, and doctor the saws. Provided this is done,
the conversion of timber by large band saws requires no very
great degree of skill on the part of the operator.
All band saws have the advantage over circular saws in
that they remove less wood ; their relative thinness, however,
leads to more frequent damage to their comparatively weak
teeth. The principles for sharpening them are the same as
those for circular saws. PL 34, Fig. 11, shows typical teeth
formed for ripping soft wood.
An automatic sharpening machine is essential for all types
of band saws. The teeth are usually spring set, but swage
set teeth are effective. Care must be taken that the set on
each side is exactly the same, or digging in will result (and,
consequently, broken saws).
2. The chief causes of breakage and trouble with all

blades are as follows -
i. K mining a wide and thick saw too fast over pulleys
of small diameter. Correct speeds are given in
Tables N and O, page 225.
ii. Saw pulleys with excessive crown on their faces. This
makes tensioning difficult. Modern machines
generally have flat pulleys.
Sec. 54.—Band Saws 223
iii. Saw pulleys running out of truth or balance. Modern
machines are fitted with an adjustable top pulley.
iv. Saw guides incorrectly adjusted. They should steady
the saw, without binding on it and so causing it to
heat.
v. Allowing the saw to run back on the pulleys until its
back touches the guides. This will warm up the
back edge, causing case hardening, and probably
stretching and cracking on that edge. By adjusting
the top pulley, the saw can be made to rim well
clear of the guides.
vi. Forcing the feed after the saw has become dull.
vii. Working the saw stretched too tightly (particulars of
correct tension are given in Table P, page 226).
When the machines are not working, the bands
should not be tightly stretched.
viii. Incorrect tooth outlines, which are too weak to stand
up to the work or have sharp corners in the gullets
leading to cracks. Shapes lor soft wood are given
on PI. 34, Fig. 11.
ix. Case hardening the teeth, due to excessive heating up
whilst grinding.
x. Defective brazing. The joint must be exactly the
same thickness as the rest of the saw.
xi. Dust and chips getting between the saw pulley and the
saw. A brush should be fitted to prevent this.
xii. incorrect tension of the saw. The centre portion
should be loose (made so by judicious hammering or
rolling in a special machine) and longer than the
two edges, which will be tight when the saw is
strained over the pulleys ; when this is so, the saw
will cut true. Large band saws will require
frequent re-tensioning. The tensioning of the blade
must not be confused with the tension required
to stretch it tightly over the pulleys.
3. Small band saws may be defined as those working
with bands from \ in. to 2 in. wide.
PI. 38, Fig. 1, shows a modern machine. The saw pulleys
are faced with rubber tyres cemented to the rim. The top
pulley can be adjusted by a screw, so that the saw can be made
to run on any portion of the rim. The tension on the saw
is obtained by a spiral spring. The handle, A, varies the
distance between centres, and enables saws of slightly different
lengths to be used ; this allows for breakages. A roller guide,
B, adjustable for height, takes the thrust of the saw whilst
cutting. The saw is guided through a wooden mouthpiece, C,
but no packing is used. The table can be tilted for skew
cutting. The brush, D, clears away chips from the rim.
EE are guards. It is desirable also to fit wire guards ovef the

top and bottom pulleys. The speed at which the sa\y can
be run without undue breakage depends on the diameter of
the saw pulleys and the width of the saws being used. '
Table Q, page 226, gives a guide to the sizes of saw and
speed which can be used on any particular bench. If larger
saws than those specified in this table for each bench are used,
breakages will surely ensue.
The teeth of small blades will normally be 6i the shape
shown on PI. 34, Fig. 9. An angle of 60° is maintained
between the back of one tooth and the front of the next.
Teeth are sharpened and set in accordance with the principles
governing the sharpening of circular saws. Automatic filing
machines can be obtained. No bevel should be given to the
top or foot of the tooth. If a band has an odd number of
teeth, one is left without set. Spring set is used, and very
little is required.
The tension at which small saws are run, the size of tooth,
&c., are shown in Fable R, page 226. It is pointed out that the
figures given for tension is half the pressure exerted by the
spring or weighted lever alter the weight of the top pulley
and its spindle, bearings, and the bracket to which it is fixed
have been deducted. A good sawyer will usually be able to
adjust his tension bj7 the feel of the blade.
4. Repair of broken band saws is done by brazing or
silver soldering. In brazing, the broken ends are filed square,
and a scarf is filed on each end the whole width of the saw
and two teeth in length. The finished joint must be no
thicker than the saw, so the scarfs must be carefully filed,
the two extreme ends being brought to a knife edge. The
surfaces to be brazed are cleaned by application of a paste of
borax and water, which is allowed to dry and is then lightly
dusted off so that a little dry borax remains. The two ends
are placed together and bound tightly with iron wire, about
23 S.W.G., PI. 34, Fig. 10. Great care must be taken to
keep the back edge of the saw in a straight line. On the top
of the iron wire, fine brazing wire is tightly wound, covering
the full length of the joint. The outside is then covered with
powdered borax and the joint is ready for brazing, which is
done in a field forge or by means of a blow-lamp. The saw
is then allowed to cool, the joint is filed absolutely even with
the remainder of the saw, and is finally polished with emery.
PI. 34, Fig. 12, shows a clamp for brazing band saws.
When using this clamp, iron binding wire can be dispensed
with. The joint is made in the manner already described,
and while still hot it is pressed hard between the faces of
the clamp, “ a ” “ a.”
To face p. 224]
Pr.Aiii
TYi’FS OF CIRCULAR SAAYS
J''nr. 3 lium-fccd Circular Uonih.

[J’rrmi‘<’,ir>ii of .1/ows. /. Random t- { o., Ltd., fi.'t, tjuun I utvuti Stint. Loudon, L.C.4.
SHARPENING MACHINES AND WOODWORKING TOOLS
Plate 37.
AV*rn In
BAND SAW AX I > MORTISING MA( IIINK
]’LATJ£ 38.
1. — Band Saw. Fig. 2 —Morticing Machine.
Pctni ,. iu,i of M .'ri. .1. A f;; <3- Co., L\/., <■<:), ‘7 i /..C.4 ]
Platk 39.
VARIETY WOODWORKER AND OVERHAND PLANER
[l‘c>mi,swn of Minis. A. Kansomc & Co., Ltd., 63, Queen \’irtuna blurt, London, 2i.f.4.1
TYPCS OF sav
Sec. 54.—Band Saws 225
Electric band-saw brazing machines are now obtainable,

which are easier, quicker and cleaner to operate than the
blow-lamp type, and they are also safer from a lire risk point
of view.
5. Cracked saws.—The teeth of band saws will tend to
crack at the gullets if the rate of feed is forced when they are
dull. Such cracks must be immediately stopped by drilling
a small hole in their extremity.
Should any lumps appear on bands, they should immedi¬
ately be hammered out by a properly qualified saw doctor.
6. Ordering band saws.—The following information is
required :—
i. Tracing of teeth and width of saw. If tracing cannot
be given, state type of wood to be cut.
ii. Gauge of saw.
iii. Length of saw.
iv. If jointed or unjointed.
Tabus N.—Power required La drive log band suit's
Diameter Machine H.P.

yyjjMjSW; .ii Diameter Revs per
of saw running cutting
pulley of log minute
hght maximum
Jn. H.P.
54 5A 520 4 45
<50 6 480 4-1 55
60 6J 480 41 60
72 n 60 400 H 75
84 9 60 335 7 85
Table O.—Power required to drive band re-saws
Diameter Width Thick¬ Revs. H.P.

of saw of ness of per Capacity per minute maxi¬
pulley saw saw minute mum
In. In. B.W G.

48 4 — 550 60 ft. of 11-in. deal .. 28
48 4 -— 550 80 ft. ,, 7-in. ,, 16
48 4 - 550 100 ft. 7-in. 20
54 5 18 550 10 ft. ,, 16-in. mahog-
• . any .. 16
54 5 18 550 18 ft. ,, 24-in. mahog-
any .. 20
54 5 18 550 21 ft. „ 15-in. pine . . 2«
54 5 18 550 60 ft. ,, 9-in. deal . . 28
60 6 19 575 100 ft. ,, 9-in. 35
60 — 575 180 tt. .. 9-in. 45
Table P.— Tension for large band saw blades
Thickness of saw in B.W.G.

Width
of saw
21 20 19 18 17 16 15
In. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.

2£ 710 720 840 940 — — - -
3 840 860 1,000 1,120 — - - —
n 970 1,000 1,180 1,310 — — -
4 1,080 1,140 1,840 1,490 1,880 — —
H 1,210 1,280 1,510 1,680 2,110 — - -
5 1,340 1,420 1,670 1,860 2,340 2,580 —
6 1,000 1,700 2,000 2,230 2,800 3,100 3,460

7 - --- 2,275 2,530 3,180 3,530 3,940
8 — —
2,550 2,830 3,560 3,960 4,420
9 - —
3,130 3,940 4,370 4,950
10 — -- - 3,430 4,320 4,820 5,680
12 — — _ — 5,680 6,340
Table Q.—Speed of small band saws
Diameter oi saw Maximum width of

Speed per minute
pulley saw
In. In. Ft.

24 2 3,000
30 n 3,500
36 2 4,000 to 4,500
42 2* 5,000 to 5,500
Table R.—Details of small band saws
Width Distance Minimum

Thickness of Maximum
of from point to radius of the
saw tension
saw point of saw pattern cut
In. In. 33.W.G. Lb. In.

i i 22 55 1
i 21
21
100
160
n
h
i
*
i
i 21 200
2j
3
l
7
A
r»
21
21
240
280
H
6
8 1 G
1 TfT 21 320 8
U 1 20 410 12
1A 7
i r»
i
20 525 20
2n Tft
*
20
20
640
755
24
30
2* * 20 870 36
Sec. 55.—Log Frame Saws 227
55. Log frame saws

1. The log frame saw consists of a reciprocating frame,
actuated by a crank. The frame holds any number of saws
required, spaced at any interval; therefore, the machine can
be used either for breaking down trunks into flitches or for
sawing the trunk directly into boards. These machines are
comparatively slow cutters, but their use saves labour under
certain circumstances. PI. 40, Fig. 1, shows a modem type.
The saws are strained in the frame and packed top and bottom.
2. The teeth are sharpened in a similar way to those of a

circular saw. PI. 34, Fig. 19, shows a tooth inclined 5° from
the vertical, suitable for use when a large number of saws are
in use simultaneously. Teeth with a hook of 20° may be
used for soft wood where only one or two are used in a frame.
The greater the hook, the faster the cutting, but the greater
the power required to drive.
3. The centre teeth tend to become more quickly worn than

the end teeth. The length of the teeth must, however, be
kept absolutely even. In ranging down the teeth prior to
sharpening, a file or hies are attached to a wood block ; the
edge of the wood is kept pressed against the side of the saw,
and the teeth can then be readily evened up by the hie or
hies.
4. Power required to drive is given in Table S, below,

for oak. For soft wood, take two-thirds of the figures given.
5. When ordering saws it is advisable to give :—
i. Length of saw and sketch of attachment.
ii. Tracing of tooth.
iii. Gauge and breadth of tooth.
Table S.—Power required to drive log frame saws
No. of 13.H.F.
Size of Kevs.
Stroke saws
log per min.
in frame Light Cut
In. In No.
18 17 200 18 3* 20
24 20 180 24 6 30
30 24 150 30 7 38
36 ' 26 140 36 8 42
42 28 130 42 9 50
46 30 120 48 10 60
Note.—Powers required for fewer saws can be readily deduced from

these figures.
228 Sec. 56.—Woodworking Machinery for Joinery
56. Woodworking machinery for joinery

1. Introductory.—The variety and nature of woodwork¬
ing machinery available for special purposes is best appre¬
ciated by perusing catalogues. The following machines will
be required in permanent service shops producing joinery :—
i. Machines with cutter knives for planing, thicknessing
(i.c. planing to a definite thickness), moulding,
grooving, and tenoning.
ii. Machines for mortising.
iii. Machines for boring.
The machine known as the General Joiner, or Varitly
Woodworker, combines the majority of the processes mentioned
in (i), (ii), and (iii), and is suitable for small shops where a
separate machine for each would not be economically justified.
It is shown on PI. 39, Fig. 1.
A wood-working lathe and a sandpapering machine are
essential in the patternmakers’ shop if large production is
required.
2. Cutter-blocks.—PJ. 34, Fig. 13, shows the horizontal

spindle and circular planing cutter-block of a machine of
class (i). The cutters, PI. 34, Fig. 20, arc made either of iron
witli a hardened steel edge or entirely of steel, and are fixed
in position by the cover and nuts. Two cutters are shown in
the figure, but three are common. The spindle rotates in ball
bearings, and the cutting edges have a speed of 5,000 ft. per
minute. For even cutting it is, therefore, essential that the
spindle runs absolutely true, and that the cutters are correctly
balanced ; the cutters must be of the same weight, shape, and
linear dimensions ; they should be fastened to the cutter-block
in such a way that their centres of gravity are the same
distance from the centre of the spindle.
Square cutter-blocks are sometimes met with, but these
are dangerous, and are forbidden by the Home Office regula¬
tions to be fitted to planing machines, unless mechanically
fed.
3. The overhand planing machine is shown on PI. 39,

Fig. 2, and comprises a horizontal spindle and cutter-block,
PI. 34, Fig. 13, a rising back, A, a rising front bench, B, and
an adjustable canting fence, C. It is suitable for planing,
bevelling, and rebating without change of cutters.
In fixing the cutters to the block, place a strip of thick
brown paper, about in. wide, between the cutter and the
block at the back edge, to cause the cutter to bear firmly in
the block at the front edge ; also let the cutting edge project
~ in. past the tips of the block. The cutters must be set
Sec. 56.- -Woodworking Machinery for Joinery 229
true to the back table, be correctly balanced in the block, and

all project equidistantly from the block.
Adjust the back table exactly level with the highest point
of the cutters ; it will then receive the wood as it is planed.
If the back table were lower than the cutters, the planing
would be uneven and there would be a dip at the end of each
piece of timber planed; if it were higher, planing would be
practically impossible. Adjust the front table below the
level of the cutters, according to the cut required.
The greatest care must he taken always to use the guard,
PI. 39, Fig. 2, whilst the machine is in operation. It should
never be moved higher than is required to allow the work to pass
underneath it.
A push-stick should invariably be used when short thin
stuff is being worked, the necessary pressure being supplied
by the springs, XX.
Rebating is done by setting the fence of the machine from
the front edge of the table a distance exactly equal to the size
of the rebate required, and then lowering the front of the table
to the depth required. A deep rebate can be done in two or
more operations.
Chamfering can readily be carried out by adjusting the
fence to the required cant.
PI. 39, Fig. 2, shows the best type of guard for overhand
planers.
4. The thicknessing machine is a planing machine which
consists of a horizontal spindle and cutter-block and a serrated
ieed roller on spring-supported bearings. The table can be so
adjusted that the planed board may be of any required
thickness. A pointer on the machine shows the thickness
setting for any position of the feed roller. The method of
adjusting the cutters is the same as that for the overhand
planer (see para. 3). ,
This machine is much safer to work than the overhand
planer, but it can be used for planing and moulding on one
side only.
5. The moulding machine, worked with shaped cutters,
PI. 34, Fig. 17, attached to square cutter-blocks, PI. 34,
Fig. 18, may have both vertical and horizontal spindles.
The general joiner, PI. 39, Fig. 1, can be adjusted to
perform moulding work, the cutter-block for the moulding
cutters being fixed to the horizontal spindle on which the
circular saw revolves on the plate. Four-cutter moulding
machines have two vertical and two horizontal spindles, and
will perform several separate operations on the faces and sides
of a board in one setting. For complicated mouldings, several
separate cutters are ground to simple outlines and placed
230 Sec. 56.—Woodworking Machinery for Joinery
together ; this is better than one long-contoured cutter, as

grinding is much easier and a broken cutter can be replaced at
less expense.
6. Grooving is done by small circular “ drunk< n ” saws,
or by grooving cutters fixed to a block mounted on the
general joiner by means of tilting the bench, A on PI. 39,
Fig. 1, the depth of groove with a given saw being regulated
by the amount of tilt.
7. Tenoning may be done by special attachments with
rotating cutters, working at about 3,000 feet per minute, on
the general joiner, PJ. 39, Fig. 1. A square-edged cutter,
working across the grain, as is necessary in tenoning, would
tear the wood at the shoulder. A scribing cut is, therefore,
arranged for first, down a a on PI. 34, Fig. 15, with a cutter, the
teeth of which are sharpened by means of an oilstone.
Tenoning can also be done with the grooving saw and
tilting-table.
8. Mortising can be carried out by machine in the
following three ways :—
i. With the mortising bit placed on the spindle of the
general joiner, PI. 39, Fig. 1, the work being held
in the traversing vice, B. With this method the
ends of the mortice are round, and require clearing
with a hand chisel.
ii. In the machine, PL 38, Fig. 2, which is fitted with a
continuous rotating chain cutter, A, which must be
run fairly loose.
iii. In the machine, PL 38, Fig. 2, with the hollow chisel
with rotating centre, B ; the chisel is shown on
Pl. 34, Fig. 16.
Mortising chisels should rotate at about 2,000 revolutions
per minute ; chain cutters should run at 1,500 to 2,000 It.
per minute. Hand-power mortising machines are also met
with.
9. Preparing and sharpening cutters for wood¬
working machinery.—Planing cutters are received from
makers already sharpened. To be re-sharpened they are
ground on an emery wheel, mounted, as shown on Pl. 37,
Fig. 1 (a), with a traversing cutter-holder. For cutting
soft woods a bevel of 30° is used, and for hard woods from
40° to 50°. The edge is finished on an oilstone. Care must
be taken not to press too hard on the emery wheel or too
long on one place, or else the temper will be drawn. It is
very important that sets of irons to be used in the same cutter¬
block should be ground absolutely the same as regards weight,
length, breadth, size of bevel, &c., so as to obtain the correct
Sec. 56.—Woodworking Machinery for Joinery 231
balance. The balancing machine, PI. 35, Fig. 6, should be

used to correct their weights. An incorrect balance would
cause uneven work and would rapidly wear the bearings of the
machine. It is, however, useless to go to this trouble unless
the operator arranges the cutters evenly in the block so that
balance is obtained. This point should be carefully watched.
Moulding cutters of any required shape can be obtained
from makers. Blocks can also be similarly obtained for
grinding-up locally. These may have to be softened. They
are then filed straight across to the required profile, and the
bevel is ground on the emery wheel. The cutter is then
hardened and tempered. Where the composition of the
steel is unknown, heat to a good cherry-red and temper by
the sand-bath or hot-plate method, to give an even colour ol
brown dappled with purple for moulding cutters, and straw
colour lor straight planing irons. The service tool steel.
No. 3 Temper, is very suitable for cutters.
10. Sharpening chain cutters for mortising machines
is best carried out with the special fitting, PI. 37, Fig. 3.
The face angles ol the cutters should be ground straight across
to 70° for soft wood and 80° for hard wood. The tips are
ground without bevel.
11. Ordering spare cutters, &c.—Tlic following pro¬
cedure should be adhered to when preparing orders for
spares :—
.i. Plane irons.
(a) Give length, width, and thickness.
(b) Send template or sketch showing length, width,
and position of bolt slots.
(c) Give bevel required, or state whether for hard or
soft wood.
11. Moulding irons.
(a) Send sketch or template of section of moulding.
(b) Give position of slots in the cutter and the size
of block it is fastened to.
(c) State whether for hard or soft wood.
iii. Mortice chisels.
(a) State type of chisel required and for what use.
(b) Send template or exact sketch of socket.
(c) - Give width of chisels and length required from
socket.
(d) With rotary machines, give exact sketch, or
send pattern of cutter, with size of socket.
12. Exhaust system.—In permanent woodworking

establishments an exhaust system should be • installed to
232 Sec. 57.—Safety Precautions for Woodworking
remove the sawdust and chips. A single centrifugal exhaust

fan usually deals with the whole requirements in saw mills
of moderate size. Dampers must be placed near each machine
so that they can be closed when the tools are not working in
order to economize in power. Also a grid must be placed
in the conduit near the fan inlet to limit the size of chip which
can be drawn in.
A saw mill with about 50 H.P. continuous average load
requires an exhaust fan taking about 7 H.P.
57. Safety precautions for woodworking machinery

1. All woodworking machinery works at very high speeds
at the cutting edge, and great care is necessary to prevent
accidents to the operators. The safety precautions necessary
are laid down in “ The Woodworking Machinery Regulations,
1927,” authorized by the Factory Act, 1901, and issued by the
Home Office.
These regulations are divided into two portions : [a) the
duties of the occupier, and (b) the duties of the persons
employed. They may be briefly summarized as follows :—
(a) Duties of the occupier.

i. Every woodworking machine shall be provided with
an efficient stopping and starting device within
easy reach of the operator.
ii. Sufficient clear space shall be maintained at every
woodworking machine to enable work to be carried
on without unnecessary risk.
iii. The floor surrounding every woodworking machine
shall be maintained in a good and level condition,
and shall not be allowed to become slippery.
iv. Where structural conditions permit, sufficient natural
light must be provided at every woodworking
machine. Failing this, artificial light must be
provided and so fixed or shaded that the direct rays
of the light do not fall on the eyes of the operator
when working the machine.
v. No woodworking machine shall be operated in an
underground room or semi-basement.
vi. The temperature of woodworking shops shall not be
less than 50° F.
vii. Men under training are to be instructed as to the
dangers arising from woodworking machinery, and
the precautions necessary.
viii. Special regulations for individual machines. These
are discussed in para. 2.
Sec. 57.— Safety Precautions for Woodworking 233
(6) Duties of persons employed.

Every person employed in operating machinery shall :—
i. Use and maintain in proper adjustment the guards
provided, in accordance with the regulations.
ii. Use " spikes ” or “ push-sticks ” when operating—
Hand-fed circular saws,
Hand-fed planing and thicknessing machines,
Hand-fed vertical spindle moulding machines.
2. Special regulations for individual machines.

{a) Circular saws.—Every circular saw shall be fenced as
follows :—
i. The part of the saw below the bench table shall be
protected by two plates of metal or other suitable
material, one on each side of the saw. These
plates shall be not less than 6 in. apart, and
shall extend from the axis of the saw not less than
2 in. beyond the teeth of the saw.
ii. Behind and in a direct line with the saw, a curved
riving knife shall be set, of not more than £ in.
greater radius than the largest saw used in the
bench, and securely fastened to a bracket or other
means of adjustment below the bench.
iii. There shall be fitted a neat close-fitting shield for
the top of the saw, flanged as deep as the roots of
the saw teeth, and capable of rapid adjustment
(preferably by use of a front shield), to cover the
front of the saw blade where it is not buried in the
wood. A view of the line of the saw can be given
by slots in the edge of the front shield.
iv. A suitable push-stick shall be kept available for use
at the saw bench, or a “ pusher ” and “ puller ”
shall be provided.
(b) Band saws.
i. The spokes of the pulleys shall be effectively enclosed.
The lower pulley should be protected by a metal
sheet, and the upper pulley by network, so that
sight and light may not be obscured.
ii. The saw blade shall be guarded, except between the
upper packing and the top of the table.
(c) Overhand planers.
i. These machines should be fitted with cylindrical
cutter blocks and bridge guards.
ii. For short work (i.e. under 12 in. long) " push-
sticks ” or " work holders ” are to be provided.
234 Sec. 57.—Safety Precautions for Woodworking
(d) Spindle moulders.

i. The cutter of every vertical spindle moulding machine
shall be, when practicable, provided with the most
efficient guard, having regard to the nature of the
work being performed.
ii. For such work as cannot be performed with an
efficient guard for the cutter, the wood being
moulded, shall be, if practicable, held in a jig or
holder.
iii. A suitable " spike " or “ push-stick ” shall be pro¬
vided for use at every spindle moulding machine.
(c) Mortising machines.
The chain of every chain mortising machine shall be
provided with a guard which shall enclose the cutters as far as
practicable.
(/) Feed rollers, as on planing, thicknessing, and moulding
machines, are to be provided with efficient guards, set slightly
above the work.
(g) Sandpapering machines should not be worked without
an efficient exhaust and dust collecting apparatus attached.
(h) All belting, shafting, &c., within reach of the operator
of any woodworking machine is to be securely guarded.
3. Copies of the Regulations for Woodworking

Machinery, 1927, may be obtained from H.M. Stationery
Office. A copy of these Regulations should be posted in a
prominent position in every woodworking machinery shop.
Full details of the safety precautions referred to in this
Section arc contained in Safety Pamphlet No. 8, “ Fencing
and other Safety Precautions for Woodworking Machinery,”
issued by the Home Office, and obtainable from 1I.M.
Stationery Office.

CHAPTER XI
WORKSHOP ECONOMICS
58. Factory organization generally

1. It is necessary to distinguish between production shops
{i.c. factories) and repair workshops.
In peace-time the militarj^ engineer will have little to do
with factory organization. Stores required in the service,
if of commercial pattern, can be produced by civil factories
at far cheaper rates than is possible in the case of small shops,
on account of the large quantities involved.
If not of commercial pattern, they will be produced either
by fostering an industry in civil life, which is sometimes
necessary in order to obtain a large production for war, or by
manufacture in the National Factories.
2. An army shop may, however, be required to manu¬

facture under two conditions :—
i. In a theatre of war new articles will be devised or
invented, and factories may be required to produce
a first supply until factories in the United Kingdom
can be organized to produce such new stores.
ii. In peace-time it occasionally happens that a few special
stores are urgently required in small numbers. In
such cases, it is not always economical to entail the
cost of preparation of the specifications and drawings
essential for a contract. An army shop may be
required to produce to sample.
3. Further, although no general system can be enunciated
for the economic operation of repair workshops, for each case
must be specifically considered, nevertheless, certain funda¬
mental principles will be common to all, and can best be
derived from consideration of the systems of factories.
It is, therefore, necessary that the military engineer should
study the fundamental principles of factory organization and
accountancy with a view to grasping the reasons for the
methods adopted.
4. The objectives of any factory are to produce :—

i. Articles of a given general type, of a standard equal
to that specified.
ii. In maximum possible quantities.
iii. At minimum possible cost for each article.
235
236 Sec. 58.—Factory Organization Generally
5. In order to attain the objective in para. 4 (i), factories

are designed to produce certain categories of articles. So far
as possible the lay-out is specifically designed to manufacture
to certain definite specifications (see para. 10). In design and
specification it is too frequently the ambition of British
factories to produce the best possible article, regardless of the
fact that the Public may, rightly, prefer a cheaper article,
which will do what is required, but no more. In other cases,
the buyer may have his own ideas as to the design best suited
to his requirements. In such cases the manufacturer must
decide whether it will pay him, directly or indirectly, to alter
his designs, and perhaps factory lay-out, in order to accommo¬
date his customers.
In general, he will endeavour to produce a good article in
quantity and to educate the Public to use it. Clearly this
involves a sales branch with a system of advertisement which
must sense the public taste on the one hand, educate the
Public on the other, and act in close touch with the designs
branch.
An army factory in a theatre of war will to some extent be
faced with similar problems, but can demand of superior
authority that decisions be made as regards design and that
standard designs be adopted for all consumers.
6. As regards the objective in para. 4 (ii), it is necessary

to realize that the cost of an article consists fundamentally
of two component parts :—
i. Direct charges, i.e. labour and material.
ii. Indirect charges, viz. supervision, cost of power supply,
depreciation and other standing charges, cost of
designs and sales branch, general office expenses, and
other administrative charges.
It will be sufficiently obvious, without detailed argument,
that the indirect charges will not increase proportionally to
the quantities of any one article produced.
An increase of the output of a given article will, therefore,
reduce the total cost of the unit article.
Such increase will be sought by the methods referred to in
para. 5.
An army factory will be concerned in reducing the number
of types demanded of it, and is unlikely to be troubled with
insufficient average demand for any one standard type. But
it is more liable than a civilian factory to troubles arising
from an uneven demand. These must be met by predicting
average demand, and manufacturing for stock, with the
object of creating sufficient reserves to meet heavy seasonal
demands.
Sec. 58.—Factory Organization Generally 237
Manufacture against indent is the death-knell of

efficiency.
7. In respect of the objective in para. 4 (iii), when due
attention has been given to the principles inculcated in
paras. 5 and 6, it should be found that 70 per cent, at least of
the aggregate gross costs of the factory are due to direct
charges. In a really well-organized business direct charges
may even be as much as 80 per cent, of the aggregate cost.
In consequence, the principal administrative effort will be
directed to possible reductions in direct costs.
8. As regards material, it is necessary to study :—
i. Initial cost. A purchase branch is required, charged
with the duty of watching market fluctuations of
raw material and endeavouring to purchase at
cheap periods, of obtaining material of good
enough, but not unnecessarily good, quality, and
of suggesting use of cheaper materials in lieu of
those which are expensive.
ii. On-costs, such as freight, handling charges, and store
branch administrative charges. The on-cost if
not carefully watched may add a considerable
percentage to direct cost of stores. This will be
generally the duty of the stores branch.
iii. Waste of material. Clearly all material issued is
not embodied in the final article ; but wastage,
e.g. turnings, filings, timber ends, and sawdust,
must be reduced to a minimum, and such wastage
has a value of its own as a by-product.
An undue proportion of waste will usually be
revealed by careful scrutiny of cost accounts (see
para. 12).
iv. Possible reduction of material in the finished article.
This is primarily a matter for the designs branch.
As an example, consider the reduction of four
nails per slat in a trench board to three nails ;
in France in 1918 this resulted in an economy of
about 40 tons of nails a month—say, £1,000 at
prevailing prices.
9. As regards labour, reduction of cost will lie in the

reduction of manual operations to a minimum :—
i. The management must consider to what extent auto¬
matic machinery can be used to replace manual
labour.
ii. Labour motion demands study.
238 Sec. 58.—Factory Organization Generally__
iii. The number of operations by skilled artisans is often

reducible.
iv. The British artisan’s nature tends towards an un¬
necessarily high standard of finish, e.g. use of wrought
timber for packing cases, to quote an extreme case.
v. Material must be fed in with the minimum of handling
and carry.
As some loss both of labour and material is inevitable
owing to rejects, it is very desirable to organize inspection
during manufacture, so that faults, which would involve
rejection of the completed article, may be detected at the
earliest possible stage.
10. As the highest development of such an organization,
the mass production factory is the ideal. In this case the
factory can be laid out and equipped with a special view to the
factors referred to in para. 9 (ii), (iii), and (v).
There are four main principles to be observed in the lay-out
of a factory or workshop :—
i. All departments should be under one roof.
11. All shops should be on the same level.
iii. A continuous flow of work through successive depart¬
ments should be allowed for.
iv. Transport should be by trolleys on a hard floor when
possible, and not by tramway.
More often a factory is designed to produce a certain
number of definite standard articles at a given average rate
a month. Even in such factories the alteration of a design
will usually cause complete paralysis of at least a section of
the factory for a considerable period—usually from one to
two months, but conceivably for a considerably longer
period.
It is the duty of an officer i/c workshops to invite attention
to the effect of any proposed change of design after he has
carefully estimated that effect. Responsibility for any
consequent loss will then rest with the superior authority
who overruled him.
11. The studies inculcated in paras. 5 to 9 cannot be given

effect to without accurate statistics.
A manager, with statistics before him not only of the
last month or quarter but of preceding periods with which
he may institute comparisons, will, in the first place,
consider broadly the proportions of direct and indirect
charges.
Let it be supposed that these are 70 per cent, and 30 per
Sec. 59.—Cost Accounts 239
cent, respectively. He will be endeavouring constantly to

reduce the 30 per cent, for indirect charges ; whilst so doing,
he must bear in mind that an over-meticulous system of
administration may defeat its own object in either of two
ways :—
i. It may involve so large a staff for its operation as to
cost more than any economy it can reveal as possible.
ii. It may result in such a mass of figures as to conceal,
rather than reveal, waste.
12. Apart from this study of indirect expenditure, the
manager will be more concerned with the possibility of
reducing the direct costs by the methods referred to in paras. 8
and 9. For this purpose he will have before him statistics
which reveal a proportion between labour and material. Let
it be supposed that this lias normally stood at 52 per cent,
for labour and 48 per cent, for material. Next suppose
the account for this last period shows this proportion to have
altered to 54 per cent, and 46 per cent. Is this alteration
due to an economy in material (result of some particular
effort) ? Or is it due to waste of labour ? The manager will
decide having regard to the total cost per article, i.e. whether
reduced or increased, and act accordingly. He will, generally,
be endeavouring to alter this proportion by effecting economies
in labour and material alternately. The cost account will
reveal the effect of his efforts.
13. In an army workshop in peace-time it will usually be
the case that the shop has a value for the purposes of training
soldiers in the duties of their corps. If, therefore, the shop
appears from its accounts to be unremunerative, i.e. to be
producing only at a somewhat higher cost than the work could
be done by civilian contract, before deciding to close down the
shop it will be necessary that higher authority shall consider
whether the apparent loss is justified by the training afforded,
or whether such training can be obtained by cheaper methods.
59. Cost accounts

1. A cost account will, therefore, be devised primarily to
exhibit expenditure under certain main headings, e.g.—
Administrative charges 1
Standing charges > Indirect charges.
Power supply charges J
Operating charges .. Direct charges.
The total expenditure under each such head will be worked
out as a percentage of the whole expenditure.
Let it be assumed that the proportion of one of these
main heads has risen above the normal; say that the cost of
240 Sec. 59.—Cost Accounts
the supply of power has risen from a normal 5 per cent, to

6 per cent, in the last period, and that the factory generates
its own power.
2. Clearly the manager will require further details, to which
end subdivisions of the main heads of the cost account will be
required; this main head may be envisaged as subdivided
into:—
Labour (engine drivers, &c.).
Fuel.
Oil and waste.
Repairs.
These are also worked out as percentages of the whole.
Comparison with previous accounts may at once reveal,
that the fuel bill has increased out of proportion to other
items.
This may be due :—
i. To rise in cost of fuel, which will demand an explana¬
tion from the purchase branch.
ii. To increased consumption per H.P. hour or per kW
hour ; this will demand investigation as to whether
it arises from inefficient stoking or from an
inefficiency in the plant (e.g. new piston rings may
be required).
3. The nature and scope of the factory must decide what

headings and sub-headings are required. It must be repeated
that an over-meticulous analysis may defeat its own purpose.
The accountant naturally tends towards over-doing the
account. The engineer is apt to trust too much to inspection
and too little to the proper use of his cost account.
It must be realized that inspection should in theory
operate in time to prevent waste. A cost account reveals
waste and thus acts as a check on inspection. But, on the
other hand, a cost account, unless it is used, to a greater
extent than will normally be possible, comparatively with
cost accounts of similar factories, will not usually suggest
improvements in manufacturing systems, as, for example, the
possible financial advantage of the installation of some newer
type of machine.
The military engineer is beginning to realize the value of
cost accountancy. It may be of use to utter a warning against
permitting an invaluable servant to become his master.
4. In an army shop the data upon which a cost account is

based wi i be obtained as laid down in the relevant Regulations.
1 he whole system depends on the issue of a " works order ” for
every job carried out.
Sec. 60.—Repair Workshops 241
Stores will be costed against the works order.
Labour will be booked up by foremen or time-keepers and
allocated to appropriate works orders.
Indirect charges may be raised by charges from other
departments for supply of transport, power, water, light, and
perhaps for repairs.
Depreciation will be charged on the plant and equipment
and Class A stores as laid down in regulations.
5. Depreciation is one of the most complex problems of
cost accountancy. It has been defined as invisible consump¬
tion. The question which always arises is whether a given
repair or replacement is chargeable separately as a repair to
the cost of operation or treated as an appreciation of an asset.
The renewal of a piston ring is clearly a repair, for it does
not actually prolong the life of the engine.
On the other hand, the renewal of a boiler is clearly a
proper charge to an asset account.
But between these extremes will arise many debatable
questions (e.g. renewal of a cylinder). The management or
directors who prefer conservative finance will usually charge
such doubtful renewals to the operating account.
60. Repair workshops

1. It will be realized from the above that it is difficult to
apply the principles of economic factory organization, of
which the ideal is mass production, to large repair shops, nor
will the cost accounts be of equal assistance.
But here again, the principle of standardizing jobs must
be adopted to the maximum possible extent. Again, it is
absolutely detrimental to economy and efficiency to demand
priority for the repair of any one specific article, i.e. a workshop
should not be required to effect urgent repairs to Lorry
No. 1680 : it should not be expected to work against such
specific requisitions. On the other hand, it must be prepared
to assign priority to repair a class of stores. It may properly
be told that the supply of lorries of X type is low and priority
must be given to the production of this type by the repair of
all such damaged lorries awaiting repair.
It will be seen from para. 4 that there is a considerable
difference between such orders.
2. The army repair workshop has to some extent a distinct
advantage over similar civilian repair shops, e.g. a repair
motor-car garage ; for it may be assumed that, in war, the
types of any class of equipment will be reasonably few in
number and will be standardized.
Damaged articles received at base repair shops will mostly
9—(579)
242 Sec. 60.—Repair Workshops
require repairs which cannot be effected by the renewal of any

ordinary part. They will also be received in considerable
numbers of each type.
3. The processes suggested are, therefore :—
i. Sort out articles to definite areas set aside for each
type.
ii. Inspection, to classify as repairable or scrap to be
broken up for component parts.
iii. Repair.
iv. Inspection by the inspector of provision branch.
v. Transfer to store depot for re-issue when required.
4. Inspection to classify as repairable or otherwise will
demand considerable knowledge of the shop situation.
Normally, it will not be possible to do much manufacture.
Under conditions of pressure it will be advisable to be some¬
what ruthless ; the scrapped articles will constitute a quarry
for spares for the repairable articles. But too much ruthless¬
ness may result in an unnecessary over-accumulation of
components and a shortage in the store depot of serviceable
articles. Again, if by chance the shop is slack, repairs may
be undertaken which at other times would be inadvisable.
On the other hand, an over-accumulation of components
may be thankfully received at home depots.
Whilst’, then, good judgment is necessary, it is essential to
get rid of any idea that 100 serviceable articles must be
obtained, much less can economically be obtained, from 100
damaged articles.
5. Repairs will, therefore, consist fundamentally of
dismantling, replacement of some damaged component by a
serviceable component from the spare part store or from a
scrapped article, and re-erection.
6. The repair shop is a source of provision to the store

depot. Repaired articles must, therefore, be passed as
serviceable by independent inspectors.
7. For such work, cost accounts can do little more than
reveal that so many articles have been produced by the repair
shop at such and such a cost as compared with such and such
a cost of an equal number of new articles delivered from home
free alongside wharf. Expenditure on cost accounts must,
therefore, be reduced to what is required to produce such
information.
Wrecks brought in for repair, whether classified as scrap
to be broken up for components or as repairable, will be debited
to the cost account of the shop at a fixed percentage of the
original value, determined by financial authority.
8. General system.—The following diagram shows the

organization of a small general engineering workshop :—
Works manager
Chief storekeeper Drawing office Works superintendent

(works office)
I
Fitting and I3oiler-shop Foundry foreman Sawmill and
machine-shop foreman woodworking
foreman shop
Tool-room
Erecting-shop Smiths' shop
foreman. foreman
Electricians
I Millwrights
Fitters Smiths Welders
Turners
Tool-room Plumbers
Coppersmiths
Tinsmiths
Erectors Testers Moulders Patternmakers
This organization can easily be adapted to meet army

needs ; for example, a company is ordered to take over and
run a civil shop.
The O.C. company becomes the works manager, i.e. the
executive head of the shop.
The chain of command in a civilian engineering works is
very similar to the chain of command in the army, and, there¬
fore, the taking over by the army in war of small civilian works
should present no great difficulties as far as organization is
concerned.
The chief point to note in the skeleton organization is
that the chief storekeeper is directly under the works manager.
This is an obvious precaution, since workshop stores, tools, &c.,
require careful guarding and accountancy, and no work can be
done without stores. The works manager is responsible for
all tools, material, &c., in the works, and must be in direct
control of the subordinate he has put in charge of his stores.
The patternmaker is shown as working under the foundry
foreman. This is usually the case in small works where there
are not enough patternmakers to warrant the employment of
a foreman patternmaker. Patternmakers, although they
work in wood, should never be placed under the orders of the
sawyer or carpenter foreman.
9. Works orders.—The object of all clerical work in
connection with actual jobs as they pass through a shop is
244 Sec. 60.—Repair Workshops
broadly to prevent the undertaking of unauthorized work,

and to enable authorized work to be checked, located, and
priced.
All orders for new work and for repairs are dealt with in
the works manager’s office, where decisions are made as to
what new work can be accepted, what repairs carried out, and
in what order each job shall be done. In a small shop, no
work of any kind should be undertaken without having been
approved by the works manager. In large shops, power to
authorize work up to certain limits can be advantageously
delegated to other officers.
Directly a job of any kind is approved in the works
manager’s office, it is given a distinguishing letter and number,
and entered in the Works Order Book. The headings of this
book are shown on the following page.
A job having been approved and entered in the Works
Order Book, some means must be employed to issue orders
to the persons concerned in the execution of the work, and to
inform the officer asking for the job to be done that it has been
approved.
It is not intended to enter into the details of the clerical
system required ; these will be found in the appropriate
regulations or may have to be developed according to
requirements.
10. Labour.—It should be possible, by priced requisitions
received from the stores, for the costing clerk to find the
price of all material used on any one job. Another point is the
cost of labour.
A record of this must be kept, or the cost of the finished
article cannot be arrived at. Such a record is kept in large
shops by means of time cards. Each employee is given some
form of time card on which he has to record the time he spends
in the works, and how such time is expended.
Men, however, have a tendency not to enter their own time
accurately, and the clock system is, therefore, usually installed
in all large works. In this system, each workman as he enters
or leaves the shop drops a card, on which is written his name
and the job on which he is working, into a slot connected with
a clock ; a lever is then depressed by the workman, a bell
rings, and the actual time the owner of the card clocks in or
clocks out is recorded on his card.
Cards are of sufficient length to contain a weekly record,
while special spaces are provided for overtime. At the end
of the week they are handed in to the timekeeper, who retains
the used cards and issues fresh ones.
By some method of this kind the amount of work put in by
each man on any particular job can be abstracted, and all
jobs can be costed.
246 Sec. 60.—Repair Workshops ______
In small military shops it will not, as a rule, pay to put in
the clock system. An accurate enough system for small
establishments can be worked by the shop foreman. It will
be his duty to keep a record of what each man in his shop
does each day.
The costing clerk can then find out exactly what are the
direct charges for any particular job.
Elaborations, such as progress boards showing the position
of every job as it goes through the shops by means of moving
coloured or numbered pegs, can easily be worked out. Such
systems are sometimes of great value in preventing small jobs
from being overlooked and so delaj'ed, or lost sight of
altogether.
There are many and obvious advantages in having some
simple system whereby .all the direct costs are allocated to
different jobs. To begin with, it is possible to find out how
many men in the shops are working unproductively.
Suppose 100 sapper tradesmen are employed for six
nominal 8-hour days in some military shop. Then at the end
of the week it should be possible to find out how the week’s
4,800 working hours have been spent. It will be found,
however, that tradesmen have been taken for other duties,
have arrived late at the works, &c. ; but by means of a
system such labour leakage can easily be discovered.
Again, by costing direct charges to different articles, it is
possible to find out faults in shop organization, &c. For
example, a small article is ordered, but, when made, the direct
cost is found to be out of all proportion to its value. Costing
will show whether too much has been spent on labour or too
much on material. Investigations on these lines will almost
certainly show up any flaws in the works organization.
Finally, all jobs under the costing system must have some
identification mark or number. All authorized jobs will,
therefore, be recorded. Unauthorized jobs are easy to detect,
since they will have no Works Order number. Frequent
checking of work in progress with the Works Orders has the
effect of paralysing unauthorized work.
11. Hand tools.—In army shops they are normally issued

on loan:—
i. To individual workmen.
ii. In the case of special tools to the foreman of the
shop.
It is often better, especially in the case of large shops, to
issue all requisite tools to the shop foreman, who will re-issue
them daily as necessary. To do this properly he must be
provided with a lock-up tool-room and a storekeeper.
In either case it is necessary for the storekeeper or the

foreman to keep two card indexes :—
(a) An index by tools, which will show on each tool card
the distribution of the tools ; behind them are placed
the workmen's receipts. This enables stocktaking
checks to be made.
(b) An index of workmen showing on each workman’s
card what tools he has on loan. This enables an
auditor to check any workman’s tool kit. If the
workman is transferred from the shop it enables a
check to be taken at once of the kit handed in.
Procedure in the case of deficiencies is laid down in
Regulations.
PART II.—HEAT ENGINES
CHAPTER XII
THERMODYNAMICS OF THE I.C. ENGINE

61. Fuels
1. The heat value of a fuel is expressed by the number of
British Thermal Units (B.Th.U.) generated by the combustion
of 1 lb. of the fuel.
(B.Th.U. - 778 ft.-lb.)
For acceptance testing, in the case of heavy oil engines
the fuel consumption is based on the use of fuel oil having a
gross calorific value of 19,350 B.Th.U. (in accordance with
the British Standard Specifications).
2. When considering the thermal efficiency of an engine it
is necessary to distinguish between the gross (higher) and the
net (lower) heat (or calorific) value of the fuel.
The gross value which is that measured by a calorimeter
in the ordinary way, is not all usefully employed in the engine.
Approximately 9 lb. of steam are formed by the combustion
of 1 lb. of hydrogen content in a fuel. The total heat of this
steam varies very little over the working range of temperatures
usual in engines, contributes practically nothing to the mean
effective pressure and is almost entirely lost in the exhaust.
It is, therefore, usual to deduct the heat units lost in this way
from the gross heat value and to call the remainder the net
heat value.
For example, suppose a particular fuel oil has a hydrogen
content of 11-5 per cent., and a gross calorific value of 19,500
B.Th.U. The total heat of steam at 14-7 lb./sq. inch = 1,151
B.Th.U. per lb. (See Table V.) Therefore 1,151 x 9
= 10,359 B.Th.U. are lost in the exhaust for every pound of
hydrogen burned.
One pound of the fuel in our example contains O’115 lb. of
hydrogen, and the steam heat loss is consequently
10,359 X 0*115 = 1,190 B.Th.U. per lb. of fuel.
Therefore the net heat value = 19,500 — 1,190
= 18,310 B.Th.U. per lb.
Manufacturers’ published figures for Thermal Efficiency
are usually based upon the net (lower) heat value of the fuel,
but the International standard is based upon the gross heat
249
250 Sec. 62.—Explosive Mixtures
value, and this was recommended for adoption by the Heat
Engine Trials Committee's Report (1927). If an engine con¬
sumes 0*4 lb. of the oil referred to above per B.H.P. hour at
full load, the full load Brake Thermal Efficiencies will be
(1) Based upon the higher heat value.
33,000 x 60 QOC ,
----=7^—= 32*6 per cent.
19,500 X 0-4 x 778 1
(2) Based upon the lower heat value.
33,000 X 60
= 34-7 per cent.
18,310 X 0-4 x 778
3. The fuel consumption should always be measured by
weight. In the first place, measurement by volume is not
likely to be so accurate, and secondly, the determination of
the S.G. may result in further inaccuracy.
There is a British Standard Specification (No. 209) for
heavy fuel oils, which are therein sub-divided into four grades,
Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, Nos. 1 and 2 having a minimum gross
calorific value of 19,000, No. 3 of 18,750 and No. 4 of 18,500.
The flash point specified is not less than 150° F. (Admiralty
demand 175° F.). For requirements as to viscosity, fluidity,
&x., reference must be made to the Specification.
Particulars of fuels are given in Table T.
62. Explosive mixtures

1. It will be understood that to enable the heat energy of
a liquid fuel to be converted into mechanical energy in an I.C.
engine, it is necessary first to convert the liquid into vapour.
2. Explosion.—When an inflammable gas, such as oil
vapour, is mixed with oxygen in certain proportions, the
mixture will be explosive ; a flame approached to even a small
volume contained in a vessel open to the air will cause a sharp
explosion. Variations of the proportions will cause changes
in the sharpness of the explosion. There is a point where the
mixture is most explosive ; at that point the inflammable
gas and oxygen are present in the quantities requisite for
complete combination. Such a mixture may be called the
true explosive mixture.
A mixture of 1 part oil vapour to 14 parts air (by weight)
forms a true explosive mixture, but mixtures of from 1 : 10
to 1 : 17 are also easily ignited.
3. When very weak or strong, such mixtures bum com¬
paratively slowly, and a point is arrived at where the mixture
is so weak in inflammable gas that it cannot be ignited at
ordinary atmospheric pressures and temperatures.
4. If a mixture, which is so weak that it cannot be made
Sec. 62.—Explosive Mixtures 251
Table T.—Particulars of fuels used in I.C. engines
Gross
Service
Derived heat S.G. at Flash
Nomen¬
from value 60° F. point
clature
B.Th.U.
per lb.
Petrol .. Crude Petrol 'l 18,500 0-69 14° F.
petroleum. (3 } to to
grades). 1 19,500 0-74
Paraffin (kerosene) do. Oil, fuel, | 18,500 0-80 75° F.
for oil > to to to
engines. J 19,500 0-85 100° F.
Gas oil .. do. Gas oil 19,000 0-86 150° F.
■ to to
19,500 0-89
Heavy fuel oil do. Oil, fuel. '
18,000 0-9 175° F.
(residual oils). for heavy
to to
oil
20.000 0-98
engines. .
Benzol .. .. Coal — 17,800 0-88 —
Alcohol .. Vegetation — 11,000 0-82 —
Average gross heat value of other fuels

Welsh steam coal — — 15,500 (average) —
Anthracite coal — — 14,700 (average) —
Bituminous coal — — 13,500 (average) —
Town gas 16,000 (500-600

to per cu.
19,500 ft. at
N.T.P.).
Producer gas 2,080 (130-150
to per cu.
2,400 ft. at
N.T.P.).
Carbon .. — — 14,500 — —
Hydrogen 61,500 (344 per

cu. ft.
at
N.T.P.).
to explode in an open vessel, is either compressed or has its

temperature raised, it can then be made to explode.
5. If inert gases, such as nitrogen, or products of combus¬
tion, are mixed with explosive mixtures, such mixtures tend to
become less explosive, until such a point of dilution is reached
that they wiU not explode. Here again, by increasing their
pressure and temperature, such mixtures may be made
explosive.
6. In the foregoing remarks it has been assumed that
explosion is started by means of some hot agency, such as an
electric spark, or a piece of heated metal. In such cases.
252 Sec. 62.—Explosive Mixtures
explosion [which is only very rapid burning) will commence

at the point where the hot agency is applied, and the flame
will spread to other parts of the explosive mixture. The
time taken to complete combustion will depend on the
following:—
i. The nature of the fuel (benzol bums more slowly than
petrol).
ii. The explosiveness or proportioning of the mixture.
iii. The degree of turbulence of the mixture. If the
explosive mixture were completely stagnant at the
time of ignition, the flame would spread so slowly
that even in a comparatively slow-speed engine
barely half of a correctly proportioned mixture would
be burnt before the exhaust valve opened. Rapid
mechanical agitation of a charge has the effect of
speeding up the explosion to such a great extent that
with its aid a correct mixture can complete com¬
bustion in the highest speed engines before the piston
has had time to travel far.
iv. The proportion of inert gases mixed therewith.
v. The pressure.
vi. The temperature.
vii. The place at which ignition starts. If the explosive
mixture is contained in a simple cylinder, it will
take a shorter time for explosion to be completed
when ignition is at the centre of the cylinder than if it
were at one side, as the flame has a smaller distance
to travel in the former case.
7. Detonation.—This phenomenon is imperfectly under¬
stood. One explanation is that when an explosive mixture
is ignited the flame travels in the form of a sphere expanding
outwards at a very high speed. This motion compresses the
unburnt mixture and causes its temperature to increase very
rapidly. Two simultaneous processes are involved; the flame
is trying to reach the unbumt mixture and a pressure wave
is causing the temperature of the mixture to increase. If the
rate of increase of temperature at any point is sufficiently
great to cause spontaneous ignition of the mixture before the
flame can reach it, a pressure wave is set up which travels at
great speed and strikes the cylinder wall with a sharp ringing
sound. In severe cases the cylinder may be fractured.
The spontaneous ignition temperature for petrol and
paraffin is about 500° F. For benzol it is somewhat
higher.
The higher the compression pressure when ignition takes
place the greater the probability of detonation, and therefore
Sec. 63.—The Laws of Gases 253
the following values must not be exceeded for the fuels

stated:—
Paraffin .. .. 60- 80 lb./sq. inch.
Petrol.90-110
Benzol .. .. 200 „
Two other phenomena must be distinguished from detona¬
tion, viz.: pre-ignition and pinking.
8. Pre-ignition, as its name implies, means the com¬
mencement of an ordinary explosion too soon in a cycle of
operations.
9. Pinking occurs after ignition, usually when the engine
is heavily loaded and running slowly.
If sufficient time elapses between compression and com¬
bustion, some form of chemical action appears to take place in
the mixture and the rate of flame propagation is then greater
than normal. This is evidenced by pinking, which is a
much milder phenomenon than detonation. If allowed to
go on pinking will result in pre-ignition due to the excessive
temperature rise which ensues.
63. The laws of gases

1. In an I.C. engine, as its name implies, an explosive
mixture is ignited in the cylinder and the temperature thereby
increased by the combustion of the gas or oil vapour. The
consequent increase of pressure is utilized to push forward
the piston.
As pointed out above, a minimum of 14 parts of air are
required for the complete combustion of 1 part of oil vapour
and therefore the working substance is mostly air.
An I.C. engine may, therefore, be considered as an air
engine in which the air is heated inside the cylinder at the
commencement of the working stroke.
2. The principal laws of gases are summarized below. For
further particulars- reference must be made to standard text
books on physics.
Specific heat of a perfect gas
at constant pressure (per lb.) = Kp — 0-2375 B.Th.U.
= 184-8 ft.-lb.
Specific heat of a perfect gas
at constant volume (per lb.) = K„ = 0-1691 B.Th.U.
=131-6 ft.-lb.
Ratio of specific heats. n=^ = 1*404,
J r J K„ 0-1691
(1-4 is near enough for calculations).
Difference between specific
heats. = R = 0-2375-0-1691
= 0-0684 B.Th.U. =f 53-2 ft.-lb.
254 Sec. 64.—Cycles of Operation
In the following formula :—

P = pressure in lb.jsq. foot.
V —Volume in cubic feet.
T = Absolute Temp, on Faht. scale.
= Temp, in deg. Faht. + 459.
General equation.—Any change of conditions of a gas may
be expressed by the formula :
(1) PVn = constant
in which the index n has some value between the limits 1
(isothermal change) and 1-404 (adiabatic change).
(2) Work done by a gas on expansion.
(a) When n is greater than 1.
PjVj - P2Vo 53-2 (Tj - T2) . A„ .. ,
W - • -—---- - —-——-—- foot~lb. per lb. of gas.
n —1 n — 1
(b) When n - 1. W l^Vj loge ^ foot-lb. per lb. of gas.
Pj Vi T i being initial and P2 V2 T2 final values.
Conversely if the gas is compressed the same amount of
work is done on the gas between the same limits of pressure,
volume and temperature.
(3) Constant heal content. Adiabatic change (see also Sec. 64,
para. 4).—When there is no loss or gain of heat the change
in internal energy of a gas equals the mechanical work done
by the gas in expanding or on the gas in being compressed.
This is known as adiabatic change for which the index
n — 1-404 (1 4 is quite near enough for practical purposes).
pyi-4 — constant.
(4) Constant temperature. Isothermal change.
PV = constant. (Boyle’s Law.)
V T
(5) Constant pressure. ~ — —- (Charles’ Law.)
V2 12
p 'p
(6) Constant volume. ~ —-f (Law of Pressures.)
*s 12
These three formulae are combined and concisely expressed
by the characteristic equation for a perfect gas, viz.—
(7) PV = RT. For 1 lb. of gas PV — 53-2T.
All the above formulae apply strictly to perfect gases only,
but air and the usual explosive mixtures obey the same laws
sufficiently closely for practical purposes.
64. Cycles of operation
1. The Otto (constant volume) cycle.—An internal
combustion engine designed for refined mineral oil, such as
paraffin, and running on the four-stroke cycle, is shown on
PI. 41. It consists essentially of a piston connected to a
Sec. 64.—Cycles of Operation 255
Plate 41
E/VG//VE
O/L
/-/Off/ZOA/ry4i.
Plate 42.
/NDICA TOR P/AGRA MS

or 4rSTROKE CYCLE £NQ!NE.
crankshaft, by a connecting rod. An inlet valve, I, and an

exhaust valve, E, are kept normally closed by strong helical
springs, S, and can be opened at the right time by cams, C,
revolving on the half-time shaft, which makes one revolution
to two of the crankshaft, from which it is driven by gearing.
2. The four strokes of the cycle are briefly as follows
(PI. 42, Fig. 1) :—
i. Induction or suction stroke.—The inlet valve is open
and the exhaust valve closed. The piston is drawn
outwards by the flywheel and sucks a mixture of oil
(previously vaporized) and air into the cylinder
through the inlet valve. Both valves are closed at
the end of the stroke.
ii. Compression stroke.—Both valves are closed. The
return stroke of the piston compresses the explosive
mixture into the compression chamber, the necessary
energy still being supplied by the flywheel. Just
before the end of the stroke (inner dead centre) the
charge is ignited, and burns practically instan¬
taneously. The heat of combustion raises the
temperature of the gaseous mixture in the cylinder,
and hence its pressure.
iii. Power stroke.—The momentum of the flywheel pulls
the piston over inner dead centre, and the pressure
of the burning mixture behind it forces the piston
back with gradually decreasing force throughout the
stroke as the products of combustion expand and the
pressure falls. Both valves remain closed during
this stroke.
iv. Exhaust stroke.—The exhaust valve is open and the
inlet valve closed. The in-going piston sweeps the
expanded products of combustion out at the exhaust
valve opening.
3. The four strokes make up one cycle, which is completed
in two revolutions of the flywheel. The power stroke alone
gives an impulse to the piston; the other three strokes are
necessary to the action of the engine, but absorb some of its
power. The revolving flywheel serves as a reservoir of energy
for driving the piston during its three non-productive strokes,
and is made of sufficient weight and diameter to prevent any
great fluctuation of engine speed during any one cycle.
4. Graphical representation of the cycle.—Referring
to PI. 42, Fig. 1, let various positions of the stroke
be plotted along CX, and pressure inside the cylinder
along CP. Let I and O represent positions of inner and outer
dead centre, so that 10 represents the length of the stroke.
Also let the line CX represent atmospheric pressure. Then the
graph for the suction stroke will be represented by habc, below

the atmospheric line. The reason for this is that the piston
must move outwards and form a partial vacuum in the
cylinder before the charge will begin to be drawn in, and,
similarly, the vacuum must always precede the charge through¬
out the stroke. At c the inlet valve closes, and the com¬
pression stroke, of which cd is the graph, begins. The
compression may be considered to be adiabatic, which means
that there is no transference of heat between the compressed
mixture and the cylinder walls, &c. This has been verified
by experiment as being approximately correct. The higher
the speed, the less time will there be for transmission of heat,
and the more truly adiabatic will the compression become.
The temperature of the mixture is higher at d than at c, but
this is due to the work done on it during compression by the
piston (i.e. conversion of work into heat), in the same way as
air compressed in a cycle pump heats up. At d the com¬
pressed charge is assumed to bum instantaneously, and the
heat of combustion causes the pressure inside the cylinder to
rise to a point, c.
The curve cf represents pressures at any point during the
power stroke, the expansion of the products of combustion
being also adiabatic. The gases, however, cool down from
e to/, as they do work in giving the push to the piston. When
the exhaust valve opens, the pressure falls almost instan¬
taneously from/ to g, and the line of pressures, gh, during the
exhaust stroke is slightly above the atmospheric line, as the
piston has to push the exhaust gases remaining in the cylinder
out through the relatively small valve opening.
5. In an engine in practice the exhaust and inlet pressure
lines arc to all intents and purposes coincident with the
atmospheric line as shown in PI. 42, Fig. 2. In Fig. 1, their
positions above and below the atmospheric line respectively
have been exaggerated for clearness.
Further, it must be noted that in practice the valves do
not open and close exactly at the beginning and end of the
stroke, and they do not open and close instantaneously.
Moreover, combustion does not occur instantaneously at the
end of the compression stroke. These imperfections have the
effect of rounding off the diagram as shown dotted in Fig. 2.
6. Efficiency of constant volume cycle.—The Otto
cycle is known as the constant volume cycle because, theoretic¬
ally, the heat of combustion is added instantaneously to the
gases inside the cylinder whilst the piston is at inner dead
centre, and their volume remains the same. Similarly, the
useful heat having been extracted from the products of com¬
bustion by the time the exhaust valve or port opens at outer
dead centre, the wasted heat may be regarded as leaving the

engine at this point.
On PI. 42, Fig. 2, let Tx be the temperature of the charge
after compression, T2 after combustion at inner dead centre,
T3 just before the exhaust valve opens, and T0 of the entering
charge.
Let Vx and Vo be the volumes between piston and cylinder
end at inner and outer dead centres respectively.
Then thermal efficiency
_ heat turned into work
heat supplied
___ heat supplied — heat rejected
lieat supplied
heat rejected _ Kt, (Ts — T0)
heat supplied ~ Kt. (T2 — Tj) ’
From equations (3) and (7) above we have
pyi-4
py = a constant
T .
TV0-4 — a constant.
By assumption, the volume is V0 both at Ts and T0 and V2
both at T2 and Tj.
. Ti _ Tjj _ / V0 \0-4 _ Tg — Tj
■•T0"T3 ' W, ; T,-To
/V \0-4
Therefore the thermal efficiency — 1 — l ^ ) .
V'V0/
Now Xp _ voûme at outer dead centre _ total cylinder volume
V! volume at inner dead centre ~ clearance volume
is known as the compression ratio and denoted by r.
thermal efficiency Q.r.

(If r = 5, the thermal efficiency — 47*5 per cent.)
This is the maximum theoretical thermal efficiency it is
possible to realize in an engine working on the constant volume
cycle. It is known as the Air Standard Efficiency.
It will be.noted that the higher the compression ratio, the
greater the efficiency.
In practice the compression ratio is limited by detonation
and by mechanical considerations.
7. The Diesel (constant pressure) cycle.—In the
Diesel engine the detonation difficulty is overcome in the
following way. In the suction stroke, air only is drawn into

the cylinder and the compression pressure is therefore limited
merely by mechanical considerations. Pressures up to
500-600 lb./sq. inch are used in practice.
At the end of the compression stroke the fuel is admitted
and ignited by the heat of the compression alone. The fuel
is sprayed in at such a rate that, theoretically, there is no rise
of pressure and by the time the last particle of fuel has entered
and been burnt the piston has moved some distance forward
on its working stroke. Theoretically, therefore, the com¬
bustion takes place at constant pressure.
The ideal pressure diagram is shown in PI. 42, Fig. 3, from
which it will be noted that the working stroke bears a close
resemblance to the working stroke in a steam engine with a
very early cut off.
8. Efficiency of constant pressure cycle.—
Heat generated by combustion = KP(T2 — Tj).
Heat lost in the exhaust = K„(T3 — T0).
Heat converted into mechanical work, assuming
adiabatic expansion and compression
= Kp(T2 - Tx) - KP(T3 - To).
heat turned into work
The thermal efficiency —
heat supplied
K,(T3 - T0) _T3 — T0
K/T,-^) 1'4(T2 — T2)
Thus the specific heats do not cancel out as they do in the
constant volume formula.
This can be expressed thus
/ J\0»4
To T, (;) (K1‘ -
1 -
1-4(T2 - TJ “ 1 1-4(K - 1)
in which r — compression ratio as before and
y
K = rrz = constant pressure expansion ratio.
vi
It will be found by trial that, for the same compression

ratio, the Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel, but as
explained before the Otto engine cannot use such high
compression ratios as the Diesel.
It is also interesting to note that the smaller K becomes the
higher the efficiency. Therefore, theoretically at least, the
Diesel engine becomes more efficient thermally as its load is
reduced.
Sec. 65.—Practical Efficiencies 261
9. Four-stroke and two-stroke cycles.—In most engines

the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the
piston, there being one power stroke only in two revolutions,
but in a large number of engines the cycle is completed in two
strokes. The relative practical advantages and disadvantages
of the two types will be dealt with later, but so far as thermal
efficiency is concerned it makes no difference whether the cycle
of operation is completed in two or four strokes.
65. Practical efficiencies

1. In practice, the best engines attain 50 to 60 per cent,
only of the theoretical thermal efficiencies deduced above,
this percentage being known as the efficiency ratio.
The main reasons for this difference are :—
i. Loss of heat to the cylinder walls. This is carried
away by the cooling water.
ii. Additional loss to exhaust, owing to the valve or port
opening before the end of the power stroke.
iii. The combustion is not instantaneous.
iv. The maximum explosion pressure falls short of that
expected by theory [see PI. 42, Fig. 2). This is
thought to be due to the rise of specific heat of pro¬
ducts of combustion at high temperatures.
v. The working substance is not pure air.
As an example take the figures for a gas engine given in
Table U, page 273.
/ 1 \0*4
7 he air standard efficiency = 1 —1-1 = 0*475.
The B.Th.U. consumed per B.H.P. hour = 10,450.

2 545
Brake thermal efficiency = * = 0-244.
10,450
Mechanical efficiency — 0-8.
0-244
Indicated thermal efficiency — ^ ^ = 0-305
0-305
and the efficiency ratio = = 0-64.
0-475
For the average practical values of these quantities for
other I.C. engines, see Table U.
Diagrams such as those shown on PI. 42, Fig. 2, can be
obtained by. means of an indicator, which is dealt with in
Chap. XXX.

CHAPTER XIII
PRACTICAL STROKES AND VALVE TIMING

66. Four-stroke constant volume cycle engines
1. It has been stated in Sec. 64 that in a practical engine
the valves do not open and close instantaneously nor exactly
at dead centre. The principles affecting valve-timing of
four-stroke I.C. engines working on the constant volume
cycle, will now be considered in this section and Sec. 68.
2. Suction stroke.—Assuming that the inlet valve is
open (or partly open) at inner dead centre and that the piston
moves outwards, it will begin to form a partial vacuum in the
cylinder, so that the charge, which is at atmospheric pressure,
will begin to flow in. A partial vacuum must be formed
before the charge will flow in, and, therefore, the line of pres¬
sure during this stroke is always below atmospheric. If the
inlet valve closed exactly at outer dead centre, compression
would start when the cylinder was filled with a charge below
atmospheric pressure, and it would not be until point K on
PI. 42, Fig. 1, was reached on the compression stroke that
atmospheric pressure would be obtained.
In order to get the greatest weight of charge into the cylinder
(resulting in maximum power), the inlet valve does not close
until after the compression stroke has begun, so that the
column of air in the inlet pipe, which is already in motion,
may continue to flow into the cylinder until the pressure
therein is atmospheric, or slightly above it. Of course, at this
point the piston has already returned through a short
distance (exaggerated in PI. 42, Fig. 1), but the net effect
is to get more charge into the cylinder and, incidentally, to
raise the pressure at the end of the compression stroke. The
actual position of closing must vary in differently designed
engines, but it is always after outer dead centre. [O.D.C.]
PI. 43, Fig. 1, gives a valve-timing diagram for an engine
such as is shown on PI. 41.
3. Compression stroke and ignition.—In any engine,
the heavier the weight of the charge the greater will be the
final compression pressure. Ignition is commenced before
inner dead centre. [I.D.C.] This is necessary because the
charge does not burn instantaneously, but takes a definite
time to do so. To obtain maximum power, the highest
possible pressure is required very early in the power stroke.
262
Sec. 66.—Four-stroke Cycle Engines 263
264 Sec. 66.—Four-stroke Cycle Engines
Plate 44.
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS
OF 2-STROKE CYCLE ENGINE
CONSTANT VOLUME
F/q I
Theoretical Diagram.
To Illustrate S Str Cycle
C r\
Atmospheric Lina Cylinder volume
Actual Diagram
(Theoretical Diagram
S ho*rn Dotted J
Atmospheric Line Cylinder Volume

Sec. 67.—Two-stroke Cycle Engines 265
Maximum pressure can only be obtained when all the heat

of combustion has been absorbed by the products of com¬
bustion. The actual point at which ignition should take
place varies with the design, speed, load and temperature of
the engine, with the strength of the explosive charge, and
with its degree of compression, and has been dealt with in
Sec. 62.
4. The power stroke.—During this stroke the exhaust
valve begins to open about 50° before outer dead centre. See
PI. 43, Fig. 1. At first sight it would appear that by so
doing much useful pressure would be wasted; but as the
pressure at this point has dropped fairly low, and as for
the short remainder of the stroke, PI. 43, Fig. 2, the con¬
necting rod and crank are nearly in line, little power is thereby
lost. By opening the Valve at this point, the pressure of the
burnt gases in the cylinder is reduced nearly to atmospheric
by the end of the stroke. When the exhaust stroke begins,
there only remains a cylinder full of combustion products,
at slightly above atmospheric pressure, to push out of the
cylinder, and therefore the back pressure on the piston during
this idle stroke is reduced to a minimum.
5. The exhaust stroke.—In this stroke the inlet
valve opens before inner dead centre; it is also seen from
PI. 43, Fig. 1, that the exhaust valve does not close until
after the suction stroke has commenced. This ensures that
all the burnt gases are swept out, and that the cylinder is filled,
during the suction stroke, with fresh mixture only. The push
imparted to burnt gases by the piston on the exhaust stroke
will give them such momentum that they will continue to
move through the valve opening after the cylinder pressure
is reduced to atmospheric pressure. If at this moment the
inlet valve is opened, air at atmospheric pressure will flow in
through it, and will tend to help the burnt gases to continue
their movement through the exhaust opening, PI. 43, Fig. 3.
This process is known as scavenging, and ensures that the
explosive charge for the next stroke is not mixed with burnt
gases from the last cycle. This overlap of inlet and exhaust
valves is usual in low-speed engines, though it is, of course,
more effective in the case of engines having valves on opposite
sides of the cylinder than with those having side by side valves.
67. Two-stroke cycle engines

1. The graphical representation (indicator diagram) of
the two-stroke constant volume cycle is shown on PI. 44. It
is practically the same as for the four-stroke constant volume
cycle (PI. 42, Fig. 1), except that the suction and exhaust
266 Sec. 67.—Two-stroke Cycle Engines
strokes do not appear. The compression and expansion

curves are approximately adiabatic as before.
The engine described in the following paragraphs, however,
compresses air only and works on a cycle which lies between
the constant volume and constant pressure cycles. It is,
however, typical of practical two-stroke engines which seldom
work on the true constant volume cycle.
2. Referring to PI. 75, p. 387, and considering the cycle of
operations taking place on both sides of the piston, i.e. in
the cylinder and in the totally enclosed crankcase, air, which
had been drawn into the crankcase through automatic disc
valves, D, when the piston was moving upwards on the
previous stroke, has been compressed in the crankcase by the
subsequent downward movement of the piston. This air
is now being transferred to the upper side of the piston by
way of the transfer port, I, which is only open when the
piston is at or near the lower end of its stroke.
Owing to the shape of the top of the piston, this air does
not escape direct through the open exhaust port, G, but
passes round the upper end of the cylinder as indicated by the
arrows. In doing so, it scavenges the cylinder of the burnt
gases from the previous explosion, forcing them out to exhaust
through the port, G.
The momentum of the flywheel now carries the piston
upwards, closing ports I, and later G, thus trapping the air
and compressing it in the cylinder.
When the piston is near the top of its stroke, fuel in the
form of a fine spray is forced in by means of a fuel pump (not
shown) and atomiser or spraymakcr. The heat of compression,
combined with the heat of a purposely uncooled portion of the
cylinder head, cause a rapid burning or explosion of the air
and fuel mixture to take place, with consequent rapid rise of
pressure.
The piston is now forced downwards, imparting momentum
to the flywheel and doing useful work, until port G is
uncovered, when the burnt gases escape to atmosphere via
the exhaust. Slightly later, the port I is uncovered, allowing
a new charge of air (which had been sucked into and com¬
pressed in the crankcase as in 1) to enter and scavenge the
remaining burnt gases.
Another cycle then commences.
3. It will be observed that there is one power stroke per
revolution of the crankshaft, as compared with one power
stroke per two revolutions of the crankshaft in the case of a
four-stroke engine.
4. In PI. 74, Fig. 5, is shown the port timing diagram of a
typical two-stroke engine such as is shown in PI. 75. It will
Sec. 68.—Valve Timing 267
be noticed that the opening and closing points of each port
are symmetrical about the outer dead centre (O.D.C.). This
will be obviously unavoidable, since the ports are stationary,
and it can be understood by referring to PI. 75.
5. Considering firstly the transfer port. In order to ensure
complete transfer of the charge (which in the case in Pl. 75
is air only) from crankcase to cylinder at the speed and with
the amount of crankcase compression usually found in such
an engine (some 6 lb. per sq. in. gauge), it is necessary that
the upper edge of the transfer port be cut so that opening and
closing takes place about 50° of crank angle from the O.D.C.
This gives a total opening of 100° of crank angle, the port
being fully open only at the outer dead centre. This, with
ports extending sideways to some third of the circumference
of the cylinder, allows unrestricted transfer to take place.
6. The exhaust port must open before the transfer port
so that the cylinder pressure has time to fall below the crank¬
case pressure by the time the transfer port opens. Otherwise
the exhaust products would pass down the transfer port into
the crankcase.
In order to attain this end it is necessary to have the
exhaust port open some 65° before O.D.C., which is earlier
than in the case of the exhaust valve in a four-stroke engine.
This means that, for the same maximum pressure the
two-stroke engine is not quite so efficient as the four-stroke,
but the difference on this account is small.
7. Considering the closing points of both ports, the exhaust
port must of necessity close later than the transfer port.
This at once introduces the risk of loss of the new charge
through the exhaust port, in spite of the specially designed
deflector on the piston top. This loss of charge is 'primarily
responsible for the relatively poor thermal efficiency of two-
stroke engines as compared with four-stroke in cases where
fuel and air are. compressed in the crankcase. It is most
noticeable when such two-strokes are run at speeds lower than
that for which they were designed.
68. Valve timing

1. The exact setting of valves to open and close at the correct
time is important, as it affects not only the power that can he
developed by the engine, hut also the fuel consumption.
The factors normally affecting the valve timing are:—
i. The meshing of gears driving the half-time shaft.
The correct position is usually indicated by a pip
mark on the teeth.
ii. The adjustment of tappets or their levers, and the
wear of valves owing to grinding in.
268 Sec. 68.—Valve Timing
Even though (i) is correct, an inexperienced operator may

have his tappets so adjusted that the valves remain open for
too long or too short a period.
Valve settings, therefore, require constant checking by
officers and mechanists.
Although a knowledge of the principles enunciated in this
chapter will enable a fair setting to be made, manufacturer’s
instructions on the point should be worked to when they are
available.
2. Changing direction of rotation.—The majority
of oil engines are designed to run as shown on PI. 41. It is,
however, possible to reverse the direction of rotation in some
four-strokes by so altering the cams that the valves are made
.to open and close at the correct instant in the reversed cycle.
In the case of two-strokes, the port timing is the same for
either direction of rotation.
For further instructions as to changing direction of rota¬
tion (as regards ignition), see Sec. 87, para. 12, and Sec. 96,
para. 9.
CHAPTER XIV
TYPES AND RATING OF I.C. ENGINES

69. Types of I.C. engines
1. The various types of I.C. engines may be conveniently

classified as follows
1. UiiO Wl
ii. Petrol engines.

iii. Oil engines.
iv. Heavy oil engines—Semi-Diesel.
v. Heavy oil engines.—Diesel. | îr hijection*0
In types (i), (ii) and (iii) a gas or vapour mixture is

compressed and the compression pressures are therefore
necessarily low. Ignition is effected by an electric spark
or hot bulb, the increase of temperature due to compression
being relatively negligible. In (iv) and (v), air only is
compressed, and the fuel is introduced at the end of the
compression stroke.
i. Gas engines were the first type of I.C. engine introduced

and are perhaps the simplest in operation. They will
seldom be met with in the service, but it should be
remembered that practically any type of petrol
or oil engine can be converted to run on coal gas
or producer gas.
ii. Petrol engines.—This type is considered next as the
fuel more nearly approaches a gas than any other
liquid fuel. Petrol engines are mainly of the four-
stroke, high-speed type, running at from 1,000 to
2,000 r.p.m. and having therefore a relatively high
power weight ratio. Apart from road vehicles, they
are largely used for stationary work in the service
in small sizes up to (say) 40 B.H.P., on account of
their lightness, portability and quickness of starting.
Owing to their extensive use in road vehicles they
are perhaps better understood generally than any
other type of engine, but they are expensive to run
and have a short life.
The ordinary petrol engine can also be run on
paraffin (with a reduced output) if a vaporizer is
fitted.
269
270 Sec. 69.—Types of I.C. Engine
iii. Oil engines.—Chronologically, the low-compression,
low-speed engines burning paraffin, popularly known
as oil engines, come next to the gas engine. They
are extremely simple to operate, cheap in first cost
and have a long life. Although now being largely
superseded by more efficient engines burning cheaper
fuels, low-compression oil engines still have a wide
application in small sizes. They suffer from the
disadvantage that some 20 minutes is necessary
to heat up a vaporizer before the engine can be
started.
iv. Semi-Diesel engines.—The Diesel Engine Users’
Association’s definition of a semi-Diesel is as follows :
“ A semi-Diesel engine is a prime mover actuated
by the gases resulting from the combustion of a
hydro-carbon oil. A charge of oil is injected in the
form of a spray into a combustion space open to the
cylinder of the engine at or about the time of maxi¬
mum compression in the cylinder. The heat derived
from an uncoolcd portion of the combustion chamber,
together with the heat generated by the compression
of the air to a moderate temperature, ignites the
charge. The combustion of the charge takes place
at, or approximately at, constant volume.”
This type of engine was introduced in the days
when there was no alternative between the air blast
Diesel engine burning cheap fuel oil and the low-
compression oil engine burning the much more
expensive paraffin, in an attempt to produce an
engine burning cheap fuel approaching the Diesel
in efficiency but which, by using lower compression
pressures, could be produced in a comparatively light
and cheap form. The majority of semi-Diesels work
on the two-stroke cycle. This type of engine will
not start from cold without some special device, and
although having a high thermal efficiency, the neces¬
sity for a hot bulb is a disadvantage and the solid
injection Diesel engine is now superseding it except
in small sizes (say) up to 25 B.H.P.
v. Diesel engines.—The D.E.U.A.’s definition of a Diesel
engine is as follows: “A Diesel engine is a prime
mover actuated by the gases resulting from the
combustion of a liquid or pulverized fuel injected in
a fine state of sub-division into the engine cylinder
at or about the conclusion of the compression stroke.
The heat generated by the compression to a high
temperature of air within the cylinder is the sole
means of igniting the charge. The combustion of
Sec. 69.—Types of I.C. Engine 271
the charge proceeds at, or approximately at, con¬

stant pressure. There are actually two sub-types
of Diesel:—
“ (a) The true Diesel, in which the fuel is blown
into the cylinder by an air blast. This
type works on the constant pressure
cycle. See Sec. 97.
" (b) The airless injection type in which the blast
air for fuel injection is dispensed with,
and solid injection, i.e. injection by
mechanical pump is substituted. This
type works usually on a cross between
constant-volume and constant-pressure
cycle, ]but comes within the Diesel Engine
Users’ Association's definition of Diesel.”
In large sizes there is no doubt that the air blast
injection Diesel is the most economical type of I.C.
engine. Both four-stroke and two-stroke designs
are common.
The solid injection type popularly known as a
cold starter is not quite so efficient nor so quiet in
operation as the air injection type, but the absence
of a compressor makes the former the simpler of the
two. The solid inj ection type may now be considered
as the most suitable for service purposes in sizes
of (say) 25 B.H.P. upwards.
vi. High-speed heavy-oil engines.—The majority of Diesel
engines run at low speeds of the order 150-400 r.p.m.
and are relatively large and expensive, but most
manufacturers have recently developed designs
running at much higher speeds which should prove
both lighter and cheaper for stationary work
generally. Also the high price of petrol and the
improvements in the properties of engineering
materials have caused attention to be focussed upon
the production of a comparatively small Diesel
type of engine, burning cheap fuel oil which will
run at high speeds of the order 1,000-2,000 r.p.m.
and give a power weight ratio approaching that of
the petrol engine. A number of successful designs
of this type of engine, known popularly as the
compression-ignition engine (all Diesel engines are,
of course, compression-ignition engines), are now in
use in road vehicles, and it is possible that this type
may replace the petrol engine for service purposes
in the not very remote future.
272 Sec. 70.—The Rating of I.G. Engines
2. Table U and PL 45 summarize the salient features of

the various types of engines referred to above. There is
nothing precise about the figures given in the table (higher
values for the M.E.P. will be met in some cases). They
are typical of small engines up to about 40 B.H.P., the gas,
oil and semi-Diesel being low speed (about 200-300 r.p.m.),
and the petrol, high speed (1,000-2,000 r.p.m.). In the Diesel
engines the figures apply roughly to sizes from 100-500 B.H.P.
These engines will be dealt with in more detail in the
following chapters.
3. Four-stroke and two-stroke cycle engines.—There
is little to choose between modem designs of four-stroke
and two-stroke engines. The weight and first cost of engines
of similar output are approximately equal. In the smaller
sizes, the two-stroke has a slightly higher fuel and lubricating
oil consumption. The absence of valves in the cylinder head
of the two-stroke makes for simplicity, and its torque is more
even, but against these advantages may be alleged the uneven
stresses and wear in the cylinder due to a hot exhaust port
on one side and a cool inlet on the other, and the necessity
for an air-tight crankcase.
The use of fuel oil and compression ignition introduce a
new factor in favour of the two-stroke engine. No fuel is
admitted until towards the end of the compression stroke and
scavenging is therefore carried out by means of pure air. The
loss of a certain amount of this air through the exhaust port
is of small importance if it carries no fuel with it and, therefore,
more thorough scavenging can be obtained than with the
petrol engine. Further, if air only is compressed in the
crankcase, no direct dilution of the lubricating oil takes place.
Generally, however, for small and medium size engines,
the four-stroke is more popular than the two-stroke cycle
engine.
70. The rating of I.C. engines
1. The B.H.P. which an engine is capable of developing
is proportional to the following :—
(a) The indicated work per stroke.
(b) The number of working strokes in unit time.
(c) The mechanical efficiency.
The indicated work is proportional to—
i. The indicated mean effective pressure (I.M.E.P.).
See Sec. 140.
ii. The volume displaced per stroke by the piston.
Thfe higher the combustion pressure the higher the
I.M.E.P. and the working temperatures, and therefore the
maximum horsepower which an engine can safely develop is
Table U.—Typical data of four-stroke I.C. engines
10—(579)
Sec. 70.—The Rating of I.C. Engines
279
Some designs use compression pressures up to 250-300.

Plate 45.
COMPRESSION AND EXPL OS /ON

THE
ROUGHLY
SHOWING
Sec. 70.—The Rating of I.G. Engines 275
limited by the thermal and mechanical characteristics of the

materials used in the construction. The design is, of course,
a matter for the manufacturer, who is forced for competitive
reasons to work with as low a margin of safety as possible
and, therefore, a clear definition to check the manufacturer’s
rating is obviously desirable.
2. In the past it has been considered wise not to run I.C.
engines for long periods at loads as great as the manufacturer’s
rating, and where no recognized standard of performance
exists the practice is sound. (See Table Z, page 546.)
There are, however, for heavy oil engines driving electric
generators, three British Standard Specifications (see Biblio¬
graphy) from which the following have been extracted :—
i. Rated output.—The rated output of the engine shall
be the load in brake-horse-power which it is capable
of carrying continuously for a period of twelve hours
at its rated speed when working under the following
conditions:—
Barometric pressure—30 in. of mercury.
Atmospheric temperature—62° F.
For continuous day and night running, the maxi¬
mum continuous load on the engine shall be 10 per
cent, less than the rated output.
ii. Overload.—The engine shall be capable for periods of
one hour of developing a load of 10 per cent, above
its rated output without undue heating or mechanical
trouble.
iii. The specifications also lay down that for direct coupled
sets the engine rating should be 1-5 times the genera¬
tor rating in k.W., assuming a generator efficiency
of 89-5 per cent.
For belt- or rope-driven machines the engine
rating is increased by 5 per cent.
If the generator is to be called upon to carry any
continuous overload in excess of 10 per cent, for any
period this overload should be allowed for.
For example, a 100-k.W. generator capable of 15
per cent, sustained overload would necessitate an
engine for direct-coupling and continuous day and
night running rated at
115 x 1-5 x M = 190B.H.P.
iv. Allowances for non-standard atmospheric conditions.
(а) Altitude.—Four per cent, decrease in rated
output per 1 inch decrease of mercury.
(б) Temperature.—Two per cent, decrease in
rated output per 10° F. increase in tempera¬
ture.
For example, suppose an engine is required to

develop 100 B.H.P. at an altitude of 5,000 feet.
Assuming approximately 1 in. decrease in mercury
for 1,000 feet altitude, the standard rating must be
100
^=125 B.H.P. at 62° F.
3. There are no B.S. Specifications for other types of

I.C. engines, but those for heavy-oil engines may be used
as guides for all types.
4. High-speed petrol engines when direct-coupled should
have a B.H.P. rating equal to twice the rating of the electric
generator in k.W.
The treasury rating for high-speed petrol engines used in
road vehicles is :—
B.H.P. = 0-4 D2N,
where D = diameter of piston in inches,
and N --- number of cylinders.
This is based upon a piston speed of about 1,000 feet per
minute and a brake mean effective pressure of about 67
lb./sq. in., and may be used as a guide when assessing the
rating of this type of engine for stationary running on petrol.
On paraffin the B.H.P. will be 20 per cent. less.
5. Supercharging.—It was pointed out in Sec. 63 that
an I.C. engine is really an air engine, and it follows that the
greater the weight of air present in the cylinder at the begin¬
ning of the compression stroke the greater the quantity of
fuel which can be burnt and the greater the power the engine
can develop.
When air enters the cylinder its temperature is raised by
mixing with the hot exhaust gases remaining in the clearance
space from the previous cycle, and also by coming into contact
with the hot walls of the cylinder, while its pressure is reduced
somewhat as the rapidly moving piston produces a slight
vacuum in the cylinder. The drop in pressure depends on the
speed of the piston and the adequacj' of the inlet-valve and
port areas, and it is readily ascertained by a light spring
indicator diagram.
The efficiency with which the suction stroke performs its
function of re-charging the cylinder with fresh air is called
the volumetric efficiency which
__ Volume of fresh air drawn in (at N.T.P.)
Volume swept by the piston
In four-stroke engines the value is from 80-85 per cent,
for low piston speeds, but may be as low as 70 per cent, with
very high piston speeds. In small high-speed two-stroke
engines the value may be only 50 per cent. (The effective
Sec. 70.—The Rating of I.C. Engines 277
volumetric efficiency will naturally be smaller still at high

altitudes.)
If, however, air is introduced into the cylinder under
pressure, the rated output of an engine of given size can be
very much increased, and the engine is then said to be
supercharged.
In the Buchi system the exhaust gases are used to drive a
turbo-compressor to give a cylinder charging pressure well
above atmospheric which results in—
(1) A larger weight of air due to higher pressure and
lower temperature.
(2) A smaller exhaust gas residue owing to more efficient
scavenging.
(3) A very efficient internal cooling effect.
A charging pressure of 5 lb./sq. inch above atmospheric
enables the rating of an engine of given size to be increased
by 50 per cent., the only appreciable modification in design
necessary in Diesel engines being a small increase in crankshaft
diameter to deal with the greater output. This is possible
because the maximum cylinder pressure and temperature arc
no greater in the supercharged engine than in the ordinary
one. The maximum combustion pressures are the same in
both cases, but in the supercharged engine the combustion
continues for a longer period and therefore the indicated
M.E.P. is greater.
It will be clear from the above that for a given power the
supercharged engine is lighter, smaller and cheaper.
Supercharging is largely used in marine and faircraft
engines and is now being applied to both air injection and
solid injection engines.
CHAPTER XV
GOVERNING, LUBRICATION, AIR FILTERING,

COOLING AND SILENCING OF I.C. ENGINES
71. Governing of I.C. engines
1. Speed regulation.—Engines are normally designed to '

run at maximum efficiency when doing a certain definite
amount of work per cycle, and therefore to maintain the best
efficiency they should run at a speed proportional to the load.
This is, of course, seldom practicable in stationary work,
where the speed should be as constant as possible at all loads.
The full load speed regulation is defined as follows:—
Speed regu¬ Rise in speed when full load is suddenly removed

lation Rated full load speed
X 100 per cent.
e.g. if the speed rises from 300 to 315 from full load to no load
the speed regulation is 5 per cent.
To realize this approximate constancy of speed it is
necessary to alter the fuel supply automatically as the load
varies, and it is the function of the governor to effect this with
as little variation in engine speed as possible.
The governor (PI. 46, Fig. 1).—Whatever method of fuel
adjustment is adopted, the controlling mechanism is generally
actuated by the motion of a sleeve (b) on a vertical or hori¬
zontal spindle. The sleeve derives its linear motion from two
arms connected to revolving weights (a, a) driven by the
engine. These weights are suspended in such a manner that
their position relative to the axis of rotation varies with the
centrifugal force acting on them, and therefore with the engine
speed. The greater the linear motion of the sleeve corre¬
sponding to a given change in speed the greater is said to be
the sensitiveness of the governor.
For reasons which cannot be explained here a governor is
usually loaded with a weight or a spring, acting on the sleeve,
to increase the sensitivity.
A governor which is infinitely sensitive, i.e. in which an
infinitely small change in speed gives maximum motion of the
sleeve is said to be isochronous. Although at first sight such
a governor may seem to be ideal, it would really be of no
practical use owing to its tendency to hunt. When the load
is suddenly reduced the speed increases sufficiently to cut off
the fuel supply completely. The speed then falls below normal,
278
Sec. 71.—Governing of I.C. Engines 279
thus giving a full supply of fuel and causing the engine to
speed up again. This goes on for some time and the continual
overshooting of the mark is termed hunting.
A practical governor, therefore, must be stable and maintain
a definite position of equilibrium for any speed within its
range, and there must be a definite difference of engine speed
between no load and full load.
Where a close speed regulation is desired (as in electric
power stations) the sensitivity of the governor is increased as
far as practicable and a damping device such as an oil dashpot
is fitted to reduce hunting.
For heavy oil engines in electric power station work it is
usual to specify a speed regulation of 3 per cent, (momentary
6 per cent.) from full load to no load. The Standard Specifica¬
tions, however, permit a change of 3| per cent. (7 per cent,
momentary) for engines driving D.C. generators in parallel or
A.C. generators singly and 5 per cent. (10 per cent, momentary)
when driving A.C. generators in parallel.
For small high speed petrol engines, a speed regulation of
7-10 per cent. (14-20 per cent, momentary) is usual.
2. Hand speed adjustment.—Provision is always made
(by altering the tension on the governor spring or otherwise)
for adjusting the speed of the engine by hand, while running,
independently of the governor control.
For heavy oil engines driving A.C. generators in parallel
7 per cent, above and below the rated speed must be provided
for in this way. When driving D.C. generators 2\ per cent,
above and below is sufficient.
Larger adjustments can be provided for if desired, but it is
not advisable to run continuously at speeds appreciably below
the rated value, if close governing is desired, as the sensitivity
of a governor is reduced at the lower speeds.
3. Cyclic speed irregularity.—The above discussion was
limited to what may be termed the mean or average speed of the
engine in revolutions per minute. But there is a considerable
variation in driving torque throughout each revolution.
In the case of the single cylinder four-stroke cycle engine
there is no driving torque at all during three strokes out of
four and a flywheel is absolutely essential, as previously
explained. In multicylinder engines the cyclic variations in
driving torque are naturally much less, but a flywheel is
always necessary to keep the cyclic speed irregularity, due to
variations in driving torque and load torque, within reasonable
limits.
Also included in the functions of the flywheel is the limita¬
tion of the momentary speed regulation referred to above.
The governor has little control over this.
280 Sec. 71.—Governing of I.G. Engines
The cyclic speed irregularity is defined as :—

Maximum speed — Minimum speed
Mean speed
expressed as a fraction. It should not exceed the values
given below for the loads specified
i. Pumps, ~.
ii. Machine tools, 7i7l.
iii. D.C. generators and A.C. generators (singly).
(a) Multicylinder engines, j45.
(b) Engines with one or two cylinders,
These low values are necessary to prevent flickering of the
lamps and governor oscillation.
iv. A.C. generators in parallel (additional requirement)
k
Gp
where k — number of engine impulses per revolution,
and p = number of poles in the generator.
This requirement ensures that the flywheel effect shall be
such that the angular deviation, i.e. the amount the rotating
part forges ahead or the amount it lags behind the position
of uniform rotation, shall not at any time exceed 21 electrical
degrees.
Engine manufacturers find no difficulty in complying with
these figures and they can arrange for a cyclic speed irregu¬
larity as low as -th if required. This is the figure generally
used for traction generators and specified by some engineers
for A.C. generators running in parallel.
The figures given in (iii) and (iv) above, however, which
are laid down in the British Standard Specifications, are low
enough for all ordinary purposes.
4. Weight of flywheel required.—The kinetic energy

(K.E.) stored in the rim of a flywheel
= 0-00017.W.K2.N2 foot-lb.
if W = weight of rim in pounds, K = radius of gyration
= mean radius of rim in feet and N = revs, per minute.
(The total weight will be about 1*4 W, including the arms
and boss, the K.E. of which is neglected here.)
The flywheel K.E. in foot-lb. required for a cyclic irregu¬
larity k, may be written
vv r ( 1,000 x I.H.P. )
KEr=c l —kK-J
Sec. 71.—Governing of I.G. Engines 281
in which the constant C has the following values for high

compression engines:—
Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle

No. of
cylinders I.H.P. per I.H.P. total I.H.P. per I.H.P. total
cylinder cylinder
1 42 42 28 28
O
4* 35-2 17-6 15-8 7-9
3 30-4 10-1 13-1 4-37
4 10-67 2-66 10-5 2-62
6 10-80 1-80 3-0 0-50
For low compression engines the flywheels may be some

20 to 30 per cent, lighter.
The flywheel effect of the rotor of an electric generator is
considerable and may be allowed for when deciding upon the
size of flywheel required.
5. Methods of fuel adjustment.—Three common
methods of fuel adjustment are employed in I.C. engines.
(i) Hit and miss governing, in which the whole of the fuel
is cut off for one or more strokes.
The method is simple, but the cyclic irregularity of the
engine is great unless very heavy flywheels are used. It is
rarely used now except on small and relatively unimportant
engines.
(ii) Quality governing in which the quantity of fuel injected
is altered to suit the load, the air supply remaining constant.
Practically the only method now used in oil engines of all
types.
Unsuitable for petrol or gas engines owing to the small
range of explosive mixtures.
(iii) Quantity governing in which the quantity of the
explosive mixture is altered to suit the load, the ratio of air
to fuel remaining constant. Used in petrol engines and very
largely in gas engines.
6. Hit and miss governing.—(i) In this method either—
(a) The fuel valve is kept closed for one or more strokes,
or
(b) With automatic inlet valves, the exhaust is held
open.
(ii) PI. 46. Fig. 1, shows a centrifugal governor actuating
a hit-and-miss gear. As the speed increases, the knife edge,
c, moves downwards until it catches the stop, d, and holds the
exhaust valve open. When the engine speed becomes normal
262 Sec. 71.—Governing of I.G. Engines
again, the governor balls drop, the knife edge, c, rises and
becomes disengaged from d, the exhaust valve is closed, and
the cycle is resumed.
(iii) PI. 46, Fig. 2, shows an inertia governor, on the hit-
and-miss principle, as used in an old design of the Tangye
oil engine. The pecker, P, is carried by a holder, B, hinged
on the pin, A, and resting on a roller turning on a fixed
pin, C.
A is borne in a bracket, D, to which a reciprocating motion
is given by the cam, E. The lower edge of B is formed with
an inclined surface, K, as shown. A spring, H, maintains a
slight tension on one end of B, thus tending to preserve
contact with the roller, C. At normal engine speeds the
spring pressure is so adjusted that B, during its motion from
right to left, does not part contact with C, and the pecker, P,
then engages with the groove, V, and the exhaust valve is
allowed to close.
At increased engine speeds, however, the upward
momentum communicated to B by the reaction of the roller
on the inclined surface, K, is sufficient to cause the pecker to
fly above V. This results in the exhaust valve being held
open owing to the engagement of the two hardened steel
plates, X and Y.
7. Quality governing.—(i) This is effected either by—
(a) Varying the pump stroke, or
(h) Taking a full pump stroke every time and by-passing
more or less oil, as the speed increases or
decreases.
(ii) PI. 47 shows the arrangement in the Hornsby oil
engine. The governor sleeve actuates a rod, so that when the
speed increases, the projecting piece, 6, is forced down and
opens a valve, c, against a spring. Oil is sprayed into the hot
bulb through the holes, d. It enters from the oil pump at e,
the force with which it is pumped being sufficient to open the
fuel inlet valve, /, against the spring. At normal speeds, the
valve c being closed, the whole of the oil pumped up per stroke
is sprayed into the vaporizer through d. As the speed
increases, the valve c is opened, and some of the oil pumped
up makes its way past this valve through the return pipe, g,
and back to the feed tank. If c is wide open, all the oil
pumped will escape back to the feed tank. The net result
is that the engine gets less and less oil as its speed increases
above the normal. The fuel supply can be varied by hand
independently of the governor by altering the length of
stroke of the fuel pump.
(iii) PI. 48 illustrates the method adopted in the modem
Tangye heavy oil engine. The governing is effected by
Plate 46.
Governors of Campbell and T/ingye Engines
ccn-rmrvGaL. Co^fRwofl (hit Mt93)

&CT/fsr& O/V THE r.KHHUST VE4EVE
234 Sec. 71.—Governing of l.G. Engines
Plat* 47
Plate 48.
286 Sec. 71.—Governing of I.C. Engines
Platr 49.
Sec. 71.—Governing of l.G. Engines 287
varying the time of opening a spill or by-pass valve, through

which the surplus oil is returned to the suction side of the
pump. The time of opening of the by-pass valve is varied
by the wedge B, and the position of the latter is determined
by the governor in accordance with the speed of the engine.
The wedge B is hinged at one end to the bell cranked lever,
which is operated from the governor, and is raised and lowered
by means of the small lever A, through which it passes. The
lever A is connected up at one end of the pump plunger and
is operated by the latter.
As shown in the figure, the wedge B is in the maximum
load position. In this position, there is such a clearance
between the top of the tappet, C, and the underside of the
by-pass valve, that when the lever, A, and wedge, B, are
raised to the fullest extent, the by-pass valve will only be
opened slightly and practically all the fuel oil will be delivered
through the sprayer. When working on lighter loads, the
position of the wedge will be such as to reduce the clearance
between the tappet and the by-pass valve, and the latter will
be opened sooner and less oil delivered to the sprayer. As
soon as the by-pass valve is opened, delivery of oil to the
sprayer ceases.
(iv) PL 75, Fig. 2, shows an arrangement commonly used
in two-stroke semi-Diesel engines in which governing is
effected by altering the stroke of the fuel pump.
The fuel pump plunger, a, is actuated from an eccentric
rod, b, driven off the crankshaft, e. The inner eccentric
sheave, d, is keyed to the crankshaft, but the outer eccentric,
c, is connected to the governor weights, gg, by the links, ff.
If the speed increases, the weights move outwards by centri¬
fugal force, thereby moving the outer eccentric, c, relatively
to the inner eccentric, d, and thus reducing the net
eccentricity, shortening the stroke of the eccentric rod, b, and
that of the pump plunger, a.
The speed of the engine can also be regulated by hand by
altering the stroke of the pump by means of the screw, h.
The fuel pump is usually provided with a safety device, in
case the spray-maker should become choked. In the case of
the engine in PI. 75, this takes the form of a diaphragm, which
will burst with any excessive pressure.
Owing to a full pump stroke being given at starting (speed
is too low for governor to limit stroke), too much oil is pumped
in to form a mixture that will explode. It is better, therefore,
at starting, to shorten the pump stroke by means of the
adjusting screw, h, on PI. 75, Fig. 2.
(v) PI. 78, Fig. 2, shows the governing arrangement in
the Mirrlees Diesel engine. The action is similar to that
described in para, (iii),/ being the by-pass valve in this case.
288 Sec. 72.—Lubrication of I.G. Engines
8. Quantity governing.—(i) In this method cither—

(а) A combined gas and air valve is used, or
(б) The explosive mixture is throttled in the induction
pipe.
(ii) PI. 49, Fig. 1, illustrates the method adopted in
the Crossley gas engine. The cam, C, moves one end of a
lever, L, through a fixed distance, but the distance moved
through by the other end of the lever, which opens the air
and gas valves, depends upon the position of the fulcrum, F.
The fulcrum is not fixed but is moved by the governor to a
position suitable for the load on the engine.
(iii) PJ. 49, Figs. 2 and 3, show the governing arrange¬
ment on the D.V.4 Crossley petrol-paraffin engine. As the
speed of the engine increases, the revolving weights, w, move
outwards against the springs g, thus pushing the governor
sleeve to the left through the medium of the bell crank lever l
(with fulcrum at p), and the ball thrust washer x. This
pushes the lower end b of the throttle valve lever (fulcrum
at 6) to the left, thus causing the upper end u to move to the
right and reduce the throttle opening. The governor is very
sensitive, and therefore a dashpot (d, Fig. 2) is provided to
damp the movement of the governor levers. The speed of
the engine may be varied by adjusting the tension on the
governor adjusting spring by means of the milled nut, n.
72. Lubrication of I.C. engines

Sec Chapter XXXIII. Service Lubricating Oils are given
in Table ZA, page 604.
1. Primarily, the object of a lubricant is to keep the rubbing
surfaces apart, and to build up a film between them which
under all conditions of speed, temperature, and pressure, will
not be squeezed out.
So far as engines are concerned (both steam and I.C.)
the problem falls roughly into two distinct divisions, viz.,
Cylinder Lubrication and Bearing Lubrication.
2. Cylinder lubrication.—It is important to avoid

giving the cylinder too much lubrication, and the best method
of applying it is undoubtedly by a mechanical force feed
lubricator giving separate controllable feeds to four or even
eight (in large engines) points on the cylinder where the wear
is greatest. This method is almost invariably used in both
open and enclosed type engines of moderate size (say) from
100 H.P. upwards.
Sec. 72.—Lubrication of I.G. Engines 289
The three essential properties of an oil for cylinder lubrica¬

tion are:—
i. High flash point.
ii. Vaporized oil must leave as little residue as possible
(even the best mineral oils leave some carbon
deposit).
iii. Fairly high viscosity.—If ail oil too light in body is
used it will break down under the high temperature
and lose its power of forming a film or “ oil seal ”
round the piston and will work too freely past the
piston rings into the combustion space, causing
carbon deposit and a smoky exhaust. It will also
be squeezed out from between piston rings and
cylinder and excessive wear will result. If the oil
is too heavy it will fail to spread freely, forming
only a partial film and piston friction will be
excessive.
In either case, leakage of gases past the rings will
occur on the compression ami explosion strokes with
consequent loss of power.
Compound oils, excellent for external lubrication purposes
generally, are quite unsuitable for the internal lubrication
of any engine (steam or I.C.) since the animal or vegetable
constituents become carbonized by the heat, and, in I.C.
engines, tend to produce pre-ignition troubles.
Moreover, when animal or vegetable oils are churned up
with a little water they saponify and form a thick lather which
tends to choke the small pipes and oilways of a forced lubrica¬
tion system. It is, therefore, always preferable to use a pure
mineral oil for the lubrication of enclosed engines in which
circulation is maintained by a pump of any kind.
The heavy high flash point oils, eminently suitable for
cylinders with sight feed or force feed lubrication, are not
suitable for splash lubrication which is commonly employed
in small enclosed type engines, since their great viscosity
prevents them from readily dissolving into the oil mist or fine
spray which is relied upon for lubricating the cylinder. In
this case, therefore, to satisfy the conflicting requirements of
cylinders and bearings it is necessary to compromise by using
a somewhat thinner oil and take the chance of increased carbon
deposits. Special oils are on the market for this purpose.
Incidentally a fairly low viscosity and specific gravity give a
better result for a circulating oil, as it more readily separates
from water, dirt, and other foreign matter. In the case of
petrol engines, which invariably hava splash lubrication for
the cylinders, the situation is modified somewhat by the
dilution of the lubricating oil with petrol, which results in a
290 Sec. 72.—Lubrication of I.C. Engines
decrease in viscosity of the oil. In heavy oil engines this

dilution is not so liable to occur and the lubricating oil is
more likely to increase in viscosity with use.
3. Bearing lubrication.—The problem to face with main
bearings, big ends and small ends, is that due to large pressures
tending to break down the oil film. Careful examination of a
badly worn crankshaft will indicate, however, that the relatively
high bearing pressure in the power stroke causes far less wear
than the less intense but longer sustained pressure due to
inertia and centrifugal force. This shows that a film of oil can
hold a heavy load for a short period, but is more likely to
break down under sustained pressure. Once the film has
broken down, relatively little pressure is sufficient to cause
abrasion. Very little trouble is experienced with the bearings
in four-stroke cycle engines, as the pressure on the journals
is frequently reversed and allows a constant oil film to be
maintained.
In open type engines the crankshaft journals are either
ring-lubricated or fed by gravity from a tank. The big end
is fed by means of a centrifugal oiling ring attached to the
crankshaft. The small end is fed in the same way as the
cylinder. A forced feed is arranged to deliver oil through
the cylinder walls at a point where it will coincide with a
vertical groove milled in the surface of the piston. From this
groove a drilled hole leads into the centre of the gudgeon pin
whence, by a radial hole at the centre, the oil reaches the
actual bearing surface of the pin.
Except in the case of very small high speed engines in
which splash lubrication is relied upon, all the bearings of
enclosed engines are force fed under a pressure of 10 to 40
lb./sq. inch.
In ring-lubricated and gravity fed bearings a lighter oil
with a lower flash point than that required for the cylinders
will usually be quite satisfactory and much cheaper. As a
general rule, however, it is inconvenient to use two different
grades of oil, even where the bearing and cylinder systems arc
quite separate.
In enclosed engines the heat radiated from the piston and
cylinder walls results in the bearing temperatures reaching
anything from 90° to 160° F.
For normal running the temperature should not be allowed
to go above 140° F. or the oil will quickly oxidize and its
useful life will be short.
4. General remarks.—There is no space to deal with
the lubrication of other details such as camshafts, valves, &c.,
but when taking over an engine it is necessary to make sure
how these components are lubricated.
In small engines, the camshaft bearings, governor gear and
valve gear are provided with oil holes for oil-can lubrication
by hand.
In large engines all these parts are usually fed from the
main oil circulating system.
When an engine has been at rest for some time the oil
films on the various working parts have more or less completely
broken down. They have been squeezed out by the sustained
pressure due to the weight of the parts and a certain amount
of metallic contact takes place. As a result, the starting
effort of an engine is very considerable and the static coefficient
of friction may quite easily approach that of solid friction.
Further, the increased viscosity of the lubricating oil when cold
will cause the power lost in friction to continue to be excessive
until the oil has warmed up.
Perhaps the most frequent cause of wear in petrol engines
is the running at starting, when the old oil has drained away
from the various parts and before the new supply of cold and
relatively thick oil has had time to reach them. For this
reason, as well as others, engines should invariably be started
with as small a throttle opening as possible, and run light
for a few minutes at low speed until the oil has warmed up
and can circulate freely. The practice of racing an engine at
starting to warm it up cannot be too strongly deprecated.
5. Examples of lubrication systems likely to be met
with in the service.
(i) Open type horizontal engines.—(a) Piston and cylinder.
—In small engines the following devices are employed,
PI. 50, Fig. 1 :—
A sight-feed lubricator is screwed into the top side of the
cylinder near the open end. The oil path from the lubricator
is through the cylinder liner on to the top of the piston, on
which are oil grooves. The lubricator is provided with a
needle valve, a, which is lifted by turning the hinged piece, b,
upright. The screw, c, adjusts the lift of the needle valve to
suit varying rates of drip. It should be adjusted to keep the
piston lightly oiled.
These lubricators require watching, as they are somewhat
unreliable. When not required to feed, the needle valve is
dropped.
(b) Gudgeon pins.—One method in use is shown on
PI. 50, Fig. 1. Some of the oil delivered to the top of the
piston is led through a small hole in the piston, directly above
a conical passage in the top of the small-end bearing into
which the oil drips.
A modification of the above method is shown on PI. 50,
Fig. 2. Here a separate sight-feed lubricator is screwed
into the end of the cylinder. It delivers oil to a disc, d,
which is free to rotate on its axis; the oil is collected by the

catcher, b, which is fixed to the piston, and conveyed through
a pipe, attached to the piston, through a conical hole in the
small-end bearing.
(c) Big-end bearing.—PI. 50, Fig. 3, shows the usual
method. A banjo oiling ring, A, is fixed to and turns with the
crankshaft. A sight-feed lubricator delivers oil to it. Oil
delivered to the ring takes up a position on the rim owing to
centrifugal force, and is forced through the passage, C, to the
bearing.
(d) Crankshaft main bearings.—PI. 50, Fig. 4, shows the
usual (oiling ring) method. The reservoir is filled with oil;
the ring, R, supported on the shaft at a point where a groove
is cut in the top brass, revolves on the shaft, and picks up
oil which is delivered to the bearings.
These lubricators should always be examined on starting
the engine, as the rings are liable to stick at starting.
(e) On some engines the siphon lubricator may still be met
with. PI. 50, Fig. 5, shows one.
A trimming, X, consisting of a few strands of worsted,
siphons the oil out of the cup, Y, down a tube, Z, and into the
bearing. The end of the trimming in the tube must be lower
than the level of the oil in the cup. A piece of wire is twisted
up in the trimming, to form a handle and to regulate the
distance the trimming is inserted into the tube. A trimming
must be sufficiently loose in the tube not to form a plug.
When not required to feed, the trimming is taken out of the
tube and placed in the cup.
Siphon lubricators are absolutely reliable when properly
made and adjusted.
(ii) Enclosed type vertical engines.—[a) Splash lubrication.—
Oil is supplied to the crankcase to a given level. The con¬
necting rods dip into and splash the oil to all parts of the
engine. Oil is renewed at intervals to maintain the oil level
in the crankcase.
This method is only used for small single-cylinder engines.
(6) Pump and splash lubrication.—PI. 50, Fig. 6. Oil
is supplied to the crankcase to a given level. It is drawn
from a sump by a pump through a strainer, and delivered to
troughs above the oil level, which are thereby kept full. The
connecting rods dip into the troughs and splash oil to all
parts of the engine. An indicator should be fitted to the
pump to show that it is functioning. This system is commonly
met with.
(c) Petroil lubrication (applicable to two-stroke petrol
engines only).—Petrol and oil mixed are supplied to the car¬
burettor from the supply tank, and the oil finds its way to all
294 Sec. 72.—Lubrication of I.C. Engines
working parts along with the mixture. This is a much better
method than it sounds, and is very simple. The proportions
of oil to petrol vary a good deal and makers’ instruction books
should be consulted, if experience is not available. A quarter
of a pint to a gallon of petrol is about right. Too much oil
invariably fouls the sparking plugs; too little leads to excess
wear or piston seizure.
Always mix the oil and petrol in a separate can and shake
well before adding to the fuel tank. They do not mix
sufficiently if added separately to the tank.
Where the main crankshaft bearings are plain (instead of
ball or roller) greasers or separate oil cups are often provided
in addition to the pctroil system. This assists lubrication at
the points where the petroil system is least satisfactory, and
it helps to seal the bearings against air leaks into the crank¬
case on the suction stroke.
{d) Forced lubrication.—PI. 51 illustrates the arrange¬
ment on the D.V.4 Crossley Petrol-Paraffin engine. The
lubrication of the engine is automatic throughout and is
effected by a gear pump (8238) driven by bevel wheels from
the camshaft. The lubricating oil is drawn from a sump
(8226) outside the bottom of the crank chamber. The oil
passes from the crankchamber to the sump and then through
two oil strainers (8711) and along the suction pipe to the
pump (8238), from whence it is delivered under pressure to the
main bearings and big end bearings through oil passages in the
crankshaft. The cylinders and gudgeon pins are lubricated
by splash. Splasher guards prevent an excessive amount of oil
from being thrown by the cranks into the cylinders. A
pressure gauge (8362) registers the pressure of the lubricating
oil, which need not exceed 5 lb./sq. inch. When the oil is hot
or thin less pressure will be registered than when the oil is
cold or thick. The oil pressure may be regulated by means of
a spring loaded relief valve (8345). After supplying the
bearings with oil some of the oil flows to the end camshaft
bearing and to the magneto wheel shaft bearings, the remainder
passing through the relief valve to the bottom of the crank
chamber back to the sump. The oil sump is so arranged that
cold water may be circulated through a passage (8255) under
the oil to keep it cool.
The forced lubrication system is so arranged that it can
be applied to the gudgeon pin, if necessary (as it may be in
hot climates).
The oil strainers should be removed weekly for cleaning.
They can be removed, one at a time, while the engine is
running. The crank chamber and oil sump should have all
dirty oil cleaned out every two to four weeks if the engine is
in regular work.
Plate 51
A small quantity of oil should be added each day before
starting, to keep up the level to the place marked inside the
left-hand sump cover.
It is absolutely necessary for the oil strainers to be com¬
pletely covered with oil, otherwise air may be sucked in
instead of oil and the bearings thereby ruined.
When the engine is first started, or when re-starting after
the lubricating oil pump or any of the oil pipes have been
dismantled, such as after an inspection of the bearings, the
engine should be turned round slowly by hand until the
lubricating oil pipes are full of oil and until the oil is actually
delivered to the bearings.
Also a few ounces of lubricating oil should be poured into
the cylinders through the test cocks to ensure that the cylinders
start with some lubrication.
Should the engine be started and no pressure be shown on
the pressure gauge, the engine should be stopped and the
cause of the absence of pressure ascertained.
PI. 52 shows the bearing lubrication system on the modern
enclosed type of Davey Paxman heavy oil engine. Its
resemblance to the Crossley system will be noted and the
instructions given above for that system generally apply.
The gudgeon pins are, however, normally fed through a
drilled connecting rod. The position occupied by an oil
cooler (when fitted) is shown.
The oil pressure should be maintained at 15 lb./sq. inch
(minimum safe, 10 lb.). Use excess pressure only if required
after fitting new parts or to cool any part which may be heated
unduly. The pressure may be higher at starting but should
be adjusted to the correct figure when oil is warm.
Before starting, circulate oil through system and raise
pressure to 5 lb./sq. inch at least by means of hand pump
provided. Also work pump for a minute after shutting
engine down.
The cylinder lubrication in these Davey Paxman engines
is by splash in the case of small engines and on large engines by
mechanical force feed lubricators. PI. 53 shows the type of
mechanical lubricator fitted to the 120 B.H.P. engine in the
E. & M. School, S.M.E.
The eccentric rocks the lever carried in the bearing
(S.35), and through the medium of the ratchet pawl (S.34)
and ratchet wheel (S.32) revolves the pump lever cam (S.25)
and the distributor cam (S.21). The lubricator operates in
the following manner :—
Starting from the position shown in the side section, the
plungers (S.28) are delivering oil through the distribution
valve (S.17) and lower tubes (S.18) to the delivery pipe
connection (S.13) at the back of the lubricator.
Plate 52.
Permission of Oavty Bauman t Co., IM

'ECtlAWCAL L UBR/CA TOR
£cr/ort lP) frokt sect/ of/

Permission ney Passman. LFd..
Before the plungers are allowed to rise, the valve has taken
up its mid-way or vertical position (Fig. b), thus allowing the
plungers to draw oil from the well of the lubricator. While
the plungers are still at the top, the valve (S.17) takes up the
angular position shown in Fig. c, thus connecting the plungers
with the upper tubes (S.19) which lead to sight drips (S.20).
To regulate the quantity of oil delivered, the set pins (S.29)
are screwed in or out, thus altering the stroke of the plungers.
When first starting up the engine, the lubricator handle
(S.38) should be pushed endwise into engagement with the
pump spindle and turned until oil is seen to flow freely from
all the sight drips. This ensures that all the pumps are in
working order. It is not positive evidence that all the feed
pipes are delivering oil to the engine parts but obstructions
in these short lengths of pipe are unlikely.
In this respect the type is inferior to other designs of
mechanical lubricator in which the quantity of oil passing
can be clearly seen and measured.
A lubricating oil connection to the cylinder, with check
valve, is shown in PI. 53, Fig. d.
(iii) Open type vertical engines. — The Davey Paxman
engine in the E. & M. School is of this type {see PI. 83), and
the lubricating arrangements are somewhat different from
those outlined above. The crankshaft and camshaft bearings
are ring-oiled and the cylinders small ends and big ends arc
force fed by a mechanical lubricator similar to that described
above. The camshaft and governor gears and exhaust valve
cams and guides are in oil baths, and small lubricators arc
provided for the governor and eccentrics.
Other parts are oiled by hand.
6. Faults in lubrication systems.—i. If the oil tell-tale
or pressure gauge is correctly placed on the end of the line and
is registering the right pressure, it is almost certain that oil is
reaching the important bearings. Accidental obstruction in
the oil passages on the delivery side of the oil pump is most
unlikely. The pressure is usually sufficient to clear such
obstruction, except in the case of pieces of rag, fluff, &c., left
inside the engine by carelessness when overhauling.
ii. If no oil pressure is indicated, the most likely causes are:—
{a) No oil in the sump, or not enough.
{(b) Oil pump empty; needs priming. This is very common
after overhaul, with the gear type of oil pump.
(c) Serious air leak on suction side of pump. Most
oil pumps now are submerged in the sump to avoid
this trouble and obviate priming.
If insufficient or unsteady oil pressure is indicated, the most
likely cause is a choked filter on the suction side of the pump.
300 Sec. 73.—Air Filters for I.G. Engines
These symptoms may also be due to insufficient oil in the
sump. Filters must be cleaned and the oil level inspected
regularly.
It is uncommon to have faulty ball valves in the plunger
type of oil pump. Worn plungers are also uncommon and
are usually only found in old engines.
iii. Excess pressure in forced lubrication systems is usually
noticed after starting a cold engine and is due to the thickness
of the cold oil. As soon as the engine is warmed up the oil
pressure should fall to normal. If it remains above normal
a thicker oil may have been put in the crankcase or there t
may be an unusual obstruction in the oil ways somewhere on
the delivery side of the tee to the oil gauge. In some engines
a relief valve is fitted to the pump to limit the pressure.
73. Air filters for I.C. engines

When an I.C. engine is working in a dusty situation it sucks
in particles of grit which form a grinding paste with the oil
causing wear, and some of the grit is deposited on the cylinder
head and piston and forms a large portion of the " carbon ”
deposit. If the dust can be prevented from entering the
engine there will be less wear, less frequent decarbonizing,
lower oil consumption, lower maintenance charges and a
longer life for the engine.
An air filter is therefore an essential feature on an I.C.
engine when it is to be used in a dusty situation, such as a
motor-car in desert country, or on an excavator. It is a very
desirable feature on an engine wherever it operates, and the
time cannot be far distant when it will become a standard
feature.
Tests have been carried out on motor-car engines with and
without air filters in identical situations. These have shown
that the wear in the engine with an air filter varies from 60 to
90 per cent, less than in the one without, and the oil consump¬
tion is reduced by 40 per cent.
Air filters have the added advantage in the case of large
I.C. engines in a power station, of silencing the air intake
which might otherwise be obnoxious. Similarly on auto¬
mobiles they eradicate the hissing of the carburettor.
The desirable features in a filter for an I.C. engine are :—
(1) That it shall stop all dust detrimental to the engine.
(2) That it shall not affect the performance of the engine,
i.e. the volumetric efficiency should be unaltered
by ensuring a low water gauge reading across the
filter.
(3) That it shall need as little cleaning and attention as
possible.
Sec. 74.—Cooling of l.C. Engines 301
As regards (1), it is the largest particles of grit which do

the damage and it is probably unnecessary to have a filter
which is nearly 100 per cent, efficient. Various makers, how¬
ever, claim efficiencies of over 99 per cent., and still manage
to provide a reasonably priced filter which fulfils the other
conditions.
The effect on volumetric efficiency can be tested by taking
a slight spring diagram with and without the filter. The
water-gauge reading across any filter, at any rate when new,
is usually quite small, not exceeding an inch or two, and is
therefore quite negligible, not exceeding the ordinary varia¬
tions in the barometer.
If the filter chokes up, however, this water-gauge reading
will rise, and reduce the volumetric efficiency and hence the
outpqt of the engine; this happens sooner or later with
nearly all filters and various claims are put forward by different
manufacturers with regard to the self-cleaning properties of
their filters.
Nearly all manufacturers of air filters make up some slight
variation of their usual design to suit l.C. engines and air
compressors, and it should be remembered that the filter
should be designed to pass the air at the maximum rate at
which it will be sucked in, which will be a higher figure than
the average as worked out from the swept volume.
Assuming that the piston speed is sinusoidal and that the
mean air requirement is S. cu. ft. per min., a single cylinder
engine or compressor will require a filter to pass 3T4 S. per
min. a twin cylinder 1*57 S. and a four cylinder ITS S.
There are a large number of types of filter for l.C. engines
on the market.
The Vokes and Zenith filters are of the fabric type. Louvres
on the casing are designed to extract the heavier particles, and
the makers rely on the vibration of the engine to dislodge most
of the fine dust settling on the fabric so that it does not choke
up too quickly.
Other types are the Hcenan (Heenan and Froude, Ltd.),
the Visco (Visco Eng. Co., Ltd.) and the Ventex (Ozonair,
Ltd.).
74. Cooling of l.C. engines

1. The high temperatures attained inside the cylinders of
l.C. engines necessitate cooling arrangements, otherwise
cylinder lubrication would be impossible and the mechanical
expansion and distortion due to thermal stresses would be
excessive. On the other hand, the hotter the engine the
higher the thermal efficiency and, within limits, the lower
the friction losses.
302 Sec. 74.—Cooling of I.C. Engines
In engines of moderate size the cylinder liner and cylinder

head are cooled by providing them with water jackets through
which water is circulated. In very large engines the pistons,
exhaust valves and exhaust pipes are water cooled as well,
but engines of such a size as to require these extra cooling
arrangements are not likely to be met with in the service.
In practice there is a tendency on the part of engine
drivers to overcool their engines.
The temperature of the cooling water at exit should not
be less than 100° F. nor greater than 140° F. The best figure
for large engines is from 120° to 130° F. and for small on<*s
130° to 140° F. (excluding road vehicle engines in which
temperatures of 170° to 190° F. are permitted to keep down
the weight of cooling water required).
It should be noted that the smaller the engine the closer
does the average temperature of the cooling water approach
the maximum spot temperature.
In estimating the quantity of water required it may be
assumed that 30 per cent, of the heat value of the fuel con¬
sumed is removed by the cooling water.
Consider an engine taking 0-5 lb. of fuel per B.H.P. hour of
calorific value 19,000 B.Th.U. per lb. Then the cooling water
must remove 19,000 x 0-5 x 0-3 = 2,850 B.Th.U. per B.H.P.
hour at full load. Assuming temperatures of 60° and 130° F.
at inlet and outlet respectively, then 2,850/70 = 40-7 lb. = 4
gallons per B.H.P. hour are required to flow through the
engine when running continuously at full load. This is the
minimum quantity required in cases where the inlet and outlet
temperatures can be maintained at the figures quoted.
When, as is usually the case, a stored quantity of water is
circulated, with cooling arrangements, it will not always be
practicable to keep the inlet temperature down to 60° F.,
and it is therefore advisable to base calculations upon double
the rate of flow assumed above.
In installations of moderate size the radiation and evapora¬
tion from the storage tanks are sufficient for cooling purposes.
In large installations, cooling ponds, cooling towers (PL 55,
Fig. 1) or mechanical coolers (PL 55, Fig. 2) are frequently
employed to keep down the storage capacity to reasonable
dimensions. In marine engines and also in land engines
installed near the sea or a river, a cooler on the principle of a
steam surface condenser is sometimes used.
In motor vehicles and portable petrol generating sets the
quantity of circulating water is necessarily small and the
rate of cooling is accelerated by a radiator and a fan. (In the
case of a vehicle the rate of cooling is still further increased
when in motion.) This method is used occasionally in station¬
ary plant of moderate size for special reasons (see PL 88).
Sec. 74.—Cooling of I.C. Engines 303
2. Cooling systems.—There are four main cooling

systems:—
i. Thermo-siphon circulation.
ii. Pump assisted thermo-siphon circulation.
iii. Gravity feed with pump return.
iv. Forced circulation.
i. Thermo-siphon circulation.—PI. 54, Fig. 1, shows an
engine cooled on the thermo-siphon principle. Circulation is
effected by hot water ascending in the outlet pipe. A, and
being replaced by cool water entering through the inlet pipe,
B. The force promoting this circulation is proportional to
the difference in weight between the column of hot water of
height X and the. column of heavier cool water in a similar
pipe of height X. From this it follows that the higher the
cooling tank is placed above the engine, the quicker will be
the circulation, provided water friction is not increased.
In any case, the bottom of the cooling tank should not be
lower than the centre line of the cylinder.
The cooling system must always have sufficient water for
the outlet, G, to the ascending pipe to be covered ; otherwise,
circulation will not take place. The length of piping should
be kept to a minimum and its diameter should not be less
than that provided for on the engine flanges. Sharp bends
in all pipes and horizontal runs between the engines and tank
tend to cause friction in the system and to impede the circula¬
tion ; they should be avoided or kept to a minimum. The
hot-water outlet pipe should slope upwards throughout its
length. In temperate climates from 30 to 40 gallons per
B.H.P. is usually found sufficient for normal running, but if
the engine runs at full load continuously for long periods a
larger quantity should be provided.
The shape of the cooling tanks is not important but they
are usually supplied of cylindrical form. It is an advantage
when a number of tanks is supplied if they vary slightly in
diameter so that they can “ nest ” one in the other for trans¬
port purposes. A convenient average size is 8 feet high by
4 feet diameter which has a capacity of about 600 gallons,
sufficient for a 15 B.H.P. engine in a temperate climate. In
larger engines a battery of such tanks should be used, con¬
nected in parallel by large diameter pipes top and bottom.
The function of the cooling tanks being to cool the heated
water so that it can be used again as cool inlet water, they
must naturally be placed outside the engine room and so
situated that they are well ventilated. There is little
probability of damage to the tanks themselves due to frost.
As loss by evaporation will occur, a ball-cock, H, should
be fitted to provide make-up water, which is preferably led
into the bottom of the tank through K.
304 Sec. 74.—Cooling of I.G. Engines
Plate 54.
WATER-COOLING SYSTEMS.
Gravity feed, Pump Return.

306 Sec. 74.—Cooling of I.G. Engines
The following cocks and valves are required in the cooling

system:—
Inside the engine house: A drain-cock, F, at the lowest
point, to empty the cylinder jacket for cleaning purposes or
in frosty weather. A full-way valve, E, to regulate the rate of
circulation to suit the load.
Outside the engine house : A three-way cock, D, either for
draining the tank or for shutting off the supply when it is
desired to drain the remainder of the system through F, is a
convenience but not a necessity. f
ii. Pump assisted thermo-siphon.—In this system which is
common on small engines up to (say) 50 B.H.P., an engine-
driven pump is used to help the circulation. A storage
capacity of 20-25 gallons/B.H.P. is sufficient with this system.
In cases where the cooling tanks are necessarily a long
way from the engine, a pump may be necessary with quite
small engines.
iii. Gravity feed with pump return.—This is the most
common system with engines of moderate size (jsee PI. 54,
Fig. 2).
Taking a multi-cylinder vertical engine as the most
common type, the supply is gravity fed to a distributor from
which connections are made to each cylinder. The water
passes up the space round the cylinder liner and thence to
the cylinder cover from which it is carried away to a main
discharge pipe. On each of the outlet pipes a cock is fitted
to enable the quantity of water to be adjusted in order to
maintain an equal temperature in all cylinders. The quantity
of water required should also be adjusted to suit the load, but
it is not practicable to do this unless the average load can be
fairly accurately predicted for a period. I f the flow is adj usted
to keep the outlet temperature at 130° F. at maximum load,
the temperature will clearly be less than desirable at lower
loads. Thermometers should be provided at each cylinder
outlet pipe and, wherever possible, each outlet pipe should be
arranged with an open end so that the water flows visibly into
a funnel (or tun-dish) on the discharge pipe. This affords a
ready means of seeing at once that the system is in working
order.
It is usual to instal a storage tank large enough to hold
at least half an hour’s supply of cooling water (4 to 5 gallons
per B.H.P.), and it is an advantage to provide a sump into
which the cylinder outlet water discharges and from which the
circulating pump raises the water up to the storage tank
again. This will prevent flooding the engine room if the
engine-driven pump breaks down. The sump should be large
enough to store the cooling water outlet for about 20 minutes,
Sec. 74.—-Cooling of I.G. Engines 307
which should give the attendant time to notice and rectify a
faulty pump, or to start up an auxiliary independently driven
pump, which should always be provided in electric power
stations.
It is also necessary to maintain tlie circulation of the
cooling water for about 20 minutes after shutting down the
engine, otherwise the water in the jackets will boil and excessive
quantities of lime will be deposited. This not only reduces
the water space but forms an insulating lining which reduces
the rate of neat flow to the cooling water, and if permitted to
take place often it will ultimately result in a cracked cylinder
or cylinder head. It is advisable to flush the water spaces
occasionally, and if the water is hard, to add 1 lb. of common
washing soda to 250 gallons. In large power stations it is often
found worth while to instal water softening plant.
iv. Forced, circulation.—This system is used when it is
impracticable to instal the storage tanks high enough for
gravity feed. In this system if the engine-driven pump breaks
down, the engine is put out of action, and therefore an auxiliary
independently driven pump is essential to ensure reasonable
contmuity of running and to enable the circulation to be
continued for a time after the engine has been shut down.
In marine engines it is sometimes the practice to pass
seawater through the jackets for cooling purposes. This
appears to be satisfactory providing that the water is well
filtered and that the outlet temperature is not allowed to
exceed 100° F.
In the case of pumping plants, part of the pumped water
from the rising main is sometimes by-passed through the
engine and run to waste. This is a useful method for field
sets.
3. Cooling systems in the Tropics.—Thermo-siphon
cooling as provided by manufacturers with standard equip¬
ment may not always prove satisfactory in hot climates owing
to:—
(i) Insufficient radiation at the tanks.
(ii) Too slow a circulation.
(i) Can be improved by—
(а) Increasing size of storage tanks some 50 to 100 per
cent, above that required in temperate climates.
(б) Using shallow tanks to give as great a surface as
possible for a given capacity. If shallow tanks
are used they should be fitted with division
plates to improve the circulation.
(c) Siting tanks in the shade and to allow free circula¬
tion of air. Radiation might be improved with a
fan.
308 Sec. 75.—Exhaust Silencers
(ii) Can be improved by ensuring that—

(a) Large pipes with short runs are used with as few
bends as possible.
(b) Outlet pipe from engine rises at once to the cooling
tanks.
(c) The tanks are sited as high as possible.
In general, thermo-siphon cooling can be made to function
satisfactorily in the tropics with four-stroke engines up to
20 B.H.P., provided the above conditions are complied with.
For larger sizes than this, and for all but very small two-stroke
engines, some form of forced circulation may be required,
working in conjunction with a small cooling tower or mechanic¬
ally operated cooler. (See Pl. 55, Figs. 1 and 2.)
75. Exhaust silencers

1. If the products of combustion are allowed to escape
direct to atmosphere when the exhaust valve is opened, the
resulting noise is objectionable. It is caused by the rapid
expansion of the combustion products from the cylinder, which
leave it at about 35 lb. per square in. pressure and expand
down to atmospheric pressure very rapidly, the consequent
displacement of the *air causing the noise. If, however, the
products of combustion are first expanded in a closed vessel,
and then allowed to escape, their velocity and the atmospheric
disturbance will be less and the noise produced will be of much
smaller intensity.
2. The majority of I.C. engines are therefore furnished
with some sort of silencer. PI. 56, Fig. 1, shows the type
used for small oil engines. Its capacity should be from six
to eight times that of the cylinder of the engine exhausting
into it.
Silencers should be provided with a drain plug at the lowest
point, to allow deposits of oil and condensed water to be
drawn off. The pipe connecting the engine and silencer
should not be of less diameter than that indicated by the
flanges provided by the maker, or back-pressure during the
exhaust stroke will result. All sharp bends should be avoided
for the same reason.
A fairly long straight pipe between the engine and silencer
is an advantage in four-stroke engines, as it tends towards the
complete scavenging of the cylinder, owing to the momentum
of the long column of departing exhaust gases. The silencers
of two-stroke engines should be as near the engine as possible,
to avoid back-pressure, owing to the comparatively short
period during which the exhaust ports are opened.
Sec. 75.—Exhaust Silencers 309
Plate 56.
7rf*tCAL U$T'MT. S/.OJV-
m d *"OM
nf 3-
310 Sec. 75.—Exhaust Silencers
3. The silencer should deliver to atmosphere through a

short pipe only, or else back pressure would be brought on the
engine owing to its having to drive out all the expanded gases
from the silencer through a long pipe.
4. Where extreme silence is required (e.g. near a military
hospital), the silencer may, with advantage, be augmented
with, or totally replaced by a large brick-lined silencing pit,
as shown in PI. 56, Fig. 2.
A safety flap, A, should be provided to avoid any damage
by an explosion in the pit, which will sometimes occur owing
to a charge or charges from missed strokes finding their way
into the pit and being fired by the hot exhaust gas of a
subsequent explosion.
5. Where hot water or steam is required in small quantities,
exhaust heat boilers can be obtained for utilizing the heat in
exhaust gases for raising steam. Large savings can be
effected by using this simple device. About 3 lb. of water
can be evaporated per B.H.P. per hour.
CHAPTER XVI
GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCERS

76. Principles of action of gas engines and producers
1. The gas engine was the earliest form of I.C. engine and
for a long time held a predominant position for small power
units up to about 30 H.P., on account of its convenience when
supplies of town gas were available. Now, however, that
electricity is replacing gas, the scope of the small gas engine is
limited.
The larger sizes of gas engine using producer gas form
probably the cheapest source of power. The producer itself,
however, requires very careful supervision to maintain it in
efficient working order.
Diesel and semi-Diesel engines are generally more suit-*
able for service purposes, but situations may arise where
local supplies of wood refuse, coke, &c., exist in sufficient
quantities to make the producer gas engine worth considering.
2. Gas engines are designed for working either with town
supplies of gas or with gas locally made in the engine house.
Town gas has a higher calorific value than producer gas,
and when mixed with air will explode spontaneously at lower
temperatures. For town gas, compression pressures up to
120 lb. per square in. are usual, and for producer gas from
150 to 180 lb. per square in., depending on the chemical com¬
position of the particular gas.
PI. 49, Fig. 1, shows a typical modern gas engine. The
gas and air valves are combined in one valve, and governing
is effected by varying its lift. Magneto ignition is employed.
3. Gas producers for the local manufacture of gas are
designed to use anthracite, coke, charcoal and wood refuse,
bituminous coal, or practically any solid hydro-carbon that
will bum and is available in a large quantity.
Producer gas is made by passing steam and air, in correct
proportions, over red-hot fuel. In most cases the air and
steam are drawn through the fuel by the suction of the engine,
the plant being then termed a suction gas producer.
In some systems, steam is generated in a separate pressure
boiler, and is admitted to the fuel under pressure, through a
nozzle and injector fitting, which induces a rush of air. The
resulting gas is stored in a receiver and used as required. Such
plants are called pressure gas producers.
The design of producers differs in details to suit the kind
of fuel used.
311
312 Sec. 76.—Gas Engines and Producers
PI. 57, Fig. 1, shows a modem suction gas producer plant
designed for anthracite, coke, or charcoal. It consists of:—
i. A firebrick lined furnace, A, through the bottom of
which air and steam enters.
ii. A steam-raiser, D, consisting of tubes into which water
drips, and outside which the hot gas formed in the
furnace circulates, thus converting it into steam.
iii. A scrubber, R, packed loosely with coke, through which
water is kept trickling. The ascending gas is
thoroughly washed thereby, all dust and impurities»
being extracted.
iv. A suction chamber and starting fan with blow-off pipe,
which complete the equipment.
4. The principle of action is shown on PI. 57, Fig. 2.
When the fresh fuel is added at the top of the furnace, it is
heated by the hot gases passing upward through it, and the
more volatile gases (e.g. ordinary coal gas) are given off,
leaving the carbon behind.
As the hot carbon sinks lower in the furnace, it meets the
highly heated steam and carbon dioxide which has been
formed below. The steam is decomposed into hydrogen and
oxygen, and the carbon dioxide picks up more carbon and
forms carbon monoxide, C + C02 = 2CO. These reactions
occur in the decomposition zone. Lower down in the furnace
the remaining carbon is burnt to C02 by the incoming air,
producing considerable heat which superheats the steam and
assists in its decomposition.
The mixed gases that proceed to the scrubber are coal
gases, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen, which, when
mixed with air, will form an explosive mixture.
5. Running a gas producer.—The points to watch
are:—
i. Definite proportions of air and steam are essential ;
the mass of fuel must be kept hot enough to ensure
the reactions outlined in para. 4, but not so hot as
to clinker up (thereby preventing passage of air
through it). The rate of producing gas is limited ;
too much steam passed over the fuel tends to
cool it, whereupon the decomposition action is
not properly carried out; too little results in
excessive temperature in the furnace. Air must
only be drawn in through the openings designed
for that purpose, and, therefore, all joints must be
good and able to prevent air leaks into the system.
The majority of faults and unsatisfactory pro-.
duction of gas are traceable to a contravention
of these principles.
314 See. 76.—Gee Engines and Producers
ii. The gas being poisonous, none must escape into the
producer house or engine house. Water-seals are
provided by the makers, and the fact that the
engine, in sucking from the producer, produces
pressure therein slightly lower than atmospheric,
tends to prevent leakage outwards.
iii. Pure gas, free from tar and grit, must be supplied to
the engine. Therefore, the scrubber must be kept
in good order and frequently cleaned.
6. Working gas producers.—The following instructions *
are given as a guide, and refer to the plant shown on PI. 57.
i. Anthracite.—Anthracite should not be larger than 1-in.
or smaller than —in. cube. It should be free from dust,
fairly uniform in size, and of a quality known as machine-cut
washed beans or peas.
Care should be taken to protect it from the weather.
ii. Coke.—Gas-works or furnace coke. The coke should
be broken to a size not larger than 1-in. cube and be free
from dust and foreign matter. Gasworks coke varies greatly
in quality and degree of carbonization. The quality recom¬
mended is described as thoroughly carbonized and free from
tar or volatile matter.
A special tar-extractor is recommended to be added to the
plant if the fuel cannot be obtained free from tar, otherwise
trouble will be experienced with tar on the engine valves.
iii. Charcoal.—This fuel is very suitable for use with
suction plants where it is impossible to obtain anthracite or
coke. The main point to be observed with this fuel is that the
wood is thoroughly carbonized, or trouble will be experienced
with tar on the engine valves (see para. 3 re tar-extractor).
iv. When starting to work for the first time, after erection
or long stoppage which necessitated the‘withdrawal of the
fire, ash should be fed into the furnace to the height of the top
plate of the stepped grate, leaving only a small space to light the
fire. The fire should be started with wood chips and a small
quantity of anthracite, coke, or charcoal, the chimney cock
being partly closed to allow the fire to bum somewhat slowly
for the purpose of drying the brickwork. This should be
done, if possible, the night before it is intended to put the
plant on load..
To prepare the plant for load, half fill the furnace with
fuel and turn on the water to the scrubber, the step fire-grate,
and the external vaporizer, G ; after ensuring that the gilled
tubes, J, K, &c., are full of water (this is denoted by the
overflow through the siphon tube of the steam connection,
O, to the seal box), regulate the water supply to the funnel, Z,
Sec.' 76,—Gas Engines and Producers 315
to a very slight dribble. The overflow, X, to the funnel, Z,
and the cock, U, of the vacuum pipes should always be closed
until the engine is running.
Open the blow-off pipe, and after oiling the hand-fan
exhauster near the engine, turn it vigorously, blowing the
waste gas into the atmosphere through the waste pipe from
the exhauster. When the gas will light at the test cock on
the outlet of the exhauster and continue burning, the blow-off
pipe can be closed and the engine started.
It is most important that the engine be quite ready for
starting at this point, as any time lost in starting the engine
after the hand-fan exhauster has stopped would result in the
cessation of gas-making, and the engine would probably pull
up after running 4 few minutes.
v. When the engine -is running on load, open the cock,
U, on the vacuum pipe to the vacuum chamber, T, of the
automatic water supply, and open the cbck on the water
overflow-pipe, X. The water supply to the funnel, Z, should *
be so regulated as to allow a constant overflow down the
pipe, X, to the seal box, and the cock, U, should be so regulated
as to allow an occasional drop of water to overflow from the
siphon pipe of the steam pipe, O. The water supply to the
stepped grates should be sufficient (at least) to prevent
excessive temperatures being attained. The fuel adjacent to
the grate should not be above dull red ; a small quantity only
is necessary for this.
vi. When shutting down the plant, open the waste pipe,
W, near the plant and immediately dose the gas-cock on the
engine, the water on the scrubber, and check the water supply
to the step grate and external vaporizer.
To ensure a quick start when next restarted, it is an
advantage to cease feeding the furnace for the last two or
three hours of the previous run, and cleaning operations to the
fire should be carried out immediately after stopping, so that
the fire may be disturbed as little as possible when restarting.
Do not add any fuel to the furnace until the engine has
started, and then gradually feed until the furnace is entirdy
filled.
vii. During stand-by periods at night or week-ends, the
cock of the waste pipe, W, should be regulated to suit local
circumstances ; to economize in fuel it is necessary to reduce
the draught through the plant to a minimum, which may be
accomplished by partially closing the waste-pipe cock/
A small quantity of water must be supplied to the external
vaporizer, G, during stand-by periods.
The attendant should periodically poke the plant through
the top poke-holes, F, according to the quality of fud in use.
316 Sec. 76.—Gas Engines and Producers
and all clinker should be removed from the side of the brick¬
work by this means. The ash and clinker can then be with¬
drawn from the step grate.
To avoid variations in the quality of the gas, it is advisable
to leave the poke-hole open for as short a period as possible.
It is not necessary to clean out the fire more often than two
or three times a day.
If a piece of clinker is too large to be drawn out, say,
through the spaces above the top grate plate, it can be pushed
by the poker to the centre of the fire; the centre of the fire
itself is cleaned by drawing away a portion of the bed of ash1
upon which it rests in the middle of the generator.
viii. Maintenance.—If the water used is dirty or hard, the
external vaporizer will require examining periodically and the
tubes cleaning.
After about every 1,500 hours of work, the coke in the
scrubber, R, should be renewed and the water sprinklers
inspected to ascertain whether they are distributing the water
freely.
Hard furnace coke should be used in the scrubber, and it
should be broken to a suitable size, varying from 2- to 3-in.
cube on the lower grid to, say, f-in. cube at the top of the
scrubber.
Care should be taken that air is not sucked into the joints
of the hopper; the rotary portion should be taken asunder
frequently for the purpose of cleaning, and the springs and
adjusting screws on the hopper body should be examined to
see that they are properly adjusted to ensure an airtight
joint.
7. General.—The precautions to be taken against gas
poisoning are dealt with in Regulations for Engineer Services,
Part II.
Producers using wood, bituminous coal, &c., make dirty
gas (tarry), and special methods of purification are required.
Producers of all types require to be watched by a permanent
man. They are, therefore, not suitable for use in the service.
The instructions given in para. 6 above are sufficient for
working most of the small civil plants that are likely to be met
with in war-time.

CHAPTER XVII
PETROL ENGINES
77. Introduction
Petrol engines used by the R.E. may be of any power
between 1 and 40 H.P.; may have one, two, four, or six
cylinders, may be water- or air-cooled, and may be four-stroke
or two-stroke.
Space will only permit of dealing mainly with the most
usual types, viz. the one- and four-cylinder, four-stroke,
water-cooled.
Information regarding the elementary principles of the
action of four-stroke oil engines is given in Sec. 66, and
applies equally to petrol engines.
The main points of difference between petrol and oil
engines are:—
i. The method of vaporizing the fuel and obtaining the
explosive mixture.
ii. Ignition.
iii. Higher speed and, hence, much lighter construction
for a given horse-power.
iv. Valve timing.
v. Governing.
vi. Compression pressure. The maximum compression
pressure in ordinary petrol engines varies from 90
to 110 lbs. per square inch, as against 60 to 80 lbs.
per square inch in paraffin engines.
78. Principles of carburation and induction systems

1. Petrol will evaporate completely at ordinary atmo¬
spheric temperature and pressure. Petrol and air will form
an explosive mixture when in the proportion of from 1 of
petrol to from 11 to 17 of air by weight. The true explosive
mixture is about 1 to 15. This mixture gives the most rapid
explosion, almost the greatest power, and reasonable economy
of fuel. Richer mixtures of about 1 to 13 give rather more
power, but lower fuel economy. Weaker mixtures of about
1 to 16 give slightly less power, but better fuel economy.
It is the function of a carburettor to form a homogeneous
mixture of very fine liquid petrol particles and air in the
desired proportion and to maintain the proportion as nearly
constant as possible under all steady conditions of load and
817
318 Sec. 78.—Garburation and Induction Systems
speed. During starting, and under unsteady conditions such
as sudden throttle opening or closing, acceleration or decelera¬
tion of the engine, the carburettor must provide a different
proportion of fuel and air, for reasons which are explained
later.
It is the function of the induction system to add heat to the
mixture from the carburettor and deliver equal amounts of a
partly vaporized mixture to the various cylinders of the
engine in turn. Evaporation takes place partly ip the
carburettor, partly in the induction system, and partly in the
inlet valve port. The remainder is effected within the hot
cylinder itself. It is desirable that the mixture in the cylinder
shall be not more completely evaporated at the end of the
suction stroke than will ensure just complete vaporization
at the moment of firing, otherwise the weight of explosive
charge will be reduced. This is because liquid petrol occupies
less room in the cylinder than gaseous petrol, and allows
more room for air.
2. Scent-spray principle.—The fundamental principle
on which nearly all carburettors work is well illustrated by the
scent-spray, PI. 58, Fig. 1.
Air at high velocity is blown over the open end of a small
tube or jet. The pressure at the top of the jet is thereby
reduced below atmospheric, and liquid (under atmospheric
pressure) rises in the tube until it reaches the top, where it is
divided into an extremely fine spray and carried away by the
rush of air. The greater the velocity of air past the jet, the
more liquid will emerge, owing to the greater pressure drop.
If the liquid is petrol, the fine spray will be in the right form
for its complete vaporisation.
3. A simple jet carburettor for constant-speed
engines is shown on PI. 58, Fig. 2. This type is suitable for
small stationary engines designed to run at a constant speed.
A needle valve, A, regulates the opening of a petrol jet, B,
in which the level is kept constantly just below the outlet
by means of a pump (not shown) and overflow pipe, C. The
jet is situated in a narrow portion of the air passage through
the carburettor, known as the choke-tube.
The object of a choke-tube is to increase the velocity of
air past the jet so that a considerable pressure drop is produced
at this point. This makes for good atomization, i.e. the
breaking up of fuel into small particles. If the whole inlet
passage were of a uniform section equal to that at the narrowest
part of the choke-tube, air friction therein would cause a
throttling effect on the mixture, thereby preventing the engine
from drawing in a full charge. If made of the shape shown,
air friction is relatively small. By regulating the needle
Sec. 78.—Carburation and Induction Systems 319
Plate 58.
320 Sec. 78.—Carburation and Induction Systems
valve, A, sufficient petrol can be mixed with the incoming

air to form an explosive mixture.
4. In an arrangement such as that just described, if the
air speed past the jet is increased for any reason, the amount
of petrol drawn out of the jet increases at a rate greater
than that of the increase in air speed. This results in a
mixture richer in petrol. If the air speed is decreased, the
proportion of petrol decreases and the mixture is weaker.
Variations of air speed do occur, even at constant engine
speed, in this carburettor according to the position of the t
throttle. The throttle in PI. 58, Fig. 2, is a perforated slide
operated by the governing gear. Under full load the throttle
will be fully open, and air speed a maximum, but under
lighter load the throttle will be more or less closed, and the
air speed lower owing to the restriction of the bore. As,
however, mixtures of petrol and air are explosive between the
proportions of 1 to 11 and 1 to 17, the engine will continue
to function sufficiently well at all throttle openings, provided
that the engine speed does not change.
If it were desired, however, to change the speed, from, say,
400 to 600 r.p.m., as the mean air speed past the jet would
increase by 50 per cent., too much petrol would be drawn out
in proportion to the air to form an explosive mixture in the
engine cylinder, and it would be necessary to readjust the
needle valve to give a smaller opening of the jet.
5. Starting.—At starting, the engine can only be turned
slpwly, and, therefore, the air velocity past the jet is small.
This results in too weak a mixture, which is not well atomized;
therefore the starting of a cold engine which has not a suffi¬
ciently warm cylinder to vaporize the relatively large drops of
petrol in the mixture is made very difficult. If, however,
the needle valve is farther opened, enough petrol can be drawn
out of the jet by the velocity of air to form an explosive
mixture.
6. With this type of carburettor two marks are generally
made on the needle valve, one for starting (i.e. fairly open)
and the other for running (nearly closed). An adjustable air
slide, D, is also provided. If this is closed at starting, a
direct suction is induced over the jet when the engine is
turned. In cold weather the jet will need to be opened a
little more fully than in warm weather to compensate for the
greater density of the cold air, and for the fact that less petrol
will be evaporated by the colder air at starting.
7. Carburettors for variable-speed engines (auto¬
matic carburettors).—The majority of carburettors fitted
to petrol engines used in the service will be of one of the
standard types fitted to motor-cars. Here the problem of
constantly-varying engine speeds has to be dealt with. It is

not practicable for the driver of a motor vehicle to be con¬
stantly adjusting a device such as a needle valve or extra air
inlet. Such carburettors, therefore, are designed with the
object of obtaining automatically a uniform mixture at all
conditions of load and speed, the driver having only to open
or dose a throttle valve.
8. Float chamber.—All carburettors of this type have
one point in common, viz. the float chamber, the object of
which is to maintain petrol at constant level for feeding to the
jet.
Petrol is fed to the bottom of the float chamber, PI. 60,
Fig. 1, through a.hole, in which fits a needle valve.
The hollow metal float is free to move up and down in the
chamber. As the petrol enters the float rises, and eventually,
through the small levers shown, presses the needle valve down,
and shuts off the supply.
Floats are normally arranged to shut off the supply when
the petrol level is -f- in. below the top of the jet, in order to
prevent any chance of leakage at the jet when the engine is
not running.
It may be necessary to alter this adjustment on any
alteration of the specific gravity of the fuel, owing to change
of temperature or change of fuel. This can be done either by
altering the distance between the collar and the point of the
needle or by weighting the float. Many modem float chambers
are fed from the top, and the needle valve is then lifted
directly by the float on to the valve seating, thus cutting off
further petrol supply. This is a simpler arrangement and
avoids the pin wear which takes place when levers are used.
9. The troubles with float chambers are:—
i. Water and dirt accumulation from unfiltered petrol.
ii. Faulty needle valve point or seating due to wear
causes ‘ permanent flooding and waste of fuel.
This can be remedied by grinding in by hand with
fine emery and oil. If a bad shoulder has been
formed on the needle, it is better to grind it on a
machine and afterwards fit to the seating by hand.
iii. Bent needle, caused by rough handling. Causes
flooding. Test for straightness by rolling on a
flat table.
iv. Puiictured float. This sometimes happens owing to
faulty soldering, resulting in petrol getting inside,
increasing the weight, and so causing flooding.
The petrol can be got out by warming (with due
care). The petrol evaporates away, after which the
puncture can be mended by very careful soldering.
322 Sec. 78.—Carbitration and Induction Systems
10. Mixture adjustment or compensation at varying

speeds.—There are several methods of obtaining a constant
mixture in carburettors for variable-speed engines.
i. The most common is the constant velocity or varying choke
and jet method. The principle can be understood by reading
Sec. 79, para. 1, on the White and Poppe carburettor. The
principle applies to the B. & B. and Amal carburettors.
The 5. U. (PI. 59, Figs. 2 and 3) and Smith multiple jet (PI. 59,
Fig. 1) also work on this principle, though in these cases the.
variation of the choke-tube and jet is not mechanically
effected by opening the throttle, but by means of a suctiion
operated piston. The amount of suction on the piston , in
these cases is controlled by the amount of throttle opening
in conjunction with the engine speed. This imparts a certain
delay action on the variation of choke and jet (or jets) because
of the elasticity of the suction and the inertia and friction of
the piston. The desirability of this feature is explained in
para. 12.
11. The compensating jet method.—This is typified by the
Zenith carburettor, explained in Sec. 79, para. 4.
iii. The submerged jet method. (See Sec. 79, para. 5.)—The
Solex. In this type a very rich mixture of petrol and air is drawn
into a fixed choke-tube through a comparatively large orifice.
The jet proper (through which petrol only flows), which is
submerged below the petrol level of the carburettor, is not,
therefore, under such direct influence of the air stream in the
main choke-tube, and there is, therefore, less need for adjust¬
ment of mixture strength with varying air speeds. This may
be understood better by considering the fact that the orifice
protruding into the air stream of the choke-tube is delivering
a mixture of petrol and air, and, therefore, a more constant
proportion is naturally maintained than is the case with
petrol only.
iv. Automatic air-valve principle.—In this, which is
typified by many American carburettors, the jet is usually
of normal non-submerged type and the choke fixed. Extra air
to compensate for the enriching of the mixture at higher
speeds is introduced by an automatic air-valve, which is
opened by the suction of the engine. A light spring keeps
it on its seating at low speed. This method often results in
over-compensation, and the jet is often provided with* a
tapered needle, which is lifted out by a mechanism connected
to the throttle, thus enlarging the jet orifice.
11. Starting and slow running.—All carburettors must
give to the induction pipe an over-rich mixture for starting
from cold, owing to the lack of vaporization at low tempera¬
ture. By the time such mixture has filled the cylinder and has
been compressed, enough of the petrol in it will have evaporated

to make a mixture of gases that will be explosive.
A strangling device is usually provided, whereby the air
supply to the main choke-tube can be cut off. This causes a
considerable suction effect around the jet, which then delivers
enough petrol for starting, even at hand cranking engine
speeds. The hand or a rag make a good substitute for a
strangler, when none is fitted.
Nearly all car type carburettors also have a special device
for assisting starting and making for economical slow running
or idling, as when waiting in traffic blocks. This consists
of a miniature jet (the pilot jet) and miniature choke-tube,
which come into operation only when the throttle is almost
closed. It is nothing more than a tiny carburettor, and it
suffices to refer to the slow running device on the Zenith.
(PI. 60 and Sec. 79, para. 4 (ii).)
12. Acceleration.—When the throttle is opened with the
engine running, the pressure (below atmospheric) in the
induction pipe increases more or less suddenly, according to
the suddenness of the throttle opening. This is because the
engine cannot accelerate quickly enough, and the air from the
outside has time to fill up the vacuum or depression in the
induction system. This increase of pressure, if at all sudden,
causes a considerable precipitation or deposition in the
piping of petrol which may have already been vaporized.
The result is a weak mixture delivered temporarily to the
cylinder.
Most modem carburettors have an arrangement by which
an over-rich mixture is supplied when the throttle is opened,
the excess petrol only lasting for a few cycles. The delay
action of the suction operated piston in the S.U. and Smith
multiple-jet carburettors (see para. 10, i.) produces this effect
(as well as the reverse on throttle closing).
The inertia of the petrol as compared with the air is a
further cause of the reduction in strength of mixture during
acceleration.
13. The requisites of a good automatic carburettor
may be summarized as follows :—
i. Must always make a well atomized and homogeneous
mixture.
ii. Must provide a nearly constant proportion of air to
fuel at all speeds and loads, except when starting,
iii. Must provide an excess of petrol for starting and also,
but to a lesser extent, for acceleration.
iv. Must be simple to adjust and must remain in adjust¬
ment in spite of wear.
v. Must contain the minimum of small moving parts.
324 Sec. 79.—Types of Carburettor
Sec. 79 gives typical examples of carburettors in most

common use in the service and show how these points are
catered for.
79. Types of Carburettor
1. The White and Poppe carburettor.—(1) The White
and Poppe carburettor, as fitted to P.E. lorries, &c., acts on
the constant velocity principle.
The carburettor body, PI. 58, Fig. 3, consists of a
cylindrical chamber. A, containing the jet, a. The cylindrical
adjustable liner, B, fits closely in the body, and the cylindrical,
throttle valve, C, rotates in the liner, B. Fixed to the
throttle cylinder is a cap, b, which fits over the jet, a. Both
cap and jet are drilled eccentrically, so that as the throttle is
rotated the actual jet opening is varied.
As the throttle is opened, the increased passage given to
the air tends to keep the velocity past the jet constant. Con¬
stant air velocity passing a jet of a given size gives a constant
quantity of petrol. As the throttle is opened, more air passes,
and the size of the jet opening is increased proportionately, so
that a constant mixture is obtained.
(2) The function of the liner, B, is one of adjustment. To
vary the strength of the mixture, the liner is turned relative
to the carburettor body. For any one position of the throttle
lever the same area of jet will be uncovered ; but by turning
the liner, the actual amount of throttle opening (i.e. passage
to air) for any position of the throttle, can be varied, thus
causing a mixture of varying strength.
(3) A fine adjustment for altering the strength of the
mixture to suit the weather is given by the snail cam, /.
This allows more or less air to leak over the jet through the
throttle spindle, which is drilled.
Once the main adjustment is set for any engine, this should
be sufficient for any temporary adjustments.
(4) This is a good carburettor for service purposes. It
gives a fair economy, is foolproof, and the jet can be made so
large that grit, the enemy of carburettor jets, will not readily
lodge in it. It gives poor acceleration, because no provision
for an over-rich mixture is made (see Sec. 78, para. 12). It
has no slow-running jet.
2. The Smith multiple jet carburettor.—See PI. 59,
Fig. 1. This carburettor works on the same general principle
as enunciated in Sec. 78, para. 10 (i), the variation of choke
area being effected by suction. It will be seen that as the
suction on the carburettor side of the throttle increases,,
the piston, P, which is quite heavy, will uncover succes¬
sively the holes in the choke-tubes, 1, 2, and 3, thus
Sec. 79.—Types of Carburettor 325
Flats 59.
IJIOl*
Fig l. Multiple Jet Carburettor.

Plats 60.
Sec. 79.—Types of Carburettor 327
bringing the jets into operation one by one. This really
amounts to having several carburettors. combined in one,
each adding its share of the mixture as the engine demands.
Multi-jet carburettors are usually thought too com¬
plicated for service purposes. Their only drawback is that
there are several small jets to get choked with dirt in place of
one large one.
3. The S.U. carburettor. See PI. 59, Figs. 2 and 3.
See Sec. 78, para. 10 (i), for the principle of its mixture strength
compensation. This carburettor has no special slow-running
device. Starting from cold is effected by lowering the sleeve
which surrounds the jet needle. This makes the jet larger
and gives as rich -a mixture as necessary. This operation can be
performed from the dashboard. It is a very simple matter to
tune this apparatus, it only being necessary to adjust the upper
limit position of this sleeve. The higher the sleeve the weaker
the mixture at all throttle positions. The jet needles must sit
centrally in the sleeve, and care is required when the piston
is removed not to damage the needle. The dashboard control
of the jet is very useful when running under different atmo¬
spheric conditions.
4. The Zenith carburettor.—(i) The Zenith carburettor
illustrates the principle of the compensating jet. On PI. 60,
Figs. 1 and 2, the float chamber communicates with the main
jet, a, direct, and with a compensating jet, b, via the vessel,
c, the top of which is open to the air. Petrol will flow
into c, through the small orifice d, at a rate dependent
on the difference of level of petrol in the float chamber and
the vessel, c. The flow through d is unaffected by the drop
of pressure at the jet, b, owing to the vessel, c, having an
open top.
For running at normal rates of speed the petrol is delivered
through the jet, 6, as fast as it will flow from the orifice, d,
so that the chamber, c, is then empty ; petrol thus flows into
c at a constant speed.
Both jets are situated in a choke-tube and the proportion
of petrol issuing from the main jet, a, to air increases as the
air speed past the jet rises. The jet, b, will not deliver
more petrol per second than can flow in through d, and, there¬
fore, as the air speed past the jets increases the proportion
of petrol to air delivered by jet, b, decreases. Hence, on an
increase of dir speed, the action of jet, a, is to make the mixture
stronger and that of jet, b, to make it weaker.
By suitably proportioning jet, a, orifice, d, and the choke-
tube, a carburettor can be produced which will give a fairly
correct mixture at all speeds and loads.
PI. 60, Fig. 1, shows the actual construction .of the Zenith
carburettor. It will be seen that the compensating jet sur¬
rounds the main jet. It is more usual to call the orifice, d,
the compensating jet, and the annular jet, b, is then referred
to as the compensating jet tube.
(ii) Starting and slow running.—The chamber, c, con¬
tains a small subsidiary carburettor for easy starting and
slow running. It delivers into the induction pipe above the
choke-tube, through the passage,/.
When the engine is not running, chamber c fills up to
float chamber level. With a practically closed throttle the
engine is cranked, and a comparatively high air velocity is
obtained through the narrow opening, /, resulting in the
sucking in of petrol through the passage, g, and a rich mixture
for starting. If the throttle valve were opened too wide,
difficulty would be experienced in starting, as the air velocity
, would not then be large enough to form a rich mixture either
from the main or compensating jets or from the pilot jet,/.
(iii) Immediately the engine starts, the level of the petrol
in c will be lowered. When the engine is running slowly under
no load, the petrol will rise a little way in c. When the
throttle is opened the jet, b, can first of all draw on the reserve
of petrol in c, thus providing a temporarily over-rich mixture.
The level in c is thus gradually lowered. Immediately normal
loads and speeds are reached, petrol is drawn out of c by the
jet, b, as fast as it can run into c through d.
(iv) This carburettor has the following advantages :—
i. Good compensation.
ii. The slow-running device is easily adjusted, and as it
gradually goes out of action when the throttle is
opened, waste is avoided.
iii. A good reserve of petrol for acceleration. If the
throttle is opened too suddenly, however, the
reserve is drawn off too quickly. This may
result in too rich a mixture to fire, and the engine
stops. This is called choking (lack of air).
(v) Adjustments.—The main adjustments of Zenith carbu¬
rettors will usually be made by the engine maker to suit the
particular engine. They are :—
i. By changing the diameter of the choke-tube.
ii. By changing the main jet.
iii. By changing the compensator, d, which regulates the
rate of flow of petrol through the compensating jet.
It must be remembered in changing Zenith jets that the
main jet has most influence on the mixture at high speeds and
full throttle, and that to test the effect of the main jet, the
Sec. 79.—'Types of Carburettor 329
Plate 61.
330 Sec. 80.—Fitting and Tuning of Carburettors
engine must be at full speed and throttle. The compensator

has most effect at low speeds and loads, and, therefore,
experiments with it should be made at intermediate loads and
throttle openings.
The minor adjustment provided is merely for slow running,
and consists of reducing the size of the choke-tube in the
slow-running auxiliary carburettor. The normal adjustment
is given by screwing" down the mill-headed piece as far as it
will go, and then turning 1J turns back.
5. The Solex carburettor.—Reference should be made »
to PI. 61, Figs. 1 and 2, and to Sec. 78, para. 10 (iii).
The carburettor throttle is of barrel type, which concentrates
the suction on to the pilot jet for starting and slow running,
but cuts that jet out at large throttle openings. The
petrol normally stands at the level, shown in PI. 61,
Fig. 2, when the engine is stationary or running light.
As soon as the throttle is opened, the reserve of neat
petrol in and around the body, b, of the main jet, j, ■
is drawn through the large opening, O, giving the necessary
over-rich mixture. The level is gradually lowered until
holes, a, are uncovered, when air can enter via holes, h, in the
jet shroud, js, round the top of the jet standard, st, and in
through the holes, a, in the jet, j. A mixture of petrol and
air is then delivered from O.
The maximum amount of petrol which can flow is limited
by the jet orifice, js. This principle of leading a mixture
into the main choke via O, results in excellent atomization,
which has a marked effect on petrol consumption.
This carburettor has the important advantage that the
float chamber and jet assembly can be removed without
breaking a single petrol connection, by merely unscrewing
nut, N.
Adjustment comprises choice of choke-tube, main jet and
slow-running jet. It is a disadvantage not having an
adjustable slow-running jet.
80. The fitting and tuning of carburettors

1. Sizes of flanges which abut anywhere in the induction
system should be the same, so as to avoid sudden enlarge¬
ments or contractions in the bore. This governs the size of
carburettor to fit. The common sizes of carburettor are 26,
30,35,40,46, and 52 mm., this measurement being the internal
diameter of the mixture outlet from the apparatus.
When fitting a carburettor, make sure there are no air
leal|s where it joins the induction pipe, or in the induction
pipe itself. Any thin jointing material is suitable. See that
the float chamber is vertical and that the petrol level is just
Sec. 80.—Fitting and Timing of Carburettors 331
below the level of the top of the jet. Note that petrol will
rise higher up fine jets than large ones, .owing to capillary
attraction. Do not attempt to tune with flooding
carburettor.
2. Before any carburettor adjustment is made, make
sure that the engine is otherwise in good working order,
especially as regards the valve timing and tappet clearances.
As a general rule, the first step in tuning is to get the
slow-running system working, so that the engine can be
started and warmed up. Adjustments to choke-tube and
jet should always be made with a warm engine, and with as
constant atmospheric conditions as possible.
3. The next step is to fit a choke-tube and jets of the right

size, and it must be' realised before commencing that the
choice of size of choke depends on the results required. If.
the maximum power at high engine speeds is required (i.e.
maximum speed on the level), the choke should not £ive any
restriction of bore at all. This adjustment will give poor
results at lower speeds, both as regards power and economy,
because of the comparatively poor atomization. Economy
and good acceleration at medium loads, at the expense of
maximum speeds, is obtained by reducing the choke area.
This can be carried out step by step until the maximum
speed comes down to the lowest allowable limit. Makers'
instruction books, when available, should be consulted as a
rough guide to start with; they usually provide for good
economy and acceleration rather than high power. These
instruction books also serve the very useful purpose of indi¬
cating the choke and jet sizes which approximately correspond.
The method of choosing the jet size for use with a given choke
is by trial and error, guided by makers’ instruction books.
The above remarks do not, of course, apply to auto¬
matically variable choke carburettors such as the S.U. In
these the problem is much simpler and comprises adjust¬
ment of jet size only.
Do not reamer or hammer jets to alter their size unless
absolutely necessary to do so.
4. The following symptoms of rich and weak mixtures

are given to assist in tuning:—
{a) Running light on slow-running device (cold
engine).
v i. Engine runs regularly for a few moments only, then
stops—insufficient quantity of mixture.
ii. Engine runs irregularly and may or may not stop—
weak mixture.
332 Sec. 81.—Petrol Supply to Carburettors
iii. Engine hunts. In a four-cylinder engine, usually

four strong explosions regularly followed by four
weak ones, as heard at the exhaust—mixture
just too rich.
iv. Engine misses every other explosion regularly—
mixture much too rich.
(6) With the engine under load and warm.
i. Occasional popping in the carburettor and induction
system—weak mixture.
ii. Irregular misfiring and frequent popping—very weak
mixture.
iii. Black smoke issuing from exhaust—rich mixture.
iv. Black smoke issuing from exhaust accompanied by
regular misfiring (eight stroking)—very rich mixture.
There is a considerable range of mixture strengths around
the correct one, which will give none of the symptoms
mentioned. The best strength of mixture within this range
can then only be detected by power and economy tests.
5. In many cases where the induction system does not
provide sufficient heat for partial vaporization (by conduction
from hot spots of the engine), it may prove beneficial to heat
the air before it enters the carburettor. PI. 62, Fig. 1, shows
a method of doing this. The air passes through a muff, A,
on the hot exhaust pipe, before entering the carburettor.
Another method is to surround the induction pipe or car¬
burettor body with a hot water jacket. Heating of this
nature leads to economy of fuel provided it is not overdone.
81. Petrol supply to carburettors

1. There are various systems :—
i. Gravity.—The petrol flows by gravity from a tank
which is so placed that the level of fuel is always higher than
the top of the float chamber.
ii. Vacuum system.—The Autovac system is typical,
PI. 62, Fig. 2.
The operation can best be understood by reference to
the diagram, in which it will be seen that engine suction
is used to draw up petrol from a main tank situated
lower than the carburettor. The fuel is lifted to a small
expense tank which is within the autovac itself. Thence
petrol flows by gravity to the carburettor. The action is
entirely automatic.
An autovac must be installed so that the top of the
container is always above the level of petrol in the main
tank, and the bottom must always be at least 3 inches above
the level of petrol in the carburettor float chamber.
Sec. 81.—Petrol Supply to Carburettors 333
Plate 62.
334 Sec. 82.—Ignition in Petrol Engines
The pipes and connections must always be perfectly

airtight. Provision is made to filter the petrol where it
enters the container. This filter needs occasional cleaning.
Any water or foreign matter which finds its way into the
container can be drained off from the bottom via a cock
provided. Otherwise the instrument needs no attention and
should not be tampered with by unskilled hands. The valves
are quite reliable.
iii. Air pressure system.—This is now rare. The main
tank, which has to be airtight and strong, can be lower than
the carburettor. Air at a few pounds per square inch |sayj
3 lbs.) is supplied by a small air pump, *operated by the
engine, to the air space above the fuel in the main tank. This
is sufficient to force petrol up the supply pipe to the
carbmrettor. An auxiliary hand air pump is provided for
starting purposes. A pressure gauge connected to the petrol
tank is fitted for the convenience of the driver.
iv. Pump system.—Petrol pumps, either engine driven
or electrically driven, are now being largely used in modem
vehicles to raise the fuel up to a small expense tank above
the carburettor level.
2. Petrol pipes should be of copper, softened by quenching
in cold water from a red heat. They can then stand con¬
siderable vibration. They must be free from sharp bends
likely to lead to fracture, and free from unnecessary upward
slopes, which in gravity feed pipes sometimes cause mysterious
air-locks.
Petrol tanks for gravity and vacuum supply must have an
air vent. It is usually in the filter cap and must be kept free,
otherwise petrol cannot flow out of the tank when the cap is on.
The lay-out of the supply system must avoid the possibility
of leakage petrol dripping on to hot exhaust pipes.
3. Filtering.—All supply petrol contains impurities, of
which water and a sandy substance are the commonest. If
these get into the carburettor trouble ensues. Filters should
always be fitted to the petrol system. The filters themselves
need occasional cleaning, but this can be done when con¬
venient. It must not be forgotten. The most common type
has fine wire gauze for catching solid matter and a gravity
trap which catches the water.
82. Ignition in petrol engines

1. In all petrol engines ignition is effected by an electric
spark. This spark occurs within the cylinder when the piston
is approaching the inner end of its travel on the compression
stroke. The exact moment at which the spark occurs is dealt
with in para. 4.
Sec. 82.—Ignition in Petrol Engines 335
The spark is produced by one of two main ignition systems,

viz.:—
1. Magneto.
ii. Battery and coil.
These systems are dealt with in Secs. 83 to 85.
2. Sparking plugs.—PL 69, Figs. 1 and 2. These vital
components of a petrol engine receive a high voltage
momentarily from the ignition system, with the result that a
spark occurs at the sparking plug points protruding into the
combustion chamber. The electric current passes down the
insulated central*electrode and jumps across the small air gap
provided to a plug point, whence it returns to the ignition
apparatus via the metal of the engine.
The following are practical points in connexion with
sparking plugs:—
i. The proper length of air gap or spark gap for general
purposes is 1/40 in. or *025 in. The effect of a longer gap
is to make starting more difficult and to put an extra and
unnecessary electric strain on the sparking plug insulation
* and the ignition system. This applies equally to two-stroke
engines. A shorter gap may give easier starting, but may
involve a slight loss of power. If a shorter gap is necessary
to get the engine to start, the plug insulation may be weak
(breaking down when the gap is correct); otherwise the
ignition system is at fault.
Spark gaps should be adjusted with the aid of a gauge of
the correct thickness. Light tapping of the points will bend
them quite well. Do not bend the central electrode unless it is
the only possible way of adjusting the gap. If this electrode
is not perfectly straight as is nearly always the case, gap
adjustment may be made by revolving the electrode. This
cannot be done in types of plugs which cannot be dismantled
for cleaning.
ii. Gleaning plugs.—An over-rich mixture or a very late
ignition may result in a thin layer of fine carbon being
deposited on those surfaces of the plug which are within the
combustion chamber. If any such layer gets across the
surface of the insulation, the current will be short-circuited,
and either no spark will occur or the spark will be weakened.
Deposits of slightly or entirely carbonized oil have a similar
effect. The immediate remedy is to clean the plug. This
should be done by dismantling it, if possible, and scraping all
the metal surfaces clean of carbon. The insulating surfaces
need more careful treatment, and a wipe over with a rag is
,often sufficient. Before re-assembling, wash the parts clean
in petrol. A less efficacious but quicker method is to wash the
plug in clean petrol without dismantling, and this is about all

that can be done to plugs which do not take to pieces. The
practice of cleaning plugs by heating in a blow-lamp or
similar flame is bad as the heat required to bum off the carbon
will damage the insulation. A very gentle heat, however,
may be used to dry out the insulation and so improve its
electric resistance.
A more permanent remedy for sooty or oily plugs will also
be desirable. Cures for soot due to rich mixture or late
ignition are obvious. Cures for oiliness are not so easy. The
trouble is either due to :— *
[a) Excess lubricating oil in the combustion chamber, or
(b) The use of the wrong type of sparking plug.
(a) is commonly caused by excess or unsuitable lubricant
in the crank chamber, or by worn pistons, cylinders, or rings.
In some engines, especially those with overhead valves, it
may be due to worn inlet valve stems or valve guides,
which allow oil to be sucked through. Faulty engine design
is also quite often the cause of (a).
As regards the type of plug, all plugs are to a certain degree
self-cleansing. They get hot enough to bum away some oil
and carbon which is deposited on them. If the plug keeps too
cool, the rate of cleansing is less than the rate of deposit, and
the plug oils up. If it is too hot, it is kept quite clean, but
then the electrode and points may get red hot and cause
pre-ignition. The rate of cooling of the plug depends to a
large extent on the size of the central electrode and points
and the material used in them. Thin wiry points conduct
the heat away slower than thick ones. High compression
engines, in which the average temperatures are high, therefore
require plugs with heavy electrodes ; low compression engines
with lower temperatures require much thinner electrodes.
But electrodes are by no means the only factor in plug
design for high or low compression engines. If plugs designed
for low compression are used in high compression engines,
the result is pre-ignition (at any rate at full throttle). If
plugs designed for high compression are used in low com¬
pression engines, the result is oiling up (at any rate at small
throttle openings). Therefore, where possible, maker's
advice should be sought as to the most suitable type of
plug.
Owing to the more frequent explosions, two-stroke
engines require plugs which will stand higher temperatures
than occur in four-stroke engines of equal compression, unless
they are run only at light load. Plugs with a small vacant,
space within their bodies are less prone to cause pre-ignition
than those with a larger space, other tilings being the same,
Sec. 82.—Ignition in Petrol Engines 337
but the smaller space is sooner choked with carbon and is
more difficult to clean.
3. Testing plugs.—The commonest method is to unscrew
the plug from the cylinder and lay it with the body making
metallic contact with the engine, the terminal being connected
up to the ignition system. The spark points must be in view,
preferably in a darkish place. If the engine be now rotated
by hand, as for starting, a fat bluish spark should be seen.
If there is no spark, or only a feeble, thin, or reddish one,
disconnect the electric lead from the plug and make it spark
to the metal of the engine. This will tell whether the fault
lies in the plug or in the ignition system. If a plug gives a
feeble, thin, or reddish spark when outside the cylinder, it
may be giving no spark at all when inside the cylinder. This
is because the voltage necessary to jump the air gap is greater
under the cylinder compression than when in the atmosphere.
When in the cylinder, the extra voltage required may break
down a faulty or dirty plug insulation, resulting in no spark
at the points. This is most important and makes plug testing
more or less a matter of experience, when no special apparatus
is available. There are cheap neon tube plug testers on
the market which will indicate a satisfactory or otherwise
spark with the plug under compression, i.e. in place in the
cylinder.
4. Spark advance.—Owing to the appreciable time taken
by the explosion to develop after the spark has taken place,
it is necessary, if maximum combustion pressure is to be
reached by inner dead centre, for the spark to occur some
time before the piston reaches the end of the compression
stroke. This is termed spark advance and the amount
is usually spoken of in terms of crankshaft degrees before
inner dead centre. The amount of advance is normally ad¬
justable by the driver, the range being usually from nothing
[i.e. spark occurs when piston is at inner dead centre at end
of compression stroke) to, say, 30 degrees before inner dead
centre. Rapidly burning mixtures, such as those of correct
chemical proportions, hot, well vaporized, in a turbulent
condition, and highly compressed, will require less spark
advance at a given engine speed than mixtures which, owing
to weakness or richness, lumpiness, stagnation or lower
pressure, are more sluggish in burning.
The higher the speed, the earlier should the spark occur,
up to a limit, owing to the shorter time available. The limit
is probably where the extra turbulence due to speed more than
counterbalances the shorter time available at the higher
r.p.m.
From the driver’s point of view the only variables are
12—(579)
speed and throttle opening (which governs compression

pressure and temperature), and for his benefit the following
hints are given:—
i. Full speed and light load (small throttle opening)—
maximum spark advance (for compression pressure
is then low, engine is cool, and very short time is
available for combustion).
ii. Full speed and load (throttle wide)—nearly maximum
spark advance (unless engine dirty and overheating,
when further retard will be necessary). (
iii. Slow speed, light load—half retard.
iv. Slow speed and heavy load (throttle wide)—full retard.
The symptoms of too much advance are :—
i. A dull thumping sound, caused by too early a rise of
combustion pressure whilst the piston is still on its
in-stroke.
ii. A sharp metallic pinking, which is due to partial
detonation talcing place after the explosion has been
started by the electric spark, when the rises of
pressure and temperature in the cylinder have
together reached that point at which the yet unburnt
portion of the charge ignites spontaneously. This
will be accompanied by overheating, and the general
intensity of these symptoms will depend largely
upon the degree of cleanliness of the inside of the
cylinder. Such pre-ignition must always be checked
at once by retarding the spark or reducing the
throttle opening, or by both, as it causes undue stress
on the bearings, &c., which will result in wear.
iii. Unusual back-firing when starting.
The symptoms of too little advance are:—
i. The engine fails to develop full power and gives poor
acceleration (without popping back) on throttle
being opened.
ii. The engine overheats badly (exhaust system may
become red hot) and flames may sometimes be seen
at exit from exhaust box.
iii. Fuel consumption is abnormally high.
iv. Unusually loud and " flat ” exhaust note.
v. Bad pitting of exhaust valves.
5. The position of the sparking plug in the cylinder may
appreciably affect the starting. For instance, a plug with a
short thread screwed into a deep valve cap may result in the
points being contained in a pocket which is not readily reached
by the mixture. The remedy is to alter the valve cap so that
the points project into the main part of the combustion
Sec. 83.—Magneto Ignition Systems 339
chamber. Special long-thread plugs can be obtained (not

a service store). Nearly all plugs nowadays have a metric
thread.
83. Magneto ignition systems
1. The high-tension magneto system consists of the
following essential parts :—
i. An electric generator, with permanent field magnets,
giving an alternating current.
ii. An induction coil, both primary and secondary windings
being wound on the armature.
iii. A contact-breaker to interrupt the generator primary
circuit. .
iv. A distributor, to distribute high-tension current to the
sparking plugs:
2. The generator consists of an H armature, PI. 63, Fig. 1,
built up of laminated soft iron plates and wound with insulated
copper wire. It revolves between laminated soft iron pole-
pieces attached to the permanent magnets. The clearance
between the armature and pole-pieces is very small.
Imagine the armature to be revolving as shown by the
arrow. When in position P, the magnetic lines of force take
the easiest magnetic path, as shown, and none of the windings
cut the lines of force. There is, therefore, no E.M.F. generated.
From P to Q the lines of force are pulled round with the
revolving armature, the conductors of which only cut a few
stray lines of force. As the gap between C and D is
diminished, more lines of force are cut by moving conductors
until the position R is reached.
At this point, the flux tlirough the coil is negligible and
the E.M.F. generated a maximum. The maximum value of
the current occurs later in the position shown approximately
at S, at low speeds.
There are two • positions for maximum current in one
revolution of the armature, the second one being when
point B leaves point E.
The voltage curve is shown on PI. 63, Fig. 2. The current
curve is similar but not exactly in phase (lags).
3. The armature.—The armature winding which gener¬
ates the low-tension voltage, is known as the primary winding,
and consists of a few turns of relatively thick wire. Wound
on the same armature and over the primary winding is the
secondary winding, consisting of several thousand turns of
very fine insulated wire. Therefore, an induction coil is
wound on the armature. Any change of current in the
primary winding will induce an E.M.F. in the secondary
winding which, added to the voltage generated in this winding,
FigSL
produces the spark. The magnitude of the induced voltage in
the secondary winding depends on :—
i. The ratio of turns of wire in the secondary to those in
the primary (a matter of design).
ii. The rate of change of current in the primary.
To obtain the maximum induced voltage in the secondary,
the current in the primary is reduced from its maximum to
zero by breaking the primary circuit as quickly as possible.
4. The contact-breaker is the device for breaking the
primary circuit, PL 64, Fig. 1.
It revolves with the armature, being keyed to the spindle,
and consists of two points, P, one fixed and the other at the
end of a pivoted-bell crank lever. This lever is normally
pressed by a spring, so that the two points are in contact. (The
contact points are now made of tungsten, which is much cheaper
than platinum, used in early magnetos.)
The contact-breaker revolves in a cam ring, the cams being
so placed that the bell crank lever rides up them at the points
of maximum current in the primary. This separates the
points quickly and so breaks the primary circuit.
The contact-breaker is keyed to the spindle in such a
position that the timing gap AB, S of Fig. 1, PI. 63, between
the leading edge of the fixed pole-piece and the trailing edge of
the H armature is about 2 or 3 mm., when the points begin
to separate, the spark lever being in the fuU advance position.
(See para. 3, above.)
5. The primary circuit is shown diagrammatically on
PI. 65 and PI. 64, Fig. 3, which should be read in conjunction.
One end, a, of the primary winding is connected to the
armature core. The other end, b, is taken, via one side of
the condenser, and thence through an insulated bush in the
armature spindle to the long screw, d (PI. 65), which holds
the contact-breaker to the armature, and which makes contact
with the fixed point; e, which is insulated from the main body
of the contact-breaker. The primary circuit continues through
the moving point, /, through the bell crank lever and its
spring, g, back to the metallic portion of the contact-breaker,
and thence through the armature spindle to the armature and
point, a.
The other side of the condenser is connected with the
moving point, through the frame (or earth), so that the con¬
denser is connected across the two points.
6. The object of the condenser is two-fold :—
i, To reduce arcing at the points when the break is made,
and thus save wear and tear of the points.
ii. By stopping the formation of the arc, to cause a more
rapid break of the primary (an electric arc once
formed acts as a conductor).
342 Sec. 83.—Magneto Ignition Systems
7. The secondary circuit and distributor.—One end

of the secondary coil is connected to the primary, at b, and
thence to the armature core. The other end is led out to the
metal collector ring, h, and the circuit is led thence by the
carbon brush, j, through a metal rod to the revolving carbon
brush, k, on the distributor, which is driven at half the speed of
the armature. The distributor brush, k, makes contact in turn
with the segments, /, from which the current is led in turn along
insulated cables to the insulated terminals of the sparking
plugs. The body of the sparking plug is screwed into the
engine, which is in metallic contact with the frame of the
magneto, and therefore, with the armature and point, a, to
which one end of the secondary circuit is attached (through the
primary in this case).
At the moment of break in the primary circuit, the induced
voltage in the secondary, added to the generated voltage, is
high enough to spark across the plug points.
In magnetos for single-cylinder engines no distributor is
required, the current being led direct from the collector-brush,
j, to the single sparking plug.
In two-cylinder magnetos the distributor is often com¬
bined with the collecting ring, there being two collector-
brushes, j.
Some distributors have a revolving spark gap electrode
in the place of the revolving carbon brush. This puts a small
series air gap in the circuit, and therefore a higher voltage is
required, but the prevention of leakage from the secondary
while the voltage is building up, more than compensates for this.
8. The safety spark gap on the high-tension circuit
is in parallel between the lead from the collecting brush, j,
and the frame of the magneto. Its object is to prevent
excessive voltages, which might pierce the insulation of the
secondary winding, from being produced therein should a lead
become detached from its plug whilst the engine is still run¬
ning. The distance between the points of the safety gap
should, therefore, be greater than that between plug points.
9. Earthing brush.—It will be seen that the secondary
circuit has to pass from the secondary winding, through the
primary winding to the armature spindle, and thence to
earth. To facilitate this, and to obviate sparking at the ball
bearings, the contact-breaker is fitted at the back with an
earthing-brush which rubs against the frame of the magneto.
10. Earthing switch.—In order to switch off the spark,
the primary circuit is short-circuited by a switch which
connects the fixed platinum or tungsten point to the frame
of the engine. This prevents the current from being broken
when the points are separated (as shown on PI. 64).
11. Timing the magneto to the engine is effected as

follows:—
i. When the ignition point is not marked on the flywheel.
Fully retard the magneto. Turn the engine until one piston
is at inner dead centre on the compression stroke. Note the
direction of rotation of the magneto and turn it forward
until the points are just about to break. Then couple up
the magneto and engine in these relative positions. Ascertain
from examination of the distributor which of the high-tension
leads radiating from it is connected with the high-tension
circuit through the distributor brush, k, and connect that
lead to the sparking plug of the cylinder being dealt with.
Then connect up the other plugs in accordance with their firing
sequence. This can be done by examination of the magneto
distributor and the valves of the engine.
The normal firing sequence for four-cylinder engines is
1, 3, 4, 2, number 1 cylinder being that farthest from the
flywheel in normal engines. An uncommon alternative is
1, 2, 4, 3. Six-cylinder engines usually fire in the order
1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4. To check firing order, watch the order of lift
of inlet or exhaust valves.
ii. When the ignition point is marked on the flywheel, turn
it till this mark is uppermost (in line with centre of cylinder
bores). The pistons of No. 1 and No. 4 (in four-cylinder
engines) are then approaching inner dead centre. Turn the
engine so that No. 1 is on the compression stroke. Place the
magneto in the fully advanced position and connect to engine.
Then proceed with distributor, leads, &c., as in (i).
Some magnetos have quickly adjustable couplings, which
render accurate magneto timing easier. A common method
is the vernier ring. A loose fibre ring has, say, 17 teeth on
one side engaging with a similar ring of the engine, and 18
teeth on the other, engaging with an 18-tooth ring keyed to the
magneto. To advance the magneto timing slightly, with¬
draw magneto together with fibre ring. Turn the magneto
and fibre ring slightly forward so that the ring will re-engage
with the engine one tooth farther forward, i.e. advanced by
360
— degrees (on the magneto shaft). Now withdraw again,
this time leaving the fibre coupling on the engine. Turn the
magneto back slightly so that it will re-engage with the fibre
360
ring one tooth back, i.e. retarded by — degrees. The net
360
result is an advance degrees of the magneto on
18
top of whatever the timing was before (about 1 degree).
PR IM&R Y WINOUS/G
aecoNOftnv winding
• EfilftTM
Plate 65.
12. Advancing and retarding the spark.—The neces¬

sity for timing the spark was explained in Sec. 82, para. 4, on
the assumption that the intensity of the spark was constant,
but it will be understood that the more intense the spark
the quicker will the combustion be completed.
It was further pointed out in para. 2 that the maximum
value of the current occurs later than the E.M.F. This is
due to the reactance of the windings, and as this is proportional
to the speed, the angle of lag will increase as the speed rises.
Therefore, if the current is always to be broken when at its
maximum value the contact-breaker must be timed to function
later as the speed increases.
It should also be noted that although the voltage increases
with the speed, so also docs the reactance, and consequently
the current at 2,000 r.p.m. is probably not more than double
its value at 100 r.p.m.
These points should not be lost sight of when considering
the effects of advancing or retarding the spark. A traverse
of 25° to 30° between full advance and full retard is usually
provided in rotating armature magnetos (half this value in
polar inductor magnetos).
As a rule, in the fully advanced position the break is
arranged to occur when the armature is in the position shown
at S on PI. 63, Fig. 1, the liming gap AB being about 2 to
3 mm. in most magnetos (but may be as low as 0-5 and as great
as 4 mm. in some designs). This ensures that the maximum
intensity of spark will be obtained at slow speeds in the fully
advanced position, which is therefore the best for starting
(but see instructions in Sec. 87 for starting by hand).
13, Direction of rotation.—Magnetos tire made for one
definite direction of rotation, which is generally marked on
them by an arrow. It is customary to describe the direction of
rotation as clockwise or counter-clockwise when looking from
the driven end (i.e. the end remote from the contact-breaker).
Referring to PI. 63, Fig. 1, it is clear that a magneto running
counter-clockwise should have its contact-breaker keyed to
the spindle in such a way that point C would be just leaving
point D when the points begin to break. The gap CD would
then be the timing gap of 2 to 3 mm. with spark fully advanced.
The direction of rotation of magnetos can be changed
either by:—
i. Cutting a new key-way in the spindle in such a position
that this is effected.
ii. Altering the position of the cams on the cam ring (they
are sometimes made detachable for this purpose),
or of the cam ring itself.
At the same time care must be taken that the brush, k,
on PI. 65, is still making contact with the correct segment, l,
when the points break from the full-advanced to the full-

retard position. If it is not, the meshing of the distributor
gear wheels must be altered to correspond. In many cases
there are two pairs of adjacent teeth spotted on these wheels,
marked R and L for right and left hand rotation respectively.
14. Care of magnetos.—
i. Keep dry. Damp breaks down the insulation and
weakens the spark.
ii. Oil very seldom. Oil on the tungsten points
results in bad contact in the primary and a weak
or no spark.
iii. Keep the tungsten points clean and even. They
can be cleaned by drawing a piece of paper
between them when closed under the action of
the spring.' They can be evened up by dis¬
mantling and rubbing on fine emery cloth laid
on a flat surface.
iv. Adjust the tungsten points to break at the correct
armature position. Maximum opening should be
0*012 in.
v. Keep the distributor quite clean by rubbing the
fibre and copper segment occasionally with a
rag soaked in petrol. Dirty segments result
in leakage of the high-tension current to the
other segments and plugs.
vi. Watch the carbon brushes for wear and broken
springs and renew them when necessary.
vii. Never separate armature from magneto without first
putting a keeper on the magnets. Do not remove
the keeper till armature is in place again.
15. Other types of magneto that may be met with.—
i. A high-tension trip magneto is sometimes fitted on single¬
cylinder engines running at speeds up to 600 revolutions per
minute. Its object is to obtain a good spark for starting,
and for running afterwards at comparatively low speeds; this
is achieved by revolving the armature slowly through about
22 degrees from the symmetrical position against two strong
spiral springs, which pull it back through the maximum
position very quickly when the trip takes place.
The high-tension trip magneto illustrated in PI. 66, Fig. 6,
is actually a “ sleeve ” inductor type machine, in which the
armature remains stationary. Between the armature and the
poles there is an annular space in which an iron shield or sleeve
is rotated or oscillated. This machine is similar in principle to
the polar inductor magneto described in the next paragraph.
ii. Polar inductor magnetos are those in which the armature
and both windings are stationary, and the soft iron inductors,
attached to a non-magnetic spindle, are the only parts which
revolve.
Referring to Pl. 66, Figs. 1 to 4, the inductors NS which
are virtually extensions of the permanent magnets ns, revolve
between the soft iron extensions P.P. of the iron core C on
which the primary and secondary windings are placed. The
flux changes direction through the coil in passing from the
position shown in Fig. 1 to that shown in Fig. 3. The maxi¬
mum value of the E.M.F. occurs in the position shown in
Fig. 2 when the flux through the coils is practically negligible.
The current lags behind the E.M.F. as explained in the case of
the ordinary magneto, and therefore the primary circuit is
arranged to break when the timing gap A.B. (Fig. 3) is from
0*5 to 1 mm. with the timing lever fully advanced.
iii. Low-tension magnetos are still sometimes found on
gas engines and certain types of small farm petrol engines.
They consist of a magneto, provided with a primary winding
only, one end of which is earthed and the other end is led to
the fixed insulated terminal of the make-and-break device
which is in the cylinder, PI. 66, Fig. 7, and which is actuated
by a rod off the half-time shaft.
The main points to note are :—
i. The sparking points, which give an arc when moved
apart under low voltage, must be quite clean and
dry.
ii. The break must be adjusted to take place at the
same time as the magneto armature (whether of
the trip or other type) passes the position of
maximum current, see Sec. 83, para. 2.
The connections are similar to those in the ordinary
revolving armature magneto.
Advance and retard are effected by pivoting the core C with
its extensions P.P., which carry the contact-breaker, and the
break always occurs at the position of maximum current.
The advantages of this type over the ordinary H.T.
magneto are:—
i. It is easier to make. The windings do not revolve
and are less liable to become disconnected.
ii. A greater range of advance and retard can be given,
the spark intensity being always a maximum.
iii. More sparks per magneto revolution can be obtained
than with the ordinary magneto (which is limited to
two sparks per revolution). This is done by
increasing the number of inductors, and may be an
advantage in multi-cylinder engines.
16. The impulse starter is a device which converts an
ordinary H.T. magneto into one of the trip type for starting.
350 Sec. 84.—Faults in Magneto Ignition Systems
thus ensuring a higher armature speed than can be given by

directly coupling the magneto to a part of the engine turned
by hand, and, therefore, enabling the spark lever to be
retarded, whilst at the same time obtaining a good spark.
During the latter half of the compression stroke the
armature is held stationary by a clutch, the spring meanwhile
winding up. At the correct moment the clutch is auto¬
matically released, and the spring causes the armature to
catch up with a jerk, thus giving a full-power spark, however
slowly the engine is turned over. As soon as the engine is
running, the whole device is automatically cut out of action *
and the magneto works in the ordinary way.
84. Faults in magneto ignition systems
1. If a failure of the magneto ignition system is suspected,
the following table shows how the fault should be traced, and
its remedy.
Symptom Reason Remedy Remarks
i. No spark at Faulty plug due The fault can be

plug at starting. to :— quickly traced to
(a) Dirty short¬ Clean with petiol. pings if a good
ing points. lead is removed
(b) Interior Clean. from plug and
carboned up tested for spark
or oily. when held 1/8 in.
(e) Cracked in¬ Replace plugs. (not more) from
sulating por¬ engine. See Sec.
celain. 82, para. 3.
(d) Points set Adjustto-025in.
too wide.
(e) Faulty Replace.
H.T. leads.
(/) Earthing Disconnect or
switch short¬ switch off.
ing primary.
Faulty magneto
due to:—
ii. No spark at (a) Bell crank Thin down stud Common in wet
starting and no lever stuck with emery wca thcr.
shock given when up through paper.
the magneto is damp or a Replace spring.
turned by hand faulty spring,
and one of the (b) A discon- ♦Repair.
H.T. terminals nection some-
felt. where in the
primary or
secondary
circuit or a
short circuit.
(c) One of Renew.
the carbon
brushes not
making con¬
tact.
Sec. 84.—Faults in Magneto Ignition Systems 351
Symptom Reason Remedy Remarks
iii. Weak spark (a) Faulty plug, Clean or replace. See remarks to
at starting (not (ib) Magnetism of ♦Re-magnetize. (i), above.
sufficient to start magnets weak.
the engine when {c) Damp mag¬ ♦Dry out coils in
under compres¬ neto. a slow oven.
sion). (d) Dirty tung¬ Clean with paper
sten points. and petrol.
(e) Fitted and True with a very
uneven tung¬ smooth file or
sten points. emery cloth.
(/) Tungsten See para. 3.
points breaking
too much or too
little.
Accomp a n 1 c d (g) Pierced con¬ ♦Renew conden¬
by sparking at the denser or a con¬ ser or replace
tungsten points. nection to con¬ lead.
denser broken.
(A) Magneto too Advance.
far retarded.
(j) Dirty distri¬ Clean.
butor.
iv. Magneto (a) A faulty plug. Replace.
sometimes gives a (b) A faulty lead. Replace.
spark, and some¬ (c) An internal ♦Repair.
times does not. disconnection
either between
unearthed ends
of H.T. winding
or L.T. winding.
The repairs marked * require the services of an electrician.
2. Unless special facilities exist, it is not desirable that

repairs entailing the unwinding of the secondary or primary
should be undertaken by military labour. In peace time, a
civil firm should be given the work; in war time, a spare
should be demanded.
3. With regard to fault iii. (/) in para. 1. The correct
adjustment of the tungsten points is most important.
Makers normally lay down that the maximum break should
be adjusted to -012 inch, and set the contact breaker relative
to the armature to suit this.
Referring to PI. 64, Fig. 1, if the points can normally
break more than this the adjusting screw must be screwed
farther out, and in this case the fibre inset on the bell crank
lever will come earlier on to the cam, and the break will occur
earlier (i.e. before the maximum current position of the
armature,, when the spark is fully advanced). Trouble will
then be experienced in starting, unless the spark lever is
retarded.
352 Sec. 85.—Battery and Coil Ignition Systems
If the break is allowed to become too small, from whatever
cause (e.g. wear of cams or fibre inset), the points will break
after the maximum current position, with the spark lever at
full advance, and starting will be rendered very difficult.
4. In dismantling a magneto, the magnets, if removed,
should be marked so that they can be reassembled in exactly
the same relative position to the pole-pieces as before, but they
should only be removed in very exceptional circumstances.
Remagnetizing.—The permanent magnets of a magneto
may require boosting up occasionally. To do this the magnets
should be placed on the poles of a strong electromagnet
(PI. 66, Fig. 8), care being taken to ensure the correct polarity.
When the permanent magnets and electromagnet are in
contact, and not before, the armature or keeper should be
removed. The current should then be switched on and off
several times for periods of a few seconds, the magnets being
tapped lightly while the current is on. Then replace armature
or keeper before removing the magnets from the electromagnet.
A suitable electromagnet can be constructed from a
15-in. length of 3-in. by 1-in. wrought-iron bar bent into
“ U ” shape with 3-in. centres, and wound with half a pound
of 35 S.W.G. double silk covered copper wire on each limb.
This coil has a resistance of about 370 ohms and is suitable
for connection to a 230-volt supply.
85. Battery and coil ignition systems

1. Battery, coil and contact-breaker system.—
PI. 67 shows the electric circuit in the ordinary coil ignition
system, which has become so popular in cars. The general
idea is much the same as in the magneto, but the primary
current is here supplied by an accumulator, usually of 6 or
12 volts. The armature and coils are stationary and are
often mounted away from the engine. The circuit is made
and broken by a contact-breaker, with condenser, just as in a
magneto. The chief differences in the electrical circuit are
that the ignition switch is in series with the primary circuit
and that a control resistance is inserted in the primary to
limit the current. The resistance of the primary being only
about 0*5 ohms without a control resistance, it will be seen
that if the engine were stopped with the contacts “ making "
and the switch left “ on," the battery would discharge itself
heavily and possibly overheat the coil.
Owing to the longer time available for building up the
primary current at low speeds, coil ignition usually gives a
better spark at starting than at high speeds. The starting
spark is superior to that of a magneto, the high speed spark
Sec. 85.—Battery and Coil Ignition Systems 353
354 Sec. 85.—Battery and Coil Ignition Systems
inferior. The better starting spark is a decided advantage,

and a further advantage is that there is no limit to the range
of advance and retard, as this has no effect on spark strength
as in a magneto.
From the service point of view the fact that starting
the engine depends absolutely on the accumulator being to a
certain degree charged, renders all coil ignition systems some¬
what unsatisfactory. Combined with a magneto as a stand-by
for starting, and a generator for keeping the battery charged,
the system is excellent, although somewhat complicated and
expensive.
2. Battery and trembler coil system.—This system,
which must be clearly distinguished from the battery, coil,
and contact-breaker system, is normally used only for starting
heavy engines, say, upwards of 40 H.P., which cannot be
cranked fast enough in cold weather to start with magneto
alone. The system, which is normally used in conjunction
with a magneto, is switched off when the engine has gathered
speed and the magneto is working properly. It requires a
separate set of sparking plugs and high-tension leads, and
thus is somewhat complicated. Provided, however, that
there is a charge in the battery, it provides the most infallible
method of starting known. So efficacious are the sparks
provided, that if a warm engine is placed just over top dead
centre and the trembler switched on, the engine will often
start without any cranking at all. The mixture remaining
in the cylinder from the previous run makes this possible,
provided the engine was stopped by switching off only, and
is in good condition.
The battery and trembler coil system for a single-cylinder
engine is shown diagrammatically on PI. 64, Fig. 2.
The trembler, PI. 66, Fig. 5, consists of a piece of soft iron,
A, on a pivoted steel spring, which is normally forced up
against the screw, B, so that platinum points on the screw, C,
and the trembler, D, are in contact.
When the commutator completes the circuit, current
flows in the primary coil (PI. 64, Fig. 2), converts the iron
core into an electro-magnet, and causes the soft iron piece
on the trembler to be attracted towards it, thereby separating
the platinum points and breaking the circuit suddenly. This
induces a high E.M.F. in the secondary winding, which causes
a spark at the plug.
The H.T. circuit is from Tx to the plug, across the gap to
earth, thence to the commutator, to T2, and back through the
secondary coil to T^
Directly the platinum points are broken, current ceases
to flow in the primary, and the electro-magnet ceases to
attract the trembler, which hies back to its first position,
Sec. 86.—Valve Timing in Petrol Engines 355
thereby causing contact at the platinum points and current

to flow again.
The whole process is repeated several times whilst the
commutator completes the circuit, a succession of sparks
being obtained at the sparking plug.
There are three terminals on the coil box.
The actual connections are :—
i. One terminal of the battery to the frame, and the
other to the battery terminal on the coil box, Ta.
ii. The plug is connected to the plug terminal on the
coil box, Tj. This plug terminal is usually marked
S on the box, meaning secondary circuit.
iii. The commutator is connected to the other coil box
terminal, T2.
For four-cylinders a tt.T. distributor (similar to that used
for a magneto) is also required.
The special adjustments for this type of ignition are :—
i. The battery must deliver the voltage for which the
coil is designed.
ii. The platinum points must be clean and even (this
necessitates frequent cleaning), and the screw so
adjusted that the trembler will oscillate strongly
when the current flows.
In timing a trembler system to an engine, care should be
taken to see that on full retard the piston is at least at inner
dead centre and preferably about 5° after, or nasty back-firing
may occur on starting. Care must be taken not to get a
shock from a battery and trembler system. Though not
really dangerous, those who dislike a magneto shock will find
one from a good trembler quite stunning in comparison.
86. Valve timing in petrol engines

1. The principles of valve timing as discussed in Chapter
XIII hold good for petrol engines. Owing to higher speeds,
however, and the fact that several cylinders may be drawing
mixture from one carburettor, there are differences.
2. PI. 68 shows the valve timings adopted in several very
different petrol engines. It will be noticed that the road
vehicle engines all have the exhaust opening points about
the same, i.e. about 45 degrees before outer dead centre.
Although this precise angle is in itself not very important, the
fact that it is nearly the same in all road vehicle engines may
be made use of in retiming such an engine, whose correct
timing is not known. It is a common bad practice to retime
in such cases by making the inlet valve open at inner dead
356 Sec. 86.-—Valve Timing in Petrol Engines
Plate 68.
Sec. 87.—Starting Petrol Engines 357
centre. This may result in the timing being as much as

15 degrees out, a greater error than usually occurs by assuming
the exhaust opening point to be 45 degrees before outer dead
centre, and using that point for timing.
3. Most four-cylinder engines drawing from one carburettor
have late opening inlet valves so that any two inlet valves
shall not be open together for longer than necessary. Other¬
wise the mixture quantity to the cylinders would be even more
upset than it already is by the uneven surging which goes on
in the induction system. The uneven lengths of pipe to
each cylinder and the unsymmetrical arrangement are the main
causes of the surging, which not only affects quantity feed to
cylinders, but also mixture strength.
4. The overlap of exhaust closing and inlet opening,
which is common in constant speed engines, is dying out in
petrol engines for road use. It is found that such overlap
only gives a useful scavenge effect at definite speeds. It is
still made good use of in aero engines and racing engines.
5. The port timing of two-stroke petrol engines should not
be altered by filing the ports.
87. Starting petrol engines

1. Make sure that the crankcase is filled to the correct
level with oil. Most makers fit either an oil-level gauge or
two taps, which indicate the highest and lowest permissible oil
levels. It is good practice to pour a small quantity of fresh
oil into the crankcase before starting up from cold.
2. Ascertain that the radiator is full of water.
3. Turn on the petrol. (Sometimes it may be necessary
to flood the carburettor by lifting the float chamber needle
valve.)
4. With the ignition switched off turn the starting handle
about four turns.
The amount of throttle opening given will vary with the
carburettor fitted. With Zenith carburettors, or any type
having a special starting jet, the throttle should be practically
closed.
In no case should it be more than one quarter open.
5. Switch on the ignition. If coil and accumulator
ignition is fitted retard the spark well. If magneto ignition
is fitted, it is' best to retard the spark slightly, unless the
engine is known ; but it must be borne in mind that the best
spark, and, therefore, easiest starting, is obtained with the
magneto in the full advance position.
With magneto ignition, a poor spark is largely responsible
for any difficulty at starting that may be experienced.
358 Sec. 87.—Starting Petrol Engines
6. Grasp the starting handle with the right hand in such a

way that an upward pull, not a downward push, can be
given. The thumb should be on top of the handle, not below it,
in order to avoid an accident due to the engine back-firing.
7. Give a sharp upward pull to the handle and the engine
should start. It will often be found necessary to swing the
handle (i.e. to turn it round and round) in order to obtain
sufficient speed to obtain a good enough spark.
8. In cold weather, petrol may not vaporize well at
starting. By flooding the carburettor well and stopping
up the air inlets with a rag or any device which may be fitted
by the makers, it will usually be possible to start the engine.
If the engine is hot, strangling should not be resorted to, or
the mixture may be too rich to fire.
If this is not effective, resort should be had to :—
i. Filling the radiator with hot water.
ii. Heating the inlet pipe with a rag soaked in hot water.
iii. Injection of petrol into the cylinders.
9. Immediately the engine starts to fire regularly, reduce
the throttle opening, if necessary, so that the engine does not
race. Allow the engine to warm up before bringing on the
load. When on load, advance the spark.
10. If an oil tell-tale or an oil pressure gauge is fitted,
make sure that it is working.
11. Starting two-stroke petrol engines.—The same rules
apply as for four-strokes, but one or two hints may be useful.
i. Owing to the large surfaces of the crankcase, cold
two-stroke engines usually require thorough car¬
burettor flooding, unless they were previously
stopped by strangling the carburettor.
ii. It may sometimes happen, due to leaving the petrol
turned on, to a flooding carburettor and to the design,
that much liquid petrol may have accumulated in
the crankcase while the engine has been idle. This
often most effectively prevents starting. To avoid
it, always see that the petrol is turned off when
stopping.
iii. Never flood or strangle when restarting a hot two-
stroke engine or the mixture may become too rich
to start.
iv. When an engine has had time to cool down
before restarting, it is a good plan to stop it by
strangling the air intake. This makes for a very
easy subsequent start from cold. Do nof stop by
this means if the engine is to be restarted before
cooling down.
Sec. 88.—Petrol Engine Faults 359
12. Reversing direction of rotation of a two-stroke petrol
engine.—This involves the alteration of the ignition system and
timing, so that the spark occurs in the symmetrical position
on the other side of the inner dead centre. The first step will
be to make the magneto work in a reverse direction (see
Sec. 83, para. 13). Afterwards it is retimed to the engine in
the usual way.
The starting handle dogs may need to be altered, so that
the handle will work in the reverse direction.
88; Petrol engine faults

The following table indicates how engine faults may be
traced by the attendant. It is assumed that the engine is
correctly assembled, and that water, oil, and petrol are in the
correct quantities and receptacles :—
This section must be read in conjunction with Sec. 84, on
magneto faults.
Symptom Cause Remarks
i. Engine fails to Faulty fuel supply

start or is difficult owing to :—
to start. Choked petrol pipe
Air-lock in petrol
pipe .. .. > Remedy obvious.
Choked jet ..
Water in petrol .. J
Failure to vaporize Flood, inject, stop air
supply, heat inlet
pipe, and heat plugs.
Mixture wrong.
Air leaks due to loose —
plugs, valve caps,
induction pipe,
valve guides, &c.
Throttle too wide Never more than J
open. open.
• Mechanical faults
owing to:—
Stuck-up valve or
tappet. No compression.
Broken valve spring —
Lack of oil .. .. Poor compression.
Worn cylinders, pis- Poor compression,
tons, or rings.
Water in cylinder .. Due to cracked cylinder
or condensation in a
• long rising exhaust
pipe.
ii. Faulty running Air-lock or break in —
(engine suddenly petrol pipe.
stops). Choked petrol jet. —
Water in petrol. —
Earth lead shorting to —
frame.
360 Sec. 88.—Petrol Engine Faults

iii. Faulty running One or more cylinders
(engine runs jerkily misfiring owing
and loses power). to:—
Faulty plug.
Disconnected lead.
Valve or spring May cause popping-
broken. back.
Valve stuck up Popping-back in car¬
burettor.
Overheating.
Faulty mixture owing
to :—
Obstructed petrol-
pipe system.
\;Gives a weak mixture
which causes pop¬
Partially choked jet ping-back in the
Water in petrol carburettor.
Too much petrol, due Black and strong¬
to grit under smelling exhaust.
needle valve, &c.
iv. Knocking Spark too far advan¬
ced for speed and
J Ignition knock.
throttle-opening.
Engine too hot
Carbon deposit on pis¬ Clean at first oppor¬
ton. tunity.
Big-end loose or worn
Gudgeon pin loose or
Mechanical knock.
worn.
Report at once.
Crankshaft bearings
loose.
Overload.
Speed too low.
v. Engine screams Insufficient oil or Shut down at once.
blocked oil passages. Replenish oil supply
If allowed to con¬ and restart; run
tinue the piston will slowly. If this is in¬
seize. effective, the engine
must be taken down.
vi. Engine overheats Spark too far retarded
Mixture too rich.
Mixture too weak.
Bad water circulation
or insufficient water.
Scale and oil in water- This can usually be re¬
jackets and radiator. moved from the cy¬
linder only (under
supervision) by an
8 per cent, solution
of hydrochloric acid.
Then connect up,
and fill system with
a weak solution of
common soda; run
for 15 minutes, and
flush out with water.
Fan belt broken or
slipping.
Exhaust valve not
lifting; tappet out of
adjustment or worn.
Sec. 89.—Maintenance of Petrol Engines 361
Other faults peculiar to two-stroke engines
vii. Four-stroking ... Over-rich mixture Often unavoidable at

light load. Often
caused by carbur¬
ettor flooding slight¬
ly. A lower car¬
burettor level can
usually be given with
advantage on two-
strokes.
viii. Loss of power ; Poor compression Poor compression has
over-heating. (both cylinder and far more effect in
crankcase). two- than four-
stroke engines.
Rings stuck in their Rings stick very often,
grooves. due to the inability
of the oil to with¬
stand the heat,
which is much
greater than in four-
strokes.
Carbon deposit, especi¬ Exhaust ports and
ally in exhaust ports passages to silencer
need cleaning about
twice to every de¬
carbonization of the
whole engine.
Incorrect magneto Two-strokes normally
timing. require more spark
advance than four-
stroke engines. The
mixture is slower
burning, due to the
greater quantity of
exhaust gases pre¬
sent.
Speed too low.
89. Maintenance of petrol engines that can be undertaken by

the engine driver
1. It should be the duty of every engine driver to keep

both the outside and inside of his engine clean ; also to keep
all connections and joints (including valves) so tight that
there is no leakage of petrol, air, oil, or water anywhere on the
system.
Faults that he cannot himself put right should be reported
as soon as possible to his immediate superior.
362 Sec. 89.—Maintenance of Petrol Engines
Points which should be specially attended to are given in

the following paragraphs :—
2. Carburettor and petrol system.—

i. There should be no leakage at the unions.
ii. The petrol filter should be clean.
iii. The float chamber should be clean and free of
water.
iv. All joints between carburettor, induction pipe and
engine should be tight. A joint of brown paper in
boiled linseed oil, a copper and asbestos washer/
or a thin coat of gold size will ensure this.
3. Ignition system.—
i. All terminals should be secure.
ii. Magneto points should be clean and even, and should
separate the right distance (-012 in.).
iii. The magneto distributor should be spotlessly clean.
iv. Sparking plug points and interiors should be free
from carbon.
v. Sparking plug points should be set to *025 in.
vi. There should be no leakage between plugs and
cylinder. If tightening up does not effect tight¬
ness, a new copper and asbestos washer should be
used.
4. Water circulation system.—
i. All water connections should be tight.
ii. Pump glands (if fitted) should not leak.
iii. The radiator should be clean. This can usually
be effected by occasional flushing out with a
hose. If oil finds its way into the radiator (usually
caused by a leaky cylinder head), the radiator
should be filled with soda solution and the
engine run for 15 minutes, after which it should
be flushed out.
iv. Cylinder water-jackets should be freed from scale
if any has formed. (See Sec. 106.)
v. The radiator fan belt should not slip.
vi. The system should be drained in frosty weather.
5. Cylinders and pistons.—
i. Cylinder heads should be cleared of carbon deposit.
ii. Pistons should be free of carbon both on top and
underneath.
iii. Piston rings should be free in their grooves.
iv. Valve caps should fit tightly. This may necessitate
a new copper and asbestos washer.
Sec. 89.—Maintenance of Petrol Engines 363
6. Valves.—The essential points to note are :—

i. The contact surfaces of both the valve and its
seating should be smooth and free from pitting.
This can usually be effected by grinding in by hand
with oil and emery powder.
If there is a ridge on the valve face, or the faces
of the valve and seating are badly pitted the matter
should be reported. {See Sec. 106, para. 9.)
ii. Valve stems should be a good fit in their guides,
otherwise air leaks are liable to occur and make
starting difficult. Valve guides are often renew¬
able, but in any case the fault should be reported.
iii. Valve springs should be strong enough to close the
valves quickly and surely.
iv. Valve tappets - should be adjusted when hot, as
explained in Sec. 105.
7. Crankcase.—All joints should be properly made with
some type of jointing material. A crankcase from which oil
is leaking is a sign of a badly kept engine.
The lubricating oil requires frequent making up to correct
level. It should be entirely run off at least once per 250 hours
of actual running and replaced with new oil.
8. Carbon deposit.-—Carbon deposit is the cause of many
faults and of unsatisfactory running. It is, therefore, the
engine driver’s duty to prevent its formation as far as possible.
Carbon deposit is formed by :—
i. Incomplete combustion.
ii. Defective or incorrectly timed ignition.
iii. Atmospheric dust.
iv. Too much oil, or unsuitable oil.
Carbon deposit causes pre-ignition, overheating, loss of
power, and prevents valves from closing, thereby causing
pitting. It may prevent piston rings from working freely
and cause trouble with sparking plugs.
To avoid its formation the following instructions should
be adhered to :—
(a) Never run long with a black smoky exhaust (too rich
a mixture). If this occurs it should be reported and
the carburettor adjusted.
(&) Fit a fine wire gauze shield over the carburettor air
openings (to exclude dust) if an air filter is not fitted.
(See Sec. 73.)
(c) Do not continue to run the engine for a very long time
with a bluish smoky exhaust. This indicates over¬
oiling, and may be due to too high an oil level, too
high an oil pressure, worn rings or cylinder, or too
thin an oil.
364 Sec. 90.—High-speed Petrol-Paraffin Engines
(d) Do not run the engine long with the throttle nearly
closed. This tends to accumulate oil in the com¬
bustion chamber and to form a carbon deposit on
the valves, plugs, and combustion chamber. The
excess piston clearance (especially with aluminium
pistons) due to the comparatively cool piston,
aggravates the trouble.
90. High-speed petrol-paraffin engines

1. High-speed paraffin engines are very similar in ^
construction to petrol engines. They are usually more1
heavily built than modem petrol engines of a given power,
and run at a lower speed, say, from 350 to 1,000 r.p.m.
The service fuel used is “oil, fuel, for oil engines” (i.e,
paraffin) with petrol for starting and warming up. Their
only advantage over petrol engines is that paraffin is slightly
cheaper than petrol. They are not so reliable nor long-lived
under service conditions, and with little difference in fuel cost
it is doubtful if the installation of this type can be justified
to-day.
The main differences between these engines and purely
petrol engines are :—
i. The maximum allowable compression ratio is lower
because the paraffin has a lower spontaneous ignition
point than petrol.
ii. They have a device for assisting evaporation of the
paraffin, because the induction pipe heating of the
normal petrol engine does not give a sufficiently
high temperature to cause evaporation of some of the
constituents of paraffin.
This device usually takes the form of an exhaust-
heated jacket to the induction pipe, and is known as
a vaporizer. This explains why petrol is needed to
start. If the vaporizer is first heated by external
means, such as a blow-lamp, these engines will
start from cold on paraffin, but it naturally takes
longer. An adjustment is usually provided to
regulate the amount of exhaust gas passing to the
vaporizer, for use under different conditions of fuel
or load.
2. PI. 69, Figs. 3 and 4, show the general arrangement of
the carburettor and vaporizer used on the D. V4 Crossley engine,
as used for searchlight plant. The fuel, either petrol or paraffin
as required, is regulated by a separate needle valve and float
chamber, and, together with air, is sucked into the vaporizer
through a non-return mixing valve, a. Exhaust gases pass
through the tubes and heat the mixture on its passage past
the tubes.
Sec. 90.—High-speed Petrol-Paraffin Engines 365
Flats
SPARKim Plugs & CeassLtr Vaporizer

366 Sec. 90.—High-speed Petrol-Paraffin Engines
3. The temperature is controlled by regulating the flow
of exhaust gases through the tubes by means of two exhaust
throttle levers. The smaller exhaust throttle valve, b, on the
left-hand side of the carburettor, is to enable the exhaust to be
shut off altogether, in case fuels arc used requiring little or no
heat for vaporizing; but for paraffin fuel it is usually left
wide open. The larger exhaust throttle valve, c, on the
exhaust pipe, regulates the flow through the tubes. For
paraffin it should be about half to full open, according to the
load : but for petrol it should be kept wide open.
4. Running faults.—
i. If the vaporizer is not hot enough when running on
paraffin, the heavier fractions of the fuel do not
evaporate completely and do not get sufficiently
mixed with air to bum. Droplets are deposited
in the cylinder, forming much carbon in the hot
places, and in the cooler places, such as the cylinder
walls, diluting the lubricating oil. Under these
conditions in vertical engines much liquid paraffin
finds its way past the piston rings into the crankcase,
where further damage is done. Too cold circulating
water will further aggravate the trouble ; it should
be as hot as possible without boiling or knocking.
ii. If the vaporizer is too hot, pre-ignition may be caused.
The power output will also be lower, because the
weight of a cylinder full of the overheated charge
gases will be less. Water injection is used to improve
matters on heavy loads.
iii. Greatest damage is done by too cold a vaporizer, and
the best guides for adjustment of its heating are :—
(a) Pre-ignition—too hot.
(&) The presence of liquid paraffin in the crank¬
case—too cold.
(c) Excessive carbon deposit in combustion
chamber—too cold.
With inexperienced drivers and different loads
from day to day, an engine of this type cannot be
expected to be long-lived.
5. These engines will normally change over to run on
paraffin after five minutes full load running on petrol. It
greatly assists subsequent starting if the engine is run on
petrol for the last five minutes before shutting down, as this
clears away any liquid paraffin in the cylinder.
6. These engines require comparatively frequent decar¬
bonization, and the vaporizer, in particular, is very liable to
soot up.

CHAPTER XVIII
OIL ENGINES
91. Introduction
1. The oil engines dealt with in this chapter may now be
regarded as obsolescent for military purposes, but their
principles of operation should be understood if only as a
stepping-stone to the study of the more modem engine dealt
with in the next chapter. Moreover, there are many thousands
of paraffin engines in use in various parts of the world and they
have a long life.
2. Mixtures of 1 part by weight of paraffin to from 10 to 17
parts of air are explosive, and are easily ignited. Mixtures
weaker or stronger in paraffin are difficult to ignite, and
bum comparatively slowly. Paraffin will not vaporize
completely, even at pressures considerably below atmo¬
spheric, unless it is heated up.
The usual method of vaporizing is to pump or suck a fine
spray on to the heated walls of a hot bulb or vaporizer,
PI. 41 f which is a prolongation of the cylinder, and which is
not water-jacketed. At starting, the hot bulb is heated up
to the required temperature by a blow-lamp. When the
engine is running, it is kept hot by contact with the burning
charge, and the blow-lamp may be removed. The heat so
given to it is not conducted away, as it is from the rest of
the cylinder, by the circulating water, and a cover prevents
it from being cooled too rapidly by radiation and convection.
*92. Ig nition in oil engines and its control

1. In the Hornsby-Ackroyd type of engine, shown on
PI. 70, Fig. 1, the paraffin is introduced into the hot bulb by
means of a plunger pump worked off a cam on the half-time
shaft, and is forced through fine holes in a spray nipple at
the side of the hot bulb, so that it meets the heated walls in
a fine spray. A charge of oil is pumped up near the begin¬
ning of every suction stroke, see PI. 70, Fig. 2, and at the
same time a 'charge of pure air is sucked into the cylinder
through the inlet valve opening. As the suction stroke
proceeds, some of the oil vapour passes through the narrow
neck, A on PI. 70, Fig. 1, and mixes with the air. At outer
dead centre, the proportion of oil vapour to air near the piston
is much smaller than it is farther up the cylinder, and the hot
367
368 Sec. 92.—Ignition and its Control
bulb itself is filled with oil vapour, practically unmixed with

fresh air. It is not an explosive mixture yet, as it is too strong
(t.e. has too great a proportion of oil and little oxygen).
On the compression stroke, the weak mixture in the
cylinder is gradually forced into the compression space, of
which the hot bulb is a part, and mingles with the strong
mixture, until a fairly homogeneous mixture, which can be
made to explode, fills the compression space near the end of
the stroke. At this moment the heat of compression, com¬
bined with the heat of the hot bulb itself, is sufficient to fire
that portion of the mixture in contact with the hot bulb walls,»
and an explosion is started there, which spreads to other parts
of the compressed mixture until combustion is complete.
It must be clearly understood that it is only that portion
of the mixture in contact with the hot walls of the vaporizer
that need be explosive ; once ignition has been started, the
remainder of the oil vapour will be ignited and bum in the air
provided by the rest of the charge, even though that portion
of the charge is too weak to start an explosion under the
obtaining conditions of temperature and pressure.
From this it follows that the stroke of the fuel pump can
be so adjusted as to pump less fuel into the cylinder per stroke
than is required to make an explosive mixture, when unevenly
mixed with all the air admitted during the suction stroke, and
yet the engine will continue to function, though with reduced
power. This phenomenon is taken advantage of in engines
when it is desired to obtain very even running with no cut-out
strokes.
2. Suppose that the engine is working at full load, and
that ignition is occurring regularly at the correct moment; the
vaporizer will settle down to a uniform temperature at which
it loses heat at the same rate as it receives it from the
explosions. If the engine load is now reduced, the vaporizer
will get cooler owing to the weaker explosions, and the
mixture next to its walls will remain longer in contact
with it before ignition temperature is reached; therefore,
ignition will occur later in the stroke. Not only so, but as the
same quantity of air is compressed every stroke, and as the
power is varied by weakening the mixture, and a weaker
mixture bums slower than the true explosive mixture,
complete combustion of the charge may not have been obtained
by the end of the stroke, with the result that a lower maximum
pressure will occur inside the cylinder at inner dead centre,
with a consequent lower mean pressure throughout the stroke.
A thick bluish smoke emitted from the exhaust pipe is
always the sign of a cold vaporizer. If the load on an
engine is reduced appreciably, the heat of the feeble explosions
may not be sufficient to keep the vaporizer sufficiently warm,
Sec. 92.—Ignition and its Control 369
Plate 70.
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Plats 71.
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and it will then be necessary to keep the blow-lamp under it

whilst running light.
PI. 71, Fig. 3, shows a diagram obtained with a weak
mixture, and shows loss of area (and, therefore, of power).
If the bulb could be made hotter, ignition would be
produced earlier, in time to allow complete combustion of the
charge by inner dead centre.
3. Now consider the case in which the vaporizer is too hot.
With the heat given by compression remaining the same as
before, that portion of the charge in contact with the vaporizer
walls will reach ignition temperature earlier in the com¬
pression stroke, with the result that ignition will be too early.
PI. 71, Fig. 1, shows a diagram from an engine where this has
occurred. Not only is power lost, as shown by the diminished
area of the diagram, but a metallic knock or a thump is heard
as the piston, driven by the flywheel, meets the explosion
pressure before it has completed its stroke. If this knocking
is allowed to continue, the bearings, &c. of the engine may be
damaged.
4. The principles of the formation of the explosive charge
are similar in engines by different makers, but differ in detail.
One type of Tangye oil engine, PI. 72, Fig. 1, has an automatic
inlet valve, a, and a gravity-fed fuel supply, which is led to a
small hole, b, above the inlet valve seating, through a pipe, c,
provided with a graduated cock, d. In this engine the oil
is sucked into the vaporizer by the action of the piston during
the suction stroke, the cock, d, being set to give the correct
amount of fuel.
5. Timing the ignition.—From the above it will be clear
that some method of timing the ignition is necessary.
The two most usual methods employed are :—
i. Regulating the heat of the hot bulb or ignition tube
(see para'. 7), reducing it as the load increases and
vice versa.
ii. Reducing the heat of both charge and vaporizer
by spraying water into the charge.
6. Regulation with hot bulb engines.—The vaporizer
of the Hornsby engine is joined to the cylinder by the neck, A
on PI. 70, Fig. 1, which is water-jacketed. The flow of water
round the neck is regulated by a valve, and hence its tem¬
perature can be varied to suit the load and to obtain the
correct point of ignition. In practice the valve is opened to
the point at which knocking (pre-ignition) is found to cease.
Removal of the vaporizer cover, PI. 41, will also tod to coo\
the vaporizer.
At very light loads the vaporizer may become too cold

either to cause ignition or to vaporize the oil properly. In
such cases the lamp must be placed underneath it.
7. Regulation in engines provided with a hot tube.—
In the Tangye engine, PI. 72, Fig. 1, oil is sucked into the
vaporizer, but a hot tube, t on PI. 72, Fig. 2, made of nickel
steel, is used to effect ignition. The temperature of the tube
is maintained by surrounding it with hot gas admitted
through a regulating valve from the vaporizer.
The point at which ignition occurs can be made earliei;
or later in the stroke by making the hot tube, t, hotter or
cooler, by means of the regulating valve, PI. 72, Fig. 2, which
allows more or less of the very hot products of combustion
access to the outside of the hot tube. As in the case of the
Hornsby engine, when the load increases, the vaporizer
tends to become hotter, and the now stronger mixture tends
to ignite sooner and to complete explosion quicker; the
temperature of the hot tube is therefore reduced in order to
correct the point of ignition.
8. Water injection.—In many of the older types of low-
compression oil engine, provision is made for injecting a small
quantity of water into the combustion space. The vaporiza¬
tion of the water restricts the internal temperature, and this
permits a higher compression pressure to be used without
pre-ignition than would otherwise be possible and enables the
rating of an engine to be increased.
In the Tangye engine (PI. 72, Fig. 1) sufficient water is
admitted to remove the heavy bumping or knocking sound
from the explosions. The amount of water required to do
this, naturally increases with increased load.
Water injection is used in the Crossley petrol-paraffin
engine when running on heavy loads with paraffin as fuel.
Although primarily introduced to improve the working
of engines on heavy load, water injections can clearly be
used to regulate the time of ignition at other loads.
The introduction of water, however, has objectionable
features in that it interferes somewhat with cylinder lubrica¬
tion and may also lead to internal corrosion.
In modern types of engine, water injection is seldom
employed.
9. Altering the compression.—Some method of regu¬
lating the compression pressure is useful, as some grades of oil
detonate sooner than others. This can be done by:—
i. Altering the position of the piston in the cylinder by
inserting metal plates of the required thickness
between the connecting rod and the crank pin brasses,
PI. 72, Fig. 4.
Plate 72.
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374 Sec. 93.—Running and Care of Oil Engines
ii. By altering the compression space with conical caps,
PI. 72, Fig. 5.
iii. By replacing the hot bulb by one of greater or smaller
volume.
iv. By securing a plate with set screws to the end of the
piston, PI. 72, Fig. 3.
Method (iv) can be adopted in the case of engines not
fitted by the makers with other devices for regulating com¬
pression pressure, but should only be used for small engines.
In order to maintain the designed maximum compression,
pressure, when engines are installed at high altitudes, the
compression ratio may be increased to compensate for the
rarefication of the atmosphere. This may be done by grinding
a little off the face of the cylinder head flange.
93. Running and care of oil engines

1. The following instructions are of a general nature, and
apply to all makes of horizontal oil engine. As it is not feasible
to include the details of all types, reference should also be
made to the engine maker’s instructions.
2. Before starting.—See that the water-jacket and all
cooling tanks are filled with water, the level of the water being
at least 2 inches above the top of the flow pipe from the engine.
See that the engine is in a fit condition to run, i.e. no nuts
or other fastenings have been removed or have become loose.
See that all lubricators are filled and that they will work ;
oil where necessary with a can. See that the fuel tank is full.
Make sure that it is known how to stop the engine.
3. Working the lamp.—Fill the container not quite
three-quarters full with paraffin, and replace the filler cap,
PI. 56, Fig. 3. Open the air valve, a. Fill the cup, b,
with paraffin, place some rag in it to act as a wick, and
light it. When the oil in the cup is nearly consumed, and
not before, close the air valve, a, give a few strokes with
the pump, c, and open the regulating valve (if fitted).
The gases now escaping through the nipple, d, can be lit.
The flame should now be increased by further strokes of
the pump, c. Should liquid paraffin issue from the nipple
(indicated by a large yellow flame), the lamp is too cold.
Reopen the air valve, a, and reheat.
Should the flame, notwithstanding pumping, bum faintly,
see:—
i. That the nipple is cleared by means of the pricker
needle (and with nothing else).
ii. That there is sufficient paraffin in the container.
iii. That the filler cap does not leak.
iv. That the pump leather is sound.
Sec. 93.—Running and Care of Oil Engines 375
To extinguish the flame, open the air valve and leave it

open. On no account should the lamp be allowed to bum
itself out, or the nipple will be choked with carbon.
4. Starting.—
i. Place the burning lamp under the engine vaporizer
(which should have its cover in position), and
leave it there for 15 to 20 minutes, according to
the size of the engine. The vaporizer will then
probably be sufficiently hot to start. Test for
vapour by opening the indicator cock or let a drip
of paraffin fall on the vaporizer, which, if hot
enough, will dry the paraffin in 3 to 5 seconds.
ii. Now bring the half-compression cam into action.
Turn on the fuel tap and, if the engine has a fuel
pump, give it two strokes by hand.
iii. Pull the flywheel backwards until the compression
reverses its motion ; then pull it vigorously in the
forward direction. After two revolutions the
engine should start. Never stand on flywheel
spokes.
iv. Put the half-compression cam out of action.
v. Gradually put the engine on load and remove the
lamp.
vi. Adjust the governor to give the required engine
speed.
Failure to start may be due to :—
i. Vaporizer too cold. This is indicated by thick
bluish smoke from the exhaust.
ii. Insufficient fuel supply, owing to choked spray holes
or faulty pump.
5. Running (oiling).—As soon as the engine commences
to run under its own power, examine the lubrication system
in the following order:—
i. Main crankshaft bearings, to ascertain if ring lubricators
are working.
ii. All sight-feed lubricators, and adjust the number of
drops per minute in accordance with the maker’s
instructions. The piston should be kept lightly oiled.
iii. All oil-holes fed by an oil can.
6. Running (circulation).—Keep the regulating cock
on the cooling system closed until the top of the water-jacket
becomes uncomfortably hot to the back of the hand. Then
open the regulating cock so that water can circulate through
the jacket at a rate sufficient to maintain this temperature.
It is important that engines should not be run too cold, or
the fuel consumption will go up and the speed will fall.
Cooling tanks not provided with a ball-cock must be made up

occasionally to keep the water level two inches above the flow
pipe.
7. Running (knocking).—Knocking is of two kinds,
viz. :—
i. That due to worn or loose parts. Local orders must
be concise as to action to be taken when such
mechanical knock is noticed.
ii. That due to pre-ignition. This is due to a vaporizer
or ignition tube becoming too hot, usually when thfe
engine is heavily loaded or internally dirty. It
should be remedied as soon as possible by one or
more of the following devices, according to the type
of engine :—
(a) Remove the vaporizer cover (Hornsby, Black-
stone).
(b) Increase the water circulation round the
water neck (Hornsby).
(c) Adjust the heat of the tube (Tangye).
(d) Inject water into the cylinder (Tangye, Black-
stone).
(e) Decarbonization.
Care must be taken, however, not to over-cool, or the
engine will stop.
8. Running (light load).—When the engine is running
light, the vaporizer will tend to get too cold. This is indicated
by a smoky exhaust, and, if allowed to continue, the engine
may stop. To avoid this, steps must be taken to keep the
vaporizer hot (e.g. replace cover, turn off water injection, &c.),
and it may be necessary to replace the lighted lamp under the
vaporizer.
9. Hot bearings.—During running, the big-end and
main crankshaft bearings should be occasionally felt with the
hand to ascertain if overheating is taking place. At the least
sign of overheating, give more oil; if this fails to remedy
matters, take off the load ; then stop it and investigate.
10. Seizing.—Should an overheated bearing or piston
not be detected, it will soon seize. Warning is generally given
by a characteristic groaning noise. The load should be
immediately taken off, and the engine, if possible, kept
running very slowly, while the affected part is flooded with
oil. Should it still continue, the engine must be stopped, the
bearing allowed to cool (not with water), and the cause then
investigated.
The brasses must not be loosened until cool, or they
will distort out of shape.
Sec. 93.—Running and Care of Oil Engines 377
Overheating of brasses is due to one of the following
causes:—
i. Insufficient lubrication.
ii. Too tight on the shaft.
iii. Shaft or bearings out of line.
iv. Inaccurate fitting.
v. Presence of dirt or grit in oil or oil grooves.
A piston on the point of seizing should be turned to inner
dead centre, and allowed to cool slowly. Soaking in paraffin
may be necessary before it can be removed.
11. Stopping.—
i. Take the load off the engine.
ii. Cut off the fuel supply. *
iii. Turn off the lubricating oil in the sight-feeds and
remove trimmings from siphon lubricators.
iv. Turn the engine until piston skirt edge is flush with
that of the liner on the firing stroke (to exclude
dirt). Wipe down the engine.
v. Do not turn off the cooling water circulation for at
least ten minutes after a hot engine has stopped.
vi. If danger by freezing is anticipated, the water
jackets and pipes (not necessarily the tanks) must
be completely drained.
12. Faults.—The following table shows some normal
running faults met with in oil engines and how they are dealt
with :—
Symptom Cause Remedy Remarks
Engine fails to Vaporiser too Reheat vaporizer Usually accom¬

start, or stops cold panied by bluish
Fuel supply cut smoke in the ex¬
off owing to :— haust.
Faulty pump
I Decide after ex-
Air-1 o c k in
I animation
pipe
Choked spray Clear with prick¬ Spray holes must
er provided on no account be
enlarged.
Engine fails to de¬ Vaporizer too hot Regulate point of Accompanied by
velop its power ignition by knocking.
water injection
or other means
Vaporizer too Regulate heat of Usually accom¬
cold vaporizer and, panied by bluish
if necessary, re¬ smoke in the ex¬
place lamp haust.

Engine fails to de¬ Loss of compres¬
velop its power sion due to:—
—continued Dirty valves Clean
Pitted or Grind-in
grooved
valves
Piston rings Draw piston, and Do not remove
stuck up clean by soak- rings unless ab-
ing in paraffin solutely neces¬
sary, ,
Lack of oil .. Lubricate
Incorrect valve
timing due
to:—
Too much tap¬ Adjust in jiccord-
pet clearance ancc with
% maker’s timing
% Half - time Re-mesh accord-
gears mesh¬ ing to maker’s
ing incor¬ marks on gear
rectly wheels
Wea k or Renew springs
broken valve
springs
Partial stop¬ See above
page in fuel
system
Governor fails to Governor gear (i) Immediately If speed is allowed
act, and engine sticking stop engine by to increase un-
runs away cutting ofl fuel duly, the fly-
supply wheel may burst.
(ii) Thoroughly
clean and lubri¬
cate
Weak vapour- Renew spring
valve spring
(Blackstone)
Knocking due to Carbon deposit Drawr piston and Points of carbon
pre - ignition at on piston, cy- decarbonize become red-hot,
com paratively Under, and va- engine and compression
light loads, get- porizer increases.
ting gradually
worse over long
periods
Engine over- Clean, under If acid is used, a
heated, due to supervision of final rinsing in
deposit in mechanist, by soda solution to
water-jacket or drawing liner eliminate traces
circulating pipes and chipping, or of acid is neces-
by 8 per cent, so¬ sary.
lution of hydro¬
chloric acid
Blowing through Joint washer Replace A new joint is re-
between cylin- damaged quired each time
der and vapor¬ vaporizer is re¬
izer placed after re¬
moval.
Sec. 94.—Aide for Oil-Engine Starting 379

Knocking of bear¬ Loose bearings.. Take up bearings Normally fitters1
ings work.
Overheating of Insufficient oil.. Obvious Oilways may be
bearings stopped up.
Too tight Loosen Fitters' work.
Out of line Report .. Fitters' work.
Groaning Piston about to lake load off Stop engine as a
seize through engine. Run last resort.
lack of oil slowly. Flood
1 with oil
Any bearing Take load off en- Stop engine as a
about to seize gine. Run last resort.
slowly. Flood
with oil
13. Inspections.—Apart from the continual vigilance

for faults to be exercised by the engine driver during the time
he is on duty, it is advisable to carry out minor inspections,
in order that incipient faults may be checked and remedied,
at definite intervals—once a month for continuous running,
and never less often than once a year.
The points to be attended to are :—
i. Draw piston; clean carbon from piston head, piston
ring grooves and cylinder; see that rings are
working freely.
ii. Draw all valves; clean off carbon, and grind in
where necessary. If grooved, they should be
trued in a lathe.
iii. Adjust all valve tappets to maker’s setting.
iv. Clean spray holes with pricker provided (this should
also be done at intervals of 15 hours' running).
v. Remove vaporizer; clean and replace it, making
a new jointing washer.
vi. Empty all oil troughs (siphon or ring system);
clean out and fill with fresh oil.
vii. Examine fuel pumps and pipes for leakage, and
tighten glandls where necessary.
viii. Examine circulating system for scale, and remove
if necessary ; stop any leaks.
ix. Examine exhaust system for excessive accumula¬
tions of soot, and drain the silencer.
94. Mechanical aids for oil-engine starting.

1. It is convenient to have compressed-air starting
appliances installed for all oil engines of 20 H.P. and over.
When so fitted, engines can be quickly and surely started by
one man.
380 Sec. 94.—Aids for Oil-Engine Starting
2. Dealing first with single cylinder engines, a typical

arrangement is shown in PI. 73 in which the engine cylinder
acts as the compressor; air so compressed is stored in a
receiver until required for readmission to the cylinder for
starting. It comprises :—
i. A receiver, PI. 73, Fig. 1, into which air can be com¬
pressed on the compression stroke. This receiver is
fitted with a pressure gauge, stop-valve and drain
cock.
ii. A starting and charging valve-box.
In the starting and charging valve-box, PI. 73, Fig. 2, are
two valves, G and H, which communicate directly with the
cylinder and the receiver. A starting lever, E, pivoted at F,
actuates valves G and H. If moved in the direction shown by
the arrow, the valve G will first be lifted against its spring by
the arm K, and then the valve H will be lifted off its seating
by the arm L, both valves being then held off their seating.
3. To charge the air receiver, the fuel supply is first
completely cut off, the engine running on by flywheel momen¬
tum and valve K (PI. 73, Fig. 1) is opened. The starting
lever is moved until it lifts valve G only; valve H is
still on its seating, and as soon as the pressure in the
cylinder is greater than that in the receiver, valve H will be
lifted, and air will pass into the receiver. When the engine
cylinder pressure falls below receiver pressure, valve H will
close, and act as a non-return valve in preventing compressed
air from leaking back into the cylinder.
Charging should normally be carried out only when the
engine is well heated up.
It will then be necessary to close valve K, run the flywheel
up to speed again, then open valve K and repeat the process.
4. The method outlined in para. 3 is somewhat tedious,
and in the case of low compression engines it is common
practice to charge the receiver while the engine is running on
light load. This means filling the receiver with exhaust gases,
which might include some oil vapour from unbumt charges.
This practice must be absolutely forbidden with high com¬
pression engines. See Sec. 96, paras. 4 and 5.
5. In multi-cylinder engines it is usual to cut off the fuel
from one cylinder and use it as an air compressor driven by the
other cylinders.
6. To start the engine, the vaporizer must first be heated
as usual. The engine is put on the power stroke, with piston
just after inner dead centre. The by-pass (fuel valve) is
closed, and the valve K (PI. 73, Fig. 1) between the cylinder
Sec. 94.—Aids for Oil-Engine Starting 381
Plate 73.
7>/=y Q7A s4/R - /4/?G*WG£Atf£A/T5.

382 Sec. 94-Aids for Oil-Engine Starting
and the receiver is opened. The engine need not generally be

put on half-compression.
The starting lever is pushed to the start position, thereby
lifting valve H from its seat, as well as valve G, and allow¬
ing compressed air at about 100 lb. pressure to enter the
cylinder from the receiver.
The piston is driven forward, and when it gets to about
three-quarters stroke, the starting lever is brought to the run
position, thus closing the passage between the cylinder and
receiver. This is done to avoid air escaping during the exhaust
stroke. The attendant watches the engine crank, and brings
the starting lever to start at the beginning of the next power
stroke, and the process is repeated until the flywheel has been
given sufficient momentum to start the engine.
Valve K (PI. 73, Fig. 1) is then shut down. A pin is
generally fitted in a quadrant to determine the charge position.
The receiver can be recharged before stopping. In some
cases an auxiliary air compressor is supplied to fill the receiver
should it lose its pressure.
7. A certain amount of care is required in working

receivers. They are made like a boiler, and should be similarly
treated, i.e. fitted with a safety valve and pressure gauge,
painted or tarred to arrest corrosion, They should be
supported on some damp-proof material with all parts exposed
for examination. A drain-plug or cock should be provided,
and frequently used. Being constructed for certain definite
working pressures, these pressures should not be exceeded.
Receivers should be tested yearly, as laid down in
Regulations for Engineer Services, Part II.
CHAPTER XIX
HEAVY-OIL ENGINES
95. Introduction
1. “ Heavy-oil engines " is a loose general term often used
to cover all engines which work with “ heavy ” oils.
To ensure the complete combustion of such oils in a cylinder,
better atomization of the fuel and higher temperatures than
are obtained in the paraffin oil engine must be employed.,,
In order to obtain higher temperatures in the cylinder, it
is necessary to work with higher compression pressures.
2. In the paraffin oil engine, if the mixture is compressed
beyond 60 to 80 lb. per square in., the heat of compression
will cause pre-ignition. The spontaneous ignition point of the
heavier oil fuels being much the same as that of paraffin, it
is not feasible to raise compression pressures in heavy-oil
engines beyond this point if the mixture is compressed.
3. In all heavy-oil engines, pure air only is, therefore,
drawn into the cylinder on the suction stroke and compressed.
Near the end of the compression stroke a charge of heavy oil
is introduced into the cylinder in a very finely-divided spray,
and is quickly vaporized and ignited by the high temperature
of compression, in some cases aided by a hot bulb.
Engines of this type not only use a cheap fuel, but, having
a high compression ratio and, therefore, a high thermal
efficiency, they also have a low fuel consumption.
The service fuels used for these engines are, Oil, fuel, for
heavy-oil engines, and gas oil.
4. Fuel oil filtering.—Heavy fuel oil must always be
strained before use, otherwise the fine orifices of atomizers
will quickly become choked. A strainer is invariably in¬
corporated in the expense oil tank and one or two other
strainers may be inserted in the fuel oil circuit.
5. Fuel oil heating.—The object of this is to make the
oil more fluid, thus enabling it to flow more easily through
the pumps, pipes and passages into the atomizers. It may
only be necessary in cold weather. The heat of the exhaust
is generally used for this purpose.
The degree of heating can be regulated by varying the
distance of the heater from the exhaust pipe. The distance
should never be such as to cause the oil to give off vapour;
otherwise an air-lock would be caused in the pipes and pump,
383
384 Sec. 96.—Semi-Diesel Engines
and prevent their functioning properly. A small cock is

fixed in the top of the heater, and, by opening this, an indica¬
tion can be obtained as to whether vapour is being produced.
Generally, between 80° and 100° F. has been found a
suitable temperature, but on no account should it exceed
120° F.
6. Heavy-oil engines are sub-divided into the following
main types:—
i. Semi-Diesel engines.
ii. Diesel engines.
, 96. Semi-Diesel engines

1. Semi-Diesel engines will be dealt with first, but they arc
now practically obsolescent except in small sizes (say) up to
25 B.H.P.
The fuel used is gas oil or any other heavy oil of S.G. not
greater than about 0-9.
The compression pressure varies between 150 and 300 lb.
per square in. in different engines, and the maximum ex¬
plosion pressure varies between 350 and 550 lb. per square in.
Owing to the high pressures, safety valves are often fitted
in the combustion chambers, to guard against abnormal
pressures, which may occur in the event of bad pre-ignition.
Such abnormal pressures may also occur during starting, but
are not common.
The operation of semi-Diesels is similar to that of the oil
engines (paraffin only), with these exceptions :—
i. The method of atomizing the fuel.
ii. The necessity in certain cases for pre-heating the viscous
fuel to allow it to circulate freely.
iii. The time of introduction of the fuel.
2. PI. 74, Fig. 1, shows, in section, a typical semi-Diesel,
working on the four-stroke cycle, and PI. 74, Fig. 4, shows the
valve and fuel injection diagram (for full load). PI. 74,
Fig. 3, shows a typical indicator diagram.
3. Atomizing the fuel.—PI. 74, Fig. 2, shows a typical
atomizer, pulverizer or spraymaker. A quick down-stroke of the
fuel-pump plunger forces oil along a pipe to the chamber, a.
The fuel valve, b, is forced back from its seating, c, by the
oil pressure against the strong spring, e. The fine grooves in
d, through which the oil is now forced, are spiral at the lower
end, and the spinning motion thereby imparted to the oil
causes it to spread out by centrifugal force into a fine mist as
it issues from the annular space between the valve, b, and
its seating, c, into the hot bulb.
Sec. 96.—Semi-Diesel Engines 385
The object of the pipe, g, is to allow any oil which leaks

past between the valve, b, and the body of the atomizer to
escape freely, for if it were unable to do so it would prevent
the valve, 6, from lifting.
The fine atomization, which is so essential to the complete
and rapid combustion of the fuel, necessitates a very high
mechanical pressure (1,000 lb./sq. in. or more) on the fuel
during the period of injection, i.e. during the down-stroke of
the fuel-pump plunger.
It is, therefore, important that there shall be no leaks in
the system, viz., the pump stuffing box and fuel pipe
unions.
The atomizer must be treated with great care, and, if
dissembled, the parts must be carefully cleaned with paraffin,
and on no account dropped on the floor. When reassembling,
care must be taken not to disturb the adjustment.
Some atomizers have a spray plate similar to that on the
spray box of the Homsby-Ackroyd. The holes, which are
very small, are liable to become choked.
The atomizer shown on PI. 74, Fig. 2, is water-cooled, to
prevent it being damaged by the heat of the hot bulb. Care
must be taken to ensure that there is water in the jacket, /,
while the hot bulb is being heated for starting.
Great care must be taken not to disturb the adjustment of
the atomizer.
4. Compressed-air starting is usual for these engines over

10 H.P. In some semi-Diesels, the air starting arrangements
are as described in Sec. 94, paras. 2 and 3. Charging the
receiver is effected by running the engine up to speed, then
shutting off the fuel supply and bringing the valve box lever
into the charging position. This ensures that none of the fuel
can be injected into the high-pressure air in the receiver, and
avoids any dangerously high pressures which might be caused
by an explosion therein.
Starting is effected as described in Sec. 94, para. 4, except
that a cam on the half-time shaft actuates the valve between
the receiver and the cylinder, and thus avoids the necessity
of moving the starting lever backwards and forwards at
starting.
5. Another arrangement of compressed-air starting is

illustrated in,PI. 73, Fig. 3, which shows a separate com¬
pressor for charging. The separate compressor need not be
used if some arrangement for holding open the air start¬
ing valve in the cylinder is available. On the compression
stroke, the movable cam-operated valve will then open
automatically, the cam being put out of action.
^JPlate 74.
ZwGrg f/VOW£ Pcrsl/L 5 X/W? 7}Mt/VO Cn*0TX
HI
6. The two-stroke semi-Diesel, usually vertical, is quite
a good type of engine for stationary and semi-portable
military purposes.
i. It is lighter for a given power than the horizontal
four-stroke type.
ii. Having no valves in the cylinder head, and few adjust¬
ments, it is fairly simple to operate and maintain.
iii. It is more economical than the four-stroke paraffin
engine to which the two-stroke principle cannot be
economically applied, but it is not so economical as
two-stroke or four-stroke Diesels.
7. PI. 75, Fig. 1, shows a typical two-stroke semi-Diesel
engine.
PI. 74, Fig. 5, shows a typical port-timing diagram.
Air only is compressed in the crankcase, which must there¬
fore be kept airtight. The fuel injection is similar to that of a
four-stroke semi-Diesel.
The exhaust port is uncovered for a comparatively small
portion of the working stroke. If the exhaust gases are to
escape without undue back pressure the silencer must be very
near the cylinder.
8. Compressed-air starting is effected as described
in paras. 4 and 5 (except that the valve between the receiver
and cylinder is actuated by a cam on the crankshaft).
9. Reversing.—Two-stroke semi-Diesels can be made to
run in a reverse direction by altering the time of fuel injection.
This will be obvious on looking at the port and fuel timing
diagram in PI. 74, Fig. 5. This will involve moving the cam
or eccentric device which operates the pump through an angle
of, say, 30 degrees relative to its shaft. Such adjustment
may be provided by the makers.
10. Faults in semi-Diesel engines.—The semi-Diesel
is prone in general to the faults which have already been dealt
with in Sec. 93 for oil engines.
i. Faults common in semi-Diesels.—The greatest difficulty
in semi-Diesels is to ensure always complete combustion
when the engine is on varying load, such as electric
lighting, and to avoid pre-ignition. This is because of the
variation in temperature of the hot bulb. The temperature
of the hot bulb can be increased or decreased by the applica¬
tion or removal of the blow-lamp, or by adjustment of the
water snifting device. In this connection errors of judgment
on the part of the driver will lead to dirty exhaust or pre¬
ignition, both of which will be harmful to the engine, and may
cause excessive fuel consumption. Below about one-third
of full load it is generally necessary to use the blow-lamp.
Sec. 97.—Diesel Engines (Air-Injection) 389
ii. Faults peculiar to two-stroke semi-Diesels.—

{a) The atomizer nozzle is somewhat more frequently
choked with carbon due to higher local temper¬
ature. This fault may become very frequent if,
on shutting down, the engine is not allowed to cool
gradually. The water circulation should always
remain in action for some minutes after the engine
has stopped.
(b) Like all two-stroke engines, the exhaust ports become
choked up with carbon. This has a remarkably
bad effect on the power output. Ports should be
cleaned about twice as often as the piston top.
The exhaust pipe layout should give as much
freedom from back pressure as possible. There
should be an" expansion chamber close to the port.
(c) Excessive lubricating oil consumption as compared
with four-stroke semi-Diesels of the same power is
difficult to avoid without risk of seizure.
97. Diesel engines {air-injection), general principles

1. The true Diesel engine may work either on the four- or
two-stroke principle.
Pure air only is compressed to from 450 to 500 lb./sq. in.
Near the top of the stroke, fuel is injected through a pulverizer
by a blast of air at a pressure of from 600 to 900 lb./sq. in.,
depending upon the load and the type of fuel used.
Compressed air is provided by a compressor forming an
integral part of the engine, air receivers (or bottles) being
located between the compressor and the pulverizer.
2. The true Diesel cycle is shown in the typical indicator
diagram, PI. 76, Fig. 2, and timing diagram, PI. 76, Fig. 1.
It will be noted that the explosion pressure does not rise
much above the maximum compression pressure, and that the
indicator diagram has a flat top under load. This is explained
by the gradual burning of the oil as it is injected during an
appreciable portion of the stroke. In practice, however, there
is a slight rise of pressure during combustion.
The true Diesel cycle is defined as one in which combustion
takes place at constant pressure (and varying volume as the
piston recedes), as opposed to the Otto cycle, on which oil
engines work, in which combustion takes place at constant
volume (i.e. almost instantaneously at the inner dead centre).
3. PI. 77 shows the general layout of an air-injection Diesel
engine installation and is self-explanatory. The cylinders are
usually vertical.
390 Sec. 97.—Diesel Engines (Air-Injection)
Plate 76.
Timing And Indicator Diagrams

A//? fajECT/ori Diesel Emoihe.
P5
Q
d
Plate 77.
LAYOUT OF AN AIR-INJECTION DIESEL OIL ENGINE

The cylinder head is detachable, and contains the inlet

and exhaust valves, a and b, working on renewable valve
seatings, and worked by cams from the half-time shaft.
It also contains the injection valve, c, and air-starting valve, d,
worked off cams which can be brought into play as desired by
the starting handle, but only one at a time.
4. The air compressor is generally a 2- or 3-stage

machine driven off the crankshaft or connecting rod, and
calls for no special comment.
From the compressor the air passes through a cooler to a
blast (air-injection) reservoir (bottle) of sufficient capacity
to absorb fluctuations of pressure, and fitted with suitable
distributing valves, one of which communicates with the fuel-
injection valves and another passes surplus air to the storage
reservoirs provided for starting purposes.
5. A fuel-injection valve is shown on PI. 78, Fig. 3.

The fuel force pump delivers the charge of oil to the branch, F,
thence along the duct, DD, and into the annular space, AA,
surrounding the cast-iron guide of the needle valve. The
pulverizer comprises several steel washers, R, each drilled
with about 20 holes, — in. in diameter; these holes are
staggered as indicated, so that the oil takes a tortuous path
through them, and the rings are kept apart by distance
washers. Below these pulverizing washers and fitted to the
bottom of the needle-valve guide is a conical head, C, on the
outer surface of which are formed about twenty channel
grooves, through which the oil charge passes before reaching
the spraying nozzle; immediately after passing the nozzle,
it enters the combustion chamber by the steel expanding
orifice in the nickel-steel flame plate, X.
The annular space, AA, is in constant communication with
the air-blast reservoir during the running of the engine,
through a branch entering its upper portion which is not shown
in the figure. This space is always under the high pressure
of the air reservoir, and immediately the needle valve rises
from its seat the charge of oil is driven with great velocity
through the pulverizer washers and cone channels, and
enters the combustion chamber through the expanding nozzle
in the form of a uniformly diffused mist.
The test cock, K, is for ascertaining that the oil supply is
uninterrupted.
On account of the serious pre-ignition effects that may
result from the leakage or sticking up of the fuel-inlet valve,
it should be regularly and carefully cleaned. The amount
of lift of the injection valve is regulated by altering the tappet
clearance.
6. Starting is effected by introducing air at a high pressure
from the starting reservoirs into the cylinder by a cam-actuated
valve. The same lever which brings the starting cam into
play puts the injection cam out of action.
PI. 78, Fig. 1, shows the action. The levers, A and B,
actuating the injection and starting valves respectively, pivot
on the eccentric sleeve, C, which can be moved relative to the
fixed pin, D, by the starting handle.
With the handle in the neutral position, the tappet clear¬
ances of both valves are such that the cams do not actuate
them.
When the handle is in the start position (horizontal), the
tappet clearance of the starting valve is practically nil, and a
charge of liigh-pressure air can be admitted to the cylinder
automatically by the cam at the right moment [i.e. when the
piston is barred round to a point just after inner dead centre
on the power stroke).
When the handle is in the run position, the tappet clearance
of the injection valve is correct, and that of the starting valve
so large that it is not actuated by its cam, and is, therefore,
out of action.
98. Instructions for working Diesel engines {air-injection)

1. The following paragraphs are given as typical working
instructions for Diesel engines. They must, of course, be
varied in detail for engines of different manufacture.
2. Preparation for starting.—The engine, like all other
I.C. engines, must always be started light. The flywheel
should be barred round until the starting cylinder crank is a
little over the top centre and the starting valve is just about to
open. During this process the inlet valve is held open by the
lever provided for that purpose.
The lubricators should then be examined, filled, and
adjusted, and all pins and joints lubricated. For the air
valve and exhaust-valve spindle use only a little clean
paraffin ; for the cams and rollers use cylinder oil. In cold
weather all lubricating oil should be warmed before use.
Place the lever, E on PI. 78, Fig. 1, in the middle position ;
fill the pipe between fuel filler and fuel valve with gas oil by
opening the cock in the filler and the test cock in the fuel valve,
and turn the lever on the fuel pump to filling. As soon as oil
runs out of the test cock, close it; then set the fuel-pump
lever to running, and release the inlet valve.
To prevent oil from getting into the cylinder whilst filling,
under no circumstances leave the lever of the fuel pump longer
in iht filling position than is necessary to fill the fuel pipe.
The cooling water should now be turned on.
3. Starting.—After ascertaining the pressure in the air

vessels by opening the manometer valves,, D, E, and H on
PI. 77 (only one at a time), open the valve C on the air-
injection vessel, and thus establish communication between
this vessel and the air compressor; also open valve B, which
establishes communication with the fuel valve. Finally,
open valve A or K on one of the starting vessels.
By placing the starting lever in its lowest position the
starting valve will be opened and compressed air will enter the
cylinder, thus setting the engine in motion. After about four
exhausts, the starting lever is brought to its top position, and
firing should then commence. Valve A or K on the starting
vessel must immediately be closed and the compressor throttle
valve opened wide.
In the case of engines with several cylinders, first bring
those levers which will not cause the starting valves to be
opened into the starting position ; then bring the remaining
lever into the starting position, thus causing the starting
valve to open and compressed air to enter the cylinder. After
several revolutions, move the levers to the top position, one
after the other, and firing will follow. Then proceed exactly
as before.
As soon as normal speed is obtained, the engine can be
loaded, gas oil shut off, and heavy fuel oil turned on.
Owing to the air compressor delivering a quantity of air,
the pressure in the injection vessel will rise; as soon as it
reaches the pressure necessary for good combustion, the
starting vessels can be refilled by opening the manometer
valve, D, on the air injection and either E or H on the
starting vessels, but only so much that the pressure in the
injection vessel necessary for good combustion is still main¬
tained. After reaching the required pressure in the starting
vessels, the air compressor should be throttled so that it only
delivers the amount of air required for injection.
4. Running.—When the engine is running, watch care¬
fully the pressure in the air-injection vessel, the condition of
the exhaust, the temperature of the cooling-water outlet,
and the lubricators and lubricating arrangements. Keep the
last named filled, lubricate cams and rollers occasionally, and
ensure that the lubricating rings in the main bearings are
revolving freely. All accessible bearings should be felt with
the hand to ascertain if they are running cool.
The air-mjection pressure should vary from 600 to 900 lb.
per square in., from no load to full load. If the pressure is
too low, the exhaust will be smoky ; if too high, the engine
will knock.
Black smoke is a sign of incomplete combustion, caused by
too low a pressure, overload, dirt in the pulverizer, leakage
past the valves, unsuitable fuel, or over-lubrication of the

working cylinder.
The cooling water should be regulated for an outlet
temperature of 120° to 130° F.
5. Stopping.—It is advisable to run for 5 minutes on gas
oil before stopping.
After the load has been thrown off, the fuel-pump lever is
brought to stop, and valve B on the air-injection vessel, which
communicates with the fuel valve, is closed. The engine will
slow down, and, before stopping, the inlet valve should be»
held open by the arrangement provided.
After the engine stops, place the starting lever in the
middle position and close the fuel and cooling-water cocks.
The crank is then brought to its lowest position. It is
important that all valves on the air vessels should be tightly
closed to avoid leakage.
The engine should now be carefully cleaned and all oil-
drippers emptied; loose nuts, pins, and keys should be
properly tightened, and irregularities noticed whilst running
promptly attended to.
In frosty weather all water pipes and jackets should be
drained.
After any alteration has been made to the engine, it should
be barred round several times to ensure that all working parts
are clear.
After standing idle for several days, the engine should be
run light for a short time. Before long stoppages the engine
should be well greased externally. The pressure in the air
vessels should be frequently examined, and if it falls below
550 lb. the vessels should be recharged.
6. Valves.—All valves must be kept absolutely tight, as
otherwise the engine may fail to start and the exhaust will be
smoky. When putting the valves back, great care must be
taken to ensure that the casings are also tight on their seatings
and that they are not twisted.
Each time before starting, the glands of the fuel valve
should be lubricated. It is most important that the needle
valve should work freely.
When the valves are in position, the roller clearance must
be checked and, if necessary, adjusted by the set screw on the
valve levers to give exactly the same clearance as when the
engine was erected.
7. Fuel pump.—The length of the rod controlling the
suction valve should never be interfered with.
8. Air compressor.—The piston and valves must be
examined from time to time and cleaned ; at the same time,
the piston rings should be examined and cleaned if necessary.
Sec. 99.—Diesel Engines (Solid-Injection) 397
9. The air vessels.—The pressure in the air-injection
vessels must be between 600 and 900 lb. per square in.,
according to the load. The pressure in the starting vessels
should be kept at about 700 lb.
The water in the air vessels, due to condensation, must be
drawn off daily whilst the engine is running.
The pressure in the injection vessel (blast bottle), if too
low, can be increased by opening the manometer valve, D,
on the air-injection vessel, and E and H on one of the starting
vessels, without losing too much pressure in the latter.
It is, therefore, advisable to keep the pressure in the reserve
starting vessel a little higher than the pressure actually
required for running. By throttling the blast-control valve,
the injection pressure may be regulated below that of the
bottle. It is thus possible to pump up the starting vessels
to 900 lb./sq. in. while the blast pressure is only 600 lb./sq.
in. as required for running light.
10. Fuel and filters.—All kinds of petroleum, crude or
refined, and most distillates can be used as fuel, provided they
do not contain acids, tar, or other impurities and are not too
thick. If the oil contains much foreign matter, an extra
filter should be fitted on the main storage tank.
All fuel tanks and filters must be cleaned out from time
to time, and it is advisable to provide cocks at the bottom to
drain off the water and impurities.
11. Lubrication.—For cylinders, good cylinder oil, not
too thick, should be used. (See Table ZA, page 604.) For the
air-suction valve and exhaust valve, only clean paraffin should
be used.
All lubricating oil should be filtered before use.
For air compressors, a special oil is required.
99. Diesel engines (solid-injection), general principles

1. This type is frequently known as the “ Cold Starter,”
an unsatisfactory name, as the characteristic of starting
from cold on heavy oil without the help of any ignition
device is one which it shares with the air-injection Diesel
engine.
2. In order that heavy oil may be burnt in an engine
cylinder without the use of a hot bulb or other hot surface,
two conditions must be fulfilled.
(a) The air in the combustion chamber must be raised
to a temperature sufficient to ignite the oil; this is attained
in both types of Diesel engines by the use of a very high
compression pressure as described in Sec. 97.
398 Sec. 99.—Diesel Engines (SoUd-Injection)
Plate 79.
Plate 80.
400 Sec. 99.—Diesel Engines (Solid-Injection)
(b) Since the fuel will not vaporize at ordinary temper¬
atures, it must be “ atomized," i.e. reduced to a very finely
divided spray—practically a mist—in order that the heated
air may come in contact with every particle of fuel. This is
accomplished in the air-injection Diesel engine, as already
explained, by means of an air-blast; in the solid injection
engine it is accomplished by a purely mechanical atomizing
device, consisting essentially of a pump and a fine nozzle,
through which the fuel is forced by a pressure of 1,000 lb. per
sq. in. or more. J
The development of the atomizer has rendered solid
injection possible, and the satisfactory running of these engines
depends to a very great extent on this component.
3. As compared with the air-injection engine, the solid
injection engine possesses the advantage of simplicity. The
compressor is dispensed with, and with it the necessity
for regulation and adjustment of the blast pressure and the
risks attendant on careless or unskilful adjustment of the same.
It is, therefore, more suitable than the air-injection type for
use in comparatively unskilled hands.
4. The gain in mechanical efficiency, due to the absence
of a compressor, is offset by lower thermal efficiency, but the
overall efficiency approaches that of the Diesel engine.
5. Compression pressures are slightly lower than with air-
injection Diesel engines, about 420 lb. per sq. in. being a
common figure, but maximum explosion pressures are higher.
This is due to the fact that combustion is more rapid than
when an air-blast is used. In the air-injection engine the
pressure does not rise appreciably above the compression
pressure, but remains at that level for a considerable portion
of the working stroke. In the solid-injection engine the
pressure rises immediately to nearly 600 lb. per sq. in. but
falls off at once. Compare indicator diagrams (PI. 79, Figs.
1 and 3).
In this respect the air-injection Diesel engine has an
advantage ; to deal with the higher pressure the solid-injection
engine requires greater strength, and it does not run quite so
sweetly, but always thumps to a certain extent.
6. Combustion does not appear to be quite so perfect as in
the air-injection engine, and it is more difficult to obtain an
absolutely colourless exhaust.
7. The fine nozzles of the atomizers are readily choked;
careful filtration of the fuel oil and periodical cleaning in
paraffin should, however, obviate trouble of this nature.
8. The majority of solid-injection engines work on the
four-stroke cycle, and these are made by a number of makers
Plate 81(a).
rAXMAN SPRING INJECTION
Carter’s Patents
Fig. :i.
with cam-operated injection, that its efficiency is not affected

by engine speed, and that more prolonged and more perfect
combustion is obtained. The indicator diagram (PI. 79,
Fig. 2), which shows a flat top approximating to that given by
an air-injection Diesel engine rather than the sharp peak of the
typical solid-injection engine, bears this out. The explosion
pressure, though higher than that of the air-injection Diesel
engine, is lower than is normal with cold-starters. A lower
compression pressure is used, i.e. about 380 lb./sq. in.
Another advantage of the system is the elimination of>
high-pressure fuel-piping ; the pump pressure is not more than
15 lb./sq. in.
Against these advantages must be set a certain loss of
simplicity and multiplication of small working parts on the
cylinder heads. The engine is very sensitive to the adjust¬
ment of the injector lever clearance, which affects the time of
injection.
11. In multi-cylinder engines it is important, in order to

secure smooth running and maximum efficiency, that the
load should be carried equally by all the cylinders. In most
cases this is obtained by providing means for regulating the
supply of fuel to each cylinder separately ; each cylinder has
its own fuel pump, which measures out the required amount of
fuel, this amount being controlled (a) by the governor, (b) by
hand regulation. While this system permits of compensating
for irregularities in the efficiency of the atomizers, &c., and in
skilled hands probably allows of the closest possible regula¬
tion, it is, however, dependent on the skill of the operator,
and offers possibilities of bad regulation. To obviate this
disadvantage and lender the engine as foolproof as possible,
some multi-cylinder engines are fitted with a single pump (up
to 4 cylinders) or two pumps (for 5 and 6 cylinders) and a
distributor. The pump makes one stroke for each explosion,
delivering the oil to the distributor, from which it is sent to
each cylinder in turn.
It is doubtful whether this system is as satisfactory as one
with separate fuel pumps and individual control.
12. Fuel and fuel consumption.—As with the air-injec¬

tion Diesel engine, very low-grade and heavy fuel oils may be
used, such as crude petroleum, tar oil, palm oil, &c. Best
results are obtained with a medium to fairly heavy fuel oil,
specific gravity from about 0-89 to 0*92, but heavier oils can
be used -with perfectly satisfactory results if they are heated
to enable them to flow freely. A fuel consumption of 0*40 lb.
per B.H.P. hour at full load can be obtained with the larger
engines.
To face p. 404]
From a Photograph of a 17 B.H.P. representing Sizes 6 B.H.P. to 45 B.H.P.

DAVEY PAXMAN 120 B.H.P. SOLID INJECTION DIESEL ENGINE
Plate 83.
RUSTOX 330 B H.P. SOLID-INJECTION DIESEL ENGINE [1932]
T'i.ate 84.
Sec. 100/—Diesel Engines (Solid•Injection) 405
13. Typical examples of solid-injection Diesel engines are

shown in Pis. 83 and 84, and the principal dimensions, &c.,
of these engines are given below :—
PI. 82, Blackstone Model C.S.I. Horizontal (1928).
B.H.P. 17, r.p.m. 250.
Single cylinder, bore 7|in., stroke 15 in., overall dimen¬
sions 5 ft. x 4 ft. x 4 ft. high.
PI. 83, Paxtnan Model 3 V.H. Vertical (1926).
B.H.P. 120, r.p.m. 333.
3 cylinders, bore 10 in., stroke 15J in., overall dimensions
124 in. x 65 in. x 98 in. high.
Minimum height of crane hook 114 in.
Flywheel 69 in.’ dia. Weight 80 cwt.
PI. 84, Ruston Model 6 V.E.R. Vertical (1932).
B.H.P. 330, r.p.m. 428.
6 cylinders, bore 11 in., stroke 14£ in., overall dimensions
181 in. x 55 in. x 94 in. high.
Minimum height of crane hook 115 in.
Flywheel 56 in. dia. Weight 238 cwt.
Comparing the engines shown in Pis. 83 and 84, note that

the more modem design runs at a higher speed and therefore,
size for size, it is smaller, lighter, and cheaper. Also, it is
totally enclosed, thus being rendered practically dust-proof.
The working parts, however, are just as easily accessible as
in the older design—hinged doors give access to the crank case
and detachable covers to the camshaft, &c.
100. Instructions for working Diesel engines [solid-injection)

1. Starting.—Small engines can be turned by hand on
half-compression sufficiently fast to carry them over full-
compression when the half-compression cam is put out of
action. The fuel pump being brought into action at the same
time, the engine should fire at once without the use of any
heated plug or other device. In some cases [e.g. Blackstone
engines up to 100 H.P.), a removable plug with some form of
igniting device is used to enable the engine to fire on half-
compression for a few revolutions, after which the speed will
be sufficient to carry the engine over full-compression, when
ignition becomes normal.
In most cases, however, starting is effected by means of
compressed air. An air-bottle is charged to about 200 to
300 lb. pressure by using one cylinder of the engine temporarily
as an air compressor, or by means of a small auxiliary com¬
pressor, which may be belt-driven from the engine or driven
by an independent source of power. It should be noted that
the compressor is used for short periods only, not continuously,

as in the case of the air injection Diesel engine.
For starting purposes, cam-operated valves are provided
to admit air to the cylinders (in the case of multi-cylinder
engines only two or three cylinders may be so fitted) and half¬
compression cams are also provided on the cam-shaft in some
cases. To start, the engine is barred round until the crank
of one of the starting cylinders is a few degrees past top dead
centre on the firing stroke, the half-compression cams (if
fitted) and starting-valve cams are brought into action, and
the fuel pumps put out of action, and air admitted from the
air-bottle. After a few revolutions, the engine (if running on
half-compression) is put on full-compression and the fuel
pumps brought into action, when the engine should fire. An
automatic valve prevents any blow-back into the starting
system when the engine fires.
The engine should be allowed to run up to full speed on
light load, when the governor will come into action and cut
down the fuel supply ; the load may then be put on.
Even large engines can be put on load in about one minute,
starting from cold, if all is in order.
For routine attention to valves, &c., read Sec. 102, and
makers’ handbooks.
2. Failure to start.—If the engine fails to start, the most
probable cause is that fuel oil is not being delivered to the
cylinders. It is important to ensure that oil pipes are full
before attempting to start, by working pump by hand until
it feels “ solid.” If a distributor is fitted, this must be done
with each crank in the firing position in turn.
Leaky suction joints, blocked filter, or air-locks are other
likely causes of fuel not reaching the cylinder. If all these
points have been attended to, the atomizer should be dis¬
mantled and cleaned, and if there is still no improvement, the
pump or injector mechanism should be carefully overhauled
and cleaned.
3. Faulty running.—Knocking or thumping on load, not
noticeable when running light, may be due to pre-ignition.
This can only be caused by too early injection of the fuel. If
injection is controlled by the pump, timing is set by the fuel-
cam, and is not likely to alter. The cam, however, is provided
with an adjustment. With .spring-injection, early injection
may be caused by the injector-vadve spring being too weak
or by the main spring being too strong, as well as by incorrect
setting of the eccentric operating the injector.
It may be necessary to alter the time of injection if the
fuel is changed. Generally speaking, the heavier the oil,
the earlier the injection required.
Sec. 101.—High-speed Diesel Engines 407
Thumping, not amounting to pre-ignition, may be caused

by too high compression. As already stated, however, solid-
injection engines always thump slightly on load; if the thump¬
ing appears excessive, indicator diagrams should be taken,
both for firing and for compression, the latter being taken by
cutting out the fuel pump momentarily while the diagram is
taken. Pre-ignition will be shown by an unusually high and
sharp peak to the firing diagram, the compression being
unaffected.
Knocking which persists when running light must be due to
mechanical defects.
Imperfect combustion is indicated by smoky exhaust,
dirty piston (possibly sticking), overheating, and high fuel
consumption. It may be caused by (a) bad atomization,
(b) low or faulty compression, (c) late injection, (d) overloading.
101. High-speed Diesel engines

1. Thoroughly satisfactory designs of low-speed (200-300
r.p.m.) heavy-oil engines, both air and airless injection, having
been developed and well tried out for many years, it is natural
that manufacturers should give attention to producing higher
speed engines which are lighter, smaller, and cheaper. For
stationary engines of moderate size (say 100-500 B.H.P.),
speeds of 500-800 r.p.m. are now becoming common.
2. The term high speed, however, is usually applied to
the comparatively small type (say up to about 50 B.H.P.),
running at speeds from 1,000-3,000 r.p.m., which has been
developed during the past few years for road vehicles and
light marine craft, popularly known in this connection as
compression-ignition engines.
The weight-power ratio of some designs approaches that
of the petrol engine. 15 lb./B.H.P. is common, compared
with 11 lb./B.H.P. for the petrol engine.
In small units- it is possible to use higher stress values than
would be permissible in large units, since the special high
tensile steels employed in the construction of these engines
have not so far proved their dependability in large forgings.
While the design and operation are generally the same as
the ordinary types of heavy-oil engine, the high speed
introduces certain difficulties apart from that of mechanical
stresses.
In some designs the limiting speed is stated to be the gas
velocities at the air and exhaust valves, but the real trouble
arises in regard to the requirements of fuel injection which,
even in low-speed engines, are exacting. The fuel pump and
atomizer must inject a small measured quantity of fuel during
a period corresponding to about 5° of crank angle, delivery
408 Sec. 101.—High-speed Diesel Engines
must start and stop smartly, and therefore air injection cannot
be employed.
To ensure the requisite degree of atomization and pene¬
tration, very high injection pressures (up to 10,000 Ib./sq. in.)
have been employed in some designs, but the use of such high
pressures in the fuel system, with the necessary small holes
in the atomizer, has caused a good deal of trouble. Better
results are now being obtained by so shaping the combustion
chamber that the air enters at high velocity with a rotational
swirl and the resulting turbulence gives satisfactory operation
with much smaller injection pressures (1,000-2,000 lb./sq. ill.).
3. The Bosch fuel pump, which is largely used on low-speed
solid-injection Diesel engines, is quite suitable for the high¬
speed designs, so also is the Benes fuel pump, shown in PI. 85,
which is of British design and manufacture.
Fig. 1 shows a four-cylinder model; Fig. 2, one element in
section ; and Fig. 3 (a) to (e), various positions of the plunger.
Referring to Fig. 2, the plunger A works in a sleeve B
with inclined faces. The sleeve is carried in the pump barrel
C, the former being fixed relative to the barrel. Rotatably
mounted about the pump barrel at the lower end is a two-piece
sleeve D which is operated by a control arm E. This arm is
provided with slots at its lower end in which projections F
on the plunger engage, so that rotation of the sleeve D by
means of the arm also rotates the plunger, the slots being so
arranged as to permit the plunger to reciprocate while it is
being rotated. The plunger is cam-operated in the usual
manner, being returned on the suction stroke by the spring G.
The plunger, it will be noted, is guided by the cup-shaped
member H. The construction of the plunger is such that
there is no side-thrust on it. The upper part of the pump
plunger is provided with a long central hole, communicating
with relief ports, formed by drilling a radial hole right through
the plunger at the end of the vertical central hole. The
suction chamber of the pump is formed by the space in the
pump housing which surrounds the top part of the barrel.
The spaces formed by the inclined faces on the sleeve B
are, like the radial hole in the plunger, in direct communica¬
tion with the suction chamber of the pump.
The operation of the pump can be followed from Fig. 3.
(a) shows the pump plunger at the bottom of the suction
stroke. As soon as the ducts in the barrel and the spaces
formed by the inclined faces communicate with the suction
chamber, these spaces, together with the clearance space
above the plunger, are filled with fuel, (b) shows the point
at which injection is commencing—that is, when the suction
ports are closed by the plunger. Injection is carried out
over the period represented by the travel of the pump plunger
Sec. 101.—High-speed Diesel Engines 400
410 Sec. 102.—Diesel Engines, Inspection, &c.
from position (b) to position (c). The arrows in the diagrams
indicate the point at which the radial plunger port is almost
uncovering the relief port. As soon as communication is
established between the radial plunger port and the relief
port in the body of the pump, an instantaneous destruction of
pressure naturally occurs and fuel injection ceases, (d) is the
position when the engine is on partial load, the plunger having
been rotated through a suitable angle in the direction of the
arrow shown at the bottom of the rod. In this way, on the
up-stroke of the plunger the radial relief ports are uncovered
earlier by the inclined faces on the sleeve, so that the pressure
is relieved earlier and the quantity of fuel injected into the
cylinder is correspondingly reduced. When it is desired to
stop the engine, the plunger is rotated through a further
angular distance until it assumes the position shown at (e),
when obviously no fuel can be pumped up.
The pump can be used with any design of atomizer (or
injector nozzle).
4. Although the high-speed heavy-oil engine is of com¬
paratively recent introduction and cannot yet be said to have
been thoroughly tried out, it is reasonable to assume that its
reliability will be at least equal to that of the petrol engine,
in which case it should prove very suitable for small portable
generating sets, pumping sets, &c.
Somewhat higher combustion pressures are employed
than in the ordinaiy low-speed engine.
The full-load fuel consumption of small engines of 9\ B.H.P.
per cylinder, is about 0*41 to 0-45 lb./B.H.P. hour, which is
about half the weight of fuel required in a petrol engine of
corresponding size and speed.
Moreover, the heavy fuel-oil is relatively cheap and can be
more safely stored.
PI. 86 shows a four-cylinder Gardner high-speed heavy-oil
generating set. The rated B.H.P. is 38 at 1,000 r.p.m. for
continuous running, but the engine can be run up to 1,300
r.p.m. and will then develop up to 50 B.H.P. for intermittent
demand in a road vehicle.
The overall dimensions of the engine are 55 in. by 25 in.
by 40 in. high, and the weight is 29 cwt.
It is started from cold, by hand, simply by cranking.
Forced lubrication is employed throughout.
102. Routine inspection and maintenance of Diesel engines

1. The heavy oil engine gives singularly little trouble as
long as it is properly looked after; but to ensure that parts
receive the necessary care and attention it is essential that
a regular programme of overhauls and examinations should
be prepared and rigidly adhered to.
GAROMER fi/6H GREED D/SSEL E/TG/nE G EHERA T/fiG GET
J8. B.li.P AT /OOOQ.PM.
To face p. 410]
Pl.ATE 86.
Sec. 102.—Diesel Engines, Inspection, &c. 411
The type of engine generally dealt with in the following

notes is the blast air-injection Diesel. This has been chosen
as being rather more complicated than the solid-injection
type. Both types of engine have very many parts in common,
and what is stated here about the one is equally applicable
to the other, unless specially qualified in the notes.
2. Fuel valve.—Upon the condition of the fuel valve
depends the efficient and economical running of the engine.
It is, therefore, suggested that it should be attended to every
6-8 hours’ running. It is fully admitted that this is an ideal
and that in mahy installations it may be impossible to shut
down to enable this to be done. Such cleaning, however,
should be carried out wherever possible. The time of the
shut-down may be very much decreased by keeping a spare
fuel valve ready to replace the one being cleaned.
In the case of the solid-injection type engine, there are
many differing designs of fuel valve, either with a packed or
packing-less type of spindle. While the general principles
are the same in all cases, the instructions given in the maker’s
handbook should be closely followed.
The atomizer (or pulverizer) is the part most likely to re¬
quire attention ; as a matter of precaution it should be taken
to pieces and carefully cleaned with paraffin after every 100 to
200 hours’ running, according to the quality of fuel oil. At the
same time the strainer in the oil tank should be cleaned with
paraffin. The atomizer can be tested by connecting up to the
fuel pump, and working the latter by hand, directing the
atomizer at a sheet of paper about 2 feet away. The spray
should be evenly spread over an area (depending in shape on
the design of the nozzle) without any large drops. When the
paper is held about 4 feet away from the nozzle, the whole of
the spray should be dissipated in the form of mist before it
reaches the paper. Drops large enough to carry this distance
indicate imperfect atomization. The nozzle may be dirty
or worn, or the plunger valve may require grinding in with
fine Crocus powder.
Perfect combustion cannot be obtained without perfect
atomization.
The valve seating must be maintained, and rubbing in
with oil alone should be sufficient if done as frequently as
recommended above. Abrasives should not be used ill any
case—they are difficult to remove from the seat and cause
rapid wei. Where difficulty is met in obtaining a good
seating the valve should be rubbed in quite dryand any hard
ESS removed with a small smooth This should be
repeated until an even bearing surface is obtained, and then
finkhed off with liquid metal polish and a little oil.
With thH^-injection DhSel, the flame-plate hole slowly
becomes choked and eventually leads to “ dribbling.” It

should therefore be “ mucked out ” with a piece of soft wire
at the time that the fuel valve is taken down.
3. Exhaust valve.—The exhaust valve should be taken
down, cleaned and ground once in about every 100 hours. It
is not necessary to remove all pit-marks so long as a good
all-round seating is secured. Constant grinding out of all pit-
marks will reduce the life of the valve and seating without
improving its efficiency.
4. Inlet valve.—It is as well to look at this when the
exhaust valve is taken down, but it is unlikely that any action
will need to be taken until after 600-700 hours' running.
5. Crank alignment.—Considerable trouble has been
experienced in the past with broken crankshafts. Improved
methods of manufacture, however, have now reduced such
occurrences to a minimum, and with proper care they should
not take place.
The possibility of a settlement of the foundation after
the erection of an engine must be borne in mind, and it is
always possible that the bearings may lose their alignment
through unequal wear. The first signs of bearings being out
of line are usually excessive ejid-movement of the shaft
when running, flywheel running out of truth, and uneven
heating of the bearings, the high ones tending to overheat while
the low ones heat more on the top half than on the bottom
half.
In any case the bearings should be tested for alignment
every six months if the engine is in regular use. With small
engines, and single-cylinder engines, it is usually most con¬
venient to dismantle the engine and test with a straight-edge
(or better, if available, a mandrel accurately made to fit in
the bearings in place of the shaft). With large multi-cylinder
engines the method described below should be used.
It will be appreciated from PI. 23, Fig. 13, that where
a pair of adjacent bearings are out of alignment, either
horizontally or vertically, or both, there will take place
during each revolution an opening and closing of the crank
webs. If the out-of-alignment is serious, this concertina-like
action of the crank webs causes overstress of the metal
resulting in fatigue, with ultimate fracture through the web.
A belated correction of bad alignment may delay but cannot
prevent eventual failure, if the shaft has been subjected to a
sufficient number of applications of an undue stress.
Measure the distance between the crank webs at top dead-
centre, at bottom dead-centre, and at the two intermediate
positions. Differences between the measurements in the
vertical positions indicate out-of-alignment of the bearings in
the vertical plane, while differences between the measurements

in the horizontal positions indicate out-of-alignment in the
horizontal plane. Very roughly the crank-web difference is a
measure of the amount of out-of-alignment, e.g. 2 thousandths
crank-web difference indicates an out-of-alignment of about
2 thousandths.
The best instrument to use for this purpose is the Dial
Test Indicator. It is possible to measure crank-web differences
with a point gauge and feelers, but this method is less accurate
and requires considerable skill in taking readings in a confined
space. It is difficult also for two individuals to take readings
which will in any way agree.
There are several important points which must be observed
when taking crank-web readings :—
(a) The journal must be true. This should be checked
first with the dial test indicator.
(b) The engine should be allowed to cool down before
taking any measurements, for with a shaft warm,
it has expanded longitudinally and unreliable
readings may be obtained.
(c) Before taking measurements, and after the engine has
cooled down, it should be barred round by hand
two or three times. This relieves any end strain
in the crankshaft due to the flywheel at one end
and the thrust bearing at the other. Neglect to
do this will give false readings.
(d) The measurements should be taken at about f in. in
from the edge of the crank web.
(e) A mark should be made on the inside surface of the
web so that measurements are made roughly
between the same points, through the cycle. This
ensures that there are no inaccuracies due to local
unevenness.
It has been suggested that the web differences as measured
above, do not give the conditions obtaining when the engine
is running, since the web openings may be greater due to the
thrust of the piston. This is true ; but it has been found in
practice to be a fairly good indication of the condition of the
bearings (but see Sec. 106, para. 4).
The point arises as to how far crank-web differences may
be allowed to go before taking action. A prominent engine-
builder gives the following limits of allowable differences :—
Size of engine H.P. H.P. H.P.
B.H.P. per cylinder 25-60 60-120 120
Allowable difference 0*002 in. 0*003 in. 0*004 in.
Crank-web measurements should be taken regularly every
750 hours, or oftener if bearing wear is increasing rapidly.
6. Alignment of the driven machine.—Where an

engine is direct-coupled to a 2-bearing generator or other
machine, the coupling should be disconnected every 1,500
hours, to check the alignment. The weight of the flywheel
should be taken so that the engine coupling face is exactly
vertical to the planed facings on the bedplate. The clearance
can then be measured with feelers between the engine coupling
face and the generator coupling face. If the machines are in
alignment this clearance will be the same all round.
7. Piston-rod and piston.—The piston should be drawn

after every 3,000 hours' running and thoroughly cleaned.
The gudgeon pin should be withdrawn and checked for wear.
Careful examination of connecting-rod bolts, both big end
and small end, for signs of hammering, is most essential.
These in course of time crystallize and lose their ductility,
especially when stressed in the neighbourhood of the elastic
limit of the material.
Certain engine-builders mark off a definite length upon
their connecting-rod bolts. This is done by filing a flat on
one of the threads and putting a centre dot on the flat. The
distance is measured from the underside of the head to the
dot. Any stretch can be thus easily detected. A longitudinal
line is also scribed on the bolt, preferably placed to pass
through the dot. This line will at once show up any twist due
to overtightening.
Any bolt showing the slightest sign of stretch or twist
should be replaced by a new one at once. It is possible to
extend the life of a defective bolt by heat treatment, but such
treatment to be successful requires exact knowledge of the
composition of the bolt and very careful control of the process,
and is not possible with apparatus normally available. The
practice of taking out bolts and resting them for a period is
useless, as no improvement of the bolt occurs during resting.
The life of a bolt varies enormously from 3,000 to 35,000
hours. It is suggested that bolts should be replaced every
3,000 hours. All the bolts in any line in which piston seizure
has taken place should be replaced at once, as they will
undoubtedly have been overstressed.
It is useful to stamp on the head of each bolt, the date
on which it was taken into use, and if the hours of running
are not recorded, bolts should be replaced after two years’
service.
When replacing bolts after examination the greatest
care should be taken not to overstress them by overtightening.
Correct spanners should be used to avoid this.
8. Water-spaces.—In an oil engine in good running order
approximately 30 per cent, of the heat units of the fuel oil
pass away through the water-jackets. The importance of

keeping the surfaces to be cooled free from deposits such as
carbonate of lime, sludge, vegetable matter and other refuse,
will be readily appreciated. Neglect of this important point
produces serious overheating and causes :—
(a) Loss of power through distorted valves and seats.
(b) Seized pistons through the destruction of the oil film
between piston and liner.
(c) Cracked cylinder covers and pistons.
No definite period for the washing and scraping out of
water-spaces can be laid down, as so much depends upon the
purity of the water used for cooling purposes. An inspection
period must therefore be decided upon to suit each station.
An average figure would be in the neighbourhood of 1,000
hours.
9. Drawing liners.—It is not possible completely to
clean all water-spaces merely by washing or mucking out.
Chipping may be required and it will be necessary to withdraw
liners to do this. The period after which this should be done
is again a matter for local decision. For good water a usual
figure is 3,000-4,000 hours.
With a very hard water, liners will have to be drawn
frequently to chip off the offending scale. In such cases it
may prove economical to instal a water-softening plant for
the cooling water.
Incidentally, scale formation takes place most rapidly if
the engine is shut down and circulating water shut off, thereby
raising the temperature of the water. Circulating water
should therefore be allowed to run for about 15 minutes after
shutting down, an auxiliary pump or elevated tank being
installed for the purpose.
Micrometer readings of the internal diameter of liners at
the top, bottom, and mid-way positions, both longitudinally
and transversely-across the engine, will, of course, be taken
when the liner is put back. Such readings should also be
taken whenever the piston is drawn. Signs of internal
collapsing of the liner usually indicate that the liner is not
free to expand longitudinally owing to its free end being held
by accumulations of rust and scale.
10. Fuel pump.—This requires very little attention
beyond cleaning out the sump chamber every 750 hours, and
the draining off of the water before starting up and occasion¬
ally during running. This is particularly necessary where
heavy fuel-oils are used (and especially where storage capacity
is small), as such oils hold water in suspension.
The valves should be ground in every 3,000 hours in the
same way as has been recommended for the fuel valve.
Compressor
The following remarks, of course, only refer to the blast
air-injection type Diesel.
11. Compressor piston.—The compressor piston should
be drawn and thoroughly cleaned after 1,500 hours' running.
The compressor cylinder should be examined for signs of
over-lubrication. Too much oil will cause carbonization of
pistons and valves and wear and corrosion of the intercooler
tubes. At the same time micrometer readings of the bore
should be taken and checked for wear.
The liners and water-spaces should be treated on the same
general principles as those laid down in paras. 8 and 9 for the
main cylinders.
• 12. Compressor valves.—These should be cleaned and
ground in according to the following table :—
Two-stage compressors .. H.P. valves 300 hours.
L.P. „ 500 „
Three-stage compressors . H.P. „ 500
I.P. „ 1,000
L.P. „ 1,000
Compressor valves are usually of the disc type, and the best
way to grind in these and their seats is to rub them up to a
common surface on a piece of plate-glass or metal with fine
carborundum paste and finish off with metal-polish. The
intercooler pressure gauge gives a very good indication of the
condition of the valves.
The lift of the compressor valves should be adjusted when
it exceeds by 50 per cent, the original lift given by the engine
makers.
13. Intercooler coils.—In some engines the H.P. cooler
consists of a copper coil. This is subject to a certain amount
of deterioration and wastage, generally attributed to acidity
produced by the presence of lubricating oil in the high-pressure
air. Dust or water particles in the air will increase this wear.
These coils should be weighed periodically (every 1,500
hours is suggested), and when the weight has decreased to
75 per cent, of the original, then the coil should be replaced.
A method adopted by some engine-builders is to drill a
hole with the point of a —in. drill, to a depth of one-third
of the thickness of the metal, in the portions of the coil where
wear is most likely to occur. When the coil has worn away
to the bottom of this hole, a pinhole is formed through which
air escapes into the cooling water and an indication is given
that the coil should be replaced.
In any case the coil should be scrapped after 10,000 hours'
running.
Sec. 102.-—Diesel Engines, Inspection, &c. 417
14. Air receivers.—These accumulate a certain amount

of water and oil in the form of an emulsion which should be
blown out every 50-60 hours’ running.
In addition to this, the blast bottle, i.e. the bottle supplying
the blast injection-air, should be thoroughly washed out every
750 hours and the main bottle every 3,000 hours. This wash¬
ing out should be done with hot soda-water; paraffin should
never be used on account of the danger involved.
15. Flywheel.—It is most important that the key
securing the flywheel to the shaft should be a good, tight fit.
Any play here will cause hammering, eventually resulting in a
cracked shaft or flywheel boss, if nothing worse. It is,
therefore, as well to look to this point every 250 hours, for
the little time required is well spent.
A loose key must be replaced if it cannot be refitted.
Packing out with metal strips is fatal.
16. Annual overhaul.—Every set should have a thorough
overhaul once a year (usually corresponding to about 3,000
hours’ running). At this time cleaning out of the exhaust
pipes and silencer pit should not be overlooked. All oil-holes
in crank pins, bearings, cylinder walls, &c., should be
thoroughly raked out with a piece of wire. “ Flick " from
cotton rags, pellets of white-metal, &c., are very liable to
block oilways.
Finally, all wearing parts should be carefully gauged and
the results logged. Valuable information is thus available
at any time as to the condition of the engine.
17. Spare parts.—The following should be held :—
One fuel needle.
One pulverizer, complete with ring.
One exhaust valve, with seating.
One set of springs.
Set of piston rings for the engine cylinder and air
compressor.
Set of connecting-rod bolts.
18. Running stores.—The following should be held :—
Asbestos mill-board or vulcanite, | mm. thick, for cover
packing.
Metallic packing for fuel valves. (Lead wool is suitable.)
Cotton or hemp packing for air-vessel valves.
India-rubber sheeting, inch thick, for water joints.
Hemp, emery-powder, red lead, and boiled linseed oil.
19. A monthly maintenance programme should be drawn
up on the lines of Table V. The fuel valves should be
attended to at least once a week.
418
. Sec. 102.—Diesel Engines, Inspection, &c.
-The testing of air vessels is dealt with in Regulations for Engineer Services, Part II, para. 27a.
Sec. 103.—Solid-Injection Diesel Plant, Lay-out 419
103. Lay-out of solid-injection Diesel plant

Attention is drawn to the following sections:—
73. Air filtering, page 300.
74. Cooling, page 301.
75. Silencing, page 308.
146. Engine foundations, page 546.
Typical examples of solid-injection engines have been
shown in Pis. 82, 83, 84, and 86.
Manufacturers supply all the necessary foundation and
lay-out plans and drawings, and the engine price includes, as a
rule, for everything essential to the working of the engine,
except the concrete foundations, fuel-storage tanks, cooling
tanks and sump, and ' external pipe connections. These
auxiliaries are usually quoted for as extras; so too are auxiliary
circulating pumps and air compressors.
PI. 87 is a dimensioned drawing of the lay-out of the engine
illustrated in PI. 83.
An auxiliary motor-driven circulating pump is provided
with a small sump in the engine room. It is preferable,
however, to provide a larger sump and place it .outside.
Sec. 74 deals with this point. The expense fuel tank is
situated so that the exhaust can be used for heating the fuel.
The fuel-storage tanks must be placed outside the engine room.
An auxiliary motor-driven air compressor is provided for
charging the starting air-bottles in case the pressure should be
lost with the engine stationary. One such auxiliary air
compressor only is sufficient in a power station, as normally
the engines themselves charge the air-bottles.
PI. 87a shows a suggested lay-out plan for three of the
engines shown in Pis. 83 and 87, direct coupled to 75-kW.
generators. Owing to the increased speeds of modern designs,
however, the same size of building will comfortably accom¬
modate three engines of the type illustrated in PI. 84, driving
220-kW. generators.
It will be noted that the roof and gantry spans are rather
large (50 ft.). If the installation is to be a temporary or
semi-permanent one, it may be cheaper to make the building
longer and narrower, with the switchboard at one end and an
oft-loading area at the other, near the main door.
PI. 88 is a typical lay-out for two 60-kW. solid-injection
Diesel generating sets in an underground power station which
has been reduced to the smallest possible dimensions.

CHAPTER XX
OVERHAUL OF I.C. ENGINES

104. Introduction
1. General.-—This chapter applies particularly to small
vertical high-speed engines up to about 40 but in a
general way it is applicable to all I.C. engines.
2. Before commencing the overhaul of an engine, study
the maker’s instruction handbook and sectional drawings
and make quite certain that the operations involved in
stripping down the engine are clearly understood.
Verify that all necessary special spanners and other tools
are available. Box-spanners should always be used wherever
possible. Dial micrometer gauges are indispensable, and the
Ames test-bench with magnetic gauge-mount is of very great
utility. Some of its uses are pointed out later.
3. Prepare overhaul inspection sheet. All measurements
of journals, cylinders, &c., and the condition of all parts
should be carefully logged as dismantling proceeds.
4. Clear sufficient floor-area and bench-room to accom¬
modate the engine (except in the case of the larger and heavier
engines it is better to carry out extensive overhauls in the
shop and not on site. The practice of carrying out repairs
to individual engine parts on the floor beside the engine makes
it impossible to keep a tidy engine room). Prepare supports
to place the engine at a convenient height and procure some
wooden boxes or cupboards in which to store the parts in
a regular manner as they are removed.
5. Before removing anything, clean the exterior of the
engine sufficiently to verify that the different parts are marked
to facilitate reassembly. As the dismantling proceeds, this
must be carefully borne in mind and additional marks made
where necessary, e.g. it is important that the halves of main
and big-end bearings should be replaced correctly in the
positions from which they were taken.
A paraffin bath or degreasing plant should be available.
No cotton-waste must be used.
6. Take care not to damage parts in removal. Parts
suspected of being broken must be removed with care so that
pieces do not jam or score during the operation.
7. As each part is removed, it should be cleaned and
carefully examined as to the advisability of its replacement or
repair.
Sec. 105.—Dismantling the Engine 421
Parts which it is not. considered possible or economical to

repair should be put on one side and immediate action taken
to obtain replacements.
8. Replace nuts and washers on their respective studs or
bolts.
105. Dismantling the engine

1. Before dismantling.—(i) Study the history sheet and,
if possible, run the engine on moderate load for an hour or
two and note and record its behaviour. If indicator diagrams
can be taken so much the better. Such a diagnosis will be
found of great assistance in determining what adjustments and
repairs are necessary. It will also afford an instructive com¬
parison with the results obtained on the completion of the
overhaul.
(ii) Test tightness of valves.—While the engine is warm turn
it slowly by hand, when the relative compression of the
cylinders can easily be felt. If the compression in one
cylinder is appreciably weaker than in the others, the cause
will probably be found in the improper seating of one of the
valves of that cylinder due either to insufficient clearance
between the valve tappet and the end of the valve stem, or
to the fact that the valve itself is sticking, possibly as the
result of the stem being dirty or bent.
(iii) Testing cams and camshaft drive for wear.—Examine
for excessive wear any chains or gears used to drive the
camshaft (or auxiliaries).
In the case of chains, wear in the pins leads to chain-stretch,
the pitch becomes longer, and in consequence the chains ride
higher on the sprocket wheels. Excessive backlash in timing-
gear causes noisy running due to the pressure of the valve
springs on the cams when the valves are closing. The cams
themselves may be worn and also the roller cam followers,
or their pins.
{a) Mark correct inlet and exhaust valve openings on
flywheel to maker’s instructions. If not known, PI. 68 may
help.
(b) Adjust tappet clearances to maker’s instructions. If
not known, the following figures may be assumed (with
engine hot):—
Side valves .. njoipin. inlet ^-in. exhaust.
Overhead valves looo »* fooo ••
(c) Crank engine round to each valve-opening position in

turn, as indicated by flywheel marking, and check the valve
timing.
422 Sec. 105.—Dismantling the Engine
The point at which the valve leaves the seat can best be
determined by means of the Ames magnetic gauge-mount
(see next para.). If this apparatus is not available, a piece
of tissue-paper between tappet and valve-stem will be just
gripped when the valve commences to lift. (Checking timing
by piston position is not an accurate method, because the
critical moments occur near the end of the stroke.) If the
flywheel has to be moved forward beyond the correct position
before the valve lifts, wear is indicated. If the inaccuracy is
due to the drive, the timing of all the valves will be retarded,
and before proceeding to investigate the condition of individual
cams, the flywheel must be moved forward so that the backlash
in the drive is the same as when running.
Note and record results carefully.
(iv) Test connecting-rod bearings for wear— Take off cylinder
head and remove loose carbon. Put each cylinder in turn on
top dead-centre and measure the combined wear of the big
and small ends. This can be done most conveniently and
quickly by means of the Ames magnetic dial micrometer
gauge-mount (PI. 89, Fig. 1) and a rubber suction cup as
shown in PI. 89, Fig. 2.
When the piston is raised by the suction cup (which has a
lift of about 50 lb.) the dial micrometer indicates the move¬
ment due to wear, which should be carefully recorded.
In the average lorry engine, if the play measured in this
way does not exceed 0-005 in., it is unnecessary to dis¬
mantle the engine on this account alone, but if a general
overhaul is carried out the fault must, of course, be rectified.
(v) Carefully note and record any other irregularities which
are detected.
2. Dismantling may now be proceeded with. Any other
defects which become apparent during the stripping down
must be carefully recorded as the work proceeds, and the
overhaul inspection sheet filled in.
i. First empty oil sumps and water-jackets.
ii. Remove small fitments. Magneto, carburettor, gauges,
thermometers, &c., which are liable to get lost or
broken in lifting or in transit, should be removed
on site and carefully packed in a separate box.
Replace nuts and washers on studs and bolts.
iii. Transfer engine to workshop and remove the inlet and
exhaust manifolds, oil- and water-connections and all
auxiliaries.
iv. The dismantling of the main parts of the engine can
now be carried out. The procedure will depend upon
the size, type and construction of the engine.
To face p. 422] Plate 89.
Sec. 106.—Principal Repair Operations 423
The piston-rings must be carefully removed in case it may
be possible to use them again.
If they are slightly gummed in their grooves, apply some
paraffin and loosen them by tapping with a block of hard wood.
When the rings are loose they can be taken off the piston
with four thin metal strips about A in. wide.
106. Principal repair operations

1. Straightening crankshafts. — A bent crankshaft
should be straightened by the application of a steady pressure.
No heat need be applied.
PI. 90, Fig. 1, shows a six-throw crankshaft set up for
straightening in a Weaver press. To check alignment, a dial
test-gauge, mounted on the forcing plate of the press, is
moved under the shaft and the lever arm of gauge adjusted
so that it will be in contact with the underside of the shaft
during one complete revolution (sec PI. 90, Fig. 2). The
difference between the highest and lowest readings indicates
twice the amount the shaft is out of true.
To straighten the shaft:—
i. Set it hogging, i.c. with the curve above the axis,
and apply sufficient pressure to straighten it.
ii. Remove pressure and measure the amount of spring-
back, x thousandths of an inch.
iii. Apply pressure again to give a sag of x thousandths
below straight.
iv. Remove pressure and measure again. Repeat if
necessary.
If no special apparatus is available, a jack and strap plate
may be used as shown in PI. 90, Fig. 3.
2. Straightening connecting-rods.—Small connecting-
rods are easily bent through rough handling. Bends can be
detected on a surface plate and straightening can be done,
without heat, by the application of quite small steady forces.
The operation is similar to that of straightening crank¬
shafts.
An accurate final check can be made by assembling the
connecting-rod on crankshaft and setting up shaft in vee-
blocks on a surface plate with the shaft axis parallel to the
plate. Then insert gudgeon pin in small end bush and by
means of a surface gauge in conjunction with a dial indicator,
check the pin.
3. Trueing journals.—Ovality of journals can be
measured quickly by the Ames crankshaft gauge, illustrated
in PI. 89, Fig. 3.
424 Sec. 106.—Principal Repair Operations
Plate 90.
ENGINE OVERHAUL OPERATIONS
Testing
AU4NMCIHT or
JmaFT
JTWKHTrMNfi
iWlTT v
_ V
(i) Crankshaft and big-end journals.—If there is any

appreciable wear, journals must be trued by one of the
following methods:—
(a) By skimming in a lathe (which must be true) or a
cylindrical grinder. The method of setting up the
crankshaft for turning the big-end journals is
shown in PI. 90, Fig. 4. Blocks, B, are placed
between the webs to prevent distortion due to
pressure from the lathe centres. Dummy cranks,
D, are necessary for turning the crank pins, and
since a long tool is necessary, light cuts should be
taken and the tool supported from the slide-rest
by a prop, P. If available, a grinding attachment
will do the work more accurately and with less loss
of diameter of journals than a lathe tool. Care
must be taken to see that the big-end journals are
turned up parallel to the crankshaft.
(b) By filing flats at high spots and then smoothing off
the metal between the flats by lapping with emery
and oil. This is a difficult operation for a skilled
fitter, and is tedious if a large amount of metal has
to be removed.
Care must be taken to finish off the crankshaft
journals so that they are truly co-axial. Small
shafts can be checked on a surface plate.
Accuracy may be checked as indicated in PI. 22,
Fig. 2, or by a crankshaft gauge.
(c) In either case the finishing work may conveniently be
done by lapping, using the apparatus shown in
PI. 90, Fig, 5, lead-lined and charged with dry flour
of emery. The journal must be lubricated with oil
during the lapping process.
(ii) Gudgeon pin.—The small-end bearing usually comprises
a precision-ground, hardened mild-steel pin working in a
phosphor-bronze bush, solid in small sizes and split in large
ones.
It is unusual to find any appreciable wear in a gudgeon pin,
and if there is, it should be replaced by a new pin.
(iii) Other small journal pins generally.—If pins are badly
worn they should be renewed. If slightly worn they may be
turned up in 'a lathe or cylindrical grinder, but new bushes
will then be necessary.
4. Fitting bearings.—(i) Fitting main bearings.—This

comprises the operation of scraping in to fit the shaft journals
and of aligning the bearings.
In the case of brass or bronze bearings of circular outside

section, or white-metal bearings, which are carried in a cast-
iron or cast-steel shell of circular section (as normally used
in I.C. engines), it is not possible to correct the alignment by
packing or filing, as this would spoil the fit of the bearing in
the engine-bed. This is most important in the case of white-
metal bearings, as any movement or flexure of the shell will
almost certainly result in loosening of the white-motal lining.
The alignment and fit must therefore be obtained simul¬
taneously by scraping the face of the bearing.
Re-metalling white-metal hearings.—When the white-metal
shows signs of breaking away from the shell, the bearing should
be re-metalled (see Sec. 30). It may be convenient to do this
before it is actually necessary, to avoid additional work on
•other bearings or parts. It would certainly be advisable if
one bearing showed excessive wear while the others were in
good condition, as it would save scraping all the good bearings
down to the level of the worn one.
It must be noted that after re-metalling, a shell is generally
found to have become distorted a little and it must therefore
be re-bedded into the housing by careful filing.
(ii) Aligning the crankshaft.—This is most conveniently
carried out, in the first place, without the flywheel (if possible)
as follows :—
(a) True all journals as described above.
(b) Bed the shells into their housings to ensure good sup¬
port and metal-to-metal contact everywhere. (This
should be unnecessary unless the bearing has been
re-metalled.)
(c) Scrape the hearings to the journals.—See Sec. 37, para. 9.
Where possible it is preferable to bore all the bearings in
place in one operation (and then scrape), but the special
boring machine required for this is not likely to be met in the
service.
It is essential in all cases that the axis of the crankshaft
shall be at right-angles to the cylinder axes.
To ensure this in a stationary engine the shaft must be
aligned parallel to the surface of the engine-bed, and this
should be checked as soon as the shaft is resting properly in
the two end-bearings. A scribing block with dial-test indicator
should be used for this purpose (after checking the diameter
of the journals).
In the case of a car engine, the upper machined surface of
the crankcase can generally be taken as a plane of reference,
and to carry out the above test it will be necessary to turn
the top half crankcase upside down and place it on a surface
plate. The alignment of the other bearings is now proceeded
with, and finally the whole is re-checked with the flywheel in

position.
The final fitting of the top halves of the bearings cannot be
attempted until the shaft has been properly bedded and
aligned in the lower halves. The top halves should at first
be scraped out only as much as is necessary to enable them
to be placed on the shaft. When the lower halves have been
completed, the top halves should then be scraped in to the
proper running clearances.
On no account is the clearance to be obtained by adjusting
the nuts on the bearing.
The following remarks apply to larger engines (say) 20 H.P.
per cylinder and above :—
A truly machined shaft properly bedded in without flywheel
should have its weight carried equally by all the main bearings.
This can readily be tested by endeavouring to turn the bearing
shells in their housings. If one turns freely and the adjacent
one cannot be turned easily, the inference is that the latter is
carrying more weight than the former.
Making use of the fact that the shaft, on account of its
shape, is by no means rigid, web gauging may also be used to
check the alignment. (See Sec. 102, para. 5.)
If the alignment is correct the distance between the crank
webs should be the same for all positions of the shaft, and for
erection purposes no tolerance should be permitted.
When all bearings have been properly fitted and aligned,
measurements should be taken, with a micrometer gauge, of
the thickness of the bottom bearings near each end (at “ a ”
and “ b ”, PI. 90, Fig. 6), measuring from the bearing surface
of the metal to the bearing surface of the shell on the engine-
bed. This should be recorded for future reference, and will
afford a valuable guide for future overhauls. It is usually
possible to remove bearings of all but the smallest engines
without dismantling the engine, and when the web-gauge test
shows that bearings are wearing out of line they can be
removed, micrometered, and the high ones scraped down to
proper alignment one at a time, without putting the engine
out of action for more than a few hours at a time.
If these records have not previously been kept, the same
method may still be employed to obtain an approximate
indication of the amount to scrape down the bearings, as it is
unlikely that there will be any serious variation in the housings
for the bearings in the engine-bed. When it is known that a
good deal of metal has to be scraped off the bearing, much time
may be saved, as one can then carry on scraping freely for
some time before checking with the shaft.
The micrometer readings should be recorded every time
the bearings are scraped in, and if possible the bearings of a new
engine should be micrometered before appreciable wear
occurs.
If the bare shells are also measured when re-metalling, a
record of the thickness of the white-metal lining will also be
available at any future date.
Where it can be applied, gauging the main bearings gives
a much more accurate check of alignment than gauging the
crank webs.
(iii) Big-end bearings.—The above instructions apply
generally, but alignment in this case means only aligning at
right-angles to the axis of the connecting-rod.
Big-end bearings tend to wear oval and generally require
re-scraping in after (say) 2,OCX) hours’ running. If not too
great, the wear can be taken up by reducing the thickness of
"the liners between the two halves of the bearing.
Assuming that the big-end journal is parallel to the crank¬
shaft and that the connecting-rod is straight, the alignment
can be checked as shown in PI. 90, Fig. 8. The side of the
small end should follow the edge of the square throughout a
complete revolution, i.e. in four positions 90° apart.
A running clearance of about 0-0005 in. per inch diameter
should be allowed in big-end bearings. The fit can be roughly
checked as in PI. 90, Fig. 7. The rod should just swing under
its own weight through the angle shown.
(iv) Re-bushing holes.
(a) Small ends of connecting-rods.—If the bush is worn
appreciably a new one must be made. See Sec. 43, para. 17.
It is important that the bush should be turned outside and
bored and reamed at the same setting in the lathe.
The gudgeon pin must be truly parallel with the crank pin,
viewed both in the horizontal and the vertical plane. This
can be checked by the aid of a surface plate, two vee blocks,
two mandrels (a push fit in big and small ends of rod), a
scribing block and a dial micrometer. The mandrels should
be as long as is conveniently possible. A similar method is
adopted for testing whether the piston pinhole is at right-
angles to the piston.
These and many other operations can be carried out most
accurately and expeditiously by the Weaver motor service press
(supplied by George Hatch), which is an invaluable machine
in a small engine repair shop.
A running clearance of about 0-0005 in. per 1 inch diameter
of pin should be allowed.
(b) Other bushed holes.—For well-lubricated bearings, such
as in crankcases and gear boxes of motor vehicles, the bore
of a bush should normally be 1/1,000 of the diameter larger
than the pin which is to revolve in it. In more exposed and
less efficiently lubricated positions, up to 2/1,000 of the
diameter may be allowed. The outside of a bush should be
normally the same size as the hole it is to fit, or only very
slightly smaller, so that it will draw home firmly. Bushes
should be of hard phosphor-bronze if the pin is hardened, and
of a softer bronze or white-metal if the pin is of mild steel.
(c) Grinding out plain holes.—Plain unbushed holes on
rods, links, &c., should be ground out in an internal grinding
machine, if available. Otherwise the hole may be lapped out
with a cylindrical plug of lead or copper, u§ing fine emery and
oil. ■
New pins should be made, the clearance being -■ .
1,U00
5. Pistons and piston clearance.—The pistons them¬

selves seldom wear seriously.
When first fitted the piston clearance at the skirt, from x
to y, is made from 0*00075 to 0*001 in. per inch diameter
for cast-iron pistons, and from 0*0015 to 0*002 in. per inch
diameter for aluminium alloy pistons (see PI. 93, Fig. 1).
The clearance at the lands between the ring grooves and above
the top ring should be greater on account of the higher local
temperature. The piston is therefore tapered from y to z to
give a clearance of about 0*003 in. per inch diameter above
the top ring for cast-iron, and 0*004 in. per inch diameter
for aluminium alloy. This clearance must not be too great
as there is a tendency for the gap to get filled with carbon,
which scores the cjdinder.
When the cylinder wear exceeds 0*01 in. it should be
re-ground and a new piston (and piston-rings) fitted.
6. Trueing cylinders. — Cylinders of double-acting
engines wear hollow in the centre, as illustrated by the steam-
engine cylinder shown in PI. 23, Fig. 8. Most I.C. engines are
single-acting and the wear occurs at one end of the cylinder
only, as indicated in' PI. 93, Fig. 2. The ridge which forms at
the end of the travel causes knocking and a tendency to break
the upper piston-ring, and the increased clearance between
piston and cylinder causes piston slap. The cylinder bore is
measured with a cylinder gauge, preferably of the dial
micrometer type as illustrated in PI. 91, Figs. 1 and 2.
(i) Cylinders badly worn are best treated by boring them
afresh in a lathe, boring machine, or internal grinding machine.
(See Sec. 47, para. 7.)
(ii) Honing.—Honing is an internal finish grinding process
which is being used successfully for cylinders from f in. to
72 in. in diameter, and for gun-barrels 60 ft. in length.
It is particularly applicable, however, to small cylinders
up to about 5 in. in diameter, e.g. motor-car cylinders and
hydraulic cylinders ; the advantages being extreme accuracy

and smoothness of finish combined with simplicity of method
and speed of operation.
Mechanically the process of honing consists in revolving
abrasive stones in the cylinder bore, at the same time giving
them a reciprocating motion. The stones are mounted in a
holder resembling an adjustable reamer. The rate of rotation
is generally such as to give a surface speed of about 200 to
250 ft. per minute, and the number of double reciprocations
is commonly about one-third the number of revolutions.
To avoid a “ bell ” effect at top or bottom, or a “ barrel ”
effect in the centre, the reciprocating strokes should be
arranged to allow the stones to project about f in. above
and f in. below the cylinder bore oi* every stroke. Under no
circumstances should the hone be rotated after the stones are
half-way out of the cylinder. During the process of honing,
the tool must be flooded with copious quantities of coolant.
A cylinder gauge should be used frequently as the work
proceeds.
A typical honing machine for motor-car cylinders is
illustrated in PI. 92, Figs. 2 and 3. The six abrasive stones
can be expanded to the exact size required by means of a
mechanism in the spindle provided with a micrometer indi¬
cating ring.
The stones are rotated in the cylinder bore by means of
either a vertical drilling machine or a portable electric drill.
Allowance for honing.—The allowance for honing depends
upon the degree of finish after machining. For bored cylinders
the allowance is usually two- or three-thousandths, irrespective
of size. This may be reduced if the bores have been reamed or
internally ground.
It is seldom practicable, however, to use the honing machine
for removing ten-thousandths or more from worn cylinders
and dispense with the boring operation. There is not usually
a sufficient unworn parallel length of cylinder to ensure that
the machine is co-axial with the cylinder.
Carborundum stones are used for cast-iron with a coolant
of paraffin, and aloxite stones for steel liners, with water as
coolant.
(iii) Cylinders and liners.—In modem practice cast-iron
liners are used extensively. On motor vehicles it is usually
necessary to re-grind the liners after 30,000 to 40,000 miles
running (when the wear is probably about ten-thousandths of
an inch) and fit new pistons. After another 30,000 to 40,000
miles the liners are scrapped.
Hardened steel liners about 1 -mm. (0*04 in.) thick are
also used to some extent. When fitted into worn cylinders
it is frequently possible to use the old pistons again. The
Plate 92.
BLACK AND DECKER VALVE REFACER
[Permission of Messrs. George Hatch.]

rate of wear with these hardened steel liners is extremely small,

but their fitting is rather a special job.
7. Piston-rings.—It is in most cases preferable to obtain
new piston-ring;s from the engine manufacturers or from firms
who specialize in this component.
If circumstances make it necessary to undertake the
manufacture of piston-rings locally for a variety of engines,
it is advisable to keep in store a range of soft cast-iron hollow
cylinders with diameters of, say, 5-in. external and 3-in.
internal, 6-in. external and 4£-in. internal, &c., from which a
large range of different-sized rings can be turned up.
A suitable grey cast-iron has the following analysis:
carbon 3-5 per cent., silicon 2 per cent., manganese 0-7 per
cent., phosphorus 0*6 per cent., and sulphur 0*05 per cent.
The operation is as follows (see PI. 93, Fig. 3, and B.S.
Specifications 5,003 and 5,023) : Ring should first be turned
up to outside diameter d1 — 1*04*?, where d — engine cylinder
diameter. The breadth b should be made equal to the width
d
of the piston groove, and the thickness t equal to from ^ to
^ + 0*008. Then a gap is cut in the ring equal to 3\t at an

angle of 45° (unless the ring is to be pinned, in which case
a stepped gap is required). The ring, when compressed, then
obviously assumes an oval form. It should therefore be
clamped on a mandrel with the ends of the gap in contact
and ground circular to diameter d. The ring must then be
fitted into the cylinder at the working section and the ends
filed to leave a gap, when in position, of 0*002d. The figure
of 0-001 d, which has been worked to in the past, is insufficient,
and too small a gap has led to numerous cases of broken rings
or excessive cylinder wear.
The ring must then be fitted to the piston-ring slots with
a vertical clearance of from 0*001 in. to 0*002 in. to allow for
expansion. A convenient method of doing this is to rub the
ring down on emery-cloth on a flat surface. If the vertical
clearance is too great the lubricating-oil consumption will be
excessive, as the movement of the ring from one side of the
groove to the other has a pumping effect.
The ring is now ready for putting on the piston.
Special piston-rings.—In service, the piston-rings and
cylinder wall are continually wearing away, and it is common
experience to find that, as time goes on, the engine loses power
due to gases blowing past the rings and the lubricating-oil
consumption increases. This is not only expensive as regards
cost of petrol and oil but it renders more frequent decarbonizing
necessary, and in most cases it is the excessive consumption
of lubricating oil which determines the necessity for re-grinding

the cylinders.
In this connection attention is drawn to the Wellworthy
Simplex piston-ring illustrated in PI. 93, Figs. 4 and 5.
The ring has a double row of slots in it, and this enables it
to be fitted into the piston groove in slight vertical compression,
thus ensuring a close fit in the groove. This enables the ring
to conserve the oil which enters through the slots, thus forming
an oil cushion which assists in maintaining the correct lubrica¬
tion of the ring itself but prevents the pumping of oil past the
piston-head. The ring is given no radial tension, as in the
ordinary types of ring, but is held against the cylinder bore
by a wavy spring fitted behind the ring. This enables the
ring to adapt itself to large irregularity and ovality of the
cylinder bore. The ring groove must be deepened to accom¬
modate this ring, and it costs three or more times as much as
the orthodox type, but its fitting may save a re-bore.
Replacing old rings.—If old rings are used again take care
to put them back the same way up in their own grooves.
8. Trueing mushroom valves and seatings.—(i) The

wear and straightness of valve stems and the squareness of
valve faces can be tested on the Ames test bench as illustrated
in PI. 91, Figs. 3 and 4.
(ii) If not badly worn, the valves and their seatings can
be reconditioned by grinding in with oil and emery or car¬
borundum powder (special valve-grinding compounds can be
obtained). The head of the valve is usually slotted to take
a screwdriver and the operation is simplified by the use of a
hand brace and a screwdriver bit. Only a very slight pressure
is required, and the valve should be reciprocated through some
30° or so a few times, then raised from its seat (a light spring
under the valve will facilitate this), turned into a new position
and the process repeated. The valve must not be rotated,
or grooves will be formed. The seatings can be finally tested
by pencil-marks. Such marks should be removed by placing
the valve in its seating and pressing it down while rotating it
through an angle of about 10°.
(iii) If valves and their seatings are grooved or badly
pitted, the operation of grinding-in by hand is laborious and
not always satisfactory. Valves may be ground or turned
true in a lathe, as follows :—
(a) The valve must be truly centred. If the original
centre is present in the valve-head, this presents
no difficulty. The tail can be held in a self-centring
chuck, and the head supported by the tailstock
centre.
Plate 93.
ENGINE OVERHAUL OPERATIONS
Demonstrating the Simple*

esponsien in the anon:
h plain ring would fail out
oc
M
F,g.4
I
.P.J
f\|
SCAT REAMER
Fiq. 2.
An. r,ff. 6.
15—(597)
If the original centre is not present, the stem

should be gripped near the head in an independent
jaw-chuck, or a self-centring chuck, if an accurate
one is available. The spindle of the valve must
be set to run true. The outside of the head is not
a sufficient guide in centring.
(b) The face of the valve must then be ground or turned
down sufficiently to obtain a cut everywhere,
leaving a true cone surface at the correct angle,
which is generally 45° to the axis. This angle may
be obtained by setting the hand-slide of the com-»
pound slide-rest.
Grinding is preferable to turning, since it stresses the valve
less and ensures a cut. The surface of the valve is often
glazed and heavily carbonized, so that a turning tool will not
bite unless a fairly heavy cut is taken.
(iv) Seatings should be trued by means of a valve seater
or trueing reamer of the correct angle, provided with a long
stem to fit the valve guide, PI. 93, Fig. 6. Unless so guided
and centred, the reamer will do more harm than good, since
the accuracy of the seating will be entirely destroyed if the
reamer is at all askew or out of line.
(v) After trueing, the valve should be ground-in as
explained in (ii) above. All chips and abrasive must be
carefully removed from the valve, seating, pocket, and valve-
stem guide.
(vi) Special valve-grinding machines are obtainable for
trueing both valves and seatings and their expense is justified
if much valve grinding is done. PI. 92, Fig. 1, shows a
Black and Decker valve-grinding machine, with electric
motor. The valve is ground to the correct angle in the
machine, and the seating is trued by means of a grinding stone
carried on a spindle which fits the valve guide, and is rotated
by means of a small electric motor. The stones are trued,
when necessary, in the valve-grinding machine, thus ensuring
that they match the valves exactly.
Valves ground by this method require little further
grinding-in on their seatings.
9. Welding repairs.—(See Chap. VII.) Cracked or
smashed cylinder blocks can be effectively repaired by electric
or oxy-acetylene welding, even when the bores are damaged,
if facilities exist for re-boring.
Valve seats may also be built up by either of these processes.
Aluminium-alloy crankcases can be repaired by oxy-
acetylene welding only.
10. Surface grinding.—The principal application of this
is the re-surfacing of cylinder blocks and heads. Veiy often
an engine develops a water-leak into the cylinders which is
tu in ■
Sec. 107.—Reassembly and Testing 435
found to be due to the block or head having warped so that

the gasket no longer makes a sound joint, in which case the.
obvious remedy is to have one or both re-surfaced.
Surface grinding is also largely used for finishing welding
repairs.
11. Miscellaneous jobs.—Among the small jobs which
should be done while the engine is dismantled are the follow¬
ing
i. Thoroughly clean out the crankcase with paraffin.
Clean all filters and wash out all oil passages.
ii. Clean silencer and exhaust manifold, ports and pipes.
iii. Clean out water-spaces and pipes. If there is much
hard lime deposit it may be necessary to fill with
dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part commercial acid
to 3 parts water by weight) and allow to soak for
12 hours. Then empty and wash out thoroughly
with a solution of common soda in water (1 part soda
to 20 parts water by weight).
iv. Clean and adjust the magneto.
v. Clean the carburettor. Grind-in the needle valve if
necessary and repair the float if punctured.
vi. Renew all joints and joint-making washers.
107. Reassembly and testing

1. Reassembly.—The following points merit special
attention:—
i. Scrupulous care must be taken to remove any abrasive
that may have been used on the parts. Wash and
re-wash them in clean paraffin and use clean rags,
not waste, to dry. Use plenty of paraffin, it is not
being wasted if it saves the life of an engine.
ii. Record measurements of each of the principal parts on
overhaul inspection sheet, as it is replaced.
iii. It is important to verify that the axes of the cylinder
are vertical and at right-angles to the crankshaft
axis. It is unusual to find any appreciable error,
but if there is, the crankshaft must be re-bedded.
It may be assumed that there was no inaccuracy
when the engine was new, and in the absence of
evidence to the contrary it may be taken that the
top machined joint surface of the crankcase was
used as the plane of reference. Also it may be
assumed that the top and bottom surfaces of the
. cylinder block were originally parallel.
iv. As each part is replaced, crank engine round and see
that the part functions freely.
v. When the crankshaft has been finally bedded down,
the alignment of the outer bearing (if fitted) with
436 Sec. 107.—Reassembly and Testing
flywheel and of any direct-coupled machinery will
require attention. Sec Sec. 146.
vi. The compression may also require adjustment if the
crankshaft has been lowered appreciably. (The com¬
pression may be increased by grinding a little off the
cylinder head or reduced by using a thicker gasket
in the joint between the cylinder head and block.
This is hardly ever necessary with small engines.)
It may also be necessary to adjust the gears
driving camshaft, governor, &c., to enable them to
mesh properly, and possibly the camshaft bearings. *
No hard-and-fast rule can be given for this nor
for chain replacement. It is advisable usually to
replace sprockets at the same time as chains. In
replacing spring links on roller chains, the closed
end of the spring clip should always lead on to a
sprocket. Adjust chain tensions so that in the
tightest parts the chain feels just slack, not taut or
springy. Tight chains are very noisy and wear rapidly.
vii. The piston-rings should be put on with the gaps
staggered.
viii. When replacing the ground-in valves, the tappet
clearances should be set 3- to 4-thousandths greater
than the maker’s values, partly because these values
are given for the engine when hot and partly to
allow for the bedding down of the valve surfaces
under working conditions. At the first opportunity,
under running conditions when the engine is hot, the
clearances should be checked and adjusted to from
1- to 2-thousandths greater than the maker’s values.
After running for 20-30 hours, the valve clearances
should be again checked and re-set if necessary.
Allowance should be made for the fact that the
clearance is usually reduced by about one-thousandth
by the locking operation.
ix. Before attempting to run the engine make sure that
all nuts and lock-nuts are tight, and split-pins fitted.
2. Testing.—(i) If possible, motor the engine from a
separate source of power, first at about half speed for half
an hour or so and then at full speed for a similar period, to
run in the bearings. If no overheating or other irregularity
occurs, note the power input (if an electric motor is used).
In the case of an electric generating set, the generator can
be used to motor the engine.
(ii) Now run the engine under its own power for a period on
light load, and finally for several hours on full load, and record
principal results on overhaul inspection sheet (see Sec. 144).

CHAPTER XXI
STEAM BOILERS
108. Elementary properties of steam
1. Effect of heating water.—
i. When 1 lb. of water is heated, every B.Th.U. of
heat which passes into it has the effect of raising
its temperature by approximately 1° F. (exactly
1° F. at 60° F.). This is true for water at low and
atmospheric pressures as long as it all remains a
liquid. Thus, 1 lb. of water open to the air at
sea level will require 180 B.Th.U. of heat to raise
its temperature from freezing point to boiling
point (32° F. to 212° F.). Normal atmospheric
pressure =■ 14-7 lb. per square in.
ii. When the boiling point is reached, a further and
comparatively large quantity of heat is required
to turn the water into steam, and the addition
of such heat has no effect on the temperature.
In the case taken, 970 B.Th.U. are required to
turn the 1 lb. of water at 212° F. into steam at the
same temperature. If only 500 B.Th.U. were
added—then only 500/970 lb. of steam would be
formed.
iii. If, after complete evaporation of the lb. of water
more heat were added to the steam formed, its
temperature would rise. The amount of heat
required for every degree rise, i.e. the specific
heat, is not always the same, depending on whether
the steam is confined in fixed volume or subjected
to a constant pressure.
iv. Steam at its temperature of formation (212° F. in
the case we have taken), or any steam in contact
with water, is spoken of as Saturated steam.
Steam above the temperature of formation is
called Superheated steam.
v. When superheated steam is cooled, i.e. heat extracted
from it, it eventually comes back to its original
state as water, the order of events being the exact
reverse of that outlined in i., ii., iii., above, the
quantities of heat being exactly the same for the
reverse process.
438 Sec. 108.—Elementary Properties of Steam
2. Steam terms.—
i. Water heat (sometimes called sensible heat).—The
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of
water from 32° F. to the boiling point is called the
Total heat of water.
ii. Latent heat.—The heat required to evaporate 1 lb. of
water when boiling point has been reached is
called the Latent heat of steam.
iii. Total heat of saturated steam.—This is the heat
content of 1 lb. of saturated steam (measured from
32° F.). It is the sum of the water heat and the
latent heat.
iv. Total heat of superheated steam.—This is the total
heat of saturated steam at the particular pressure
plus the heat required to superheat the steam to
the particular temperature.
E.g. suppose p — 200 lb./sq. in. gauge and
T = 600° F. The temp, of saturated steam at
200 lb./sq. in. is 388° F. (Table W.)
Therefore, there are 600 — 388 = 212 degrees
of superheat, and the total heat of the superheated
steam = 1207 + 0 48(212) = 1309 B.Th.U. (0 48
is the specific heat of steam at constant pressure).
3. Boiling point of water and steam tables.—
i. The boiling point of water varies with the pressure
to which the water is subjected. In the case of
water heated in the open air at sea level the boiling
point is 212° F., but if the water is contained in a
closed vessel such as a boiler, where the pressure
on the water surface is, say, 100 lb. per square
inch above normal atmospheric pressure (14-7 lb.
per square inch absolute), the boiling point will
no longer be 212° F., but 338° F. Thus more
water heat will be contained in the water at
its higher boiling point. When water boils at
338° F., the latent heat required to evaporate it
is not the same as it was at 212° F., and atmospheric
pressure; thus the total heat of the saturated
steam at 338° F. will be different for this additional
reason.
ii. Table W, known as a saturated steam table, shows
the various pressures and boiling points which
correspond, also the latent heats, total heats, and
steam volumes. All the figures concern 1 lb. of
water or steam, and the temperature of 32° F. is
taken as the arbitrary starting point from which
all quantities of heat are measured.
Sec. 108.—Elementary Properties of Steam 439
Table W.—Saturated steam table

(Based on Callender's revised steam tables, 1931. Note that the
Mollier diagram, PI. 110, has been drawn from older steam tables
in which slightly smaller values were given for the Total Heat.)
Latent heat, B.Th.U.

Absolute pressure
of
Sensible heat of the
Total heat of the
Cubic feet of steam

point,
liquid from 32° F.
steam from 32° F.

B.Th.U. per lb. (H)
B.Th.U. per lb. (h)
lbs. per sq. inch.
Temperature
degrees F.
per lb. (L)

boiling
per lb.
0-5 79-5 ' 47-4 1045 1092
10 101-7 69-6 1032 1102 333-1
20 126-1 93-9 1020 1114 173-5
30 141-5 109-3 1012 1121 118-6
4-0 153-0 120-8 1005 1126
5-0 162-3 130-1 1000 1130 73-4
14-7 212-0 180-0 970 1151 26-8
200 228 0 1961 961 1157 20T
250 240-1 208-4 954 1162 16-29
30-0 250-3 218-7 947 1166 13-74
400 267-2 236-0 936 1172 10-50
60-0 292-6 262-0 918 1180 7-18
80-0 312-0 282-0 904 1187 5-49
100-0 327-7 298-0 893 1191 4-45
115-0 338-0 309-0 885 1194 3-90
125-0 344-2 316-0 880 1196 3-61
135-0 350-1 322-0 875 1197 3-36
165-0 366-0 339-0 863 1202 2-78
215-0 388-0 362-0 845 1207 2-167
245-0 399-0 373-0 836 1209 1-916
265-0 406-0 382-0 829 1211 1-780
315-0 422-0 399-0 815 1214 1-511
365-0 436-0 415-0 802 1217 1-315
415-0 449-0 429-0 790 1219 1-165
3650-0 717-0 846-0 0 846
In the absence of steam tables a close approximation to the total

heat of saturated steam is given by H = (1092 -f 0-3T) B.Th.U.
T being temperature in degrees Faht.
The latent heat units which are added to the

water during the change into steam are absorbed
in two ways.
(a) External work.—This represents the work
done in pushing away the atmosphere or
piston which is taking up the space
required for the steam being generated.
It is readily calculated in foot-pounds from
the product of the total force overcome and
the distance through which it, is overcome.
440 Sec. 108.—Elementary Properties of Steam
Sec. 109.—Boiler Principles 441
The value of the external work done is

equal to ^ X (V, - V.) B.Th.U., in
77o
which P = absolute pressure of steam in
lb./sq. in., Vs = volume of steam, and
V„, is the original volume of the water.
A bsolute pressure is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure (14-7
lb./sq. in.).
Absolute temperature is equal to tempera¬
ture in degrees Fahrenheit plus 459.
(b) Internal energy. This is found by subtracting
the external work from the total latent
heat..
PI. 94, Fig. 1, shows the general proportions between water
heat, latent heat, and total heat for low pressures.
109. Boiler principles

1. Object.—The object of a steam boiler is to evaporate
hot water into steam at a high pressure. Therefore, every
effort should be made to supply the boiler with water already
heated so that its work is almost entirely confined to evapora¬
tion.
2. Heating area.—A boiler should be so arranged that
as large an area as possible is exposed to the hot gases from the
grate, while water is in contact on the other side with every
portion of metal so exposed, to prevent overheating of the
metal.
3. Materials.—The material of the boiler should be of
the highest conductivity consistent with reasonable strength,
price and durability. Thus the firebox is frequently of
copper (relative conductivity 74, cf. silver 100), tubes are
often of brass (conductivity 23), and boiler shells are usually
of mild steel (conductivity 12). Frequently mild steel is
used throughout because it is a cheaper material and durable.
4. Thickness of plates.—The metal walls of a boiler
should be as thin as is consistent with strength and durability.
The thinner the plates, the more rapidly will heat be con¬
ducted through to the water, and the more nearly will the
temperature of the metal on the fire side of the plate be kept
down to that of the water. Not only will this diminish the
chance of burning the metal, but the rate of transfer of heat
from the hot gases to the metal is proportional to the difference
in their temperatures. Therefore, if the metal is kept com¬
paratively cool, heat is more readily transferred to ih
442 Sec. 109.—Boiler Principles
It is necessary, however, in practice, to allow an ample
margin of safety, because plates and tubes are liable to
corrosion on both sides, which weakens them. In practice,
new boiler plates are made to provide a factor of safety of six.
5. Water circulation.—It is important that water
inside a boiler should circulate freely, naturally, and as rapidly
as possible.
When heat is transferred to water in contact with metal,
the steam evolved is inclined to adhere to the metal and form
a non-conducting layer between the water and the metal.
In consequence, the transfer of heat from the metal to the
water is slowed down, and heat accumulates to such an extent
in the metal, that it may be softened and so weakened as to
collapse under the boiler pressure.
If there is enough movement in the water to remove the
steam film before the metal has been damaged, it will yet have
gained enough heat to cause a violent burst of steam when the
water touches it again. This produces a characteristic
bumping sound, which is a danger signal, indicating that
damage is probably occurring, and that an explosion may
follow unless some action is taken to improve the circulation.
When water in contact with metal is evaporated, any
substance in solution or suspension in the water is often left
as a scale on the surface of the metal; this acts as an insulator,
slowing down the heat transference, and so causing a decrease
in the efficiency of the boiler, and at the same time causing a
danger of overheating the metal.
A rapid circulation of water sweeps away steam as soon
as it is formed, and also tends to sweep away the solid matter
which would otherwise form scale.
Streams of circulation are shown on PI. 95, Fig. 1. By
fitting into the cauldron a short piece of wide pipe domed at
the end, as shown on PI. 95, Fig. 2, the up- and down-streams
can be kept apart, and the rate of circulation increased. A
still better circulation can be obtained by fitting the vessel
with a bent tube, as shown on PI. 95, Fig. 3.
6. Economizer principle.—The air rising from the fire
is still very hot after it has passed the tube, and if another
tube were placed above the first it would also be heated, but
more slowly than the first.
The boiler shown on PI. 95, Fig. 4, utilizes this fact to
heat water in several U-tubes, one above another. If a
second vessel containing cold water were placed above, and
whenever hot water was drawn from the lower one, it were
filled up from the upper one, more water could be heated
without increasing the size of the fire. Such an auxiliary
tube corresponds to an economizer applied to the boiler of a
steam engine.
Sec. 109.—Boiler Principles 443
Plate 95.
444 Sec. 110.—Feed Water
7. Soot and tar deposit.—If flame, or in other words,

burning coal-gas, comes in contact with any much cooler
object, such as part of a boiler, the flame is quenched and
carbon is deposited upon the metal as soot. Moreover, the
quenched gas contains tarry vapour, some of which
condenses upon the metal.
Careless firing invariably results in the forming of a coat
of tar and soot upon the plates or tubes of a boiler. Even
with careful firing, a small deposit may occur.
Soot is a very slow conductor of heat. A coat of soot
upon the metal greatly diminishes the rate of transfer of heat
from the gases to the metal. This is not dangerous, but
greatly diminishes the efficiency of the boiler. Flues and
tubes must therefore be cleaned frequently.
One-sixteenth of an inch of soot means a loss of 25 per cent,
in the heat transference of the boiler tubes.
110. Feedwater
The fact that water is clear and bright is no indication of
its suitability for boiler feed.
1. Common impurities are :—
i. Organic impurities in suspension which must be
removed by filtering.
ii. Acids due to the decomposition of organic matter,
oil, &c. Even rain-water, which is usually very
soft, may be slightly acid. The acidity should be
neutralized by an alkali such as soda ash, or inter¬
nal corrosion will result. Considerable protection
against corrosion is also afforded by securing
blocks of zinc to various parts of the boiler, in
metallic contact with the boiler shell.
iii. Oil and grease in suspension from pumps and steam
engine condensate. This should not be allowed
to enter boilers for several reasons :—
(a) The oil will form a coating on the boiler plates
and so retard the conduction of heat that
dangerous overheating of the plates may
occur and also the boiler efficiency will be
reduced.
(b) The oil may decompose into corrosive acids
at the boiler temperature. «
(c) The oil may saponify and cause foaming.
Oil and grease can be coagulated by the addition
of newly mixed alumina ferric sulphate (crude
alum) and sodium carbonate (soda ash), and can
then be completely removed by filtering.
Sec. 110.—Feed Water 445
iv. Salts (mainly of calcium and magnesium) in solution
which make the water hard.
When hard water is used, the soluble salts are
precipitated at boiler temperatures and form a
more or less hard scale or encrustation on the
boiler plates. This scale is objectionable mainly
because, having a low heat conductivity, it causes
a large increase in the temperature of the boiler
plates. With a water temperature of 380° F.,
the metal temperature is about 400° F. if the
plates are quite clean, but with scale £-inch thick
the temperature of the metal may rise to 700° F.
(dull red), which will lead to serious trouble.
There is also a small loss in the steaming capacity
and efficiency .of the boiler but this is relatively
unimportant.
To avoid the very frequent scaling which would
otherwise be necessary with hard water, it should
be treated before use to remove as much as possible
of the scale-forming contents. The correct treat¬
ment which a particular water should be given can
only be decided by chemical analysis, but the
following notes may be helpful.
2. Water-softening. Lime-soda process.—The hard¬
ness of water is conveniently divided into two categories, viz.:
temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
(i) Temporary hardness.—This is due mainly to the
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium and can be removed
simply by boiling the water. It is, however, cheaper and
more convenient to remove it chemically by adding caustic
lime in the proportion of 1| oz. per degree of temporary
hardness per 1,000 gallons. The effect is to convert the
soluble bicarbonates into carbonates, which are precipitated,
being practically insoluble in water free from C02. The
precipitates are then removed by filtration. The caustic
lime (quicklime) should be stored in airtight containers and
slaked immediately before use.
(ii) Permanent hardness.—This is due mainly to the
sulphates of calcium and magnesium, which are soluble up to
300° F., but are precipitated at boiler temperatures. It is
the scale formed by these precipitates which gives the most
trouble in boilers, as it is relatively hard and adherent com¬
pared with the 'precipitates due to temporary hardness which
form a more sludgy deposit, not very adherent and largely
removed through the scum-cocks.
Permanent hardness may be removed by the addition of
sodium carbonate (soda ash) in the proportion of 2\ oz. per
degree of permanent hardness per 1,000 gallons.
446 Sec. 110.—Feed Water
In this case, in addition to the carbonate precipitates, a

very soluble sulphate of soda is formed which will not be
deposited in the boiler until the water becomes very con¬
centrated. When the water in the boiler becomes too dense
with these soluble salts there is a danger of them crystallizing
out and exposing the plates to overheating, and, moreover,
priming and foaming will occur. Also brass fittings, water
gauges, and so on, will be attacked. Blowing down is therefore
a very necessary daily operation to reduce the concentration
as well as for removing sludge. About § in. to 1 in. of
water, as represented by gauge glass, may be blown down
daily in one operation and replaced by fresh and less dense
water.
In order to minimize the troubles likely to arise from high
concentration it is important not to add excessive quantities
of chemicals to the feed water.
Alternatively, ordinary washing soda (which is carbonate
of soda in the form of crystals) may be used instead of soda
ash, but it is not so economical. Three times as much washing
soda is required and the difference in price does not com¬
pensate for this.
Sodium carbonate also removes temporary hardness, but
it is not so satisfactory for this purpose as caustic lime, which
leaves precipitates only.
Caustic soda may in some cases be used to remove both
temporary and permanent hardness, but its use should not be
encouraged. Washing soda (or preferably soda ash) is much
more suitable for ordinary purposes.
It is not usually practicable in the ordinary lime-soda
process to remove the hardness entirely, and some 2 to 3 degrees
nearly always remain. This is not important when the water
is used for boiler feed, but it may be important for other
purposes, in which case the “ Permutit ” water-softening process
can be used (see M.M.E., Vol. VI).
3. Estimation of the hardness of water.—The hardness

is measured by reference to the “ soap destroying ” power of
the water and is expressed in degrees. One degree represents
1 part of hardening salt per 70,000 parts of water, i.e. 1 grain
per gallon.
A standard soap solution for estimating the hardness of
water comprises 13 grams of castille soap, 500 c.c. methylated
spirit, and 500 c.c. distilled water. 1 c.c. of this solution
will neutralize 1 degree of hardness in 70 c.c. of water.
If the water is tested before and after boiling the total
hardness and permanent hardness will be determined
respectively and the temporary hardness can be deduced
by difference.
Sec. 110.—Feed Water 447
Ordinary tap-water from limestone areas may have a total

hardness of 18-25 degrees.
4. Filters.—An effective filter for removing most of the
chalk sludge and coagulated oil can be made by placing a
layer, several inches thick, of wood-wool or fine wood shavings,
between two iron plates perforated with small holes, PI. 95,
Fig. 5.
A more efficient filter is a sand bed of well graded sand.
A perforated plate of fine mesh is covered with fine gravel, but
too coarse to pass through the plate. Upon this layer is
placed a layer of coarse sand, and then one of fine sand,
PI. 95, Fig. 5. A skin of scum forms upon the surface of the
sand, and forms a. very fine filter through which no solid
particles can pass. When the scum becomes too thick for the
passage of water, it can be effectually removed by blowing
steam or air up through the sand; it will then float on
the water and may be removed with a scoop, or run to
waste.
Before water is passed through sand, it should be filtered
through wood-wool to remove the coarser impurities.
5. Oil separators.—An oil separator is sometimes fitted
in the exhaust main between an engine and its condenser.
It normally consists of a vessel through which all the exhaust
steam passes, and in which the steam is made to follow a
sharply curved path, PI. 115, Fig. 7. Oil and water present
are thrown outward by centrifugal force and collected. The
oil can be filtered and used again if it is of a good keeping
quality, such as pure mineral oil.
The steam can be freed of much oil in this way, and the
condensate is sometimes used as feed water without further
treatment. The addition of an oil filter improves matters
very much, but the last traces of oil can only be removed by
the alumina ferric treatment mentioned in para. 1.
6. Evaporators and de-aerators.—To ensure perfect
purity of make-up water, it is sometimes obtained from an
evaporator, which rejects all salts, and yet uses little heat
for its operation. The only deleterious element then re¬
maining in the feed water is oxygen, which is removed by a
de-aerator.
7. Water-softening plant.—There are upon the market
several types of plant in which a small quantity of each of the
precipitating ingredients is automatically mixed with the water
as it passes through; the precipitates are then allowed to
settle, and finally the water passes through one or more
filters. Before deciding on any special plant, it is necessary
to ask the advice of the War Office.
448 Sec. 111.—Shell Boilers
111. Shell boilers

1. Types.—Boilers may be divided into three main
types, viz. :—
Shell boilers.
Fire-tube boilers.
Water-tube boilers.
2. Shell boilers may be of vertical or horizontal type ;
the combustion chamber is usually circular and placed inside
the shell. They are slow steaming and contain a large
quantity of water. They may, therefore, be fired by less
skilled attendants than the tubular types of boiler.
3. Vertical boilers, PI. 96, Fig. 1, are generally of small
evaporating capacity, and are especially suitable for small
isolated stations, where attendance is of low skill, because
there is usually a fair depth of water above the crown plate
when filled to working level. The flue which carries the
products of combustion to the chimney is not in contact with
water near the top, where the metal may be easily overheated.
Therefore, these boilers should not be forced, and all
combustion of gases should take place low in the combustion
chamber, so that flames may not reach the unprotected portion
of the flue.
4. Horizontal boilers.—These are commonly known as
Cornish boilers, PI. 96, Fig. 2, when there is one flue, and
Lancashire boilers, PI. 96, Fig. 3, when there are two flues.
The flues should be corrugated or strengthened by some
means, such as Adamson rings, at frequent intervals; joints
should be so designed that no rivet heads are exposed to the
hot flue gases, which would burn them off very quickly.
On account of the large diameter of these boilers the burst¬
ing force on the plates is large. Therefore, such boilers are
seldom worked at more than 200 lb. per square inch, and special
attention must be paid to the prevention of corrosion in the
plates, particularly where they are in contact with the brick¬
work setting. The large flat ends often found in such boilers
are a source of weakness. They are usually strengthened by
gusset stays and longitudinal stays, of which the inspection
and proper maintenance is very important.
Dished ends should be specified when new boilers are in¬
stalled. Stays are thereby rendered unnecessary, and ex¬
pansion and contraction can take place freely.
5. Brickwork settings.—Horizontal boilers are usually
set in brickwork, in which flues are provided ; through these
flues the hot gases are passed back along the sides and under¬
neath, outside the shell, before they are released to the
chimney. More heat is thereby extracted from the gases.
Sec. 111.—Shell|BoUers 449
Plate 96.
OfMOWS WAU.
fCo.S Lancashire boiler vatu a uperhca.ter
MODERN TYPE OP CONSTRUCTION
450 Sec. 112.—Fire-tube Boilers
In Cornish boilers the gases usually pass first along the

sides and then beneath. Thus they are fairly cool when
passing the bottom, in which sediment collects, and plates
are less likely to be overheated.
In Lancashire boilers the gases usually pass first beneath
the shell, where they heat the water considerably, thereby
causing it to rise up between the internal flues, on the plates
of which steam is principally evolved. Thus the circulation
is improved. They return then along the sides, where,
though already considerably cooled, they can still part with
some heat to the descending water, of which the temperature
has been reduced by the evolution of steam and by the
addition of comparatively cool feed water. It is advisable to
build a partition wall in the end chamber at the back of the
boiler between the internal flue openings. A better and more
regular draught is thus obtained.
The brick flues should be lined with firebricks. The
brickwork should touch the shell as little as possible; the
bricks in contact with riveted joints should be loose, so that
they can be removed during inspection and the whole of the
joint may be examined for signs of corrosion.
The outside surface of brickwork settings should be tarred,
painted, or faced with glazed bricks or cement; otherwise
air would be drawn in through the porous bricks, cooling the
flue gases and spoiling the draught. The top of the shell
should be tarred with Stockholm tar and covered with lagging,
so arranged that it can easily be removed for inspection.
112. Fire-tube boilers

1. Types.—Fire-tube boilers comprise the locomotive type
and also shell boilers, both of vertical and horizontal types, such
as the marine boiler, of which the steam-raising capacity is
increased by passing the hot gases through tubes surrounded
by water after they have left the combustion chamber or
internal fire flues. Occasionally, in horizontal fire-tube boilers,
brick flues are provided in addition, as in the economic or dry-
back, developed from the Lancashire boiler. Such boilers
steam rapidly and contain less water than plain shells ; there¬
fore more care and skill is required on the part of the attendant,
and the removal of scale is very much more difficult. Vertical
fire-tubes are not very satisfactory when they project up into
the steam space.
2. Tubes.—The tubes are small in diameter, and may,
therefore, be of thin metal. This renders them efficient and
unlikely to be burnt, provided they are well covered with
water, and scale is not allowed to accumulate on them. The
ends of fire-tubes are normally expanded into holes in flat
Sec. 112.—Fire-tube Boilers 451
plates, often the end plates of the shell. These plates are
much weakened by the holes, and when exposed to the full
heat of the fire, as in the locomotive type, are very liable to be
overheated, since the tubes impede the circulation of the water
on the surface of the plate.
3. Tube plates.—The force used to expand the tubes, and
the constant change of stress, due to their expansion and
contraction, both circumferentially and longitudinally, tend
to produce cracks between adjacent holes.
Sudden changes of temperature are, therefore, very
injurious to these boilers. The tube plates must be examined
frequently for such cracks ; they are difficult to repair, and if
not attended to, the leakage from them causes rapid corrosion
of the external surface. If several cracks occur, it is advisable
to remove the whole plate and put in a new one.
If the plate is otherwise good, a tube-plate patch comprising
all the tubes may be applied, the central portion of the old
plate being cut away. This is a difficult operation, requiring
very skilled work.
4. Fireboxes.—The firebox of a locomotive boiler,
PI. 97, Fig. 2, and some others of the fire-tube type, is
generally of rectangular form, and has flat sides which would
collapse inwards if they were not held in place by a large
number of stays, S, which connect them to the plates of the
shell or outer casing.
The crown plate, C, being at a considerable distance from
the top of the outer casing, is normally stayed by bolts, B,
which sometimes are forged at the upper end to form forked
links and bolted to angle-iron strips riveted to the outer
boiler casing. Often bolts of ordinary shape pass through
cast-steel girders which span the top of the firebox.
The side and end stays are threaded and screwed into both
plates. The ends are left protruding about one diameter, and
they are then riveted. Stays are normally of copper, but
mild steel is used occasionally.
5. Firebox stays are very liable to corrosion, and often
crack or break near the firebox plate. Broken stays may be
detected by striking them lightly with a hammer ; the sound
is dead and the hammer does not rebound.
A damaged stay must be drilled out and replaced.
The firebox is normally connected to the outer casing at
the bottom by a solid base-ring of wrought iron. The rivets
pass through both plates and the base-ring. Grooving of the
plates is likely to occur along the edge of the ring.
6. Locomotive boilers .-^-The locomotive type boiler is
specially designed to produce? as large a quantity of steam as
possible for its size and weight, PI. 97, Fig. 2. Whil,e very well
452 Sec. 113.—Water-tube Boilers
suited for this purpose, its construction is not conducive to

longevity and freedom from breakdown.
The use of locomotive type boilers should be avoided in
laying down stationary plant.
For temporary or semi-portable plant, such as a sawmill in
the field, a portable boiler of the locomotive type has many
advantages, and will be sufficiently reliable if used at a low
pressure, such as 120 to 150 lbs. per square inch, and never
forced.
113. Water-tube boilers
1. Types.—Water-tube boilers include many varieties
of shell boiler whose steaming rate is improved by the provision
of tubes containing water, around which the hot gases in the
flues circulate.
Fire-engines and steam wagons arc normally fitted with
this type of boiler, of which the Merryweather, PI. 97, Fig. 1,
and Sentinel, PI. 97, Fig. 3, are -examples. Such boilers
suffer in varying degrees from the same troubles as the
locomotive types, chiefly due to the perforated tube-plates.
2. True water-tube boilers are those in which the main
heating surface consists of tubes of comparatively small
diameter which contain water. These tubes communicate
with drums, whose purpose is to contain a quantity of water
as a reserve store of heat and also to collect the steam which
is produced in the tubes.
Good circulation is of paramount importance, as it is upon
this that these boilers depend for safety and efficiency.
The drums are usually small in diameter, and well shielded
from the hottest portions of the furnace gases. In conse¬
quence, high pressures can be used, and repairs to drums
should not be necessary if they are well designed. The tubes
are the only portions of the boiler which are exposed to the
full heat of the furnace gases. They should be capable of
being easily cleaned inside and outside, and if straight, have
the advantage that they can be examined internally without
being removed.
3. The Babcock and Wilcox boiler, illustrated on
PI. 98, Fig. 1, has tubes expanded into headers, H, specially
forged, so that any tube can be cleaned and examined with
no more work than the removal of a small cover. Any tube
can be changed without disturbing any others.
The drums are not weakened by any rows of holes, other
than ordinary rivet holes. The headers, PI. 98, Fig. 2, consist
of tubes of a special shape and are unlikely to suffer from
cracks between tubes.
In case of damage, a new header tube can be fitted easily
and at small cost. Sediment cannot collect in the tubes, but
Sec. 113.—'Water-tube Boilers 453
Plate 97.
shell-type boilers assisted by water tubes
CnouyE Bon-ER
LARGER WATER BRACE*
OUCK STEAM RAIS IMG
Fig 2 . LOCOMOTIVE - TYPE semi-PORTABLE BOILER.

Sec. 113.—Water-tube Boilers 455
falls to the mud drum, M. Steam is collected at the end of
the steam drum farthest from the upward circulating headers,
and is, therefore, obtained dry, with a minimum of priming.
4. The main points in favour of water-tube boilers are :—
i. That accidents are very rare, owing to the fact that
only tubes of small diameter are exposed to severe
heat.
ii. That a damaged tube can be quickly extracted and
a new one fitted or its holes temporarily plugged.
iii. That they can be forced without strain.
There are in use a large number of water-tube boilers of
other types. Many suffer from defects such as (a) excessive
perforation of drum plates, when the tubes are expanded
directly into the drums, and (6) curved tubes which are difficult
to extract and impossible to examine internally.
Water-tube boilers are particularly suitable for super¬
heating, since the superheater tubes can be situated between
the boiler tubes or otherwise placed so that they are well
heated without being burnt.
5. Working of water-tube boilers.—The comparatively
small quantity of water held in reserve, and the complexity
of the boiler, necessitate a high degree of skill on the part of
the attendants. In large installations, where the necessary
supervision can be provided, much economy and safety can
be effected by the installation of water-tube boilers. They
are not so suitable for small stations, where the boilers must
normally be left to the care of inexperienced attendants.
The full efficiency of a water-tube boiler can never be
obtained unless a large combustion chamber is provided,
well lined with reverberatory walls of firebrick and, preferably,
also provided with baffle walls, so that all the inflammable
gases produced by the distillation of coal and also by the
partial combustion of carbon may be completely burnt before
the products come in contact with any of the metal of the
boiler. Otherwise the flame is extinguished by contact with
the relatively cool tubes, some gases remain unbumt, and
tar and soot is deposited on the tubes. The Wood boiler,
which transfers a high proportion of the furnace heat units by
radiation on to the water-tubes, is an exception to this.
6. Producer boilers.—An interesting boiler arrangement
is one in which the boiler has no firebars, but is heated by gas,
which is generated in a producer below or beside it. The
efficiency is high, as a very large percentage of C02 in the
flue gas is easily maintained (18 per cent.). Extremely cheap
fuel can be used in the producer—coke breeze or slack are
quite suitable. A fan is essential.

CHAPTER XXII
CARE, WORKING AND MANAGEMENT OF

BOILERS
114. General rules
1. Responsibility of the attendant.—The engineer or
boiler attendant is responsible for ensuring :—
That the following instructions and any others that may
be posted up in the boiler-house are strictly carried out,
subject to any special orders he may receive from his
superior officer.
That the boiler and its mountings and all other
machinery in his charge are kept clean and in proper
condition.
That all injuries, defects and the necessity for repairs
and painting are reported without delay.
That all pipes are in a safe condition for work.
2. Economy.—The attendant in charge of a boiler is
responsible for its economical and efficient working. To
ensure this he will periodically check the evaporation and fuel
consumption. He will render monthly reports of fuel and
engine time, in accordance with Regulations for Engineer
Services, Peace, Part II.
The tubes of multi-tubular boilers will be swept out as often
as required. Ashes must not be allowed to remain in the
smoke box. Boiler flues will be swept out carefully and
regularly. Brick flues will be swept at least every three
months. Boiler settings and boiler mountings must be kept
in good order, and leakages stopped without delay.
Priming may be due to dense water, insufficient steam
space, and large fluctuations in steam pressure. The correct
water level and steam pressure must be steadily maintained.
Boilers should be fired often with small quantities of coal, and
the furnace door not kept open longer than necessary. Smoke
must be prevented by adjusting the air regulator and even by
leaving the door open after firing sufficiently to provide
enough air for complete combustion.
3. The working pressure of the boiler must on no
account be exceeded, and the safety valves must be set
to blow at that pressure. Safety valves must be so locked
that they cannot be set to exceed the working pressure.
They must be eased by hand periodically to make sure that
they are working freely.
456
Sec. 114.—General Rules 457
Care must be taken that the pipe connecting the gauge to

the boiler is kept clear.
Pressure gauges must be compared with standard gauges
at each half-yearly inspection. The working pressure should
be indicated on the gauge by a red line. The working
pressure will be stamped on the boiler front.
4. The water level must be steadily maintained.—
Water gauges must be kept free and in good order. They
must be tested frequently by blowing through. The passages
connecting them to the boiler must be cleaned every time the
boiler is cleaned out.
The feed pump and injectors must be in good order. The
attendant must test them at short regular intervals.
At least two separate means should be provided for
supplying feed water, and they should be used alternately
to ensure that both are in working order.
Fusible plugs, PI. 105, Fig. 3, should be fitted to fire-tube
boilers. They will be kept clean and free from scale. The
cone will be removed every six months and replaced by a new
one if necessary. The melting of a fusible plug is nearly always
due to carelessness on the part of the attendant.
Large stationary boilers should be fitted with a high- and
low-water alarm.
5. External corrosion, PI. 99, Fig. 1, will occur after
a leakage at the boiler seams, manholes, plugs, pipe
joints, or mountings, and any such leakage must, there-
fore, be stopped without delay. Extensive leaks must
be reported at once and be attended to by a skilled boiler¬
maker.
When filling the boiler, particular care should be taken
not to allow the water to overflow or upset where it can lodge
between the boiler plates and the lagging or brick setting.
The front of the boiler below the furnace must be frequently
scraped and painted.
Ashes must not be allowed to lie against the boiler front,
and they must be drawn well away from the boiler before
water is thrown on them.
External corrosion, when discovered in the incipient stage,
must be stopped by careful scraping and painting.
6. Internal corrosion is due to the action of acids in the
water upon the metal of the plates, PI. 99, Fig. 2.
Tallow or oil must not be allowed to enter the boiler on any
account. Tallow and many oils decompose at high temper¬
atures into acids.
Zinc plates must be installed in every boiler so attacked, and
renewed as they become eaten away. They must hang below
the water level, but must be in good metallic connection with
458 Sec. 114.“General Rules
Sec. 114.—General Rules 459
the boiler above the water level. If corrosion takes place,

they should be hung near the place where it is most active.
The effect of the zinc is to neutralize the effect of acids in the
water. Compositions for prevention of boiler corrosion are
not to be used without War Office authority. [See R.E.S.,
Part II.]
Corrosion may be checked by scraping clean and treating
with cement wash.
Corrosion is generally found at the working water level,
but may also occur in irregular pittings all over the wetted
surface.
Grooving, PI. 99, Fig. 3, is corrosion due to the opening
of the grain of a plate at the junction of a stiff portion and
weaker portions of a boiler shell. The large flexure which
occurs at such points with every change of temperature opens
the grain of the metal, and so allows acids to attack it more
readily.
7. Boilers laid off.—When a boiler is laid off for a short
period, it should be completely filled with clean fresh water
to which caustic soda has been added, either in the pro¬
portion of 1 lb. of caustic soda to 1 ton x>f water, or in such
quantity as may be necessary to render the water slightly
alkaline. If caustic soda is not obtainable, washing soda
crystals may be used, but the proportion in this case is to be
1 lb. of soda to 1 cwt. of water.
The boiler should be thoroughly examined externally to
ascertain if any leaks exist, and it should be kept full of water
till again required for use. When it is found difficult to keep
the boiler completely filled, or when it is exposed to frost or
laid off for a long period, it should be emptied, carefully
dried, and closed up airtight after inserting quicklime in a
sheet-iron tray. A board bearing the word empty must then
be hung on the front of the boiler. Water must not be left
in a boiler at the normal working level.
Boilers laid up in store for any length of time should be
painted externally with oxide of iron paint, and their fittings
removed and wooden blank flanges fixed in their place.
8. Blowing down.—A boiler should be blown down as
often as required, to remove as much as possible of the sludge
which collects in the bottom. This is particularly important
in types such as the locomotive boiler, where the water space
round the firebox is small.
Before drawing the fire, or before the pressure has dropped
too much, the boiler should be filled up above the gauge glass
and left for the dirt to settle down until there is little or no
pressure.
When pressure has dropped sufficiently, the blow-down
460 Sec. 115.—Inspection and Insurance
cock, B, on PI. 96, Fig. 3, may be opened, and the sludge

allowed to run out till the water is at working level if the boiler
is to be used next day.
9. Washing out.—Boilers in daily use should be washed
out frequently, the intervals depending upon the nature of
the feed water, see R.E.S., Part II. Boilers using crude or
untreated water should be washed out at least once a fortnight.
Manholes and mudholes should be opened and a stream of
water from a nozzle on a fire hose directed into them until
clear water flows out from the lower mudholes.
The scale that adheres to the firebox top and in the water
space must then be dislodged with a suitable scraper, which
can be made by flattening the ends of a J-inch steel bar, and
bending one end to form a hoe, leaving the other straight with
a chisel point. This loosened scale must now be washed out,
and the scaling operation repeated if necessary until no more
can be found. Particular attention should be given to the
space just above the base-ring and to the spaces between the
girders on the firebox top.
115. Inspection and, insurance

1. Preparation.—The inspection and insurance of all
steam boilers at work in Great Britain are secured by means
of running contracts with certain companies and associations.
The boilers are inspected by the contractors twice a year.
Instructions for these tests are contained in Regulations for
Engineer Services, Peace, Part II.
It is important that boilers should be properly opened up
and cleaned for entire inspection. Every portion of the
internal and external surfaces must be, as far as possible,
clearly visible and absolutely free from scale, sediment, soot
and rust.
2. To test a boiler hydraulically, fill it quite full of
water and then apply pressure gradually by means of a hand
pump. After ascertaining that the safety valves lift at the
right pressure fasten them down and gradually increase the
pressure to the prearranged amount. While the pressure is
being raised, care will be taken to note whether the pressure
registered on the gauges on the boiler corresponds with that
on the standard gauge.
The hydraulic-test pressure will only be maintained long
enough to enable a thorough inspection of the boiler to be
carried out to determine whether it is tight under pressure,
and whether bulging, showing some weakness, is occurring.
Special attention should be paid to the tube-plate and
firebox.
Sec. 116.—Coal-fired Boilers 461
3. The steam test comprises a careful examination of

the boiler to see whether all joints, stays, &c., are steam tight,
and is carried out under normal working conditions. The
safety valves should lift at the proper pressure, as indicated
by the gauge, or should be set to do so.
116. Coal-fired boilers

1. Laying the fire.—The fire in a boiler furnace should
be started with a small quantity of wood shavings and
kindling wood, not with oil. To ensure that the fire lights
quickly and spreads rapidly over the grate, it is necessary to
prevent air passing up through any portion of the grate where
the fire is not burning. This can be done by spreading coal
or paper over the bars when laying the fire, if no other means
is provided.
The procedure is as follows :—
Clean the bars thoroughly of all ashes, clinker and cinders.
Spread clean coal, without dust or slack, over the whole grate
to a depth of about 3 inches, except for about a square foot
where the fire is to be lighted. Here place two handfuls of
dry wood shavings. In this space place the kindling wood.
This should be laid in two or more layers, the sticks being
laid with about one-inch gaps and the second layer crossing
the first at right angles, PI. 99, Fig. 4. The wood should
rest on coal at its ends, not on shavings. Spread small
pieces of coal over the sticks.
2. Lighting.—See that the water level is correct. Light
the shavings and, when well alight, close the door and wait
for the wood to light. A fire so lighted will bum brightly
from the start and will spread rapidly.
At intervals of about one minute a small shovelful of
selected small coal, free from dust, should be sprinkled over
the hottest portion*of the fire. Paraffin or other oil must on
no account be used in lighting or drawing up a fire.
3. Coal.—Ordinary steam coal contains a large proportion
of carbon and also large amounts of gases, oils and tar, nearly
all of which can be burnt. When coal is heated without
actually burning, these volatile portions are driven out as
coal gas. There is also a small amount of earthy matter
which cannot .be burnt and will remain as ash.
4. Air is chiefly a mixture of nearly one part of oxygen and
3 parts of nitrogen by weight, or, more accurately, 23 per
cent, oxygen and 77 per cent, nitrogen.
Combustion is really a rapid combining of the oxygen in
the air with the carbon and other combustible portions of the
462 Sec. 116.—Goal-fired Boilers
coal, and forms other compound gases. Nitrogen is quite

useless for combustion.
5. Combustion cannot be complete unless enough oxygen
is present to combine completely with all the fuel. If there
is not enough air present, there will not be enough oxygen;
instead of producing fully burnt gases only, there will be also
a portion of carbon monoxide, a very poisonous and
inflammable gas formed by the combination of carbon with
half the correct amount of oxygen.
When carbon bums to form carbon monoxide, it only
produces 4,400 B.Th.U. per lb., whereas 14,500 arc produced
when it is fully burnt to form carbon dioxide. If the monoxide
is mixed with more air and burnt, the lost 10,100 B.Th.U. are
recovered.
6. Goal distillation.—When coal is put on to a fire,
the first thing that happens is that the gases and then the oil
and tar are driven out of it in heavy greenish smoke. These
can only be burnt when mixed with air, and unless they are
burnt at once, they go up the chimney and are lost. As the
coal gets hotter, the carbon begins to bum, but the air which
comes up through the fire does not contain enough oxygen
to bum it completely, and much carbon monoxide is formed.
Unless this carbon monoxide is mixed with more air and
burnt at once, it also goes up the chimney and is lost.
7. Air regulation.—1 lb. of coal can be burnt with
11^ lb. of air, but, with stoker boilers, it is found in practice
that from 17 to 20 lb. of air are necessary to burn 1 lb. of
coal completely. This is a very large amount of air, and it
frequently happens that enough cannot get through the
firebars, especially immediately after firing, when large
quantities of combustible vapours are pouring off from the
fresh coal.
More air should be supplied just after firing, reducing the
amount slowly as the fire clears.
A deep humming or buzzing noise, known as down¬
draught, means that the draught is irregular or alternating,
and indicates either a hole in the fire or insufficient air,
generally the latter. The vibration is harmful to the boiler
and should be stopped at once.
8. The rules of firing are, therefore :—
i. Fire little at a time and often.—The fire then keeps
fairly thin, air can get up through it easily to bum
the carbon, and only a small amount of green
smoke gas is given off at a time. The fire also
keeps hot, whereas, if much coal is put on at one
time, it cools down and the boiler pressure falls,
PL 100, Fig. 1.
Sec. 116.—Coal-fired Boilers 463
ii. Fire evenly all over the grate, PI. 100, Figs. 2 and 3.
Thin patches quickly bum away to holes, which
allow air to be drawn through without burning
any coal. The air chooses the easiest path and
goes up through the holes instead of through the
thicker parts of the fire where it is needed, so that
coal tends to bum around the holes only and to
make them larger.
iii. Regulate the air.—Open the main damper enough to
keep the pressure up, but not enough to blow off.
Keep the fire door open enough to bum all the
gases and stop all smoke when a new charge is
put on. Then shut it gradually and keep it shut
until more coal is required.
PI. 100, Fig. 4, shows the correct method of firing.
9. The ideal of firing is to burn completely every atom
of the fuel fired on, or immediately above, the grate, using
only enough air to effect this combustion thoroughly; thus
all the available heat from the fuel is carried by the hot air
and gases to the boiler at the highest possible temperature.
It is, however, far better to use too much air than too little.
CO and C02 indicators are of great use in this connection.
For the best results the COa percentage should be as
high as possible and the CO negligible. It will be clear from
PI. 99A, that C02 readings between 6 per cent, and 13 per
cent, give no clue as to whether there is too much or too
little air. To decide this, the CO content must be known as
well.
10. The deflector used in many fire doors, PI. 101, Fig. 1,
especially of locomotive type boilers, guides the air coming in
through the door down on to the top of the fire where it is
required, and where there is a high enough temperature to
make sure that the gases bum completely.
•
11. The brick arch in a locomotive boiler, PI. 101, Fig. 1,

and the brick bridge in a Lancashire boiler, PI. 101, Fig. 2,
are placed there chiefly to keep the air and gases a little longer
in the hot firebox, and so give them a better chance of burning
completely before they pass into the cooler flues. There the
flame would be quenched at once, and smoke and soot would
be formed. When once the gases are properly burtit no
smoke or soot can be formed. The bricks get red hot and so
help the combustion.
12. Rate of combustion.—The rate at which coal is
burnt should be controlled entirely by opening or closing the
main damper. If an ashpit door is fitted under the brick
bridge, it should never be open while the boiler is working.
3t*/)70/\
Sec. 116.—Goal-fired Boilers 465
Plate 100.
16—1579)
466 Sec. 116.—Goal-fired Boilers
Plate 101.
Sec. 117.—Oil Fuel 467
If it were open, cold air would be going into the flues without
passing over or through the fire. It could , not help at all in
finishing combustion, and would merely cool the flues without
serving any useful purpose.
117. Oil fuel

1. Reasons for use.—Oil as a fuel for steam boilers is
very suitable for service purposes for the following reasons :—
i. Its calorific value is high, thus reducing the weight of
fue.1 required.
ii. Its efficiency is very high if it is burnt under correct
conditions.
iii. It gives nearly a smokeless fire at all times if properly
burnt.
iv. Its cost in many countries in which British troops are
liable to operate is no higher than that of coal.
v. Oil must be provided in large quantities at oversea
bases for supplying covering warships with fuel,
and should, therefore, be easily obtainable from
naval supply vessels.
vi. It is easily handled at ports at which no facilities exist
for handling coal, since its unloading or transhipment
necessitates only a pump and suitable piping,
provided the temperature is high enough to ensure
that the oil is liquid.
2. Fuel oils available.—The oils mostly used for burning
under boilers are :—
i. Residual oils, resulting from the distillation of petrol
spirit and the lighter burning oils from the crude
product.
ii. Tar oils, the by-products of fractional distillation of
coal and oils; in the production of gas, benzole,
coke, &c. .
iii. Shale oils, obtained by the destructive distillation of
the mineral shale.
3. - Oil combustion.—All these fuel oils have a calorific
value exceeding that of coal, varying from 16,000 to 20,000
B.Th.U. per lb.
Oil, suitably atomized or vaporized, can be burnt com¬
pletely without smoke or waste when mixed with only so much
air as is necessary to supply sufficient oxygen to combine
chemically with the hydrogen and carbon present. The
flame is much hotter than can be obtained by the use of coal
upon a grate, due to :—
i. The smaller amount of air to be heated in the flame.
ii. The higher calorific value of a given weight of fuel.
468 Sec. 117.—Oil Fuel
In practice it is necessary to admit from 10 per cent, to

30 per cent, excess air to give complete combustion without
smoke. Combustion efficiency is increased by :—
i. Complete atomization of the oil.
ii. Thorough mixing of fuel and air.
iii. Preheating the air.
4. Oil-burning systems.—There are three main systems
of atomizing the oil and burning it:—
i. Steam injection.
ii. Air atomization—
(a) Low pressure air from a fan at from 9 to 15 inches
water gauge.
(b) Medium pressure air from a rotary compressor,
1-5 to 5 lbs. per square inch.
iii. Pressure-oil system.
Of these, the steam injection system is much the simplest
if steam is available, but some complication is caused by
the fact that until steam is obtained at sufficient pressure
to operate the nozzles some other method of firing must be
applied.
The compressed-air system necessitates the addition of a
fan or compressor, which, moreover, is possibly driven by
steam, and cannot be used until steam has been raised by
some other method of firing.
The pressure-oil system is complicated by the necessity
for a pump to force the oil out of spraying nozzles at sufficient
pressure to ensure perfect atomization, and, in cold climates,
for some system of heating the oil to render it sufficiently
liquid to be readily pumped and atomized. It has, however,
the compensating advantage that the amount of power
required to drive the oil-pump is small, and, therefore, that
the oil atomizers can be used from the start by the use of a
hand pump and separate heating lamp.
5. The relative efficiencies of the three systems are
in the order: pressure, air, and steam. The differences are
not very wide, being about 5 per cent, between each; but
varying with the nature and size of the plant.
The lower efficiency of the compressed-air system is due
to the low temperature at which compressed air emerges from
a nozzle.
The still lower efficiency of the steam system is due to the
use of a large amount of steam, which is not only wasted, but
by its presence lowers the flame temperature.
6. The steam system.—There are several varieties of
nozzle which give satisfactory results. All work to some
extent on the principle of the ordinary boiler injector.
PI. 102, Fig. 1, illustrates a Babcock and Wilcox burner,
and PI. 102, Fig. 4, a Wallsend-Howden burner. Steam is
admitted into the expanding nozzle, S. Oil is fed by gravity
into the pipe, O, and entrained in an atomized state with the
steam jet. The tanks should, therefore, be 10 to 12 feet above
the burners to ensure a free flow. The burner is normally
fitted centrally in the fire door and throws its flame horizontally,
or slightly downwards, into a large firebrick-lined combustion
chamber.
The flame is about 6 feet long, and should be given ample
distance in which to complete its combustion before touching
any tubes or plates.
In locomotive type boilers the flame must be well baffled
by at least a large brick arch, so that it cannot play upon the
tube or firebox plate.
PI. 102, Fig. 2, illustrates the Scarab type of burner, which
is specially suitable for very crude oils containing quantities
of foreign matter which might clog a nozzle. The oil is
merely allowed to pour through the open pipe, O, on to a
heating plate, P, under which the steam passes. The oil then
flows over the serrated edge, E, in aflat band, and is carried for¬
ward upon the steam jet, S, in a fairly well atomized condition.
7. The compressed-air system has little to recommend
it from the service point of view. Where another source of
power is available to drive a compressor, any nozzle type of
burner may be used with compressed air instead of steam,
thus facilitating the starting-up by providing a flame before
steam has been raised.
8. The pressure-oil system.—In this system, the oil
is first slightly wanned by steam pipes in the service tanks to
render it fairly liquid. It is then pumped into a vessel
containing a quantity of imprisoned air, which ensures a
continuous and almost constant pressure of about 40 lbs. per
square inch or less according to the viscosity of the oil.
From this pressure-vessel it travels through a filter and
through pipes either steam heated or placed in the brickwork
setting of the boiler, in which it is heated to a temperature of
150° to 240° F., depending upon the viscosity of the oil.
At starting, a separate oil-heating stove is used. An electrical
immersion heater, often thermostatically controlled, is
frequently used for oil heating nowadays, as it gives excellent
oil temperature regulation. Heating above the flash point
must of course be carried out under pressure.
Finally the fuel is sprayed into the firebox or combustion
chamber through a fine nozzle, which ensures thorough
atomization.
PI. 103 and PI. 102, Fig. 3, show a section through the
nozzle-plate type of pressure-oil burner. The air, entering
-,1(^
51
IIS
I
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l§
I
I
at 0*mac£ stance \anww j'W« *ar
472 Sec. 117.—Oil Fuel
through the fire door round the nozzle, should be preheated

and in a state of powerful rotary turbulence to ensure thorough
mixing and combustion.
This may be accomplished by drawing in all air between
the boiler face and a plate fixed a few inches from it, the
intervening space being occupied by a number of guide vanes
to impart the necessary rotary motion to the draught.
Artificial draught is not essential, but it is advisable when
a good chimney is not available.
9. Simultaneous coal and oil firing.—An oil burner
of any type may be used simultaneously with a coal fire to
take an overload or to render possible the burning of poor
grades of coal. The ordinary firebars should be in place, and
the burner may be fitted to the door with hinged piping or
flexible hose. It may alternatively be fitted anywhere else,
e.g. in the side walls of a water-tube boiler inclined downwards
to play on to the coal fire. In the latter case, if the oil
alone should be used, the firebars should be covered with
loose bricks to protect them, and also to limit the supply of
air other than that entering alongside the jet.
10. Instructions for starting and working.—
i. Oil burners are lighted by means of a torch made by
twisting a handful of cotton waste into the bend or
bight of a doubled piece of stout wire.
The torch should be dipped into oil, lighted, and
held in front of, but below, the burner. The oil
may then be turned on gradually, after first turning
on steam or compressed air, if used. The flame
should then be adjusted by altering the relative
quantities of fuel and air entering, till there is
only a little light brown smoke, but only enough air
should be admitted to ensure this. Any excess of
air militates somewhat against efficiency, while
shortage of air will cause heavy black smoke. The
torch should be kept handy for relighting, in case the
flame should go out, until the bricks are thoroughly
hot.
ii. The size of flame may be reduced at will by partly
closing the oil-valve, and making a corresponding
decrease in the amount of air. Partly closing off
the steam, if used, will also reduce the amount of
induced air.
In the oil-pressure system, the air inlet should
be closed gradually until black smoke is produced,
and subsequently reopened until a slight haze is
visible. A C02 content of about 12 per cent, may
then be expected.
iii. The flame may be extinguished at once by dosing the

oil-valve. In turning off any burner) it is important
to turn off the oil first. When turning on a burner,
it is most important to turn on the oil after the steam
or compressed-air valves have been opened.
iv. If the flame should be extinguished accidentally, it
will probably be caused by dirt accumulation in the
oil nozzle. The burner should be turned off at once,
withdrawn and cleaned and subsequently relighted
as in (i). Any grit or other dirt in the oil or steam
pipes will be drawn eventually into the jet, causing
bad burning and perhaps extinction of the
flame, besides making the lighting-up difficult or
impossible. Therefore, provision must be made for
cleaning the nozzles.
v. No cotton waste should be used in cleaning, since it
eventually gets into the jets and clogs them.
vi. Care must be exercised that no unburnt oil is allowed
to accumulate in the furnace or flues, owing to
valves leaking, failure to observe the extinction of a
flame, or an unsuccessful attempt to light a burner.
Such oil may produce an explosive mixture in the
flues and cause a disastrous explosion. Air or
steam valves should be left open for a few minutes
between each attempt to relight a burner to blow
away all fumes of unburnt oil.
vii. An ample supply of sand should be kept in the boiler-
house for dealing with any outbreak of fire. Water
is useless for extinguishing burning oil.
viii. Any leaks in tanks or pipes must be stopped at once,
since oil vapour is inflammable. On no account
must a naked light be taken into or near an open
tank, even if empty, nor near any pools of escaped
oil. Such pools should be absorbed in sand, and
the sand taken outside into the open air.
ix. All pipe joints should usually be metal to metal.
No packing or jointing of the normal steam practice
type should be used in the oil pipes. Any attempt
to use it would lead to stoppage of the nozzles,
owing to particles travelling along with the oil.
Certain oil-resisting compounds can, however, be
employed with success on joints.
CHAPTER XXIII
BOILER FITTINGS
118. Fittings on the hotter
1. List of fittings.—Every boiler should be provided
with the following fittings :—
i. Safety valve.
ii. Pressure gauge.
iii. Anti-priming pipe or steam dome.
iv. Water gauges.
v. Fusible plug (on fire-tube boilers).
vi. Internal feed pipe.
vii. Feed check valves (two) with stop cocks.
viii. Blow-down cock.
ix. Injectors or feed pumps.
x. Main stop valve.
A large boiler may also be fitted with :—
xi. High- and low-water alarm.
xii. Feed water regulator.
2. Safety valves are of several types. All consist
essentially of a metal valve which is normally kept closed by
either a weight or a spring, either directly or by means of a
lever.
Deadweight valves, PI. 104, Fig. 1, are simple and effective
on stationary boilers. They cannot easily be tampered with,
but are difficult to ease by hand on account of their great
weight.
Lever valves, PI. 104, Fig. 3, are more convenient for easing
by hand, but are open to the objection that the position of the
weight upon the lever is easily altered, and a small alteration
is not very noticeable.
Spring-loaded valves, Ramsbottom type, PI. 104, Fig. 2,
are essential for portable boilers, locomotives, and ships’ boilers,
which are subject to jarring and tilting.
Safety valves must be large enough to allow the full
amount of steam produced by the boiler to escape, should the
engine be suddenly shut down. The valve, V, on PI. 104,
Fig. 3, should be capable of being turned on its seating, S,
for grinding in.
3. Pressure gauges are normally of the Bourdon type,
PI. 105, Fig. 1, in which a curved tube, T, of oval section is in
communication with the boiler. The effect of the steam
pressure inside the tube is to make it less oval. In consequence
the curvature of the tube is decreased. The tube is fixed at
474
Sec. 118.—Fittings on the Boiler 475
Plate 104.
3o/l£x F/tt/a/gs - Sjfzrr Wives.

476 Sec. 118.—Fittings on the Boiler
Plate 105.
STEAM PRESSURE
GAUGE
Plff. 3. PU&iaUK At. c/0i

Sec. 118.—Fittings on the Boiler 477
one end, and the other end is free to move. Its movements
are magnified by a suitable multiplying gear, G, and indicated
by a pointer.
Such gauges require periodical testing, since the tube is
liable to take a small permanent set.
Normally, gauges are graduated to show pressure above
that of the atmosphere, so that a figure corresponding to the
barometric pressure must be added if the absolute pressure
is required. Pressure gauges are fixed by a curved pipe, P,
so that condensed and not live steam is acting on the flexible
tube. The working pressure should be marked by a red line.
Vacuum gauges are of similar construction, except that
their movement is more highly multiplied and the dial is
graduated backwards, showing atmospheric pressure as zero.
4. The anti-priming pipe, A on PI. 96, Fig. 3, is a
device for separating the water spray, which is always present
in the steam, in the steam space of a boiler. It usually
consists of a horizontal pipe of large bore, in the top of which
are large slots through which the mixture of steam and spray
can enter easily. The steam then turns abruptly along the
pipe towards the open stop-valve, while the water, being
heavier, settles at the bottom of the pipe and then runs out
again through holes provided for the purpose.
5. Water gauges are provided to indicate the level of the
water in the boiler. The glasses are normally held in rubber
joints carried by two brass fittings, one well above the working
water level and the other below it, PI. 105, Fig. 2. Both
fittings are sometimes provided with cocks and with ball
valves, arranged to close if the tube should burst. The
lower fitting must be provided with a blow-down cock also,
so that the glass can be blown through to clean it and the
passages between it and the boiler.
Two gauge glasses must always be supplied as tubes are
liable to burst at any time.
Glass shields (not shown in PI. 105, Fig. 2) must be fitted
to stop the fragments when a gauge tube bursts; otherwise
the attendants might be seriously injured.
6. Fusible plugs are devices for preventing serious
explosions due to a low water level and have usually a bronze
body, PI. 105, Fig. 3, in which a central bronze cone, C, is
retained by a lining of fusible metal, M, generally lead, or a
lead and tin alloy, melting at 400° to 500° F., according to the
working pressure. If the water falls below the level of the
crown plate, the latter will rise in temperature. A fusible
plug screwed into it will then melt out and the cone will blow
out bodily, leaving a large passage through which enough wet
steam can escape to quench the fire.
478 Sec. 119.—Injectors and Feed Pumps
Spare plugs should be kept and should be used to replace

the existing one at least once a year, as the properties of the
fusible metal change on prolonged heating. Fusible plugs
must be kept quite clean on both fire and water sides or they
are useless.
Fusible plugs are usually placed directly over the fire.
119. Injectors and feed pumps

1. Injectors for feeding water into boilers are of non¬
lifting or lifting types, according to their capacity for raising
water into themselves from a lower level. Exhaust injectors
are designed for the utilization of steam at approximately
atmospheric pressure : they are non-lifting.
The principle upon which all injectors work is that steam
is allowed to escape to atmosphere through a jet, J, on PI. 106,
Fig. 1, from which it issues with great velocity, having ex¬
panded in the jet so that its pressure is reduced. Sufficient
cold water is then allowed to enter through W and mix with
the steam to absorb all its latent heat, whereby all the steam
is condensed, while the water is considerably heated. The
mixture of steam and water resulting from the condensation,
and the now warmed feed water, continues with reduced
velocity through the mixing tube, M, the condensed steam
being finally represented by a fine thread of water, entraining
or dragging along with it the added feed water.
The mixture now passes along a delivery tube, or infuser,
I, which is gradually enlarged. Since the quantity of water
flowing through this tube per second must be the same at all
points along it, the velocity falls as the area increases, and the
energy, which was present as velocity only, becomes partly
turned into pressure. This delivery tube is, therefore,
enlarged sufficiently to ensure that the pressure rises above
boiler pressure.
From the above description it will be seen that the feed-
water should be cold, and that the amount allowed to flow
into the mixing tube must be capable of being controlled, so
that there is enough to condense the steam entirely but not
enough to slow down the mixture too much.
In practical injectors, an overflow, 0, is provided between
the mixing tube and the delivery tube, so that any excess of
steam or water can escape. A non-return valve is provided
in the delivery tube so that water cannot be blown back
from the boiler into the injector when the latter is not working.
In the non-lifting type of injector the feed water must be
fed into it by gravity.
Exhaust-steam injectors require a very large steam jet,
on account of the large bulk of steam. Since all the heat
Sec. 119.—Injectors and Feed Pumps 479
in the steam used passes back into the boiler, injectors are
economical.
2. Lifting injectors.—When high-pressure steam is
used, an injector may be made to lift water into itself from
a tank placed slightly below it. The steam jet, when first
turned on, reduces the pressure in the mixing tube to a
little below atmospheric pressure, provided there is a free
exit for the steam, through which it can escape and entrain
with it any air which may be present. Water is then forced
up from the tank, by the pressure of the atmosphere upon it,
and into the mixing tube, where the injector action takes
place as with the non-lifting injector.
The lifting action may be started either by hand control
or by an automatic device. In the hand controlled type the
size of the steam jet, J, on PI. 106, Fig. 2, is controlled generally
by a cone-valve, C, and when first started it only opens
slightly. The amount of steam entering is then so small that
after it has expanded it can still escape easily by the overflow
vents, O. Water having been drawn in, as indicated by
water pouring from the overflow, the jet can be fully opened
and the water supply adjusted till neither water nor steam
escapes.
3. Automatic injectors.—These have some device, such
as a large extra overflow valve, Q, or a split mixing tube, so
that when steam is first turned on it can lift the valve or spread
the split tube and so escape freely. See PI. 106, Fig. 2.
As soon as a partial vacuum has been formed, i.e. as soon
as the pressure is well below atmospheric, the valve or tube
closes automatically, and simultaneously water rises through
the supply pipe, W. The injector then works normally.
Automatic injectors are necessary for locomotives if the
feed water is to be lifted, because the action of a lifting injector
is liable to be stopped by jolting, in which case it must be
started afresh.
Lifting injectors cannot be made to work satisfactorily
with exhaust steam.
4. Feed pumps.—When boilers are fed with water
returned from a condenser, the temperature of the water is
usually too high for the use of an injector. Such boilers are,
therefore, supplied by feed pumps. Feed pumps are of four
main varieties, viz.:—
i. Simplex or duplex type of double-acting steam pump,
. which is simple but rather uneconomical in steam.
ii. The eccentric-driven ram pump, driven from the main
crankshaft.
iii. Three-cylinder ram pumps, driven by electric motor.
iv. Rotary pumps, normally electrically driven. .
Sec. 119.—Injectors and Feed Pumps
5. In the simplex type, diagraimnatically shown on PL 106,

Fig. 3, the steam is admitted to the steam cylinder by a slide
valve, which is thrown over at the end of each stroke by a
small auxiliary piston working in an auxiliary cylinder, A,
to which steam is admitted just before the end of a stroke by
means of a tappet, T, and stop on the main pump rod, which
moves the auxiliary valve.
In the duplex type there are two rods, each with its own
piston and cylinder, to which steam is admitted by a slide
valve. Each slide valve is moved across by the movement
of the other piston, so that the rods make strokes alternately.
An eccentric-driven ram pump worked by the main shaft
is economical, but cannot be fitted alone, since it cannot be
operated when the main engine is stopped.
ElectricaUy-driven three-cylinder ram pumps are economical
where electrical energy is easily obtained. Their action is
smooth and their rate of delivery is easily controlled.
Electrically-driven centrifugal feed pumps are the best
type for large installations. Their efficiency is high and their
delivery smooth and flexible.
6. Position of feed pumps.—It is essential that feed
pumps should be run flooded, i.e. that water should flow into
them by gravity. Since the water is hot, its vapour pressure
approximates to that of the atmosphere, and, therefore, the
suction is liable to fail if the pumps are made to lift from tanks
at a lower level.
7. Temperature limits.—Since it is essential for the
suction of a pump of any description that the vapour pressure
of the water shall not exceed that of the atmosphere, feed
pumps must be installed so that they draw water from feed
tanks open to the atmosphere, and may then be made to
force the feed water through any feed water heaters and
economizers by which the water is to be further heated
before it is supplied to the boilers.
8. Feed water valves.—The rate of supply of feed water
to each individual boiler should be controlled by means of a
stop valve near the boiler. The valve should be within easy
reach of the boiler attendant.
9. Feed water regulators.—To ensure a needy constant
level in a boiler and to eliminate the human element, several
devices known as feed water regulators have been invented.
Their provision also saves labour and consequently expense
in wages.
They consist of a device for opening the feed water stop
valve when the water level falls below normal, and closing it
when the level has risen to normal.
CHAPTER XXIV
BOILER AUXILIARIES
120. Nature and use of the common auxiliaries
1. Definition.—An auxiliary is any device provided for
improving the efficiency or ease of working of a boiler or set
of boilers.
2. A chimney, fan, or other device for producing a good
draught through the fire, which is necessary for all boilers,
may be regarded as an auxiliary.
Other auxiliaries may or may not be considered necessary
or desirable. Those in normal use are :—
i. Feed water heaters.
ii. Economizers.
iii. Superheaters.
iv. Automatic stokers.
v. Means for burning fuels other than coal or wood.
vi. Air preheaters.
3. It must be realised that the above are not essential,
and in many cases their addition would not produce an
improvement in efficiency proportionate to the increased cost
of providing or working the plant. In small plants, the
addition of unnecessary auxiliaries would often necessitate
an increase in the staff required, and would seldom cause a
proportionate saving.
In service plant, the necessity for simplicity and reliability
is of more importance than extreme economy, and therefore
few auxiliaries are used, except in the larger and comparatively
permanent installations.
4. Feed water.heaters.—A feed water heater, PI. 106,
Fig. 5, utilizes some of the heat in the exhaust steam, which
would otherwise be lost in the condenser, to heat the feed water
to some extent before it passes to the economizer or boiler.
The exhaust steam is usually passed through a barrel in
which are a number of tubes, through which the feed water is
made to circulate.
5. Economizers.—An economizer utilizes some of the
heat which remains in the flue gases after the boiler has
extracted as much heat from them as is economically possible.
Since the water in a boiler working at 150 lbs. absolute is at
358° F. it follows that the flue gases leaving it must still be
well above that temperature. Therefore, the water, after it
has left the feed water heater at perhaps 120° F., can absorb
481
482 Sec. 120.—Nature and Use of the Common Auxiliaries
a large amount of heat from these gases. It is not economical

to cool down the gases below 300° F. before they pass into the
chimney unless forced or induced draught is provided,
because the chimney draught will be spoilt.
It is essential that the water shall be already at least at
100° F. before it enters an economizer; otherwise, moisture
and acids from the flue gases would condense on the tubes and
rapid corrosion would follow. This would be dangerous,
since the economizer is usually under boiler pressure.
In practice, an economizer consists of banks of tubes
placed in the flue, PI. 106, Fig. 6. Scrapers, S, are necessary
to keep the tubes clear of soot and tar, and are generally
driven by a small electric motor.
The efficiency of an economizer is much increased if the
.water is made to pass through a series of banks of tubes,
passing first through those farthest from the boiler, i.e. where
the gases are coolest, and lastly through those nearest the
boiler.
An economizer adds about 1 per cent, to the efficiency of
the boiler for every 15° F. through which it heats the feed
water. Thus if the water leaving the feed water at 120° F.
is delivered at 300° F., the saving is about 12 per cent.
6. Superheaters.—Superheaters are used to dry the steam
produced by boilers, and also to provide the steam with a
little extra heat which it can lose during its passage to the
engine cylinder without being reduced to its saturation
temperature, and, therefore, without being partly condensed.
An increase of 100° F. is generally sufficient for low pressures,
but in large plants, especially for turbines, a gain in thermal
efficiency is produced by passing the steam into the engines
or turbines with a considerable amount of superheat.
To effect this, the steam is collected in the usual manner
and is then passed through several tubes of solid-drawn steel,
which are placed in the flue space of the boiler at a place where
the gases are hot, but not directly above the grate, as shown
on PI. 96, Fig. 3, and PI. 98, Fig. 1. In water-tube boilers
the superheater is usually swept by the gases after they have
already passed one bank of water tubes. In Lancashire and
similar boilers, the superheater tubes are usually placed in the
end chamber, where the gases have already passed through
the central flues and have so lost some of their heat. In
locomotive type boilers the superheater tubes are placed
inside the flue tubes, some of which are enlarged for the
purpose.
' The tubes are generally separate, and each one is fixed
into the head, or collecting chest, by means of a single stud,
the joints being made of copper washers, PI. 106, Fig. 4.
Since the tubes are only prevented from burning by the
Sec. 120.—Nature and Use of the Common Auxiliaries 483
Plate 106.
Boiler Httincs and Aojiiu>iri£s - /njectors. Fecd Pump.

484 Sec. 121.—Automatic Stokers and Special Grates
rapid transference of heat to the steam passing through, it is

essential that some means should be provided for shutting off
the gases from the tubes, at any rate partially, when steam is
not being taken by the engine. In many cases this is effected
by opening a bye-pass door, which allows the gases to take
a shorter path to the chimney, D, on PI. 96, Fig. 3. In other
cases the tubes can be flooded with water.
7. Air pre-heater.—A simple means of pre-heating the
air to be drawn into a furnace is to guide the air across the
face of the boiler, so that it absorbs the heat which would
otherwise be radiated out into the boiler house (PI. 102, Fig. 6).
In hot climates it also constitutes an effective method of
reducing the temperature of the boiler room by stopping the
radiation of heat from the boiler-face, which is otherwise
very unpleasant for the attendants.
The ordinary air pre-heater contains large numbers of thin
metal plates, which transfer heat from the outgoing furnace
gases to the incoming furnace air. An air pre-heater is often
better than an economizer for extracting heat from low
temperature furnace gases. The increase in boiler efficiency
is greater than would be obtained by the extraction of flue-gas
heat; for owing to the higher furnace temperature obtained
combustion is more complete.
121. Automatic stokers and special grates

1. Automatic stokers are intended to save labour, to
eliminate the human element in firing, to produce more
uniform temperature in the fire by continuous feeding without
opening the doors, and to allow of the use of low-grade coal.
Stokers firing ordinary coal, work on one of two methods,
viz.:—
i. Coking.
ii. Springing.
2. Coking process.—The coking process is one in which
coal is fed slowly into the grate, as, for instance, by a chain
grate. The coal is first coked, its volatile constituents
passing forward over the grate and being burnt there. (See
Pi. 106, Fig. 7.) As the coal is carried further into the furnace,
it is gradually raised to incandescence and the carbon is
consumed. When it reaches the back of the grate and falls
over into the ashpit, nothing but ash should remain.
Other types force the coal into the grate by means of
rams, and the fire is carried forward by movements of the
firebars. Two or more groups of firebars are provided, with
separate oscillating movement. The bars are so coupled that
Sec. 121.—Automatic Stokers and Special Grates 485
all. odd numbers move together backwards, and then all even
numbers do likewise. In consequence, all the bars move
backwards without moving the fire. The next step is that
all the bars move forward together, carrying the fire with
them, and complete the cycle. Thus the fire is slowly
carried forward as on a chain grate.
3. Sprinkling stokers.—The sprinkling type of auto¬
matic stoker consists merely of a spring operated ram which
throws very small quantities of coal on to the firebars, and
whose stroke is varied by using various cams in succession,
so that an even fire is maintained all over the grate. The
firebars may also be oscillated to get rid of the ash.
4. Handling of coal.—The main object of every auto¬
matic stoker—the reduction of labour—can only be effected
by providing an efficient system of hopper feed and coal hoist,
so that the fuel is not man-handled at all. The coal must be
broken small enough to descend freely through the hoppers.
5. Pulverized fuel.—A type of automatic firing which has
been used largely in cement factories and is also highly
efficient in its application to steam raising, is that known as
pulverized coal firing.
Coal must have been dried, crushed and milled to
impalpable powder before it can be described as pulverized.
Pulverized coal is usually fed by a screw conveyor, or some
similar device, to a fan, by which it is suspended in a certain
amount of air and the mixture forced into the furnace, where
more air is added to ensure the complete combustion of the
fuel. A large combustion space should be provided.
On account of the finely-divided state of the fuel, combus¬
tion is easily completed, less air need be passed into the
furnace than for burning ordinary coal, no ordinary clinker
can be formed, poor coal can be used economically, and black
smoke is eliminated although a large proportion of the ash
finds its way up the chimney.
The consumption of fuel can be quickly increased,
decreased, or completely stopped at will.
In consequence of the hotter furnace gases, due to less
dilution, and of the complete combustion of the fuel, the
efficiency is very high.
6. Refuse burners.—The ordinary refuse of a town or
barracks may be burnt to produce steam. It is usually
difficult to ignite, its calorific value is low, and it may contain
a large percentage of moisture.
Plant to consume such refuse includes generally a small
grate upon which coal or coke is burnt with an excessive supply
486 Sec. 122.—Natural, Induced and Forced Draught
of air. The hot gases from this grate, containing a high per¬
centage of unused oxygen, are then passed through the larger
grate, upon which the refuse is burnt. Any further air
required to complete combustion is drawn in through passages
in hot brick walls, so that it is delivered at a high temperature.
The refuse is often dried on a dead plate before it is fed into
the grate, so that it is fired in dry and hot.
It is essential, when burning refuse, whose combustion
is liable to produce an objectionable odour, that all the vapour
from the dead plate should pass through a hot fire, so that all
organic vapours may be completely destroyed. In this case
the refuse is first dried in a chamber kept hot by the flue
gases, and burnt upon a grate, the temperature of which is
maintained by the proximity of a small but hot coal fire,
through which the gases from the refuse fire are passed to
deodorize them.
Refuse containing a large percentage of easily burnt fuel,
such as sawdust, bark, straw, &c., may be used on an ordinary
grate, the fire being fed alternately with the refuse and with
coal or coke. This system is not easy to work satisfactorily,
since it is difficult to eliminate smoke, and the refuse is liable
to be carried by the draught into tubes and flues.
122. Natural, induced and forced draught

1. Natural draught is produced by means of a chimney
only.
The hot gases which pass from a boiler are lighter than air
at ordinary temperatures, and, therefore, when a chimney is
full of such hot gases, the pressure at the base is less than
barometric pressure by the difference in weight between («) the
column of hot gases actually present in the chimney, and (6) a
similar column of cold air of the same height. The flue gases
contain less oxygen than ordinary air, but its place is taken
principally by carbon dioxide, of which the quantity present
is small, and the weight is not much affected.
A column of air (weighing 1 lb. per 13 cubic feet) of 1 square
foot section and 100 feet high weighs normally 7*7 lbs. If it
is heated from 60° F. to 350° F., which is normal chimney
temperature, its weight per cubic foot is decreased in the ratio
iCQ l_ /JA
459 -f 350* 0r t0 P61"cen** °* at 60° F-

The column 100 feet high, therefore, weighs about 5 lb.,
and the difference in pressure is 2*7 lb. per square foot, or
0*019 lb. per square inch.
The draught of a chimney is generally measured by means
of a gauge consisting of a U-tube containing a little water,
one end of the tube being connected to the base of the chimney
Sec. 122.—Natural, Induced and Forced Draught 487
by a pipe and the other open to the atmosphere. The

difference in the level of the water in the two limbs is then
measured. See PI. 102, Fig. 5.
Since water weighs about 63 lb. per cubic foot, a pressure
of 2-7 lb. per square foot will cause a difference in level of
2*7
gg foot, or about $ inch.
In consequence of the difference in weight, the hot air in
the chimney rises and is replaced by more flue gases from
below, and the velocity with which it rises depends upon the
difference iii temperature inside and outside the chimney, and
also upon its height. The theoretical velocity is expressed
by the formula:
v — velocity in feet per second.

h —■ height of chimney in feet.
T2 — mean temperature of chimney gases in degrees F.
T2 = outside temperature in degrees F.
In practice, the velocity is much reduced by air friction
in the chimney and flues, and for this reason flues should be
as short and straight as possible.
PI. 107 shows the theoretical chimney heights for various
temperature and draught conditions. In using this graph,
allowance must be made in calculations for loss of draught
by air friction in the flues. The flues should be about 30 per
cent, larger in area than the chimney. Steam coal will
normally bum well with £-in. draught or less, but coal dust
needs at least |-in. draught.
Since the quantity of air rising through the chimney is the
same as that going through all grates, leaks in brickwork, &c.,
it is obvious (<*) that the brickwork should be painted or
otherwise proofed, -and any cracks carefully stopped to limit
air leakage; and (b) that the area of the chimney should be
large if good draught is required. In practice, it is usually
from one-sixth to one-ninth of the grate area, and may with
advantage be more.
In most cases an increase in the area of a chimney is
better than a proportional increase in height. It is not
economical to provide a chimney higher than 20 times its
internal diameter, unless such a height is required to ensure
that the gases are earned above any surrounding roofs or
windows.
2. Efficiencies.—The energy supplied by a boiler having
a definite grate area is directly proportional to the weight of
coal burnt per hour, provided the efficiency, of. the boiler
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Sec. 122.—Natural, Induced and Forced Draught 489
remains unaltered. Actually the efficiency can often be

improved by increasing the rate of combustion, because the
higher temperature on the grate makes it possible to bum the
fuel more completely and with less diluting air. Consequently
the furnace gases are hotter and can transfer a larger
proportion of their heat to the boiler.
The weight of coal which can be efficiently burnt on the
grate with natural draught varies from 10 to 12 lbs. per square
foot of grate area for boilers of vertical type to 15 to 20 lbs.
for Cornish and locomotive type boilers.
The efficiency of a boiler in'heat transference is represented
•p _*p
by ~r-where Tt is the temperature of the furnace gases,
li — lo
T2 that of the flue gases after leaving the boiler, and T0 that
of the atmosphere. This formula may be expressed as
heat given by gases to the boiler
heat produced by burning fuel
The use of a powerful draught, and the consequent rapid
combustion of fuel with less diluting air, may increase Ti
considerably, since the theoretical temperature produced by
burning coal with only the absolutely necessary amount of air
is nearly 4,000° F., whereas in normal practice, in which ,
nearly double the requisite amount of air passes through, the
temperature attained is only about 2,500° F.
By the use of large, well-designed economizers and air
pre-heaters T2 may be kept low.
3. Artificial draught.—To produce a powerful draught
by means of a chimney alone necessitates a large outlay in
capital, since great height and cross-sectional area are
necessary. Moreover, the advantage of a large chimney is
lost unless the gases are liberated to it while still at a fairly
high temperature. By forcing air through the grates by
mechanical means any desired rate of combustion can be
achieved, and nC limit is placed upon the temperature to
which the gases may be reduced by the economizer. The
chimney need then only be high enough to carry the fumes
clear of neighbouring buildings, or to comply with local
regulations.
Induced draught is produced by placing a fan or a steam jet
at the base of the chimney. The exhaust of locomotives may
thus be utilized to produce a draught of 8 inches water gauge,
and so to bum 120 lbs. of coal per hour per square foot of grate
area..
Forced draught may be produced by fitting a fan to blow
air into the furnace below the grate. A steam jet may also
be used for this purpose. In some ships the pressure in the
stokehold is raised by forcing air into it by means of a fan.
To increase Tx still farther, the air is first passed over

tubes through which outgoing flue gases are passed. In con¬
sequence, the air enters the furnace already raised to 250° F.
About 80 lbs. of coal per hour can thus be burnt per square
foot of grate area.
Balanced draught, which comprises both induced and forced
draught, is frequently employed in large power stations, as
by this means a very accurate control of the draught can be
obtained.
CHAPTER XXV
RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINES

123. Introduction
1. A simple single-cylinder reciprocating steam engine is
shown on PI. 108, Fig. 1. It consists essentially of a piston
connected by a piston-rod to a crosshead C, which is guided
between fixed guide bars B. If, as is usual, the engine is double¬
acting, a stuffing box S must be used to prevent leakage of steam
past the piston-rod. A connecting-rod connects the gudgeon
pin G in the crosshead to the crank pin P.
In a double-acting' steam engine, when the steam has
pushed the piston up to one end of the cylinder it is exhausted
to atmosphere or to a condenser, and fresh steam is admitted
to the other side of the piston to perform the return stroke.
The admission and exhaust of steam at the right moments and
for the desired periods is effected by mechanically operated
valves (see Sec. 130).
2. The cycle of operations and ideal indicator diagram.
—PI. 109, Fig. 1, is the ideal graph connecting the pressure and
volume of the steam at one end of the cylinder during a cycle
of operations. Starting at the point a, which is the beginning
of the working stroke, steam at full boiler pressure enters the
cylinder and pushes the piston away until point b is reached,
when the admission valve closes. A volume of steam, ab, is
therefore trapped in the cylinder and expands, the pressure
and temperature falling as represented by the curve be ; the
point c marks the pressure and volume at the end of the
piston stroke. At c the expanded steam at low pressure and
temperature is free to escape to atmosphere or condenser.
During the return*of the piston, i.e. c to d, the pressure
remains constant at atmospheric or condenser pressure whilst
the used steam is being expelled. At d the steam admission
valve is again open and the boiler immediately supplies new
steam, bringing the pressure up to a again, whence the cycle
is repeated, b is called the point of “ cut-off."
124. Elementary thermodynamics of the steam engine

1. In PI. 109, Fig. 1, ab represents the evaporation (and
superheating, if any) of the steam be expansion, cd condensa¬
tion, and da the heating of the water in the boiler.
i. If the steam is initially dry at the point b, and the
expansion is adiabatic, then the equation to the
curve be is P.V.1’185 = constant.
491
492 Sec. 124.—Elementary Thermodynamics
Plats 108.
Sec. 124.—Elementary Thermodynamics 483
Plate 109.
STEAM ENCINE DIAGRAMS.

i s
i f. ThtortHtai PtS Diagram
Ftq 2 Theoretical Tb diagram.
Exhaust opens.
%3 JspKAf iftim ndutor </uqr#n

firom a Sin$fe Cylinder Coi>Qen3/n$ Cnqint,
494 Sec. 124.--ÊIiemeatary Thermodynamict
ii. If the steam remains dry and saturated throughout the
expansion, then P.V. 17/18 == constant.
iii. Assuming hyperbolic (isothermal) expansion we get
P.V. = constant.
These curves are shown in PI. 94, Fig. 2.
The actual expansion curve is probably between those for
dry saturated steam and for isothermal expansion as shown at
AC in the figure.
2. Rankine cycle.—When the expansion is adiabatic the
cycle is called the ideal Rankine cycle. This is employed as, a
standard of reference with which the performance of steafn
engines may be compared, cf. the air standard cycle used for
I.C. engines.
3. Efficiency of the Rankine cycle.—In any heat engine,
... . ~ . heat turned into work ■
the theoretical thermal efficiency =-r—r--.
J heat supplied
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle equals :—
i. For saturated steam—
Qi—qs
Qi— Qk>2 Lj + Tj — t2
ii. For superheated steam—
Q» — Qs
Qi — Q«a
(T.-T^l+^)+0-48(T,—T,) -T^log.^ +0-48 Iog,±j)
= 1l1+t,-Ts+6-4S(t,-f j2 L
Q, = total heat of superheated steam at stop valve.
Qi = „ „ saturated steam at stop valve.
Q2 = „ „ water and steam at exhaust.
Qw2 = „ „ water at exhaust.
T, = absolute temperature of superheated steam at stop
valve.
Tx = absolute temperature of saturated steam at stop
valve.
T2 = absolute temperature of water and steam at exhaust.
Lj = latent heat of steam at Tj.
0*48 = assumed specific heat of superheated steam.
4. Entropy.—When a substance takes in or rejects heat
it is said to change its entropy. The change of entropy is
defined by the expression dp — T JQ, entropy being denoted
by p. Each increment (or decrement) of entropy dp is equal
to the quantity of heat dQ taken in or rejected, multiplied
by the absolute temperature, T, of the substance.
Sec. 124.—Elementary Thermodynamics 4S5
It can be shown that if a curve be drawn with T and 6 as

ordinates, the area under the curve is equal to the wnole
quantity of heat taken in while the substance passes through
the states which that portion of the curve represents. This is
a useful alternative to the P. V. diagram method of representing
heat-engine performance.
In isothermal change we are dealing with change of entropy
at constant temperature.
In adiabatic change we are dealing with change of tempera¬
ture at constant entropy (for this reason adiabatics are some¬
times called isentropics).
Therefore, in a T^ diagram isothermals will be lines
parallel to the axis of entropy, and adiabatics will be lines
parallel to the axis of temperature.
The Ttf> diagram for the Rankine cycle is shown in PI. 109,
Fig. 2. With the same notation as used on the corresponding
P.V. diagram shown in Fig. 1, ab is the change of entropy which
the substance undergoes in passing from water to steam at the
constant temperature Tâb Li assuming the evaporation
Tx
to be complete, be represents adiabatic expansion to T2
corresponding with the back pressure P2, cd the process of
condensation, and da the heating of the feed water from T2 to
T1( which completes the cycle.
In both diagrams the area abeda represents the work done
in the cycle (see note on page 501).
5. Total heat-entropy diagram.—Still making use of
the very useful conception of entropy, we can construct a
diagram with axes of total heat, and entropy, and we then get
the most useful diagram for use in calculations on the per¬
formance of st§am engines and turbines.
Such a diagram, known as a Moilier diagram, is given in
PI. 110. The diagram has three principal uses :—
i. Steam total heat can be read off for any condition.
ii. During adiabatic expansion, the entropy of steam
remains constant; the diagram will therefore show
the steam conditions at the end of such an expansion
by following the appropriate vertical entropy line
until it meets the exhaust pressure line. The
appropriate entropy line is discovered from the point
on the diagram which shows the pressure and super¬
heat conditions at the beginning of expansion. The
quality of steam is the proportion of dry steam in a
. mixture of steam and water.
iii. The gain in superheat or dryness on throttling is
discovered by following the appropriate constant
total heat line. The total heat in steam remains
constant during throttling to a lower pressure.
496 Sec. 125.—Practical Efficiencies
6. As an example of the use of this diagram, suppose the

stop-valve pressure to be 220 lb./sq. in. absolute, superheat,
140° F., and the condenser pressure 4 in. of mercury (say
2 lb./sq. in. absolute).
From the Mollier diagram :—
i. Total heat of superheated steam at 220 lb./sq. in.,
140° F. superheat = 1,280 B.Th.U. (Point A).
ii. Total heat of wet steam at 2 lb./sq. in. = 940 B.Th.U.
(Point B vertically below point A on line of
constant entropy. Note that about 17 per cent,
of the steam is condensed at the point B). *
iii. Water heat of condensed steam (Table W, page 439)
= 94 B.Th.U.
The available heat = 1,280 — 940 = 340 B.Th.U.
The heat supplied — 1,280 — 94 = 1,186 B.Th.U.
340
The Rankine cycle efficiency — -—7; = 0*286.
l,loo
. The steam consumption per I.H.P.-hour of the ideal engine
would be — 7-5 lb.
340
125. Practical efficiencies
1. The thermal efficiencies realized in practice do not
exceed 50 to 75 per cent, of the ideal Rankine cycle described
above, this percentage being known as the efficiency radio.
Suppose that an actual engine working under the above
conditions consumes 11*5 lb. of steam per I.H.P., then the
7*5
efficiency ratio = = = 0*65.
11*5
The indicated thermal efficiency = 0*286 X 0*65 = 0*186, or
18*6 per cent.
If the mechanical efficiency is 90 per cent.,
the brake thermal efficiency — 18*6 X 0*9 = 16*74 per cent.
2. The main reasons for the difference between ideal and
indicated thermal efficiencies are :—
i. The valves do not open nor dose instantaneously.
This rounds off the comers of the diagram.
ii. The expansion is not complete, nor adiabatic, because
of the heat exchange between the steam and the
cylinder walls.
iii. There is compression at the end of the exhaust stroke
. because the valve closes before the end of the stroke.
(Sec. 130, para. 5.)
iv. There is a certain amount of clearance volume in the
cylinder when the piston is at the end of the stroke.
Examples of actual indicator diagrams are shown on
PL 108, Fig. 2, and PI. 109, Fig. 3.
%
iw ■
Sec. 125.—Practical Efficiencies 497
3. The power developed by a steam engine may be in¬
creased by:—
i. Increasing the initial pressure of the steam.
ii. Causing the cut-off to take place later, and, therefore,
using more steam.
iii. Reducing the back pressure during the return stroke.
iv. Speeding up the engine.
4. It is difficult to effect much improvement in any
existing engine, because :—
i. The pressure available is generally limited by the
strength of the boiler available, if not by the design
of the engine.
ii. A late cut-off reduces the efficiency of the engine.
It is possible, however, to effect a considerable improve¬
ment by making the cylinder exhaust into a condenser, in
which a good vacuum is maintained.
The speed of an engine can seldom be much increased
above that for which it was designed without causing vibration
and increased stresses which may be dangerous.
5. Practical economy.—The best results will generally
be obtained by a careful attention to detail, allowing the
engine to operate precisely as intended by the designer, and
ensuring that steam is not wasted through leaking joints,
piston-rings, &c., nor power wasted through unnecessary
friction in piston, piston-rod, or bearings.
The performance of an engine during the maker’s test is
seldom achieved in actual working. In estimating the boiler
capacity necessary to feed an engine, this must be taken into
consideration. The consumption during normal working
must be expected to be 25 per cent, more than that of the
maker’s full-load test under ideal conditions.
Table X, on page 539, shows sample figures for various
types of engine as obtained during makers’ tests, giving lbs.
of steam per B.H.P.-hour.
6. Effect of variation in load.—It will be seen from
Table X that the consumption of steam per B.H.P.-hour in¬
creases as the load upon an engine decreases. The reasons are
i. Frictional losses are approximately constant at all loads.
ii. Steam leakages continue as at full load.
iii. Clearance spaces must be filled with steam, whatever
the load.
iv. If cut-off governing only is employed, the greater
range of expansion is frequently counterbalanced by
the increased cylinder condensation which will occur
with a large temperature change. Throttle govern¬
ing, however, reduces this condensation loss by its
superheating effect on the steam.
17—(579)
496 Sec. 126.—Cylinder Condensation
It is, therefore, important that as far as possible an engine
shall work at nearly full load all the time, and when the load
is fairly constant the engine should be chosen to ensure this.
7. Overloads.—It is generally possible to put a load 25
per cent, above the normal on to a throttle-governed steam
engine, and up to 50 per cent, or more on to one governed by
variable expansion, with a small loss in efficiency and with
increase in wear and tear if applied for long periods.
Such overloading is not possible with I.C. engines.
t
126. Cylinder condensation

1. Condensation in cylinders is a large source of waste of
steam in engines.
When hot steam is admitted to a cold cylinder, part of it
is condensed to water upon the walls and piston. While
steam is being admitted, the water remains in a film upon the
metal and does no work. During expansion it partly re¬
evaporates as the pressure falls and does some work on the
piston. In evaporating it cools down the walls again, so
that more steam is condensed at the next admission. The
efficiency of an engine is thus considerably reduced.
The greater the degree of expansion the larger is the
variation in temperature, and, therefore, the amount of
condensation.
Condensation may be diminished in several ways :—
i. The engine may be run faster to allow less time for
condensation to take place.
ii. The cylinder may be surrounded by a jacket, J, on
PI. 108, Fig. 1, containing live steam and lagged.
Condensation in the cylinder is thus diminished.
iii. The ratio of expansion may be kept small in any one
cylinder by using the steam successively in two or
more cylinders of increasing diameter.
An engine is said to be compound when two such
cylinders are used, the smaller one taking steam at
boiler pressure, expanding it to a limited extent,
and then exhausting it into the larger one for further
expansion, PI. 114. A triple-expansion engine has
three cylinders, the third one being larger still.
iv. The steam, after it has left the boiler, may be super¬
heated or raised considerably in temperature, but
not in pressure, by passing it through tubes in the
boiler flues, PI. 96, Fig. 3, and PI. 98, Fig. 1. It
has then some spare heat which it can expend in
heating up the cylinder walls, valves, &c., without
being cooled below its saturation point, and so none
%■„ is condensed.
See. 128.—Governing of Steam Engines 499
v. The engine may be designed to give a temperature
gradient down the cylinder as in the Uni flow engine.
[See Sec. 131 and PI. 113, Fig. 1.)
.127. Engine details

1. Stuffing boxes.—Steam is prevented from leaking past
the piston-rod by means of a stuffing box closed by a gland.
For low-pressure steam the stuffing box is generally packed
with asbestos rope, which is impregnated with tallow and
coiled round the rod, PI. 108, Fig. 3.
The gland must only be screwed down hard and evenly
enough to stop any escape of steam. If it were too tight the
rope would grip the rod,'a large amount of power would be
wasted in friction, and, consequently, the rod would be heated
and wear very rapidly.
Piston rods are liable to wear unevenly, and so become
fluted. When this has occurred it is impossible to keep
the glands tight enough to fill the grooves, and steam
escapes.
2. Metallic packing.—For high-pressure steam and for
superheated steam, metallic packing is necessary. This
consists of several segment rings of anti-friction metal, R,
on PI. 108, Fig. 4, held in place by a spring, S, and coned
bronze hoops, B, or else by garter springs. The segments are
arranged to break joints, so that steam cannot blow through
them. Provision is made in metallic packings, and sometimes
in rope-packing glands, for lateral play and swivelling, in case
the piston rod should not be straight or the bore and guides
out of line. A truly ground surface, G, provides for lateral
movement without allowing steam to escape, while a spherical
joint, J, carefully scraped to fit, and then ground in, allows
for swivelling.
128. Governing of steam engines

The principles of governing explained in Sec. 71 in connec¬
tion with I.C. engines apply equally well to steam engines.
The governor controls the steam supply by varying the
opening of the throttle valve, by altering the point of cut-off,
or by both methods simultaneously.
Governors should be either mounted upon the engine shaft
or driven by positive gearing. The obsolescent method of
driving by belt is dangerous and unreliable.
A weight-loaded governor is shown in PI. 108, Fig. 7, and
a spring-loaded shaft governor in PL 108, Fig. 8;
500 Sec. 129.—Lubrication of Steam Engines
129. Lubrication of steam engines

1. The lubrication of reciprocating steam engines is
carried out by similar methods to those employed in I.C.
engines. See Sec. 72.
2. In high-speed vertical steam engines of the single-acting
Willan’s type (seldom met with nowadays) splash lubrication
was used, but in the double-acting type such as the Beilis
and Morcom, and Browett-Lindley, forced lubrication is
generally employed.
PI. 108, Fig. 5, shows an oil pump. *
3. For the valves and cylinders, mechanical force feed
lubrication is usual in modern engines (see Sec. 72), but on
some of the older engines .a sight feed lubricator worked by
steam pressure may be met with. PI. 108, Fig. 6.
The barrel is prepared for filling by closing the steam
valve S, and delivery valve E, opening the top plug P, and
draining out the water. After filling the barrel B with oil,
on closing plug P and opening valve S, steam enters the
condenser C, is therein condensed and passes slowly into the
barrel B, forcing out the oil through the regulating valve D,
and so through the sight-tube F, which contains water. The
oil rises in large drops, from the frequency of which the rate
of feed can be judged, and adjusted by means of the regulating
valve D, to that specified by the makers, which may be from
one drop per minute upwards.
4. There are a few points in connection with the lubrication
of cylinders and valves which are peculiar to the steam
engine. The oil may in some cases be applied direct to the
cylinder wall as in I.C. engines, but it is preferable to introduce
it into the centre of the main steam-pipe, several feet from the
main throttle, through a nozzle of special design, where the oil
is atomized and carried along with the steam to lubricate both
valves and cylinders.
In small types of vertical engines it may be found practic¬
able to dispense with oil and rely upon the water present in
the steam for the lubrication of valves and cylinders. This mil
mean some 10 to 20 per cent, increase in steam consumption
due to increased friction losses and to leakage of steam past
the piston, but in the case of condensing engines it ensures
that no oil gets into the boiler.
Pistons of vertical steam engines really need very little
lubrication as there is practically no side pressure, and the
same remark applies to piston valves and balanced D slide
valves.
In the case of the ordinary D slide valve, however, the
pressure between the rubbing faces is considerable and very
good lubrication is necessary.
Sec. 129.—Lubrication of Steam Engines 501
5. Moisture in steam tends to wash pure mineral oil away
from cylinder walls. This can be obviated ill non-condensing
engines by using a slightly (5 per cent.) compounded oil which
tends to emulsify, cling to the cylinder walls and resist the
washing action of the wet steam. In condensing engines,
however, it is better to use a pure mineral oil, as it is difficult
to separate the fatty oils from water.
Pure mineral oil is also best with superheated steam, which
tends to decompose the fatty oils.
Ref. page 495.

The isothermal P.V. curve is the simplest to construct, and
as it coincides approximately with that obtained in practice,
it is frequently used in calculations.
Assuming PV=constant, therefore, for the expansion cum
be, the area abeda in Fig. 1
= P1V1(l-log^)-P2V8.
If P is in lbs. per square foot, and V in cubic feet, the result

gives the nett work done in foot lbs.
1 _Jogr y
The mean effective pressure ?m = Pi —^— P2,in which
— expansion ratio and P2 = back pressure.

CHAPTER XXVI
VALVE GEARS
130. The slide valve and expansion gears
1. The D slide valve.—The slide valve is primarily a
plate or cover which slides to and fro over ports in the face
of a cylinder casting, and so opens and closes these ports to
admit steam and cut off the supply. It also places these
ports during the return stroke of the piston in communication
with a passage to the atmosphere, or the condenser (if one is
used), through which the used steam can escape.
The elementary D slide valve, D on PI. Ill, Fig. 1, has
faces of the same width as the cylinder ports, P, so that it
just closes them completely when in the centre of its travel.
In use it is central when the piston is at the end of its stroke at
either end, and during a stroke it is traversed so as to admit
steam from the chest in which it works to the working end of
the cylinder, and at the same time to allow the steam to
escape from the other end of the condenser through passage, E.
A slide valve is normally operated by an eccentric, X, upon
the main shaft, S, of the engine, through rods, R. The
eccentric is, in principle, merely a crank of short radius; see
PI. 108, Fig. 5. In order to bring the valve central when the
piston is at the end of its stroke, or on the dead centre, the
eccentric must be set at right angles to the main crank, and
in order to admit steam to the desired end of the piston it
must be placed so as to precede the crank. It is then said
to have 90° advance upon the crank, or to be at a 90° setting.
Such a valve admits steam during the whole stroke.
2. Outside lap.—To cut off steam before the end of a
stroke, and so use it expansively, the valve is made to overlap
the ports slightly on the outside when central. The valve
must now move slightly before it can admit steam, and in
returning will cover the port sooner than before, PI. 111, Fig. 2.
To admit steam at the dead centre, the eccentric must now be
turned so as to have more than 90° advance on the crank,
possibly as much as 110°.
3. Lead.—In order that full steam pressure may act on
the piston, as soon as it begins to move, the eccentric is given
still more advance. The amount by which the port is open at
dead centre is called the lead of the valve, PI. Ill, Fig. 3.
4. Angle of advance.—The total angle by which the
eccentric is set in advance of the elementary 90° setting is
known as the angle of advance, A on PI. 111, Fig. 3.
502
insioc lup sHomite crricr on mnmst ©c. ^
504 Sec. 130.—The Slide Valve and Expansion Gears
5. Inside lap.—In order to provide a cushion of steam

to check the movement of the piston and its rods when
approaching dead centre, it is usual to provide inside lap also.
This causes the valve to close the ports during exhaust well
before dead centre, and so imprisons a little steam in the
cylinder, PI. 111, Fig. 4. It also causes the exhaust to open a
little later, and so compensates slightly for the large angular
advance necessitated by lap and lead, which is otherwise
inclined to cause too early exhaust.
6. Balanced valves.—In old engines the slide valve is?
of the simple D form. In modem engines its place is usually
taken by either a balanced valve or a piston valve, thus
obviating the enormous pressure which a plain D valve must
carry, especially in high-pressure cylinders.
A balanced valve may be of two types :—
i. It may consist of a box without bottom or top,
provided on the back with a ring, R, on PI. 112,
Fig. 1, which makes a steam-tight joint with the
steam-chest cover. The only pressure upon the
valve is then that which bears upon the outside
lap.
ii. It may consist of an ordinary D slide, fitted with a
relief ring on the back, the space enclosed by this
ring being placed in communication with the
atmosphere or condenser through a hole in the
steam-chest cover.
7. Piston valves.—PI. 112, Fig. 2. A piston valve
consists of a spindle, S, carrying two pistons, P, the thickness
of each being the width of a face of a slide valve, i.e. width
of a port plus outside and inside lap.
It slides in a cylinder which takes the place of a steam-
chest ; live steam may be introduced into the ends, and the
space between the pistons connected to the air, condenser, or
intermediate chest for exhaust. This arrangement is often
reversed, live steam being admitted to the central space, and
the ends open to exhaust. See also PI. 114.
Each of the two pistons slide in a liner or bush, L, in
which are the ports, arranged in a ring and opening into a
passage which completely surrounds the liner. Thus pressures
are absolutely balanced, and the amount of movement of the
valve may be large without causing overheating, excessive
wear, or absorbing much power. Moreover, the pistons may
be placed far apart, so that the passages to the cylinder may
be short and straight.
8. Stephenson’s link motion.—When an engine is
required to reverse, two different eccentrics are necessary,
placed as shown on PI. 112, Fig. 3.
Sec. 136.—the Slide Valve and Expansion Gears 505
Plate 112,
Sec. 130.—The Slide Valve and Expansion Gears
Starting with both at right angles to the crank, when lap

and lead are applied they cause the centre of both eccentrics
to move away from the crank pin. Both eccentrics carry
straps and rods which are coupled to a link, one at each
end.
The block, B, on the valve rod, V, may be made to follow
the movements of either eccentric by raising or lowering the
link, L. In any intermediate position the valve is partly
controlled by both eccentrics simultaneously. The effect
is then approximately the same as though the valves were
operated by one eccentric whose centre was some point on thd
line CA, such as C3. Such an eccentric would cause the
same amount of valve opening at dead centre as either of
the actual eccentrics, but would give less valve travel and
a greater angular advance.
The final result is the same whether the rods are open -
(the more usual arrangement) or crossed as shown in PI. 112,
Fig.3-
(It will be noted that in this figure the crank is inside the
links. The term open and crossed are applied to the arrange¬
ment of the links when the crank is outside the links, i.e. 180°
from the position shown.)
When the link is notched up (i.e. the block B moved towards
the mid-position), with open rods, the lead increases and the
valve therefore opens earlier; with crossed rods the reverse
happens. In both cases, however, the valve opens less and
remains open for a shorter period. The steam is, therefore,
admitted for a shorter period of the stroke, and works
expansively to a greater ratio.
Less power will then be developed, since the mean effective
pressure is less, but better economy will be obtained, since
much less steam is admitted.
There are many varieties of the link gear, some having
straight links; in these both link and block are moved in
opposite directions in notching up, to overcome any tendency
to alter the total length of the rods.
9. Radial valve gears.—In locomotives, eccentrics take

up valuable space on the crankshaft. Hence the introduction
of radial valve gears, such as that shown on PI. 112, Fig. 4,
in which motion is obtained ‘from a point on the connecting
rod, through two linked rods, BC and CD, and a floating
lever, EG, whose extension, GF, moves the valve rod through
the distance required for lap and lead only.
The vertical movement of the point E, as the linked rods
rock, raises and lowers G, which runs in a guide link, L. The
angle at which the guide link is set controls the amount of‘
port opening and the direction of rotation.
Sec. 131.—Corliss and Drop Valves, &c. 507
10. Limits of expansion in slide valves.—The slide

valve does not work satisfactorily if made to cut off much
before half-stroke, since the exhaust is also affected if
much lead is given; and inside lap, in preventing too early
an opening to exhaust, causes a very early closing and
excessive cushioning or great back pressure.
11. Meyer expansion gear.—The Meyer expansion gear,
PI. 112* Fig. 5, consists of a plate, P, sliding on the back of a
main slide valve, S, which has extensions, so that ports, B,
are formed in it through which steam can enter the cylinder
only when they are in line with the cylinder ports, and also
uncovered by the plate or expansion valve, which is moved
by an eccentric set opposite to the crank, or nearly so.
The main valve, S, is set to admit steam during the greater
part of the stroke, and to exhaust as desired. The length of
the expansion plate, P, may be variable, and it may be
controlled by a right- and left-handed screw, operated from
outside the steam-chest, or its travel may be altered by means
of a slotted link. When the two plates are screwed farther
apart, the effect is the same as though a wider single plate
were used, and, therefore, since the movement of the plate is
opposite to that of the piston, it will cover the ports in the
slide valve sooner and so cause earlier cut off.
Since the slide valve and the expansion valve are moving
in opposite directions during the first portion of the stroke of
the piston, the cut off is very quick. The gear can be made to
cut off very early without affecting the exhaust in any way.
Note that the point of cut off can be varied whilst the
engine is running.
131. Corliss and drop valves, and central exhaust

1. Purpose.—Engines whose ratio of expansion is large
in any one cylinder suffer from heavy condensation in the
cylinders, unless means are employed to prevent it.
One of these means is to provide separate valves and ports
for inlet and exhaust, so that high-pressure steam need not
pass through passages that have just been cooled by exhaust
steam.
2. Drop valves.—In drop-valve engines, steam is
admitted by raising a double-heat valve, having two spherical
seatings and arranged so that the steam pressure has only a
slight effect in closing it, PI. 112, Fig. 7. The valve, V, is
raised.by an arm, tripped at a point determined by the governor,
and so released. Thus, if the engine speeds up, cut off is made
to occur earlier and the mean effective pressure is reduced,
with a corresponding economy in steam. The exhaust
Sec. 131.—Corliss and Drop Valves, &c.
valves may be larger than the inlet to allow the expanded

steam to escape freely. They need no trip-gear and may be
placed far from the inlet valves.
3. Corliss valves.—Corliss valves are arranged similarly
to drop valves on the cylinder, and have also normally a trip-
gear to the inlet valve, controlled by the governor, PI. 112,
Fig. 6.
The valves are opened by revolving them in their cylindrical
seatings, and so uncovering wide ports. They are closed by
springs, controlled by dashpots to decrease noise and shock. ,
4. Central exhaust engines (PI. 113, Fig. 1).—In
these, steam is admitted by either a drop valve or Corliss
valve, while exhaust is effected by allowing the long piston to
uncover a ring of ports in the centre of the cylinder. Thus
steam flows through the cylinder in one direction, and owing
to the temperature gradient which obtains down the cylinder,
condensation is much reduced. Efficiency is thus better
maintained with large expansion ratios.
The exhaust ports E, are very large and provide very free
exhaust at the end of the stroke only. The return stroke
compresses the unexhausted steam to a temperature and
pressure approaching boiler steam conditions, thus further
reducing initial condensation. The indicator diagram
resembles that obtained with an air-blast Diesel engine.
Central exhaust engines are also known as Uniflow engines.
They are the most efficient slow-speed steam engines at present
obtainable.
CHAPTER XXVII
CONDENSERS vv ■*,
132. Object of condensers

1. The objects of a condenser, applied to a reciprocating
engine, are:—
i. To reduce the back pressure upon the piston during its
exhaust stroke, thus increasing the mean effective
pressure.
ii. To make it profitable to expand the steam to a lower
pressure in the cylinder by early cut off, thus obtain¬
ing greater efficiency.
iii. Incidentally its use enables the condensate to be
returned for feed purposes.
2. These objects can be attained by producing a high
vacuum in the condenser, placing it near the engine, and
providing large exhaust valves and ports and a wide short
exhaust pipe without unnecessary bends.
Since there is no internal pressure to be withstood, the
exhaust pipe may be of cast-iron and of large diameter, but
it should be provided with wide flanges and good jointing
material to prevent air leaking in.
133. Types of condensers

1. Surface condensers.—Condensers are of several types,
of which the most common is the surface condenser, normally
consisting of a drum or chest, C, on PI. 113, Fig. 2, into which
the steam is exhausted, at E, and in which it is condensed by
coming in contact with a number of metal tubes, T, cooled by
circulating cold wafer, W, through them. A circulating
pump is necessary, and in modem plant it is generally a
centrifugal pump, direct coupled to an electric motor.
The condensate, or water produced by the condensation
of the steam, is removed by a separate pump and delivered
to the hot-well. It is not mixed at all with the cooling water.
The air which is present in the condenser before starting
up, the air contained in the feed water, and any which may
leak into the condenser while working, is removed by an air
pump, A, or steam ejector. The condensate pump and air
pump are often combined, since it is possible to design
a pump which will deal with both simultaneously.
To assist in maintaining the temperature of the condensate,
trays, R, should be fitted to catch the water dripping from
509
510 Sec. 134.—Condenser Accessories
each bank of the condenser tubes as soon as it is condensed.

Otherwise, if it is allowed to drip from tube to tube until it
reaches the bottom, its temperature approximates more nearly
to that of the cooling or circulating water, which is thus
unnecessarily heated while the hot-well temperature is reduced.
2. An open-air condenser, PI. 113, Fig. 3, is used where
the necessary quantity of cooling water is not available for
an ordinary closed surface condenser.
It consists merely of a number of pipes placed in the open
air, into which the exhaust steam is led to be condensed. The *
cooling action may be assisted by trickling water over the
outside of the pipes. Since this cooling water is evaporated
on the pipes, it absorbs approximately the latent heat of its
own weight of steam. The amount of cooling water need
never exceed the weight used by the engine, but it is all lost.
It is difficult to keep the temperature low enough to maintain
a good vacuum, and there are many joints which are difficult
to keep air-tight. In desert countries and in mobile plants
and vehicles, the recovery of water may be the principal
reason for using a condenser, and this type of condenser is,
therefore, suitable—of course, without the cooling water.
3. Jet condensers.—When space is of great importance,
jet condensers may be used.
In these the steam is condensed by admixture with several
times its weight of cooling water. The air and water may be
removed by a pump, or, if sufficient head is available, by
using the weight of the water either barometrically or by
means of an ejector.
The ejector condenser consists of a series of nozzles or cones
as shown on PI. 113, Fig. 4. Cold water at a head of about
20 feet is delivered into the nozzle, N, and passes right through
the apparatus. Exhaust steam from E, entering the cones,
C, is condensed, and, together with any air which may be
mixed with it, is entrained and delivered through the infuser,
J, by the enlargement of which the pressure of the mixture is
brought to a little above atmospheric before it is discharged
to the hot-well.
With all forms of jet condenser, only a small portion of the
hot-well water can be used as crude feed water. The remainder
should normally be cooled and used again in the jet.
134. Condenser accessories

1. Condensing water coolers.—The cooling water for
use in any kind of condenser must be at a low temperature.
Where a river or lake is available this can generally be managed
Sec. 134.—Condenser Accessories 511
Plate 113.
512 Sec. 134.—Condenser Accessories
by drawing direct from the river or lake and returning the
water to it after use. Otherwise, some device must be used
to cool the water before using it again.
In small plants this can be effected by exposing the water
in tanks to the air.
For larger plants some evaporative method is necessary.
Either the water can be pumped to the top of a tower and
allowed to trickle down over coke, broken brick, tiles, or some
other porous material, or it can be sprayed into the air and
caught in large flat reservoirs. A small portion is lost by
evaporation and must be made up. »
2. Air pumps.—The air in a condenser is usually removed
by means of a pump working under water, which acts as a
seal. The old type of air pump shown on PI. 113, Fig. 5,
draws air, with any excess of water in the condenser base, into
the cylinder, in which the water lies at the bottom. On the
descending stroke the air, with any quantity of water above
that which fills the clearance, passes above the piston through
a non-return valve. On the up-stroke the air is expelled
through the delivery valves, together with any water above
that which will fill the clearance space above the piston.
In the Edwards' air pump (PI. 113, Fig. 6) the only valves
are those in the top of the barrel. The condensed steam flows
continuously by gravity from the condenser into the base of
the pump. The air has a free passage from condenser to pump
at all times.
On the down stroke the condensate passes round a curved
passage C through ports P on the top of the piston. On the
up stroke the condensate both air and water is entrapped above
the piston and expelled through the delivery valves V.
The piston has no rings or leathers, but is turned an easy
fit in the cylinder and contains several grooves which when
water filled make it sufficiently air and water-tight. A relief
valve is fitted to the base of the pump to prevent damage
when starting up with the base full of water.
Steam air ejectors, combined with centrifugal extraction
pumps, have now taken the place of the wet air pump, in all
but very small plants.
3. Leaks.—Condenser tubes are very liable to develop
leaks. In water-cooled surface condensers the effect is that
cooling water enters the condenser and is removed to the
storage tank with the condensate. If it becomes unnecessary
to add make-up water, or if the level in the storage tank rises,
this is a likely cause. The purifier should be made to deliver
sufficient reagent to deal with this influx of crude water, as a
temporary measure, and the condenser should be overhauled
when an opportunity offers.
CHAPTER XXVIII
CARE AND RUNNING OF STEAM ENGINES

135. Portable and semi-portable engines
1. Types.—The semi-portable type of steam engine,
PI. 108, Fig. 1, mounted upon a locomotive type boiler, is a
type sometimes used in the service, and it is selected as a basis»
for the following sections, which apply to all simple medium-
speed engines.
The type is suitable for active service use, since it is
compact, mobile, and as economical as most engines of equal
size.
There is normally one cylinder only. Two cylinders with
cranks at 90° are sometimes supplied, and occasionally com¬
pound engines may be found, generally also with cranks at
90°. Each piston then has its own valve gear, and the
machine may be regarded as two separate engines, except for
the common bed and mainshaft bearing.
2. Expansion of boiler.—Since the boiler forms the bed
or frame for the engine, it is important that the final adjust¬
ments to rods should be made while the boiler is under nearly
full pressure.
Rough adjustments after overhaul can be made with the
boiler cold, as explained in Sec. 41. If the boiler is estimated
to expand (say) £ in. the piston should be given £ in. more
clearance at the crosshead end of the cylinder than at the
other end, and the slide valve should be set to open the port
on the crosshead side \ in. more than the port on the far
side.
3. Installation.—A semi-portable engine, if kept on its
wheels, needs no further foundation than a firm floor into
which the wheels cannot sink, and wedges to prevent any
movement or rocking when running. If no floor exists, a
sleeper or baulk of timber laid lengthwise under each wheel
will suffice, the wedges being nailed to the sleeper, PI. 113,
Fig. 9, or drawn in by long bolts.
If the engine is to be used in a semi-permanent building,
it may be taken off its wheels and the boiler lowered on to a
bride or concrete bed. Only one end should be fixed, since
the boiler must expand and contract.
4. Starting.—Before an engine is started, all lubricating
devices should be filled and set working, the cylinder drain-
cocks opened wide, and a little steam allowed to pass the
514
Sec. 135.—Portable and Semi-Portable Engines 515
throttle to warm up the cylinder, the piston being on inner
dead centre.
At first water will flow freely from the drain-cocks, and
steam will issue when one cylinder end and the piston are
warm.
The throttle should now be shut, the engine moved over
to outer dead centre, and the other cylinder end warmed
similarly by slightly opening the throttle. The engine may
then be started by opening the throttle further and pulling
the flywheel over to get off the dead centre.
The engine should be run slowly for a few minutes, with
the drain-cocks slightly open, and then speeded up and the
drain-cocks closed. At intervals the drain-cocks should be
opened for a revolution, especially if any clicking sound should
be heard in the cylinders.
5. Running.—Bearings should be felt occasionally, to
ensure that if they begin to run hot it may be discovered
before any seizing begins. This is particularly important in
the case of a new engine, or one that has had any recent
adjustments.
If a bearing commences to heat, the lubricating device
should be examined at once, and, even if working properly,
it should be set to supply more oil. Some thicker oil may be
added with advantage. If the bearing continues to get
hotter or if the engine shows any sign of labouring, the latter
should be stopped and the former eased slightly and flooded
with oil. When the bearing is cool, it may be tightened
again and the engine restarted. If the bearing still persists in
overheating, a test should be made for faulty alignment as
described in Sec. 102.
6. Governor.—The governors of semi-portable engines
are generally driven by a belt, which is liable to slip off if it
is slack or oily, or break if it is too tight. Apart from reason¬
able care in keeping the belt clean and at a proper tension,
not too much reliance should at any time be placed upon the
governor. The engine driver should always remain near the
engine.
7. Bearings.—It is the duty of the driver to observe
any knocks, however slight, that may develop, to discover in
which bearings they appear, and to report the matter at once
if increasing. . As soon as an opportunity offers, the bearing
should be taken up and properly bedded on the journal, as
8. Stuffing glands.—The piston and valve-rod glands
must not be too tight, and in any case must never be tight
enough to prevent one man turning the engine by the flywheel
516 Sec. 136.—High-Speed Engines
rim. A very small steam leak is of no importance. If an

excessive leakage occurs and cannot be stopped without
tightening the gland to the point of making the engine
difficult to turn, the packing should be removed and the rod
examined to see whether it is grooved, bent, or out of line.
9. Semi-portable engines.—In the semi-portable type
the engine and boiler are combined in one unit for compact¬
ness, and one man can be made responsible for the whole.
The instructions given in Chapter XXII should be followed
in every respect. More care is generally required by blowing
down and washing out more frequently, since the water used
may be very hard and no means may be available for softening
it before use.
136. High-speed engines

1. Types and uses.—Steam engines running at high
speed are used for :—
1. Locomotive vehicles.
ii. Generating electric power.
High-speed vertical engines of moderate size are generally
compound, and of the type shown on PI. 114.
2. Characteristics.—High-speed engines are assembled
with less clearance in the bearings to reduce wear; the action
is usually enclosed in a crankcase, C, PI. 114, and lubrication
is nearly always supplied by pumping oil under pressure from
a sump, S, to all bearings through ducts, D, in the crankshaft
and through small pipes fixed to connecting-rods and valve-
gear rods. The valves are normally of the piston-slide type,
and sometimes one common valve supplies both cylinders.
The governor, G, of the spring-controlled type, is generally
mounted upon the crankshaft, and is sensitive and rdiable.
3. Lubrication.—The engine sump, S, must be filled to
the level specified by the makers with pure mineral oil of
suitable quality (see Table ZA, page 604). The filter should
be clean.
The oil need seldom be changed, but a little should be
added weekly to ensure that the correct level is maintained;
any water which collects in the bottom of the sump should be
drained off first. A pressure gauge, H, is fitted to show
whether the pump, P, is working satisfactorily, and should
indicate the pressure specified by the makers, which is usually
from 10 to 20 lbs./sq. in. Much rise of pressure shows that
the pipes are clogged.
4. Installation.—High-speed engines require good founda¬
tions, especially when directly coupled to electric generators.
Sec. 136.—High-Speed Engines 517
Plats 114.
518 Sec. 136.—High-Speed Engines
In permanent installations a concrete bed as specified by
the makers, or at least three feet thick, should be provided,
and also a cast-iron bed-plate, B, on PL 114, to carry the
engine and generator, with means for accurately lining up.
In semi-permanent and portable power plants, the engine
and generator may be mounted upon steel joists not less than
10 inches deep. A flexible coupling between the engine and
generator is advisable, unless the generator bearings are
actually held in the bed-plate of the engine and the latter has
been designed specially rigidly for use on such insecure,
foundations.
A water separator, W, should be fitted between the steam
main and the engine steam-chest, provided with adequate
drainage, such as a steam-trap of the falling-bucket type,
PL 115, Fig. 8.
5. Starting.—The valve lubricator, L, on Pl. 114, should
be set to deliver oil at the correct rate. The stop-valve, V,
may then be opened very slightly and the drain-cocks, Z,
opened to carry away all water that condenses.
A small engine should then be moved by hand for a few
revolutions, or a large one should be cranked alternately to
dead centres until the cylinders are warm. The engine
should then be run at about 60 revolutions per minute until
thoroughly warm, then gradually speeded up to its correct
revolutions, the drain-cocks closed, and a load brought on
gradually. The condenser stop-valve may then be opened
and the atmospheric release valve closed.
The drain-cocks should be opened occasionally until the
cylinders are thoroughly hot.
6. Running.—The engine should need little attention
while running, provided the load is fairly constant. If it is
possible to foresee sudden large increases of load, notice should
be given to the engine-driver so that he may open the drain-
cocks, since water is liable to collect in the cylinders when the
governor first opens the throttle-valve wide.
7. Stopping.—Before stopping, the load should, if possible,
be removed gradually, and the condenser stop-valve closed-, so
that the engine exhausts to atmosphere. Drain-cocks should
be opened and the stop-valve gradually closed when the load
is taken off entirely, but the engine should not be entirely
deprived of steam until it has nearly come to a standstill.
The engine should be left with drain-cocks open so that
the cylinders cannot fill with water.

CHAPTER XXIX
LAY-OUT AND INSTALLATION OF STEAM PLANT

137. Pipes and valves
1. Materials of pipes.—The material suitable for use
in steam pipes depends upon the pressure of the steam and the
diameter of the pipe.
Cast-iron pipe with flanges cast integrally may be used for
exhaust steam, or for heating purposes where the pressure is
little above atmospheric.
All steam pipes of two inches diameter and less may be of
welded strip similar to water barrel, but should be ordered to
a steam specification. The joints may be screwed and packed
with string and red lead.
High-pressure steam pipe of more than two inches diameter
should be of solid drawn steel with flange joints, the flanges
being screwed on and the pipe beaded out into a recess.
PI. 115, Fig. 1.
The dimensions and specifications given in the British
Standards Institution Specifications should be followed
closely when making all fittings, and all material should
be ordered from contractors on these specifications. Thus
all pipes and fittings will match, and much difficulty will
be avoided in erection.
2. Jointing materials.—Between the flanges some type
of jointing is normally used. Various asbestos, rubber
composition, and other fabricated jointings are on the market,
and many are satisfactory for comparatively low pressures.
For high pressures, and particularly for superheated steam, a
metal packing is essential, placed in a shallow groove turned
in the flanges.
Corrugated washers of copper are suitable for saturated
steam, and similar corrugated washers of steel may be obtained
for use with superheated steam, which is liable to corrode
flanges if copper is present.
3. Size of pipe.—Steam pipes should be large enough
to carry the, maximum quantity of steam ever likely to be
required without exceeding a velocity of 5,000 feet per minute,
i,e. the cross-sectional area in square feet should be not less
than
maximum cubic feet of steam per minute
5,000
519
Sec. 137.—Pipes and Valves 521
4. Pressure drop.—The drop in pressure due to friction

in steam piping can be calculated approximately from the
Babcock formula:
W = 87-5 °(p» ~ P^5
m +£>
where W = weight of steam flowing per minute in lbs.
D = weight per cubic foot (lbs.).
Pi and P2 = the initial and final pressure (lbs. per square
•inch).
d = diameter of pipe in inches.
L = length in feet.
This formula takes into account average frictional
conditions.
The following table has been prepared from this formula
for steam at various pressures, when the speed of flow is
5,000 feet per minute :—
Drop in pressure (lbs. sq in.) per 100 feet, straight

Initial length
pressure,
lbs. sq. in. Pipes
1-in. 1 J-in. 2-in. 2^-in. 3-in. 4-in.
150 161 7-92 4-88 3-41 2-57 1*66

125 13-6 6-65 4-11 2-88 2-16
100 11-4 5-62 3-48 2-43 1-82 ! 1*18
80 9-6 4-72 2-91 2-03 1-52
15 3-26 1-61 0-99 0-69 0-52
10 2-75 1-39 0-84 0-58 0-44
5 2-33 Ml 0-68 0-46 0-35 0-23
Sharp bends, elbows, valves of the globe type, and other

obstructions greatly impede the flow. The drop in pressure
at a globe valve may be taken as the same as for the following
equivalent straight lengths of pipe :—
Pipe size—inches diameter .. .. | 1 1J 2 2£ 3 4

Equivalent length of straight pipe,
feet. 20 25 34 41 47 52 60
5. Valves.—Stop-valves should be cast with flanges

integral, or screwed female in small sizes. Bodies are generally
of bronze up to 2 inches in size, and of cast-iron or steel in
larger sizes, with seatings and other wearing parts of renewable
bronze or stainless steel. They should be so selected and
sited in a pipe-line that water is unlikely to collect in them
522 Sec. 138.—Pipe-Lines
when open, and that no large amount of water can collect in
the pipe near them when closed.
The globe type, PI. 115, Fig. 2, is unsuitable for horizontal
pipes, since water collects in the valve body.
The right-angle screw-down type, PI. 115, Fig. 3, is well
suited for boiler stop-valves, if placed, as shown on PI. 96,
Fig. 3, high above the boiler and the pipe is slightly sloped
down away from the valve.
The straight-through, or gate, valve, PI. 115, Fig. 4, is
the only type suitable for exhaust mains between an engine
and condenser, since its resistance to the passage of steam is
much less than that of globe or right-angle patterns.
138. Pipe-lines
1. Pipe-lines.—Pipes carrying steam, at whatever
pressure, must be so sited that no water can collect in them
anywhere. Otherwise, water hammer would be liable to
occur, masses of water would be carried forward with the
steam and thrown violently against bends or closed valves with
an alarming noise, and produce stresses in the pipe that would
cause joints to leak in minor cases, and might cause fracture
and a dangerous explosion if the quantity of water were large.
On PI. 115, Fig. 5, the quantity of water collecting above
the globe-valve might be sufficient to cause a disaster if the
valve were suddenly opened. In such cases a steam trap
must be fitted.
On PI. 115, Fig. 6, the water collecting in the bend will
cause a distressing hammer and endanger the pipe-line
farther on. Here again a steam trap is required.
If the pipe-line is so placed that the right-angle valve
shown on PI. 116, Fig. 1, is at its highest point, with a slight
but even gradient thenceforward to the engine, no large
quantity of water can collect anywhere, because all condensate
will travel forward with the steam as it precipitates.
2. Steam driers.—A steam drier or separator is merely
a sufficiently large vessel in which the steam is made to turn
a sharp comer, thus flinging out any liquid it contains into a
sump, from which it can be drained. On PI. 115, Fig. 7,
the steam entering downwards through A, turns sharply to
emerge by B, and any liquid, whether water or oil, in
suspension in the steam, tends to fly straight on into the
sump', C, which is fitted with a gauge glass, D, so that the
attendant can see how much is collecting. A drain, £,
may be fitted with a valve which the attendant can open
to let out water, or it should preferably be fitted with an
automatic steam trap.
Sec. 138.—Pipe-Lines 523
3. Steam traps.—Any dangerous point in a steam pipe¬
line and every steam drier should have a drain pipe led out
at the bottom and descending to a steam trap. The latter is
merely a device which permits water to escape, while confining
the steam.
The falling-bucket type of trap, shown on PI. 115, Fig. 8,
is bulky, but reliable in action. The bucket, B, normally
floats and keeps the valve, V, closed to prevent the escape of
steam. When sufficient water has collected, it will pour over
the top and sink the bucket, the contents of which are ejected
through the valve. Then die bucket floats again, and closes
the valve until enough water has collected to repeat the cycle.
In this particular type, the valve is automatically ground-in
by the spin of the bucket produced as the water flows through
the turbine, T. •
Many temperature-operated traps are available. They are
comparatively cheap, but are apt to leak excessively unless
the valve can be ground-in at intervals.
PI. 115, Fig. 9, shows a Sirius trap, which is much used
for draining steam radiators, &c., on account of its low price.
Liquid in the oval tube, T, expands if steam enters, and
closes the valve, V. There is no easy means of grinding-in
the valve, and the seatings are not renewable.
PI. 115, Fig. 10, shows a Geipel trap, whose valve, V,
is closed by pressure against the stop, S, when steam enters
the cantilever tubes, the lower one, B, being of brass, and the
other one, A, of steel, so that a rise of temperature causes the
cantilever to raise its apex. The valve is easily ground-in by
gripping the squared portion of its shank with a key. The
stop is adjustable and yielding, so that the apparatus cannot
strain if excessively heated.
4. Expansion joints.—It is essential that steam pipes
should be free to expand in length when steam enters, other¬
wise great strains will be caused in the pipes and joints, and
walls or machinery may be damaged.
Large easy bends in the lay-out of the pipes will provide
sufficient flexibility, provided the pipes are slung from brackets
or girders and in no way rigidly fixed.
If a considerable length of pipe must be straight, a
U-shaped piece should be introduced at least once every
fifty feet to provide for expansion and contraction. The bend
should be preferably in a horizontal plane to allow a free
passage for water. If it stands vertically upward it will
prevent water flowing and if hung downward it forms a water-
pocket. In both cases careful drainage is necessitated. A
special sliding joint is sometimes used, in which a portion of
pipe, P, on PI. .115, Fig. 11, machined outside, is held in a
stuffing box, S, in which it can move longitudinally.
524 Sec. 139.—Station Lay-out
5. Lagging.—All pipes carrying live steam should be
lagged when possible, to prevent excessive loss of heat by
radiation and convection.
Lagging materials must be soft and spongy, or their
effect is small. The best materials, such as soft asbestos,
slagwool, and magnesia, in coats about two inches thick,
keep down the loss to about 250 B.Th.U. per square foot of
external surface per hour or less, whereas bare steel, if
dirty, loses about 1,000 B.Th.U. at ordinary steam tempera¬
tures.
A polished steel pipe only loses about 200 B.Th.U. per
hour per square foot, copper or brass about 100, and plated
pipes such as fitted to many modem engines, only about 50
if kept bright.
Soft lagging should be encased in varnished canvas, or in
planished steel sheet to protect it and enhance its value. All
lagging should be given a smooth finish to reduce its radiation.
Aluminium paint is suitable for this.
6. Identification.—B.S.S. 3011—1929 lays down a system
of colouring, by which pipes in a power station may be identified.
The colours are very convenient and can be painted on the
whole pipe or on bands nears the flanges. Stripes are
longitudinal.
The principal colours are :—
Saturated steam .. red.
Superheated steam .. red with white stripe!
Exhaust steam .. black with red flanges.
Cooling water (fresh) .. sky blue with black stripe.
„ „ (salt) .. sea green.
Pure feedwater .. sky blue with white stripe.
Compressed air .. white with violet flanges.
Refrigerating pipes .. French grey.
139. Station lay-out

1. The engine-house.—PL 116. In siting the boiler,
engine, condenser and auxiliary plant in any lay-out, whether
large or small, the length of pipe should be kept to the
minimum to save first cost, maintenance, and waste of heat
from unnecessary surface.
The steam main, M, from boiler to engine should receive
first consideration, since it loses heat very freely. The
exhaust main, E, to the condenser may be considered next.
Here heat loss is of no importance, but the pipe must be large,
and is, therefore, expensive.
Pipes conveying water between auxiliaries are small,
comparatively cheap, and lose little heat, but economy is
worth considering.
Sec. 139.—-Station Lay-out 525
Plate 116.
flO/Z-FP ROOM AND ENGINE HOUSE.

FOR SMALL TEMPORARY’ POWE7? STATION IN THE FIELD.
SHOWING MINIMUM BRAKES NECE99ARY.
arm for chimney’—\

OH ECONOMIZER \ —t-boilfrs enter here
SWITCHBOARD
BRACE FOR
FURTHER 'BOLERO GRACE FOR
FURTHER
ENGINES
caNoe/vac*
’JETT-
>
ftg 2 COAL
SI- CURBOARO
(RUR/F/ER CHER)
/J|/1E3.
cxlla---\
^WORKSHOP & SMALL ■STORES
(ROUGH OTORE OVER)
526 Sec. 139.—Station Lay-out
A hot-well, H, of ample capacity, should be provided,
preferably in a pit below the condenser, C, but accessible for
cleaning, into which the condensate from the main condenser
and all steam trap should be led. Since feedwater heaters
in the exhaust mam line, and cocks and taps draining the low-
pressure cylinders and exhaust main, will be under less than
atmospheric pressure, their outlet pipes must be air-tight, and
led to the condenser or to a closed vessel communicating
therewith, sited to drain into it by gravity.
2. The boiler-house.—The boiler-house should be so*
sited, if possible, that coal may be brought to the bunkers by
rail or lorry, and that the least effort is required to get coal
from the bunkers into the furnace.
The floor of the bunkers should be about two feet above the
boiler-house floor for hand firing, and about seven feet from
the furnace door, see PI. 116, Fig. 3. Attendants can then
reach the coal easily, and need not stoop to fill a shovel.
3. Sample lay-out.—
i. As an example, assume that a high-speed vertical engine
taking 25 lb. of steam per B.H.P.-hour, according to the
makers’ specification, and coupled to a 35 kW. generator, is to
be installed as a semi-permanent set, supplied with steam
at 120-lb. gauge from two locomotive type boilers, and
exhausting into a surface condenser.
The engine will be required to develop about 55 B.H.P.
and may take 30 lb. of steam per B.H.P.-hour in adverse
conditions. Therefore, 1,650 lb. of steam per hour should
be allowed for, i.e. 27*5 lb. per minute, which, at 3*3 cubic feet
per lb., equals 91 cubic feet per minute. The area of the steam
main should be 91/5,000 = 0-018 square foot, or 2-6 square
inches. A 2-in. main will suffice, and screwed tube may
be used. It would be better practice to use rather larger
piping with flange joints if the station were to be permanent,
particularly because 2-in. pipe would not allow of the
installation later on of another engine if the demand for
power should increase.
The exhaust pipe should be similarly calculated for steam
of, say, 3 lbs. pressure, and may be of cast-iron with gate valve
and atmospheric release valve, A.
ii. PI. 116 shows a general lay-out suitable for this plant.
The engine and its auxiliaries are placed in a separate room
to keep them free from coal dust; they are grouped to keep
all pipes, as short as possible, and the hot-well consists of a
steel tank in a pit below the condenser. In a permanent
plant, standard practice would be to place the condenser also
in a pit.
Sec. 139.—Station Lay-out 527
The ascending main from each boiler culminates in a

screw-down right-angle isolation stop-valve to prevent live
steam passing to a boiler under repair or during cleaning.
Thence the steam main descends all the way to the steam drier
at the engine. Either boiler main can be completely isolated
by valves in the steam main in the engine room.
The boilers are grouped close to keep pipes short, but
separated sufficiently to enable stays to be examined and
replaced.
iii. PI. 116, Fig/3, shows a section through the boiler-
house. Space is left ahead of the boilers for sweeping out
tubes and in front of the fire-boxes for the use of slices and
Takes.
Coal is within reach, at knee level; it arrives by lorry
without intermediate handling, and there is storage for a
fortnight’s supply.
The masonry block on which the smoke-boxes rest is
hollow, and can be used as a flue when a separate chimney
can be built. At first, steel chimneys can be used, ascending
straight from the smoke-boxes, since nothing further is
necessary unless an economizer is fitted.
iv. The wall farthest from the engine-room is unen¬
cumbered, so that the ground outside is available for adding
further boilers or auxiliary plant, such as economizer and
water purifier.
In a more permanent building the roof of the engine-room
would be higher, and the walls would carry a travelling gantry
for lifting machinery. Here, no such gear is supplied, and all
machinery must be brought in on trucks and transferred to
the beds on rollers; but this is bad practice and lifting gear
should always be provided.
It is important to. design doors so that machinery can be
taken out. It is r\ot advisable to place machinery and then
build it in, since it may be necessary to move it at short
notice. This applies equally to boilers.
CHAPTER XXX
ENGINE AND BOILER TESTING

140. Introduction
Engines and boilers should be tested—
i. On first installation to verify compliance withi
specification.
ii. After overhaul and repair.
iii. Periodically to check fuel consumption and general
state of the plant.
The complete test of an engine would include :—
i. Verifying that the engine is capable of developing
its rated B.H.P. at rated speed without overheating,
noise, or vibration. This requires at least a 6 hours’
continuous run—12 hours if to comply with
British Standard Specifications.
ii. Measurement of fuel consumption per B.H.P.-hour
at various loads.
iii. Measurement of lubricating oil consumption.
iv. Investigation of precisely what is occurring in the
cylinder, so that faulty valves, ignition, &c., may
be discovered and rectified.
The indicator diagram is useful in this connection, but
is inapplicable to high-speed engines (of the order 1,000 r.p.m.)
except in a laboratory.
141. Measurement of indicated horse-power

1. The indicator.—An indicator consists primarily of
a small cylinder, C, on PI. 117, Fig. 1, which can be placed in
free communication with the engine cylinder. It contains a
light, well fitting piston, P, free to move very easily under any
change of pressure, and fitted with a spring, S, to regulate the
movement of the piston according to the pressure. A pencil,
Q, is carried by a system of light hinged levers so that it moves
in a vertical line, proportionately to the movement of the
piston, P, but magnifying its movements. A drum, D, to which
a paper or indicator card can be fixed, is mounted on a vertical
spindle, A, controlled by a spring, B, and is rotated by a
string, G, wound round it, the other end of which can be
attached to a point on the engine whose motion is the same
as that of the piston of the engine.
When the stroke of the engine is inconveniently long a
528
Sec. 141.—Measurement of Indicated Horse-Power 529
Plats 117.
I/ND/CA. TOG OlA.GR AM IMOCATlQINS.
LIGHT-SARiNG /NO(C4TCI« DIAGRAMS TAKEN EaOM A A-STROKE:

sEMi-aeseu E/^gine with a a-t-a, spring
NORMAL. LIGHT,- SHOCKING EARLV CLOSING SHOWING LATE OPENING

SARONG OAGRAM Of ADMISSION VALVE Of EXHAUST VALVE
(normal DIAGRAM shown dotted}
18—(579)
530 Sec. 141.—Measurement of Indicated Horse-Power
reducing lever is used, as shown on PI. 117, Fig. 2, so that the

movement of the piston is reproduced proportionately on a
smaller scale.
The vertical movement of the pencil and the horizontal
movement of the card combine to produce a closed figure,
known as an indicator diagram, whose enclosed area measures
the work developed during a stroke to a definite scale.
2. Measurement of the indicated horse-power.—The
mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) during the cycle is the average
height of the indicator diagram in units corresponding to,
the movement of the pencil for 1 lb. per square inch change
of pressure. If the spring S on PI. 117, Fig. 1, is of such
strength that 100 lb. per square inch increase of pressure
raises the pencil 1 in. it is said to be a 100-lb. spring, and
the height scale will be 1 in. — 100 lb./square inch. The
M.E.P. is best found by measuring the area of the diagram
with a planimeter, dividing by the length of the diagram and
multiplying by the spring number. If a planimeter is not
available the average height may be found by dividing the
length of the diagram into a number of equal parts, as shown
on PI. 108, Fig. 2, so that a number of strips of equal width are
obtained. The heights of all the strips at their centre lines
are measured and averaged. The M.E.P. so obtained is
called the indicated M.E.P. (I.M.E.P.) to distinguish it from
the brake M.E.P. (B.M.E.P.) dealt with later.
(Some writers call the I.M.E.P. the mean indicated pres¬
sure (M.I.P.), and the B.M.E.P. the brake mean pressure
(B.M.P.).)
If P = I.M.E.P. in lb./square inch (in double-acting
engines the mean of both diagrams).
L = length of stroke in feet.
A = area of piston in square inches.
N = number of working strokes per minute.
PLAN
Then the indicated horse power (I.H.P.) = ■ -■ .
If n is the engine speed in revs, per min.

N — 2« for double-acting steam engines.
n for single-acting steam engines.
— n for single-acting two-stroke I.C. engines.
— ^ for single-acting four-stroke I.C. engines.
The common type of indicator illustrated in PI. 117,

Fig. 1, is suitable for use on slow-speed engines only (say)
up to 500 r.p.m. Special indicators are available for high¬
speed engines, but they are laboratory instruments, not in
general use by the operating engineer. At best, no indicator
Sec. 141.—Measurement of Indicated Horse-Power 531
can be regarded as an instrument of great precision and,

therefore, reliable measurements of I.H.P., are difficult to
obtain.
Moreover, owing to friction losses and power taken to work
auxiliaries, the actual power given out by an engine, viz.:
the brake horse-power (B.H.P.), is always appreciably less than
the I.H.P.
BHP
The ratio y‘^-p ‘ is evidently the mechanical efficiency
of the engine, which varies from 75 per cent, to 90 per cent, at
full load according to the size, type, and condition of the
engine {see Table U, page 273).
The B.H.P. is what the user is chiefly concerned with,
and this can be measured with simple apparatus fairly
accurately. Working backwards, the B.M.E.P.
33,000
B.H.P.
~L.A.N. X
B M.E.P.
Note also that the mechanical efficiency — j M'jTp1
The distinction between I.M.E.P. and B.M.E.P. must be
carefully borne in mind. As it is logical and customary to
rate I.C. engines on their B.H.P., the use of I.M.E.P. is liable
to be misleading.
3. Care of indicators.—
i. No indicator can be expected to give reliable
diagrams unless it is in good condition and properly
adjusted.
ii. The piston must be perfectly free to move in the
cylinder; therefore both must be free from
corrosion and dirt, and sufficiently lubricated.
iii. All pins must be free, but fit well enough to ensure
no appreciable backlash. If any develops through
wear, the holes should be reamered out and new
pins fitted by an instrument maker or highly
skilled turner.
iv. The arm carrying the pencil is limited in its swinging
movement by a screw stop, T on PI. 117, Fig. 1.
This must be set so that when the head is swung
round by the handle, H, the pencil presses lightly
upon the card, sufficiently to make a clear and
continuous mark but not enough to tear the
surface.
v. The pencil is generally of brass, and marks the
aluminium surfaced card by burnishing it. The
point should be gently filed occasionally to a good
acorn-shaped point, fine enough to produce a
532 Sec. 142.—Measurement of Brake Horse-Power
clear thin line, but with no tendency to dig into

the surface and cut it.
vi. The string must be correctly adjusted for length,
so that the drum does not touch either stop as the
engine revolves. If the engine may be stopped,
this can be done by placing the engine piston at
inner dead centre, and adjusting the string so that
the drum is well clear of its stop. As a check, the
piston should be placed at outer dead centre, and
the indicator string pulled out till the drum touches
the outer stop, to ensure that there is a margin of1
play here. If the engine may not be stopped, the
indicator string should be pulled right out till the
drum touches its outer stop, and the hooks laid
alongside but not hooked in, as shown on PI. 117,
Fig. 3. The engine string should then be adjusted
till it pulls nearly tight, but does not actually
move the hook. The strings may then be safely
hooked in. If they are too loose, this will be
indicated by the drum striking its inner stop.
142. Measurement of brake horse-power

1. The brake.—Measurements of brake horse-power can
be carried out with a rope brake, such as is shown on PI. 117,
Fig. 7, stretched round the flywheel by a weight, W, and a
spring balance, S, held by a hook, H. An extra hook with a
loop, A, is also provided, so that it can be hooked in when
readings are not actually being taken, and relieve the spring
balance from unnecessary wear and the shocks of starting
and stopping.
The friction between the rope and the flywheel keeps the
weight, W, floating. The actual force against which the
flywheel is working is W — T, where T is the tension registered
by the spring balance.
To avoid accidents, the weights should be prevented from
rising too much by anchoring them securely to a hook in the
ground, by a string rope, R, which should, of course, be slack
during the test. The weights should be attached to the brake
by a string, weaker than the anchoring rope, and which will
break before the latter if the brake should seize on the flywheel.
The simple brake here described can only be used for
short periods owing to the heat developed. For continuous
running a water brake must be used, or preferably a steady
load such as an electric generator or a centrifugal pump.
2. Power calculation.—The work done in foot-lbs. per
minute by the engine against the brake is V(W — T), where
V is the rim velocity of the brake wheel in feet per minute. The
Sec. 143.—Testing Steam Plant 533
B.H.P. is where the brake wheel of R feet

radius revolves at N revolutions per minute.
143. Testing steam plant

1. Scope of tests.—In order to test any steam plant
completely, it is necessary to ascertain :—
i. The efficiency of the boiler alone.
ii. The total efficiency of the boiler and its auxiliaries.
iii. The efficiency of the engine cylinders.
iv. The mechanical efficiency of the engine.
v. The total efficiency of the engine and condenser.
vi. The overall efficiency of the whole plant, from heat
units in the fuel to B.H.P.
2. Measurement of fuel.—It is necessary for the test to
last several hours to ensure accuracy in measuring coal fired
into a boiler furnace. The test should not be commenced
until the plant has been running for a few hours, so as to
ensure that everything is normal. The coal may be accurately
measured by balancing a barrow on the scales exactly, and
then adding, say, 1 cwt. to the latter. The barrow may now
be filled, wheeled on to the weighing machine, and quickly
adjusted to hold precisely 1 cwt. by taking off or adding a
little coal. To guard against mistakes, it is important
to check each barrow load at a definite stage, e.g. before
wheeling the barrow off the machine a set form of words should
be enforced such as weight correct, answered by load hooked,
move on. The loads should be booked in some distinctive
way such as ffjj, representing a group of 5 cwts., the cross
stroke completing the group and cancelling it. The coal should
be fired into the furnace under supervision, and the conditions
of the fire at starting and stopping the test should be the same.
Any coal actually retnaining unfired must be weighed and
subtracted from the total booked.
3. Calorific value of fuel.—The calorific value of a
sample of coal may be ascertained by any properly equipped
physical laboratory. The test is based upon the principle
that if a weighed sample of carefully selected and powdered
coal is burnt under water, with sufficient oxygen supplied to
ensure complete combustion, all the heat produced will be
absorbed by the water, except for a small quantity escaping
in the gases resulting from the combustion, and these can be
made to bubble gradually through the water so as to carry
little heat away.
i. In the Thompson or bomb form of calorimeter, the
oxygen is supplied by mixing the powdered coal with
some substance rich in oxygen, such, as potassium
534 Sec. 143.—Testing Steam Plant
chlorate, thus forming an explosive mixture. This is

ignited under water, in a metal container, made in
diving-bell form to keep the mixture dry while
allowing the gases to escape freely into the water.
The water is weighed before being placed in the calori¬
meter, and its temperature is noted before and after
the experiment. To the actual gain in heat units of
the water must be added a correction, to allow for
the heat absorbed or given out by the oxidizing
agent in breaking up and that used to heat the bomb
and containing vessel.
A mixture of 75 per cent, of potassium chlorate
and 25 per cent, of potassium nitrate breaks up
without any change in heat, the mixture constituting
a balance in which as much is absorbed by the nitrate
as the chlorate gives out.
ii. In the Rosenhain calorimeter the principle is the same,
but the oxygen is supplied in gaseous form.
iii. Without making a combustion test, a fair idea of
probable calorific value of a sample may be obtained
by examination, especially if its place of origin is
known ; further, very valuable indications are given
by weighing the ashes left after burning a known
quantity of coal, and by drying a weighed sample of
coal to find the moisture content as supplied.
The calorific value of pure coal seldom varies much from
15,000 B.Th.U. per lb.; therefore, a sample which contains
20 per cent, of ash and moisture cannot be expected to have
more than 80 per cent, of this value, or 12,000 B.Th.U. per lb.
Any moisture in the coal lowers its calorific value, as it
requires heat to evaporate it (see Sec. 61).
4. Measurement of water evaporated.—The most
accurate method of measuring the water evaporated by the
boiler is to feed from a tank of known dimensions, filled to
a mark, until the water level falls to another mark. The
feed must then be shut off, the tank filled again to the higher
mark, and the measurement booked.
The feed should be so arranged that the water level at the
end of the test shall be exactly the same as it was at the start.
A water-meter may be used instead, but is seldom reliable.
5. Measurement of load.—The load on the engine,
whether supplied by a brake or by some normal means such
as making it supply power through an electrical generator,
will vary to some extent. Readings should, therefore, be
taken at least every half an hour or oftener, and the results
averaged.
Sec. 143.—Testing Steam Plant 535
In the case of electric generating sets the k.W.h. meter

should be read at the beginning and end of the run, and the
total output so determined divided by the duration of the
run in hours.
6. Measurement of indicated horse-power.—In view
of the possible fluctuation of load and boiler pressure, indicator
diagrams should be taken once or twice an hour, the I.H.P.
being taken for each diagram, and the results averaged.
7. Temperature and general records.—The boiler
pressure, temperature of feedwater entering the boiler, and
in the case of a condensing plant, vacuum, temperatures of
hot-well, cooling .water entering and leaving the condenser,
quantity of cooling water used, and, if possible, temperature of
flue gases, should be recorded every half an hour. Where a
feedwater heater and economizer are fitted, the temperature
of the water entering the feedwater heater and passing to the
economizer should also be recorded. See Form 1.
8. Calculation of efficiencies and losses.—A guide to
the calculation of results is given in Form 2, for a plant in an
electrical power station. Typical efficiencies to be expected
can be deduced from Tables X and Y.
9. Information given by shape of indicator diagrams.
—Indicator diagrams must not be expected to conform exactly
to the theoretical shape shown on PL 109, Fig. 1. The gradual
closing of valves, and the inertia effects in the gas or steam
and also in the moving parts of the indicator, round off
comers and cause undulations in the lines of such magnitude
that the expansion curve may be completely disguised.
Serious errors in valve setting will, however, show certain
definite signs:—
i. Errors may be due, in the case of a slide valve, to
inaccurate adjustment of the length of valve rod,
causing a larger and longer opening of one port and
a considerable difference between the diagrams
from the two cylinder ends, as shown on PI. 117,
Fig. 4.
ii. Inaccuracy in setting the eccentric will affect both
cylinder ends equally. PI. 117, Fig. 5, is a typical
diagram from an engine whose eccentric has slipped
back. There is no cushioning at the end of the
exhaust stroke, admission is late, cut off does not
occur till somewhat late in the stroke, and exhaust
only commences at the outer dead centre.
iii. PI. 117, Fig. 6, is typical of excessive lead as regards
the inlet, which is very early, but the cut off is late
and the exhaust about correct. This cannot be due
536 Sec. 144.—Testing Internal-Combustion Engines
to an error in the eccentric, but is due to the slide

valve having insufficient lap. This effect may be
due to rounding off the edges of the valve and ports,
which allow steam to enter too soon and continue
to enter after the theoretical point of cut off.
144. Testing internal-combustion engines

1. Sections 140, 141 and 142 apply equally well here, but
to supplement the indicator diagram a good deal can be
judged from the colour, noise and temperature of the exhaust.
In multi-cylinder engines, if all the cylinders are sharing
the load equally the exhaust temperatures should be equal.
The exhaust temperatures vary with the load, somewhat as
. follows, in solid-injection heavy-oil engines :—
10 per cent, overload .. .. .. 775° F.
Full load .. .. .. .. 675° F.
f load. 550° F.
i „. 400° F.
i .. 300° F.
No load . 230° F.
2. Valve setting.—Faults in valve setting are best shown
by light-spring diagrams, i.e. taken with an indicator fitted
with a spring which allows the pencil to move 1 in. for,
say, 20 lb. difference in pressure.
PI. 117, Fig. 10, shows a normal diagram, and Figs. 11
and 12, show typical faults.
3. Typical indicator diagrams.—PI. 79 shows typical
indicator diagrams obtained with Diesel engines in good
condition at various loads.
4. Typical performance curves.—PI. 118 gives typical
performance curves and a heat balance for a 250-B.H.P. solid-
injection heavy-oil engine.
Also PI. 117, Fig. 9, shows the fuel consumption curve for
a 7-B.H.P. slow-speed horizontal oil (paraffin) engine.
5. Tabulation of results.—Typical pro forma for tabu¬
lating results are given in Forms 3, 4, and 5.
6. Measuring the fuel.—The fuel is contained in tanks
which may be:—
i. Above the engine.
ii. In the bed of the engine.
iii. Separate.
i. Tank above the engine.—Run the engine under full load
on the brake at its rated speed until the cooling water has
attained its usual working temperature (140° F.) on top of the
cylinder. Fill the fuel tank completely, or up to some mark
Sec. 144.—'Testing Internal-Combustion Engines 537
Plats 118.
HEAT BALANCE AND PFREMMANCE CURVES

£50.3MP SOLID INJECTION HEAVY OIL ENGINE-
SO. too 150 £00 Z50&HP'
BRAKE HORSE \ POWER

538 Sec. 144.—Testing Internal-Combustion Engines
therein, and run the engine for some definite time (say, 1 hour)
with constant load. Then refill the tank, weighing the quantity
of fuel required to do so.
i. Tank in Ihe engine W-Obtain a separate tank of
suitable dimensions, PI. 117, Fig. 8, fitted with a pointer
which can be adjusted vertically. When ready to commence
the test, adjust the pointer until its point is just below the
surface. Note the time when the fuel drops off the point.
Add a measured quantity of fuel which will keep the engine
running for about 1 horn. Note the time when the fuel
again drops off the pointer.
iii, Separate tank--Employ the pointer method as in (ii).
The pointer method is very accurate, It cannot be used
where engine tanks are fixed to the engine, owing to vibration,
nor where tank-filler caps are small.
normal working from 10 to 20 per cent, less output must be expected. For installation, allow 25 per cen
o
I-+1
o*
o
Table Y.—Sample performances of steam boilers on test, when new, with various fuels
f“\ O00 n c
9: ogo O- o
E.
00 M *■>(»*- 00 M<-* 00 i-> i-*

cn'o ©cn© woo cn'o boo
ooooo
ooooo ©©©
ooooo ooo ooooo
Method
Pressure-
^jtomati
Pressure-
-jtomati
iectio
;eam in
Hand
firing
Hand
Ham
oil
)>
»»
,nd
less than these figures

M CI1®!m
0
§
m* h< W
33333 3 0 3 P 3 B P Sf
P*
MM 1 W
wo 1 o
Cn M
OO
1 l>UtOM
1 cn o cn M
Fuel consumption in lbs.
per square foot of grate
area, per hour
Water evaporation in lbs.

<•4001 I O ui m cn 040 O O per square foot of heating
*4 area,per hour.F. & A. 212
Water evaporated, &c. in

M | lbs. per square foot of heat
040 1 v| area when an economizer
is fitted
<40000 •4 <40 jiaonUi^

wooaoo ooooo M O O cn Cn Efficiency without economizer
00 4444 G> >4 <4 O O

cn cn cn oo Cn Ol CO cn O O Efficiency with economizer
__
Lbs. of water evaporated

W04 m <4 o cn cn
per lb. of fuel without
economizer
Lbs. of water evaporated
00(0 00 oo 4^044
ch
per lb. of fuel with
economizer
UiQUUU 00 00 M CO CO CO O O Boiler pressure. Lbs. per

OOOOO ooo OOOOO square inch gauge
a ®ro*i ow
542 Form 2
Form 2.—ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF TEST ON

STEAM PLANT
I Total weight of coal burnt. lb. from bookings.

2 Calorific value of coal per lb. . B.Th.U.
3 Total heat units in coal used. B.Tb.U. (1) X (2).
4 Total weight of water used . lb. Gallons x 10.
S Total heat of 1 lb. steam at average boiler pressure B.Th.U. Steam tables. *
ft Average temperature of water entering boiler deg. F. from bookings.
7 Total heat units given by boiler . B.Th.U. (4) x [(5) + 32" - (6)].
8 Evaporation of water per hour from 0 to 0 lb. (4) 4 x (hours duration
of test).
9 „ „ „ from and at 212° F. lb. (7) 4 968 x.
10 Evaporation per lb. of coal from "to 0 lb. (4) 4 (1).
11 ,, „ „ from and at 212° F. lb. (10 X (9) -i- (8).
12 Coal burnt per hour per square foot of grate area lb. (1) t(»x grate area).
13 Efficiency of boiler alone . 0/
/q (7) - (3) X 100.
14 Temp, rise of feed water in passing through economizer .. deg. F. from bookings.
15 Total heat recovered by economizer . B.Th.U. (4) X (14).
16 „ units in steam used . B.Th.U. (7) + (15).
17 Average vacuum maintained . ins. from bookings.
16 „ rise of temperature of condenser water .. deg. F. from bookings.
19 Total water circulated through condenser. lb. Pump delivery in G.P.H.
x 60 x 10 x x.
20 Heat units lost in condenser. B.Th.U. (18 X (19).
21 Average I.H.P. of engine. H.P. from bookings.
22 Total I.H.P. hours. — (21) x x.
23 Heat units equivalent of I.H.P. hours . B.Th.U. (21) X * x 60 X 33,000
4 778.
24 Steam consumption per I.H.P. hour . lb. (4) -r (22).
25 Thermal efficiency of engine. % (23) 4 (16) X 100.
26 Total electrical energy generated. k.W.h. from bookings.
27 Average electrical power output. k.W. (26) 4 *.
28 „ B.H.P. H.P. (27) 4 746 X 100 4 87.
29 Mechanical efficiency of engine . % (28) 4- (21) X 100.
30 Electrical energy taken by auxiliaries . k.W.h. from bookings.
31 Nett electrical output to busbars. k.W.h. (26) - (30).
32 „ mechanical output of engine. B.H.P. hrs. (31) 4- 746 X100 4 87.
33 Steam consumption per nett B.H.P. hour. lb. (4) 4 (32).
34 „ „ „ k.W.h. lb. (4) 4- (31).
35 Fuel consumption per nett B.H.P. hour. lb. (1) 4 (32).
36 „ „ k.W.h. lb. (1) + (31).
37 Overall efficiency, fuel to electrical output. % 31) X 3,410 4 (3) X100.
38 Radiation, flue gas and other losses. B.Th.U. (7)+ (15) - (20) -(23).
39
40
■PH
oad.
Half
1?
1 Full load.
||
s
a
Time. Period
fc
c
"b
w JS to
•**
to
Pb
to t-i
Hi
M
Pb
BBBB ©
•
i
f
Inlet
Cooling
water.
Temperatures CF.
Outlet.
hrt
Cylinder
jackets.
to
Form 3.—TEST OF I.C. ENGINE

03
*-*
Exhaust.
r~
■■B■■■■■uu■■■■■■■■
■■ ■■
03
■ ■
B to
O
•SL
S’
a
n
03 . 3
Total.
Equivalent
kilowatts.
B.H.P.
H.P.
Mechanical
efficiency.
L Alternator
stator “C.
Exciter
field 3C.
A 9>
Speed
r.p.m.
o _
C3
Output.
Srs
s**
• S
X
5
Generator
* efficiency.
Generator
input.
£ nuoj
Overall eaergy efficiency of generating set
CHAPTER XXXI
SELECTION AND ERECTION OF ENGINES
145. Selection of prime movers

1. The choice is in most cases limited to two or three
possible types by the following main factors:—
i. Portability.
ii. Power required.
iii. Reliability.
iv. Simplicity.
v. Overload capacity.
vi. Fuel available.
vii. Starting torque.
viii. Suitable speed.
ix. Space available.
x. Cyclic regularity.
xi. Absence of vibration.
xii. Silence.
xiii. Economy in fuel, &c.
xiv. Economy in first cost.
xv. Economy under variable load.
2. For military purposes portability is often the most
important consideration. It must be remembered, however,
that reliability generally decreases as portability increases.
Speeds are of little consequence if belt drive is used, but
become important where direct-coupling can be applied.
Starting torque can be dispensed with in many cases by
fitting a clutch or shifting belt.
Space, silence, cyclic regularity, vibration, and economy
are seldom very important factors in temporary installations.
3. Steam plant is generally bulky and requires a larger
staff to run it than oil or petrol engines; on the other hand, it is
extremely reliable and hard wearing, and in the simpler types
requires comparatively unskilled attention. The portable
type, mounted, with locomotive type boiler, on wheels, is a
convenient engine where rapid installation is necessary.
The heavy starting torque and high overload capacity
of a steam engine are useful where demands for power are
heavy but intermittent.
In wood-working of all kinds the refuse can be used as fuel,
and in this case a wood-fired boiler and steam engine may be
suitable.
4. Petrol engines should be avoided for continuous work
545
546 Sec. 146.—Engine Foundations
unless extreme lightness is of first importance. They are
useful for portable engines for intermittent work.
The high-speed solid-injection Diesel engine, however, is
almost as light, is more efficient, bums a cheaper fuel and
appears to be quite as simple and reliable as the petrol engine.
For further information see Chap. XIV.
5. The foregoing remarks, together with Table Z, will
afford some guidance in the problem of selecting a prime
mover for any ordinary purpose in the field.
Demands for engines should specify as fully as possible the
purposes for which they are required, maximum continuous
working load anticipated, limitations of speed, nature of fuel
available, water-supply facilities, diameter and width of
driving pulley (if required), and particulars of any special
■ accessories required.
6. Other types.—Although some types are shown in
Table Z as unsuitable or undesirable for certain reasons, it is
desirable that military personnel shall have sufficient know¬
ledge to run such plant, which may have to be taken over in
the field from civil or enemy sources.
146. Engine foundations

1. All engines, when at work, have unbalanced forces
which tend to give them either vertical or horizontal move¬
ment. This is especially so in the case of single-cylinder
engines.
Foundations are required in order to restrain this move¬
ment, and the size of the foundation has to be determined by
the manufacturers of the engines from their knowledge of
the unbalanced forces and, to a certain extent, by experience.
Consequently, the maker’s foundation plans should be carefully
worked to if they are available.
2. The fact that the unbalanced forces within the
horizontal engine are usually greater in the horizontal direction
makes it obvious that great care has to be taken to get a good
solid foundation block, but although the vertical engine
produces less strain on the foundations, it is equally important
to have the same solidity and homogeneity.
3. An insufficient foundation is usually a continual source
of trouble, which, if not remedied, eventually results in costly
repairs to the engine. Also, in addition to the risk of unequal
settlement and fracture of the foundation block, there is
always the danger of excessive vibration being set up in the
surrounding soil, which may cause damage or annoyance,
and which constitutes a public nuisance.
Sec. 146.—Engine Foundations 547
4. Choice of, material.—A concrete block is best for
foundations and is preferable to ordinary building bricks.
The best quality concrete should be used, the proportions
being 1:2:4.
5. Dimensions.—Before deciding on the dimensions of
the foundations, the nature of the soil should always be
considered. A hard gravel bottom is the usual standard for
comparison ; for soft soils the weight that can be carried on
an equal surface is much less, so the area of the foundation
must be greater and, if the ground is very soft, it may be
necessary to use piles or a reinforced raft to carry the weight.
6. The depth of foundation given by the engine-maker
should not be reduced if it can be avoided, and in such cases
the foundation must be strengthened by placing old girders
or steel rails lengthwise in the mass of concrete ; this or some
other method of strengthening is essential if there is a race
for the engine flywheel cutting into the foundation.
7. If buildings are situated near by and it is essential to
avoid vibration, the character of the subsoil should be investi¬
gated before making the foundation, and if this trouble is
feared, the advice of the engine-makers should be obtained.
8. If the engine-maker’s foundation plans are not
available, the following tables can be taken as a guide for
good soil:—
Foundations for horizontal oil engines (single-cylinder)
Foundation. Holding-down bolts.

B.H.P.
Base area Minimum
No. Diameter.
(square feet). depth.
Up to 16 Up to 40 2 ft. 4 Sin.
20 to 50 50 to 60 , 2 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 4 1 in. to IS in.
51 to 100 70 to 160 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 6 IS in. to 1| in.
101 to 150 160 to 200 5 ft. to 6 ft. 6 in. 6 if in. to if in.
Foundations for vertical Diesel single-cylinder engines
Foundation.
B.H.P.
Base area (square
Depth.
feet).
30 22 4 ft.
65 68 5 ft.
In the case of high-speed self-contained sets mounted on

rolled steel joists, a hard floor is a sufficient foundation.
9. For horizontal engines up to 30 B.H.P., if the block is
made about one foot wider and two feet longer than the
engine bed, it will usually be large enough; but for larger
engines provided with a pedestal bearing for the support of
the crankshaft beyond the flywheel and pulley, it is essential
that the block shall be large enough to support this pedestal as
well as the engine itself.
PI. 119, Fig. 1, shows an example of foundation lay-out
for an 85 B.H.P. oil engine. The height of the block above the
engine-room floor is a matter of convenience in operating the
engine.
10. Method of construction.—The necessary excavation
having been made, the position of the holding-down bolts is
located by means of square wooden boxes, large enough to
enable the holding-down bolts and plates to be put into
position after the concrete has set and the boxes removed,
PI. 119, Fig. 2.
The boxes should be attached to a template to prevent
any movement whilst ramming in the concrete. Depth of
bolt holes should be sufficient to allow bolt to drop in to clear
the top of the bed. Thin wires are attached to the threaded
portions of the bolts and then passed through the holes in the
engine bed. The bolts may then be pulled through when bed
is in position. All bolts must hang vertically.
For engines and other machines not liable to severe vibra¬
tions in a vertical direction, it is satisfactory to use boxes with
parallel sides. Provided the concrete is cleaned and roughened
after removing the boxes, the parallel sided plug of cement
formed by grouting in the bolts will hold firmly.
As an additional safeguard in the case of machines subject
to severe vertical vibration, the boxes may be tapered,
the larger end being downwards. The construction of
the tapered boxes is shown in PI. 119, Fig. 2. Provided the
width at the bottom is not greater than the diagonal of
the top opening, with due allowance for the thickness of the
boards, the sides can be knocked inwards, twisted to the
diagonal position, and withdrawn. The proportions shown
provide the necessary clearance.
The boxes should be greased or soaped on the outside to
prevent them from sticking to the concrete. They should
rest on a block of wood (which can be left in the foundation)
to prevent the concrete rising up in the box.
The concrete can now be put in and well rammed in the
usual way. When the foundation is completed, several days
or weeks should elapse before placing any heavy weight on it,
so that it may be set uniformly. The bolt boxes, however,
should be removed immediately the concrete has set
sufficiently to stand.
Plate 119.
The time required will depend on the size of the block.
A 10 B.H.P. engine can be placed on its block after four days
if time presses, but seven days should be allowed if possible.
The use of rapid-hardening cement will reduce the minimum
time to two days. The holding-down bolts and plates can
then be placed in position, and the engine put on its founda¬
tion. The engine must then be carefully levelled up by
inserting thin iron wedges under the bed, using a spirit level
on the crankshaft and side shaft.
The nuts can be screwed on the bolts, and the bolt-holes
should then be filled with a grouting of one part cement and *
two parts sand, being made thin so that it flows easily.
When the holes are filled, the grouting can be allowed to
flow all over the top of the foundation to grout in the engine
bed, and this is generally done by placing boards round the
top of the block forming a ledge the height required.
Some engine beds are provided with grouting holes, to
enable the grout to be poured inside the bed as well.
The iron wedges used for levelling up the bed should not be
removed, and the grouting should be given from two or four
days to set before the nuts are tightened and the engine is run.
Also, the engine should not be run until the foundation is
properly finished and all loose material removed.
An alternative method which can be used for engines up
to (say) 100 H.P. is to place the engine, with holding down
bolts, in its correct position over the excavated foundation
pit. The engine is supported on R.S. Js. and the lower ends
of the bolts attached to a stiff wire or strap iron template.
The shuttering is then placed in position and the whole con¬
creted in. This is a very quick method as it is unnecessary
to wait for the concrete to set before placing the engine on the
bed. The R.S.Js. on which the engine is supported reinforce
the concrete foundation.
11. Faulty alignment of bearings is a frequent cause of

shaft failure, and in any case causes excessive wear and
heating of bearings.
When a new engine is being erected, the crankshaft will
have been accurately bedded on its main bearings at the
makers' works, and it should therefore only be necessary to
align the outer bearing correctly.
This may be done by fitting semi-circular pieces of sheet
metal inside the lower halves of the bearings, with the centres
marked on them, then stretching a piano wire through the
centres of the bearings to check the alignment.
If the fly-wheel is keyed on to a crankshaft which extends
through the outer bearing, so that the latter can be adjusted
to the shaft with the flywheel removed, which is often the case
with horizontal oil engines, the foregoing is the best way
of obtaining the accurate alignment.
In most cases, however, with vertical engines large enough
to require outer bearings on separate pedestals, the flywheel
and an extension shaft are bolted into a coupling on the
crankshaft. In this case the weight of the flywheel must be
taken by jacks, wedges or a crane, when it is not taken by the
outer bearing, and owing to the spring of the shaft, accurate
alignment cannot be obtained under such conditions.
In this case the method explained in Sec. 102 should be
adopted for obtaining accurate alignment:—
With the weight of the flywheel supported by jacks, &c.,
the outer bearing (which has already been bedded on to the
shaft) is placed on its pedestal, packed up with steel wedges
as close to the correct alignment as possible. The jacks are
then removed, and the bearing allowed to take its weight.
Turn the shaft until the crank nearest the flywheel is on
top dead centre. Gauge the distance between the webs,
as shown in Fig. 6, with a crankshaft alignment indicator.
Aucnme outer bear mgs
Next slack off the bearing cap, turn the shaft through 180°,
clamp down the cap and again gauge at the same points.
If the outer bearing is out of true, webs will open and
close, causing the two readings to differ.
If a smaller reading is obtained with the crank on top
centre, the outer bearing is too low, and vice versa. The
amount of out-of-alignment will be approximately half the
difference between the readings, but depends largely on the
proportions of the engine dimensions.
The flywheel is again packed up, and the necessary
adjustment made to the level of the bearing. The test is then
repeated until the error does not exceed *001 inch.
Before finally securing the bearing, test the bedding of the
shaft in it by means of marking black on the journal. One
end of the bearing may still be low, the weight being taken
by the other end only. This must be corrected by packing up,
and the gauge readings checked again. Lateral alignment

can be checked at the same time.
The above method takes time, but is the only reliable
method of aligning the outer bearing of a heavy engine, such
as a Diesel.
The correct alignment having been obtained, the pedestal
can be grouted in and in due course nutted down, as described
for the engine bed.
12. A 4-inch to 6-inch concrete floor will do much to
reduce vibration and movement, as it acts as a sort of raft.
It must be borne in mind that although concrete founda-'
tions are necessary for permanent and semi-permanent
foundations, oil engines, if required to be installed hurriedly,
may quite safely be bolted down to timber baulks or railway
sleepers embedded in the ground. Single cylinder engines
up to 150 H.P. have been thus mounted.
Provision must be made, however, to prevent the engine
and machine moving out of alignment by joining the timber
foundation of the engine to that of the machine by a strut
ie.p. R.S.Js.) placed as nearly as possible under the belt, as
shown in PI. 119, Fig. 5.
PI. 119, Fig. 3, shows a convenient form of foundation for
a saw in a forest mill, driven by a portable steam engine.
PI. 119, Fig. 4, shows a foundation frame for a direct-
coupled turbine pumping set.
In each case the foundation frame is merely buried in the
ground.
PART III.—APPLICATION
CHAPTER XXXII
TRANSMISSION OF POWER
»
147. Principles of transmission

1. Direct-coupling.—The most efficient method of trans¬
mission of power is by direct-coupling. This method can only
be used when there is at least one speed which is economical
for both prime mover and machine.
When the speed ranges make direct-coupling possible, it
can be done in several ways, viz.:—
i. By using the same shaft for engine and machine, e.g.
railway locomotives have the driving wheels on the
crankshaft of the engine, and the rotor of an electric
generator may be on an extension of the crankshaft
of an engine.
ii. When absolute alignment can be ensured, the shafts
of the engine and machine can be rigidly coupled by
a pair of flanges, driven on to the ends of the shafts
and prevented from revolving by means of keys
driven tight. The flanges are then bolted together,
usually with countersunk or recessed bolts to
eliminate danger to attendants, PI. 120, Fig. 1.
iii. When alignment can be ensured, but it is required to
start the engine without load, by some form of clutch
which can be thrown in or out of action while the
shafts are revolving. Some forms of clutch are
iv. When alignment cannot be absolutely ensured, or
where either the engine or machine is liable to sudden
fluctuations of speed which must not be communi¬
cated too suddenly to the other, a flexible coupling
is necessary, such as that shown on PI. 120, Fig. 2,
a leather lacing threaded between studs protruding
alternately from the driving and driven flanges.
v. When alignment cannot be maintained, as in a motor¬
car whose power unit is carried on a sprung frame,
while the axle is rigidly coupled to the road wheels,
a flexible shaft is necessary, containing at least one
universal joint, which permits free bending in any
direction while transmitting the drive positively
i.e. without slip. PI. 120, Fig. 3, illustrates a
universal joint.
553
554 Sec. 147.—-Principles of Transmission
Plate 120.
FVl w
HYATT R0U.tR
[Fig. 12 reproduced by permission of The Hoffmann Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Chelmsford,

Essex.]
Sec. 148.—Line Shafting and Plain Bearings 555
2. Various methods of transmission.—For trans¬

mitting power from one shaft to another, a choice must be
made from the following :—
i. A leather or canvas flat belt running upon crown-faced
pulleys, which is the type of drive most frequently
used in workshops.
ii. Ropes running in grooved pulleys. Since each rope
takes its share of load, any amount of power can be
so transmitted by adding more ropes.
iii. Chains, running on toothed sprockets; a very
powerful and positive drive, expensive, and
inclined to be noisy, but highly efficient.
iv. Toothed gear wheels, which can be made to transmit
any load at almost any speed; expensive when
made for fast running. Gears can only be used
when the shafts can conveniently be placed close
together, preferably parallel, and very rigidly held.
v. Friction gear wheels ; only suitable for comparatively
light loads at high speeds.
vi. Worm and worm-wheel; suitable where a large
reduction of speed is required, and the shafts can
be placed at right angles.
vii. Electric transmission ; the prime mover drives an
electric generator, and the current is transmitted
to a motor, which drives the machine. Expensive
and frequently of low efficiency, but extremely
convenient, especially if the power has to be trans¬
mitted a long distance, or if the machines have to
be portable.
viii. Pneumatic transmission; the engine drives an air
compressor, and the air is piped to a pneumatic
motor. Efficiency very low indeed, but very useful
for portable tools, especially of the percussion
type, for which pneumatic power is more easily
used than any other form.
ix. Hydraulic transmission. Expensive, but very useful
when high pressures are required at low speeds, as
in a forging press.
148. Line shafting and plain hearings

1. Shafting.—Workshop system.—The means normally
adopted for transmission in workshops are :—
i. An engine or motor drives a line shaft by means of
belts or ropes, running on pulleys of large diameter.
ii. Machines are driven from the line shaft, nearly always by
means of belts, but occasionally by ropes or chains,
at speeds to suit the work of each one.
556 Sec. 148.—Line Shafting and Plain Bearings
Strength of shafting.—Shafting is usually of mild steel,

sometimes hollow for lightness, supported at frequent intervals
by bearings, which must be capable of very accurate align¬
ment, or the shafting will be strained and a large frictional
loss will occur. The shafting must be strong enough to bear
the continually alternating bending strain produced by its
weight and that of the pulleys on it, and also by the pull of
the belts, as well as the torque necessary for transmission of
power and the unknown stress due to vibration.
The following is a reliable empirical formula for the
diameter, D, necessary for mild-steel shafting to transmit a *
definite horse-power, H.P., at a stated number of revolutions,
3 /jj p
N, per minute:—D = 3-75(inches). The greatest un¬
supported length of shafting between bearings should not

exceed 60^0^ (inches). This is generally the ruling factor
in selecting shafting suitable for a particular shop.
Unnecessary stresses and frictional loss should be
minimized by great care in the selection of suitable bearings,
in accurate alignment, and by reducing the weight of pulleys
and the tightness of belts to the lowest figure consistent with
safety and efficiency. Normal speeds for workshop line shaft¬
ing are from 200 to 300 revolutions per minute.
2. Rigid couplings.—When two or more lengths of
shafting must be coupled, a flange joint, as described in
Sec. 147, para. 1 (ii), may be used.
The muff coupling shown on PI. 120, Fig. 10, is simpler.
The muff may be split or not. It may be solid if the shafting
can be slid apart to enable it to be put in place, but this is
seldom possible.
The cone coupling shown on PI. 120, Fig. 4, is well known
under the name of the Universal coupling. The inner spring
cones are slipped each on one shaft end, and are then drawn
together into the double-ended female cone which forces them
to grip the shaft ends. A feather may be added if desired
for extra security. All bolt-heads must be shrouded or
sunk.
3. Qualities of shafting.—Mild steel shafting can be
obtained of widely varying qualities, and the cost naturally
varies with the quality.
If shafting is held in rigid bearings, only the best quality
of turned shafting can be used with success. Such shafting
loses its accuracy and its value if roughly handled in transit,
if heavily strained when in use through being mounted in
incorrectly aligned bearings, or if overloaded with heavy
pulleys or too tight belts.
Bright drawn or rolled shafting can be obtained at a

lower price; if carefully examined and selected, it is good
enough to use in swivelling bearings. When swivelling ball
bearings are used, accuracy is of little importance, provided
the inner races can be slipped along the shaft, and drawn
shafting is accurate enough, except for very high speeds such
as are only used for grinding machines.
Black shafting is inaccurate, and only suitable for use with
ball- or roller-type bearings with full allowance for swivelling.
4. Plain bearings.—Design and materials.—Plain shaft
bearings are usually of cast iron, and their length is from
three to four times the diameter of the shaft. They should
be capable of swivelling freely in any direction; this is
usually attained by holding the bearing between two vertical
screws with cup ends. They engage two portions of the
outside surface of the bearing casting, which are turned to
form part of a sphere whose centre is in the centre line of the
shaft, PI. 120, Figs. 5 and 9. There should be some means,
either in the bearings or in the brackets which carry them, for
adjusting their position both vertically and horizontally.
When erecting the shafting it is of great importance that
all bearings should be brought truly in line, otherwise much
power will be lost in unnecessary friction and the bearings
may run hot.
Bearing pressures.—For self-oiling cast-iron bearings the
maximum pressure per square inch of projected area should
not exceed 50 lb., i.e. the greatest likely load on the bearing,
including weight of shafting and pulleys and the resultant
of belt pulls, divided by the product of the diameter and
length of the shaft journal must not be more than 50 lb.
In case of necessity this pressure can be increased, but then
the bearing must be lined with brass or white metal, when it
may be allowed to take pressures of 60 lb. and 80 lb.
respectively per square inch of projected area. If the old
plummer block type of rigid bearing (PI. 120, Fig. 6) is used
it should be lined, and the pressure kept below 50 lb. per
square inch for white metal linings and 40 lb. per square
inch for gun-metal.
All the above figures allow a high factor of safety with the
object of allowing for unknown factors, such as overtight
belts, lack of alignment, &e.
Lubrication.—The efficient lubrication of all bearings is of
the utmost importance, but is seldom achieved unless an
automatic device is fitted, together with an ample oil reservoir.
The cost of such self-oiling bearings is about equal to that of
a plain bearing and an oil-cup. Therefore, in all new work
none but self-oiling bearings should be installed.
If old-type bearings are in stock they may safely be used,

provided that large oil-cups are fitted in prominent and
accessible positions, and that some individual is personally
responsible for keeping them filled and working when the
shafting is running. Their consumption of oil is very heavy.
Friction losses.—The horse-power lost in shaft friction,
with swivelling bush bearings and ring lubrication may be
calculated roughly from the formula :—
f_NLD3
80,000
N = r.p.m., L = length of shaft in feet, D = diameter of shaft
in inches.
Imperfect lubrication or untruth in the shafting will
increase the friction enormously, probably to ten times as
much or more in very bad cases.
On the other hand, if ball bearings are used, the loss should
not exceed one-tenth of the value given by this formula.
Oil sumps.—The oil is eventually squeezed out of the ends
of the bearings and drips down. An enclosed sump should be
provided to collect this used oil without allowing it to gather
dust from the air, and also some device, such as a ring, to
lift the oil and replace it in the oil grooves, PI. 120, Fig. 5.
The sump should contain about one pint of oil per 50 square
inches of projected bearing area. The rings must dip well
below the surface of the oil, and must rest upon a portion of
the shaft left bare for that purpose, and upon that alone.
Filling and draining plugs or cocks are necessary. The
oil should be kept up to the correct level by frequent inspection,
and should be changed at least twice a year.
5. Brackets, hangers, and standards.—Bearings for

shafting may be carried on standards, on brackets fixed to a
wall, or on hangers fixed to girders overhead, as shown on
PI. 120, Figs. 8, 9, and 11 respectively. In any case it is
essential that the wall or girders shall be stiff and well sup¬
ported ; otherwise, excessive vibration would be caused and
the structure might even collapse.
Wall brackets should not be fixed to any brick wall unless
it is at least \\ bricks thick and supported by suitable
buttresses or party walls. Head room of at least 7 feet must
be left under all belts beneath which men can walk.
Brackets, &c., are usually of cast-iron, and they should be
of solid design throughout, well webbed, and rounded at all
comers as shown. The bolt-holes in brackets, &c., should
all be slotted, so that after rough erection they can be brought
truly in line before finally tightening up.
6. Underfloor shafting.—It is usual in wood-working

shops to place the shafting in a pit beneath the floor level.
The same principle may be followed in other shops, but it is
not always possible with old machinery.
This system simplifies lighting and also the guarding of
belts. It is essential that every portion of the pit should be
capable of being opened up for inspection. The pit must be
kept perfectly clean. It should be lined with brick or concrete,
with a gutter leading out to an earth pit, which must not
communicate with any ordinary drainage system, since oil
may be carried out, and may clog drains or cause fire or
explosion in them.
The shafting is best carried on low standards in this case.
7. Laying out line shafting.—It is essential that line
shafting should be laid out carefully, since any inaccuracy
causes great loss of power, difficulty in keeping bearings cool,
and in keeping belts on their pulleys. Much inaccuracy
may result in a broken shaft.
i. The position of the first and last bearings should be
selected carefully, so that the shafting will be parallel to the
walls. These positions should be marked by half driving two
large flat-topped nails into the floor precisely under the centres
of the intended positions of the bearings. If a level can be
obtained, these nails should be made precisely level, by setting
up the level about midway between them, sighting on to a
staff placed upon the top of each nail in turn, and driving in
the higher one as necessary.
ii. A chalked line should be stretched tightly between these
nails, and snapped to mark the centre line upon the floor.
Other nails can then be lightly driven in on this line to mark
the centres of all the other bearings. They should then
be checked by sighting along them to ensure no large
inaccuracy.
iii. Each nail iii turn should be driven in carefully to the
same height as the end ones, either using the level and staff,
as in (i), or three boning rods, one on each end nail and one
on the nail to be adjusted.
iv. The projections of the centres can now be marked upon
the girders or wall, their positions being ascertained by means
of a plumb-bob suspended over each nail in turn. In the
case of wall brackets, a large square should be applied to the
wall, at the correct height, and brought up to touch the
plumb-bobstring.
v. A long straight-edge should then be laid across each pair
of the centre marks on the girder or wall in turn, and a line
drawn to mark the centre line of the shaft; then a line should
be drawn at right angles, to mark the centre line of the bracket
or hanger, using a square to ensure accuracy.
vi. A template of sheet metal or wood should be prepared,

of precisely the form of the footing of the brackets or hangers,
with bolt-holes drilled, and centre lines marked. This
template can then be applied to each marked centre in turn,
and the outline and bolt-holes marked upon the wall or girder.
Each bolt-hole centre should be surrounded by two circles,
one the same diameter as the bolt and the other considerably
larger, especially in the case of wall brackets, since the brick¬
work may become damaged for some distance round the hole,
and the outer circle should remain as a check upon the
accuracy of the position of the hole.
8. Erection and overhaul of line shafting.—When
first erecting line shafting and when subsequently overhauling
it, each bearing should be fitted, as described in Sec. 37,
para. 9, to the portion of the shaft which will run in it.
The bearings will normally be too far apart to line up with a
straight-edge.
The lining up may be done roughly by stretching a string
through the bearings to obtain lateral position. Vertical
adjustment cannot be effected by means of a string, since it
will sag, however tight it may be.
Vertical adjustment can be roughly obtained when first
erecting, by placing a rod upon each locating nail in the floor,
in turn, and bringing the centre of the bearing or, better, the
bottom of a length of shafting placed in the bearing to a
standard height, marked on the rod.
Lateral adjustment is generally provided by slotted holes
in the hangers, or plummer blocks in the case of wall brackets,
which permit a small lateral movement when the holding-
down bolts are slack.
Vertical adjustment is generally provided in swivelling
bearings by means of cup-screws. If such bearings are not
provided, packing must be used between the hangers and
girders, or between the plummer blocks and wall brackets.
If a length of shafting can be obtained long enough to
bridge three bearings, accurate alignment can be ensured
finally, as follows :—
i. Assemble the bearings, placing strips of thin metal
between the halves to separate them slightly.
ii. Select a sufficiently long piece of shafting to bridge three
bearings, and test its straightness by rolling it on the bed of a
large lathe or the ways of a planing machine. The selected
piece is then used as a straight-edge.
iii. Place the selected piece of shafting in the bearings,
and slide it along from bearing to bearing; it should pass
easily into each. Any lack of alignment will be plainly
indicated and should be corrected, half the correction being
Sec. 149.—Ball, Roller and Thrust Bearings 561
made in the bearing the shaft will not enter and half in the
previous one.
iv. Work backwards in the same manner, and make any
further adjustment. If necessary, continue working forwards
and backwards until there is no appreciable error.
v. Remove the packing strips mentioned in (i) and pass
in the whole line shafting. Any difficulty in sliding in any
piece will indicate that the length of shafting concerned is bent.
It should be straightened as described in Sec. 106, para. 1.
vi. Tighten together all the half-bearings. Test whether
the shaft will revolve without unreasonable force, e.g. one
man should be able to revolve it by pulling round the rim of a
medium-sized pulley upon the shaft.
vii. Ensure that all bearings are properly supplied with
lubricant, and run the shafting light for at least an hour
before placing any belts upon the line pulleys, watching
carefully whether any bearings are running hot. If a bearing
runs hot, it should be opened slightly. The halves should be
taken out, and scrape down where bright spots show that the
pressure has been too heavy.
9. Alignment of pulleys.—Belts will not run satis¬
factorily on pulleys which are not truly in line. Lack of
parallelism between countershafts, machines, &c., and the
main line shafting causes the belt to run towards one side,
and the belt will generally leave the pulley.
Lack of alignment of the centre planes of the pulleys has
generally less effect, and the belt will normally remain on the
pulleys, but indicates the error by running on opposite sides
of the pulleys.
Pulleys may be roughly located by stretching a string from
a nail in the wall or roof to one on the floor beyond a machine,
and squaring it to the shaft by means of a large square, the
limb of which, along the string, should be not less than three
feet long. The sides of both pulleys should touch the string
at nearly opposite points.
Before a machine is grouted in, or before a countershaft
is finally bolted to the girders, two long straight-edges should
be placed against the sides of the pulleys. Any lack of
parallelism or alignment can be seen by sighting along the
outer edges.
149. Ball, roller and thrust hearings

1. General principles of ball and roller bearings.—
Ball bearings may be fitted with advantage for light fast¬
running machinery, especially where power is expensive.
PI. 120, Fig. 12, shows a ball race adapted for a shaft bearing.
Ball bearings are more expensive than plain bearings, but the
19—(579)
562 Sec. 149.—Ball, Roller and Thrust Bearings
frictional loss is considerably reduced, being only about one-

tenth of that in even well-oiled plain bearings with ring
lubrication. Moreover, the friction at starting is no greater
than when running.
2. Swivelling devices.—Free swivelling and correct
adjustment for line are absolutely essential, as any inaccuracy
may lead to the complete breaking up of the bearing.
Several types of ball bearing are on the market in which
swivelling is allowed in the bearing itself. PI. 120, Fig. 13,
shows one in which this is attained by grinding the oute^
race so that its inner surface is a portion of a sphere. The
inner race should be free to slide upon the shaft, since this
type of bearing must not be allowed to take any end thrust.
3. Loads of ball races.—The crushing strength of a
hard steel ball between flat surfaces is about 90,000i2 lb.,
where d is the diameter of the ball in inches ; but a very large
factor of safety is necessary, which increases rapidly with the
speed at which the bearing is run. The formula P = KN<22
pounds has been found to give a safe working load on a radial
bearing containing N balls of diameter d inches, where K is a
coefficient depending upon the shape of the groove in which
the balls run and upon the speed.
For normal-shaped grooves whose radius is }sd, the
following table gives K for various speeds in revolutions per
minute:—
R.p.m. 1 10 100 300 400 500 10,000
K 468 377 343 312 273 203 156 126 65

1
For balls running on flat surfaces or in spherical outer

races, these coefficients should be halved.
4. Lubrication.—The efficient lubrication of ball bearings
is of great importance. For slow-moving bearings a pure
mineral grease is best, as it is easily retained. For high speeds
a mineral oil of medium viscosity should be used, and it
should be supplied freely, if possible, by running the bearings
submerged or partially so. In every case, dust should be
excluded by completely encasing the bearings in light metal
caps or covers containing felt washers, such as those shown on
PI. 120, Fig. 12. The balls are often held in a moving cage ;
this is convenient for assembling, but may reduce the number
of balls.
5. Roller bearings.—To carry loads which are too heavy
for ball bearings of a reasonable size, roller bearings may be
used, PI. 120, Fig.;l4.
Sec. 149.—Ball, Roller and Thrust Bearings 563
The permissible load is about l,000i lbs. per inch length

of any one roller of hardened steel 6f d inches .diameter.
For a fast-moving radial bearing, containing N rollers of
hardened steel of diameter d and length L inches, the safe
load may be taken as 300N<2L lbs. under ordinary conditions.
Large slow-moving bearings have run satisfactorily up to
20,000NiL lbs. load.
Roller bearings do not run well if their length much
exceeds their diameter, unless some means is provided to
keep them parallel to the journal. A bearing of any desired
length can be made by placing two or more rings of short
rollers side by side, the rings being separated by steel washers.
In the Hyatt roller bearing, PL 120, Fig. 15, each roller is
a helical steel spring, ground true. A slight departure from
the parallel position merely bends these rollers, and they run
satisfactorily even when of considerable length.
6. Barrel bearings.—A more recent introduction is the
barrel bearing, PL 120, Fig. 16, which occupies a middle
position between ball and roller bearings. The races are
ground slightly hollow, and the rollers are tapered to both
ends, producing a slightly sharper curve in longitudinal
section than that of the races.
The area of contact between a ball and aflat bearing may
be considered to be a circle, and that between a roller and
a flat bearing as a narrow rectangle. The area of contact
between a barrel and its nearly equally curved race may be
said to be an ellipse, whose short diameter is the same as that
of the area contact of a ball of the same diameter as the barrel.
The long diameter of the ellipse is the same as that of the area
of contact of a ball whose radius is equal to that of the barrel
curve, and this can be made very large.
The formula for ball bearings can be applied to find the
safe load in the form P = KNDi, where d is the actual
diameter of the barrel and D is twice the radius of the barrel
curve in section. Barrels run perfectly truly and, as the
formula shows, will carry much more weight than balls of the
same diameter.
7. Ball thrust bearings.—Radial ball bearings with deep
grooves can resist small longitudinal thrusts without damage.
A special type of radial ball bearing with grooves of V
section, Pl. 120, Fig. 17, will stand a longitudinal thrust of
KNi2 sin A, where A is the inclination of the side of the V
groove to the centre line of the journal.
Cone bearings, or more accurately combined thrust and
radial ball bearings, as fitted in most bicycle wheels, are
generally designed to take about equal thrust and radial
stresses.
564 Sec. 149.—-Ball, Roller and Thrust Bearings
Thrusts too heavy to be met by either of the above methods
may be taken on thrust washers, Pl. 120, Fig. 18. The
pressure that can be carried safely if grooved races are fitted
is 3KNi2, and where flat plates are used it is l*5KNrf2. It is
very necessary that the thrust should be borne equally by all
the balls. It is advisable, therefore, in all important ball
thrust bearings to take the thrust finally upon a spherical
seating, so that the stationary race can swivel slightly.
8. Thrust collars.—In ordinary shaft lines the small
longitudinal thrust necessary to keep the shaft in place can be
taken upon a plain collar placed on the shaft close to the end
of a bearing, as at both ends of the countershaft shown on
PI. 123, Fig. 4.
Such a device can only carry very small loads, since
lubrication is impossible.
If such a collar has at least one segment cut out of its
surface, or that of the block against which it bears, and
effective means is provided for constantly spreading oil upon
the segment of the surface thus laid bare, the oil will be
carried into the bearing.
Such a thrust collar can be made to carry 50 lbs. per
square inch.
The old-fashioned horseshoe thrust blocks on marine
propeller shafts, PI. 120, Fig. 19, worked upon this principle ;
but it was difficult to keep them cool even by copious water
cooling, and the frictional loss was heavy, varying from 2 to
30 per cent., according to conditions of load, lubrication, and
temperature.
9. Michell thrust bearings.—Heavy longitudinal thrusts,
such as that of a ship’s propeller shaft, the unbalanced
thrust of a turbine, or any heavy machinery upon a vertical
shaft, may be taken effectively upon a thrust bearing of the
Michell type, PI. 120, Fig. 20. In these, a wide collar, C,
upon the shaft bears upon a ring of thrust block segments, S,
each of which can rock independently upon a fulcrum or
knife edge, D, which is applied to the back of the block either
at its centre in the case of reversible machinery or preferably
a little farther from the leading edge where the direction of
revolution is constant. A space is left between each block
to permit oil to reach the face of the collar. The leading
edge of each block is rounded, so that it slides up on to the
oil film much as a sledge rides up over snow. In operation
the pressure increases uniformly from the leading to the
trailing edge, and the oil film is gradually squeezed out by
this increasing pressure, but it must not be destroyed before
it is past the block. Since this is a matter of time, a rapidly-
revolving bearing can carry a heavier load per square inch
than a slow-moving one.
Sec. 150.—Clutches 565
The whole bearing should be immersed in oil, which must

be liquid enough to make certain of reaching the small
lubricating strips of bare collar.
A load of 500 lbs. per square inch can be carried safely
and economically, the coefficient of friction being about
0002 under full load and nearly independent of load and
speed, except at starting, when, until the speed in high enough
to produce the correct oiling effect, the coefficient is about 0-02.
The ordinary thrust block will not carry a load exceeding
50 lb./sq. inch and its coefficient of friction exceeds 0*02,
that is, ten times that of the Michell thrust block.
150. Clutches
1. Positive clutches-.—When a length of shafting is to be
coupled occasionally to another or to a pulley which is normally
freely mounted on it, and both can be stopped to effect the
coupling, a simple dog clutch of the type shown on PI. 121,
Fig. 1, can be employed. The drive being absolutely rigid and
positive, the clutch must not be thrown in unless the shafts
are at rest or revolving at the same speed. The sliding sleeve,
S, is free to move longitudinally, but is prevented from
revolving on its shaft either by a feather, F, or by a square
formed on the shaft.
2. Friction clutches.—Friction and other non-rigid
clutches are intended to be capable of being thrown in without
undue shock while one shaft is revolving and the other is
stationary, and to absorb shocks by slipping a little when they
occur. They may be of several types:—
i. Single-plate clutches consist of two single disc plates, P
on PI. 121, Fig. 2 (which may be of different metals, or one
may be faced with leather, fibre, or special composition),
one of which can slide longitudinally. They are usually kept
in contact by a spring, S, and may be thrown out of gear by
means of a jaw, J, working in a circular groove in the hub of
the sliding disc.
ii. Multiple-plate clutches consist of several discs, of which
all odd numbers, O on PI. 121, Fig. 4, are keyed to a quill,
Q, on which they fit, by feathers, F, which prevent them
from revolving on it, while allowing them to slide longi¬
tudinally. All even numbers, E, are similarly keyed on their
outer edges to 'a drum, D, fixed to a shaft, A. These plates
are kept jammed up close by a spring, S, but can be released
from pressure by means of a jaw and collars on the quill.
The quill is free to slide longitudinally, but is prevented from
turning on the shaft, B, by a feather. The grip of the plates
may be increased by forming circular corrugation^ in their
O 1 **L'L TIPIZ - PLPTZ CLUTCH
Sec. 150.—Clutches 567
surfaces, which increases the surface in contact and produces
a certain amount of jamming.
iii. Band dutches consist of a drum, rigidly keyed to one
shaft, and a band, generally carried on a plate or hollow drum
on the other shaft. They are actuated by tightening the
band on the drum which it encircles.
iv. Expanding clutches may be of the band type, where the
band is stiff, and placed inside the drum. They are actuated
by uncoiling the band and so expanding it against the inner
surface of the drum.
Frequently, instead of one continuous band, two or more
segments, S on PI. 121, Fig. 3, are provided, all of which are
simultaneously expanded by means of some device, such as
a cam plate or a series of toggle levers, L.
v. Cone clutches are merely a variation of the plate clutch,
in which a better grip is obtained by substituting for the plates
a pair of cones, one of which is forced into the other by a spring,
PI. 121, Fig. 5.
Cone clutches may also be multiple.
vi. Combined positive and friction clutches consist of any
type of friction clutch and a dog clutch, which does not come
into operation until the plates, &c. are already firmly engaged.
On PI. 121, Fig. 6, the first movement of the sliding quill,
Q, forces the friction plates, P, together, acting through the
springs, S. Further movement of the collar causes the dogs,
d, to engage. Thus a comparatively light friction clutch
can be made to start up a shaft running light. When it is
running the dog clutch can be thrown in, and a load can then
be taken without slip.
3. Magnetic clutches.—Magnetic clutches are normally
of the single-plate type, an electro-magnet being incorporated
in one of the plates to produce adhesion and the torque is
transmitted by friction.
Magnetic clutches have the advantage that they can be
controlled from a distance. The normal attractive force is
about 100 lb. per square inch of magnet-pole area.
4. Hydraulic clutches.—Hydraulic transmission from
one shaft to another may take one of the following forms:—
i. A plate or drum carrying one or more plunger pumps
operated by an eccentric on the shaft. Any relative move¬
ment of the shaft and drum causes oil or water to be drawn
from a reservoir and driven back again through an open
control valve. On closing the control valve, the plunger
is prevented from working and the relative movement cannot
take place. The barrel is then carried round with the shaft.
This constitutes a hydraulic clutch, which can be made very
gentle in its action by designing the control valve so that it
can only be closed gradually.
568 Sec. 150.—Clutches
ii. The driving shaft may be made to work a hydraulic

pump, the pressure liquid from which drives a hydraulic
motor upon the driven shaft.
The pump plungers may be operated by an eccentric of
variable throw. By centring the eccentric no power is
transmitted, and by increasing the throw gradually any
desired ratio of velocities between the shafts may be obtained.
This constitutes not merely a very gradual clutch, but also a
variable gear.
iii. The same effect may also be obtained by driving pump
plungers placed parallel to the drive shaft, and grouped round
it, by means of a plate (called a Swashplate) carried on the
shaft and capable of being tilted at any angle. The stroke of
the plunger, and, therefore, the quantity of liquid delivered, de¬
pends entirely upon the inclination of the plate, and the supply
ceases when the plate is placed at right-angles to the shaft.
5. Precautions necessary in fitting clutches.—Thrust.
—In every kind of clutch, springs and other controls must be
so disposed that any longitudinal thrust upon the shaft is
balanced or properly taken upon thrust bearings.
For instance, if a spring compressing a plate clutch, as
shown on PI. 121, Fig. 2, revolves with the shaft, it should
bear at its fixed end upon a collar fixed to the shaft. On
PI. 121, Fig. 5, the thrust between the cones is taken upon
a ball-thrust washer, W, and there is no resultant longitudinal
thrust upon the shaft, since both thrusts are taken by it.
Cooling.—Clutches which carry much power develop a
large amount of heat if they are allowed to slip for a consider¬
able time. If it is intended to slip a friction clutch, it is
necessary to provide for cooling, either by means of air fins,
and perhaps also a fan, or by circulating water through some
part of the clutch.
Clutch control.—Clutches must be put into action gradually.
Otherwise a great stress would be thrown on the clutch and
shafting, and some portion of the transmission gear might be
broken or the prime mover supplying the power might be
stopped. Efficient means must, therefore, be provided for con¬
trolling the springs, &c., without difficulty or much effort, by
fitting levers, screws, or other gear to ensure that considerable
movement is necessary to apply or release the drive, and that
only a small force need be applied at the handle or pedal, so
tfiat it may be well under control.
Clutch stops.—Where various gears are to be engaged at
different times, as in a motor-car, a clutch stop or brake, 5,
should be provided, as shown on PI. 121, Fig. 5. Thus, when
the clutch is disengaged, the free portion of it can be slowed
down or stopped by pressure upon the stop before attempting
to engage the teeth of the gears.
Sec. 151.—Belt, Rope and Chain Drives 569
151. Belt, rope and chain drives

1. Belts.—The types of belt in common use are :—
i. Leather, generally a single thickness, but two or more
may be cemented and sewn together, to form
what are known as double, treble, &c., belts.
ii. Canvas, usually folded longitudinally and the plies
stuck together with rubber solution or similar
composition. Any weight or thickness may be so
obtained.
iii. Link belting, usually made of many links of leather or
composition held together by steel pins, as shown
on PL 122, Fig. 1.
iv. Steel belts ', rarely used, consisting of a thin ribbon
of spring steel, carefully tempered.
The type of belt most suitable for a drive depends mainly
upon the amount of power to be carried, and also upon the
permissible size of pulleys and their speed.
Single leather makes the best belt where it can be used.
Double leather is not very flexible, does not run well on small
pulleys or with crossed or skew drives, and it seldom wears
well.
Canvas belting, which includes such proprietary articles as
Balata and various Hair belts, can be obtained in any desired
strength, and is generally preferred to double or treble
leather, since it is more flexible. It does not always last well,
and must be kept free from oil. The fastenings require more
care than those for leather belting, since the canvas is easily
tom.
Link belts, PI. 122, Fig. 1, are very heavy, but flexible.
They are very suitable for drives in which much power is to
be carried on small pulleys, such as those of motors and
dynamos. They should not be crossed. If striking gear is
fitted, very large forks are necessary, and the jaws should
cany rollers free to revolve, because the riveted ends of the
pins are easily worn or broken off. If this happens the belt
will fly to pieces.
Steel belts may be run on bare cast-iron pulleys, or on cork-
or fibre-covered pulleys. They will carry a large amount of
power upon comparatively small pulleys, but require great
skill to make joints in them and special tightening appliances.
2. Speeds.—Steel belts are normally run at any speed up
to 10,000 feet per minute; other belts run satisfactorily at
speeds up to 3,000 feet per minute ; they may be run at 5,000
feet, but at a considerable loss in efficiency, unless pulleys of
very large diameter compared with the belt thickness are used,
because centrifugal force tends to make the belt fly out and
reduce the arc of contact with the pulley.
570 Sec. 151.—Belt, Rope and Chain Drives
Plate 122.
Belt 7k/iN5M/s$iON
LAP JOINT N’kI
sgf*”" (
'’•fc*!!1 \
UP JOINT (urn mt> OP/PAL m»C PUNT

3. Power transmitted.—The part of a belt which

transmits power is tight, while the other part is comparatively
slack and merely keeps up the circuit. The slack side should
be as loose as possible without slipping ; it should be on top,
since its sag then increases the arc of contact, PI. 122, Fig. 2.
If the tensions in the tight and slack parts are T and t lb.
respectively, then the effective pull is (T — t) lb., and the
horse-power transmitted at a belt velocity of V feet per
V X (T — t)
minute is -- For a well-designed drive giving a
33,000
minimum arc of contact of about 140° on the smaller pulley,
(T — t) is about 45 lb. per inch width of average in. single
leather belt and 75 lb. for double leather. For canvas belting
(T — t) is generally a little higher than for leather of the same
thickness, especially in thick belts, but it varies very much
with the quality of the belting.
In the case of link belts (T — t) is about 88 lb. per square
inch section of the belt. For steel belts it is about 16,000 lb.
per square inch.
4. Compounded belts.—If a belt should prove insufficient
to carry the load, as a result, for instance, of adding more
machines in a shop, another belt may be placed upon the
existing one. The tension of the belts should be carefully
equalized.
Leather belts thus compounded run well, and the outer one
transmits about 70 per cent, of the power that it would do if
used alone.
5. Joints.—Leather belts may be fastened by overlapping
the ends, and either lacing or riveting them together, PI. 122,
Fig. 3. They may also be butted and joined by an apron on
the outside, PI. 122, Fig. 4. The ends of a lap joint or apron
should be scarfed down, to obviate sudden changes of thickness.
Many types of metal fasteners are*obtainable. They are
quick to fix, and satisfactory for slow and medium speeds
provided they are light and short. A plate joint should be
hinged in the middle to diminish the length of rigid plate.
A spiral steel-wire joint with a raw hide hinge pin, as shown
on PI. 122, Fig. 5, is light and flexible, suitable for high speeds,
but has only about two-thirds the strength of a good lap or
butt laced and cemented joint.
A good type of joint, known generally as the Alligator,
consists merely of a hinge, each plate of which is double and
each half-plate has projections inwards, PI. 122, Fig. 6. It is
simple to fix, the operation consisting merely of placing the
ends of the belt between the double plates and then closing
them together.
Light fast-moving belts should always be fastened by a

long diagonal scarfed joint, as shown on PL 122, Fig. 7,
cemented with a mixture of fish glue and isinglass in equal
parts, with enough warm water to dissolve the isinglass. This
gives an ideal joint, with the minimum of stiffness and weight,
and which runs silently at all speeds.
Short scarfed joints for heavier belts may be cemented
with advantage, and also laced. Donkey hide is much
favoured for laces owing to its toughness. The lace should
be countersunk into the inner surface of the belt by cutting
shallow grooves between the holes, see Pl. 122, Fig. 3. These
grooves must be longitudinal and never across the belt,
because the latter would seriously weaken the belt.
6. Belt dressings.—Leather belts must be kept supple,
and their surfaces should be clammy, so as to ding to the
pulleys. This is best ensured by rubbing in tallow, which
may be thinned with a little oil in cool climates. Canvas
belts must not be greased.
Various sticky compositions are on the market, which
greatly increase the clinging power of a belt if constantly
applied. If such compositions are once applied the practice
must be continued, because the composition dries hard in
process of time and a belt will slip badly unless fresh is
added.
Bricks of resinous compound are also obtainable, which are
intended to be rubbed upon canvas belts. They are effective
where belts are not heavily loaded.
7. General rules for belt drives.—In designing a belt
drive the following rules should be observed; otherwise
belts would slip excessively.
i. The distance between pulleys should be as much as is
reasonably possible, and never less than three times
the diameter of the larger pulley.
ii. The belts should be as nearly horizontal as possible.
Where drives must be nearly vertical, belts should be
crossed for preference so as to increase the arc of
contact, and a belt wider by 50 per cent, than
indicated by the formula in para. 3 should be
used.
iii. The slack side of a belt should be uppermost, so that
its sag may increase the arc of contact.
iv. The ratio of diameters of the pulleys should not
exceed six to one, and preferably not more than five
to one.
v. The thickness of the belt should not exceed one-
thirtieth of the diameter of the smaller pulley.
Otherwise the belt would slip and wear out quickly.
vi. If rules (i) to (v) cannot be carried out, a jockey pulley

should be fitted, of diameter not less than the smaller
pulley, to increase the arc of contact, as shown on
PI. 122, Fig. 8, or the pulleys should be faced with
leather or some suitable fabric to increase the grip.
vii. A new leather belt must be thoroughly stretched
before use. This may be done by suspending the
belt and attaching weights to it for a week or so.
This will obviate the trouble involved in frequent
shortening and re-jointing which would otherwise
occur when the belt is taken into use.
8. Losses in belts.—Provided the rules given in para. 7
have been observed, the loss in belts is about 5 per cent, of
the power transmitted.
The rims of two pulleys connected by a belt move with
approximately the same velocity; therefore, their revolutions
are approximately inversely proportional to their diameters.
There is, however, a certain amount of slip, and hence the
driven pulley rim actually revolves at a velocity about 2 per
cent, less than that of the driving pulley rim. With a badly
designed drive or if the belt speed is excessive, the slip may be
much more. If a slip of over 30 per cent, occurs, the belt
is apt to fly off. Excessive slip wears out belts quickly by
abrasion and overheating.
9. Arrangement of drive.—When two shafts are parallel,
the two pulleys of a drive must be in line. This can be
roughly tested when they are being erected by stretching a
string across the edges of the pulleys. A more accurate
method is to sight along a straight-edge laid across the side
of each pulley.
Where the shafts are to run in opposite directions the belt
must be crossed, the pulleys being lined up as though for a
straight drive, PI. 122, Fig. 9. Crossed drives will transmit
more power than straight ones owing to the larger arc of
contact, but cause rapid wear of belts.
Where the drive is angular, the shafts not being parallel,
the pulleys must be so placed that the belt runs on to each in a
line with the centre plane of the pulley, as shown on PI. 122,
Fig. 10. The belt may be running off the pulley at an angle,
but will nevertheless remain on the pulleys and transmit power
satisfactorily if led on straight.
Where, owing to obstructions, it is impossible to stretch
a belt directly between pulleys placed on two shafts, jockey
pulleys may be used to change the direction of motion of the
belt as desired, as shown on PI. 122, Fig. 11. A jockey pulley
should be as large as the smaller pulley of a drive, well
balanced, and very rigidly held but adjustable in position, so
that the belt may be tightened or adjusted to run accurately

on to either pulley by moving the jockey.
Belts should always be ordered in widths of whole numbers
of inches, since standardization reduces cost. It is generally
preferable to use thin wide belts rather than thick narrow
ones, because thin ones last better and waste less power in
friction.
The length of belt required for a straight drive is approxi¬
mately twice the distance between pulley centres plus half
the circumference of each pulley. To this must be added
enough for the joint.
10. Pulleys.—Material and design.—Pulleys for belts are
usually of cast-iron in small sizes, but large sizes may be
built up of steel, with cast-iron hub bosses, to save weight.
Built-up wooden pulleys are sometimes used.
Where it would be inconvenient to remove shafting from
its bearings in order to slip a pulley along it, split pulleys
should be employed, which can be placed round the shaft
anywhere, and the halves bolted together, as shown on PI. 123,
Fig. 1.
Large split pulleys should always be built up, since steel is
better able to withstand the centrifugal stress, and in large
sizes built-up pulleys are generally cheaper. The arms of
steel pulleys may be cast into the boss or may be screwed in.
They are normally riveted to the rim, which is countersunk
to produce a smooth surface, PI. 123, Fig. 2. Wide pulleys
should have two rows of arms.
The rims of pulleys should normally be crowned about
l inch per foot width. A belt always tends to run centrally
on a crowned pulley without guides of any kind, but more
crowning than this defeats its object by decreasing the area of
contact between belt and pulley. The rim of a pulley should
be at least half an inch wider than the belt.
Since standardization considerably reduces cost, pulleys
should always be ordered to whole numbers of inches, both in
width and diameter. The size of shaft, and type of keyway,
if desired, must also be specified. Split pulleys for light loads
grip sufficiently without any key. For heavy loads a plain
feather key as long as the pulley boss should be used. Taper
keys should not be used.
11. Fast and loose pulleys.—Pulleys for a fast and loose
drive may have flat rims, since guides must' be provided for
the belt, PI. 123, Fig. 3. The driving pulley must be twice
as wide as the belt plus one inch, and must be quite flat. The
driven pulleys are the normal width, one being keyed to the
shaft and the other free to revolve, but kept in place by a
collar. Loose pulleys are normally bushed with bronze or
Plate 123.
Rope, and Chain transm/ss/on

run on ball bearings, since it is difficult to ensure sufficient

bearing area or lubrication for a cast-iron bearing. Lubrica¬
tion is best provided by fitting a Stauffer or Reisert grease cap.
See Sec. 157, para. 5. Striking gear must be fitted to shift
that part of the belt which is running on to a pulley. The
forks should be long and of large diameter. They should act
on the driving side of the belt.
The forks of striking gear for heavy belts, especially link
belts, should carry rollers, preferably not less than three inches
in diameter and twelve inches long, free to revolve. Friction,
damage to belt, and noise in running are thereby reduced to a
minimum.
Note that the fast and loose pulleys must be on the driven
shaft as it is not possible to strike a stationary belt.
12. Countershafts.—Where the ratio of speeds between
the line of shafting and the pulley shaft of a machine is more
than six, an intermediate shaft or countershaft must be used,
running at a speed approximately midway between them.
In other cases it is often convenient to provide a counter¬
shaft, either to diminish the length of drive or to keep belts
out of the way of operators.
Where stepped pulleys are necessary and a fast and loose
drive is also required, a countershaft must be provided, unless
a clutch is used in place of the fast and loose pulleys, fitted
to one of the stepped pulleys.
For purposes of standardization, the shafting, pulleys, and
bearings of* a countershaft should be similar in size and
design to those of the main shaft-line. On the other hand,
plain plummer blocks and lighter shafting, if already in stock,
can be used with success, since the shaft is usually very short
and carries little load.
PI. 123, Fig. 4, shows a typical countershaft for a lathe
with swivelling bearings, cone pulleys, and fast and loose drive.
13. Rope drives.—Ropes are used for the transmission
of power in larger quantities than can be satisfactorily dealt
with by flat belts. They are run in grooved pulleys, of
diameter not less than thirty times the diameter of the rope,
PI. 123, Fig. 5. Grooves should be plain V in shape, deep
enough to ensure that the rope will never touch the bottom
when worn, the sides making an apex angle of 40°. It is
advantageous for the width of the grooves at the top to be at
least 14 times the diameter of the rope. Larger ropes can
then be substituted if more power is required later on.
Ropes are twisted leather, hemp, or cotton, well greased
with tallow and graphite. Cotton is much the most satis¬
factory. The tension in a good cotton rope may be 200dz lbs.,
where d — dia. of rope in inches. Ropes are normally run at
high speeds, and work satisfactorily up to 7,000 feet per minute.

At 5,000 feet per minute, a normal working speed, each 1-in.
diameter rope will transmit 16 horse-power.
A cotton rope drive is specially suited for drives in which
one large engine supplies power to several shafts, PL 123,
Fig. 6, as in textile factories, and also for positions in which the
rules for flat belts cannot be observed. The length of drive
may be as short as desired or may be up to 100 feet; vertical
drives run satisfactorily. The drive is silent and free from
vibration. Ropes will last ten years with reasonable care,
and require less attention than belts.
Ropes should be joined with a splice 10 feet long, the
diameter of the rope being maintained as uniform as possible
by gradually reducing the thickness of the strands. The rope
should be specially woven, with strands having a core of
parallel threads surrounded by protecting twisted threads,
PI. 123, Fig. 5. The splicing, therefore, needs great care and
skill.
14. Chain drives.—Principle.—Where a large amount of
power must be transmitted at a medium speed, chain drives
provide a reliable and positive method of transmission. The
chain is run on sprockets, which are pulleys with projections
on their rims which engage the links and so prevent slipping.
Silent chain drives.—The best type is that known as silent
chain.
Each link consists of several plates, carrying projections
which engage with flat-sided teeth on a broad sprocket, as
shown on PI. 123, Fig. 7. There is practically no friction
except that between the links and their pins.
This is the most suitable type for shop transmissions, since
it is reasonably silent and needs less lubrication than other
types—a great advantage in textile mills, where oil must not
drip or splash about.
It is made in standard sizes up to 25 tons working tensile
strength by several makers, who claim an efficiency of 98 per
cent, at 1,200 feet per minute.
Drives may be very short, and the ratio is only limited by
the minimum number of teeth that will provide smooth
running on the smaller sprocket. With silent chain the limit
is about ten to one, the smaller sprocket having not less than
eight teeth.
The outer plates of silent chain are usually guide plates, G,
to keep the chain on the sprocket by enclosing the teeth.
They add to the tensile strength of the chain, but do not bear
on the teeth at all.
The pins and pin bushings, B, are usually made of very hard
steel to prolong the life of the chain. Some patented types
of chain have knife-edge rocking pins for the same .purpose.
Jockey pulleys for silent chain should be toothed sprockets
engaging the working face of the chain. If plain pulleys are
used upon the back of the chain, the links rapidly wear and
burr, and this ruins the chain.
The ratio of velocities of driving and driven sprockets is
inversely proportional to the number of teeth they contain.
Although positive, the drive is more elastic than that of toothed
gears. This elasticity has been further increased by some
makers by introducing springs into some or all of the links.
Lubrication.—The effective lubrication of chains is difficult.
When they cannot be run in a bath of oil or with a continuous
drip, a thick lubricant must be used, since a thin oil is quickly
shed by centrifugal force.
The chain should be immersed in a large quantity of solid
lubricant, such as a mixture of heavy mineral grease and
deflocculated graphite, at a high temperature, kept in it for
some hours, and moved about to facilitate entrance into the
link joints. The lubricant should then be allowed to cool.
The chain should then be taken out and wiped clean.
On no account should a greased chain be oiled with ordinary
machine oil. Not only would this produce no lubricating
effect, but the chain would then appear oily, and would,
therefore, be liable to be passed over when next due for
greasing ; moreover, it would splash oil about when running.
Wear.—All chains wear at the pins, and so become longer
as the pins decrease in diameter and the holes wear oval.
In consequence, they tend to ride higher upon the teeth.
This is not a great disadvantage, but finally the chain rides
high enough to slip over the top of the teeth. Both the chain
and sprockets must then be renewed.
The distance between sprockets should be adjustable,
because chains are always lengthening as they wear. Alter¬
natively, a jockey pulley may be provided, so that the chain
can be kept reasonably tight, or links may be removed from
time to time.
Other types of chain.—There are other types of chain, for
example:—
Plain link chain, running in V-grooved wheels with moulded
sides to the grooves to grip the links, PI. 123, Fig. 8. This
type is only used in such appliances as differential tackles,
where great efficiency is not required, noise can be permitted,
and which are only used occasionally. Its only advantage is
that of cheapness.
Block chain, consisting of a series of short blocks, alter¬
nating with pairs of strap links, and held together with steel
pins, as shown on PI. 123, Fig. 9. It is heavy; there is
friction between the blocks and the teeth of the sprockets,
which enter between the straps, resulting in noise, wear, and
Sec. 152.—Toothed Gears 579
considerable frictional loss. Its use is almost confined to

conveyors.
Roller link chain, PL 123, Fig. 10, every link of which
consists of a pair of straps. The pins, P, work in bushes, B,
which carry rollers, R, to diminish the friction and wear on
the pins. The sprockets carry a tooth for each pin. The
running is smoother than with block chain, and the sprockets
can be smaller for the same load.
This is the normal type used in cycles and in some motor
vehicles.
152. Toothed gears
1. Glassification.—Gears, or toothed wheels, are said
to be spur gears when the teeth are cut parallel to the axle
or shaft and the two shafts are parallel, as shown on PI. 124,
Fig. 6.
Bevel gears are conical, and are used when the two shafts
are at an angle and their centre lines meet at a point. This
point is also the apex of both cones, of which the gear blanks
are portions, PI. 124, Fig. 1.
Where they are used, a considerable longitudinal thrust is
caused in the shafts, which necessitates thrust bearings and
causes a loss in efficiency due to friction.
Mitre gears are equal-sized bevel gears for shafts at right
angles.
Skew gears are used between two shafts which are not
parallel, but cross one another so that their centre lines do not
meet. Skew gears are rarely used. They are expensive to
make and seldom necessary. The term is frequently, but
incorrectly, applied to screw gears.
Screw and worm gears.—The shafts are at right angles
and not in the same plane. A common example is the screw
gear for working the cam shaft of an oil engine. They are,
however, quite different from skew gears, in that the power is
transmitted by the'screwing action of helical teeth and not
by direct thrust of one tooth on another.
2. Spur gears.—Plain spur gears are generally of cast-
iron. For expensive machinery in which loads are heavy
they may be of steel, or steel and bronze alternately.
For cheap slow-running machinery, the teeth can be cast
and hand-cleaned with a file.
For fast-running machinery and any which must run
quietly and smoothly, the teeth must be very accurately cut
horn solid blanks. They are cut either to a cycloidal curve or
to an involute, either of which gives a fairly smooth rolling
motion between the teeth with very little friction.
Sliding friction cannot be entirely eliminated by any form
of tooth. A more important feature of correctly formed
580 Sec. 152.—Toothed Gears
teeth is that the velocity ratio of the two gear wheels shall
remain constant. With teeth of incorrect form, if the speed
of the driving wheel is steady, the speed of the driven wheel
will vary slightly while each pair of teeth travel through their
arc of contact, resulting in considerable vibration, noise, and
wear.
Cycloidal teeth are little used except for delicate instru¬
ments ; they probably give the best results, but are expensive
to make, and have practical disadvantages ; a pair of wheels
must be designed to suit one another, and will not gear
correctly with another wheel of a different size; and they
must be accurately adjusted at the correct distance apart.
Involute gears are almost universally used. Any
involute gear wheel will run correctly with any other of the
same pitch and obliquity [see below], and slight errors in
separation of the wheels are unimportant. Moreover, they
can be easily and accurately generated by milling, grinding,
or planing ; for while the teeth on a wheel are convex faced,
the convexity decreases as the radius of the wheel increases
(the size of the teeth remaining unaltered), until in the
limiting case of a wheel of infinite radius, i.e. a straight rack,
the teeth are straight sided. The angle which the faces of
the teeth make with the perpendicular to the rack is called
the obliquity of the teeth. This rack can be machined with
great accuracy, and a planing tool can be ground to the profile
of the teeth. See PI. 125, Fig. 1.
As the rack will gear correctly with any wheel of the same
pitch and obliquity, the tool so formed can be used to cut the
teeth on a wheel of any size, if the wheel be rotated, and the
tool traversed at the correct speed. This can be done in a
special machine, the gear planer.
PI. 125, Fig. 2, shows how the teeth can be formed by
grinding with a grinding wheel, with a straight cutting side
working at an angle to the radius of the gear-wheel.
By this method a cutter in the form of an involute gear¬
wheel, with the cutting edges on one face of the wheel, may
be formed ; this cutter may be used for cutting wheels with
any number of teeth; the cutter moves axially to take the
cut, and at the same time cutter and gear-wheel are rotated
very slowly at the correct relative speeds. (PI. 125, Fig. 3.)
3. Helical gears.—In very high-speed machinery, such
as the reduction gear of turbines, helical gears, as shown on
PI. 124, Fig. 2, are used. In these, the teeth are cut at an
angle across the face of the wheel blank, so that contact
between two teeth takes place first on one side, and gradually
, passes across to the other as the gears turn. By this means
shock and noise is#almost entirely eliminated, but a longi¬
tudinal thrust on the shaft is produced. Two such gears
tviM-Hoe: fimdoN
Flats 125.
— Sfovt u/Atrt fitsr
In ceare to avoid
NUMEQOUS CONFUSING LINES TO
SffOV THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE TOOTH. THE COTTER HAS
DEEM DRAWN A3 THOUGH IT
MOVES Ifi a circular 0/BECHQA
HcrwLcrrriE cutter
MOVES ACROSS THEERCEOF
THE DLRNK, ALSO TRAVELS
VERT/CAUY AS THE CLANK
ROTATES.
placed side by side, having teeth inclined in opposite directions
as shown, cause opposite thrusts which balance one another.
Such gears are called double-helical.
The pinions are usually of nickel steel and the larger wheels
of carbon steel of about 35 tons/sq. in. tensile strength.
The efficiency of transmission through well-cut double¬
helical gears is very high, approximately 98 per cent.
4. Silent gears.—All metal gears with parallel teeth,
e.g. spur gears, are inclined to be noisy, especially if they run
fast. To reduce the noise, it is usual to make a fast-running
pinion of raw hide or some special compound, of which there
are several on the market, such as Fabroil. The pinion blank
is made by compressing discs of raw hide or other material
between two discs of steel by some such arrangement as that
shown on PI. 124, Fig. 3, and then the teeth are cut as though
the blank were solid metal.
Such gears run well under a comparatively light load at
very high tooth velocities, and almost silently.
Oil is very harmful to raw hide, and must not be allowed
to get on to such pinions. They should be lubricated with
a mixture of graphite and tallow.
For tooth pressures that are too high for raw hide, pinions
are similarly made by building them up of plates of spring
steel. These plates are not necessarily fiat. A considerable
increase in flexibility is obtained by coning them at various
angles, as shown on PI. 124, Fig. 4.
5. Speed ratios.—In the case of all gears, whether spur,
bevel, or skew, two gears working together must turn at
speeds exactly in inverse proportion to the number of teeth
they contain. Thus two gears of 48 and 12 teeth must revolve
at a speed ratio of 12 to 48, or 1 to 4, the smaller gear moving
at the higher speed. The smaller of two gears whose ratio is
large is generally called a pinion.
The possible ratio is only limited by the necessary number
of teeth on the pinion for smooth working. No pinion should
have less than 12 teeth normally, or 8 if specially designed.
Gears can be made up to any size that existing machinery can
deal with, so that the ratio is theoretically unlimited.
In practice, a ratio of six to one is seldom exceeded, except
in turbine reduction gears, in which, by the use of double¬
helical gears of fine pitch and great width and made of alloy
steels of great strength, a ratio of ten or more to one can be
used, but the number of teeth in a double-helical pinion should
not be less than 22.
6. Pitch.—Two gears working together, as shown on
PI. 124, Fig. 5, and having a ratio of two to one, if placed with
their centres at 6 inches distance, revolve at the same relative
speed as two smooth friction pulleys of 4 and 8 inches diameter

respectively, whether the teeth are large or small. The
pitch diameters are said to be 4 inches and 8 inches respectively.
The two circles 4 inches and 8 inches diameter representing
these theoretical friction pulleys are called the pitch circles
of the gears.
The distance measured along a pitch circle between the
centres of two teeth is the circular pitch of the teeth.
A gear is usually described and ordered in Great Britain
by stating the diametral pitch, which is a conventional term
for the number of teeth it has for every inch diameter of its
pitch circle. Thus a ten pitch gear of 4 inches pitch diameter
has 40 teeth. Since the circumference of its pitch circle is
12-57 inches, the circular pitch of the teeth is or
0-314 inch. The clearance below the pitch circle is usually
made more than the projection of the teeth beyond it by
8 per cent, of the total depth of the teeth. It is important
that the teeth should be properly engaged. If there is much
less than 8 per cent, space between the ends of the teeth and
the bottom of the clearance the teeth tend to jam. If there
is much more, the teeth will be weak and liable to strip off.
7. Gear trains.—Compound ratios.—When the ratio of
speeds required cannot be obtained by a single pair of gears,
a train of gears is used, as shown on PI. 124, Fig. 6. The total
ratio is the product of the ratio of each pair. Thus the
numbers of teeth being 10 and 40 for the first pair, and 12 and
40 24
24 for the second pair, the total reduction in speed is x
1U 1 la
or 8.
Fractional ratios.—In practice, even ratios are not used
for machinery which is to run continuously, because a tooth
on one gear would then be always engaging the same tooth
on the other, and any unevenness in manufacture or in
hardness would be apt to produce more wear in one tooth
than another, and, in consequence, a rhythm or vibration.
By using odd numbers and fractional ratios, it can be
ensured that each tooth on one gear engages every one on the
other in turn, and so all wear evenly. Thus, in the example
given above, if the denominators are exchanged the same
40 24
reduction will be obtained with less vibration, since — x
Iju 10
is also 8.
A still smoother effect would be obtained by using the
36 22
ratios x "9' a^so 6*ve a reduction of 8 with no
possibility of any rhythm.
Chasing teeth.—Where the exact ratio is unimportant,
rhythmic vibration can be eliminated most simply by adding
one tooth to the larger gear, known as a hunting tooth. Thus,
41
for a crane requiring a reduction of 4, ^ is sufficiently accurate
and ensures uniform wear.
Back gears.—In gears such as the back gear of a lathe,
PI. 124, Fig. 7, where a lay shaft, b, is used to produce a
reduction in speed between the two pulleys and the spindle,
the sum of the diameters of one pair of gears must be the same
as that of the other pair.
If the same pitch of teeth is to be used, the sum of the
numbers of teeth on one pair must be equal to that of the other.
The reduction is then most simply obtained by making the
ratio of each pair the square root of the total required, if
3 3
possible. Thus a reduction of 9 to 1 can be obtained by - X ^.
8. Gear boxes.—Purpose.—The drive of mechanical

vehicles, and also some machines such as the more complicated
lathes and milling machines, require various speed ratios to
be available, and it must be possible to change the ratio with¬
out delay. This is usually made possible by means of sliding
gears.
Progressive gears.—PI. 124, Fig. 8, illustrates a three-speed
gear box for a motor-cycle. The shaft, A, driven by the
engine, carries upon it {a) the driving sleeve, B, which is free
to revolve upon it, (b) the sliding sleeve, C, which is squared
inside to fit over a square on the shaft and carries a gear, D,
and (c) the pinion, F, which can revolve freely.
The driving sleeve, B, carries a gear keyed to it. There
are dogs on the face of B and F, and on both faces of C. The
sliding sleeve, C, can be moved by means of a lever and jaws
working in a groove, so that C can be coupled with B or with
F, or it can occupy any intermediate position on the shaft,
neither of the dog clutches being in action.
The lay shaft, G, carries three keyed gears, of which E is
always in mesh with B, H with F, while the centre gear K
engages D on the sliding sleeve when it is in the centre of its
travel.
There are thus three separate ratios available :—
i. Extreme left position, direct-coupling through the
dog clutch, lay shaft running idle.
ii. Centre position, D drives K, E drives B, ratio
K B B
iii. Extreme right position, C coupled to F, F drives H,

H B
E drives B, ratio ~ X which generally is nearly
B2 h E
E*’
Between (i) and (ii), and again between (ii) and (iii) there
must be a position in which no gear is engaged, known as the
neutral or free engine position.
The shafts are usually carried on ball bearings, and A
generally contains a friction clutch, which is omitted in order
to simplify the figure.
9. Selective gears and gate changes.—When motor
vehicles are provided with more than three gears, a gate
change is normally fitted, which ensures that only one gear
can be engaged at a time. On PI. 124, Fig. 9, the lever, L,
can be placed in the central position, or rocked to left or right
sufficiently to engage the selector bars, Sj and S2. It can
then be pushed forward or backward, carrying the selector
bar with it and so engaging the gear required.
The other selector bar can only be engaged by bringing
back the lever through the central or neutral position, and
this movement disengages the gear which was in use before.
The selector bar, Sls controls the position of the sliding gear,
d, which fits on a squared portion of the transmission shaft,
and has dogs to engage those on a which is keyed to the
clutch shaft.
i. When the lever is placed in position 3, Si is engaged
and d engages a, giving direct coupling.
ii. When the lever is placed at 2, the same selector bar is
still engaged, but d is moved so that its teeth engage
those of the gear, c, on the lay shaft. The gear
CL C 0
reduction is then j x^. Generally ^ is unity or
nearly so.
iii. When the lever is placed at N, the selector bar, Slt is
automatically left in its middle position .which ensures
that d is completely disengaged. A spring catch
keeps Sx in this position until moved by the lever.
iv. When the lever is moved to position 1, S2 is engaged and
carries its sliding gear,/, into mesh with e on the lay
shaft, so that the gear reduction is ? x j.
b , f
v. In the position R the lever, still acting through S2, carries
/ into mesh with the pinion, h, on a third or reverse
shaft, which is always driven by g on the lay shaft.
In consequence, the transmission shaft revolves
backwards, with
Sec. 153.—Indirect Transmission Systems 587
153. Indirect transmission systems

1. General principle.—Power may be indirectly trans¬
mitted by means of a pressure generator and motors, the
methods available in ordinary practice being electrical,
pneumatic, and hydraulic transmission.
2. Electrical transmission.—Efficiencies.—The trans¬
mission of power by electricity compares favourably, as
regards efficiency, with mechanical methods when power is to
be carried some distance and in large quantities. The
capital outlay is heavy, being about double that for mechanical
transmission, prime mover and transmission to machine
included.
(N.B.—We are dealing here with the case of an isolated
station. If a central electric supply system is available it
would generally be used to avoid the installation of a prime
mover. It should also be noted that the losses in electrical
distribution vary with the load, whereas the losses in shafting
are practically the same at all loads. See Textbook of
Electrical Engineering, page 436.)
In transmitting small quantities of power the electrical
losses are very large, since the efficiency of a small dynamo or
motor is only 80 per cent., while 2 to 5 per cent, is lost in the
conductors, so that the overall efficiency is about 60 per cent.
Convenience.—The great convenience of the absence of
shafting, portability, cleanliness, and complete switching-off
of power consumption when machines are not in use, renders
electrical transmission ideal for workshops in the field.
Application to shop drives.—In stationary workshops in
peace time the economic limit below which it is not normally
advisable to instal a motor is 5 horse-power. The size of
motors, and, therefore, their efficiency, can be increased by
grouping machines,.and driving short lengths of shafting by
motors of 5 to 10 brake horse-power. By this method an
overall efficiency of transmission of 70 per cent, may be
obtained in favourable circumstances.
Portable tools.—Where electrical power is already available,
it provides a convenient and silent method of driving portable
drills and grinders. The efficiency of such small motors is
very low, but compares favourably with that of pneumatic
transmission. ■
Electric motors of less than 3 horse-power should, however,
be avoided, except where rapidity of installation is paramount,
as the efficiency falls very rapidly with further reduction in
size, while the first cost only falls approximately as the square
root of the power.
588 Sec. 154.—Practical Application
3. Pneumatic transmission.—."Efficiency.—The trans¬
mission of power by compressed air is always expensive and
inefficient, partly on account of the large loss of energy due
to the necessity of cooling the compressed air, and also on
account of the frictional resistance in the pipes.
As a method of transmission it cannot compete with other
methods in efficiency, but a supply of compressed air is
essential in a works of any size.
Application.—The work to which it is normally applied
includes riveting and chipping of all kinds, including boiler
scaling, and drilling, reamering, and tapping holes.
It is very convenient for boiler and other riveting and plate
work, since the tools are light and easily handled. It is
particularly adapted to pressure tools.
4. Hydraulic transmission.—Efficiency.—The trans¬
mission of power by means of water supplied through pipes
at very high pressures is not only very convenient, but provides
a highly efficient form of reduction gear of very large ratio,
provided it is only used for giving very slow motions and the
velocity of the water in the pipes is kept low.
Presses and lifts.—For forging, flanging plates, and riveting,
it is the most efficient and silent method known. With the
slow movement of a plunger multiplied by means of a jigger
or multiplying tackle, it can be applied to lifts and cranes with
fair efficiency.
Motors.—Motors of the short-stroke, single-acting, recipro¬
cating type are also used. While enormously powerful for
their size, they are of low efficiency, owing to wire-drawing
in passages and valves and the inertia of the water. They
should only be used for very slow powerful work, or for
occasional impulses, as for turntables and for capstans used
for moving trucks in goods yards.
Hydraulic transmission is also used as a reduction gear
for turbines, the steam turbine driving a centrifugal pump,
which circulates water through a water turbine direct-coupled
to a generator or to the propeller shaft of a ship. An efficiency
of 90 per cent, is sometimes attained.
154. Practical application

1. Shaft drive calculations.—The following is an example
of the application of the data given in Secs. 147 to 151 to the
lay-out of a small workshop. It is assumed that:—
i. Machines are to be installed aggregating 50 B.H.P. which
are estimated to require a total at any one time of
20 horse-power at the machine pulleys, and that on
the average each machine has one countershaft. One
or two may have no countershaft, while one or two
may need two to give the necessary spindle speed.
Sec. 154.—Practical Application
ii. An engine is available that may be relied upon to

produce the necessary power, and that its pulley is
3 feet in diameter, of ample width, and revolves at
200 revolutions per minute.
iii. The workshop building has been designed for the
purpose, with cross girders at a height of 11 feet clear
above the floor to which hangers can be fixed to
carry shafting at intervals of 10 feet, and that all the
machines can be grouped so that their countershafts
can be driven from one line of shafting 100 feet
long.
2. Size of engine required.—Calculations for the friction,
&c., losses in main shafting, belts and countershafts are
seldom worth while. It may be assumed, however, that
with a bush-bearing installation in good condition the horse¬
power lost in the transmission will be about half the maximum
demand. In our example this will be 10 H.P., therefore the
engine should be capable of developing 30 B.H.P.
3. Belt sizes.—The belt from the engine to the mainshaft
must transmit 30 H.P. at a rim velocity of 37t x 200 feet per
minute. The effective pull in the belt (T — t), see Sec. 151,
para. 3, must be lbs. = 525 lb.
07T X 2UU
The choice lies between :—
i. Single leather, 45 lb. per inch wide, i.e. a 12-inch
belt.
ii. Double leather, 75 lb. per inch wide, i.e. a 7-inch
belt.
iii. Canvas, &c., precise width from the maker’s tables,
but it will not differ much from leather of the
same thickness.
iv. Link belt, 88 lb. per inch section, i.e. 6 square inches
of 8 inches X § inch belt would be suitable. There
is little reason for using link belt, since the pulleys
are large. If fast and loose pulleys are to be placed
on the shaft, link belt would be noisy and would
not wear well.
A single leather belt would be somewhat too wide. The
choice is thus limited to double leather or canvas, of which the
latter would be the cheaper.
Each belt in turn driving from the mainshaft to the
countershaft, and thence to a machine, must be separately
calculated in the same way. In the case of those running from
main shafts to countershafts, it may be necessary first to
decide upon the diameter of the pulleys to be used..
Sec. 154.—Practical Application
4. Mainshaft line.—
i. The speed of the mainshaft should be moderately
high, since all gear can be thereby lightened. If a
pulley of 2 feet 6 inches diameter is driven from the
3-foot engine pulley running at 200 r.p.m., the
36 98
shaft speed will be about ^ x 200 x —
236 r.p.m.
ii. There will probably be no difficulty in passing the
driven pulley on to the end of the shaft while it is
being erected. A solid cast-iron pulley may
therefore be used if desired.
Fast and loose pulleys are advisable, so that
the engine may be started up light. These pulleys
should be placed close up to a bearing if possible ;
otherwise their weight and the pull of the belt will
produce heavy bending stresses in the shaft.
An extra bearing, close to the other side of the
pulleys, would minimize these stresses, and should
be provided if the structural arrangements permit.
iii. The distance between the centres of bearings is
fixed at 10 feet by the spacing of the joists. The
diameter of shafting used must, therefore, be
approximately such that 60a/D2 = 120. From
this it appears that 2f-inch shafting is the smallest
which would be satisfactory. 3-inch would be a
better standard.
To transmit 30 H.P., the shaft diameter must
comply with the formula :—
D = 3-75 Y/y— {see Sec. 148, para. 1), i.e. D

must not be less than 1*93 inches.
From this it appears that 2-inch shafting would
have been strong enough if the structure had
admitted a closer spacing of the bearings, such as
8 feet intervals.
iv. The length of the actual bearing surfaces in which
the shaft runs should be not less than 3 x 2f, or
8 inches. The outside length of the shell will be
10 or 11 inches.
v. The hangers should be selected with a view to avoid¬
ing any difficulties in fitting pulleys of large sizes
if required at the time or at any later occasion;
e.g. pulleys up to 4 feet diameter may be required,
and they must not be less than 7 feet clear from the
floor, while clearing all roof structure with ample
Sec. 154.—Practical Application 591
margin. The shafting should, therefore, be carried
somewhat less than 2 feet below, the cross joists
and well clear of all obstructions.
The position of belts from mainshaits to counter¬
shafts must also be considered. To make these clear
all roof structure it may be necessary to use hangers
of the full 2 feet drop. Whenever possible, how¬
ever, it is better to avoid the use of hangers and
provide bearings on the tops of the cross-girders.
5. Alternative electric drive.—If electrical power is
available, the convenience of the shop may perhaps be
improved by grouping the machinery so as to be driven by
two shafts, each providing about 12 horse-power and each
driven by its own separate motor.
CHAPTER XXXIII
LUBRICATION
155. Principles of lubrication
1. General principles.—The principle of lubrication is
the elimination of solid friction between moving surfaces by the
substitution of fluid friction, which is very much less in amount
and does not involve wear and damage to the working parts.
The most perfectly ground surfaces • are rough when
viewed under the microscope, and the coefficient of friction
between bare metals is very high, causing tearing away and
destruction of the surfaces if a bearing is allowed to run dry.
If a film of liquid can be maintained between the surfaces,
the only friction is the internal friction of the liquid, which
tends to adhere to the surfaces.
The film is, however, gradually squeezed out under
pressure. The fluid must therefore possess sufficient viscosity
to resist squeezing out long enough to enable the film to be
renewed before it breaks down.
Viscosity is, however, not a measure of the lubricating
power of the liquid; on the contrary, high viscosity implies
high fluid friction and consequently less effective lubrication.
The lubricating power of any liquid depends chiefly on the
somewhat indeterminate but easily recognisable property
which may be termed “ Oiliness.” Exactly what constitutes
oiliness is not easy to say, but it appears to be a surface-tension
effect which resists the final break-down of the film, without
affecting the ease with which the particles of the liquid slide
past one another.
Thus we can easily recognize that a fluid such as treacle,
though viscous and not easily squeezed aside, nevertheless
does not maintain a film between the surfaces when squeezed
between finger and thumb, while quite a light and liquid oil
cannot be squeezed out altogether except by considerable
pressure.
Unless oil is forced into a bearing under pressure, lubrica¬
tion is only possible if:—
i. There is a portion of one surface which is free from
pressure.
ii. Oil is continually spread there.
iii. The oiled portion sweeps the whole of the other surface,
sojas to cover the latter with an oil film.
iv. Itjretums to be oiled again before the pressure has
squeezed out the oil film.
592
Sec. 156.—Properties of Lubricating Oils 593
In such a bearing, perfectly lubricated, there is no metallic
friction, but merely a resistance to movement due to the
viscosity or stiffness of the oil. Therefore, in an ordinary
bearing, oil should be led in on whatever side has normally
no pressure; for instance, the top of line-shaft bearings, and
the top of a wheel hub revolving on a fixed axle, but the
bottom of a railway axle-box.
In thrust bearings, where there is no side free from pressure,
it is necessary to provide one artificially, by cutting away a
sector of one of the surfaces, as described for Michell thrust
bearings in Sec. 149, para. 9.
A thin oil may be used in rapidly-revolving bearings,
whereas in slowly-moving ones, such as a country-cart wheel,
only a thick grease can withstand the load for the long period
between one revolution and the next one.
156. Properties of lubricating oils

Lubricating oils vary widely in their qualities, and to
obtain good results it is essential to exercise care in the
selection of an oil to suit particular circumstances.
The principal factors affecting the quality are as follows :—
1. Specific gravity.
2. Viscosity.
3. Oiliness.
4. Flash-point.
5. Pour-point.
6. Evaporation and gumming.
7. Asphalt content.
8. Acidity.
9. Emulsification.
1. Specific gravity .—This can be measured with sufficient
accuracy by a hydrometer. It is no criterion of the lubricating
value of an oil, but ‘it is an indication of its origin. The
paraffin base oils (S.G. 0*88-0*91) have a smaller ash content
than the asphaltic base oils (S.G. above 0*91) and are, in
general, better lubricants.
2. Viscosity.—This is a measure of the internal friction,
or, in common terms, thickness or body of an oil. When an oil
is said to be light or heavy, it is the viscosity which is referred
to and not the specific gravity. There is no relationship at
all between viscosity and specific gravity.
The true definition of viscosity is :—
“ The viscosity of a fluid is measured by the tangential
force on unit area of either of two horizontal planes at unit
distance apart, one of which is fixed, while the other moves
with unit velocity, the space between the surfaces being filled
20—(579)
594 Sec. 156.—Properties of Lubricating Oils
with the viscous substance. Increase of pressure between the

surfaces is accompanied by a rise in viscosity, and over the
range of bearing pressures used in practice the value may be
anything up to 20 times the value at atmospheric pressure.”
This is the correct way of looking at the matter, and whereas
viscosity in some degree is necessary for all lubricants, a high
viscosity is only necessary for heavily-loaded slow-moving
bearings. In fast-moving machinery the heavy drag resulting
from the use of a thick lubricant would cause a large loss of
power in bearings, while a comparatively light oil of low
viscosity is capable of supporting the load for the short period1
between revolutions, and causes far less drag.
The viscosity of oils is diminished if they are heated. In
testing an oil for any definite purpose, it is essential that the
test shall be carried out at the temperature at which the oil
may be expected to be when the machinery is running. For
instance, ordinary shaft bearings normally run at from 100°
to 120° F. in summer, and may be as cool as 60° to 70° F. in
winter, while the bearings in an enclosed engine crankcase
may run up to 200° F.
For practical purposes the viscosity is expressed as the
number of seconds taken for 50 c.c. to flow through the stand¬
ard jet in the Redwood viscometer (shown roughly in PI. 126,
Fig. 1). If the time taken were 120 seconds at 70° F., the
viscosity would be stated as “ 120 Redwood 70° F.” There
are other ways of expressing the viscosity, but this is the
generally accepted method in Great Britain. The British
standard Nominal Viscosity is the value at 140° F. Paraffin
base oils do not fall so rapidly in viscosity with increase of
temperature as asphaltic and naphthenic base oils.
In the absence of any special apparatus, a comparative test
of any two or more oils may be made by placing a drop of
each near the top of a sloping plate of glass, kept at the required
temperature in a cupboard away from draughts or dust, and
noting progress of the drops towards the bottom. The times
taken to traverse a given distance, such as 1 inch or 6 inches,
varying for convenience according to the type of oil, are fairly
reliable indications of relative viscosity. See PI. 126, Fig. 2.
It must be clearly understood that good viscosity alone
is no indication of the quality of an oil, but merely of its
thickness; just as water can be thickened by adding starch
or gum to produce any desired viscosity up to semi-solidity,
so a thin oil can be adulterated by the addition of gums or
soaps to give it a fictitious thickness. Such adulteration is
generally obvious, since colour is affected. A pure oil should
be absolutely transparent. Heavy oils usually have a deep,
red colour, the depth of which, in the case of mineral oils, is
often used as a visual test of their lubricating qualities.
3. Oiliness (the property of molecular adhesion).—The
type of lubrication in which a complete film of lubricant is
interposed between the rubbing surfaces, is known as “ perfect
lubrication” There can exist, however, in certain cases, a
type of lubrication in which the oil film is squeezed out, but
separation of the surfaces is ensured by a layer of lubricant
only one molecule thick. This is known as imperfect or
boundary lubrication. Some oils more than others have the
peculiar property known as “ oiliness,” of forming such
monomoleculjar layers, , and the importance of this property as
a safeguard in economic lubrication is considerable. This
property depends upon the chemical constitution of the oil
and is as yet imperfectly understood.
It has been suggested that there may be chemical union
between the metal surfaces and the lubricant, with the result
that within the space of a few molecular diameters there is in
succession molecules of metal, metal oleate, oil, metal oleate
and metal. In some cases the intermediate molecular layer
of oil may be absent, and then the contact must be between
metal oleate and metal oleate.
Whatever the explanation may be, there is no doubt that
under heavy loads and low speeds “ oilincss ” is the most
important factor in lubrication.
It is determined by measuring the coefficient of friction
in a mechanical testing machine, which comprises a model
bearing so heavily loaded as to produce boundary lubrication
conditions.
It has been known for many years that certain animal
and vegetable oils possess this quality of oiliness to a greater
degree than most mineral oils. These animal and vegetable
oils also have excellent viscosities, but, unfortunately, animal
oils have a strong tendency to become rancid or acid and to
attack metals, and vegetable oil to gum and so prevent the
entry of fresh oil in a lubricating system. A mixture of
mineral oil with a good animal or vegetable oil is frequently
used for bearings with heavy loads and low speeds when the
working temperatures are low. Such compound oils have
better keeping qualities than the animal or vegetable oils
alone. Recent experiments, however, appear to indicate the
possibility of preparing pure mineral oil with sufficient
oiliness ” to suit all purposes without dilution.
4. Flash-point.—At normal temperatures there must be
no tendency to form explosive mixtures of oil vapour and air,
and the rate of evaporation should be as slow as possible.
To ensure this, the flash-point must be well above the working
temperature.
The specified flash-point of an oil is that obtained by the
" closed test ” in the Pensky-Martin apparatus, shown roughly
in PI. 126, Fig. 3, in which the oil is enclosed in a small

cylindrical vessel so that the vapour is not liable to%be affected
by currents of air.
The “ open ” flash-point can be roughly determined by
heating the oil in an open cup, observing the temperature,
whilst a small flame is periodically brought to the surface
(without touching) of the oil. When a flash occurs a small
bluish flame will pass over the whole surface of the oil, and the
temperature is noted. Values obtained in this way are
always considerably higher than those obtained by using, the,
standard flash-point apparatus.
If the heating is continued above the open flash-point,
a temperature will be reached at which the oil continues
to bum, and this temperature is defined as the “firing-
point.”
5. Pour-point (cold test).—The pour-point of an oil is
taken as the lowest temperature at which it will pour, when
it is chilled, without disturbance. As the temperature is
reduced most of the animal and vegetable oils deposit solid
fats and waxes. Some of the mineral oils also solidify into
waxes, and in the case of Russian oil, although no definite
solids are deposited, the oil becomes more and more viscous
and forms a soft jelly which will not flow. The temperature
at which this solidification occurs can be controlled to some
extent in the refinery. To determine the pour-point accurately
special apparatus is required, but a rough method consists of
placing a test-tube containing the oil in a freezing mixture and
observing the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow by
tilting the tube slightly. Care must be taken not to agitate
the oil during the freezing process.
6. Evaporation and gumming.—Evaporation and
gumming can be estimated fairly well from the glass-plate
experiment, PI. 126, Fig. 2, by comparing the tracks on the
glass after several hours or days. More detailed experiments
can be made, if required, by placing a weighed sample in a
watch-glass and noting the loss in weight due to evaporation
and the increase in viscosity due to gumming, the sample being
kept at its working temperature.
Mineral oils require a considerably greater period than
animal and vegetable oils to give reliable results in this way.
Mineral oil may thicken, due to the evaporation of volatile
hydrocarbons; and concentrations of tar, resin, or asphaltic
matter may render the oil sticky when so tested.
With the best qualities of mineral oil, however, no change
whatever will be apparent after 24 hours’ exposure to the
air in the form of a thin film, and the evaporation at (say)
350° F. will not exceed 0*5 per cent.
Plate 126.
St
mCHtLL BUCK
mans on mat uooe
rif.4.
AXLE 0OM>
Mtaumo's vr&conertm
wirn necepst o par
SOLID LUBRICANT
_L 3^.
SH/irr bearing Ay 7
BLOCK WITH SHARP toot
scraping orr oil
sloping oum rtxontrta
YiBKirrinc-ntcoLC lubricator
— ■ ■
BADLY DESIGNED A ASSEMBLED

t/Ot/RNAL SEARING
PlNSKr-NARTIN
fLASH-POINT APPARATUS
fjg./A
o Reuse pumr SPRING CONE

Pi
ft} 12.
3 TAUFPtRS LUBRICATOR
^
U “
pneumatic
RBSEKT SPRING LUBRICATOR GRCASC CAP
7. Hard asphalt content.—If they comply with the
British Standard Specification, mineral lubricating oils should
not have any asphalt content, except in the case of steam
cylinder oils, when the maximum percentage allowed is 0*5.
The importance of this requirement is due to the fact
that asphalt does not distil but forms coke when the oil is
heated, thus contributing to “ carbonization."
The content is determined as follows :—
Ten grams of the sample of oil to be tested are dissolved
in 100 c.c. of petrol, thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand,
for 24 hours. The whole is then filtered through an 11-cm.
folded filter-paper and washed with petrol until the washings
are colourless. The material on the paper is then dissolved
in benzol, which is distilled off on a water-bath, and the asphalt
is then dried in a steam oven for an hour and weighed.
8. Acidity.—Acid reaction can be tested with litmus
paper, or by suspending a piece of polished tool steel in the oil
for some days, when no rust or corrosion should be observed.
A more decisive test is to spread some of the oil on a bright
surface of the metal of which the bearings are made, leave it
so for several days enclosed in a box away from dust, and then
test the oil chemically for presence of dissolved metal.
It is very unlikely that mineral oils will give an acid
reaction unless they are broken down due to the action of
heat, moisture, dirt, &c.
9. Emulsification.—In cases where it is not possible to
prevent the access of water to a lubricant, as in steam-engine
cylinders, it is essential that the oil and water shall readily
separate after having been vigorously shaken together. The
more rapid the separation, the better the oil for use in all
cases in which water contamination is possible. Animal
and vegetable oils and some mineral oils when treated in this
manner (as they are in engines), especially if a trace of lime
be present, form a thick emulsion which ultimately becomes
a tacky mass, totally unfit for lubrication.
In I.C. engines, too, the same trouble may occur, especially
when water injection is practised, and in engines with water-
cooled pistons. The lubricating properties of an oil-water
emulsion are much inferior to those of oil alone, and the
viscosity is very much in excess of that of either of the two
components. Moreover, such an emulsion will not readily
pass through the oil pipes, and may choke the suction side of
the lubricating oil pump, thereby causing failure of the oil
supply.
10. Keeping qualities of oil.—In modem machinery,
provision is generally made for using the same oil over and
over again, as, for instance, by means of a circulating pump.
It is very necessary, therefore, that the oil should retain the

good qualities referred to above for long periods.
11. Mechanical testing.—The methods referred to above
for checking the qualities of lubricants will normally suffice
for service purposes, but to confirm the suitability of an oil
for a particular purpose, it should be tried out in the actual
machine for a continuous running period of some hours. In
order to simulate actual running conditions, special testing
machines are largely used in civil practice, but as these are not
often likely to be met with at military stations they will not
be further referred to.
12. Solid lubricants.—Graphite.—Flake graphite added
in very small quantities to oil for bearings increases its lubri¬
cating qualities.
Graphite is not a lubricant in itself, but produces a very
highly polished surface on the bearings, and so diminishes the
friction should the metal surfaces come in contact. It is not
suitable for regular use in the cylinders of internal combustion
engines using electric ignition, since the graphite has a
tendency to bridge the spark gap.
White metals.—As regards the use of white metals of a
fairly plastic nature for lining bearings, careless fitting or
distortion of the bearing may result in the concentration of
excessive weight in certain spots, and consequent destruction
of the oil film there. Local heating follows, and the plasticity
of the bearing metal is thereby sufficiently increased to enable
it to flow slightly, until the pressure at the high spots has
been equalized. Thus, in circumstances in which a hard bear¬
ing might seize and damage the journal, one lined with soft
metal may only run warm for a time and readjust itself before
any damage occurs.
13. Forms of bearings.—The general form of all bearings
should be such as to.assist in the introduction of the oil film
between the surfaces. The Michell thrust-block sector, shown
on PI. 126, Fig. 5, exemplifies this. The easy curve at the
leading edge smooths down the oil without scraping it off,
and the variable wedge-shaped space between the surfaces
corresponds with the gradual squeezing out of the oil under
the load. PI. 126, Fig. 6, shows how the same principle
applies in a well-shaped cylindrical bearing with a properly
shaped oil groove at the non-pressure side, in this case the
top.
At the point where oil enters a bearing, the edges of the
hole should be chamfered to facilitate the entrance of the
lubricant to the bearing surface. Oil-distributing grooves
should be cut in the bearing and their edges also well chamfered
so as to allow the oil an easy passage to form a film. If the
600 Sec. 157.—*Systems of Lubrication
edges are sharp, a scraping action may be set up and altogether
destroy the film. Grooves should be shallow, and not cut
too near the ends of the bearing, or the oil will run out too
easily.
PI. 126, Fig. 7, illustrates the effect of a friction block with
too sharp a leading edge, which scrapes off the oil film and
then tends to dig in. PI. 126, Fig. 8, shows the same defect
in a journal bearing, where the oil groove. A, is in the wrong
place and the edge is sharp. Further, the half-bearings,
having sharp edges, B, scrape off the oil, while the packing, C,»
projecting, acts also as a scraper. Such a bearing will run
hot and eventually seize. See also Sec. 148, para. 4, and
Sec. 149, para. 9.
The effective area should be sufficient to ensure that at the
heaviest working load the oil film cannot be squeezed out.
• 157. Systems of lubrication

1. Hand oiling.—The elementary principle of providing
a hole in a bearing into which an attendant sometimes pours a
few drops of oil is nearly useless. Where it exists, something
better should be fitted at the first opportunity to ensure a
continuous supply.
2. Oilcups.—A glass cup containing a fair quantity of oil
is sometimes fitted, and generally some means for cutting off
the oil supply when the machinery is not running. This is
satisfactory provided it is clearly visible, and the attendant is
careful to see that some oil is always in the cup and that it
is falling regularly, indicating that it is probably going into the
bearing. Oil squeezed out at the ends of the bearing should
be caught in a tray. It can then be strained and used again,
but some is always lost.
3. Vibrating needle.—The vibrating-needle type of cup
lubricator has a needle or wire of slightly less diameter than
the oil-hole, which rests on the journal surface, PI. 126, Fig. 9.
The annular passage left open is not large enough to allow
any material quantity of oil to flow when the machinery is at
rest. When it is running the vibration causes the needle to
jump, and it works oil slowly but continuously down to the
bearing.
4. Valve type.—The spring-valve type has a cone valve
normally kept closed by a spring, and provided with a catch
of some type whereby the valve can be kept open when the
machinery is running, PI. 126, Fig. 10.
5. Grease caps and pumps.—Where slow movement,
difficulty of access, or the necessity to avoid sprinkling oil
about renders it necessary to use solid or semi-solid grease as a
Sec. 157.—Systems of Lubrication 601
lubricant, screw-down grease caps are normally employed, or

some other means of forcing in the grease.
i. Where movement is small and the grease tends to
remain well in the bearing, it may be sufficient to fill
the bearing by means of a grease pump at stated
intervals. Spring shackles of vehicles are sometimes
so treated, as shown on PI. 126, Fig. 11. The
screwed nozzle, A, of the pump fits a nipple or hole,
B, in the shackle pin, threaded for the purpose, which
is normally closed with a cap or plug, C.
ii. Simple grease caps or Stauffer lubricators, as shown on
PI. 126, Fig. 12, may be fitted in accessible places. At
intervals the cap should be given a partial turn to
force a little more grease into the bearing. Such
caps should be large.
iii. The Reisert lubricator, illustrated on PI. 126, Fig. 13,
provides more continuous renewal of lubricant. The
spring plunger, P, yields to the pressure of the grease
when the cap is screwed down slightly; it then
returns gradually, forcing grease slowly into the
bearing.
iv. The lubricator shown on PI. 126, Fig. 14, acts on the
same principle as (iii), but air imprisoned in the
extension, D, takes the place of the spring and
plunger.
6. Sight-feed lubricators.—In cases where the lubrica¬
tion of a bearing is of greajt importance, such as the main
bearings of an engine, if no automatic system of lubrication is
provided, it is advisable to fit a short length of glass tube, G
(PI. 126, Fig. 16), between the oil reservoir or cup and the
bearing, so that the oil can be seen dripping from the nozzle, N.
Thus a failure or insufficiency in the provision of oil is more
likely to be noticed at once before the bearing begins to suffer.
7. Ring lubrication.—Modem bearings are usually de¬
signed to oil themselves continuously from a sump containing
a large* quantity of oil, to which all oil squeezed out is
returned to be used again. There is thus no likelihood of
starving the bearing of oil, and the actual amount of oil used
in a year is very much less than that used in the hand-oiled
types.
PI. 120, Fig. 5, shows a modem shaft-bearing with ring-
oiling. A loose ring, hung on the shaft and dipping in the oil
sump, is always lifting oil and spreading it on the shaft.
An oil groove on the non-pressure side distributes this oil
along the length of the journal. Oil squeezed out merely
pours into the sump again, through slots provided between
602 Sec. 157.—Systems of Lubrication
the bearing itself and its case. Since the oil never goes outside
the bearing shell it does not gather grit and dust, and little
evaporation can take place. Such bearings are no more
expensive than the older type, and are much more reliable.
8. Forced lubrication.—In modem high-speed engines
and in expensive machinery of other kinds, the ring, described
in para. 7, is sometimes replaced by a small pump which
draws oil from a sump, generally in the bed-plate, which may
contain several gallons of oil. The oil is drawn in through a
strainer, and is forced first through a filter and then through?
pipes to every important bearing in the engine.
Moving bearings, such as those of crank pins and gudgeons,
are often supplied through small holes drilled through the
crankshaft, connecting rod, &c. All oil squeezed out pours
down, or is flung away against the crank chamber walls, and
so pours back into the sump. Here any grit picked up either
settles down or is strained out. Gum or soap formed is
extracted in the filter. Not only does the oil lubricate the
bearings, but the circulation is rapid and copious, so that it
carries away heat and so keeps the bearings cool. The system
can be clearly seen on Pis. 51, 52 and 114.
9. Splash lubrication .—In many small high-speed engines,
oil is freely splashed all over the working parts by allowing the
big-ends, or scoops attached to them, to dip at every revolution
into a trough of oil. In simple engines the oil merely drips
down again into the trough. In many designs an improve¬
ment is made by allowing the oil to collect in a sump, from
which a pump draws it out through a strainer and replaces it
into the trough. Thus the level of oil in the trough is kept
constant, provided there is oil in the sump. Splashing alone
will not lubricate bearings. Above each bearing there must
be some vessel, or a recess in the casting, to catch the oil, and
a passage must lead the oil into the bearing in the right place.
This is not always easy to arrange, as, for instance, in con¬
necting-rod big-ends, where rapid movement tends to fling
away oil rather than collect it in any catcher provided.
In Willan’s high-speed steam engine this difficulty was
overcome by providing an open cap to the big-end, so that
part of the crank pin is bare, and this dips into the oil sump
at each revolution.
10. Combined systems.—Combinations of the above
systems are in common use in engines. Thus, in some cases,
the main bearings and big ends only are supplied with oil
under pressure, and splash is relied on for the cylinder and
the gudgeon pin.
For further particulars, see Sec. 72.
Sec. 158.—Selection and Care of Lubricants 603
158. Selection and care of lubricants

1. British Standard classification of lubricating oils.
—There is such a bewildering variety of proprietary brands of
lubricating oil that it is quite useless to attempt to classify
them.
Fortunately, B.S.S. 210 is available for pure mineral
lubricating oils, and if it should become necessary to purchase
on the recommendation of a manufacturer for a particular
engine, this specification should be used as a safeguard when
asking for quotations.
2. Service lubricants.—For most purposes under normal
service conditions, suitable lubricants can be obtained from
the R.A.O.D. or the R.A.S.C. (in the case of oils suitable for
M.T. only). Their nomenclature and general characteristics
are given in Table ZA. It will be noted that the various types
are distinguished by a letter and a number, the letter “ M ”
signifying “ mineral,” and “ C ” “ compound,” and the number
the approximate British Standard nominal Viscosity, which is
the Redwood value at 140° F.
The Pour-point is not given, but it may be noted that for
use in refrigerating plants the pour-point should be below
0° F., and for I.C. engines below 30° F.
3. Storage and handling of lubricating oils.—The
importance of exercising extreme care in the storage of oil
drums and barrels, of marking them correctly, and of keeping
the various kinds apart, cannot be over-emphasized. The
drums should, whenever possible, be stored under cover and
the bungs should be kept in position when the oil is not
actually being poured out. Every possible precaution should
be taken to avoid the admixture of dirt with the oil when
it is poured from the drum, and at the same time all con¬
tainers through which the oil may be passed should be clean
and free from water. Bung wrappings and chippings from
broken bungs should not be allowed to pass together with the
oil into the engine. Carelessness in handling, with consequent
contamination of the oil, may cause serious mechanical
breakdowns on an engine. In the field it will not always
be possible to store the oil properly and further, owing to
the lack of technical knowledge on the part of storemen,
oils may occasionally be issued under the wrong name. It
will, therefore, be advisable to test the contents of a drum
before use, making use of whatever facilities may exist. A
good deal can be done by comparison with oil known fe be
suitable for the purpose in view.
If the oil has been stored in the open for some time, the
following procedure may be followed with advantage :—
The drum should be allowed to stand for some hours, and
604 Sec. 158.—Selection and Care of Lubricants
Sec. 159.—Recovery Treatment of Lubricating Oils 605
then samples should be taken, by means of a tube, from (a) the

top, (6) half-way down, and (c) the very bottom of the drum.
The samples may be drawn by closing the top of the tube by
finger pressure, plunging the tube to the required depth,
removing the pressure to allow oil to rise in the tube, applying
the pressure again, and quickly withdrawing the tube.
(at) will show whether a light oil has been mixed with a
heavier one.
{b) will be representative of the bulk of the oil.
(c) will contain an excess of any heavy impurities present,
such as mud or water.
Mud or water can be removed by drawing off the oil after
standing for a day or two, taking it from a point a little
distance above the bottom. Lighter impurities can be largely
removed by forcing the oil through a fine gauze filter.
159. The recovery treatment of lubricating oils

The consumption of lubricating oil in a heavy-oil engine
when running at full load in good condition, is about 0-006 lb.
per B.H.P.-hour. Under average running conditions, under
varying loads, this figure is increased to about 0-01 lb. per
B.H.P.-hour. Assuming a station with 500 B.H.P. installed
and a plant load factor of 50 per cent., the annual consumption,
based upon 2,000 hours’ running, would be 500 x 2,000 x 0-01
5 000 2
= 5,000 lb., which, at 2/- per gallon would cost x^
= £56.
Of this consumption, less than half is actually consumed
in the engine, and the rest finds its way to the sump con¬
taminated with fuel oil, carbon, dirt, and perhaps water.
Now the actual use of oil, purely for lubricating purposes,
does not in any way exhaust its lubricating properties, and
providing that the fuel oil contamination is not excessive, the
oil can be purified and used over and over again.
There are numerous designs of filtering and purifying
apparatus, in all of which the oil is heated to from 150°
to 200° F. to facilitate the operation.
In some experiments which were carried out at Gosport a
few years ago, the following types were tried:—
A. The Wells {Cotton Pad) Filter.
B. The De Laval Centrifugal Separation (Centrifugal Pro¬
cess) (“approx. cost to deal with 15 gals, an hour, £40).
C. The “ Streamline ” Filter (using the Hele-Shaw principle
of edge filtration) (approx, cost to deal with 10 gals,
an hour, £55).
D. The Auto-Klean Strainer (approx, cost to deal with
100 gals, per hour, £6 15s.).
606 Sec. 159.—Recovery Treatment of Lubricating Oils
The Streamline filter (size 07) comprises a reciprocating

air pump driven by a 1/8-H.P. motor and a 750-watt immersion
heater incorporated in the filtering vessel. It contains 6
filter packs, each about 12 in. long, composed of a large
number of discs of doped paper, about l| in. in diameter,
compressed together by springs. During filtration, solid
matter in the oil is arrested at the edges of the paper, the oil
passing between the sheets to a hollow at the centre. The
dirt is dislodged during the cleaning operation by blowing
compressed air in the reverse direction by the movement of
a lever.
The Auto-Klean strainer is designed to take the place of
the usual wire gauze filter in the circulating oil system of an
engine using forced feed lubrication.
In this strainer, the oil is forced under pressure through a
series of five slots in a cartridge built up of a large number of
thin circular metal discs mounted on a central spindle. The
dirt is intercepted at the edges of the discs, and in order to
clean the slots, the central spindle is rotated. This revolves
the cartridges against a series of stationary cleaning blades
which engage between the discs and so scrape the dirt from
the slots. The dirt falls into a sump which is emptied
periodically.
The following conclusions were arrived at and recommenda¬
tions made as a result of the Gosport experiments :—
i. For the periodic filtering in bulk of crankcase oil
containing very little water, the Streamline filter
is more efficient than the centrifugal filter, as by
a single process it produces a filtered oil which has
the appearance and properties approximating very
closely to those of new oil.
ii. Where water is present in any quantity, the centrifugal
separator is the better machine, but the filtered oil
is much darker than the original new oil, owing to the
presence of colloidal carbon which the apparatus is
unable to remove.
iii. For the continuous filtering in a constant circulation
system, the Auto-Klean strainer, although not having
the efficiency of the much more expensive centrifugal
and Streamline filters, is far more efficient than the
usual gauze filter which it is designed to replace.
More experience is necessary to ascertain to what
extent it is worth fitting these filters to the lubrica¬
tion systems of various engines. For fuel oil, the
Auto-Klean strainer is very effective and can be
conveniently applied to any part of the fuel
system.
Sec. 159.—Recovery Treatment of Lubricating Oils 607
iv. The provision of both Centrifugal and Streamline
filters is worth consideration for large engine installa¬
tions for the filtering of lubricating oil having appreci¬
able water content, in combination with Auto-Klean
strainers for the filtering of the fuel oil.
To the above it may be added that on large generating
sets in which forced lubrication to all parts with a continuous
circuit is employed, it is now considered preferable to insert
the filter in the circuit and so treat the oil continuously,
instead of at intervals when it has reached a poor condition.
The above considerations apply principally to fairly large
generating stations using heavy-oil engines. In small stations
it may be best to-dispose of the oil which drains from the
engine-bed by adding it to the fuel oil. If roughly filtered
in a cotton-pad type of filter, however, the oil can be used for
hand-oiling round the engine.
In the case of small petrol and petrol-paraffin plant it will
seldom be worth while to adopt recovery processes, particularly
as in this case the lubricating oil is subject to contamination
with the lighter fuels. In large garages the installation of
filters may well be worth while, a blast of air being employed
in the apparatus to carry off the lighter fractions of petrol
contamination.

CHAPTER XXXIV
COMPRESSED AIR
160. General principles

1. Uses.—Compressed air is used extensively for the
transmission of power in the following work :—
i. In the operation of hand drills in rock in mining
operations, as fully described in Military Engineering,
Vol. IV.
ii. For drilling, chipping, and riveting in boiler shops,
shipyards, and constructional engineering, such as
in steel bridges.
iii. In foundries for vibrating moulding machines, core¬
breaking, and cleaning castings.
iv. For pile-drivers.
v. For lifting water out of deep bore-holes, as described in
Military Engineering, Vol. VI.
Reciprocating compressors only will be considered, as single-
stage rotary compressors can only be used up to 30 or 40
lb./sq. inch, and two-stage rotary compressors are heavier,
bulkier and more costly than reciprocating compressors for
the same duty.
2. The compressor.—A simple slow-speed type of

reciprocating air compressor is shown in PI. 127, Fig. 1. Air
is drawn into a cylinder by means of a piston provided with
rings, arranged generally as for an internal-combustion engine.
It enters through an inlet valve, I, in the piston, which should
be of large diameter, of the lightest possible construction, and
free to open when the pressure in the cylinder is reduced in a
very small degree below that of the atmosphere.
At the end of the suction stroke the cylinder will not be
quite filled to atmospheric pressure on account of the inertia
of the air, which causes it to lag behind the piston. The inlet
valve will, therefore, remain open until the pressure inside and
outside the cylinder are nearly equal, and by this time the
piston will have commenced its compression stroke. There¬
fore, the Volume of air drawn into the cylinder will be slightly
less than the actual displacement of the piston.
The compression stroke now takes place. The air in the
■cylinder is compressed adiabatically, or nearly so, until its
pressure is slightly above that in the delivery pipe, P. A
■delivery valve, D, similar to the inlet valve but opening
608
Sec. 160.—General Principles 609
outwards, now opens and permits the air to flow into the
delivery pipe, and, in consequence, no higher pressure can be
produced in the cylinder.
In practice, there must be some clearance between the
piston and the cylinder head at dead centre. When the
compression stroke is completed, this clearance space will be
full of air at approximately the same pressure that exists in
the delivery pipe.
On the return, or suction, stroke the delivery valve will
close. The inlet valve will not open until the air left in the
clearance space has expanded to a little below atmospheric
pressure. When the pressure in the cylinder has so fallen,
the inlet valve will open and admit air until a little after
outer dead centre, as at the end of the suction stroke described
above.
3. Volumetric efficiency.—Let Vx represent the whole
volume of the cylinder, including the clearance and the
volume swept out by the piston, V2 the volume of the cylinder
when the inlet valve closes, V3 the volume when the delivery
valve opens, V4 the clearance volume, and V6 the volume
when the inlet valve opens.
Then, referring to PI. 127, Fig. 2, the amount of air,
measured in volume at atmospheric pressure and temperature,
that is drawn in per stroke is V2 — V5, represented by ac.
The actual displacement of the piston is "V^ — V4, represented
by db.
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is the ratio
between the volume of air drawn in and the actual displace-
dC
ment of the piston, or This figure is proportional to ac
(which varies inversely as the clearance space and nearly
inversely as the maximum pressure attained).
Its value is 85 to 90 per cent, in modem machines. The
volumetric efficiency determines the size of machine required
for a given duty, but does not appreciably affect the energy
efficiency.
4. Work done.—The work done in compressing the air in
the cylinder to P2 lbs. per square inch, at which the delivery
valve opens, is represented by the area be eln, and the work
in forcing air out of the delivery valve by eg hi.
The air in the clearance space does work ghka during
the return stroke up to the time of opening of the inlet valve,
after which the atmosphere does work aknb in driving air
into the cylinder.
The net work done is, therefore, bcegh n—b aghn, or
be eg a, of which only cega is necessary, and the area
between a and b below the atmospheric line represents a loss
610 Sec. 160.—General Principles
Plate 127.
COMP/?£SS£D - <4lR PLAHr.

Sec. 160.—General Principles 611
due to the imperfections of the valves. This area depends
upon the nature of the valves and the piston speed, while the
area c eg a depends upon the pressure to which the air is
compressed. The cylinder head should be so designed as to
leave the minimum of clearance space.
5. Heat losses.—The work done in compressing air
adiabatically, as in para. 4, appears partly in heat, the
temperature of the air being increased in theory to the extent
of r*-1. (See Sec. 63.) This heat is given up, partly to the
cylinder walls and partly to the receiver in which the air is
temporarily stored and to the pipes which convey it to the
machine.
In consequence, whereas the compressor has done net work
approximately equal to c eg A on PL 127, Fig. 3, only energy
to the amount of c p g <1 is now available for use in the machine
or tool if the air could be expanded isothermally. Actually the
air, by expanding in the machine or tool nearly adiabatically,
is cooled further, and will only give back work approximating
to qpgd.
6. Multi-stage compressors.—In order to reduce the
loss represented by cep, compressors are often compounded
like a steam engine, or may be three-stage, with three cylinders
of graded sizes, generally arranged to compress in ratio v r,
where r is the total ratio of compression (y-, where V=
original volume and Vj = volume after compression) and c
is the number of cylinders.
PI. 127, Fig. 4, shows how this economizes by reducing
the loss, if the air is allowed to cool down after each stage of
compression. .
7. Water jackets.—If the air in a single-stage compressor
is compressed adiabatically in ratio 4, the resultant pressure,
Plt will be p(y-)Wor 14*7 x 41*4 = 103 lbs., or 88 lbs. gauge,
and the temperature, Tj, of the air, if it starts at 60° F. or
519° A., will be T^jW_1 or 519 x 4-* = 904° A. or 445° F.
At this temperature, many lubricating oils will ignite spon¬
taneously. In order, therefore, to enable the piston to be
lubricated without danger of an explosion, which would
probably spread to the receiver where there would be much
oil vapour, it is necessary to keep the temperature below
350° F. To this end the cylinder head is always water-cooled ;
and a machine designed to compress air to much above 100 lbs.
gauge must be of the two- or three-stage type. Moreover,
to ensure that the air is cool at the commencement of each
612 Sec. 160.—General Principles
stage it is passed through an inter-cooler arranged like a
surface condenser for a steam engine, in which it parts with
most of its excess heat to cooling water circulated around
tubes, as shown diagrammatically on PI. 127, Fig. 5, which
illustrates a two-stage compressor, in which the first stage of
compression is carried out above the piston and the second
stage in the annular space between the piston and surrounding
trunk.
8. The unloader.—The point in the compression stroke
at which the delivery valves open is shown in para. 2 to be
entirely dependent upon the pressure existing in the delivery
pipe. If, therefore, air is being pumped into a receiver from
which none is allowed to escape, the pressure in the receiver
will continue to rise until it is sufficient to prevent the air-
delivery valves opening at all. In this case, referring to
para. 3, the ratio of compression in the cylinder will be —.

V,
No further air will be pumped through, because the air in the
clearance space at inner dead centre will expand and keep the
cylinder full during the suction stroke, at the end of which the
pressure will not be sufficiently below atmospheric to allow
the inlet valves to open. But this great rise of pressure in
the receiver would be dangerous, and in any case the
compressor would have done unnecessary work. Receivers
are, therefore, fitted with safety valves, and compressors are
fitted with a device known as an unloader, in which the air
in the delivery pipe is allowed to press upon a piston, P on
PI. 127, Fig. 6, controlled by an adjustable spring, S. When¬
ever the pressure exceeds that for which the unloader is set,
the piston, P, moves slightly, and in so doing allows the
compressed air to push up the plunger, Q, which closes the
air inlet of the compressor. Thus less air, or none at all, is
taken into the cylinder to be compressed until the pressure
in the delivery pipe falls again ; meanwhile little work is
being done, except that required to overcome the friction of
the machine.
An objection to this method of governing is that a partial
vacuum is formed in the cylinder on the down-stroke, and this
causes an unnecessary quantity of lubricating oil to be drawn
in past the piston-rings. A better method, which is employed
in some designs, is to hold the suction valve from its seat when
a predetermined pressure is reached in the receiver. By this
means air is simply drawn in and exhausted at atmospheric
pressure.
Petrol engine-driven compressors usually have in addition
an arrangement whereby tfie engine is throttled down to slow
speed, thus effecting a further saving in petrol.
Sec. 161.—Compressor Sets 613
9. Receiver.—It is usual, when compressed air is used for
machine tools, to pass the air from the compressor delivery
valve into a receiver, similar to a plain cylindrical steam
boiler.
The principal objects of a receiver are:—
i. To minimize pressure fluctuations due to the piston
pulsating effect.
ii. To cool the air before it passes to the main, thus
causing part of its moisture content to be deposited.
iii. Tq serve as. a reservoir of energy.
The small receivers normally fitted to small stationary
and portable plant fulfil the first two functions, but a receiver
of abnormal size is required to serve as an appreciable
reservoir of energy. For example, consider the case of a
compressor rated at 100 cubic feet of free air per minute at a
pressure of 100 lb./sq. inch. A receiver necessary to deal
with an overload of 25 per cent, for 1 minute with a drop in
pressure of not more than 15 lb./sq. inch, must have a capacity
of 25 cubic feet (say) 2 feet in diameter and 8 feet in length.
A receiver must be fitted with a pressure gauge, a drain-
cock through which accumulations of water and oil can be
removed, and also a safety valve to release the pressure should
the unloader on the compressor fail to operate.
161. Compressor sets

1. The older slow-speed types of compressor are usually
belt-driven. The direction of rotation is not important in
the case of those fitted with automatic valves, provided the
crosshead is capable of taking the diagonal thrust of the
connecting-rod equally on either side.
Compressors are occasionally fitted with mechanically-
operated valves, and can then only be run in one direction,
except by considerable alteration of the valve gear. If
compressors are run at faster speeds than that for which they
are intended, the power taken increases more rapidly than the
amount of air delivered, which does not increase proportionally
to the speed.
For service purposes, compressors are often mounted on
steel-joist frames together with a flexibly-coupled engine,
generally of the lorry type of petrol engine. In such sets the
engine should be of a R.A.C. rating at least double the brake
horse-power required to drive the compressor at its normal
output, after allowing for transmission losses.
For air-lift purposes, the receiver need not be of large
capacity, and may conveniently be mounted upon the same
frame. The whole set is then portable by motor lorry.
614 Sec. 161.—Compressor Sets
2. PI. 128 shows a type of portable compressor. It is a

twin-cylinder single-stage compressor direct-coupled to a
petrol engine. The makers will replace the petrol engine by
a high-speed Diesel engine if desired.
The rated output is 100 cubic feet of free air per minute
at a pressure of 100 lb./sq. inch and a speed of 1,200 r.p.m.
The piston displacement is 116 cubic feet per minute. The
plant is suitable for operating two road breakers or two rock
drills or four smaller tools, such as rammers and riveting and
caulking hammers.
The assembly of the equipment is slightly different from
that in the usual commercial pattern, since it has to conform
to military requirements in respect of overall width at axles
to enable it to be run into the well of a standard six-wheeled
M.T. vehicle. The air receiver is a little shorter than shown
in the makers’ catalogue—also on account of width limits.
Also, the receiver is situated between the engine and com¬
pressor, instead of outside the cab as in the makers’ standard
design.
The weight of the unit complete is 19 cwt.
The overall length is 6 ft. 9 in. and the height 4 ft. 4 in.,
approximately.
The compressor is of the sleeve valve type (PI. 129), in
which the passage of the air into and from the cylinder is
controlled by a reciprocating sleeve sealed by piston-rings
and operated by an eccentric turned solid with the crankshaft.
Many modem high-speed reciprocating compressors are of this
type.
The air inlet port is a slot in the cylinder wall which is
brought into communication with the interior of the cylinder
at the correct time by corresponding ports in the sleeve
itself.
By this means it is possible to make the area of the inlet
opening to the cylinder three or four times greater than that
obtained with a plate valve.
When the piston is about half-way up on the compression
stroke, the sleeve opens a port formed by a special type of
sealing ring, and this puts a small water-jacketed annular
space into communication with the cylinder. The object of
this space is to increase the capacity of the cylinder and also
to increase the cooling effect.
At the end of the compression stroke the sleeve cuts off
the annular space from the cylinder, and the clearance
space between the top of the piston and the cylinder head
is only about 2 per cent, of the volume swept by the piston
(in plate valve machines the clearance space is usually
5-6 per cent.), and therefore the volumetric efficiency is
high. '% -
To face p. 614]
Sec. 161.—Compressor Sets 615
616 Sec. 162.—Air Compressors
The eccentric is set approximately 130° behind the crank-

pin, so that when the piston is on the suction stroke the sleeve
continues to travel upwards until the air in the annular
space is delivered into the service line through the non-return
valve.
The non-return valve, which is a thin, flat plate, is larger
in diameter than the cylinder, and owing to its size provides
an opening of ample area with a very small lift. Due to the
action of the sleeve, the valve has 160° of crank angle to open
and close in, as compared with about 40° or so with an ordinary
plate valve. Therefore, although the compressor is running
at 1,200 revs, per minute, the non-return valve is operating
under conditions similar to those of an ordinary plate valve
compressor running at 300-400 r.p.m.
3. Power required.—The theoretical horse-power re¬
quired to compress 1 cubic foot of free air per minute
adiabatically to an absolute pressure of Px lb. per square
inch in a single-stage compressor, is:
n — 1
HP = _l44Pn-j ,p \ n
33,000 (» — 1) j ~ 1
Taking n as T408 and P = 14-7 lb./sq. inch,

C / P1 \ 0 29 )
the I.H.P. - 0-22 {(j2L) -lj
If the mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 90 per

cent., the B.H.P. required to compress 100 cubic feet of free
0-22
= 100 X 0=9 X
K
air per minute to a gauge pressure of 100 lb./sq. inch
114-7x0 29
—)
}
— 1 | — 20 B.H.P. approx.
162. Care, working and management of air compressors

1. Valves and cylinder head.—It will be seen from
Sec. 160, para. 4, that a compressor depends very much for
its efficient working upon the freedom of its valves to open
immediately any excess pressure develops upon their under
sides, and upon their quick closing and airtightness when the
pressure is reversed.
The valves are, therefore, of very light construction, and
depend for their tightness upon the accurate metal-to-metal
fit of their lower surfaces upon the valve seatings. PI. 127,
Fig. 1, shows a thin-plate valve.
All valves should be cleaned at least once a week. This
should be no perfunctory matter, but a careful washing with
soap and water, after which the valves and seatings should be
Sec. 162.—Air Compressors 617
rubbed dry and clean with an absolutely clean cloth. On no
account should cotton waste be used, since it is impossible
to avoid leaving some threads of cotton, which are sufficient
to hold the valves off their seatings. The slightest trace of
grit will completely prevent the compressor from working,
since air will flow back freely between the valves and their
seatings unless there is true metallic contact.
Great care must be exercised in removing and replacing
the valves, so that not the slightest burr is raised on any part
of a valve or seating.
Petrol of paraffin must never be used to clean valves or
cylinders. They could not be removed completely, and the
vapour from them would explode easily at the pressures and
temperatures that would exist when working. Soap and
water will do all that is required.
Lubrication.—Since oil is very undesirable in the pipes,
receiver, or tools, it should, consequently, be applied sparingly
to the cylinders. One drop per minute to each cylinder is
generally sufficient.
“ Oil lubricating, heavy mineral (M100) ” for high-com-
pression oil engines, is suitable for pressures up to 100 lbs.
per square inch. For higher pressures and multi-stage com¬
pression, special compressor oils should be used (not a R.A.O.C.
supply).
It is most important that a suitable oil should be used.
High flash-point alone is not sufficient safeguard against
explosion. Under the conditions existing in the compressor,
unsuitable oils may partially break up, producing volatile
components. Explosions have been known to occur in
compressors when the maximum temperatures which could
have been produced by the compression were considerably
lower than the tested flash-point.
2. Receivers.—The receivers for compressed air are
generally built up of riveted plates like a steam boiler. They
should be inspected, tested, and kept in repair in precisely
the same way. See Sec. 115.
Safety valves should be tested at regular intervals.
Receivers should be painted externally and internally when
possible.
3. Machine parts.—The crankcase should be filled daily
to the correct level, and the oil changed periodically. All
bearings shotlld be examined and adjusted similarly to those
of an I.C. engine.
4. Installation.—A compressor should be treated in
every way as an l.C. engine as regards siting and installation.
The receiver should be regarded much as a steam boiler, and
be similarly protected from the weather; if placed .outside the
618 Sec. 163.—Pneumatic or Compressed-Air Tools
engine room or shop, it should be kept cool by at least a roof

to keep off the direct rays of the sun, and preferably also by
a through draught. The cooler it is kept the less the danger
of explosion through ignition of the oil vapour it must contain.
The air should be taken from a cool situation outside the
building. The opening of the inlet, protected from dust, &c.
by wire gauze, should be at least 7 feet above ground.
5. Selection of plant.—It is advisable to look ahead, and
to instal a machine of sufficient power to meet not only the
immediate demands, but also any further load that may be
required later.
Compressors are difficult to keep in order, and will seldom
give in actual service the output obtained upon the test-bench.
6. Alterations to compressors.—A well-built com¬
pressor can be made to deliver a smaller quantity of air at a
correspondingly higher pressure by altering the tension of the
spring in the unloader. The power taken is then considerably
increased, and the engine of a self-contained set may be unable
to take the extra load unless a throttle-valve, fitted in the
inlet pipe of the compressor, is partly closed. The result of
this is to diminish in a very large degree the amount of air
delivered.
For such purposes as forcing the first blow of air into a
deep bore-hole with an airlift pump this expedient will suffice,
since only a small quantity is needed to start the flow, after
which a lower pressure is sufficient, provided the delivery of
air then increases.
163. Pneumatic or compressed-air tools

1. Uses.—Tools driven by compressed air may be used
wherever the portability of the tools is of paramount
importance. The principal reasons for their use is that they
are little heavier than those designed for manual power alone,
that they can do work much faster than can be done by hand,
and that they are very portable, since the power is transmitted
to them through comparatively light flexible pipes.
For such purposes as scaling boilers, chipping plates in situ
in boilers, riveting boilers and bridgework, breaking the cores
out of heavy castings, drilling and chipping stone in mines,
quarries, tunnels, &c., and drilling plates in situ in boilers and
bridgework, pneumatic tools are well adapted and are
extensively used.
2. Efficiency. — The efficiency of pneumatic tools is
generally very low. It will be seen from Sec. 160, para. 5, that
a compressor works at a low efficiency owing to heavy heat
Sec. 163.—Pneumatic or Compressed-Air Tools 619
losses. A further loss occurs through the refrigerating effect

of the expansion of the air in the tool.
In cold weather, some means must be provided to keep
pneumatic tools from freezing up, especially in exposed
places.
Another source of loss is occasioned by the flexible pipe
connecting the air receiver and tool. To give the necessary
portability, this pipe must be of small diameter, and may
necessarily be very long, containing several couplings.
There is, therefore, considerable loss in pressure owing to
friction, and there may be very heavy losses of air due to
leaks. It is seldom that much more than half the air com¬
pressed reaches the tool, and the pressure may also be halved
by friction.
3. Types.—Pneumatic tools arc broadly divided into
three groups:—
i. Reciprocating tools or hammers.
ii. Rotary tools or motors.
iii. Tools which combine a reciprocating with a rotary
motion, i.c. hammer drills.
Reciprocating tools are used for rock or concrete breaking,
scaling, chipping, and riveting.
Rotaiy tools are used for drilling metal plates, tapping,
screwing, etc., and other work to which electric motors could
be more efficiently applied if electric power were available.
The existence of a compressor, however, warrants the use of
pneumatic motors when electric power is not already available.
Hammer drills are used for drilling holes in rock or con¬
crete, e.g. for blasting purposes.
4. Reciprocating tools.—All pneumatic hammers,
whether intended for use with chisels for scaling or chipping,
with picks for coal-.cutting or rock-breaking, or with snaps for
closing rivets, work on the same essential principles.
A typical pneumatic riveter is shown on PI. 127, Fig. 7 ;
although much variety in design may be found in hammers
intended for different work and made by different manu¬
facturers, the main differences lie only in such details as
length of stroke and the relative amounts of power expended
in tile blow and the retraction, or return of the hammer to its
original position.
In a riveting or chipping hammer it is important that
every blow shall be powerful and decided, and delivered
entirely upon the snap or chisel, that the return of the hammer
shall be effected without shock to the hand of the operator
holding the machine, and that the blows shall be delivered
rapidly and regularly.
620 See. 163.—Pneumatic or Compressed-Air Tools
The hammer in the tool shown on PI. 1271 Fig. 7, consists

of a heavy piston, P, fitting well but freely in a cylinder, C,
and provided with a suitably hardened face to engage the
head of the snap or chisel, S, as each blow is delivered. Com¬
pressed air is admitted alternately on either side of the
hammer, P, so that it is alternately drawn away from the
chisel and driven forward so as to strike it. The forward
movement must be powerful. The valve, V, is designed,
therefore, to admit compressed air freely to the back of the
hammer through ports A, and to exhaust air freely from the (
front of the hammer through ports B. At the end of this
stroke the hammer bares a port, G, which admits air to an
annular piston, K, on the valve, V, and closes a port, D, thus
accumulating air pressure from within on another annular
piston, E. In consequence, the valve runs back and takes
up the position shown inset. A small amount of compressed
air is thus admitted through ports F to the front of the
hammer, and simultaneously air is exhausted through the
small ports G and H from the back of the hammer. The
hammer, therefore, returns comparatively gently towards
the retracted position, so that no heavy back-blow is given to
the hand of the operator. Moreover, long before the hammer
has finished its backward movement it has bared port D and
covered port G, so that the valve commences to return to the
position for driving the hammer forward. Thus the pressure
on the front of the hammer is relieved, and compressed air
entering at the back through A checks the hammer elastically
and without allowing any positive shock to be transmitted
to the hand.
In coal picks and concrete breakers a certain amount of
return blow may be necessary to free the tool after each for¬
ward blow. This may be effected by a slight modification
of the valve and ports.
In many hammers the valve guide, M, is dispensed with by
placing the valve, V, upon and surrounding the hammer, the
latter being drilled with the necessary ports, which are shown
in M.
5. Rotary tools.—Pneumatic rotary tools consist gener¬
ally of a high-speed motor with two, three, or four pistons,
designed very much on motor-car engine practice, and
similarly enclosed and balanced. The pistons are normally
arranged in pairs, which may be opposed to give more perfect
balancing.
The valve gear is generally somewhat similar to that
described in para. 4, with the exception that the pistons are
usually single-acting, and that, since no blow is desired, the
working stroke is cushioned like the return stroke of a hammer.
Sec. 163.—Pneumatic or Compressed-Air Tools 621
Since the speed of the motor is generally much higher

than that required in the drill, the power is usually trans¬
mitted by worm gear with a large reduction ratio.
The efficiency is very low, since the air cannot be used
expansively to any great extent in so small an engine, and
the leakage must necessarily be high in cylinders of so
small a bore if the necessary clearance is allowed for free
working.
6. Hammer drills are generally similar to reciprocating
tools, but the steel is rotated slowly by means of a ratchet
device, thus enabling a uniform circular hole to be drilled.
To clear the debris from the hole, the steel is made hollow
and the exhaust air is directed through it to the bottom of the
hole. The usual sizes of the drill for use by one man without
any fixed supports will drill holes up to about 2 inches
diameter. It is necessary to taper the hole about £ inch for
every 12 to 20 inches of depth, by using a diminishing series
of steels. The rate of drilling varies greatly according to the
nature of the rock, condition of tool, &c., but a rate of 8 to
12 inches per minute in moderately hard rock can be attained
under favourable conditions. The steels require frequent
redressing.
7. Pneumatic tools are normally made for an air
pressure of 80 lbs. per sq. in. The consumption of air is a
very variable quantity, but from 20 cu. ft. per minute for a
small rotary drill up to 60 cu. ft. per minute for a heavy rock
drill are reasonable figures.
8. Care of pneumatic tools.—Pneumatic tools must be
kept well lubricated with a thin oil whose viscosity, at the low
temperatures caused by the expansion of the air, is not
sufficient to clog the valves, which are not positively operated,
and depend upon very small differences of air pressure for
their movement.
The parts are ground to a very accurate fit; therefore, in
taking them apart for cleaning, the greatest care must be
exercised in avoiding the slightest burring of surfaces or edges.
Nevertheless, absolute cleanliness is essential, and cleaning
should be regular and thorough.
They must then be blown through and properly lubricated
before use.
9. The electric-air system.—The relatively low
efficiency of pneumatic transmission and.the relative con¬
venience of air-operated tools, as compared with those
driven directly by electric motors, for such purposes as
chipping and coal-cutting, has resulted in the evolution of a
combined system known as electric air.
622 Sec. 163.—Pneumatic or Compressed-Air Tools
In this system, power is carried efficiently by electric

cables to electric motors carried on small trucks, which can
be placed within a few feet of the site of the work. Each
electric motor drives, through a belt or other reducing gear,
a small compressor carried on the same truck.
No air receiver need be supplied in most cases; in fact an
attempt is made to avoid the heat loss, due to cooling in a
receiver, by supplying the air as hot as possible to the pneu¬
matic tools, whose flexible hoses are short. Leakage losses
are eliminated by using only one length of hose to each tool,»
with no couplings beyond those on the compressor and tool.
This method has not been very successful commercially,
however, and is now seldom met with.

CHAPTER XXXV
REFRIGERATING MACHINERY
164. General principles

1. Refrigeration is the process of lowering the temperature
of a body below that of its surroundings, i.e. causing heat to
travel from the body (which may be an ice-making tank, a
cold store, or the air of a building) to a body at a higher
temperature. To effect this it is necessary to expend energy,
in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, which
states that heat will not travel from a cold body to a hot body
by a purely self-acting process.
2. Excluding apparatus depending on the melting of ice
(with or without the addition of salt, &c.), on chemical
action, or on the evaporation of a volatile liquid supplied from
an external source—apparatus which cannot be regarded as
complete refrigerating machines, since they cannot operate
continuously unless the active material is continually renewed
—refrigerating machines can be regarded as reversed heat
engines. In a heat engine, heat passes from a higher to a
lower temperature, and in doing so a portion of it is converted
into mechanical energy, through the medium of a working
fluid. In a refrigerating machine, heat is forced to pass from
a lower to a higher temperature, and mechanical energy (or
additional heat) is applied to the working fluid to effect the
transfer.
165. Types of machines

1. Refrigerating machines are of three principal types:—
i. Compression machines.
ii. Absorption machines.
iii. Air-expansion machines.
The two latter types are practically obsolete (except for a
special type of absorption machine for domestic refrigerators)
owing to their low efficiency, but may still be met with, so are
described briefly later on in this chapter.
2. All three types depend for the action on one or both of
the following two principles
(a) The latent heat principle.—Every substance in passing
from the liquid to the gaseous state absorbs heat, known as
the Latent Heat of Evaporation, and vice versa, gives up
latent heat on passing from gaseous to liquid state.
623
624 Sec. 166.—Compression Machines
(6) The expansion principle.—When a gas expands without

heat transmission, its temperature falls, and when it is com¬
pressed without heat transmission its temperature rises.
166. Compression machines

1. This is the type now almost universally employed.
PI. 130, Fig. 1, shows the plant diagrammatically.
The plant consists essentially of a compressor (driven by
external agency), a condenser, an expansion valve, and an,
evaporator. These units are connected by piping and form a
closed circuit in which a fluid known as the refrigerant
circulates. This fluid is a gas at normal atmospheric tempera¬
tures and pressures, but can be liquefied by pressure at
atmospheric temperature.
2. The cycle of operations is as follows :—
The refrigerant in the form of a wet gas at low pressure is
sucked into the compressor and compressed, approximately
adiabatically. Its temperature rises on compression and the
refrigerant leaves the compressor as a dry gas at a com¬
paratively high temperature and at a pressure which would be
sufficient to liquefy it at a little above atmospheric temper¬
ature. The refrigerant then passes to the condenser, where
it is cooled either by air or water to approximately
atmospheric temperature. As it is brought down to this
temperature it liquefies, giving up its latent heat of evapora¬
tion to the cooling agent. The refrigerant next passes through
an expansion valve sometimes called the regulator, which is a
throttle valve, provided with means of fine regulation, restrict¬
ing the flow to a small orifice. Owing to the restricted
flow, and the suction of the compressor, the pressure of the
refrigerant is reduced, on passing through the expansion valve,
below the pressure needed to liquefy it even at temperatures
well below 0° C. The refrigerant therefore commences to
evaporate, and in so doing to cool itself by absorption of latent
heat to a temperature at which evaporation ceases; during
this cooling process it passes through the evaporator, which
consists of coils either in contact with the air of a chamber
which is to be cooled or immersed in a tank of brine which
is to be cooled and used as an intermediary for cooling other
objects. The refrigerant absorbs heat from the air or brine,
evaporating as it does so, and finally passes out to the suction
valve of the compressor as a wet gas at a low temperature and
pressure, or possibly, if sufficient heat has been absorbed, as a
dry gasi
3. It is usually arranged that evaporation shall not be
quite complete, a certain amount of liquid passing with the
Sec. 166.—Compression Machines 625
Plate 130.
f>G/NCJPL£ Or COMPGS33/OH TYPE GErGJGEGAT/SvG MACH/NC.
&»gu?**or KwVa
Awinyw
Qr7r*m
tntm* 6o*t+K
Cofyp&e^so*?.
j*WNCtm„E or type &er&tcct?>cT/*/G machs/vc.
Ammar>/& (G*r)
21—(579)
626 Sec. 167.—Choice of Refrigerant
gas into the compressor ; this helps to keep the pressures and
temperatures in the compressor within reasonable limits,
as the evaporation of the remaining liquid absorbs much of the
heat of compression. Machines in which the gas is thus
still mixed with liquid on reaching the compressor are said
to work on the Wet Compression cycle. Dry compression
avoids the danger of too much liquid in compressor head.
The entropy-temperature diagram for the cycle is shown
on PI. 131, Fig. 1.
AB = evaporation at constant temperature. »
BC = adiabatic compression.
CD = condensation at constant temperature.
DA = expansion through expansion valve.
The line AH represents the change of entropy necessary
to convert all the liquid into vapour. The change AB occurs
during evaporation and BH during compression.
The step DA is not reversible, but in the practice the loss
is so small that an expansion cylinder which would make the -
cycle reversible is not warranted.
167. Choice of refrigerant

1. The number of fluids suitable for use as refrigerants is
limited. The following conditions must be satisfied:—
(a) The refrigerant must be capable of being liquefied,
at condenser temperature, by a pressure which can easily be
obtained with a simple compressor.
(b) The refrigerant must not solidify at any temperature
within the range of working, as this would lead to choking of
valves, &c.
(c) It must have no corrosive effect on the metal of the
machines.
2. The following properties are also desirable:—
(a) The vapour pressures at evaporator temperatures
should be slightly above atmospheric. A pressure below
atmospheric is liable to cause air leaks into the system and
consequent troubles and low energy ratio. A high vapour
pressure means high pressures throughout the system and
consequently an expensive plant and greater liability to
leakage.
(&) A high latent heat of evaporation-^this enables
greater refrigerating effect to be obtained from a given
quantity of refrigerant.
(c) A critical temperature a long way above tê condenser
temperature. The nearer the critical temperature the lower
the latent heat of evaporation and consequently the less the
Platk 131.
Fl£. '1.
• ] 1ALLMAKK” MKTJlVl.-CHJ.ORJnr; self-contained
refrigerating machine unit
Sec. 167.—Choice of Refrigerant 627
refrigerant effect. (N.B.—The critical temperature of a gas
is the temperature above which it is impossible to liquefy
it by pressure, however high.)
(d) Non-poisonous and have no tainting effect on food¬
stuffs if it escapes.
3. For practical purposes the choice of a refrigerant is
restricted to ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and
methyl chloride. Their principal properties are tabulated in
Table ZB. Anhydrous ammonia gives the greatest energy ratio
and has every advantage except (d) above. It is decidedly
poisonous and will taint foodstuffs readily. With modem
plant, properly maintained, leakages should be rare, and
owing to the pungent smell are quickly detected. Ammonia
corrodes brass and copper, but does not affect iron or steel.
4. Carbon dioxide is much used on board ship as it is
non-poisonous and will not taint food; but it is generally
unsuitable for military purposes, as the energy ratio is low, and
owing to the very high pressure required, special attention is
necessary. Moreover, in tropical climates the condenser
temperature may exceed the critical temperature (88° F.),
with consequent loss of efficiency and output, though this
difficulty can be met by using a special cycle of operations
(see Sec. 170, para. 11).
For a given output, owing to the high pressure, C02
machines are small compared with ammonia machines, but
very strong, heavy, and expensive.
5. Sulphur dioxide uses very low pressures—undesirably
low, as they may fall below atmospheric. Leakage of air
and water into the system causes the formation of highly
corrosive acid. The gas is poisonous and offensive. It has
the advantage that in the liquid state it is a lubricant, which
makes it suitable for small automatic machines. Otherwise
it is not to be recommended, and has now largely been
displaced by methyl chloride, except for domestic refrigerators.
6. Methyl chloride machines have only recently been
developed. They are usually small machines with automatic
or semi-automatic control, for which duty methyl chloride is
almost ideal. The pressures are low, but not too low; it
is non-corrosive, but inflammable and somewhat poisonous.
Energy ratios are good, but not equal to ammonia. It mixes
with lubricating oil, thus avoiding troubles due to oil in the
system.
7. Ammonia machines are recommended for outputs
above 150 B.Th.U. per minute. For smaller duties methyl
chloride machines with automatic control are suitable.
628 Sec. 168.—Performance of Refrigerating Machines
168. Performance of refrigerating machines

1. Energy ratio.—A refrigerating machine is a reversed
heat engine and its performance is measured by the energy
ratio:—
_Heat extracted_
Heat expelled to condenser — heat extracted from brine
Heat extracted
Heat equivalent of work done in compression'
T
This can be shown to be equal to =—^-=r. *
I2 li
Where T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures of the
refrigerator at which heat is absorbed from the brine (or
air of cold store) and rejected to the condenser cooling water
respectively.
To effect heat transference Tj must always be lower than
the brine temperature and T2 must always be higher than the
T
condenser water temperature. The ratio is, there-
I2 _
fore, limited practically. Further, owing to mechanical and
other losses, the actual energy ratio obtained in practice
is considerably lower than the theoretical ratio. It may,
however, in favourable conditions be as high as 12. A fairly
normal figure is about 4.
It wifi be noted from the formula that the lower the
temperature of the brine, &c., and the higher the temperature
of the cooling water, the lower the energy ratio.
The energy ratio is frequently called the Coefficient (or
Factor) of Performance.
It is better not to use the expression efficiency in this con¬
nection, since the energy ratio is not efficiency in the ordinary
meaning of the term.
Consider the first set of figures in Table ZC on page 647.
Tj = 30 -f 459 = 489° F. absolute
T2 - Tx = 55 - 30 = 25° F.
489
the theoretical energy ratio = = 19*6
150 x 778
also the practical energy ratio — = 11-8.
0-3 X 33,000
2. Output.—This is usually measured in British Thermal
Units per minute extracted from the brine or cold store.
The output of the machine is affected by the temperatures
in the same way as the energy ratio, but not to the same extent,
as the variations in energy ratio are partly compensated for by
variations in the power required to drive. A higher con¬
denser temperature gives reduced output and increased power
to drive, and vice versa; a lower refrigerator temperature
Sec. 169.—Constructional Details 629
gives reduced output, while the power to drive first rises to a

maximum as the refrigerator temperature falls, and then falls
with the temperature.
3. Rating.—It follows from the last paragraph that any
attempt to give machines a rating based on their output is
useless unless standard conditions are laid down on which the
rating can be based. There are at present several standards
and several methods of rating, as described below :—
(a) A merican rating.—This is commonly used commercially.
The capacity of a machine is given in “ tons of refrigeration,”
a ton of refrigeration being a refrigerating effect equal to the
melting of one American ton (2,000 lb.) of ice per 24 hours.
(This is equal to 200 British Thermal Units per minute.)
The standard conditions are an inlet pressure (i.e. in the
evaporator) corresponding to a saturation temperature of
5° F., and an outlet pressure (i.e. in the condenser) correspond¬
ing to a saturation temperature of 86° F.
This rating is applied to the compressor only, not to a
complete plant.
It should be noted that a machine of one ton rating is not
capable of making one ton of ice per 24 hours. Under normal
conditions the output would be about 8 to 10 cwts.
(b) International rating.—The capacity is stated in kilo¬
gramme calories per hour when cooling brine from—2° to —5° C.
with water entering the condenser at 10° C. and leaving it at
15° C. This rating is applied to the complete plant. (1 kilo¬
gram caloric equals 3-96 B.Th.U. = kWh.)
(c) British rating.—The unit is 1 kilogram calorie per
second (238 B.Th.U. per minute), and the standard conditions
are: brine cooled from 0° C. to — 5° C. and cooling water
raised from 15° C. to 20° C. (N.B.—Under usual conditions,
this corresponds to evaporator temperature of approximately
14° F. and condenser temperature of approximately 74°, the
figures used in Table ZC.)
(d) Rating by B.Th.U.—The capacity is taken under the
standard conditions for the British Rating, but is expressed in
B.Th.U. per minute. This is probably the most convenient
rating for calculations.
The curves in PL 132 and the figures in Table ZC are
representative of small ammonia machines. Larger machines
should have higher energy ratios. The effect of altering the
temperature range should be carefully noted.
169. Constructional details

1. Compressors.—Compressors vary greatly in design.
They may be single or multi-cylinder, and single or double¬
acting, and the design also depends on the refrigerant used.
630 Sec. 169 .—Constructional Details
Plate 132.
V3M0d ISUOH-lPdNt
RATED CAPACITY.
MACHINE OF 100 0 Th. U&
AMMONIA
Sec. 169.—Constructional Details 631
Thus with ammonia the pressure range is normally about
25 to 125 lbs. per square inch, for which a simple compressor
of normal construction is suitable, whereas with carbon
dioxide the range is about 300 to 1,000 lbs. per square inch,
for which a very strong construction and special means of
preventing leakage of gas are necessary.
PI. 133 shows a typical small ammonia compressor,
single cylinder, single acting, with automatic spring-loaded
valves. It should be noted that the crankshaft is provided
with a packing gland ; the crankcase and cylinder jacket are
maintained at suction pressure (being connected up to the
suction side of the machine by the crankcase vent-pipe).
This minimizes the loss of gas due to leakage past the piston,
which is bound to occur to a certain extent. Any gas which
leaks through is drawn off into the suction pipe. There is
little likelihood of any escaping past the crankshaft packing
gland, as the pressure difference is small and the packing can
be made very efficient at this point. It also enables the oil
to be blown out of the ammonia system into the crank case
without losing any ammonia, while the jacketing of the
cylinder with the cold gas of the suction side assists to keep
down the temperature in the cylinder. Single-acting com¬
pressors sometimes have water-cooled heads, but this is not
usual.
Single-stage compressors, as illustrated, are suitable for
compression ratios up to about 6 to 1, which is sufficient for
the temperature ranges usually dealt with. For very low
temperatures it may be necessary to use two-stage compressors.
These will seldom be met with in military service.
To obtain the maximum output and efficiency, the
clearance volume of the compressor must be reduced to a
minimum, especially with wet compression, but on the other
hand when using wet compression a certain amount of clear¬
ance is essential for safety, as there is always a possibility of
an excess of liquid refrigerant reaching the compressor; if
there is insufficient clearance this may blow off the cylinder
head. Large compressors are usually provided with a safety
device, such as a spring head, to avoid this possibility. Small
compressors frequently depend on sufficient clearance volume
as a safeguard.
A low piston speed has been usual in the past in machines
with plate valves, chiefly dependent upon the relative area
of the piston and the valves. The latter should be as large
and light as possible. Higher speed machines with sleeve
valves for direct drive by electric motors, or high-speed
engines, are now being largely employed (see Sec. 161).
2. Oil separators.—Referring again to PL 133, it will be
seen that the ammonia on leaving the delivery valVe passes
632 Sec. 169.—Constructional Details
Plate 133.
SMALL AMMONIA COMPRESSOR
END CLCmTION
Sec. 170.—Condensers 633
through an oil separator. A certain amount of oil is bound to
work past the piston into the compressor cylinder, and is
carried away in a finely divided state in the ammonia. If not
previously removed, much of it will be deposited in the
condenser, forming a film which will impede heat trans¬
ference and seriously affect the efficiency. In the oil separator
the particles of oil are carried to the bottom of the vessel by
their momentum, while the gas passes out by the pipe at the
top of the vessel. The separator is connected by a pipe, with
stop-valve, to the crankcase. Every three or four hours,
while the plant is running, the attendant should open the
valve for a few seconds, when the pressure of the gas will drive
the oil into the crankcase. A sight-glass on the crankcase
enables the level to be checked. Splash lubrication is used
in this case, and is adequate for small plants, with the low
speeds used.
3. C02 compressors.—Both C02 and ammonia machines
are made in a full range of sizes from about l ton to 200 tons
rating.
The heavy construction of C02 machines will be noted;
the cylinders are machined from solid billets of steel. A
special high-pressure packing gland is used on the piston-rod,
and crosshead construction is used to relieve the packing of
the heavy side thrusts, which would cause leakage.
4. Methyl chloride compressors.—PI. 131, Fig. 2,
shows a small methyl chloride machine, complete with air¬
cooled condenser and electric motor. A machine of this
type, which is usually provided with automatic control, is
very suitable for small meat stores, &c., up to about 500 cu. ft.
in temperate climates. About 1 j B.H.P. would be required
for this duty, the machine running intermittently.
170. Condensers
1. The condensers used for refrigerating machinery do
not differ in principle from steam condensers, being simply
heat exchangers, by means of which the heat generated by
compression and the latent heat of evaporation are trans¬
ferred from the refrigerant to the cooling water (or air),
thus liquefying the refrigerant. In all types of refrigerating
condensers the refrigerant passes through a coil or series of
pipes, while cold water or air passes over the surface of the
pipes. To effect heat transference as rapidly as possible,
the velocity of both the refrigerant and the water should be as
high as possible. To bring the final temperature of the
refrigerant as low as possible, the contra-flow principle is
normally adopted—i.c. the refrigerant and the water enter at
634 Sec. 170.—Gondensers
opposite ends of the condenser, so that the coldest water

meets the coldest refrigerant just before it leaves the con¬
denser, the hot refrigerant entering the condenser, being first
cooled by water which has already been warmed somewhat.
A reference to the formula =—^=r already quoted shows
■*■2 — A1
that the energy ratio of the whole plant depends very largely
on the condenser.
Condensers are of three principal types :—
2. Submerged condenser.—This consists of a coil of
piping through which the refrigerant passes, immersed in a
vessel through which water is passed. The movement of the
water being slow, this type requires a greater surface than
other types, so is seldom used except for small plants.
3. Open condensers (PL 134, Fig. 1).—In this type
the refrigerant passes through coils of pipe arranged in the
form of a vertical screen, and water is allowed to flow over the
surface of the pipes from a perforated pipe at the top. The
whole is placed in the open air, but screened from sun and from
high wind (which might blow the water off the pipes), and
stands over a tank in which the water is collected. If the
exposed area of piping is large enough, and the air reasonably
dry, the water will be cooled by evaporation as fast as it takes
up heat from the pipes, and will therefore maintain a steady
temperature. In this case the same water can be used
repeatedly, being circulated by means of a pump with a little
added to make up for evaporation. The contra-flow principle
is not applied in this case, the water being at practically the
same temperature throughout; refrigerant and water both
enter at the top of the condenser.
Given a fairly dry atmosphere and therefore rapid evapora¬
tion, this type is most efficient, and is economical of water.
It is the type generally used for large installations.
This type of condenser acts as a cooling tower as well as a
condenser, and its size is usually fixed by the requirements of
the former function. If an ample supply of cold water is
available, the condenser may be made much smaller. In this
case, as the water rises in temperature as it passes over the
coils, a contra-flow action is necessary; the refrigerant is
therefore admitted at the bottom of the condenser. The
liquefied refrigerant is usually drawn off at several points in
order to maintain the temperature difference.
4. Double-pipe condenser.—This type consists of two
concentric pipes, either bent into a “ zig-zag ” or built up
from a number of straight lengths with specially designed
connecting pieces. See PI. 134, Figs. 2 and 3.
The refrigerant passes through the inner pipe, entering
To face p. 634]
Plate 134.
Sec. 170.—Condensers 635
at the top; the water through the annular space entering at

the bottom.
The built-up pattern is easier to clean out, and should be
used if there is likely to be much deposit from the water,
but the large number of joints is a disadvantage.
This type of condenser is very efficient; owing to the rapid
flow both of water and refrigerant; it is compact and easily
adapted to cramped positions, and there is no water-splashing.
It is much used for small installations where water is plentiful
and cheap.
5. Sizes of condensers.—The following areas of moling
surfaces are required per 100 B.Th.U. refrigerative capacity
under standard temperature conditions :—
Submerged condensers .. 15 sq. ft.
Double-pipe condensers .. 4 sq. ft.
Open, evaporative type .. 12 sq. ft. or more.
Open, flooded type .. 5 sq. ft.
It should be noted, however, that the size depends on
the duty of the plant, not on its rating ; for instance, if the
temperatures required in the evaporator are not as low as the
standard values, the output of the plant will be increased
and a larger condenser will be needed. If the evaporator
temperature is 30° F. the above areas should be doubled.
This will be clear from PI. 132.
6. Water required.—With open type condensers, a
minimum of half a gallon per minute for every foot run of
piping should be used. If the water is recirculated, the flow
should be increased to about 2 gallons per minute, as this
helps evaporation.
With a submerged or double-pipe condenser, the quantity
depends on the permissible rise of temperature, which again
depends on the inlet water temperature and the output
required from a 'given power available. The condenser
temperature of the refrigerant will be approximately a constant
amount above the outlet water temperature. The water will
be required to absorb the heat taken up by the evaporator,
plus the heat equivalent of the work done in the compressor,
less a certain amount of loss by radiation, &c. The amount
necessary can therefore be calculated.
For example, taking again the first set of figures in
Table ZG, the refrigerant extracts 150 B.Th.U. per minute
from the brine and receives
0-3 X 33,000
X 0-6 = 7-6 B.Th.U.
778
in the compressor (assuming 40 per cent, of B.H.P. input goes
636 Sec. 170.—Condensers
in radiation from surface of compressor and to compressor

cooling water).
Therefore, neglecting heat exchanges between connecting
pipes and air, the condenser cooling water removes 150 -f- 7*6
= 157-6 B.Th.U. per minute. Assuming a 10° F. rise in
temperature of cooling water, it must circulate at the minimum
rate of = 94*56 (say 100 galls./hour).
7. Air-cooled condensers.—For very small plants, such as

domestic refrigerators, air-cooled condensers are sometimes*
used. They are similar to motor-car radiators in principle,
but, of course, constructed to withstand the high pressure
used. A fan is usually provided. They are less efficient than
water condensers, but may be very useful in many situations
where water is scarce.
8. Materials.—For ammonia plant, steel piping must be
used. For C02 plant, copper piping is used, owing to its
better conductivity.
9. Liquid receivers.—A liquid receiver usually forms part
of the condenser side of the circuit. It is a vessel, which may
form part of the condenser and in any case is connected to the
condenser outlet, large enough to contain the whole charge of
refrigerant in the liquid state. It provides space for an excess
of refrigerant above the normal working charge, thus forming
a reserve to make up for leakage and avoiding the necessity
of adding fresh refrigerant at short intervals. It also provides
a space into which most of the charge can be pumped and
sealed up by shutting the stop valves, in order to allow the
plant to be opened up for repairs without loss of the charge.
It is often omitted with evaporative condensers, as these are
large enough to provide all the space needed.
10. Liquid coolers.—With evaporative condensers, as the
water flowing over the condenser is higher in temperature than
the make-up water, the liquid refrigerant is often further cooled
in a liquid cooler—which may be similar to a double-pipe
condenser—through which the cold make-up water is
circulated. The more the liquid can be cooled before evapora¬
tion, the less evaporation is required for self-cooling after
passing the regulator, and the more liquid is therefore available
for evaporation in the refrigerator. This is especially the case
with C02.
With double-pipe, submerged, or flooded condensers,
the contra-flow arrangement of the condenser ensures
maximum cooling of the liquid.
11. Intermediate liquid coolers for C02.—C02
machines, especially if required to work in the tropics, are
Sec. 171.—Evaporators 637
often fitted with another form of liquid cooler, in which the
expansion of part of the refrigerant to a pressure intermediate
between the condenser and evaporator pressures is used to
cool the remainder of the liquid to about 20° F. By this
means the output of the machine is increased by about 20 per
cent, and the C02 can be brought down below its critical
temperature, even when the condenser temperature is unduly
high. C02 evaporated in the pre-cooler is admitted to the
compressor at the end of the suction stroke through special
ports.
For details of C02 liquid coolers, the makers' handbooks
should be studied.
171. Evaporators
1. In the evaporator (sometimes called the refrigerator)
the action is the reverse of that in the condenser, the liquid
refrigerant evaporating, under the low pressure maintained
by the suction of the compressor, and absorbing heat from its
surroundings. Evaporators are of two principal types, (a)
direct expansion evaporators and (b) brine coolers. Direct
expansion evaporators are as a rule only used for air cooling.
The air of the cold store is circulated over coils of piping in
which the refrigerant evaporates. To keep the pipes free
from frost (which acts like a lagging and impedes heat
transfer) when dealing with temperatures below freezing
point, the coils stand over a brine tank and brine is circulated
over the pipes.
Direct expansion is also used in some cases for ice-making,
milk cooling, &c. The designs depend on requirements, and
are outside the scope of this book.
2. Brine coolers employ brine as a medium for transferring
heat from the object to be cooled to the refrigerant. In
general, they are similar in design to condensers, the brine
replacing the cooling water. They may be submerged, double¬
pipe or open flooded. Detail designs depend on application,
as before.
The brine used is usually a solution of calcium chloride,
4 lbs. per gallon, which is cheap, has a freezing point of
—20° F., is non-corrosive and leaves no deposit. Sodium
chloride [i.e. common salt) brine can be used, but, being much
less soluble, it is apt to crystallize out at low temperatures,
and its freezing point is higher. Moreover, it has a corrosive
effect on steel unless a little caustic soda is added.
A minimum of 12 square feet of pipe surface per ton of
refrigeration is required for double-pipe evaporators, and at
least double thi« surface area for other types.
Sec. 172.—Accessories
The brine system is less efficient than the direct expansion

system as the double transfer of heat requires a lower evaporator
temperature. It has many advantages, however; the brine
acts as a “ reservoir of cold,” thus allowing the compressor to
be shut down for considerable periods before a serious rise in
temperature takes place. The brine can also be circulated
where required and controlled in a number of circuits more
easily and with less danger than the refrigerant can.
172. Accessories i
1. Stop-valves.—PI. 135, Fig. 1, shows a typical ammonia
stop-valve, which is usually made of semi-steel or high grade
cast-iron. The valve discs have white metal seatings, and a
seating is provided on the upper side to seal the valve when
in the open position, enabling the spindle to be repacked
without loss of ammonia. C02 valves are usually machined
from solid billets of mild steel.
Valve spindle should be of rustless steel.
2. Regulator.—This valve (PI. 135, Fig. 2) requires
accurate adjustment with a small opening to give the best
results. It is therefore made with a fine thread, and the
spindle has a tapered end extending through the valve opening.
The hand-wheel is provided with a pointer and index to
enable the correct position, once settled, to be found at once.
It should not be used as a stop-valve; a stop-valve should
adjoin it on the condenser side (known as the liquid stop-
valve).
3. Piping and joints.—For ammonia machines, wrought
iron piping is suitable. A typical joint for ammonia piping is
shown in PI. 135, Fig. 3. The flanges are screwed on to the
pipes, one pipe being recessed in the flange and the other
projecting. A metal packing ring—aluminium may be used—
is placed between the pipe ends, which are accurately faced
up, and the flanges drawn together by the bolts.
For C02 machines, special hydraulic piping is used with
heavy flanges and copper jointing rings.
4. Pressure gauges should be fitted on the suction and
delivery pipes of the compressor; besides the ordinary pres¬
sure graduations, these gauges usually have an outer scale of
temperatures. These temperatures represent the evaporation
and liquefaction temperatures of the refrigerant at the corre¬
sponding pressures, and since the pressure in either side of the
system is approximately the same throughout, the temperature
indicated by the gauge at any moment is the temperature at
which the refrigerant is condensing or evaporating. This is the
temperature at which most of the heat transference takes place,
Sec. 172,—Accessories
640 Sec. 173.—Absorption Machines
*
and may fairly be taken as the average temperature of heat

transference. The gauge temperatures (converted to absolute
scale), therefore, may be used in the formula =—
I2 — Ai
It should be noted that the gauge temperatures are
evaporation or liquefaction temperatures deduced from the
pressures, and not actually measured at the gauge points.
They give the temperatures accurately only when the
refrigerant is a wet gas.
173. Absorption machines

1. In an absorption type refrigerating machine the
external energy is applied in the form of heat, which produces
a high pressure by driving off the refrigerant from a liquid
in which it has been dissolved. The affinity of the cold liquid
for the refrigerant is used to produce a suction effect.
The refrigerant may be water, which can be absorbed by
sulphuric acid, or ammonia absorbed by water.
The former type, although it was one of the earliest ice¬
making machines, is only of interest as a laboratory experi¬
ment. The ammonia absorption machine of large or medium
size is also obsolete, owing to its very low energy ratio
(seldom more than 1). PI. 130, Fig. 2, shows the principle
diagrammatically.
The generator contains strong ammonia solution, which is
heated by steam pipes, and gives off ammonia gas at a fairly
high pressure and temperature. The gas is freed from water
by various devices and passes to the condenser, thence by the
regulator valve to the evaporator (all these parts of the circuit
being similar to those used with a compression plant). The
absorber contains water, or rather weak solution, which has
been passed into it from the generator and water-separating
devices; this water is cooled before entering the absorber,
and having a violent affinity for ammonia, it absorbs it as it
comes from the evaporator, and so keeps down the pressure.
The strong solution is then pumped into the generator and the
cycle repeated. The small circulating pump is the only part
requiring mechanical power.
2. The Electrolux unit.—A form of ammonia absorption
machine on a small scale, which has been successfully
developed in recent years, is the Electrolux domestic refriger¬
ator. The action is complicated and will not be detailed here,
but depends on the mixture of hydrogen with the ammonia
in the low pressure side of the circuit. By Dalton’s law of
gaseous pressures, the total pressure exerted by a mixture
of gases is the sum of the pressures which would be exerted
Sec. 175.—Operation of Plant 641
by each gas separately. The total pressure can thus be

maintained the same throughout the circuit, although the
ammonia pressure is reduced on the low-pressure side to
produce the refrigerating effect. The circulating pump is
thus eliminated, and circulation can be maintained by con¬
vection aided only by the bubbling action of the ammonia
as it boils in a tube. The source of heat may be an electrical
element, a gas flame or an oil lamp, and a supply of cold water
is also necessary.
The Electrolux unit has a very low energy ratio ; exact
figures are not available, but apparently an output of about
300 B.Th.U. per hour is obtained from a constant input of
250 watts—an energy ratio of about 0*36. For such small
units, this does not greatly matter, and it has the advantage
of possessing no moving parts, and can, moreover, also run
on gas or oil (gas consumption about 3| cubic feet per hour).
174. Air-expansion machines

1. This type is also obsolete, owing to its very low energy
ratio—about 0-5 being normal. The principle of operation
is as follows :—
Air is drawn from the atmosphere and compressed to about
65 lb. per square inch, causing its temperature to rise.
It is then passed through a cooler, similar to a condenser,
by which it is reduced to about 20° above the atmospheric
temperature.
It is then allowed to expand in a cylinder against a piston,
doing work which assists to drive the compressor—providing
as a rule about half the power required for this purpose. In
expanding, it cools to a very low temperature.
The air is then passed through a snow-box, in which the
moisture, which will have condensed into snow, is trapped.
The dry cold air can then be circulated through stores,
magazines, &c.
The compressor, expander, and an engine to supply the
balance of the power required to drive the compressor,
normally work on a common crankshaft.
Where the energy ratio is of little importance, this system
has certain advantages of simplicity and absence of offensive
gases, but will seldom be met with now.
175. Operation of plant

j. The following notes refer particularly to ammonia
plant, which will be most commonly met with, but apply
generally to other types. They should be read in conjunction
with the makers' handbooks.
642 Sec. 175.—Operation of Plant
2. Testing and charging new plant.—The plant having

been erected according to the makers' drawings, must be tested
for gas-tightness before charging with ammonia. Close the
suction stop-valve and break the joint between this valve and
the cylinder head, or otherwise open the suction of the
compressor to the air; open regulator, delivery and liquid stop-
valves. See that oil level in compressor is correct and start
compressor, which will then pump air into the system. Pump
up to about 80 lb., remake joint with cylinder head, and open
suction stop-valve. It is dangerous to pump air to higher
pressures in one stage without water-cooling. The delivery
temperature should be watched, and the machine stopped to
cool at intervals if it gets unduly hot. After an initial fall of
pressure, due to cooling of the compressed air, the pressure
should become steady. Leave for about 24 hours. If a
continued fall of pressure occurs, examine all joints for leaks,
which may be located with the help of soapy water, which
will show up the leaks by bubbling.
3. When all leakage has been stopped, the plant may be
charged with ammonia. First the air must be pumped out.
Break the joint between the delivery stop-valve and the
cylinder head, or otherwise open to the air, and when the
excess air has escaped, close the valve, leaving suction stop-
valve, liquid stop-valve and regulator open. Start compressor
and run until the pressure will fall no further, then make the
joint again. Open both suction and delivery stop-valves and
close regulator stop-valve. Suspend an ammonia bottle from
a spring balance, note the weight, and connect by a long pipe
to the charging valve, which wiM be found on the suction pipe.
Open the charging valve fully and the valve on the ammonia
bottle very slightly. When the suction gauge indicates about
50 lb. pressure, start the compressor and also turn on the
condenser cooling water. If the suction pressure falls to a
vacuum again, the compressor should be stopped temporarily.
The weight of ammonia required will be stated by the
makers, and charging should be continued until this weight
(as shown by the reduction in the weight indicated on the
spring balance) has been put in, when first the valve on the
ammonia bottle and then the charging valve should be shut
and the regulator adjusted to keep the delivery down to the
normal temperature. The machine should then be run for a
few hours and then purged of air.
4. Air purging.—After charging, a certain amount of air
will still be trapped in the system. This has a very bad
effect on the efficiency of the plant, and must, therefore, be
eliminated. After running for a few hours, the plant should
be shut down, and the condenser water kept running for a
Sec. 175.—Operation of Plant 643
few hours. Most of the ammonia will then liquefy in the
condenser, and the air will accumulate above it and may be
passed out through the purge-valve, which is situated at the
highest point of the piping leading from the condenser, or at
the top of the condenser itself. A length of piping should be
connected to this valve and led into a bucket of water. If
the valve is then slightly opened, the air will appear as
bubbles, whereas the ammonia, being very soluble, will be
absorbed, making a crackling sound. Continue until the
bubbles cease. The machine should then be run again and
the process repeated until all the air is eliminated. (For
indications of air in system, see Sec. 176.)
5. Starting and running.—The following sequence should

be observed :—
i. Start condenser water flowing (£ to £ hour before start¬
ing machine).
ii. See that oil level is correct and all lubricators filled.
iii. See that pressure gauge valves are open.
iv. Open delivery stop-valve.
v. Bar machine round for half a revolution to ensure that
all is free.
vi. Start machine.
vii. Open liquid stop-valve.
viii. Open suction stop-valve very slowly. If opened too
quickly, the compressor may be swamped with liquid, causing
knocking and possibly damage ; the presence of liquid is shown
by the delivery going cold when the valve is opened. The
valve should not be opened further until the delivery begins to
warm up.
ix. In single-acting compressors, with crankcase at
suction pressure, the connection to the crankcase (crankcase
pump-out valve)-should now be opened very slightly.
x. The proper running position of the regulator will be
found by experience. If the compressor delivery warms up
rapidly, the regulator should be opened further, and vice versa.
The delivery should be about as warm as the hand can bear,
close up to the machine delivery valve. While running, the
delivery temperature should be watched and the regulator
adjusted accordingly.
xi. Watch oil level in crankcase and in oil separator, and
when necessary, blow out the latter into the crankcase. In
some cases this may be necessary every three or four hours.
It is important that excess of oil should not be allowed to
accumulate in the separator, as it may be carried into the
condenser, causing serious difficulties.
644 Sec. 176.—Faults in Running
xii. Watch the temperature shown by the pressure gauges

and by the condenser and brine-tank thermometers. While
running, the condenser gauge should show about 12° to 15° F.
above condenser water inlet temperature, and the evaporator
gauge about 10° to 12° F. below the brine temperature (or
15° to 20° F. below temperature of air in cold stores, if direct
expansion is used). These temperature differences will vary
with different plants, but should be fairly constant with any
one plant; any considerable variation from normal indicates
something wrong. (See Sec. 176.)
6. Shutting down.—
i. Close liquid stop-valve.
ii. Close suction stop-valve.
iii. Stop machine.
iv. Close crankcase pump-out valve.
v. Close delivery stop-valve.
vi. Turn off condenser water.
176. Faults in running

1. For purely mechanical faults the makers' handbooks
should be consulted, as diagnosis and treatment will vary with
different machines. The causes of trouble dealt with below
are common to most machines.
2. Air in system.—This causes a great loss of efficiency.
The symptoms are (a) condenser gauge too high, (b) liquid
temperature on leaving condenser too high, (c) machine runs
hot unless regulator is opened more than usual, (d) when
machine is at rest and condenser water has been circulating
some time, the condenser gauge should show the same
temperature as the circulating water; if it reads more than
5° F. higher, there is almost certainly air in the system. The
method of purging has already been described.
3. Oil in system.—This may be caused by neglecting
to blow out the separator, or by using unsuitable oil, which
may vaporize in the compressor. The first symptom is usually
partial choking of the regulator, which requires to be opened
farther for a short time, and then clears again and requires to
be closed; this has to be repeated frequently, and steady
running is impossible.
At the same time the oil collects in the condenser and
evaporator, forming an insulating film, and greatly reducing
efficiency and output.
Small quantities of oil can usually be worked out of the
system, but if it is allowed to accumulate, it may be necessary
to clear the condenser and evaporator of gas, and blow out
with hot air, or with steam followed by hot air to remove the
moisture.
Sec. 177.—General 645
With methyl chloride machines, a certain amount of oil
can circulate in the system without ill effects* as it mixes with
the refrigerant and does not settle in a film or choke the
regulator.
4. Shortage of ammonia.—The symptoms are :—
(a) Compressor delivery too hot.
(b) Condenser gauge low (compared with inlet water
temperature).
(c) Efficiency and output low.
5. Overcharge of ammonia.—This is unlikely and has
not the bad effect of an undercharge, but increases the power
required to drive the compressor. The other symptoms are:—
(a) Condenser'gauge high.
(b) Compressor delivery too cold.
6. Water in system.—This gives little trouble with
ammonia, as it forms a non-freezing solution, but with carbon
dioxide water may cause trouble by freezing in the regulator
valve or the evaporator. It can be extracted by passing the
charge through a drier containing calcium chloride.
7. Leakages.—Leakages of ammonia are immediately
obvious owing to the very pungent smell. If there is any
difficulty in locating the leak exactly, burning sulphur will
show the position by the formation of dense white fumes.
Carbon dioxide is more difficult to detect; if leakages are
suspected, go over all joints with soapy water.
177. General
1. Lubricating oil.—The service oil for refrigerating
compressors is Oil M. 60—“ Light non-freezing mineral lubricant
for refrigerating plant,” but in some cases oil M.80 is better.
One of these two oils should be suitable for any machine
likely to be met with in the service. In case of doubt the
makers should be consulted ; it is essential that suitable oil
should be used.
Proprietary oils suitable for most machines are Gargoyle
Arctic "C,” A.II. Refrigerator Oil (Shell-Mex), Castrol
Refrigerator Oil, and Zerolin (specially prepared for Lightfoot
machines).
The specification given by Messrs. J. & E. H^ll for oil for
their machines is :—
Specific gravity 0*915 to 0*925.
Flash point (closed test) 325° F. to 335° F.
. Freezing point —30° F. to —35° F.
Viscosity at 70° F. (Redwood No. 1). 350 secs.
The W.D. specification does not mention freezing point,
but requires a special test of fluidity at —5° C.
646 Sec. 177.—Genera!
2. Refrigerants.—Anhydrous ammonia and carbon

dioxide may be purchased in liquid form, compressed in steel
bottles of various sizes, containing from 30 lb. to 100 lb.
as a rule. Anhydrous ammonia is also supplied by the
R.A.O.D.
6. Ammonia poisoning.—Ammonia is a dangerous and
painful poison, and, besides causing suffocation, may attack
the eyes and bum the skin. A sponge soaked in water held
over the mouth and nose will afford sufficient protection to
enable one to enter a room full of the gas to pull out a person)
who is overcome.
Weak vinegar and water should be given as an antidote.
Eyes should be bathed with boric acid and skin bums treated
with carron oil.

Table ZB ,Properties of refrigerants
Tables ZB and ZG
647
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o> oj o> a> Oi «»oj»o tsftM
Whitworth
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'X'is oo'gj'qi w'g5'35'35"S'5 côi oS &S oiî 5? ’ hole
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vl«03N^cnCO*-*vl03CnCC^K4M Full diameter of
standard, fine
lit-*rrtfitirT^rriP- H-'5B'“"iS^"SB'i^"M'5'oS"S3 P
Ol Ol ffl ® (DM M
bolt
British
0000c0®0»-b5t0***s(jii35000t005®00o
0-4845 Threads per in.
0-3684
0-3130
0-2563
0-2340
0-6453
0-5980
0-5355
0-4220
0-2027
01751
0-9827
0-8719
0-7606
0-7078
1-3399
1-2149
1-1077
Size of tapping
In.
hole
Standard screw threads and tapping sizes

UUUHHHtlMMw t* Nominal bore of
standard, pipe
-»H 00 its 00 l5 00 iS 00 P tube
British
UUUUMliMMMwwwÔOOOO
Full diameter of
cb-jistccbcliw^-doajwiôtbaKniiic*:?
VlOAMAOOitiwOOOiOOOilsOIOCnÔDP
ooooo-jsi®(oo(0(DMiotfl®au
thread
APPENDIX I
hhhmmmhmhnmhhhhwmM^ Threads per in.
wwmmhmhhmmMMMMMM Designating No.

CO<OO^MUi|sOiai->IKtOO^tCU^»
999990oo9oooooooooh Full diameter

666666666666666666b Association
00 sj ,7; in yi 4s 05 W W tO N3 S3 i—* >—• i—1 i—1 ^ i-1 • (approx.)
stUisjtOwMVOiMOOilSMVsJOlUiiO British
MMMMMMWtOtOtOtOUU
cnaisooocoo*- too5iua>oo>— osoioo^-as'jp'
tpunoôôn-itstDtoi—toi-Kocn^JO)^' Threads per in.
HHSlfflVj
ooooooooooooooooooM
6666666666666666663 Size of tapping
via)OnUUUt5t5tOt5wii»MwOOO
OOOJ05COCnCOC)05s-OOOlitstOs-«DOOs4 hole
-O 05 Ul <© >-* ■<! 05 cn >— gH

Full diameter of
standard (Seller’s)
0*4iHuia*nicHap»»t*aH OOtsQO^tOs-OO^ts.
bolt
American
MMMMMKiMtOU
Js<JiyiVlC505sJsJOOCCO — t0054s05000^' Threads per in.
y
1 23/32
1*
1 19/64
1 11/64
1 5/64
1 25/64
In.
61/64
27/32
47/64
33/64
23/64
Size of tapping
13/32
19/64
15/32
5/8
3/16
1/4
hole
►- >-* 1—
to to to ►— I-* I-* § Diameter of
it*.tOOOOCn*stOi—OCD00sJ<X>OltsJs0505g
International
6 6 bolt
standard
(mtetric)
UtOIOtOtOtOMMHMMMMOOOOOg
ooidioioooclioiMMooi^-joidia Pitch
tn cn cn cn oi c/i P
MWMMHWMwMMKt3tOO)Ulti4Sly Approximate
00000t0t0*.q5<35000i0icpa3050503î
threads per in.
VJ Ol <J| Wl
I xjpnaddy m
The Whitworth sizes below £ in. areno longer British Standard.
650 Appendix II
0139
0-099
0-097
0-095
0-092
0-088
0120
0-115
0-112
0-110
0-108
0-106
0-103
0-085
0134
0127
0-081
0-101
•ut ut
EjuajBAinbg
siaqninn Q00>O^N«^|lft®tNC005O>-iMe0'c(‘«>
8uj}bu8is3q NNnwnne'innnnn'i'^^^^^
S.S.
mm «^tNtetsqocepp®M«®a»wo — i^n
— o®o5«^Sio5»P5Nô®®oor»r'
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u Sut^buSissq N^^^>DHuiPiOia*O^SN4W>-»M
bo
a
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0
to 4) £ ■m ui O'fNOMOOÔIOMMNMVOtOOIS
0 (BB0MlN0Mfln«»he4SH
1 .si s}uapeAtiibj[
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1 1jog
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d
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APPENDIX II
§> * «5 o“ o o' ©'

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•ui UI
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■
0-090742
0-080808
0064084
0-071961
0-18194
0-32486
0-12849
0-10189
0-40964
0-25763
0-22942
0-16202
0-14428
0-11443
0-20431
II II II II II
0-3648
0-2893
•ui UI
0-460
A. W.G.
B. W.G.
sûspeAinba
S.W.G.
S.S.W.
B.G.
8 sjaquma
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0-8750
0-6666
0-8333
0-7083
0-5416
0-9853
0-9167
0-7917
0-5883
0-4452
0-3964
0-3532
0-2804
0-3147
•ui ut
1-000
0-750
0-500
0-625
ejuajBAinba
B.G.
Riaquinu 5© e_o p © © © oô © ^gs©

8ui;uu8isa(i u?^ n‘eT^?©'®oo in*® 5?^" ww mm
HHHHHrt
Appendix II 651
ctâoo>0'HC4cO'4,u)cor«aoAOF4e>im'^'iA<PtNgQg>o^C4n'tincorâo(BO
4"^"^"4<u3u>icu»icicioicinio(o«(o«(owStDvcDr>r^t>t4sr>t^tî>r«ao
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22!GS2£S32;S3S£222®0>01®®®c0®t>l>,^®'®®,,5u5U5,o''^,'*^,
INNNNNNNNtlCINMNHrtHHMTHHHHrtMHHHHKrtrtHrtW
OOOOOOOQ OOOO
îUWWHUW<l • HHHHHHHrl i-i'i-i NNNNNNNM
»■* 1"^ f4
0990
6666
Neo'i'iocoh'ooojo — Nw^'ifttotôoojo
NioaooJNiONaowNOaoco^co
!>.®IO-TrîC<5CONNNN-H«^H
009900009909999
666666666666666
lOOtÔOO^NCO-^WOtÔOO
nhhnhMNNONMMMMM
co hnnh
® NIOOOOO^Tn _ ^ 05
Ocpwe<sao®3!mujw®®»-«®
ÔlAOlArt^ÔOMO'tCI
inm9tnnNNNNHNrt|-«
00000000000000
60000000000000
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vvTT'?T,?,??9999 999tttttttt?tt
600000060000000000000000000
^«cDt.aooos22225S{:22^S§3§JS^S5S3SaS
APPENDIX III
Patternmakers’ tools and stores
List A.—For Work in the Field

Vocabulary Stores
Awls blades, brad, assorted .. .. .. .. .. 4
„ handles, brad, small. 1
Bevels, steel blade, 9 in. 1
Braces, carpenters', ratchet, with 24 bits . 1
Callipers, 5 in., inside and outside. 1
Cans, oil, lubricating, with lever valve. 1
Chisels, firmer, 1£ in., 1 in., | in., £ in., £ in.each 1
Compasses, wing . 1
Dividers, spring, 6 in., Mark II. 1
Files, saw, taper, second cut, single, 6 in. and 4 in. .. each 1
Gauges, carpenters', marking . 1
Gouges, handles, firmer, 1 in., $ in., f in., £ in.each 1
Hammers, carpenters' .. .. .. .. .. .. 1
Oilstones, carpenters’ . 1
„ slips, Turkey . 1
Pincers, carpenters’. 1
Planes, jack. 1
„ smoothing. 1
Rules, G.S., 4-fold. 1
Saws, dovetail, brass back. 1
„ hand, 26 in. 1
„ keyhole, 9 in, blade and pad . 1
„ tenon, 14 in. 1
Screwdrivers, G.S., 12 in. 1
„ R.E., 6 in. 1
Spokeshaves, 2£ in. 1
Squares, carpenters', 6 in. 1
N.I.V. Stores
Box, with lock, 18 in. X 10 in. x 10 in. 1
Chisels, swan-neck, } in., I in., £ in.each 1
Gouges, long, paring, inside ground, radii 3 in., 2 in., 1 in., £ in.,
£ in., £ in.each 1
Gouges, swan-neck, £ in., £ in., £ in.. 1
Rules, contraction (iron and brass) . •• 1
List B.—Additional to A, for Base Workshop
Vocabulary Stores
Mallets, carpenters’
Planes, rabbet, square, 1 in., £ in. .. ea
Punches, centre, 4£ in., G.S.
652
Appendix III 653
N.I.V. Stores
Chisels, long, thin, paring, 1| in., 1J in., 1 in., } ini, £ in., f in.,
^ m., ^ in. . . a. .« a. .. .. .. 6cLch 1
Chisels, swan-neck, 1 in., £ in. 1
Gouges, long, thin, paring, inside ground, } in. radius 1
,, ,, ,, ,, outside ,, i m. ,, 1
„ swan-neck, 2 in., J in., ^ in. radius .. .. each 1
Planes, round, 1£ in., 1 in., £ in. .. 1
,, Stanley .. .. .. .. .. 1
Squares, 12 in. 1
List C.—Shop Equipment, Held in Tool-room

Vocabulary Stores
Brushes, hair, flat, If in.
Cramps, carpenters', 5 ft.
Lathes, engineers', tools, hand, wood-turning—
Chisels, f in., 1 in., 1* in. each 1
Diamond point 1
Pots, glue, 1 pint 1
N.I.V. Stores
Depth gauge .. 1
Gouges, } in., \ in., paring .. each 1
Brown and Sharpe protractor 1
List D.—Shop Stores

Dowels and sockets, assorted (N.I.V.)
Glue, red and black paint, brads, methylated spirit, screws of
sizes (brass), pale orange shellac, and glass paper
* As required.
APPENDIX IV
Moulders’ tools and stores
List A.—Tools
Boss, tool, double-ended. 1 »
Brush, camel-hair. 1
Callipers, inside and outside . 1
Cleaners, I in. and f in. 2
Fillet tool. 1
Knife, gate (or heart square) . 1
Lug tool . 1
Rammer, fiat . 1
*, peg . 1
Rule, 2-ft. 1
Slickers, flange . 1
», pipe . 1
„ square . 1
Spoon tool. 1
Trowel, moulders’. 1
List B.—Foundry Equipment and Stores for Use in Moulding

Equipment
Bellows, hand.
Boxes, moulding, of sizes.
Sieves, mesh ^ in., & in., £ in., I in.
Shovels, buckets, water cans, oil cans, wheelbarrow, turn-over boards,
loam trestles, core oven (of sorts), core benches, and grinding mill for
sand (in permanent shops).
654
APPENDIX V
Blacksmiths' tools and stores
Articles Trade name Reference to figures,

and remarks
Hammers, fitters’, 32 oz. _ PI. 8, Fig. 2.
„ 24 oz. — PI. 18, Fig. 1.
„ smiths', sledge, 101b. PI. 8, Fig. 3.
„ „ uphand, 7
lb. — —
•i set • • •• ■• Set hammers N.I.V.
Handles, file, large .. —
Holders, rivet head .. — —
Punches, smiths', hot, # in..

£ in., and f in. —
PI. 8, Fig. 24.
Rasps, rough, half-round, 12 in. — —
Rules, smiths', 2-fold — —
Saws, hack, 12 in. frame and
blades — _
Snaps, riveting, rod, £ in. to
A iUi •• •• •» ■■
Square, smiths', 2 ft. x 1 ft. — _
Tongs, smiths’, forebit
„ hollow bit — 1 The smith will make
„ forge. — f any others himself.
,, plier, Mark II — J
A selection of these
Tools, forming (4 grooves) .. is required, bear-
Swages
( ing in mind the
„ rounding, Mark II, top
and bottom many equivalent
■ •
If
bottom tools in
the swage block.
Vices, standing,’80 lb. 1 ,_l
* The chest, tool, smiths’, filled, contains a number of tools not

required by the R.E. smith.
Tools that may be required for general shop use in a smithy
Articles Remarks
Bending block. PI. 9, Fig. 13.

Cold punching and shearing machine, either
hand or power driven . —
Hammer, power, 10 cwt. . —
Hand or power drilling machine (up to 1 in.) —

Mandrel, sugar-loaf . —
Set of cold bending rollers . —
Stand, adjustable . PI. 8, Fig. 26. Can
be made in the
shop.
•
655
APPENDIX VI
Personal tools required by a boilermaker
Chest, tool, empty, with padlock, No. 11.. No.
Bevels, steel, 9 in. (N.I.V.).
♦Braces, ratchet, 18 in.
* „ ,, drills, f in. to 1J in. (11 drills) Set
* „ „ ,, tapping, f in. to 1 in. (6 drills) fl
* „ „ posts, 24 in. No.

Callipers, 8 in., outside Pair
,, 8 in., inside if
Cans, oil, lubricating, G.S. .. No.
Chisels, cross-cut, 7 in. x f in.
„ engraving, 9 in., diamond point
„ hand, cold, £ in. x 9 in. ..
Compasses, wing, 12 in. Pair
Cramps, fitters', 5 in. No.
Drifts, steel, round, f in. (N.I.V.) ..
^ in. .. ..
g- in. (N.I.V.) ..
£ in.
Jin. .. ..
1 in.
2f in., tube-expanding (N.I.V.)
Files, bastard, flat, 14 in. ..
half-round, 14 in. ..
hand, safe edge, 14 in.
round, 14 in.
Fullers, boilermakers' (N.I.V.)
Hammers, fitters', 32 oz.
„ riveting, boilermakers’, 3f lb. ..
* „ „ holding-up, 14 lb. (N.I.V.)
* „ smiths', uphand, 7 lb. ..
Handles, file, large.
Holders, rivet head, large.
Punches, centre, 4f in.
Rules, armament artificers’, 2 ft.
Saws, hack, 12 in.
,, ,, blades .. .. .. .. 3
Scribers, steel 1
Snaps, riveting, rod. If in., If in., If in., If in., £ in., £ in Set of 6
Spanners, adjustable, 15 in. No.
Squares, fitters', 6 in.
Tools, caulking, straight face (N.I.V.)
„ „ rivet (N.I.V.)
♦Tools, reaming and tapping stays, boilermakers', f in
(N.I.V.) .
♦Tools, reaming and tapping stays, boilermakers', £ in
(N.I.V.).
♦Tools, reaming and tapping stays, boilermakers’, J i:
(N.I.V.).
♦Tools, reaming and tapping stays, boilermakers’, 1 in
(N.I.V.).
♦Tools, reaming and tapping stays, boilermakers’, key
(N.I.V.).
♦Tools, expanding tubes, roller
656
Appendix VI 657
Stores
Bolts, with nuts, hexagon head, i in. x 3J in., fully
threaded .. .. .* «# .. .. .. No. 12
Paper, stiff, for templets (N.I.V.).Sheets 2
Red lead, mixed (N.I.V.).Lb. 1
Sal-ammoniac, small grain .. .. .. .. .. „ 1
Note.—Tools marked * will normally be kept in store, and only

drawn when required for a specific job, or by a party proceeding on
detachment duty.
22—(579)
APPENDIX VII
Tools required by a fitter and fitter driver, R.E.
Wooden box with lock and key, about 18 in. long x 10 in
X 10 in. No. 1
Callipers, 5 in., inside . Pair 1
„ 5 in., outside . il 1
Cans, oil, lubricating, G.S., with lever valve No. 1
Card, scratch .. .. .« «. ■. Foot £
Chisels, cross-cut, 7 in. X £ in. No. l
„ ,, 4£in. X £in. M l
„ hand, cold, 8 in. x £ in. IS l
„ „ „ 6 in. x | in. l
„ round nose .. l
Cloth sponge »• .. .. .■ .. l
Dividers, spring, 6 in., Mark II l
Files, bastard, half-round, 12 in. .. l
n „ hand, safe edge, 14 in. l
i» „ round, 12 in. l
II „ ,. 8 in. II l
„ square, 10 in. II l
„ second cut, half-round, 12 in. 1
„ „ „ hand, safe edge, 12 in. .. l
„ smooth, half-round, 8 in. l
„ „ hand, safe edge, 6 in. l
Hammers, fitters', 16 oz. l
Handles, file, large .. l
„ „ middling i
Pliers, side-cutting, 8 in. Pair l
„ round nose ii l
Punches, centre, 4* in. No. l
*» piu, ^ in. .. l
Rules, armament artificers', 12 in. l
Saws, hack, 12 in., with three blades l
Scrapers, bearing (N.I.V.) (see M.T. Vocabulary) 4
Screwdrivers, G.S., 9 in. 1
,, ,, 4 in. .. *• •.
Spanner, armament artificers’, double-ended, £ in. and
m. • a a a 1
Spanners, armament artificers', double-ended, ft in. and
ft in. 1
Spanners, armament artificers', double-ended, £ in. and
£ in. •. .. 1
Spanners, armament artificers’, double-ended, £ in. and
£ in. (N.I.V.) 1
Spanners (box), socket, double-ended, £ in. and f in
(N.I.V.) . Set 1
Spanners, magneto (N.I.V.).. • • • • No. 1
„ adjustable, 11 in. • ■ • • II 1
Squares, fitters', 6 in. II 1
Vices, hand, combination .. 1
Wrenches, adjustable, 9 in. (footprint) 1
658
INDEX
A.
PAGE
Accounts and administration .239
Acetylene, dissplved.96
„ gas, purification of .92
Acme thread.164
Adiabatic change ..254
Administration and accounts .239
Air-blast for smith's fire ..49
Air compressors .608
„ „ installation of .617
„ „ lubrication of .617
„ „ power for.616
„ „ receivers of.613
„ „ selection of.618
„ „ sets.613
„ „ sleeve valve type.614
,, „ valves and cylinder heads of .. .. .. 616
Air filters for I.C. engines.300
Air preheaters.484
Air pumps for condensers.512
Alloys, ferrous . 3
„ non-ferrous. 7
,, steel «* •• ■ •* 3
Aluminium, oxy-acetylene welding of .102
Ames’ crankshaft gauge .422
„ cylinder gauge .430
„ magnetic gauge mount .422
Ammonia poisoning.646
„ refrigerating machine.624
Angle iron, bending of .58
„ of advance of valves,.502
Annealing iron and steel .78
Anti-priming pipe of boiler.477
Anvils.45
Appendices, list of. x
Arc welding.105
Artificial draught .489
Autogenous welding.83
Automatic machines.198
„ stokers. 484
Auxiliaries, boiler .481
B.
Babcock and Wilcox boilers.454
Balanced valves .504
Ball and roller bearings .561
„ races .. •.. 562
„ thrust bearings .. 563
659
660 Index
FAGS
Band saws ■ « ■ • a a .. 222
Barrel bearings . • • • • • a .. 563
Bearings, ball and roller ■ • • • a a .. 561
ft races • • •• •■ • • • • a a .. 562
tf tt thrust • ■ • • • • • • • • a a .. 563
tt barrel • • »• • • ■ • • • a a .. 568
„ lor shafting • • • • a a .. 557
„ lubrication of • ■ a a 290, 599
„ machinery, re-fitting of .. ■ ■ a a .. 425
„ Michell thrust • ■ a • a a .. 564
tf of engines • • • • ■ • • • • • aa .. 515
„ roller • • • • aa .. 562
„ swivelling devices of ■ • • • a a .. 562
„ thrust collars ■ ■ a a a a .. 564
Bedding-in . • • ■ ■ a a 28
Belts, arrangement of drive of •■ a a .. 573
„ compounded ■ ■ • ■ a a .. 571
„ countershafts for • a • • a a .. 576
„ dressings for • • • ■ a a .. 572
„ fast and loose pulleys for ■ a a a ,. 574
„ joints in ■ ■ a a .. 571
„ losses in ■ ■ • • a a .. 573
„ power transmitted by .. • a • • a a .. 571
„ pulleys for • • • • a a .. 574
„ rules for driving of s# ■ • a a .. 572
tt sizes of •• • • ,, a a .. 589
„ speeds of • • a a .. 569
ft types of •• • • •• ■ ■ ■ ■ a • .. 569
Bench work of fitters .. • • • a a a .. 116
Benches, circular saw •a a a .. 216
Bending in smithing. a a a a 54
Blacksmith’s shop, lay-out of •• a a a a 61
„ work • ■ a a a a 51
Blowers, centrifugal .. ■ • a a a a 49
„ Root's ,, a a a a .. 49
Blow-pipe for oxy-acetylene cutting . . a a a a 95, 110
Blow-pipes for oxy-acetylene welding • a a a 95. 96
Blue prints a a a a 11
toiler auxiliaries ,, a a .. 481
„ „ artificial draught .. . . a a a a .. 489
„ „ automatic stokers • ■ a a a a .. 484
„ ,, definition of ■ • a a a ■ .. 481
„ „ economizers • • a a aa .. 481
„ „ feedwater heaters • a #, ,, .. 481
„ „ natural draught • • • , .. 486
„ „ oil fuel aa .. 467
„ „ pre-heated air ,, a a a a .. 484
„ „ pulverized fuel a. a a a a .. 485
„ „ refuse burners a a • a .. 485
„ ,, special grates .. 484
., „ sprinkling stokers .. 485
„ „ . superheaters «• a a .. 482
„ cracks, plugging of • • aa .. 70
ii fittings •• •• •• •• ■• •• .. 474
„ „ anti-priming pipe •• a a .. 477
„ „ feed pumps a • a a .. 479
„ „ fusible plugs .. aa a a .. 477
„ „ gauge glasses .. ■• aa a a .. 477
„ „ injectors «• a a • a ,. 478
Index 661
PAGE
Boiler fittings, list of. •• • • a a 474
M „ pressure gauges • • ■ • a a 474
ft „ safety valves .. • • • a a a 474
Boiler-house of steam plant .. • • m a a a 526
Boilermakers' materials • ■ • a a a 66
shop equipment ■• a a a a 64
tools • • • ■ • ■ a a a a 64 ,656
work. ■ • a a a a 64
Boilermaking, caulking and fullering • • a a • a 68
„ design of joints ■ ■ a • a a 66
„ rivets, closing of a a a a 67
„ . „ cutting-out of a a a a 67
„ „ proportions of • • a a a a 67
„ stays, replacing of ■ • a a a a 68
Boiler tube plates, fitting of .. ■ • a a , . 72
ft f§ ff repair of ■ • • ■ • • a a • a 72
ft tubes, removal of • ■ a a a a 69
ft „ replacement of .. •a a a a a 69
Boilers, air regulation of •• a a a a 462
ft Babcock and Wilcox a a 452
ft balanced draught a a 490
ft blowing down of a a 459
ft brickwork settings for a a 448
ft care, working, and management of a a 456
f» coal for a a 461
ff corrosion in .. • ■ a a a a 457
ft economy in working of • ■ a • a a a • 456
ft expansion of .. • • a a a a 138, 514
11 feedwater of .. •• a a a a a a 444
fire-tube • ■ a a a a a a 450
ft firing of . • • a a a a a • 462
ft forced draught • a a m a a a a 489
ft heat transference in .. a • a a a a a a 442
it heating area of • • a a a a 441
•» horizontal • ■ a a a a a a 448
ft inspection of .. • a a
a a a a a 460
U insurance of .. | a a
t • a a • 460
ft laying of fire of a a a a a a a a 461
ft laying-off of .. • • a a a a a a 459
ft lighting of . • a a a a a a a 461
locomotive •• a a a a a a 451
materials of .. ‘ • ■ a a a a a a 441
ft object of . • a a a a a a a 441
ft patching of .. • • ■ a a a a a 70
ft plates, thickness of .. • a a a a a a a 441
rate of combustion in • • a a a a a a 463
ff responsibility of attendant for • • a a a a a a 456
ff < rules for firing of • a a a a a a a 462
shell «. ,. •. .. • a a a a a a a 448
ft soot and tar deposit on ■ a a a a a a a 444
ft steam. • a a a a a a a 441
ff testing of ■ . • • a a a a a a 460
ff tests with various fuels, sample performances of a a 540
ft types of •• •• •• • * a a a a a a 448
vertical . • • a a a a a a 448
ft washing out of • • a a a a a a 460
ft water circulation in .. • • a a a a a a 442
ft „ level of •• a a a a a a 457
a
ff water-tube. a • a a a a a a 452
662 Index
Boilers, working pressure of .. .. .. .. .. .. 456

Boiling points of water .. .. .. .. .. .. 438
Boring in lathes .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 157
Brackets for shafting .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 558
Brake horse-power .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 532
„ measurement of .. .. .. .. .. 532
mean effective pressure (B.M.E.P.) .. .. .. .. 530
thermal efficiency .. .. .. .. .. .. 261
Brass castings .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ., 39
moulding and founding .. .. .. .. .. 39
oxy-acetylene welding of .. .. .. .. .. 102
Brazing and soldering.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 83
„ joints, strength of .. .. .. .. .. .. 87
Brickwork settings for boilers .. .. .. .. .. 448
British Thermal Unit .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 249
Broaching .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 181
Bronze, oxy-acetylene welding of .. .. .. .. .. 102
Buttress thread .. ,. .. .. .. .. .. 164
C.
Callipers, fitters’ 128
Calorific value of fuels 251
Capstan lathes 196
Carbon deposit in petrol engines 363
„ steel, hardening of .. 74
,, ,, service kinds of 4
„ „ uses and carbon content of .. 4
Carburation, principles of 317
„ scent-spray principle of 318
Carburettors, fitting and adjustment of 330
„ float adjustment of 321
„ mixture adjustment .. 322
„ petrol supply to 332
„ Smith multiple jet 324
„ Solex 336
,, S.U. «• .. .. .. 327
„ White and Poppc 324
,, Zenith .. a. a. aa 327
Carburizing (steel) 79
Case hardening 79
Castings, brass 39
cold shuts in 33
contraction of 15
crystallization of 12
drawing of .. 13
honeycombing and blow-holes in 32
inspection of 32
malleable 42
principles of design of 13
production of 12
scabbings in.. 33
Steel
aa aa aa aa aa 41
Caulking of boilers 68
Central exhaust engines 508
Centres of lathes 149
Centrifugal blowers .. 50
Index 663
FAGS
Chain drives .. 577
Chaplets 26
Chill casting 23
Chucks of lathes .. 155
Circular saws .. .. 209
Circulation of heat in boilers .. 442
Clutches .. 565
„ fitting of .. 568
„ friction .. 565
„ hydraulic. .. 567
„ magnetic .. 567
„ positive .. ■ .. .. 565
Cold set .. 46
Cold-starting engines. .. 397
Combination set 122, 130
Combustion of oil fuel .. 250
Compressed air .. 608
„ „ compressors .. 608,613
„ „ heat losses .. 611
„ „ receivers .. 613
„ „ unloaders .. 612
„ uses of .. 608
„ ,, volumetric efficiency .. 609
„ „ water jackets .. 611
Compressed-air tools .. .. 618
„ „ care of .. 621
„ „ efficiency of . .. 618
„ ,, reciprocating . .. 619
.. „ rotary .. .. 620
„ „ use of .. .. 618
Compression-ignition engines .. 407
Compression ratio .. 259
Compressors, air (see also Air compreissors) . 608
Condensers ■■ •• ** • .. 509
„ accessories for .. 510
,, air pumps for .. 512
„ jet. .. 510
,, leaks in .. 512
„ objects of .. .. 509
„ open-air .. .. 510
„ surface .. .. 509
„ types of .. .. 509
„ water coolers for .. .. 510
Conduction of heat in boilers .. 441
Contraction of metals ... .. 12
Conventions in mechanical drawing .. 11
Cooling of I.C. engines .. 301
Copper, oxy-acetylene welding of . .. 102
Copying attachment. .. 148
Cores for moulding. 18
Corliss valves .. .. 508
Corrosion in holers .. .. 457
Cost accounts .. .. 239
depîation .7 .. 241
.. 239
V ..
„ indirect charges .. 239
Countershafts for belts .. 576
Couplings for shafting .. 556
Cracks, boiler, plugging of 70
664
PAGE
Crankshafts, trueing of ■ • .. 423
Critical range (steel) .. • • 74
„ temperature (steel) .. • • 74
Cross-cut saws • • 204
Crucible furnaces •• 41
Cupola, charging of •• 36
„ cleaning •• 37
„ description of •■ 34
„ relining • • 34
Cuts and traverses of lathes .. •■ 153
Cutter-blocks .. •• 228
Cutters, chain, sharpening of • B 231
„ milling machines •• 183
„ woodworking, ordering of • a 231
„ „ preparing and sharpening of 230
Cutting metal with the electric arc 111
» .. m gas 110
„ square threads 168
„ V threads 165
Cutting-out in smithing 52
Cyclic irregularity. 279
Cylinder condensation 498
Cylinders, re-boring of 191 ,429
„ welding cracks in .. a • 434
D.
Daily time sheet a a a a a a .. 541
Pecalescence point a a a a a a 74
Design of castings, principles of a a a a a a .. 13
,, rules of • • •• ■. a a a a a a .. 13
Detonation a b a a a a a a a a a a .. 252
Dial gauges a a a a a a a a a a a a .. 422
„ test indicator a a a a a a .. 131
Die plates a a a a a a a a a a a a .. 126
Dies and stocks a a a a a a .. 12B
Die-sinking a a a a a a a a a a a a .. 59
Diesel cycle a a a a a a a a .. 259
„ engines a a a a a a 270,389
tt it air compressor and vessels of a a 393, 397
a tt cold starters .. a a a a a a .. 397
tt tt definition of .. a a a a a a .. 270
a tt foundations for a a a a a a .. 546
a* tt fuel and filters fora a a a a a ..383, 397.404
it tt fuel-injection valve of a a a a .. 393
it tt fuel pump of .. a a a a a a a a .. 408
it it governing of .. a a a a a a a a .. 287
it it high speed a a a a a a aa .. 407

a n instructions for working of .. a a a a 394,405
tt it lubrication of a a a a a a • a .. 397
it »* monthly maintenance and cleaning table for .. 418
it it running of a a a a a a a a .. 395
it it „ stores forat a a a a a a .. 417
i» it spare parts for a a a a a a .. 417
tt tt starting of a a a a a a ..385,395.405
OftO
a* it stopping of .. • a • a • a a a • a 00U
tt it valves of a a a a a a a a • a uUU
Index ooe
009
PAGE
Direct-coupling .553
Draught, artificial. .. .. 489
„ natural .486
Drawing-down in smithing .. .. .. ,. .. 52
Drawing, mechanical, conventions in .. .. .. .. 11
Drawings, patternmakers .. 15
Drifting in smithing .. .. .. .. 54
Drifts.48
Drilling in fitting .173
»» 11 lathes .• .. .. .. ., ,, ,, 174
„ „ smithing.54
•# Jig ;• ■• .■ .. .. >> ., ■ < 177
,, machines .174
.. pilot.176
,, reaming, and tapping by hand.123
1, „ „ ' „ „ machine .. .. .. 173
„ speeds of .176
Drills, chucks and sockets for 177
„ fitters, types of .124
„ sharpening of .. .. .. .. .. 178
„ types of.124
Drives for shafting.573
Drop valves .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 507
Dry-sand moulding .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22
£.
Economics, workshops 235
Economizers of boilers 481
Efficiency, mechanical 261
ratio «• •• 261
thermal, brake 261
If ■1 indicated •• •• ■• 261
Electric-air system of operation of tools 621
Electrical drive of grinders .. 196
#1 transmission of power 587
Electric ignition of engines .. 339
M „ system, faults in .. 350
M welding •• •• •• •• •• 104
Elektron 8
Engine-house of steam plant 524
Engines, central exhaust 508
*9 cold-starting 397
■ comparative table for selection of prime movers 546
99
#9
Diesel (see also Diesel engines) • • 270 389
99 electric ignition of .. •• 339
foundations for •• •• •• •• 546
•• gas (see also Gas engines) .. •• 311
99 heavy oil (see also Heavy oil. Semi-Diesel and Diesel
engines) ■■ •• •• •• 383
91 high-compression 383
If
high-speed oil 407
11 steam •• •• •• 516
99 I.C. (see also I.C. engines and Oil engines) 249
11 testing of •• •• «■ •• 536
oil (see also Oil engines and I.C. engines) 367
#9
petrol (s« also Petrol engines) • a0 317
flog
DOD Indeft
PAGE
Engines, prime movers, selection of .. 545
„ selection and erection of .. .. 545
„ semi-Diesel (see also Semi-Diesel engines) .. 384
,, steam (see also Steam engines) 491,514
„ „ reciprocating (see also Reciprocating steam
engines) 491,514
Engine testing 528, 531
„ „ indicators .. 528
„ „ measurement of brake horse-power .. 532
m ,, ,, f# diagram • • ■- .. 530
„ „ „ „ indicated horse-power .. 530
Entropy .. 494
,, —temperature diagrams . .. 495
Equipment, boilermakers’ shop .. 64
Erection and overhaul of machinery 410,420, 545
„ of engines .. 545
Exhaust silencers .. 308
,, temperatures .. 536
Expansion valve .. 507
Expansive use of steam .. 491
Explosive mixtures and ignition .. 250
„ „ formation of .. 250
„ „ nature and behaviour of .. 250
F.
Face-plates of lathes .. .. 155
Facing in lathes .. 159
,, sand *• •• .. 23
Factory, objectives of .. 235
,, organization .. 235
„ „ labour .. 237
,, „ materials .. 237
Fans, exhaust .. .. 231
Fast and loose pulleys .. 574
Faults in carburettors .. 321
„ „ electric ignition system .. 350
„ „ lubricating systems .. 299
„ „ oil engines .. .. 377
„ „ petrol engines .. 359
Feed pumps .. 478
Feeding-gates .. .. 28
Feed water, filters for .. 447
,, ,, heaters ■, ■, .. 481
„ „ impurities in .. *444
„ „ oil separators for .. 447
„ ,, permanent hardness .. 445
„ „ regulators .. 480
„ „ temporary hardness .. 445
„ „ testing of .. .. 446
„ „ treatment of .. 445
„ „ valves .. 480
Ferrous metals 1
Fettling . .. 39
Files, description and uses of .. 114
Filing. .. 117
Filters for feed water .. .. 447
,, ,, I.C. engines •« .. 300
Index 667
PAGE
Firebox patches . • • 70
Fire-tube boilers . • • 450
li „ fireboxes of • • 451
ii „ firebox stays of • • 451
ii „ locomotive • • 451
• f „ tube plates of ■ • 451
ii ,, tubes of • • 450
IS „ types of • ■ 450
Firing boilers .. • • 462
Fits, standard .. • • 132
Fitters' tools » ■ .. •. .. • • 113,658
it work ... ... • • • • 116
ii „ bearings, scraping of .. • ■ 120
i» „ callipers • ■ 128
i> „ die plates • • 126
11 „ draw filing ■ • 118
ii „ drilling .. • • 123
*1 „ drills, types of* .. • • 124
it emery finishing
„ • • 120
%
ii gauges „ . • • 131
if hand-fitting
„ • • 116
ft machinery, erection and overhaul of
„ (see also
Machinery) .. 133
•i marking out
„ 121
tl measuring instruments
,, 128
if reaming holes
„ .. 124
ii safe-edged files, use of
„ 118
i» surfaces, chipping of
„ .. .. • • 116
ii „ completion of
„ 122
li „ filing of
„ 117
if ,, scraping of
„ .. 120
li taper files, use of
„ 118
If „ tapping holes 125
ii „ threading with stocks and dies 126
Fitting, definition of .. 113
II operations of .. 113
Fittings of boilers 474
Flash-point of oils 595
Flatters ■■ «. ■• ■■ 48
Fluxes ■ • ■ • •• •• *• • • 83, 85, 86
li welding .... 98
Fly-cutters .. .* 177
Flywheels 280
Forced lubrication 294
Forging, description of 58
if various articles, methods of 58
Former turning in lathes 158
Forms for use in testing steam plant 541, 542
Foundations for Diesel engines • * 547
If „ engines ■ • 546
II ,, ,, construction of • • 548
II ,, . „ dimensions of • • 547
ff „ oil engines .. • • 548
Foundry, lay-out of .. • • 42
if sands •• ■■ •• •• • • 23
Four-stroke cycle • • 254
Frame saws • • 227
Friction clutches • • 565
Ii losses in shafting • • • • • 558
/VM
OOP
PAGE
Fuel for boilers 461,467
ft tt IiO* engines •• «• •• • .. 249
„ „ „ engine tests, measurement of .. 536
„ „ „ „ „ typical consumptions of .. 273
„ „ steam plant tests, measurement of .. 533
,, oil •> •• •• •• •• • .. 249
„ pulverized .. 485
Fuel pumps, Benes .. 408
„ „ Hornsby 282.284
,, ,, Tangye •» •• •• •• • 282.285
„ smiths' 45
Fuels, calorific values of .. 251
„ for heavy oil engines, filtering 383,397
„ „ „ „ „ heating .. 383
„ heat value .. 249
Fullering of boilers .. 68
Fullers .. .. 69
- Furnaces, crucible 41
Fusible plugs.. .. 477
G*
Gas engines and producers .. .. 311
„ principles of action of .. .. 311
producers, fuel for .. 314
„ maintenance of .. 316
„ precautions against gas poisoning .. 316
„ principles of action of .. 312
„ running of .. 312
Gauge glasses .. 477
Gauges, British standard fits .. 132
crankshaft .. 423
cylinder .. 429
fitters .. .. 131
pressure .. 474
wire and plate, standards of 650,651
Gauging and measuring in fitters work .. 128
Gears 579
bevel .. 579
boxes ■• ■• •■ .. 585
classification of .. 579
helical .. .. 580
mitre .. 579
pitch of .. .. 583
selective'and gate changes .. 586
silent. .. 583
skew. .. 579
speed ratios of .. .. 583
spur . .. 579
trains of .. 584
General joiner. .. 228
Governing of oil engines .. 278
Governors of, reciprocating steam engines .. 499
„ „ steam engines .. .. 499
„ sensitiveness of .. .. 278
Graphite . .. 599
Green-sand moulding .. .. 241
Index DOT
PAGE
Grinders,belt drive oi .. .. .. .. .. 195
„ electrical drive of. .. .. 196
„ guard for.195
„ lubrication of .. .. .. .. .. 195
tool.192
,, universal .. .. .. 192
,, wheels of.192
Grinding attachment .. 191
„ cylindrical.189
„ in lathes.189
„ internal .191
„ machinery .. .. .. .. .. 188
„ surface .. ' .. .. .. .. 191
Grooving with machines .. .. .. .. .. .. 230
H.
Hammer, power 59
Hammers, smiths' 45
Hangers for shafting .. .. 558
Hardening carbon steel 74
„ iron and steel 74
Headstock of lathes .. 149
Heat balance, solid injection oil engine .. 537
„ engines .. .. 249
„ transference in boilers .. .. 441
„ treatment of steel and iron .. 74
Heavy-oil engines .. 383
„ „ „ fuel for .. .. 383
Helical gears .. .. 580
Heratol .. 92
High-tension magneto .. 339
Holes, plain, grinding-out of .. 429
„ re-bushing of .. .. 428
Honing ,. .. 429
Horizontal boilers .. 448
Hornsby oil engine .. 367
„ „ „ fuel pump 282,284
Horse-power, brake .. 532
„ indicated .. 528
Hot-plate tempering .. 76
Hot set .. 46
Hydraulic clutches .. 567
„ transmission of power .. 588
I.
I.C. engines .. .. . •■ •. .. 249
changing direction of rotation of ., .. 268
compression stroke and ignition .. .. 257,262
cooling of .. .. .. •. .. .. 301
efficiency of the four-stroke cycle .. .. .. 258
electric ignition of .. .. .. .. .. 334
exhaust stroke .. .. .. .. .. 257,265
four-stroke Otto cycle applied to .254
fuel for • • ■• •• •• •« •■ • • 251
graphical representation of the Otto cycle .. .. 256
heat regulation of .. .. 371,372
„ work, and efficiency of .. .. .. .. 259
670 Index
PAGE
I.C. engines, mechanical aids for engine starting .. 379
power stroke 257.265
practical strokes .. 262
rating of .. 272
silencing of .. 308
suction stroke .. 257,262
testing of 536
fuel consumptions, typical examples of .. 273
„ „ measurement of .. 536
types of .. .. 269
valve timing .. 267
Ignition and explosives mixtures .. 250
battery, coil and contact breaker .. .. 352
„ „ „ trembler .. .. 354
electric, system, faults in .. .. 350
in oil engines and its control .. 371
magneto •• *• »■ .. 339
Indicated horse-power, measurement of .. 528
„ mean effective pressure (I.M.E.P.) .. 530
Indicator diagrams .. 530
Indicators for measurement of indicated horse-power .. 530
Injectors, boiler .. 478
„ „ automatic .. .. 479
,, ,, lifting ■• •• .. 479
Inspection of boilers .. .. 460
„ castings 32
„ „ oil engines 379
Installation and lay-out of steam plant 519
„ of air compressors 617
„ „ high-speed steam engines 516
„ „ steam engines 514
Instruments, measuring, fitters 128
Insurance of boilers .. .. 460
Iron, annealing of .. 78
carbon content and uses of 4
composition of .. 1
founding 34
cupola, charging of .. 36
„ description of .. 34
fettling 39
mixing of metal .. 37
pouring iron .. 38
hardening of .. 79
heat treatment of .. 74
oxy-acetylene welding of 97,101
smithing with .. .. 56
tempering of 76
Isothermal change 254,494
J.
Jet condensers •• *• •• •• 510

f^p drilling •• •• •« «• 177
Toinery, wood-working machinery for 228
oints in boilermaking 66
„ of belts. 571
„ „ patterns 20
„ „ steam plant 519
Index 671
PAGE
Joints soldered and brazed, strength of 87
» welded, strength of .. 56
K.
Keyway cutting and surfacing 169
L.
Labour in repair workshops .. .. 244
Lagging of steam plant .. 524
Lap of valves. .. 502
Latent heat of’steam .. 438
Lathe tools, tipping with high-speed tool steels .. 81
Lathes ■■ •• •• .« >• .. 147
boring in .. 157
capstan .. 196
centres of .. 149
compound slide rest of .. 152
copying attachment .. 148
cuts and traverses of .. 153
drilling in .. 158
face-plate and chucks of .. 155
facing in .. 159
former turning in .. 159
grinding attachment .. .. 191
f| 111 • • • • mm .. 190
hand traverses and clamps of .. 152
headstock of .. .. 149
keyway cutting and surfacing .. 169
mandrels of .. 155
milling attachment .. .. 170
i fin •• •• *• .. 186
plain turning between centres .. 153
principle of .. 147
radius turning in .. 159
range of work of .. 147
saddle of .. 150
„ traverses of .. 152
screw cutting in .. 159
slide rest of .. .. 152
speeds of ■, ■ •* •• .. 143
tailstock of .. 149
taper turning attachment .. .. 159
,, ,) in •• • • .. 157
threading tools, forms of .. 165
threads, chasing of .. .. 168
„ cutting of 165,168
,, forms of .. 160
toolposts of .. 152
trueing up of .. .. 200
Laws of gases ■ ■• •* •■ .. 253
Laying-out line shafting .. 559
Lay-out and installation of steam plant .. 519
„ of blacksmiths’ shop .. 62
,, ,, foundry * ■ ** •• .. 42
„ „ steam plant, sample of .. .. 526
Lead-alloy bath tempering .. .. 77
Lead of valves .. 502
672
Index
Lifters, nails, and sprigs for moulding PAGE

Limits and fits, standard .. . 26
Line shafting, erection and overhaul of .. 132
*» .. laying-out of .. 560
Loam moulding .. 559
Locomotive boilers .. 30
Log frame saws .. 451
Low-tension magnetos .. 227
Lubricants, graphite .. .. 348
•• service, list of .. 599
.. solid .. -604
„ white metals .. 599
Lubricating oils, asphalt content .. 599
flash-point ..
.. 596
keeping qualities of
.. 595
oiliness .. 598
pour-point
.. 595
service .. 596
»» $t viscosity ,, .. 604
Lubrication. .. 593
». bearings, form of .. 592
„ boundary .. 600
.. forced .. ,. ’’ .. 595
„ grease cap and pump type of
.. 602
•• hand oiling .. 600
.. of air compressors .. 600
•• *! bearings .. 617
>• ,, chain drives .. 290, 293,600
i, „ cylinders .. 578
i, „ Diesel engines .. 288
.. „ grinders 288, 397
»* i* high-speed steam engines
.. 195
’• ,, oil engines .. 500
.. „ petrol engines 288, 375
*• »> reciprocating steam engine:
.. 288
•• » shafting .. 500
>f ii steam engines .. 557
oilcup, type of .. .. 500
principles of .. 600
” ring . .. 592
splash. .. 601
j. systems of .. 602
.. valve type of .. .. 291
<i vibrating needle type of .. 600
Lubricators, mechanical .. 600
>• Reisert .. .. 298
sight-feed .. 601
ii Stauffer .. .. 601
.. 601
M.
Machinery, ball, roller, and thrust bearings of
bearings, re-fitting of ., 561
belt, rope, and chain drives for 425
clutches for .. 569
crankshafts, trueing of .. .. 565
cylinders, re-boring of .. .. .. 423
a welding cracks in .. 429
.. 434
Index 673
PAGE
Machinery, erection and overhaul of .. 420
,, for joinery .■ .. 228
.. grinding by . .. 188
,, grinding-out plain holes .. 191
,, holes, re-bushing of .. 428
,, lathes, trueing up of .. 200
,, line shafting, erection and overhaul of .. 560
.. „ „ laying-out of .. 559
,, manufacturing by .. 196
„ mushroom valves and seatings, trueing of .. 432
,, parts, care in handling and replacing .. .. 420
,, power to drive .. 201,225
„ pulleys, alignment of .. 561
,, range of fitters’ work .. 113
,, slide bars, adjustment of .. 133
,, „ valve parts, rc-facing of .. .. 136
,, „ valves, errors in .. 137
„ „ setting of. .. 137
,, tools, testing of .. .. 198
,, transmission of power .. 553
,, wood-cutting .. 203
Machine-shop work 140
„ ,, lathes [see also Lathes) .. 147
„ ,, machines for .. 147
„ „ tools for .. .. 140
Machine tools, particulars to be given in demands for .. 145
Machines, automatic .. .. 198
cutter blocks .. 228
drilling .. 174
grinding .. 188
grooving .. 230
milling .. 182
mortising .. .. 230
moulding .. 29,229
overhand planing .. .. 228
planing .. 171
saw-sharpening .. 220
screwing .. 182
shaping .. 172
slotting .. 172
tenoning .. .. 230
thicknessing . .. 229
Machining, allowance for 15
Magnalium 7
Magnetic clutches .. 567
Magnetos, armature of .. 339
care of .. 347
contact-breaker of . .. 341
earthing brush of .. .. 342
„ switch of .. 342
generator of .. 339
high-tension . .. 339
low-tension .. 348
polar inductor .. 347
re-magnetizing .. 352
rotation of . .. 346
safety spark gap of .. 342
secondary circuit of . .. 342
spark of «■ ■• •■ •• •• .. 342
674 Index
PAGE
Malleable castings .. 42
Mandrels of lathes. .. 155
Mandrel. 49,155
Manufacturing machinery .. .. 196
Marking-out fitters' work .. 121
Materials, boilermakers’ .. 66
„ for engine foundations .. .. 547
„ of boilers. .. 441
ii patternmakers •■ •■ .. 14
Mean effective pressure, brake .. 530
„ „ „ indicated .. .. 530
Measurement of brake horse-power .. .. 532
„ „ indicated horse-power .. 530
Measuring and gauging in fitters' work .. 128
Mechanical efficiency. .. 531
„ drawing, conventions in 9
Melting-points of metals and alloys. .. 85
Metallic packing of engines .. .. 499
Metals, angles of tools for cutting of .. 140
contraction of. .. 15
ferrous . 1
for iron founding, mixing of .. 37
non-ferrous. 5
oxy-acetylene, welding of .. 91
Meyer expansion gear .. 507
Michell thrust bearings .. 599
Micrometer callipers. .. 129
Milling attachment. .. 170
circular . .. 186
cutters . .. 183
in lathes . 170,186
machines .. 182
machine sawing .. 188
pTOfilc ■■ ■■ •• .. 186
spur gears . .. 186
worms. .. 187
Moulders' tools and stores .. 22,654
„ work . .. 22
Moulding, bedding-in. 28
„ brass . 39
„ by turning over, details of 24
„ chaplets for .. 26
„ cores for . 18
„ dry sand. .. 22
„ economies in .. 33
„ facing sand for .. 23
feeding-gates 28
foundry sands for .. 23
green sand .. 24
iron, types of .. 22
lifters, nails, and sprigs for .. 26
loam . .. 30
machine. 29,229
parting sand for .. 24
patternmaker to know principles of .. 16
patterns for •• 14
pktc i* i• t• •• .. 30
runners and risers for ■• .. 27
venting in. •• .. 26
Index 675
N.
PAGE
Natural draught .. 486
Nitralloy .. 5, 82
Normalized steel .. 78
O.
Oilcups . . ■ • a a .. 600
Oil engines . • • • • .. 367
„ „ cooling of . . • • a a .. 301
„ „ cyclic irregularity in a a .. 279
„ ,, faults in .. a a 376, 377
,, ,, foundations for a a .. 546
„ „ four-stroke Qtto cycle applied to a a .. 262
.. „ governing of • . » a .. 278
„ „ heat regulation of . • • a a .. 371
,, ,, hot bearings in • • a a .. 376
„ „ ignition in and its control • a .. 367
„ „ inspections of a a .. 379
„ „ lubrication of 288, 375
„ „ mechanical starting of .. 379
„ „ oiling of a a .. 375
„ „ running and care of a a .. 374
„ ,, seizing in .. a a .. 376
„ „ silencing of a ■ .. 308
„ „ speed regulation of a a .. 278
,, „ stopping of a a .. 377
„ „ working the lamp of a a .. 374
ii fuel • • • • •• •• 251,467
„ „ combustion of 250, 467
„ „ compressed-air system of a a .. 469
„ „ for heavy-oil engines • • a a .. 251
„ „ oil engines
„ a a a a .. 251
,, „ pressure-oil system of a a a a .. 469
,, „ reasons for use of , , a a .. 467
„ „ simultaneous coal and oil firing a a .. 472
„ „ steam system of a « a a .. 468
„ „ systems of • • • a .. 468
„ „ working of . • • a a .. 472
Oiling, hand a ■ • a .. 600
Oil separators .. *
.. a a .. 447
Oils, animal a a 595, 596
„ flash-point of a a .. 595
„ keeping qualities of a a .. 598
„ lubricating, service, table of .. 604
„ mineral .. .. 595
„ service • a a a .. 604
„ vegetable • a a a 595, 596
„ viscosity of • • a a .. 593
Open-air condensers .. • • a a .. 510
Organization, factory .. a • • a .. 235
Otto cycle a • a • .. 254
Overhand planing machine .. • • a a .. 228
Overhaul of I.C. engines a a .. 420
„ line shafting
„ • a a a .. 560
„ machine tools
„ .. • a a a .. 198
„ petrol engines
„ .. a a • • .. 361
„ slide valves
„ a a • 4 « at 133
676 Index
PAGE
Oxy-acetylene cutting .. 110
ii „ speed of .. Ill
li welding 91
«« „ blow-pipes .. 96
il „ flame regulation 98
„ fluxes .. 98
ii „ installation for .. 93
ii „ oxygen for .. .. 91
if „ purifiers for .. .
. 92
ii „ speed of .. 103
if ,, systems of .. .. 91
ii ,, various metals, welding of 100-104
il „ welding rods . . 98
ii „ welds, execution of 97-99
ii ,, ,, preparation of ..97-99
Oxygen for welding purposes . .. 91
P.
Paraffin fuel 251,253
Parting sand. 24
Parts of machinery, care in handling and replacing of 420
Patching boilers 70
Patternmakers* drawings 15
„ materials 14
ii tools •• •• •• •• 14, 652
„ work .. •■ 14
Patterns, altering of .. •• 22
for moulding ■• 14
joints of *• 20
p?ii ntrng of •• «■ •* •• 22
storing of .. •• 22
Performance curves, solid-injection Diesel engines • • 537
Petrol engines (carburettors) * • 317
„ „ carburettors fitting and adjustment of • • 330
„ ,, faults in • ■ 321
„ „ float chamber of ■ • 321
„ „ forced lubrication of • • 294
„ „ lubrication of ■ • 293
„ „ maintenance work by engine-driver • • 361
„ „ overhaul of .. • * 420
$$ a power of •• •• ■■ •• • • 276
„ „ principles of carburation • • 317
„ „ pump and splash lubrication of • • 293
„ „ running and care of. • • 361
„ „ scent-spray principle of carburation • • 318
„ „ Solex carburettor • ■ 330
„ ,, splash lubrication of • • 293
,. „ starting of. 357
„ „ S.U. carburettor • ■ 327
„ „ White and Poppe carburettor • • 324
„ „ - Zenith carburettor .. • • 327
Petrol-paraffin engines . • • 364
Pilot-drilling .. .. • ■ 176
Pinking . • • 253
Pipe-lines of steam plant . • • 522
Index 677
PAGE
Pipes of steam plant. •• •• a • 519..
„ „ materials for jointing of • a • ■ 519a a
M II If Of •
a •• • ■ • a 519a a
„ „ pressure drop in • ■ • • • ■ 521a a
„ „ size of .. ■ ■ a • a a 519a a
Piston rings •■ a a • a 431a a
„ valves. ■• • a • a 504a a
Pit saws •• • a • a 208

Planimeter • ■ • a • a 530
Planing machines •• • a • » 171 .228
Plant, steam, lay-out and installation of (see also Steam plant) 519a a
„ „ t.esting of (sfie also Steam plant) •• • 533 a
Plate and wire gauges, standards of •■ • a 650a a
„ moulding. . ., 30
a a
Hates, list of .. a a xii

„ of boilers, thickness of • a 441a a
Plugs, fusible .. • • 477a a
Pneumatic tools (see also Compressed air tools) • a 618a a
Point tempering and hardening • a 81

a a
Portable drilling machines a a 123

a a
„ steam engines a a 514

a a
Positive clutches a a 565

a a
Power hammer a a 59
a •
„ to drive band re-saws 225

• •
„ „ circular saws a a 218

a a
„ „ frame saws .. a a 227

a a
„ „ log band saws a • 225

a a
„ „ machinery a a 202
a a
„ transmission of 553
a a
„ „ belt sizes for 589

a a
„ „ data for calculations of 588

a a
„ „ direct-coupling.. . . 553
a a
„ „ electrical aa 587
a a
„ „ hydraulic a . 588
a a
„ „ indirect systems of 587

a a
„ ., losses in 558
a a
„ „ mainshaft line .. 590

a a
„ ,, methods of • a 555
a a
„ „ pneumatic a a 588
a a
„ „ practical application of a a 588

a a
Practical heat-treatment a a 74
a a
„ strokes in I.C.* engines a a 262

a a
„ tempering .. a a 76
a a
Pre-heated air .. a a 484

a a
Pre-ignition a a 253a a
Pressure gauges a a 474a •
„ mean effective, brake a a 530a a
„ „ „ indicated .. a a 530a a
Prime movers, selection of . . a a 545a a
Principles of design of castings a a 12

ii lathes
!• •• •• ■ • a a 148
,, steam engines
„ .. a « a • 491
Profile milling .. • a a • 186
Pulleys, alignment of . a a a a 561
„ fast and loose a a a a 574
„ for belts a a a a 574
Pulverized fuel .. a a a a 485
Pumps, feed a a a a 478
Punches *a a a a a 48
678 Into
PAGE
Punching in smithing 54
Purification of acetylene gas • • ■ • 92
Q.
Quasi-arc welding .107
R.
Radial valve gears.506
Radius turning in lathes .159
Rankine cycle.494
Reaming, drilling, and tapping by hand.123
.. „ „ „ „ machine .173
„ holes .124
Recalescence point of steel.74
Receivers of air compressors ,. .613
Reciprocating steam engines .491
,, action of .491
„ bearings of.515
„ brake horse-power of .. 532,539
„ cycles of .491
„ cylinder condensation in .. .. 498
„ engine details of .. .. .. 499
„ „ performance of .. .. 539
„ governors of. 499,515
„ indicated power of .. .. 493, 496
„ lubrication of .500
„ metallic packing of.499
„ stuffing boxes of .499
„ variation of load, effect of .. .. 497
Redwood’s viscometer .594
Refrigerating machines, absorption type. 623,640
air expansion type .. .. 623,641
compression type. 623, 624
condensers for.633
energy ratio (factor of performance) .. 628
valves for .. .. .638
Refrigeration, cycle of operations, ammonia machine .. .. 624
„ general principles.623
Refuse burners. .. .. .. .. .. 485
Regulators, feed water .480
Repair workshops .241
„ „ classification of repairs.242
„ „ labour for . .. .. 244
,, „ organization of.241
„ works orders .243
Resistance welding. 104
Ring lubrication . 293,601
Rings, piston.431
Rip saws . f.203
Risers and runners for moulds .. .. '.27
Rivets, closing of .67
„ cutting-out of .67
„„ proportions of ..
types used in boilermaking.
.67
.. .. 67
Rods, welding.%
Roller bearings .562
Root's blowers .49
Index 679
PAGE
Rope drives. 576
Runners and risers for moulds 27
S.
Saddle of lathes 150

„ traverses of lathes 152
Safety valves .. a a 474
Saturated-steam table 439
Saw-sharpening machines 220
Saws, band 222
,, „ breakage of blades of .. 222
,, „ cracks in' .. 225
„ „ ordering of 225
,, „ power to drive '.. 226
„ „ repair of .. a a 224
if ii small ■• ■• •• a a 223
„ „ „ details of .. a a 223
ii ii ii speed of • • ■• a a 226
„ „ tension for large blades of 226
„ circular 209
,, „ benches 216
„ „ packing of 218
„ „ power to drive 218
„ „ rip, gulleting of a a 215
,, „ „ sharpening of by filing a a 210
„ „ setting of a a 214
„ „ shape of teeth of a a 209
„ ,, speeds of a a 218
„ „ tensioning of .. 217
„ „ working of 219
„ cross-cut 204
„ frame .. 227
„ „ ordering of 227
„ „ sharpening of .. 227
ii pit •• •• •> •• 208
„ raker teeth 206
.. rip . 203
„ setting of 214
„ sharpening of . 208, 210
„ teeth, forms of. a • 203, 209
Scrapers and scraping. . • ■ 114,120
Screw cutting in lathes a a a a • • 159
Screwing machines a a a a a • 182
Screw threads and tapping sizes, standards of a • a a 648, 649
Selection of engines .. • • a a 545
Semi-Diesel engines .. • • 384
,, „ atomizing fuel of a a 384
„ definition of • a a a 270
„ „ fuel, heating of a a a a 383
„ „ governing of .. a a a a 387
„ „ two-stroke a a a a 388
action of a a a a 265
„ governor of a a 387
Semi-portable steam engines • a a a a a 514
Sensible he&t •• • • •• • ■ • a • a • a 438
Index
PA.GB
Sensitiveness of governor .. 278
Service lubricants, table of .. 604
,i oils .. 604
Set .. •. .. 46
Shafting, bearings for 557,561
„ belt, rope, and chain drives for .. 569
„ brackets, hangers, and standards for .. 558
,, clutches for .. .. 565
„ line, laying-out of .. 559
„ „ erection and overhaul of .. 560
„ plain bearings for .. 557
„ qualities of .. .. 556
„ rigid couplings for .. 556
„ strength of .. 556
,, underfloor .. 559
Shaping bevel gears .. 173
„ machines .. 171
„ spur gears .. 172
Shell boilers .. 448
Sight-feed lubricators .. 601
Signs, conventional .. .. 11
Silencing of I.C. engines .. 308
Sleeve valve compressor 614,615
Slide bars, adjustment of .. 133
„ rest of lathes .. 152
Slide-valve ports, re-facing of .. 136
Slide valves {sec also Valves, slide) .. 502
„ „ errors in .. .. 137
„ „ setting of .. 137
Slotting machines .. 172
Smithing, bending .. 54
cutting-out .. 52
description of .. 43
die-sinking .. .. 59
drawing-down .. 52
drifting .. 54
drilling 54
operations of 51
power hammer .. 59
punching ,. 54
upsetting .. 51
welding .. 55
with iron ..56,58
steel ..56,58
Smith’s hearth 43
„ ,, accessories of 43
„ „ air-blast for 49
„ blowers for .. 50
„ fuel for .. 45
shop, lay-out of .. 61
tools 45, 655
work .. 51
Soldering and brazing fl5t
fluxes for. ..84,85
joints, strength of .. 87
particulars of various kinds of ..83,86
silver 86
S( f£t , • •• ,• ■■ 88
various metals joined by ..
■ • ..84,85
Index 661
PAGE
Solders, composition of ..84,65
Soot deposit on boilers .. 444
Specific heat of gas .. .. 253
„ „ „ superheated steam .. 494
Speed regulation of oil engines .. 278
Speeds of drilling machines .. .. 176
,, ii lathes ■• •« .. 143
Spheroidizing (steel) .. .. 79
Spindles of drilling machines .. 174
Splash lubrication .. 293
Spontaneous ignition temperature .. 252
Spraymaker (atomizer or-pulverizer) 384,401
Sprinkling stokers. .. 485
Square threads . .. 163
Standards for shafting .. 558
„ of wire and plate gauges 650,651
Stays in boilers, replacing of- .. 68
Steam boilers (see also Boilers) .. 437
„ changes in volume of .. .. 439
„ engines, bearings of .. .. 515
„ „ care and running of .. 514
„ „ general principles and cycles of .. 491
„ „ governor of .. 499,515
„ „ installation of .. 514
„ „ makers’ tests, sample performances of .. 539
„ „ portable .. 514
„ „ reciprocating (see also Reciprocating steam
engines). .. 491
,, ,, running of • • «• •• .. 514
„ „ semi-portable .. 514
„ „ starting of. .. 514
„ „ stuffing glands of .. 515
,, „ high-speed. .. 516
characteristics of .. 516
installation of .. .. 516
lubrication of .. .. 516
running of .. 518
starting of .. 518
stopping of .. 518
„ „ types and uses of .. 516
expansive use of .. 491
plant, boiler-house of .. 526
„ engine-house of .. 524
,, expansion joints of .. 523
„ lagging of .. 524
, lay-out and installation of .. 519
pipe-lines of .. .. .. 522
„ pipes, materials for jointing of .. 519
,, >< »l of .. .. 519
,, ,, of •• •• •• .. 519
„ „ pressure drop in .. 521
,, i, size of • > •• .. 519
„ sample lay-out gf .. 526
‘ „ station lay-out of .. 524
„ steam driers of .. .. 522
„ „ traps of. .. 523
„ „ valves of .. 521
„ testing of . .. 533
682 Index
PAGE
Steam plant, testing of analysis of results. .. 542
efficiencies and losses, calculation of .. 535
forms for use in .. 541,542
fuel, calorific value of .. 533
„ measurement of .. 533
indicated horse-power, measurement of 530,535
indicator diagrams .. 530
load, measurement of 532, 534
scope of tests 528,533
temperatures and records 535
water evaporated, measurement of 534
work done in expansion of 495,501
Steel alloys. 3,81
annealing of 78
carbon content and uses of 4
„ service kinds of 4
castings i ■ ■. •• 41
colours and temperatures when heate< 75
composition of .. 2
for boiler work, tests of 66
hardening of 74
heat treatment of 74
normalized 78
oxy-acetylene welding of 101
smithing with .. 56
special. 81
spring, treatment of 77
structure of 74
tempering of 76
tool, details for tempering of 77
Stephenson's link motion 504
Stocks and dies, threading with 126
Stores, moulders 22
Storing patterns 22
Straightening connecting rods 423
„ crankshafts 423
StrickUng and striking-up 20
Stuffing boxes. 499
„ glands of steam engines 515
Supercharging (heavy oil engines) 276
Superheated steam 494
Superheaters of boilers 482
Surface condensers 509
Swages. 48
T.
Tables, list of. .. .. xi
Tailstock of lathes. .. 149
Taper turning attachment. .. 159
,, ,, in lathes ■« «■ *, .> .. 157
Tapping, drilling, and reaming by hand .. 123
,, ,, „ ,, „ machine .. .. 173
,, holes ■« «. .. 125
Tar deposit on boilers . ..444
Temperatures and colours of steel when heated .. 75
Tempering iron and steel. ..7Q
Index 683
PAGE
Tempering tool steel, details for 77
Templates . ■* .. 548
Tenoning with machines . •• .. 230
Test bench, Ames', for small I.C. engines .. ■■ 422,432
Testing engines (see also Engine testing) •• .. 528
„ machine tools . •• .. 198
„ steam plant [see also Steam plant) •• .. 528
Tests of boilers . .. 540
„ „ steel for boiler work .. 66
Thermal efficiency, brake. 261,496
„ „ indicated 261,496
Thicknessing machine . .. 229
Threading tools, form of . .. 165
Threads and tapping sizes, standards of 648,649
„ chasing of. .. 168
„ cutting of *. .. 165
„ forms of . .. 160
Thrust bearings .. . .. 563
„ collars. .. 564
Tongs, smiths’ .. 46
Tool grinders. .. 192
Toolposts of lathes. .. 152
Tools, boilermakers’ .. 64,656
„ compressed-air (see also Compressed-air tools) .. 618
„ cutting, angles for •• .. 141
i / fitters •• •• •• 113,658
,, for machine-shop work , , .. 140
„ machine-shop, cutting speeds of •, .. 143
„ „ forms of •. .. 141
„ „ particulars to be given in demands for .. 145
„ machine, testing of .. 198
„ moulders’ . 22,654
„ patternmakers' 14. 652
„ smiths’ .. 45,655
Toothed gears (see also Gears) .. 579
Total heat of water .. .. 438
Pf pp pp steam • ■ •• •• .. 438
Transmission of power .. 553
„ „ electrical .. 587
„ „ hydraulic .. 588
„ „ indirect systems of .. .. 587
„ „ pneumatic .. .. 588
„ „ practical application of .. 588
Traverses and cuts of lathes. .. 153
Trueing cylinders . .. 429
„ journals . .. 423
„ mushroom valves and seatings .. 432
Tubes of boilers, removing. .. 69
„ „ replacement 69
Turning between centres of lathes .. • • 153
Two-stroke cycle . .. 265
Types of boilers. .. 448
„ „ condensers. .. 509
U.
Universal coupling. •• •% .. 556
ii grinders •• •• •• •• «* .. 192
Upsetting in smithing . •• •• 51
684 Index
v.
PMI
'•V" threads. e 4 .. 161
Valve gears. ** •s s• 502
Valves, Corliss. •• .. 508
pi drop • • •• •» •• •• •• ,. .. 507
if D slide •• •• <4 •• •a • • 502
ip feed w&tcr •• ■* •• •* .. .. 480
„ mushroom, and seatings, trueing of •» .. 432
,, of steam plant . •• «• 521
p$ safety •• •• •• •• •• •• .. 474
„ slide, angle of advance of •. •4 502
pi pp balanced •• •• ■• •• .. 504
„ „ errors in •• .. 137
„ „ expansion in .. •• .. 507
„ „ inside lap of. .• .. .. 504
pp pp lead of •• •• •• ■■ •• .. 502
„ „ Meyer expansion gear •• •e «• 507
„ „ outside lap of. •• .. 502
a ii piston • • •• •• •• •. ..504
„ ,, radial valve guars of .. .. ..506
ii ii setting of •• •* •• .• .. 137
„ „ Stephenson’s link motion .• .. 504
Valve timing in l.C. engines. •• 262-355
„ type of lubrication. •t .. 600
Variety woodworker. •• .. 228
Venting of moulds. *■ .. .. 26
Vernier callipers . •• .. 129
Vertical boilers. •• .. 448
Vibrating needle lubrication. s. .. 600
Vices. ., .. 113
Viscometer, Redwood's . ., •• mt 594
Viscosity of oils . •• ■< «• 593
Volume of steam, changes in •■ .. 439
w.
Washing out boilers 460
Water, boiling points .. 439
„ circulation in boilers .. 442
„ coolers for condensers 510
„ heat (sensible heat) .. 438
„ injection (in I.C. engines) 372
„ latent heat 438
Water-tube boilers 452
„ „ Babcock and Wilcox 452
,, ,, true •> •» 452
,, ,, types of .. •• 452
„ „ working of 455
Weaver press. 423
Welded Joints, strength of • i 56
Welding, autogenous. • e 83
„ boiler plates • • 78
„ electric . 104
„ in smithing. 55
„ oxy-acetylene (see also Oxy-acetylene welding) 91
Wheels of grinders. 192
Index 685
PAGE
White and Poppe carburettor .. .. .. 324
„ metal bearings. .. .. 87
Whitworth threads .. .. 161
Wire and plate gauges, standards of . 650,651
Wood-cutting machinery .. .. .. .. 203
Workshop economics .. .. .. .. .. .. 235
Workshops, repair (see also Repair workshops) .. .. .. 241
Works order forms. 240,245
„ orders .. .. .. .. .. 240,243
Worms, milling . . .. 187
Worm-wheel, milling of .. .. .. .. .. . • 187
Z.
Zenith carburettor 327
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER I
Mechanical Engineering—Lineham .. .. 15/- Chapman & Hall.

Kempe's Engineers’ Year Book .. .. 30/- Crosby Lockwood
& Son.
Mechanical Engineer’s Hand Book—Marks 25/- McGraw, Hill Pub¬
lishing Co.
Fowler’s Mechanics’ and Machinists’ Pocket
Book. .. 3/-\ Scientific Publish-
Fowler’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket Book 3/- j ing Co.
B.S.S. 6. Rolled Steel for Structural Pur¬
poses .. ■. .a .. •. a. 2/—
D.W.S. Spec. 9. Materials.
The above will be useful throughout the book.
CHAPTER II
Engineering Workshop Drawing—Parkinson 4/6 Pitman.
Elements of Machine Design (2 Vols.) Unwin
& Mellanby.each 15/- Longmans, Green
& Co.
B.S.S. 308. Engineering Drawing Office
Practice .2/-
CHAPTER III
Mechanical Technology—Charnock .. .. 10/6 Constable.
General Foundry Practice—Roxburgh .. 6/- Constable.
B.S.S. 321. General Grey Iron Castings
(Grades A and C).2/-
CHAPTER IV
Mechanical Technology—Charnock .. .. 10/6 Constable.
CHAPTER V
B.S.S. 43. Boiler Tubes. Charcoal, Iron Lap-
welded .2/-
B.S.S. 425. Rivets for Boilers .. .. 2/-
CHAPTER VI
Steel Works Analysis—Arnold & Ibbotson 12/6 Pitman.
Engineering Steels—Aitchison .. .. 25/- Macdonald &
Evans.
Hest Treatment—Bullens.21/- John Wiley &
Sons.
The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron—
Woodward.15/- Crosby Lockwood
& Son.
Elements of Metallurgy for Engineers—
Gordon .8/6 Constable.
686
Bibliography 687
CHAPTER VII
Practical Plumber's Work—Hasluck .. 3/- Cassell.

Autogenous Welding (Oxy-acetylene)—
Granjon and Rosemberg.7/6 Griffin & Co.
Electric Arc and Oxy-acetylene Welding—
Atkins .7/6 Pitman.
Handbooks of British Oxygen Co.
Handbooks of Quasi-Arc Co.
B.S.S. 219. Soft Solders (Grades A, B, C. D,
E, F, G, H, and J) ..
B.S.S. 206. Silyer Solder ...
B.S.S. 263. Brazing Solder .. .. ,
B.S.S. 399 and 400. Steel Cylinders for Per each-
manent Gases .
B.S.S. 401. Steel Cylinders for Liquefiable
Gases.. .. .. .. .. ..
CHAPTER VIII
Modem Engineering Workshop Practice—

Thompson .. .. .. .. .. 7/6 Griffin & Co.
Machine Tools and Workshop Practice—Parr 10/6 Longmans.
B.S.S. 21, 61, 84,92, and 93. Screw Threads
each 2/-
B.S.S. 164. Fits and Limits for Engineering 2/-
CHAPTER X
Saws, their Care and Treatment—Durham 3/6 Ryder & Son.

Sawmill Work and Practice—Blackmuir .. 3/6 Ryder & Son.
B.S.S. 411. Attachment of Circular Saws for
Woodworking .. .. .. .. 2/-
Home Office Safety Pamphlet No. 8. Fencing
and other Safety Precautions for Wood¬
working Machinery . .. .. .. H.M.S.O.
CHAPTER XII
The Internal-Combustion Engine (2 Vols.)

—Ricardo. .. each 15/- Blackie.
The Elementary Internal-Combustion Engine
—Kershaw.5/- Longmans, Green
& Co.
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engi¬
neering—Sneeden .. .. •• 6/— Longmans, Green
& Co.
Elementary Theory of the I.C. Engine—
Ludlam .3/6 Blackie.
B.S.S. 135. Benzol 2/-
B.S.S. 209. Fuel Oils for Heavy-Oil Engines 2/-
Bibliography
CHAPTER XVI
How to Manage a Suction Gas Producer—

W. A. Tookey .. .. .. .. 3/6 Percival Marshall
& Co.
B.S.S. 120. Gas Engines for Electrical Pur¬
poses mm mm mm mm mm mm 2 /"
CHAPTER XVII
Manual of Military Vehicles .. .. H.M.S.O.

Magnetos—A. P. Young .. .. .. 5/- Iliffe
The Motor Vehicle—Newton & Steeds .. 10/6 Iliffe.
Motor Manuals (4 Vols.)—A. W. Judge each 4/- Chapman & Hall.
B.S.S. 45. Sparking Plugs .. .. .. 2/-
B.S.S. 5003 (narrow), 5023 (wide). Piston
Rings for Automobiles .. .. each 2/~
B.S.S. 5004. Cast Iron Piston-Ring Pots
(Sand Cast and Chilled Cast) for Auto¬
mobiles .. .. .. .. .. 2/-
R.E. Spec. 2839. Generating Sets, 5-kW.
110-volts, Lighting.
R.E. Spec./P/2865. Generating Sets, 24-kW.
100-volts.
CHAPTER XIX
Diesel Engine Design—Purday .. .. 21/— Constable.
Diesel Engine Running and Maintenance—
Smith .3/6 Constable.
Compression-ignition Engines .. 3/6 Temple Press.
B.S.S. 211. Heavy-Oil Engines for Electri¬
cal Purposes, Diesel Air-Injection .. 2/-
B.S.S. 212. Heavy-Oil Engines for Electri¬
cal Purposes, Surface Ignition .. .. 2/-
B.S.S. 213. . Heavy-Oil Engines for Electri¬
cal Purposes, Airless Injection .. .. 2/-
A.F. G 853. Care and Working of Internal-
Combustion Engines.
D.W.S. Spec. 8. Heavy-Oil Engine-Driven
Generating Sets.
D.W.S. Spec. 11. Power Station Auxiliary
Equipment.
Bibliography 689
CHAPTER XX
Motor Repair Manual .. 2/6 Temple Press.

Motor Manual, Vol. 4 -Judge 4/- Chapman & Hall.
CHAPTER XXI
Working of Steam Boilers—Hillier .. 5/- National Boiler &

General In¬
surance Co.
D.W.S. Spec. 6. Steam Boilers.
D.W.S. Spec. 7. L.P. Steam and Il.W. Heat¬
ing Installations.
A.F. G 945. Instructions for the Care, Work¬
ing and Management of W.D. Land
Boilers.
A.F. G 951. Instructions for the Working
and Care of Boilers and Heating Apparatus.
CHAPTER XXV
Steam Engine, Theory and Practice—Ripper 15/— Longmans, Green

& Co.
Elements of Steam Power Engineering—
Sneeden .. .. .. .. .. 5/- Longmans, Green
& Co.
Steam and Other Engines-• -Duncan .. .. 7/6 Macmillan & Co.
The Steam Engine and ‘Other Heat Engines
—Ewing .. .. .. .. .. 21/— Cambridge Uni¬
versity Press
B.S.S. 42. Reciprocating Steam Engines for
Electrical Purposes . . .. .. 2j-
CHAPTER XXVIII
A. F. G 946. Instructions for the Care and

Working of W.D. Steam Engines.
B. S.S. 3011. Identification Colours for
Engine-Room Piping .. .• 2/-
23-(579)
690 Bibliography
CHAPTER XXXIII
Lubricating and Allied Oils—Evans .. 10/6 Chapman & Hall.

Lubrication and Lubricants—Hyde .. 2/6 Pitman.
B.S.S. 210. Pure Mineral Lubricating Oils 2/-
CHAPTER XXXIV
Compressed Air Power—Daw .. Pitman.
CHAPTER XXXV
Mechanical Refrigeration—Macintire .. 25/- John Wiley &

Sons.
Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office

by William Clowes & Sons, Ltd., London and Beccles.
(679) Wt 90061 -8562/2406. 5,000. 9/34, W. C. 4 S., Ltd. Gp. 310.

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xiv Advertisement.

FOR ALL STEAM

THE STIRLING BOILER CO.

By Command of the Army Council

The War Office,

Part II.—Heat Engines

76. Gas Engines and Producers.311

164. General Principles 623

. Saturated Steam Table.439

PART I.—WORKSHOP PRACTICE

METALS USED IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

6. Pure iron.—Perfectly pure iron is not a commercial

7. Steel is a general term applied to alloys of iron and

tensile strength also increases at first but reaches a maximum

submarine cables. With 34-38 per cent, nickel, the alloy

Table A.—Carbon content in cast iron, carbon steel and

Per¬ R.A.O.D. vocabulary

15. Cobalt steel.—Up to 5 per cent, cobalt increases the

effect of heat treatment, together with great strength and

For Bibliography, see page 686.

CONVENTIONS USED IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.

cast mon w iron. STEEL. BRASS OR WHITE

will usually be supplied with a blue print reproduction from

2. Conventional signs.—Certain conventions are usually

3. Limits.—Limits should be marked for all dimensions

For Bibliography, see page 686.

to a drawing-away of the metal inside the envelope, so that

and a finishing cut to be taken. The amounts normally

Brass or copper alloy— l_

For long thin castings, where warping may be unavoidable

7. Principles of moulding that a patternmaker must know

Details of Moulders Work.

The pattern has now to be withdrawn. It is first tapped

Chill casting is the process of casting metal in metal

to a certain extent) and the molten metal. Excess of coal

There is also an avenue for the escape of gas between

In cases where the size of the pouring-runner is so limited,

adaptable to repeat work, result in a great increase of output

Drawing.—The fault termed drawing has been dealt with

open manner so as to allow it to catch fire easily and then a

7. Gleaning a cupola after a blow.—The slag sticking

To summarize, grey iron is easy to melt and has com¬

Castings should be left to cool in the sand, as this has an

Improvised Crucible Furmce.

viPROviseo cmuctauc rua*/*ce.

baffles. Owing to the specialized nature of the process, steel

2. Malleable castings are made of cast iron, from which

13. Foundry layout

For Bibliography, see page 686.

hii-ujcusl piuviueu uimer oy nana-aciudieu oenows [Hb m lue

Det/uls or Sm/ths Hearth

atfeie irot4 coding

3 tuc- moi4 to rir in Fig 4.

slightly-rounded face at one end, for general work, and a small

16. The air-blast

+j03 £jCD -44

to allow 25 per cent, more power, owing to belt friction, wear,

17. Smiths' work.

3. Drawing-down is the process of increasing the length

viPROviseo cmuctauc rua/ce.