Hydrostatic skeleton

A hydrostatic skeleton, or hydroskeleton, is a flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure.[1] Hydrostatic

skeletons are common among simple invertebrate organisms. While more advanced organisms can be
considered hydrostatic, they are sometimes referred to as hydrostatic for their possession of a hydrostatic organ
instead of a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic organ and a hydrostatic skeleton may have the same
capabilities, but they are not the same.[1] Hydrostatic organs are more common in advanced organisms, while
hydrostatic skeletons are more common in primitive organisms. As its name suggests, containing hydro
meaning "water", being hydrostatic means that the skeleton or organ is fluid-filled.[2]

As a skeletal structure, it possesses the ability to affect shape and movement, and involves two mechanical
units: the muscle layers and the body wall. The muscular layers are longitudinal and circular, and part of the
fluid-filled coelom within. Contractions of the circular muscles lengthen the organism’s body, while
contractions of the longitudinal muscles shorten the organism’s body. Fluid within the organism is evenly
concentrated so the forces of the muscle are spread throughout the whole organism and shape changes can
persist.[2] These structural factors also persist in a hydrostatic organ.

A non-helical hydrostatic skeleton structure is the functional basis of the mammalian penis.[3] Helically
reinforced hydrostatic skeleton structure is typical for flexible structures as in soft-bodied animals.[2]

Contents
Structure
Advantages and disadvantages
Organisms
Vertebrates
See also
References

Structure
Hydrostatic skeletons are typically arranged in a cylinder. Hydrostatic skeletons can be controlled by several
different muscle types. Length can be adjusted by longitudinal muscle fibers parallel to the longitudinal axis.
The muscle fibers may be found in continuous sheets or isolated bundles, and the diameter can be manipulated
by three different muscle types: circular, radial, and transverse.[2] Circular musculature wraps around the
circumference of the cylinder, radial musculature extends from the center of the cylinder towards the surface,
and transverse musculature arrange in parallel and perpendicular sheets crossing the diameter of the cylinder.[2]

Within the cylinder lies fluid, most often water. The fluid is resistant to changes in volume. Contraction of
circular, radial or transverse muscles increases the pressure within the cylinder, and results in an increase in
length. Contraction of longitudinal muscles can shorten the cylinder.[2]

Change in shape is limited by connective tissue fibers. Connective fibers, often collagenous, are arranged in a
helical shape within the wall of the hydrostatic skeleton. The helical shape formed by these fibers allows for
elongation and shortening of the skeleton, while still remaining rigid to prevent torsion. As the shape of the
cylinder changes, the pitch of the helix will
change. The angle relative to the long axis
will decrease during elongation and increase
during shortening.[2]

Advantages and
disadvantages
Organisms containing a hydrostatic skeleton
have advantages and disadvantages. Their Many animals with a wormlike cylindrical body have a
fluid shape allows them to move around easily hydrostatic skeleton with a flexible skin and a water-filled body
while swimming and burrowing. They can fit cavity (coelom or pseudocoelom). They move by peristalsis,
through oddly shaped passages and hide using opposed circular and longitudinal muscles, which act on
the hydrostatic skeleton to change the body's shape.
themselves more effectively from predators.
They are able to create a force when
squeezing through rocks and create a “prying
open” gesture. There is a lightweight, flexible component to them that allows this movement with very little
muscle mass.[4]

These organisms are also able to heal faster than organisms that contain hard skeletons. Healing in these
organisms varies from creature to creature. However, if the cavity needs to be refilled, the “fluid” can easily be
refilled if it is water or blood. If the fluid is some other type of liquid, it can take longer, but it is still faster than
healing a bone. The common earthworm is also able to regrow damaged parts of its body.[4]

These organisms have some relatively simple pathways for circulation and respiration. Also, these organisms
have a cushion to allow protection for internal organs from shock. However, it does not protect internal organs
from external damage very effectively.[4]

Because the hydrostatic skeletons have limited ability for attachment of limbs, the organisms are relatively
simple and do not have many abilities to grab or latch onto things. Organisms with complete hydrostatic
skeletons need to be in an environment that allows them to re-fill themselves with their fluid that is necessary
for survival. This is why hydrostatic skeletons are common in marine life. They have a large amount of access
to the necessary elements for survival. Terrestrial organisms that have hydrostatic skeletons generally have a
lack of strength because they are not in a fluid environment. If one were to expand its body too much, it would
collapse under its own weight.[4]

Organisms
Hydrostatic skeletons are very common in invertebrates. A common example is the earthworm. Also,
hydrostatic nature is common in marine life such as jelly fish, starfish, and sea anemones. Earthworms have
rings of muscles that are filled with fluid, making their entire body hydrostatic. A sea anemone has a
hydrostatic head, with arms radiating out around the mouth. This structure is helpful in feeding and
locomotion.[5]

An example of a simple vertebrate containing a hydrostatic skeleton would be Enteropneusta, with the
common name of acorn worm. This organism is classified as a Hemichordate, and they are marine worms that
use their hydrostatic skeleton to tunnel and anchor themselves into the ground. This can be used for
locomotion, but also can aid in the defense of the organism against outside forces as the worm can try to
"hide" itself within the ocean floor.[5]
Vertebrates

The mammalian penis is a hydrostatic organ. The hydrostatic fluid, in this

case blood, fills the penis during an erection. Unlike the hydrostatic skeletons
of many invertebrates, which use the bending of the animal for locomotion,
the penis must resist bending and shape changes during sexual intercourse.
Instead of connective fibers arranged in a helical shape, the penis contains a
layer called the corpus cavernosum. The corpus cavernosum contains
connective fibers arranged both parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis. These fibers remain folded when the penis is flaccid, but unfold as the
penis fills with blood during an erection, which allows the penis to resist
bending. The penises of turtles are structured similarly, although they evolved
separately.[5]

Other vertebrates sometimes utilize a modified hydrostatic skeleton called a

muscular hydrostat.[2] Muscular hydrostats do not contain a fluid-filled cavity.
These structures are constructed of muscle and connective fibers, densely
The hemichordates are
packed into a 3-D structure. In many cases, the muscular hydrostat can be
among the many marine
manipulated in all three dimensions. This allows for more precise movement
animals with hydrostatic
compared to a typical hydrostatic skeleton. While in typical hydrostatic
skeletons and peristaltic
skeletons, movement is generated by applying force to a fluid-filled cavity, locomotion.
muscular hydrostats generate movement by muscle contractions. When one
muscle contracts and decreases in area, other muscles within the structure
must expand in response. Helical muscles may be present, which can create torsion, an ability that is restricted
in hydrostatic skeletons. Muscular hydrostats are found in mammalian, reptilian, and amphibian tongues.
Mammalian tongues have the structure of a central core of muscle fibers surrounded by bundles of longitudinal
muscles and alternating parallel sheets of transverse muscle fibers. Elephant trunks and tapir proboscises also
utilize a muscular hydrostat. These structures are composed of longitudinal fibers surrounded by radial and
helical fibers.[5]

See also
Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Pneumatic artificial muscles

References
1. Kardong, Kenneth V. (2015). Vertebrates | Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (7th ed.).
Mc Graw Hill Education. pp. 426, 496. ISBN 978-0078023026.
2. Kier, William M. (2012-04-15). "The diversity of hydrostatic skeletons" (https://doi.org/10.1242/je
b.056549). Journal of Experimental Biology. 215 (8): 1247–1257. doi:10.1242/jeb.056549 (http
s://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.056549). PMID 22442361 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/224423
61).
3. Kelly, DA (April 2002). "The functional morphology of penile erection: tissue designs for
increasing and maintaining stiffness" (http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/kelly/pdf/Kelly-2002.p
df) (PDF). Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (2): 216–221. doi:10.1093/icb/42.2.216 (http
s://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.2.216). PMID 21708713 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21
708713).
4. "Everything Maths and Science" (http://www.everythingmaths.co.za/science/lifesciences/grade-
10/06-support-systems-in-animals/06-support-systems-in-animals-02.cnxmlplus).
 www.everythingmaths.co.za. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
5. "Hydrostatic Skeleton - The Infinite Spider" (http://infinitespider.com/hydrostatic-skeleton/). The
Infinite Spider. 2015-02-10. Retrieved 2016-12-01.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrostatic_skeleton&oldid=963911652"

This page was last edited on 22 June 2020, at 14:18 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.