Solution, Suspension, Colloids

Chapter 7
Solutions, Colloids, and

Suspensions
Educational Goals
1. Compare and contrast mixtures and pure substances.
2. Understand, compare, and contrast the terms homogeneous mixture
and heterogeneous mixture. For a homogeneous mixture, explain
the difference between solute(s) and solvent.
3. Predict the effect of temperature and pressure on the solubility of
gases in water and the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids
in water.
4. Be able to use the Solubility Rules Table to determine if an ionic
compound will significantly dissolve in water.
5. Predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur when two
specified aqueous solutions of ionic compounds are mixed; if a
precipitation reaction will occur, write a balanced chemical equation
for the reaction.
6. Compare the relative solubilities of organic molecules based on the
functional groups or the relative sizes of the hydrocarbon (nonpolar)
regions.
Educational Goals
7. Explain, compare, and contrast the terms hydrophilic, hydrophobic,
and amphipathic, and give examples of compounds that belong to
each category.
8. Be able to calculate the concentration of a solution using various
concentration units of measurements (%, parts per thousand, ppm,
ppb, molarity, molality, osmolality, osmolarity, and Eq/L).
9. Given the concentration, be able to convert from the volume of
solution to the amount of solute (and vice versa).
10. Given a solution’s initial concentration, be able to use the dilution
equation to determine the concentration of the solution after dilution.
11. Compare and contrast solutions, suspensions, and colloids.
12. Describe the processes of diffusion and osmosis. Define osmotic
pressure and predict the effect of solute concentration on the
osmotic pressure.
Most matter on earth is not composed of just one pure substance.
When two or more pure substances are combined, we refer to the
combination as a mixture.
In this chapter, you will learn about three types of mixtures:
1) solutions 2) colloids 3) suspensions
Macro-Scale Classification of Mixtures: Homogeneity
One way in which mixtures are classified is by their macro-scale,

visually observed homogeneity.
A homogeneous mixture appears to be the same throughout the entire

sample/object.
• Example: Sugar dissolved in water
A heterogeneous mixture has visible regions of varying composition.
• Example: A chocolate chip cookie

Introduction to Solutions
Solutions are mixtures of pure substances in which the pure substance
particles (molecules, ions, or noble gas atoms) are evenly distributed
throughout the entire volume of the mixture.
The pure substance that is in the greatest abundance is referred to as the

solvent.
• Typically, especially in biological systems, the solvent is water.
The other pure substance components of a solution are called solutes.
With very few exceptions, the solution takes the same physical phase
(gas, liquid, or solid) as the solvent.
The solutes are said to be “dissolved” in the solvent.

Solutions can be gas-phase, liquid-phase, or solid-phase.
An example of a gas-phase solution is air.

• Air is a mixture of several gases, mostly nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon
dioxide.
An example of a solid-phase solution is brass.

• Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc.
• When one solid (such as zinc) is evenly dispersed in another solid
(such as copper), the solid solution is called an alloy.
We will focus on liquid-phase solutions for the remainder of this course.
• There are 3 types of liquid-phase solutions:
1) Gas dissolved in a liquid solvent
§ An example of a gas dissolved in a liquid solvent is CO2 dissolved in
water; this is how beverages are carbonated. Another example of a
gaseous solute dissolved in liquid is O2 dissolved in water; fish extract
the O2 from water using their gills. Whenever a gas is present above a
liquid, some of the gas will dissolve in the liquid.
2) Liquid dissolved in a liquid solvent
§ An example of a liquid dissolved in a liquid solvent is ethyl alcohol
dissolved in water; this is the basis of adult beverages.
3) Solid dissolved in a liquid solvent
§ An example of a solid dissolved in a liquid solvent is table salt (NaCl)
or table sugar (sucrose molecules) in water.
Almost all of the solutions used in biological applications, such as in
biomedical analytical labs and research labs, are liquid-phase solutions.
For the remainder of this course, I will use the term solution to mean liquid-phase
solution.
Understanding Check
If the following pairs of pure substances are mixed in the ratios given to
form solutions, identify each substance as either solvent or solute:
a) 5 grams of sodium chloride and 100 grams of water
a) 10 mL of ethyl alcohol and 250 mL of water
a) 100 mL of acetone and 10 mL of water

The Dissolution Process: Solvation
Another term for “dissolving” is dissolution.
In liquid and solid phase solutions, the solute and solvent particles are
attracted to each other by one or more of the five types of noncovalent
interactions.
The stronger the solute-solvent interactions, the more solute that can be
dissolved.
The Dissolution of Ionic Compounds
Example: The dissolution of sodium chloride in water.
When ionic compounds dissolve, the ions dissociate (become separated
from each other) and enter the liquid phase solution.
The water molecules and ions are attracted to each other through ion-
dipole forces.
The partially negatively-charged ends of
several water molecule dipoles are attracted
to the positive charge of each sodium.
Likewise, the partially positively-charged

ends of several water molecule dipoles are
attracted to the negative charge of each
chloride ion.
We use the term solvation to describe a solute particle becoming

surrounded by solvent molecules.
Solvation causes dissolution of the solute.
The Dissolution of Molecules
Molecules will dissolve in a particular solvent when the solute-solvent

noncovalent interactions are strong enough to overcome the solute-solute
interactions.
Unlike ionic compounds that dissociate, when molecules dissolve, the

individual molecules become solvated.
Example: The dissolution of ethyl alcohol in water.
Ethyl alcohol dissolves in water because it has significantly strong
noncovalent interactions with water.
These solute-solvent intermolecular forces enable the solvation of ethyl
alcohol molecules by water molecules as illustrated in below.
see next slide for more details

All three of the intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole
forces, and London forces) occur between ethyl alcohol and water.
• Since water molecules are relatively small, the London forces between
water and ethyl alcohol are not very strong; if they were the only
intermolecular forces present, ethyl alcohol would not dissolve in
water.
Ethyl alcohol’s lone pairs can form

hydrogen bonds with a hydrogen
bonded to oxygen in water (and vice
versa), as indicated by the green
dashed lines in this figure.
Since ethyl alcohol and water are polar molecules, they can also interact
through dipole-dipole forces. The dipoles of ethyl alcohol’s highly-
polar bonds are indicated by orange dipole arrows and water’s
molecular dipoles are indicated by blue dipole arrows.
Solutes that are polar are capable of dissolving in polar solvents.
Solutes that are nonpolar are capable of dissolving in nonpolar solvents.
This phenomenon is summarized in the easily-remembered phrase,

“like dissolves like.”
Understanding Check
If you dissolved one mole of the following substances in water, how
many moles of solvated ions would be present (include both cations and
anions in the the number of moles of solvated ions)?
a. NaCl
b. BaCl2
Understanding Check
List all of the noncovalent interactions that can occur between solute
and solvent for each of the following solutions:
a. oxygen gas dissolved in water
b. carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water
c. potassium iodide dissolved in water
d. pentane dissolved in octane

Solubility
Solubility is a term that refers to the amount of solute that can be
dissolved.
Some liquid-in-liquid solutions can be made at any ratio of the liquids.
• For example, water and ethyl alcohol will mix no matter what the ratio
is of water to ethyl alcohol.
When two liquids mix with each other in any ratio, we say that the
substances are “miscible.”
Some pairs of liquids will not mix with each other at all.
• For example, oil will not significantly dissolve in water.
• This is why we see oil floating on the top of water when oil spills
occur.
When two liquids will not mix with each other we say that the substances
are “immiscible.”
For most solute/solvent pairs, there is a limit on how much solute can
dissolve in a particular solvent.
• For example, you can only dissolve so much salt or sugar in water.
At some point, the solution becomes saturated and the amount of
dissolved solute cannot increase.
If you continue to add a solid solute to a saturated solution, the excess
solute will exist as a solid in the container.
The Solubility of Gases in Water
The solubility of a dissolved gas depends on both temperature and
pressure.
Whenever a gas is present above a liquid, some of the gas will dissolve
in the liquid.
The higher the partial pressure of a particular gas above a liquid, the
more of that gas will dissolve in the liquid.
William Henry was first to report that the amount of
gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas.
This relationship between the amount of gas dissolved
and pressure is known as “Henry’s Law.”
William Henry
The lower the temperature of the aqueous solutions, the greater the
solubility of gases.
• For example, cold water can dissolve more oxygen than warm water.
The Solubility of Solids in Water
The solubility of a solid solute depends on temperature.
• As the temperature of water increases to its normal boiling point

(100oC), the solubility of most solid solutes increases.
• Notice that this is the opposite of the behavior of gaseous solutes.

The Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water
Some ionic compounds dissolve to a significant extent in water; some do
not.
Ionic compounds that do not significantly dissolve are categorized as
“water insoluble.”
• Water insoluble compounds exist in their crystal/solid form when
placed in water.
Ionic compounds that dissolve to a significant extent are classified as

“water soluble.”
It is convenient to use “solubility rules” in order to know which ionic

compounds are water soluble and which ones are water insoluble.
In this table, ionic compounds are first classified as water soluble or
water insoluble based on their anions, and then exceptions are listed.
Example: Is KNO3 water soluble?
Solution:
STEP 1: Find the solubility
classification in the table based on the
identity of the anion.
• We see that nitrates are in the water
soluble class.
STEP 2: Check to see if the

compound’s cation causes the
compound to be an exception for the
solubility class.
• There are no exceptions for nitrates.
This means that all nitrates are water

soluble, therefore KNO3 is water
soluble.
Example: Is Cu(OH)2 water soluble?
Solution:
classification in the based on the
• We see that hydroxides are in the
water insoluble class.
STEP 2: Check to see if the cation

causes the compound to be an
exception for the solubility class.
• There are exceptions for hydroxides,
however Cu2+ is not one of them.
Therefore Cu(OH)2 is not water
soluble.
• If Cu(OH)2 were mixed with water, it

would exist as solid crystals
submerged in water.
Example: Is BaSO4 water soluble?
Solution:
• We see that sulfates are in the water
soluble class.

• There are some exceptions for
sulfates and Ba2+ is one of them.
Therefore BaSO4 is not water soluble.

Example: Is KOH water soluble?
Solution:
• We see that hydroxides are in the
water insoluble class.

• There are exceptions for hydroxides,
and K+ is one of them; it’s an alkali
(Group I) metal.
Therefore KOH is water soluble.

Understanding Check
Determine which of the following compounds are water soluble.
a. potassium iodide
b. iron(II) nitrate
c. copper(II) hydroxide
d. silver bromide
e. sodium sulfate
f. potassium hydroxide
g. lead(II) chromate
h. ammonium hydroxide
Electrolytes
Solutions that contain dissolved ions are capable of conducting
electricity and are sometimes referred to as electrolyte solutions.
• Dissolved ionic compounds are called electrolytes.
Electrolyte solutions are required in biological functions such as the

transmission of nerve impulse signals and muscle actuation.
Our bodies obtain electrolytes from food and drink.

Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solutions
Double Replacement Reactions
In a double replacement reaction, two substances

“switch partners.”
The general form of a double replacement reaction, where

compounds AX and BY switch partners, is:
AX + BY → AY + BX
Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solutions
Double Replacement Reactions:
1) Precipitation reactions
2) Gas Producing Reactions
1) Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions may occur when two solutions
that contain dissolved ions are mixed.
In a precipitation reaction, two compounds in aqueous
solution appear to exchange ions.
A+ X- + B+Y- → A+ Y- + B + X-
If one of the new pairs formed is

insoluble, a new substance
(solid/precipitate) is formed.
For a precipitation reaction to occur, at least one of the
products formed is insoluble in water.
Therefore, a solid is always formed in a precipitation reaction.
Often, many tiny crystals are formed and this gives the
mixture a cloudy appearance. The cloudy appearance may
be white, black, or some other color, depending on the
identity of the particular solid that is formed.
We say the solid “precipitated” from the solution.
The appearance of the solid precipitate indicates the formation

of new ionic bonds and that a reaction has occurred.
The educational goals for precipitation reactions are:
• Predict if a precipitation reaction will occur when two

aqueous ionic compounds are combined.
• Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

Method for Predicting if a Precipitation Reaction will Occur and
Writing the Balanced Chemical Equation for Precipitation Reactions
Example: The reaction of lead(II) nitrate and potassium chromate.
Step 1: Write reactants’ names and arrow for the chemical equation
using word form (not the chemical formula).
lead(II) nitrate + potassium chromate →
Step 2: Add the “possible” products to the word equation by switching

anions.
lead(II) nitrate + potassium chromate → lead(II) chromate + potassium nitrate

Step 3: Convert the word equation to a formula equation.

lead(II) nitrate + potassium chromate → lead(II) chromate + potassium nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4 → PbCrO4 + KNO3

Note: Students often need to review the section in chapter 3 that
discusses naming ionic compounds in order to perform Step 3.
Step 4: Balance the equation:
Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4 → PbCrO4 + 2 KNO3
Step 5: Add the phase of each of the reactants and “possible” products
to the chemical equation.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2CrO4 (aq) → PbCrO4 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)

• In all precipitation reactions, the reactants are always aqueous.

• Use the Solubility Rules Table to determine the phase of the “possible”
products.
• If a compound is water soluble, it remains dissolved and we write “(aq).”
• If a compound is water insoluble, it precipitates as a solid and we write “(s).”
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2CrO4 (aq) → PbCrO4 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)

Example: The reaction of sodium chloride and silver nitrate.
sodium chloride + silver nitrate →

anions.
sodium chloride + silver nitrate → sodium nitrate + silver chloride


sodium chloride + silver nitrate → sodium nitrate + silver chloride
NaCl + AgNO3 → NaNO3 + AgCl
•In this example, the equation is already balanced; each of the coefficients
is “1.”
NaCl + AgNO3 → NaNO3 + AgCl
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
Example: Determine if a precipitation reaction would
occur when a sodium chloride solution is mixed with a
potassium nitrate solution.
sodium chloride + potassium nitrate →

anions.
sodium chloride + potassium nitrate → sodium nitrate + potassium chloride

sodium chloride + potassium nitrate → sodium nitrate + potassium chloride
NaCl + KNO3 → NaNO3 + KCl
In this example, the equation is already balanced; each of the coefficients is “1.”
NaCl + KNO3 → NaNO3 + KCl

NO REACTION
NaCl (aq) + KNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq)
IMPORTANT: If both of the “possible” products are water soluble, then no

reaction occurred.
There were solvated cations and anions in each the two solutions before
mixing, then the solutions were mixed and the cations and anions remained
solvated in the mixture.
No new chemical bonds were made, therefore no chemical reaction occurred.
When no reaction occurs in precipitation reaction problems such as this

example, you can write “No Reaction” instead of the “possible” products.
You try one:
Determine if a precipitation reaction would occur when a

silver nitrate solution is mixed with a barium chloride
solution and, if a reaction does occur, write the balanced
chemical equation.
2) Gas Producing Double Replacement Reactions
A gas producing double replacement reaction is a special

type of double replacement in which a gas is produced.
Example: The reaction of aqueous hydrogen monochloride

(HCl, also know as hydrochloric acid) and aqueous sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
HCl + NaHCO3 → HHCO3 + NaCl
In this reaction, the bicarbonate and chloride anions switch

partners to form aqueous carbonic acid (HHCO3) and sodium
chloride.
In the chemical equation on the previous slide, I wrote the formula of carbonic acid as
HHCO3 in order to help you see how Cl- and HCO3- “switched partners”; however the
correct way to write the formula for carbonic acid is H2CO3, as described below.
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → HHCO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)
carbonic acid
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → H2CO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)
Carbonic acid decomposes to H2O (l ) and CO2(g)
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → H2O (l ) + CO2 (g) + NaCl (aq)
Gas Producing Double Replacement Reaction

The Solubility of Organic Molecules
Molecules will dissolve in a particular solvent when the

solute-solvent noncovalent interactions are strong
enough to overcome the solute-solute interactions.
The more solute-solvent noncovalent attractive

interactions that can occur, the more solute that can be
dissolved.
It is for this reason that polar solutes are capable of

dissolving in polar solvents, and nonpolar solutes are
capable of dissolving in nonpolar solvents, as
summarized by the phrase “like dissolves like.”
For an organic molecule to have significant water solubility, it
must be polar and/or capable of hydrogen bonding with water.
We can use the general rule of “like dissolves like” to predict the
relative water solubilities of various organic solute molecules.
Let’s consider the water solubility of the organic molecule families

that I introduced you to in chapter 4: hydrocarbons, alcohols,
carboxylic acids, and esters.
Water Solubility of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are nonpolar molecules.
They are not capable of hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole interactions,

therefore they are not significantly soluble in water.
Water Solubility of Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
Alcohols and many other families of organic molecules are attracted to water through
hydrogen bonding and/or dipole-dipole interactions.
The general form of an alcohol molecule is:
As the hydrocarbon part of various alcohol molecules gets larger, the water solubility
decreases.
This trend of decreasing solubility as the hydrocarbon part of organic molecules gets
larger is also seen in carboxylic acids, esters, and all of the other types of organic
molecules that you will be introduced to in later chapters.
general form of a carboxylic acid general form of an ester

As the hydrocarbon part of a molecule gets larger, London forces become more
important (stronger), the molecule becomes less polar, and the organic molecules are
more attracted to each other than they are to water molecules.
• When this occurs, it is lower in energy for the organic molecules to be surrounded by
other organic molecules and therefore the water solubility drastically decreases.
The table below shows the trend in decreasing water solubility for some alcohol
molecules as their hydrocarbon part gets larger.
The Solubility of Organic Molecules in Non Aqueous Solutions
Not all solutions involve water as the solvent.
Non water polar solvents behave quite like water in regard to their
ability to dissolve polar solutes better than nonpolar solutes.
On the other hand, nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes more

readily than polar solutes; like dissolves like.
• For example, pentane cannot be significantly dissolved in water,
however it can be dissolved in hexane.
pentane
hexane
Understanding Check
a. List the following carboxylic acids in order of increasing solubility in
water (least soluble to most soluble).
b. List the following esters in order of increasing solubility in water.

Concentration of Solutions
The term “concentration” refers to the amount of a solute in a solution.
Other qualitative (non numeric) descriptions of the amount of solute are

sometimes used:
• A solution with a relatively large amount of solute is said to be
“concentrated.”
• A solution with a relatively small amount of solute is said to be
“dilute.”
In this video you will see how to quantitatively (with numeric values)
describe the amount of solute that is present in a solution.
The concentration of a solution is the numeric quantity of solute that is

dissolved in a particular quantity of solution (or solvent).
Percent (%) Concentration
There are three different percent (%) concentration units that are
commonly used:
percent weight to weight: % (w/w)
percent volume to volume: % (v/v)
percent weight to volume: % (w/v)

Percent Weight to Weight
Percent weight to weight - % (w/w) - is defined as the ratio of the mass
of the solute to the mass of the entire solution, multiplied by 100:
! mass of solute $
% (w/w) = # & ×100
" mass of solution %
Example:
A 10% (w/w) sodium chloride solution contains 10 grams of
dissolved sodium chloride in every 100 grams of solution.
Percent weight to weight is also referred to as “mass percent” or

“gram percent.”
Percent Volume to Volume
Percent volume to volume - % (v/v) – is defined as the ratio of the volume
of the solute to the volume of the entire solution, multiplied by 100:
! volume of solute $
% (v/v) = # & ×100
" volume of solution %
Example: Percent volume to volume is

commonly used to indicate the concentration of
alcohol in adult beverages where % (v/v) is
referred to as “alcohol by volume (ABV)” or
“alcohol percent by volume.”
In this beer, there are 7.2 mL of alcohol

for every 100 mL of beer
Percent Weight to Volume
Percent weight to volume - % (w/v) - is defined as the number of grams
of solute contained in 100 mL of solution.
• % (w/v) is calculated by multiplying the ratio of the grams of the

solute to the volume (mL) of the entire solution, by 100.
! grams of solute $
% (w/v) = # & ×100
" mL of solution %
Percent Weight to Volume Example:
Potassium iodide (KI) is used to treat iodine deficiencies.
What is the %(w/v) of a 75 mL solution containing 2.0g of KI?
grams of Solute
% (Weight/Vol) = x 100
mL of Solution
2.0 g of KI x 100
% (Weight/Vol) =
75 mL of Solution
= 2.7 % (w/v)
Percent Weight to Weight Example
What is the % (w/w) concentration of a sodium chloride solution
prepared by adding 5.0 grams of sodium chloride to 130.0 g of water?
Solution: Calculate the concentration using the equation/definition of
% (w/w):
! mass of solute $
% (w/w) = # & ×100
• The mass of the solute (sodium chloride) was given: 5.0 g
• The mass of the solution is equal to the mass of the solute (NaCl, 5.0
g) plus the mass of the solvent (water, 130.0 g) = 135.0 g
! 5.0 g $
% (w/w) = # & ×100 = 3.7 % (w/w)
" 135.0 g %
In a 3.7 % (w/w) solution, there are 3.7 g of solute contained in every
100 g of solution.
Percent Weight to Weight Example
Note that in this % (w/w) problem, the mass units cancel, therefore
we can use any mass units as long as we use the same unit for the
mass of solute and mass of solution.
! 5.0 g $
% (w/w) = # & ×100 = 3.7 % (w/w)
" 135.0 g %
Understanding Check
What is the % (v/v) concentration of a solution prepared by adding
27 mL of alcohol to enough water to make 552 mL of solution?
Concentration in Parts per Thousand, Parts per Million,
Parts per Billion, Parts per Trillion
Parts per thousand, parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and
parts per trillion (ppt) are defined in a similar way as percent
concentration however, instead of multiplying the ratios of solute to
solution by 100, they are multiplied by a thousand, million, billion, or
trillion, respectively.
Just like percent (%) concentration, parts per thousand, ppm, ppb, and
ppt units can be (w/w), (v/v), or (w/v).
For example, the definitions or percent, parts per thousand, ppm, ppb, and
ppt, in (w/w), are:
! mass of solute $
% (w/w) = # & ×100
! mass of solute $
parts per thousand (w/w) = # & ×1000
! mass of solute $
ppm (w/w) = # & (
× 1×10 6
)
! mass of solute $
ppb (w/w) = # &
× (
1×10 9
)
! mass of solute $
ppt (w/w) = # & (
× 1×1012
)
The ppm, ppb, and ppt units are often used for very dilute solutions.
If you were to mix one drop of alcohol into an Olympic-size pool

such as the one shown here, the alcohol concentration would be about
20 part per trillion (ppt).
The volume of an Olympic-size swimming pool is about 2.5 x 109 mL.
The volume of one drop of ethyl alcohol is about 0.050 mL. What is the
ppt (v/v) concentration of alcohol if 0.050 mL (~1 drop) is mixed into a
pool with a volume of 2.5 x 109 mL?
! volume of solute $
ppt (v/v) = # &
" volume of solution %
× 1×10(
12
)
Volume of the solute (alcohol in this example) was given: 0.050 mL
The volume of the solution is equal to the volume of the solute (alcohol,
0.050 mL) plus the volume of the solvent (water, 2.5 x 109 mL)
= 2.5 x 109 mL
Insert the volume of the solute and the volume of the solution into the
equation for ppt (v/v):
" 0.050 mL %
ppt (v/v) = $
# 2.5×10 9 mL
'
&
×(1×1012
)
= 20. ppt (v/v)
Understanding Check
The legal limit of blood alcohol concentration while driving in most
states corresponds to about 0.080 grams of alcohol per 100.0 grams of
blood (solution).
What is the parts per thousand (w/w) blood alcohol concentration at
this legal limit?
Concentration in Molarity
Chemists often use a concentration unit of measure called molarity.
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution.
It can be calculated by taking the ratio of moles of solute to the volume
(in liters) of solution:
! moles of solute $
Molarity = # &
" liters (L) of solution %
Calculating a solution’s molarity using this equation/definition results in
units of moles/L.
The mole/L unit is often referred to as molar and abbreviated as “M.”
Keep in mind, the “M” can be interchanged with “mole/L.”
• For example, 0.030 moles/L = 0.030 M (molar)

Example: A solution is prepared by dissolving 0.10 moles of the amino
acid alanine in enough water to give a final volume of 0.075 L. What is
the molarity of the solution?
0.10 moles
Understanding Check
A solution is prepared by dissolving 0.057 moles of adrenaline in enough
water to give a final volume of 1.80 L. What is the molarity of the
solution?
In some molarity calculations, since mass (grams) is the parameter that
is directly measurable, you will begin with the number of grams of
solute.
When this is the case, use the solute’s molar mass to convert from grams
to moles.
You will need to do this in the following “Understanding Check” problem.

Understanding Check
What is the molarity of a solution that is prepared by dissolving 3.83
grams of glucose (C6H12O6) in enough water to make 5.00 L of solution?
Concentration in Osmolarity
The osmole (osmol) unit is used to indicate the number of moles of
dissolved particles.
The concentration unit of measure called osmolarity is commonly
defined as the number of moles of dissolved particles (osmoles) per liter
of solution.
Osmolarity can be calculated by taking the ratio of osmoles of solute to
the volume (in liters) of solution:
! osmoles of solute $
Osmolarity = # &
" liter (L) of solution %
Calculating a solution’s osmolarity using this equation results in units

of osmoles/L.
The osmoles/L unit is often referred to as osmolar and abbreviated as
“osM.”
What is the difference between a solution’s osmolarity and molarity?
! osmoles of solute $ ! moles of solute $
Osmolarity = # & Molarity = # &
" liter (L) of solution % " liters (L) of solution %
Sometimes it is the same, and sometimes it is different.
Ionic compound solutes dissociate (break apart into ions) into individual
ions when solvated.
• For every mole of an ionic compound that is dissolved, the solution
contains two or more moles of dissolved particles (osmoles), therefore
the solution’s molarity and osmolarity have different values.
Molecular compound solutes do not dissociate when solvated.

• For every mole of a dissolved molecular compound, the solution
contains one mole of dissolved particles (one osmole), therefore the
solution’s molarity and osmolarity have the same value.
Example: Osmolarity for a Molecular Compound
If 0.50 moles of glucose (a molecular compound) is dissolved in enough water to make
2.00 L of solution, what is the osmolarity of the solution?
Osmolarity = # &
To calculate the osmolarity, we need to know two quantities: the number of osmoles of
the solute AND the volume (L) of the solution.
• osmoles of the solute (glucose): since glucose is a covalent compound, it does not
dissociate into ions when dissolved. For every mole of a molecular compound that
is dissolved, the solution will contain one mole of dissolved particles (one osmole).
• 0.50 moles of glucose were dissolved, therefore the solution contains 0.50
osmoles of glucose.
• liters (L) of solution was given: 2.00 L
Insert the osmoles of the solute and liters (L) of solution into the equation for osmolarity:
! 0.50 osmoles $
Osmolarity = # & = 0.25 osmoles/L or 0.25 osmolar
" 2.00 L %
Note that in this example, since glucose is a molecular (non dissociation) compound,
the molarity and the osmolarity have the same value.
Example: Osmolarity for an Ionic Compound
If 0.50 moles of sodium chloride (an ionic compound) are dissolved in enough water to make
2.00 L of solution, what is the osmolarity of the solution?
Osmolarity = # &
• osmoles of the solute (NaCl): Sodium chloride dissociates when dissolved, so for every mole
of sodium chloride, the solution will contain one mole of dissolved sodium ions plus one mole
of dissolved chloride ions.
Multiply the number of moles of sodium chloride by a factor of 2 to convert moles of sodium
chloride to osmoles:
• liters (L) of solution was given: 2.00 L

Insert the osmoles of the solute and liters (L) of solution into the equation for osmolarity:
! 1.0 osmoles $
" 2.00 L %
Example: Osmolarity for an Ionic Compound
Even though we started with the same number of moles of solute and the
same volume of solution in this example as we did in the previous
example for a glucose solution, the osmolarity values are different
because of the difference in the number of particles (osmoles) that are
formed upon dissolution of molecular vs. ionic solutes.
! 1.0 osmoles $
" 2.00 L %
In the Understanding Check problem that follows, I will ask you to
calculate the osmolarity of a BaCl2 solution.
Keep in mind that for every one mole of BaCl2 that dissolves, 3 osmoles
are formed.
Understanding Check
If 0.50 moles of BaCl2 (an ionic compound) is dissolved in enough
water to make 2.00 L of solution, what is the osmolarity of the
solution?
Converting between Molarity and Osmolarity
Knowing the number of particles (osmoles) that are formed upon
dissolution of a solute will enable you to easily convert between molarity
and osmolarity.
The number of osmoles formed per mole of solute dissolved can be used
as a conversion factor.
Example for an Ionic Compound Solute: If the molarity of a NaCl
solution is 1.2 M, what is the osmolarity?
Converting between Molarity and Osmolarity
Converting between molarity and osmolarity for molecular solutes is
simple!
The molarity is equal to osmolarity for molecular solutes because they do

not dissociate.
• For example, glucose is a molecular compound; if the molarity of a

glucose solution is 1.2 M, then the osmolarity is 1.2 osmoles/L
Understanding Check
If the molarity of an FeCl3 (an ionic compound) solution is 0.010 M,
what is the osmolarity?
HINT: Think about how many osmoles are produced when
one mole of FeCl3 dissociates.
Concentration in Molality
Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute per kg of solvent.
Molality can be calculated by taking the ratio of moles of solute to the

mass (in kilograms) of the solvent:
! moles of solute $
Molality = # &
" kg of solvent %
Calculating a solution’s molality using this equation/definition results in
units of moles/kg.
The moles/kg unit is often referred to as molal and abbreviated as “m.”

• The “m” unit can be interchanged with “moles/kg.”
Calculation of Molality Example
What is the molality of a solution that is prepared by dissolving 0.125
moles of sodium chloride in 1.60 kg of water?
! moles of solute $
Molality = # &
" kg of solvent %
• The moles of the solute (NaCl) was given: 0.125 moles
• The mass of the solvent (water) was given: 1.60 kg
Insert the moles of the solute and kg of solvent into the equation for
molality:
! 0.125 moles $
Molality = # & = 0.0781 moles/kg or 0.0781 m
" 1.60 kg %
In a 0.0781 molal (m) solution, there are 0.0781 moles of solute

contained in every kg of solvent.
Understanding Check
What is the molality of a solution that is prepared by dissolving 1.34 moles
of ethyl alcohol in 0.75 kg of water?
Concentration in Osmolality
Osmolality is defined as the number of osmoles per kilogram of solvent.
It can be calculated taking the ratio of osmoles (moles of dissolved

particles) to the mass (in kilograms) of the solvent:
Osmolality = # &
" kg of solvent %
Calculating a solution’s osmolality using this equation/definition results
in units of osmoles/kg.
• The osmoles/kg unit is often referred to as osmolal
Concentration in Equivalents per Liter (Eq/L)
Some properties of solutions depend on the total charge of the ions in solution.
• For example, the ability of a solution to conduct electricity depends on the total
charge of the ions in solution. In cells, membrane potentials that generated nerve
signals depend on the total charge of ions in solution.
An equivalent (Eq) is defined as a mole of charge.
The concentration unit of measure called equivalents per liter (Eq/L) is defined as the
number of equivalents (Eq) of solute (moles of charge) per liter of solution:
! Eq of solute $
Eq/L = # &
At first glance, an equivalent (Eq) may appear to be the same as an osmole, however
this is not always the case.
An equivalent is a mole of charge; an osmole is a mole of dissolved particles.
I will elaborate by comparing the number of osmoles vs. the number of equivalents present when
one mole of BaCl2 is dissolved.
When one mole of BaCl2 is dissolved, 3 osmoles are formed.
When one mole of BaCl2 is dissolved, 4 equivalents (Eq) are formed.
• Since barium ions have a “2+” charge, one mole of barium ions contains two
moles of charge (two equivalents).
• The two moles of chloride ions contain a total of two equivalents (two moles of
a “1-” charge).
Understanding Check
When one mole of Fe2(SO4)3 is dissolved in water:
a. How many equivalents are present?
a. How many equivalents of sulfate are present (equivalents from

sulfate only)?
a. How many equivalents of iron(III) are present (equivalents

from Fe3+ only)?
Example for Calculating Eq/L
If 0.50 moles of BaCl2 is dissolved in enough water to make 2.00 L of solution, what is
the Eq/L concentration of the solution?
! Eq of solute $
Eq/L = # &
Eq present:
• For every one mole of BaCl2 dissolved, 4 Eq are formed (two Eq of Ba2+ and two
Eq of Cl-).
• Multiply the number of moles of BaCl2 by a factor of 4 to convert moles of BaCl2 to Eq:
liters (L) of solution was given: 2.00 L

Insert the Eq present and liters (L) of solution into the equation for Eq/L concentration:
! 2.0 Eq $
Eq/L = # & = 1.0 Eq/L
" 2.00 L %
Understanding Check
If 0.015 moles of Fe2(SO4)3 is dissolved in enough water to make 2.5 L
of solution, what is the Eq/L concentration of the solution?
Calculations for Solutions
In this video, you will learn how do calculations to find how much solute
is contained in a specified amount of solution and how much solution
contains a specified amount of solute.
The key to mastering these calculations is to

be aware of the following two statements:
• The relationship between the amount of solute and the amount of

solution is the concentration.
• You can convert between the amount of solute and the amount of
solution by using the concentration as a conversion factor.
Molarity Concentration Calculations for Solutions
The molarity (moles/L) of a solution gives us the relationship between

the amount (moles) of solute and the volume (L) of solution.
We use the molarity as a conversion factor when converting between the

moles of solute in a given volume (L) of solution, or the volume (L) of
solution that will contain a given amount (moles) of solute.
Volume of Solution to Amount of Solute Example
Suppose you know that a patient received 3.50 L of a 0.278 M glucose IV solution,
how many moles of glucose were administered to the patient?
STEP 1) Set up the equation using the given quantity:
STEP 2) Use the molarity as a conversion factor to find the number of moles:
3.50 L of a 0.278 M glucose solution will contain 0.973 moles of glucose.

Moles of Solute to Volume (L) of Solution Example
Suppose you wished to administer 0.200 moles of glucose from a 0.278 M glucose IV
solution to a patient, what volume (in liters) of the solution would need to be dispensed?
STEP 2) Use the molarity as a conversion factor to find the volume (L) of solution:
0.719 L of a 0.278 M glucose solution would be given to the patient in order to provide
0.200 moles of glucose.
Another Molarity Concentration Calculation Example
If 1.25 g of acetone (C3H6O) is dissolved in enough water to make 0.550 L of solution;
a) What is the molarity (M) of the solution?

b) How many moles of acetone are contained in 0.0679 L of this acetone solution?
c) What volume (L) of this acetone solution would contain 0.0079 moles of acetone?
a) What is the molarity (M) of the solution?
! moles of solute $
Molarity = # &
" liters (L) of solution %
• moles of the solute (acetone)
We were not given the number of moles directly, however, we were given the
grams of acetone (1.25 g). Use the molar mass of acetone (58.09 g/mole) to
convert from grams to moles.
• L of solution was given: 0.550 L
Insert the moles of the solute and liters (L) of solution into the equation for molarity:
! 0.0215 moles $
Molarity = # & = 0.0391 moles/L or 0.0391 M
" 0.550 L %
a) What is the molarity (M) of the solution? 0.0391 moles/L
STEP 2) Use the molarity as a conversion factor to find the number of moles:
a) What is the molarity (M) of the solution? 0.0391 moles/L
0.00265 moles acetone
c) What volume (L) of this acetone solution would contain 0.0079 moles of acetone?
STEP 2) Use the molarity as a conversion factor to find the volume (L) of solution:
Understanding Check
If a particular wine has an ethyl alcohol molarity concentration of 2.8 M, what volume
(in liters) of wine contains 10.4 moles of ethyl alcohol (the lethal dosage)?
Understanding Check
How many grams of silver nitrate (AgNO3) are contained in 0.384 L of a 0.200 M
silver nitrate solution?
Percent (%) Concentration Calculations for Solutions
Percent (%) concentration gives the relationship between the amount of solute and
the amount of solution:
Example: Using % (w/v) to Convert From Volume (mL) of Solution to Grams of Solute
Normal saline intravenous (IV) drips are composed of

sterile, 0.90 %(w/v) aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)
solutions. They are used to treat or prevent dehydration
and hypovolemia.
If a patient received 2475 mL of a normal saline solution,

how many grams of sodium chloride were delivered?
If a patient received 2475 mL of a normal saline solution, then 22 grams of sodium

chloride were delivered.
Example: Using %(w/v) to Convert From Grams of Solute to Volume (mL) of Solution
What volume (mL) of a normal saline solution (0.90% (w/v))

contains 12.5 grams of sodium chloride?
1400 mL of a normal saline solution contain 12.5 grams of sodium chloride.

Understanding Check
The label of the medication vial tells you that the concentration of morphine sulfate for
an intravenous injection is 1.0% (w/v). If you wish to administer 0.0025 grams of
morphine sulfate, what volume (mL) would you inject?
The method for converting between the amount of solute and the amount of solution
can also be used for %(w/w) and %(v/v).
%(w/w) is used to convert between the mass of solute and the mass of solution:
%(v/v) is be used to convert between the volume of a liquid solute and the volume of
the solution:
Osmolarity Concentration Calculations for Solutions
Osmolarity concentration is a relationship between the amount of solute and the

amount of solution:
The osmolarity (osmoles/L) of a solution gives us the number of osmoles of solute

contained in 1 L of solution.
• It can therefore be used to convert between osmoles of solute and liters (L) of
solution.
Example: Using Osmolarity to convert between L of Solution and Osmoles of Solute
How many osmoles of solute are contained in 2.75 L of a solution that has a
concentration of 0.0750 osmole/L?
0.206 osmoles are contained in 2.75 L of a 0.0750 osmole/L solution.

Equivalents per Liter (Eq/L) Concentration Calculations for Solutions
Eq/L concentration is a relationship between the amount of solute and the amount of
solution:
The Eq/L of a solution gives us the number of equivalents of solute contained in 1 L of

solution.
• It can therefore be used to convert between equivalents of solute and

L of solution.
Example: Using Eq/L to convert between L of Solution and Equivalents of Solute
How many equivalents of solute are contained in 0.830 L of a 0.0100 M Fe2(SO4)3

solution?
solution?

solution?
0.0996 Eq of solute are contained in 0.830 L of a 0.0100 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution.

How many equivalents of sulfate (not total equivalents) are contained in 0.830 L of a
0.0100 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution?
How many equivalents of sulfate (not total equivalents) are contained in 0.830 L of a
0.0100 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution?
0.0498 Eq SO42- are contained in 0.830 L of a 0.0100 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution.

Molality and Osmolality Concentration Calculations for Solutions
Molality is used to covert between moles of solute and kg of solvent:
Osmolality is used to covert between osmoles of solute and kg of solvent:

In order to work with the amount of solution instead of the amount of solvent, a very
useful approximation can be made for dilute aqueous solutions.
In the case of dilute aqueous solutions, the solution is almost entirely solvent.
Since 1 kg of water has a volume of 1 L, it is a reasonable approximation to equate the
amount of solution to the amount of solvent; 1 kg of solvent is assumed to be the same
as 1 L of solution.
Using this approximation, the molality is equal to the molarity.
molality molarity
For the same reason, using this approximation, the osmolality is equal to the osmolarity.
osmolality osmolarity
Summary of Conversion Factors for Solution Calculations
Before Watching the Next Video:
Do the Problems in the Calculations for Solutions Worksheet
The Solubility of Biological Compounds
Biological compounds are the organic compounds that occur in biological organisms.
Examples of biological compounds that you will learn about in this book are:
steroids, fatty acids, bile salts, phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, triglycerides
(animal fat and vegetable oil), proteins, carbohydrates, RNA, and DNA.
Biological compounds can be put into one of three categories based on their
water solubility:
1) Hydrophilic
2) Hydrophobic
3) Amphipathic
1) Hydrophilic Compounds
Hydrophilic compounds dissolve in water.
• The word hydrophilic is derived from an ancient Greek word that is translated as
“loving water.”
Compounds that are significantly polar and/or can hydrogen bond with water tend to be
water soluble.
As a general rule, molecules that have at least one polar functional group for every five
carbon atoms are water soluble, and therefore classified as hydrophilic.
• You saw four polar functional groups in chapter 4: the hydroxyl group (-OH),
the carbonyl group (C=O), the carboxyl group (-COOH), and the carboxylate
group (COO).
• There are a few other polar functional groups that you will see in later chapters.
• The presence of formal charge will also help a biological compound to dissolve
in water because of the attraction of water molecules’ dipoles to the charged
region of the compound (ion-dipole interactions).
Examples of Hydrophilic Compounds: Monosaccharides
The Structural Formulas of Three Monosaccharides

2) Hydrophobic Compounds
Hydrophobic compounds do not dissolve in water.
• The word hydrophobic is derived from an ancient Greek word that is translated
as “having a horror/fear of water.”
As a general rule, molecules that have less than one polar functional group for every
five carbon atoms do not dissolve in water and are therefore hydrophobic.
An Example of a Hydrophobic Compound: Cholesterol
Note that cholesterol does have one polar hydroxyl (-OH) functional group, however
the nonpolar part of the molecule is so large that the ratio of polar functional group to
total carbons is much less than 1:5 and therefore cholesterol does not dissolve in water.
3) Amphipathic Compounds
Amphipathic compounds have both a large nonpolar region, which is not strongly
attracted to water, and an extremely polar and/or formally-charged region, which is
quite strongly attracted to water.
An Example of an Amphipathic Compound: A Glycolipid
The particular glycolipid shown in the structure below is one of the most prevalent of
the glycolipids that make up cell membranes within the brain.
Amphipathic compounds are often illustrated using a sphere for the polar head that is
attached to one or more long tubular structures that represent the carbon chains in the
nonpolar tail.
Nonpolar “Tail” Polar “Head”

A nonpolar region that does not have The polar hydroxyl
significant attractive interactions with groups and the
water, however it is strongly attracted carbonyl group is
to large nonpolar regions of other strongly attracted to
particles. water.
In some amphipathic compounds, such as the glycolipid shown on the previous slide,
there are two carbon chains that make up the nonpolar tail; in other amphipathic
compounds, the tail is composed of only one carbon chain.
An example of an amphipathic compound that has a single carbon chain tail is palmitate.
Palmitate
Nonpolar “Tail” Polar “Head”

When amphipathic molecules are put into water they do not dissolve; they exist as
monolayers and/or micelles.
• As monolayers, amphipathic compounds form a single (mono) layer of individual

particles oriented with their polar heads toward the water and their nonpolar tails
pointing upward.
Amphipathic compounds can also exist in water as spherical arrangements called
micelles.
• The amphipathic compounds making up micelles are oriented with their polar
heads outward, toward the water, and their nonpolar tails inward, away from
the water.
a micelle cross-sectional view

of a micelle
Notice that micelles can exist within the water because of the attraction between the
polar heads and the surrounding water molecules.
Soap consists of palmitate and/or similar amphipathic compounds.
As you know, soap and water are much more
effective at removing oil from skin than is just water
alone. This is because there is no strong attraction
between the nonpolar oil molecules and water;
however soap forms micelles that encapsulate the oil
within their nonpolar tail interiors. Micelles
containing the oil can move into the rinse water and
away from the skin.
When a liquid contains compounds that are encapsulated by amphipathic compounds in

micelles, the mixture is called an emulsion.
Understanding Check
Predict whether each of the following biological compounds is hydrophobic or
amphipathic?
a.
b.
Understanding Check
Predict whether each of the following biological compounds is hydrophilic or
hydrophobic?
a. b.
vitamin C retinol (a molecule in the vitamin A group)

Understanding Check
The ion shown below is called laurel sulfate. Laurel sulfate is amphipathic and is often
used in shampoo.
Is the polar head located on the right-hand or left-hand end of the molecule as it is
illustrated below?
laurel sulfate
Dilutions
Dilution is the process of adding more solvent to a solution.
A series of dilutions (left to right) of an

aqueous solution containing a colored solute.
When considering dilutions, the concentration of the solution is inversely proportional

to the volume of the solution.
• For example, if enough solvent is added to double the volume, then the
concentration is decreased by a factor of 1/2.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons, Author: A. Markov,

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As you saw in chapter 5 with Boyle’s gas law, when properties are inversely
proportional, the product of the initial and final properties are equal.
In the case of dilution, the product of the initial (un-diluted) concentration (C1) and the
volume before dilution (V1) is equal to the product of the final (diluted) concentration
(C2) and the final volume (V2):
C1 V1 = C2 V2
This equation is called the “dilution equation” and it can be used with any of the
concentration units of measure that include the volume of solution (molarity, osmolarity,
% (w/v), % (v/v), or Eq/L).
• For example, the dilution equation can be written using molarity (M) concentration:
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Example
You begin with 25 mL of a 1.8 M aqueous LiCl solution and add enough water to give a
final volume of 35 mL. What is the new concentration?
Strategy: M1 V1 = M2 V2
M1 V1 = M2 V2
V2 V2
M1 = 1.8 M M2 = ?
V1 = 25 mL V2 = 35 mL
M1 V1 (1.8 M) (25 mL)

M2 = = = 1.3 M
V2 (35 mL)
Understanding Check
If 1.70 L of a 1.50 M solution is diluted to a final volume of 3.50 L, what is the final
concentration?
Colloids and Suspensions
When particles that are larger than typical molecules or ions are put into another
medium, typically water, the resulting mixture is classified as either a colloid or a
suspension depending on the particle size.
In colloids, the dispersed particles (colloidal particles) are small enough that they
do not settle to the bottom of their container.
Conversely, in suspensions, the solid particles are large enough that gravity causes
them to settle to the bottom of their container unless the mixture is repeatedly or
constantly stirred or shaken.
Colloids
Colloidal particles are typically in the size range of 1 nanometer up to 1 micrometer.
Because of their relatively small size, the kinetic energy from collisions with the particles making
up the medium, typically water molecules, overcomes the force of gravity and the particles
remain evenly dispersed in the medium.
If the particles are very small, the colloid will not “scatter” light and it will therefore appear clear
or colored (but not cloudy). As the particle size gets larger, a colloid mixture will appear cloudy
since the light entering the medium is scattered in many different directions by particles.
The micelles that you learned about in this chapter are examples of colloids.
Another example of a colloid is milk.

• Milk contains small agglomerations of many individual protein molecules
(these particles are called “casein”) as well as particles composed of
emulsified fat (triglyceride) molecules. It is these fat particles that are
separated from milk to make butter. Milk is classified as a colloid rather
that a suspension because the colloidal particles do not settle to the
bottom. Note that milk containers do not say “shake well before using”
because the particles are small enough to remain evenly dispersed.
Other examples of colloids are mayonnaise and hand lotion.

Suspensions
The solid particles contained in suspensions are typically larger than 1 micrometer.
Because of their relatively large size compared to colloidal particles, the force of
gravity causes the particles to settle to the bottom of the container. The settling process
may take seconds or several hours. When stirred or shaken, the suspension will appear
cloudy since the particles are large enough to scatter light.
An example of a suspension is muddy water.
• If muddy water is constantly stirred, the clay/dirt

particles are evenly distributed throughout the
container; however if the stirring is discontinued, the
particles will settle to the bottom of the container.
Another example of a suspension is orange juice.
If a liquid contains solid particles and is labeled “shake well before using,” then it is a
suspension.
Understanding Check
If sand is added to a glass of water, is the resulting mixture a colloid or suspension?
Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion
Just like gases, solute and solvent particles in liquid phase solutions travel in random
directions until they collide with other particles or the container wall.
This type of random movement is called Brownian motion and results in a process
called diffusion.
Diffusion is defined as the net transport of a substance, due to Brownian motion, from a
region of greater concentration of the substance to a region of lesser concentration of
the substance.
It is the random movement of particles that causes them to be evenly mixed.
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Diffusion
In the diffusion process, substances will spontaneously move from an area of greater
concentration (of the particular substance) to lesser concentration until it is evenly distributed.
H2O Molecule
Food Coloring Molecule
Before Diffusion of After Diffusion of

Food Coloring Food Coloring
Molecules Occurs Molecules Occurs
When a substance is not evenly distributed and has a greater concentration in one region and a
lesser concentration in another region, we say that there is a “concentration gradient.”
Whenever a concentration gradient is present, and there is not a physical barrier preventing
transport, diffusion will occur.
• We say that the diffusing species move “with the concentration gradient.”
There can only be a net movement of dissolved particles from areas of lesser concentration to
areas of greater concentration (against the concentration gradient) when external energy is
supplied.
Osmosis
A semipermeable membrane is any type of physical barrier through which only certain
substances can pass.
• For example, many membranes, both natural and synthetic, are permeable to water
(allow water to pass) but are impermeable to ions (do not allow ions to pass).
As a general rule, biological membranes in cells, are permeable to nonpolar molecules

and small polar molecules, and are impermeable to ions and large polar molecules.
Water molecules pass through holes (pores) in biological membranes called

aquaporins.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net transport of solvent from a solution with a lesser solute particle
concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a solution with a greater solute
particle concentration.
Note that a semipermeable membrane allows solvent

to continuously move back and forth between both
sides of a membrane; however in osmosis, there is a
greater amount of solvent transported in the direction
from the side of the membrane with lesser solute
particle concentration to the side of the membrane
with greater solute particle concentration, resulting in
a net (overall) transport of solvent in that direction.
We will only discuss osmosis for aqueous solutions,

therefore for our purposes, osmosis is the net
transport of water molecules from a solution with a
lesser solute particle concentration through a
semipermeable membrane to a solution with a
greater solute particle concentration.
Osmosis is very important in biology because cell membranes are semipermeable.
The difference in solute particle concentration (osmolarity) between the inside of the cell and the
surrounding solution has important implications in maintaining the viability of the cell.
Consider the three different cases for the solution that surrounds a cell:
1. In a hypertonic solution, there is a greater

solute particle concentration outside the cell
than inside of the cell, so there is a net flow
of water from the inside to the outside of
the cell. This results in the shrinking of the
cell.
2. In an isotonic solution, the concentration of
solute particles is the same on the inside Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
and outside of the cell, therefore the flow of
water in and out of the cell are equal and
Microscope Images of Human Red Blood Cells in
the cell maintains it natural and healthy Hypertonic, Isotonic, and Hypotonic Solutions
(viable) shape. Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
3. In a hypotonic solution, there is a lesser
solute particle concentration outside the
cell than inside the cell, and there is a net
flow of water from the outside to the inside
of the cell. This results in the swelling and
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The pressure associated with the transport of water in the osmosis process is called
osmotic pressure.
Initial State: Final State:

Equal amounts of liquid are placed Water molecules moved from the
on opposite sides of a membrane. Osmosis chamber with pure water (right
Saltwater on one side and pure side) to the side with greater
water on the other side. solute concentration (left side):
The water levels change until the

pressure caused from the
difference in water column heights
is equal to the osmotic pressure.
The greater the difference in osmolarity between each side of the semipermeable
membrane, the greater the osmotic pressure.
For membranes that form a continuous
enclosure around a solution, such as those
of biological cells, the osmotic pressure is
the pressure required to stop the net
transport of water into or out of cells.
A red blood cell (left), a platelet (center), and

a white blood cell (T-lymphocyte) (right)
When the solution around a cell becomes hypotonic, there is a

lesser solute particle concentration outside the cell than inside the
cell, and therefore there is a net flow of water from the outside to
the inside of the cell.
As water flows into the cell, the pressure on the inside of the cell
increases (imagine inflating a balloon).
The pressure in the cell will continue to increase until either (1)
the osmotic pressure is reached and osmosis stops, or (2) the cell
bursts. The bursting of red blood cells is called hemolysis and is
Hypotonic evidenced by the appearance of red color in the blood plasma.
Understanding Check
Which of the following systems (#1 or #2) would have a greater osmotic pressure:
System #1: 1.00 M sodium chloride on one side of a semipermeable membrane

and pure water on the other side.
or
System #2: 0.500 M sodium chloride on one side of a semipermeable membrane
and pure water on the other side.
HINT: The greater the difference in osmolarity between each side of the
semipermeable membrane, the greater the osmotic pressure.
Understanding Check
Which of the following systems (#1 or #2) would have a greater osmotic pressure:
System #1: 1.00 M NaCl on one side of a semipermeable membrane and pure
water on the other side.
or
System #2: 1.00 M Fe2(SO4)3 on one side of a semipermeable membrane and
pure water on the other side.

Solution, Suspension, Colloids

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Solution, Suspension, Colloids

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Chapter 7

Solutions, Colloids, and

One way in which mixtures are classified is by their macro-scale,

A homogeneous mixture appears to be the same throughout the entire

A heterogeneous mixture has visible regions of varying composition.

• Example: A chocolate chip cookie

The pure substance that is in the greatest abundance is referred to as the

The other pure substance components of a solution are called solutes.

The solutes are said to be “dissolved” in the solvent.

An example of a gas-phase solution is air.

An example of a solid-phase solution is brass.

a) 5 grams of sodium chloride and 100 grams of water

a) 10 mL of ethyl alcohol and 250 mL of water

a) 100 mL of acetone and 10 mL of water

Another term for “dissolving” is dissolution.

Likewise, the partially positively-charged

We use the term solvation to describe a solute particle becoming

Molecules will dissolve in a particular solvent when the solute-solvent

Unlike ionic compounds that dissociate, when molecules dissolve, the

see next slide for more details

Ethyl alcohol’s lone pairs can form

Solutes that are nonpolar are capable of dissolving in nonpolar solvents.

This phenomenon is summarized in the easily-remembered phrase,

a. oxygen gas dissolved in water

b. carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water

c. potassium iodide dissolved in water

d. pentane dissolved in octane

Some liquid-in-liquid solutions can be made at any ratio of the liquids.

The solubility of a solid solute depends on temperature.

• As the temperature of water increases to its normal boiling point

• Notice that this is the opposite of the behavior of gaseous solutes.

Ionic compounds that dissolve to a significant extent are classified as

It is convenient to use “solubility rules” in order to know which ionic

STEP 2: Check to see if the

This means that all nitrates are water

STEP 2: Check to see if the cation

• If Cu(OH)2 were mixed with water, it

STEP 2: Check to see if the cation

Therefore BaSO4 is not water soluble.

STEP 2: Check to see if the cation

Therefore KOH is water soluble.

• Dissolved ionic compounds are called electrolytes.

Electrolyte solutions are required in biological functions such as the

Our bodies obtain electrolytes from food and drink.

Double Replacement Reactions

In a double replacement reaction, two substances

The general form of a double replacement reaction, where

If one of the new pairs formed is

Therefore, a solid is always formed in a precipitation reaction.

We say the solid “precipitated” from the solution.

The appearance of the solid precipitate indicates the formation

• Predict if a precipitation reaction will occur when two

• Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

Example: The reaction of lead(II) nitrate and potassium chromate.

Step 2: Add the “possible” products to the word equation by switching

lead(II) nitrate + potassium chromate → lead(II) chromate + potassium nitrate

Step 3: Convert the word equation to a formula equation.

Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4 → PbCrO4 + KNO3