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2003

Flamenco Guitar: History, Style, and Context

Peter L. Manuel
CUNY Graduate Center

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.rtists; a
)resence 2 Flamencoguitar:history sfle, status
bility of
rd Rock PE T ER M AN UE L
ling, are

ring the
y (ree6) Flamencoguitar constitutesan instrumental idiom of remarkablerichness
;uitar in and contemporaryvitality.As a musicaltradition, its statusis unique in that
age,and while its origins lie in folk music and its practitionersarticulatelittle in the
ruments way of a standardizedtheory, it embodiesa degreeof technicalvirtuosity
: Fender and sophisticationcomparableto that of a classicalart form. Flamencocan
baroque be seenascomprisingsong(cante),dance(baile),and guitar playrng(toque).
st visible The statusof guitar music within this framework is ambiguousand contra-
k historY dictory. Flamenco,in its origins, basic structure, and traditional aesthetic
the form orientation, is primarily vocal music, to which guitar accompanimentis a
growing secondary(and occasionallyevendispensable)addition. Nevertheless,the
)ecomea guitar hascome to play an increasinglyprominentrole in accompaniment,
and flamenco solo guitar has emergedas an independentidiom that has
achievedgreaterinternational renown than vocalflamenco.This essaypro-
videsa brief historical and srylisticoverviewof flamencoguitar,outlining its
distinctive featuresand its unique statuswithin flamencoand world music
asa whole.

The evolution of flamenco

The early history of flamenco, like the origin of the word ..flamenco,,
itself, is ultimately obscure.l In the past, various spanish framenc6logos
("flamencologists")arguedthat flamencoderivedfrom an ancientand pri-
vate tradition which the Gypsiesbrought with them when they migrated
from India somesix or more centuriesago.Nevertheless, it now seemsclear
that the genreemergedin the late eighteenthcentury primarily from the
corpusofAndalusian folk music, especiallyasstylizedand refinedby Gypsy
professionalmusicians.Andalusian musical culture was itself an eclectic
entity, syncretizing the legacy of the regions diverseethnic groups (see
Plate3). After the adventof Moorish rule in the earlyeighth century,Arabs,
Berbers,Iews,and Christians coexistedfor centuries,and many Moors, or
moriscos,remainedin Andalusia,more or lessclandestinely,after the fall of
Granadato the christian spaniardsin 1492.with the growth of trade with
the New world, port towns of seville andcidizcame to host communities
[13] of black A-fricans,and Latin American influencesestablisheda presencein
 l. l l \ . t t r h h t r t r r l 15 Fl.amenco
guitar:history,style,status

as a product especially of a Gypsy-centered subculturewhicrrc.rrpr.isctl

not only etknicgitanos(RomanyGypsieswhoseancestrya'tr tratritiorr.l
languagederivedprimarily from India) but alsoother lumpen bohe'ria.s
and socialoutcasts.The flamencocantesor song-types that coalesced in the
latenineteenthcenturyfall into two categories: thosederivingdirectlyfrom
Andalusianfolk music proper (especianythe varietiesof fandango),
and
thoseinspiredbyotherlocalidioms (especiallythecantejondo
[,.deepsong,,]
styles).Thesclatter,althoughAndarusianin a generalsense,are
dir-
tinctivelyassociated with flamencoand Gypsysubcurtureand lack -or"
specific
countcrl)itrts in regionalfolk music.
l;rornrhc ltt30son, flamencorapidly developedboth as privateparty
.rrrsicwithir l hisconrnr,nityand,perhapsmoreimportantly,asentertain-
rrrcrrtpcrlirrmcdby prof'essionalmusiciansanddancers both in public cafs
ilntto,ttcs("singingcafes")and in wild parties helclby dissolute,
Querga.s)
aflrt'it rrrusically
discriminating,playboys(sefioritos) of the landlordclass.
Aswith other musicstyles,the effectsof commercializationand profession-
alizationweremixed,often obligingartiststo panderto cheappublic
tastes,
whileat thesametime stimulatinghighertechnicalstandardsandexpansion
of repertoire,increasingthe sheeramount of performance,and attracting
the talentsofnon-Gypsy (payo)performers.Throughout its evolution,
flaI
mencohashad to caterto the tastesof diverseaudiences,including
festive
Glpsieqslummingaristocrats, purist intellectuals,
anuninfo rmed payomass
public, Romanticisttourists seeking"exotic" and "passionate"Andalusia,
and, increasingly,internationarfans, The mid-twentieth-centurydecades
werea particularlydifficult period, asinformal ju ergasin tavernswere
for-
mally bannedby the Francodictatorship,while the public tendedto favor
light, commercialcantebonito("pretty song"). However,veteransof
that
period note that the ban on flamencofiestaswaswidely ignoredin
ate 3 Map of Andalusia, showing historical centers of flamenco smaller
towns,andthat theperiodsustainedseveraloutstandingartists.Fortunately,
sincethe 1960sthe genrehasreboundedwith greatdynamism,whether
in
local musicalculture.Lastbut not least,from the 1500sthe region'sethnic traditional, commercialized,or innovativeavant_garde forms. Guitarists_
mix was enrichedby the immigration of substantialnumbersof Gypsies, especiallybut not only Pacode Lucia- haveplayedan essentialrole in
this
among whom performanceof music constitutedone traditional occupa- revitalization.
tion. Socio-economicbackwardness, relativeisolation from cosmopolitan
Europeanculture,andtherichnessofthe musicalheritageitselftogetherper-
petuatedthe vitality ofAndalusianfolk musicasa distinct andliving entity.
Contemporaryreferences from SevilleandC6drzin the late 1700sindi-
Theguitar in flamencohistory
calc the existenceof a musicalgenrethat would subsequentlycometo be while the guitar wassomewhatslow to be recognizedas an instrument
fit
rlllctl flirn.renco. In the following generationsthis idiom evolvedprimar- for classicalmusic,by the seventeenthcenturyit waswidely usedin spain
ily :rs irrr claboration of Andalusian folksong styles,with diverseinflu- and Italy to accompanya varietyofpopular and courtly songsand dunc.r,
,,rrrcs lirrrn othcr sources,suchasLatin American(includingAfro-Latin) both in informal contextsand in professionaltheater.scholars,however,
rrrrrsiclrr<1,lr:c:ortling
to somescholars,Italianopera.Flamencodeveloped disagree regardingthe presenceof the guitarin earlyflanrenco.During the
 l(, l\ ' l r t f \ l t u i l h ' l
17 Flamenco
guitar:history,style,status

f orura t i v c c r i l , g t l i t i l t s w cr ( :lx:yo r r tl llr cn r cr tn so l' n r o stlo wcr.tl rrssrrrrrsi t:i i rrrs,

and thumb patterns'limiteduseof arpcggi,
andthe earlyGypsycantejondo songs- whichweretrroroughly,rrtr:rrir'cl tw..rirrgr.rr.rr rr.rrr.r.),
andindicated thatmostof theconventional 'rrtr
monophonicin character- were often performed a palo scc.,tlr't is, ac- lssocia riorrol'intlivirlrr,rlr rrrrlr.,
with particularguitarkeyswereestablishecl by this tirrre.
companiedonlybyhand clapping (patmas)or perhapsrhphmically srril<ir.rg
A crucialdevelopment duringthisperiodwastlrcsl.'trir rrrizari'rr .r trrc
the knuckleson a table.Accordingly,someflamenc|rogoshave ar.guedthai modernguitaritselfbyAntonio de Torres
the guitar'susagedid not becomestandardin flamenco,suchasit existecl, furado(lgl7-92), w'. crrlrrrgctl
the body,fixed the string length,acldedmodern
until around the 1830s.others, however,cite contemporarysourcesattest- braccs,arrclirrtrorluccrl
the useof lighterwoods.He arsostandardized the disti'ctio' bctwcen(hc
ing to the ubiquity of the guitar from the late 1700sin accompanyingfolk
flamencoguitar and the classicar guitar.Torres'sflamencoguitar, assu'se-
songsand dances,including G12sysongsand fandangovariantsthat would quentlyadoptedby ManuelRamirezand otlrer
becomecentralto the flamencorepertoire. makers,usecllight cyprcss
insteadof ro.sewoocl on thebackand.sidcs, andold_style
while skilledflamencoguitaristsmay not haveaboundeduntil around r.u, t,,,iingp.:g.o.,
opposed to nrecha'icar horizontaloncs.whirc thcsefeaturcs
the 1930s,many of what would becomebasicaspectsof flamencoguitar rrrcin
st^rmcntrnorcafTbrdabre to impecunious flamcncoprirycrs, 'radc
techniquewerepresent,in howeverrudimentary a form, in earlierguitar thcrig,rr( w..tl
alsoprovidcda louclcr, brightcrsou'd suitalrlc ftrracc.nr'arryirrg
styles,both vernacularand learned.someofthesetechniquescanbe traced s.rr1irrrrl
tlancc,und facilitatcd thc tr-aditional _ subsctlucntly
to the mid-seventeenthcentury,and the dance-orientecl Practic:c alra,rd.r,r.,.l
music playedor.r .f holdiugtheinstrumcntin a ncar-verticirr
the new five-courseguitar.In this style,vocalverseswould be accompanied p,siti,n. 'r'hcflanrenco guitar
alsoretainedslightrysmalrercrimcnsions a'cr canret() urcorporate
by strumming (rasgueado), while instrumental interludeswould feature a plastic
tap plateon the faceto protectit from rhythmic golpes
plucked (punteado)or arpeggiatedpassages (fingernail-strokes).
derivedfrom lute style,some- The bridgeand saddlearealsosetsrightrylow.,
times playedwith the thumb. Eighteenth-centtryjdcaras,as stylizedand ,i-runon the classicalguitar,
facilitatingleft-handtechniqueslike hammering-on
refined by classicalcomposerslike santiagode Murcia, foreshadowother and pulling-off while
occasionallygenerating a slightbuzz,which is not regardedasobjectionable.
flamencotechniquesaswell assomeof the distinctivesyncopatedrhythms
By far the landmark figure in the consolidation
of modern flamenco.In a more generalsense,the variationsor diferencias and refinement of
themodernflamencoguitarstylewasRam6nMontoya gg0_1949),
onpopul* romancetvnes composedbyvihuela-playerslike Luis deNarv6ez (l whose
contributions are arso the first to be wel, documented
in the sixteenthcentury can be regardedas precursorsof the flamenco on recordings.
Montoyaestablished a new standardofvirtuositybysupprementingthe
falsetaspefiormedbetweensungpassages. fla-
mencotechniquesinherited from Molina with
In general,the guitart incorporation into flamencoseemsto havede- classicar featureshe learnecl
from the musicof FranciscoT6rrega and Miguel Lrobet.Accordingto some
vclopedfairly rapidly from the mid-nineteenthcentury.By the 1g50s-60s,
flamenc1logos,he "dignified" the flamencogiitar by introducing a-rpeggios,
grritirrircc<rrnpaniment had becomestandardinthe caft cantantecontext. intricateleft-handwork, variedand fast piiadopassages (single-nol r-rins),
l' rlrt' w;rl<c.f FranciscoRodriguez(El Murciano,1795-1g4g),the fust
andthefour-fingeredtremolo.(other commentators
ll:rrrt'rrr. 1',rrirurist to be known by name,other distinguishedguitarists, believethat thesetech_
niquesmusthavebeenpresentin theplayingofnineteenth-centurysoloists.)
rrr,lr ,* lil M;rt'srr.l'arino(1830-1900) and Antoniop6rez(1g35-1900) Somefurther credit Montoya with standardizing
.=irr u.'rI | {'rr()wl r rrsskillcrl.cc.mpanists;someof patiflo's/alsefasare the associationof partic-
stillper_ nlar guitar keyswith particular cantes(e.g.,asdis-cussed
lr,r1q,,=,1 |rrrrrr.'rrirlr(l('.rl;r;rrrc:isco
s/rnchez (pacoel Barbero,lg40-1910) below,Fflphrygian
with tarantas).Montoyaalsopopularizedthe use
t' l':;lt:i'erlr, lr'r'r'lrt'rr tlrt'rirsrr' of alternatetuningsoithe
flamenco
P.r-lirr^r guitarsolos,whichhe guitar,particularly for rondeia, a new creation
iI rlFr. li . . ; : F r l r v ! l l t I l i l r . , tlr l q .5 in Cf phrygian, in which
1 r i1 .1 b y Ar .< .ir s, Alr n a g r o , a n d V erdi . S 6nchez,s the sixth and third stringsareloweredto D and
= ii'; F= - = . r . =F = l i E ' i r l l t . l ' r ,' r r tr r ,l) i.r zilf:r r .. Ffi,respectively. Montoya,s
l,r r .cr r a , l8 5 5 _1930)andJavi er rondefla (not to be confusedwith the fandango
rl" liirai ! ' ! t : i i r f ! ' , f r r " , *r ir iir = r r r ' i' r r r ir lr r r r r ,s.r .stylcb ya dapti ngcertai n variant rondeflas)is arso
unique in being the only exclusiveryguitar-based
l: lriri ' g i 1 ; = = ! i r ' ; i * l a + = i r.rgl ir ir ,r r r r r r r r r r ,lvlr itlr wr .r t' su ir ir lr ly "l ,l i uncnco-i zed,' idiom in the flamenco
repertoire.SimilarlS his practiceof playing in
i. : ii: ; : : ; 1 , i , : r ' t , : i l . i l ' ! l l j . , 1 1 r lt:il:ie l[!,r r lr r l,r r lr li:;lr r .,lllr r .lir slll i trrrC rrC ogui tar Gfi phrygian for his version
ofminerasalsotook on its own rifeamongsubsequent
, : : = ii: , , , i i : , , . , ! , 1 f ; : ; , ; , j . ; .iF t:,!r tii,t!i guitarists.\{hile regu-
r r ,,, A!r ;r t tt l,t tlttt.,l,lrrsvl l rrrrrc, w l ri r:h larlyaccompanyingseminal
: : : = i:!: : : : ! : . , ,
non-Gypsysingers ;uantsreva( l g44_19l g) and
! : . e ; l :: fiitflr = + i..liil.:il!,1 l,!r lr iil,ilt;r ,lltr ,,trl , i l l rrrrri l t;tl c:rl
especiallyDonAntonio chac6n (rg69-1929),Mo'toya flurtrrcrpopularized
: : : = , . : - i = : : f : . : : : i ; : ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;;1 !! !- L tii,ltr - lt' ,, lr .r r r ,l ,,,,i,.,1
tt*. rl t,ttt,l ttrl rl tt thesoloflamencoguitaridiom,cvc. pcrfirrrrirg arrr..atr
.rr a rew.ccasions.
 19 Flamencoguitar: history,style,status
t8 PeterManuel

asNiio Ricardo( 1909-72)'also

ManuelSerrapi,a non-Gypsybetterknown his
sophisticated.virtuosoidiom' with
he$ed establishnu*."to goitur asa
higtrly inventive style'
o*r, ,o*.*nu, busy and rough' but
Sabicas (Agustin Castell6n'
Among their younger "lott*po'*ieq
by l$oltofa to new levelsof re-
1913-90)brought the style established guitarist to
the first flamenco
finement and virtuosity, and also became (b' 1928)
In his wake Mario Escudero
enjoygenuineinternationalsuccess' solo guitar'
of flamenco
;;#;" somewhatr**"t' classicizedversion
seePlate4)' Melchor
Meanwhil.e, goituristsUtJiego del Gastor(1908-73'
del Lunar (1894-1964)perpetuated
de Marchena(1907-80), *ipt'ito
style, which was preferred by those
a more traditional and less showy
puristswhoregardedthemodernvirtuososassacrificingsoulfirlexPres-
iion (duende)in favor of flashytechnique'
revolutionizedasneverbeforeby the
fuound 1970,flamencoguitur wns
geniusfrom Algeciras
of Pacode Lucil 0' 1947)'a non-G1rysy
"np*run.. influential flamencoartist of the latter
who is perhapsthe most brilliant and
twentiethcentury(seePlate5).DeLucia'scontributionsinsomerespects
defyanalysiso, .no*"'J"' One may notesuchelementsashis extraordi-
vocabulary and his innovative useof
nary technique,his enrichedharmonii
tiran!1(unsupported) chords'and
left-handslides,bent notes,'igt't-t'u"a
and ineffable'however'is the gen-
other details.tlltimately moimportant
eralbrilliancewhichpervadeshismusic,reflectedinadramaticallygfeater
an unprecedentedtechnicalvirtuosity
degreeofvariety and richness'and
the balanceand good tasteessen-
which, however,generallyremainswithin
sourcesof inspiration are at onc€
tial to the flamenco aesthetic'De Lucia's
flamencotradition' On the one hand'
cosmopolitanand firmly rooted in
of musics'hasrecordedrenditions
he hasgrownup listeningto all manner
and has performed extensively
of Manuel de Falta'stfu"'itut compositions'
Al DiMeola' and Larry Coryell'
with jazz-rock grrituti't' Ioht Mciaughtin'
he readsmusic with dfficulty
On the other hand, by his own admission'
per se'andmost of his flamencore-
and doesnot reallyknow or playiazz
of cantes'Ls might be expected'
mains firmlywitf,i" tt" i"ttttit"j "pt'toit"
purists who professoutrage at de Plate 4 Diego del Gastor (photo by Steve Kahn)
the ranks of flumenco funs include many
bait ardizingthe genre' Fortunately'
Lucia'sinnovatior* u"l "ttose him of
he hasbeenableto offer some-
in recording and concertizingso extensively'
of acrobatic collaborations with Amigo is perhaps
thing to everyone' whether in the form original and gifted junior artists,amongwhom Vicente
pop-tingedlarnenco nltevo'or more or purists' there is no doubt
oth.1,"goiot-heroesi' innovative' thJmost outstanding'Despitethe grumbling of
flamencocomprisesboth solo is flourishing
lessmainstrea- n"-.n.o, t'is straighi-ahead that flamenco,both in traditiottul and innovative
forms'
especiallywith the brilliant but of sophis-
and accompanimentplaying - the latter and that flamencoguitar has attained unprecedented
heights
(d' 1992)'
ill-starredvocalistCamar6nde la Isla tication,artistry,and recognition'
career' de Lucia has inspireda.new
Asicletlorn his own performing
gcncratiott,rf ttttlrnically clazAtng imitators'along witlr somegcnuinely
20 PeterManuel 21 Flamenco
guinr: historystyle,status

Plate 5 Paco de Lucia (photo by Paco Sanchez)

The flamenco guitar scene

In terms of function, pedagogy,and personnel,the flamencoguitar world

canbe seenasspanninga continuum,with the intimate,privateGypsycom-
munity at one end, and the internationalconcertsceneat the other. The
primary crucible of flamenco performers continues to be the Andalusian
(and to some extent,Madrid) Gypsyneighborhoods(which havealways
included fair numbers of payofamilies,such as Pacode Lucia's)'If many
Andalusiansareindifferent to flamenco,Gypsiesregardit asa cultural patri-
mony (seePlate6). Alongsideflamenco'sprofessional, public or semi-public
performancecontexts,the art hasalwaysthrived asan entertainment music
within the Gypsy community itself, whether for rowdy danceparties with
tangosandbulerias,or more serioussessions devotedto cantejondo.Hence
the ranks of passionateamateursingers,dancers,and guitaristsarelegion'
Most guitarists learn informally by imitating elders and, increasingly,by
copyingrecordings.Giventhe casualpedagogicaltechniquesand practice
Plate 6 Unidentified Gypsies (photo by Steve Kahn)
methods,it is quitesurprisinghow manyvirtuososcontinueto emergefrom
the communitiesof Gypsiesand lower-classpayoflamencofans.
A skilledguitarist,asidefrom accompanyingneighborhoodfiestasand their licks in, and might evenbe alowed a short solo during the course
of
danceclasses, may find work in a tablao.Thesearelatter-dayversionsof the an evening.
caft cantante,presentingglitzy flamencoshowsto tourists.ln the tablaos- The betterguitaristsgraduateto the levelof professionalflamencoper_
-
as in other contextsoriented toward outsiders- dancesetsare the main formances,in which they accornpanysingersat private cl'bs (pefias)
and,
focus,and cantejondo is kept to a minimum. Nevertheless, guitaristsget publicconcerts - especially'ight-rong,
open-airfestivals
heldin Andalusian
 :i t*terMunuel 23 FLamenco
guitar: history,style,status

towns during summertime, attended by hundreds of rowdy Gypsies. with the arrival of Paco de Lucia on the irrtcrnati.rrirlstr:rrcirr
Guitaristsregardthe all-night concertsaslessthan idealvenues,with their recentdecades,the crown of flamenco guitar-god lras rcstcclon il ,l()re
often poor soundsystemsand disruptiveaudiences.Nevertheless, the fes- unambiguouslydeservinghead.However,his hard-coreflamc'c, lirnsirr.e
tivals can alsobe rewardingfor musicians,as guitaristshaveample space far outnumberedby guitar-techniquefetishistswho hoot anclhowl aficr
betweenvocal strophesto demonstratetheir skill, and audiencesare in everylightning sixteenth-noterun. De Lucia himself,who is amongother
their own way discriminating and likely to roar with approval at a par- things an intelligent,humble, and articulateman, has no illusions about
ticularly expressive vocal melismaor guitar passage. Also popular are the the refinementof such musical tastes,although he has found the art of
formal concursos in which singersand guitaristscompetefor prestigious improvising in such contextsto be challengingin its own way. He has also
awards. commentedon the contrastbetweensuchecstaticinternationalreceptionof
It is only a selecthandful of guitaristswho manageto becomerecognized the shalloweraspectsof his music,and the ambivalence or evenindifference
assoloists.Thesemay getoccasionalsoloslotsalongsidetheir more regular with which flamencooften continuesto be receivedin Andalusiaitself,the
work asaccompanists, and a tiny handful areableto supportthemselves as cradleoftle art form. Indeed,it isworth observingthat most spaniards,and
soloists,often supplementingtheir incomesby teaching. evenmost Andalusians,havelittle interestin flamenco,and someregardit
Meanwhile,eversinceRam6nMontoyasuccessfully performedin Paris scornfirllyasa decadentlowlife music;outsideGypsysocietyit has flour_
in 1931,a few of the most gifted or fortunate guitaristshavebeen ableto ishedasa music for aficionados,somewhatlike jazzin Americansociety.
establishthemselves on the internationalconcertscene.This circuit affords Seriousinternationalstudentsand fans also constitutea significant,if
money,the opportunity to reachforeign flamencofans,and alsothe par- numericallysmall, aspectof the flamencoscene.In contrastto the infor-
ticular sort ofprestigegainedfrom playingin opulent concerthallsto 6lite mal learning methodspredominating in Andalusiaitself, American and
Westernaudiences who may or may not know much aboutflamenco.In the northern Europeanflamencoguitar studentsavail themselvesof formal
foreign concertcircuit the traditional flamencohierarchyis often reversed, lessons,pedagogicalbooks,videos,websites,and internet chat_lists.Sev_
with guitar music - which is "pretty" and presentsno languagebarrier - eral foreignershavebecomefine players,and a few, such as the American
taking precedenceover flamenco singing,which strikesmany outsiders David serva (David |ones), have enjoyedmoderatelysuccessfulcareers,
as hysterical,histrionic, and generallyincomprehensible.(Similarly, for performingin Spainaswell asthe United States.
example,it was sitarist Ravi Shankar,rather than equally gifted vocalists,
who broughtNorth Indian musicto theWestin the 1960s-70s.) Theperver-
sitiesand peculiaritiesofplaying for internationalaudiencesgeneratetheir Flamenco and flamenco guitar: style and structure
own anomalousstandardsof success. In Europe,and especiallyin the glitzy The flamencorepertoire consistsof around a dozenbasic cantes,and"a
Rivierahotel-club scene,the most conspicuousflamencostar throughout few dozenmore subsidiaryor obscurevariantsofthese. A cante(or palo)
much of the latter twentieth centurywas FrenchGlpsy guitarist Manitas de is a song-t1pe,identified by a particular poetic meter,characteristicvocal
Plata ("SilverHands"). SinceManitaspaid little heedto the basic compas melody (or melodies),in some casesa compAs(rhlthmic structure,which
patterns,his music, although flashyin its own way,waspseudo-flamenco mayincludetypicalchordalpatterns),and-last andperhapsleastin termsof
at best.However,as Arnedcanflamenc1logoBrook Zern wryly noted,in his structure- a distinctiveguitar key and setof conventionalaccompaniment
playing and flamboyantpersonalityManitas masterfrrllyperpetuatedthe patterns.The so-calledcanteslibresor "free" cafltes- notablyMalagueflas,
traditional Gypsyguasaartof conningguLliblepayostohis own advantage. Granainas,tarantas,andfandango libre-are performedin freerhFthm,that
Meanwhile,inthe United Statesduringthe sameperiodthefield offlamenco is, without meteredcompas.Most of the basiccantesappearto havebeen
guitar was largelydominatedby CarlosMontoya (1905-95),a nephewof informally codifiedby the earlytwentiethcentury andcontinueto form the
Ram6nMontoya.Carloswasan unpretentiousman and a respectable gui- basisfor modern flamenco.
tarist, and he certainlysucceeded in bringing flamencoto the nation'smost In more generalterms,flamencoitselfis distinguishedasa genrebyvar-
prestigiousconcerthalls.At the sametime, aficionadoswould agreethat his ious formal features(asidefrom lyric contentand otherlessstrictly musical
renownwassomewhatincommensuratewith his talent,especiallyin com. aspects).Much flamencoharmonyis in the form of what is generallycalled
parisonto that of Sabicasand Mario Escudero,who, althoughalsoliving in "Phrygiantonality,"in that it roughlycohereswith the "8,' mode (or trans_
New York sincethe middle of the century,enjoyedlesspopularity outside posedversionsthereof).Thu.s,in the commonclrordprogression Am-G_
of the circleof seriousflamencofans. F'-E'tlreF,rnajorchordfunctionsnot asthedonrinantof thc tonicA minor,
 -Et**--

24 Peter Manuel
25 Flamenco
guitar:history,style,status
but asthe Phrygiantonic; the role of the "dominant"
- that is, the chord rhythmic-harmonicscheme)and a more or lesspre-c.rctcrr,irrccr
that demandsresolutionto the tonic _ is playedby the crr.rdirl
supertonic(F), or
the sub-tonic (Dm). The chordalvocabularythus derives pattern,to which areaddedvariousimprovisedflourishesa'd adornr.rcnts.
primarily from
the Phrygian mode, with the exceptionof the tonic E Precedingand in betweenthe vocal strophes(tercios, coplas,
major chord, which or verxts),
usesnot G, but Gf (the raisedthird degree).The useof this the guitarist playssolo interludes ca[ed.
note,especially falsetas.Theseare invariablypre-
in melodic lines,reflectsAndarusiatArab heritage,and in particurar, composed,and in general,flamencoguitarplayingcontainslittle or none
the of
affinities with the H4az or Hijazkar maqams(modes), the sort of free improvisationencountered,for example,in jazz.However,
with the distinctive
augmentedsecondsin their lower tetrachords(i.e.,E_F_G#_A). the choiceof falsetasand the ongoing extemporizedflourishesand
Typically, varia-
chords- and especiallythe "dominant"-function chords tionslend the guitarplayingan essentiar flavorofrooseness and spontaneity.
- ur. .rr.i.h.d by
the inclusion of non-triadic tones,which most often are played The guitar introduction to a songserves,on a basiclevel,to setthe pitch
on open and tonality for the singer,to establishthe mood of the cante,and,
strings.Thus, for example,in the key which usesA major in the
asthe phrygian
tonic, the "dominant" function chord - which courdbe caseofmetered cantes,tosetthe rhythm. Although this introduction
analyzeau*io"orty tradi-
asG minor, Bbmajor, or somecombinationof both _ tionally consistsof a straightforward
could appearin the falset4 manymodernguitarists(to the
following forms: annoyanceof somepurists) play extended,meanderingpreludes
in which
the identity of the canteonly graduallybecomesevident.In general,
how-
llxample 2.1 "Dominant"-function chord in A phrygian ever,the accompanist's main job is to supportand follow the singer,and to
makehim or her soundgood.This involvessensitivelycomplementing
the
vocalistin variousways,by anticipatingphrases,tailoring dynamics,
inlen_
sity' and eventempo to particular passages, knowing when to be assertive
and when to lay back,and generallyintensifring the vocalist,smood.
Accompanyingdanceis an art form in itself.In the tablaoor dance
con-
Meanwhile,simple major or common_practicetonality cert context,much of the time the guitarist is accompanying
also occursin not a singer,
severalcantes,sometimesin juxtaposition witl phrygian but a dancer,who is setting the dynamic structure of the piece
tonality.2Most with his
flamencomusicians,of course,lack formal training in or her own choreography,whetherspontaneousor pre-arranged.
Westernmusic and As with
employ their own idiosyncraticterminology,by which, vocalists,the guitaristmust accompanywith sensitivityand flexibility,
for example,vo_ and
calistsmight indicate key preferencesto accompanists. be ableto adaptto performersofvarious degreesof competence.The
Thus, the key of tabrao
E Phrygianis referredto asp or arribq,or "above,'rreferring contextalsohas its own conventionalstructures,suchas the escobirlooart
to thepracement
of fingersin an E major chord,while the fingeringof of the alegrias- a sectionin minor key and slowertempo - which
the A majoichord has wourd
ledto thekeyof A phrygianasbeingdesignated, not be heardoutsideof the danceformat.
por medio_..inthe middle.,,
Flamencorhythms are also distinctive in their own way. As noted, the idiom of soroflamencoguitar,although extant from
The most char- the
acteristicoftheseuseelaboratedformsofthe hemiolaor late 1800s,did not becomea widely popular and recognized. art form until
sesquiarterapattern
which haspervadedspanishmusic for centuries.In the era of Ram6nMontoya.Eventoday,the typical flamencoperformance
its most rudimentary
form, this couldbe regardedasa bar of 6/g followed at an Andalusianall-night conferenceis unlikely to include a guitar
by one of 3/4,atrording solo.
the stresspattern: o Nr-two-three-o Nn-two-three- However,tablaoshowsand formal dance-orientedperformances
o rqB-and-r w o-and_ often do
rHnrr(-and). As indicatedbelow however,this pattern include guitar solos,partly in order to vary the paceof the evening.
generallydoesnot The
appearin such a straightforwardform. Flamenco traditional guitar solo would generallyconsistof a seriesof
vocal sryleis also dis- faketas- such
tinctive, with its pronounced use of melisma,its sob-like aswould normally punctuatevocalstrophes_ without anyparticular
falsettobreaks over_
and guttural effects,and its generallyhistrionic,impassioned archingformal structureor design.within this looseformat, the guitarist
delivery.Also would naturallytryto introducea measureof variety,perhaps,for
unique,of course,is the guitar style,to which we may example,
now rurn.
Flamencoguitar, as mentioned, evolvedprimarily by including an extendedmelodic passageplayedin tremolo sryle.
as an accompani_ Since
mental idiom, secondaryto the vocal canteitself. In the 1970s,however,guitar solosby leadingartists rike paco de
this capaciti the Lucia are
most basic requirernentof the guitarist is to provide generallypreserrted asextendcdcorlpositions,with evclcativc titles,which
the correct ,o^pir,
which, in the meteredcantes,comprisesan isorhlthm (that arerendcrcdin nrorcor lcssthesanrelishion in succcssivc pcrfonrrarrccs.
is, u ,.p.atirrg (ln o'dc'tr>bea top-rarrking guitarist(.tliry,.rrr,rr(rslrr()rrrrt,*,ly wt,ll
lrlry
 f
# I\eterManucl 27 Flamencoguitar: history, style,status

but also compose original and striking/alsefas.) Even these pieces,however, Example 2.2 tremolo pattern
continue to consist essentially of strings of falsetas,which are freely disem-
bodied and copied by imitators. Moreover, fanciful titles notwithstanding,
modern flamenco guitar solos invariably adhere to the inherited body of
traditional cantes,thus, modernization and innovation have consisted not
of adding to the repertoire by the creation of new cantes,bat of expanding
and enriching the cantesfrom within, by using more varied, adventurous,
and eclectic styles and harmonies.
5_
The relation of guitar solos to the cantesthemselves, however, is often
flexible and loose, since the cante's foremost distinguishing element - the
vocal melody - is absent in instrumental performance. A rendition of a
metered cante (such as soleares,bulerias, or siguiriyas) will naturally adhere
to the distinctive compds of the cante in question. It will also generally
employ the most conventional key used to accompany that cante.Thus, for
example, siguiriyas, tangos, and bulerias are most typically playedpor medio areparticularlyimportant and diverse;someof these,asshownbelow,mav
(in A Phrygian), both by accompanists and soloists. However, they are not be usedeither to producea machine-gun-rikepercussiveeffect,or a more
always played in this way. Quite commonly, for example, an accompanist constant'unbrokenroll. (To coherewith staffnotation, a downwardarrow
might choose to perform a bulerias not por mediobut por arriba (in "E", henceforthindicatesan upwardphysicalstroke,and vice versa.)
perhaps with a capo) in order to match the range of a singer, or simply Eumple 2.3 Rasgueado patterns
for variety; by extension, a soloist might render a bulerias in various keys, (a) (b) (c)

irrcluding the distinctive Fg Phrygian otherwise associated with tarantas. (a)

'l'hc rclirtiorr to the traditional cantesis even more ambiguous in the case G) (c)

<tl nmlcs /irrc.s, such as Granainas and tarantas, that are essentially free-
rTttJ
-5-
camrt
mTrJ
-5-
cami i
rtTJmt+ Jlr pJrr
ami i amrl pmp mp
rlrytlrrrric. I lcrc, sirrceneither vocal melody nor compasis present,it is only
llrt' trrrrvcrrtionalguitar key (Granainas in B Phrygian, and tarantas in F$) Alzapia (alzar:to raise;pita: plectrum) is a basictraditional technique,in
irrrtl,;rclhirlrs,tlrc usc ofa few typicalfalsetas,that identi4'the palo as such. whichthethumb is usedwithbothup- anddownstrokes, to generateforceful
ln r'fli'rt, grritirl solos in these paloshave the character of free fantasias and often fastpassages.
A typical alzapilatntangosis shownhere:
cxlrLrrirrp,tlre possilriliticsofa given guitar key.
Emmple 2.4 Alzapria
Mrrt lr nl tlre rlislirrctivccharacterof flamenco guitar comesfrom its col-
rlylir,lit rrrrv.rrliorrs.As mentioned above,guitaristssince Ram6n
'rlrrt
Mrr1111lyu Irovr.Ir'eelyltlirplccl classical-style picado, tremolo, and arpeg-
girr frr llrir;rrc lo llre llrrrnt:nr:oidiom. For example,picado runs (generally
Irl,il'ts'lwitlt tlr' lrrrt two lingcrs) most typically consistof scalarpassages
rvlrlrlr rie,irtsrrri, Br)!| l1'lin rcst ircu itously,to the tonic; in this sensetheycohere Flamencoguitar styleis further distinguishedby the useof hammering-on
l. llie rleqrr-i!rliirllnirrll=col rlrc nrost typical flamencovocal melodiesand and pulling-offtechniques,of golpes(,,blows,',or fingernailstrokes)on the
,lr,1rl lrtrrglreairrrs(i,.y,.,Arrr (i ,lLE). Competentflamencoguitaristsare faceof the instrument,and of a generallymore vigorousand forcefultouch
,riiiel,r l,i,ryIrrrrrll willr tlirzzling, speedand power,although they striveto than would be consideredappropriatein classicalplaylng.taditional fla-
t!ie aii, l! |!rqqtrFtssbl'rlrulHly,irs Parl of achieving a generalbalancebet\,yeen menco guitaristsplay mostly in first position, which allows them to take
alr iilrrrreil otrill,irr,h-l lt x ltitrs.'l'lrcrtrostcommon tremolo,aspopularized best advantageof open strings. It should also be noted that the tradi-
lit' [!rrttlrit,a,r I rtiilrilt,sllllltl) itrl)cggioswith four sixteenthquintupietson tional flamencoguitarist reststhe iirstrument on his right thigh, twisting
tlrs rrtlrerllrrgere,itqclr,wrr irr lixirlrrple2.2,afragment of soleares.Other his right hand downwardin a position which other guitaristswould find
Frfllx' lF!lurhlr!ee!!qe,lerr rrrilr'eunirluc to flamenco.Rasgueado
patterns awkward.
 .ttil

29 Flamencoguitar: history,sryle,status
lE PeterManuel
ttraybc sccn itsl tlisplirccrl
The rhlthm of the slow and serioussiguiriyas
examPle'
The cantesthemselves maybeclassifiedinvariousmanners'for version ofthe same hemiola, schematized
below:
or musicalfeatures' Oneusefirl
Uy..glorr,a.greeofprofundiiy, ethnicorigin' An
of the cantesirlto four groupings: nAnn
n
,ppr"".f, i" i.e lattervein dividesmost lr r 2ll 23 45 6 7. - .
sol eares:123 4 567 8910
all ofwhose compases use a form of | z ll 23l2 3 1. . .
(1) soleares,alegrlas,bulerias,and variants' or:123 I 2 3 | 2 12
stressingbeats3, 6, 8' and 10; lhesecantesate
the 6t8.3t4henio|alsesquialfer4 | 23 4 5 6 789r 0llr 2l
and origin' siguiriyas:
in character | 2. . '
t.g"ta.a asthe most distinctivd Gypsy or: r 21 2 | 2 3r 23
resemblesa displacedversion
(2) the statelyand solemnsiguiriyas'whose compas
ofthat of the PrecedinggrouP' follows:
tangos and tientos are the most Its compismightberenderedin passingas
(3) traditional duple-meterld cantes'of which
imPortant.
(including Malaguefras'Granainas'taran-
(4) the membersof the fandangofamily SiguiriYas
offandangoperse);most ofthesefeature
Fxample}.T
tas/taranto,andthe numerousvarieties
harmony punctuatedby guitar interludes
vocal strophesin common_practice
ftee-metered(libre) or in 3/4'
in Phrygiantonality; thty u" variously
cantesis neither possible nor ap-
While a thorough description of the
most basic cantesmay
space' a brief look at a few of the
1r'rrlrriate in this cantes'tangos (which has
in which they are rendered on guitar' In the family of duple- or quadruple-metered
scrvc to illustrate some of the ways relation to its Latin American
and alegrias (in E' C' or' often by only u u"., general rnusical and historical
lbth soleares (typically in E Phrygian) or fasttempo' with
compis (imperfectly notated below namesake)is typically ren deredpor medioinmoderate
soloists, A major) feature a twelve-Leat
tempo, with accents on beats 1' 3' abasiccompta-s ostinato fi'gureasbelow:
as four bars of 3/4) in slow or moderate
end on 10' Fabetas'suchasthis typical
6, B, and 10; guitar phrases generally
introductory passagein will generally reflect this isorhythm: Example 2.8 Tangos
'o["""
J = re oS N t
mple 2.5 Soleares

with more of a triplet-

Tientos is a slower counterpart of tangos'
sub-dividedfeel.
, from Gypsysubculture'but
Thebuleriascornpfusissimilar,exceptthatitsaire(tempo,spirit)isfast
(por medio);guitatfalsetas Membersof the fandangofamily derivenot
and festive,and most tlpically setto e lhrygian from Andalusian folk *olit' th"y generally
follow a specific harmonic
beat is de-emphasized and often.es-
often begin on beat 12, andthe first playedltor arriba (as in Malagueflasand
fandangos
significance)'
ineffable.structural A frogr.rrion, which
sentiallysilent (whileretaininga certain per se)isroughlYasfollows:
a fingernail
typical cornpasretdeti"g ofUitttiu' is asfollows("g" represents
guitar ostinato verse guitar ostinato
golpe):
A m G FE CFCG TCFE Am G FE
C hords:
I II I iv iII II I
Example 2.6 Bulerias E Phrygian: iv III II
I IV IVT I lV
C major:
J=r*
de Huelva' the fingernail
In the guitar ostinato of the meteredfandango
the downbeats:
gn|r* pioyparticularlyimportantrolcsin marking
lf PeterManuel 31 Flamenco
guilar:history,slyle,status

Example2.9 Fandango de Huelva continuityis quite evidentin flamencoguitar,if rrrrrlerslrxrrl an a netiil

conventionaltechniquesappliedtoastandardizcdrcpcrtoircol sorrgtygrer,
or palos.The technicalvocabularycodifiedby Ram6n Montoyil, lruwcvcr
enrichedby innovatorslike Pacode Lucia, still constitutesthe essence of
the style,and guitaristscontinueto work largelywithin the inherited cantes
Tarantas and its metered counterpart taranto are played in the key of standardizedby the early twentieth century. Even the current eclectic ex-
Ffl Phrygian (with versesin D major), which offers particular possibili- cursionsinto variouspop stylescan be seenasperpetuatingthe tradition,
ties to guitarists.The tonic chord is typically renderedwith non-triadic established sinceflamenco'sorigins,of interactingwith contemporary ver-
openstrings;when first soundedit is often followedby a legatoornament nacularidioms,be it folk fandangos,Cubancampesino music,or disco.
asshown: While flamencocontinuesto thrive in its quintessential contextof Gypsy
juergas, guitaristshaverecentlyled the wayin experimenting with a variety
genrcs.Suclrsyrrcrcticenrlelvorslritvcorc:rrrnplssctl
of internati<lr-ral rock
Example2.10 Tarantas
and blucs(asby thc groupl)atirNcgrn),l,aliuirrrrlNortlr Ali'itrrrrnrrrsits
(notablyKetama), jazz-rr>cl<(Pacodc l,rrcil'.s ftrllyswillr l,rlrrrMr Lirrrglrlirr
andothers), andmo der njazzit scll'( r ir ( ir ir r nr r rwir
r sr 'lir r r r ir lilo's y r r r ir r{g,
) l)
with pianistMicheleCamilo).Pcrh:rps rnostlirnrilill irr torlly'srrrurlerrr
flamencosoundarethe livelycrossovcllccortlirrgsprorlrrcctllry rlc l,rrtlrr,
VicenteAmigo,and others.Thesecorrrbinelltrrrcncosoloiuttl lritt.ltrrl,vo
Granalnas offers its own guitaristic potential, being played in B cals,conciseguitarinterludes, andbassand liglrtpercussiorr, irr lhc corrtcxl
Phrygian, with versesin G major. Again, the tonic chord may include oftunefirl pre-composed songs,usuallycategorizable astangos,rurnbas,or
non-triadicopenstrings: bulerias.The most successful of theserecordings- suchasthe l99B Me Voy
Contigoof Amigo and singerRemediosAmaya- havebecomemainstream
Example2.ll Granainas
pop hits in Spainand evenearnedthe approvalofhard-coretraditionalists.
As in the caseofjazz artistslike HerbieHancockand Chick Corea,guitarist-
^ .l producerslike Amigo and de Lucia can continue to gratifr their more
ffi purist listenersby recordingstraight-aheadacousticCDs alongsidetheir
pop-tingedforays.
Many traditional music genresworldwide have fared poorly in their
In the nineteenthcenturythis key appearsto havebeenpopularin the hilly
confrontation with mainstreamWesternpop music, with its common-
regionsof westernAndalusia,and thus cameto be the conventionalac-
denominatorappealandits powerfirlmultinationalbacking.The intensified
companimentkeyfor the fandangovariant namedafterthe nearbytown of
processes of globalizationin recentyearshaveheightenedboth the chal-
Granada.Granainasis the only fandangotype to regularlyconcludeon the
lengesand the new opportunitiesfor "peripheral"musicsassociated with
"common-practice"tonic - that is, E minor - perhapsbecauseof the reso-
specificethnic,regional,or linguistic audiences.Loversofflamenco and of
nanceofthat chordasplayedon the guitar.The conventionofending on this
world music in generalcanfind much gratification in the way that flamenco
chord illustrateshow flamenco'schordalvocabularyhas in many respects
guitarists,rather than beingswampedby thesedevelopments, haveridden
evolvedin direct connection with the guitar, rather than developingas an
the crestof musicalglobalization,at oncetaking their art into excitingnew
abstractharmonic repertoirealongthe linesof Westerncommon practice.
directionswhile maintainingits traditional coherenceand integrity.3

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Flamenco guitar enters the new millennium Thepublisherhasuseditsbestendeavors to ensurethattheURLsfor external
websites
referredto in thisbookarecorrectandactiveatthetimeof goingto press.
Overthe courseof its meteorictrajectoryin the last centuryand a half, fla-
However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websitesand can make no
mencohasbeenableto evolve,thrive,and adaptto changingcircumstances guarantccthi l t a si tc w il l rc nrai nl i v c or that thc c ontc nt i s or w i l l rc mai n appropri ate.
whilc rctairringir rclativelystableand coherentstylisticcorc.l"hi$ hcalthy