Microelectronics

Journal

Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427

www.elsevier.com/locate/mejo

Micro-Raman spectroscopy: a powerful technique for materials research

S. Jimenez-Sandoval*
Laboratorio de Investigación en Materiales, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., Unidad Querétaro, Apartado Postal 1-798,
Querétaro, 76001, Mexico
Accepted 25 January 2000

Abstract
Since the development of the holographic notch filters during the last decade and novel detectors such as charge coupled devices, Raman
spectroscopy instrumentation has evolved rapidly, so that modern spectrometers are orders of magnitude faster, present much lower signal-
to-noise ratio and simplified optics than their predecessors. These advances have also had a significant effect in the construction of novel
micro-Raman-dedicated spectrometers that currently use lasers with powers of the order of a few tens of mW. In the present work, a brief
overview of current Raman spectroscopy technology in traditional spectrometers and of different applications of modern micro-Raman
spectroscopy to the study of materials, ranging from epitaxial semiconductor thin films of interest to the optoelectronics industry, to
biomaterials of interest to medical science, is presented. An emphasis is given to different acquisition modes that are possible when the
excitation laser light is passed through a microscope objective and the sample is placed in a computer controlled XY stage. q 2000 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Raman spectroscopy; Optical properties; Semiconductors; Superconductors

1. Introduction by analyzing the energy spectrum of the inelastically scat-

tered light. The energy of the Raman scattered photons may
Raman scattering spectroscopy has proven to be a power- be changed in two ways: energy lost caused by the creation
ful technique for studying materials. The fact that solids, of a phonon (Stokes process) or energy gained by the photon
liquids and gases are able to scatter light through the caused by the absorption of a phonon (anti-Stokes process).
Raman effect has made possible the application of this tech- In either case, the energy change of the scattered photon is
nique in a wide variety of cases ranging from monocompo- discrete and is directly related to the vibrational properties
nent to multicomponent samples, which in turn may consist of the specimen. Each peak in a Raman spectrum, thus,
of both organic and inorganic materials. The case of pure corresponds to a particular atomic vibrational mode in the
metals has been a difficult experimental matter for Raman sample, and its energy measures the frequency of the corre-
scattering spectroscopists due to extremely short penetration sponding atomic normal mode.
of the electromagnetic radiation in a metal, limited by the Raman scattering is a very sensitive technique to probe
skin depth, and also to their low-Raman scattering efficiency, local atomic environments. Indeed, the properties of the
probably due to the small values of the Raman tensor compo- vibrational modes are basically determined by the mass,
nents, whose values to date remain undetermined. bond type and symmetry of the constituting atoms in the
The brief discussion that follows will be focused on elemental unit of the gas or liquid (molecule), or solid
vibrational modes, leaving apart other low-frequency (primitive unit cell). In this fashion, the surroundings of a
modes, such as rotational, in which the motion of full mole- particular atom have a strong influence on its dynamics;
cules is involved. Stated simply, a photon is scattered therefore, the appearance of any physical factor affecting
through the Raman effect when, during the scattering the short-range order, such as defects or impurities, have a
process, its energy is changed as a consequence of its inter- direct impact on the atom vibrational properties. Such modi-
action with the vibrational quanta (phonons) in the sample. fications in the vibrational characteristics of the moving
The energy shift of the scattered photons may be measured atoms are readily noticeable in the Raman spectrum
features. This is reflected, for instance, in the striking differ-
* Tel.: 1 52-42-119912; fax: 1 52-42-119939. ences between the spectrum of a crystalline sample and
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Jimenez-Sandoval). that of an amorphous material of the same kind. For the
0026-2692/00/$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0026-269 2(00)00011-2
420 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427

Fig. 1. General block diagram of components in a Raman spectrometer.

interpretation of Raman spectra, the knowledge of the CW lasers emitting in the visible such as Ar ion or He–Ne
symmetry properties of the molecule or crystal under lasers. The focusing optics, step II in Fig. 1, depends very
study is a relevant aid. Indeed, group theory applied to much on the particular geometry and regularly consists of
such systems allows one to determine the symmetry, mirrors and lenses appropriate for the laser wavelength. In
number and activity of the atomic vibrational modes in a dispersive systems, a cylindrical lens is customarily placed
particular sample [1]. to focus the laser beam on the sample surface so that the
The contents of the paper has been organized as follows: a maximum intensity signal passes through the monochroma-
brief summary on Raman spectroscopy instrumentation is tor rectangular slit and also as an aid to avoid laser-heating
given in Section 2, in which the discussion of traditional effects that may produce changes in the sample. The collec-
Raman spectrometers is focused on dispersive and Fourier tion optics, step IV, is also composed of appropriate lenses
transform spectrometers. Differences on these two systems configured to optimize signal detection. In the case of single
are highlighted through a general description of the compo- crystals or non-isotropic samples, the polarization proper-
nents in a Raman system. This material is followed by a ties of the scattered light may be studied by placing a polar-
section on micro-Raman dedicated spectrometers where an izer in the laser beam before it reaches the sample and other
emphasis is given to the current technological advances that polarizer, used as analyzer, in the signal optical path before
have had a profound impact in Raman spectroscopy instru- reaching the signal processor. The signal processor, step V
mentation. Section 3 describes the various micro-probe in Fig. 1, may be defined as an optical arrangement that
acquisition modes, available in our micro-Raman laboratory, allows making a frequency, or energy, decomposition of
that were utilized in the application studies illustrated in the signal. In the case of FT systems, the signal processor
Section 4. Finally, some conclusions are given in Section 5. consists of an appropriate Michelson interferometer and a
FT processor, while in the case of dispersive systems the
signal processor is a monochromator. Such monochroma-
2. Instrumentation tors in traditional Raman spectrometers need to be double or
triple for suppressing the laser light elastically scattered.
2.1. Raman spectrometers After this step, the processed signal reaches the detector,
step VI in Fig. 1. Raman detectors are also different for
A simplified block diagram of the instrumentation used in FT and dispersive systems due to the distinct wavelength
Raman scattering experiments is given in Fig. 1. Nowadays, range where they work. Currently, the most common detec-
Raman spectrometers have evolved in two different main tors for FT systems are made of Ge and InGaAs. In the case
technological paths: dispersive systems, which employ a of dispersive systems, the detectors of choice are photomul-
monochromator for processing the signal, and Fourier trans- tiplier tubes (PMT) or charge coupled devices (CCD). PMTs
form (FT) systems, which employ an interferometer with an are less sensitive but provide a very useful tool when the
analogous purpose. An excellent recent review on instrumen- interest is focused on details of the peak line shape. CCD
tation for dispersive systems is given by McCreery [2] and for detectors represent the modern technology in multichannel
FT systems is provided by Hendra [3]; however, with the detection due to their low dark-noise signal and high-quan-
purpose of emphasizing the simplicity and power of micro- tum efficiency (number of photons required to produce a
Raman dedicated spectrometers, the general features of both measurable electron), which being wavelength dependent,
traditional technologies will be briefly discussed below. may reach more than 80% in the case of thinned CCD
Due to the requirement of a high-intensity monochro- detectors. McCreery has reviewed Raman spectroscopy
matic source, imposed by the low efficiency of the Raman detectors [4].
effect (typically 1 in 10 7 photons is scattered by a
Raman process), the excitation source of choice in every 2.2. Micro-Raman dedicated spectrometers
Raman system is a laser, step I in Fig. 1. FT systems employ
lasers emitting in the near infrared, usually Nd:Yag which A common approach in micro-Raman spectroscopy
lases at 1064 nm, while dispersive systems usually employ has been the adaptation of a microscope to a traditional
 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427 421

Fig. 2. Different acquisition modes used in the micro-Raman experiments: (A) confocal; (B) manual scan; (C) spectral image; and (D) line-scanning mode.

spectrometer, so that the excitation source and outgoing the laser wavelength and steep band edges. These character-
signal are transmitted and focused through the micro- istics allow simultaneous acquisition of both Stokes and
scope optics and the scattered light is then sent to the anti-Stokes scattered light, and also the recording of
signal processor of the system, step V in Fig. 1. Raman spectra at wave number shifts as low as 50 cm 21.
Because of the rather complex optics required to The use of holographic notch filters makes possible nowa-
adapt a microscope to a traditional system and the days to employ single monochromators instead of the low-
low light throughput of double and triple monochromators throughput double or triple versions. With regard to Fig. 1,
in the case of dispersive systems, such approach produces the focusing optics consists of few mirrors, used to bring
substantially a less efficient micro-Raman spectrometer laser beam to the microscope optics, and a microscope
when compared to a micro-Raman dedicated spectrometer. objective. In the optical path a beam splitter sends the
The discussion below will be focused on this last type of laser beam to the objective and also allows the backscattered
Raman spectrometers. light to reach the holographic notch filter, which in turn
During the last decade, a revolution in Raman spectro- sends the Rayleigh-free scattered light into the signal
scopy instrumentation has occurred with the use of holo- processor, step V in Fig. 1, and then to the detector. Most
graphic techniques for the development and construction of micro-Raman spectrometers use CCD-based detectors to
optical elements [5]. In fact, such methods allowed the take advantage of the fast multi-channel detection and
possibility of using optical filters that selectively block the also of the high sensitivity and low dark-noise signal. In
transmission (the optical density for a specific laser wave- this fashion, it is possible to acquire, for instance, a
length may be as high as 6.0) of the unwanted elastically Raman spectrum of silicon or germanium of several thou-
scattered laser line. Such filters are the so-called holo- sand counts in a matter of one second. Modern micro-
graphic notch filters. The performance of these filters Raman spectrometers may incorporate optical fibers as
combines narrow spectral bandwidth, high reflectivity to well as confocal capabilities in the microscope; the former
422 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427

Fig. 3. Raman spectra obtained in the line-scanning mode for a 7 mm-thick film along the (110) edge.

for remote sensing and the latter for performing measure- the focused laser beam. Signal coming from above and
ments with in-depth resolution [6]. below the focal plane is blocked by a pinhole, not shown
in the figure, situated in the optical path towards the detector
so that only the Raman signal originating from region A in
3. Experimental Fig. 2A reaches the CCD. In this fashion, if the sample is
transparent to the laser wavelength, the laser beam may be
Micro-Raman spectroscopy has been employed to study focused on the sample surface and then at intermediate
different kinds of materials. In this section, a series of results points until the film/substrate interface is reached. In Fig.
with the intention of giving the reader an idea of the power 2B, the film is placed on its side in a sample holder so that
and versatility of this technique is presented. The examples the laser beam probes the film edge. In this case, a manual
that follow correspond to samples measured in a commer- scan with the help of the XY stage is depicted. For epitaxial
cial micro-Raman system (Labram model of Dilor) films, this acquisition mode advantageously allows looking
equipped with a 20 mW He–Ne laser emitting at at the sample from other crystallographic plane with respect
632.8 nm, a holographic notch filter made by Kaiser Optical to the film surface and, thus, more information is obtained
Systems, Inc. (model superNotch-Plus), a 256 × 1024-pixel since different Raman selection rules would apply. This last
CCD used as detector, a computer-controlled XY stage with observation applies also to the acquisition modes shown in
a spatial resolution of 0.1 mm, two interchangeable gratings Fig. 2C and D. In the former case, an area is defined on the
(600 and 1800 g mm 21), and a confocal microscope with sample and the laser beam is scanned over it by moving the
10, 50 and 100 × objectives, which allows us to obtain sample with the computer-controlled XY stage; in the figure, a
lateral spatial resolutions of approximately 10, 2 and division of the total area in cells of 1 × 3 mm2 is represented,
1 mm, respectively. All measurements discussed below although it is possible to define finer grids. In the latter case,
were carried out at room temperature with no special the line-scanning mode is depicted in which the laser beam
sample preparation. is scanned along a straight line by the rocking movement of
Fig. 2 shows four different acquisition modes that were a mirror at a frequency of 10 Hz. This last acquisition
applied to study an epitaxial film of AlGaP grown on GaP mode has the advantage of providing a considerable
substrates by liquid-phase epitaxy. With this example, the faster way of obtaining a Raman profile, however,
non-traditional acquisition modes available in our system since the power density on the sample is reduced by
will be illustrated. In Fig. 2A is shown the application of the motion of the laser, its applicability is more appro-
the confocal capabilities of the microscope to have in-depth priate for samples that provide a high-intensity Raman
resolution for studying the sample. The figure shows a 3– signal.
4 mm thick region around the focal plane that is probed by The above mentioned acquisition modes have been
 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427 423

Fig. 4. A 20 × 45 mm2 spectral image of an AlxGa12xP/GaP film showing the distribution of Al. In the vertical axis is plotted the relative intensity of the LO
AlP-like phonon.

applied to the study of a wide variety of samples. In what misalignment. In spectrum B, which belongs to an inter-
follows, some representative application examples are mediate point, the substrate signal has decreased while the
presented with the intention of illustrating the power of TO GaP-like mode of the film has emerged. Spectrum C
micro-Raman technology for studying materials. corresponds to a point on the film where the TO Gap-like
mode dominates the spectrum and the substrate signal may
still be seen as a shoulder. For the last case, it is worth to
4. Applications mention that the Raman efficiency of GaP is orders of
magnitude higher than that of the AlxGa12xP alloy, so that
4.1. AlxGa12xP thin films even when only a small portion of the laser energy reaches
the substrate (due to defect elastic scattering), its Raman
AlxGa12xP films were grown by liquid-phase epitaxy on signal is still present in the spectrum. Fig. 4 shows a 20 ×
(100) GaP substrates misoriented 4–88 towards the (110) 45 mm2 spectral image of the film/substrate interface
plane. During growth, depending on the temperature and obtained as described in Fig. 2C, where in the vertical
cooling rate, an aluminum concentration gradient is usually axis the normalized intensity of the LO AlP-like phonon
obtained in such a way that higher Al contents exists at the is plotted. This plotting mode allows one to detect the Al
film/substrate interface than at the film surface. A set of presence throughout the film, and as can be observed, a
AlxGa12xP/GaP samples were grown with different concen- higher Al concentration indeed occurs at the interface,
trations …0 , x , 0:7† and thicknesses …3 , d , 13 mm†: monotonically decreasing towards the film surface. This
The Al concentration profiles were studied by micro- result is in good agreement with the measurements carried
Raman spectroscopy, employing the acquisition modes A, out on the same sample by the, although more accurate,
C and D depicted in Fig. 2, and by secondary ion mass SIMS technique and illustrates the feasibility of using
spectroscopy (SIMS), a more sophisticated and expensive micro-Raman techniques to study concentration profiles in
technique. In Fig. 3, Raman spectra are compared, obtained semiconductor compounds and alloys, not requiring vacuum
by the line-scanning mode (type D, Fig. 2), at three different or any special sample preparation method. A full study of
points along a film-surface straight line. Spectrum A corre- the AlxGa12xP/GaP system and lattice dynamics of
sponds to a point on the (110) edge of the substrate where AlxGa12xP may be found elsewhere [7].
the transverse optical (TO) and longitudinal optical (LO)
phonons of GaP are observed at 363 and 400 cm 21, respec- 4.2. Te aggregates in CdTe
tively. In this configuration, the LO mode is forbidden,
however, it is observable with low intensity due to sample Inhomogeneous samples are well suited as objects of
424 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427

study for micro-Raman spectroscopy. Indeed, different

species present in a specimen may be readily detected
through their corresponding Raman spectrum. Typically,
if such inhomogeneities are higher or of the order of 1 mm
in diameter, they can be resolved in a dispersive micro-
Raman system (for FT micro-Raman systems the spatial
resolution is of the order of 10 mm) and then a spectral
image may be obtained for each chemical component. A
spectral image may be thought as a chemical map, which
is obtained by plotting the normalized intensity of the
Raman band characteristic of the compound of interest.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a II–VI semiconductor
material of interest for solar cell technology and currently
employed in X-ray and g-ray detectors. During growth of
CdTe films and crystals, it is common to observe the forma-
tion of Te aggregates which may severely affect the material
purity and properties depending upon the amount and size of
such aggregates. The origin of such Te inclusions is not
discussed here; further details are discussed elsewhere [8].
Raman spectroscopy is a very sensitive technique for detect-
ing Te [9]. Fig. 5 shows a typical Raman spectrum of a CdTe
sample where Te aggregates are present. The spectrum
shows the strong A1 and E modes of tellurium and the
weak LO mode of CdTe at 162 cm 21. We have employed
micro-Raman spectroscopy to study CdTe crystals grown by
the Bridgman method, which were polished previously with
alumina abrasive powder of 0.5, 0.3 and 0.05 mm, consecu-
Fig. 5. Typical Raman spectrum of a CdTe sample where Te aggregates are tively. The laser spot diameter on the sample was 2 mm and
present. appropriate neutral density filters were employed to avoid

Fig. 6. A 20 × 20 mm2 spectral image obtained from a CdTe crystal showing Te micro clustering. In the vertical axis is plotted the normalized intensity of the
A1 mode of Te.
 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427 425

Fig. 7. Spectral image obtained from a Tl2Ba2CaCu2O8 superconductor film showing the surface Tl distribution in an area of 60 × 60 mm2 : In the vertical axis is
plotted the normalized intensity of the Tl-related 131 cm 21 band.

sample damage due to laser heating effects. By plotting the importance of having a reliable and quick way to character-
normalized intensity of the A1 tellurium mode, spectral ize Tl homogeneity in superconducting samples, especially
images were obtained for several crystals and it was when the volume of samples is large. Micro-Raman spectro-
possible to determine the size and distribution of Te aggre- scopy provided an appropriate method for probing Tl diffu-
gates for various platelets cut from different parts of the sion in the as-prepared and annealed films (in situ at 4008C
CdTe ingot. Fig. 6 shows a 20 × 20 mm2 spectral image with annealing times of up to 12 h). In the Raman spectrum
where Te segregation is observed in the form of an irregular of Tl-2212 superconductors, a rather strong mode appears at
elongated cluster of ,30 mm long and ,9 mm wide. Te 131 cm 21 that corresponds to a vibrational mode in which
micro clusters of comparable dimensions were also the Tl motion is dominant and the Ba and O(2) atoms have a
observed in other CdTe platelets. This allowed correlating relatively small vibration amplitude [11]. The intensity of
the density and distribution of Te micro aggregates with the such band is a direct measure of the presence of Tl in the
CdTe growth conditions, and their existence was an probed micro region. Therefore, by plotting the normalized
important hypothesis to explain the behaviour of the intensity of the 131 cm 21 mode, it was possible to obtain
thermal properties measured by photoacoustic measure- information about the Tl distribution in the films. Fig. 7
ments [8]. shows a 60 × 60 mm2 spectral image for a sample where
clear inhomogeneities in Tl composition are present on
4.3. Superconductor films the sample surface. Such inhomogeneities are indicative
of non-uniform Tl diffusion into the film volume, probably
Thallium-based superconductors have been objects of due to temperature gradients or to microscopic composi-
considerable efforts in the last decade because of their tional differences in the precursor film. Nonetheless, the
high critical temperature (Tc). One of the advantages of observed non-uniformity of Tl in most cases did not have
growing Tl-based superconductor films is the relatively an important effect in the superconducting properties such
short synthesis time originated from the high volatility as Tc and critical current, which was indicative of the
and diffusivity of Tl2O. A 2-step process was employed to presence of Tl throughout the films. Indeed, the 131 cm 21
prepare Tl-based 2212 (Tl2Ba2CaCu2O8) superconductor band was always detected, although its relative intensity
films on MgO and yttrium-stabilized zirconia [10]. In the was a function of position. In this case, the micro-Raman
last step of the procedure, Tl2O was diffused in 3–4 mm characterization provided valuable information for
thick Ba–Ca–Cu–O precursor films by a heat treatment at correlating film homogeneity with preparation conditions
8508C. The superconductor characteristics of the samples and, therefore, for improving the superconducting
are strongly dependent on Tl distribution, therefore, the properties.
426 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427

which produce the orange ring around the yellow center, are
more tightly encapsulating the sphere on the right. In the
background, one may also distinguish other rounded reddish
spots of about the same diameter corresponding to other
hydroxiapatite spheres not focused by the laser beam
because they are located below the focal plane. In this
way, it was possible to determine in a quick manner the
size and distribution of hydroxiapatite spheres and their
relationship with the composites’ composition, properties
and preparation method.

5. Conclusions

A brief description of current Raman spectroscopy tech-

nology has been given in order to emphasize the power and
simplicity of modern micro-Raman dedicated dispersive
spectrometers, whose performance is nowadays orders of
magnitude more efficient and faster than their predecessors
functioning ten years ago. To achieve such results two
Fig. 8. Two-dimensional representation of a spectral image obtained from a important technological developments have played a key
DMT/hydroxiapatite composite showing spacing and size of two hydroxia- role: (a) holographic notch filters and (b) CCD-based detec-
patite spheres. The difference in color corresponds to the fact that the sphere tors. The former has contributed to solve an old issue in
on the right is more tightly encapsulated by DMT particles.
Raman spectroscopy: suppression of the unwanted Rayleigh
scattered light; and the latter has substantially contributed to
4.4. Hydroxiapatite composites become available the use of reliable, efficient and fast multi-
channel detection systems.
Hydroxiapatite is a material that has found important Several examples have been given where micro-Raman
applications in the medical area because of its biocompat- spectroscopy has been applied. The information provided by
ibility with human bone tissue. It has been used in healing of such studies would not have been possible to obtain in a
severe bone damage by filling fissures or apertures, caused traditional Raman spectrometer, being left with the alterna-
by injuries or surgery. A good number of approaches are tive of having to employ other more sophisticated and
underway in different laboratories to improve current mate- expensive techniques to obtain similar information. It is
rials from the point of view of cost and properties, especially hoped that the power and simplicity of micro-Raman dedi-
those related to mechanical performance. One of such cated spectrometers have been demonstrated and that they
efforts consists of mixing hydroxiapatite with a compatible may be appreciated as important and useful tools in the area
polymer such as dimethyl terephthalate (DMT). The of materials research. In the author’s opinion, current devel-
mechanical properties of the composite material are then opments in Raman spectroscopy technology are widening
studied as a function of the composition ratio between the areas of its applicability and a good number of novel
these two major constituents. Scanning electron microscopy fields will encounter in this spectroscopic technique a valu-
provided information about the morphology of individual able tool. It is foreseen a promising future for micro-Raman
hydroxiapatite and DMT aggregates: spherical shapes were spectroscopy, especially in areas such as microelectronics,
observed for both cases and then it became important to biology and medicine.
distinguish between the chemical nature of each sphere,
since different preparation methods and conditions yielded
different distribution of hydroxiapatite spheres in the DMT Acknowledgements
matrix. Micro-Raman spectroscopy provided a simple and
reliable technique to study the size and distribution of The author wishes to thank Francisco Rodrı́guez, Pedro
hydroxiapatite and DMT inasmuch as their Raman spectra Garcı́a, Cynthia Zúñiga and J. Márquez for technical assis-
posses fingerprint bands that allows a clear distinction tance. The micro-Raman application examples shown in this
between them. Fig. 8 shows a 2D spectral image representa- work have been projects in collaboration with Pedro Dı́az,
tion obtained by plotting the normalized intensity of the Ernesto Zamora, Tatiana Prutskij, Mario Rodrı́guez,
characteristic 961 cm 21 mode of hydroxiapatite in one of Orlando Zelaya, Milán Jergel, Stephan Chromik, Ciro
the composites. The colored circles correspond to hydroxia- Falcony, Pablo Montemartini, Rogelio Rodrı́guez and
patite spheres of about 115 mm in diameter. The difference Victor Castaño. The partial financial support of Conacyt-
in colour between the two spheres is because DMT particles, Mexico, under grant no 3337P-E9607, is acknowledged.
 S. Jimenez-Sandoval / Microelectronics Journal 31 (2000) 419–427 427

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