Chapter 9 Boolean Algebra

§9.1 Combinatorial circuits

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Definition.
( 1. AND gate:
1 if x1 = 1 and x2 = 1
x1 ∧ x2 =
0 otherwise.
1
2. OR gate:
(
1 if x1 = 1 or x2 = 1
x1 ∨ x2 =
0 otherwise.

3. NOT
( gate:
1 if x = 0
x=
0 if x = 1.

x1 x1 ∧ x2x1 x1 ∨ x2 x
x2 x 2
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(x1 ∧ (x2 ∨ x3)) ∨ x2.

x1
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x2 (x1 ∧ (x2 ∨ x3) ∨ x2
x3 x2 ∨ x3

x1 x2 x3 (x1 ∧ (x2 ∨ x3)) ∨ x2

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

5
§9.2 Properties of Combinatorial circuits

Definition. ¿ º Boolean expressions X1 =

X1(x1, . . . , xn) õ
 X2 = X2(x1, . . . , xn)  °  
ú 
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For example (x ∨ y) = x ∧ y.

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(a) Associative laws: (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c),

(a ∧ b) ∧ c = a ∧ (b ∧ c).
(b) Commutative laws: a∨b = b∨a, a∧b = b∧a.
(c) Distributive laws: a∧(b∨c) = (a∧b)∨(a∧c),
a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c).
(d) Identity laws: a ∨ 0 = a, a ∧ 1 = a.
(e) Complement laws: a ∨ a = 1, a ∧ a = 0.
6
Theorem. Two combinatorial circuits C1, C2,
represented by the Boolean expressions
X1 = X1(x1, . . . , xn) and X2 = X2(x1, . . . , xn),
are equivalent, written as C1 = C2, iff X1 =
X2.

6
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7
§9.3 Boolean Algebras

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8
Theorem. In a Boolean algebra.
(1) The element x0 is unique: If x + y = 1 and
x ∗ y = 0, then y = x0.
(2) x + x = x, x ∗ x = x: (Idempotent laws)
(3) x + 1 = 1, x ∗ 0 = 0: (Bound laws)
(4) x + x ∗ y = x, x ∗ (x + y) = x: (Absorption
laws)
(5) (x0)0 = x: (Involution laws)
(6) 00 = 1, 10 = 0: (0 and 1 laws)
(7) (x + y)0 = x0 ∗ y 0, (x ∗ y)0 = x0 + y 0: (De
Morgan’s laws)

¤Ã
 : x ∗ y 
Z H xy –
 Ð ³ðl  .
(1) y = y1 = y(x + x0) = yx + yx0 = 0 + yx0 =
xx0 + yx0 = (x + y)x0 = x0.
(7) (x+y)(x0y 0) = (xx0)y 0 +x0(yy 0) = 0y 0 +x00 =
0.
(x + y) + x0y 0 = ((x + y) + x0)((x + y) + y 0) =
(y + (x + x0))(x + (y + y 0)) = 1 · 1 = 1.
By uniqueness (1), x0y 0 = (x + y)0. ¤
9
Definition. For a statement involving Boolean
expressions, its dual is the statement obtained
by replacing 0 by 1, 1 by 0, + by ∗, ∗ by +.

For example, x + 0 = x and x1 = x are dual.

(x + y)0 = x0y 0 and (xy)0 = x0 + y 0 are dual.

Theorem. The dual of a theorem about Boolean

algebras is also a theorem.

¤Ã
 : If P is a proof of a theorem T about
Z
Boolean algebras involving only the definitions
of the Boolean algebra, then the sequence of
statements P ∗ obtained by replacing every state-
ment in P by its dual becomes a proof of the
dual of T . ¤

10
Consider dual statements x+x = x and xx = x.
x = x+0 x = x1
= x + (xx0) x = x(x + x0)
= (x + x)(x + x0) x = xx + xx0
= (x + x)1 x = xx + 0
= x+x x = xx.

§9.4 Boolean functions and Synthesis of cir-

cuits

Definition. The exclusive-OR of x1 and x2,

written x1 ⊕ x2, is defined by the table:

x1 x2 x1 ⊕ x2
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

Definition. Let X(x1, . . . , xn) be a Boolean

expression. A function f : Zn 2 → Z2 of the form
f (x1, . . . , xn) = X(x1, . . . , xn)
is called a Boolean function.
11
The exclusive-OR function f (x1, x2) = X(x1, x2) =
x1 ⊕ x2 is a Boolean function with the domain
Z22 = {(1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0)}, which are the
inputs, and the range Z2 = {0, 1}, which are
the outputs.

UV
d  2 f : Z3 2 → Z2 defined by f (x1, x2, x3 ) =
x1 ∧ (x2 ∨ x3) is a Boolean function, whose in-
puts and outputs are given in the following ta-
ble:

x1 x2 x3 f (x1, x2, x3)

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

12
UV
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x1 x2 x3 f (x1, x2, x3)

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

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13
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Definition. A minterm in the symbols x1, . . . , xn

is a Boolean expression of the form
A = y1 ∧ y2 ∧ · · · ∧ yn
where each yi is either xi or xi.
14
Theorem. f : Zn 2 → Z2 is a Boolean function.
If f is not identically zero, let A1, . . . , Ak denote
the elements in Zn 2 for which f (Ai ) = 1. If
Ai = (a1, . . . , an), set mi = y1 ∧ y2 ∧ · · · ∧ yn,
where
(
xj if aj = 1
yj =
xj if aj = 0.
Then

f (x1, . . . , xn) = m1 ∨ m2 ∨ · · · ∨ mk .

¤Ã
 : If f is identically zero function, it is clearly
Z
a Boolean function since 0 is a Boolean expres-
sion.

Suppose f 6= 0, and let mi(a1, . . . , an) denote

the value of mi for xj = aj . Thus
(
1 if A = Ai
mi(A) =
0 if A =
6 Ai.

15
For A ∈ Zn2 , if A = Ai for some i ∈ {1, . . . , k},
then f (A) = 1 and mi(A) = 1, so
m1(A) ∨ · · · ∨ mk (A) = 1.
IfA 6= Ai for any i ∈ {1, . . . , k}, then f (A) = 0
and mi(A) = 0, so
m1(A) ∨ · · · ∨ mk (A) = 0. ¤

f (x1, . . . , xn) = m1 ∨ m2 ∨ · · · ∨ mk is called the

disjunctive normal form of f .

UV
d  4 It is easy to find the disjunctive normal
form of the exclusive-OR x1 ⊕ x2, whose logic
table is defined by:

x1 x2 x1 ⊕ x2
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

x1 ⊕ x2 = (x1 ∧ x2) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2). Its combinatorial

circuit is:
16
 x1

x1 ⊕ x2

x2

UV
d  5 Find the disjunctive normal form of
f (x1, x2, x3) = (x1 ∨ x2) ∧ x3.

1. Write down the logic table and apply the

theorem above.

2. Expend the expression using the definition

of the Boolean algebra:
(x1 ∨ x2) ∧ x3 = (x1 ∧ x3) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3)
= (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ 1) ∨ (x2 ∧ x3 ∧ 1)
= (x1 ∧ x3 ∧ (x2 ∨ x2))
∨(x2 ∧ x3 ∧ (x1 ∨ x1))
= (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3)
∨(x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3)
= (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3) ∨ (x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3)
∨(x1 ∧ x2 ∧ x3)
17
The dual of the disjunctive normal form of a
Boolean function f is of the following form:

g(x1, . . . , xn) = M1 ∧ M2 ∧ · · · ∧ Mk ,
where each Mi is of the form

Mi = y1 ∨ y2 ∨ · · · ∨ yn,
where
(
xj if aj = 1
yj =
xj if aj = 0.
Mi _
— ¸€œ`
ª¦ maxterm s
 
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¦g_ —
¸€œ`
ª ¦ con-

junctive normal form s
ô
Ç
 .

18
§9.5 Applications

Definition. A gate is a function f : Zn

2 → Z2 .

AND, OR gates are examples on Z2

2 , and NOT
gate is an example on Z2.

Definition. A set of gates {g1, . . . , gk } is said

to be functionally complete if given any pos-
itive integer n and a function f : Zn 2 → Z2 it
is possible to construct a combinatorial circuit
that compute f using only the gates gi’s.

{ AND, OR, NOT } is functionally complete.

Theorem. { AND, NOT }, { OR, NOT } are

functionally complete.

¤Ã
 : x ∨ y = x ∨ y = x ∧ y, by De Morgan’s law.
Z
Now, given any function f : Zn 2 → Z2, a combi-
natorial circuit can be constructed using AND,
OR, NOT gates. But OR can be replaced by
AND and NOT gates. ¤

19
Definition. A NAND gate, denoted by
x1 ↑ x2, is defined as:
(
0 if x1 = 1 and x2 = 1
x1 ↑ x2 =
1 otherwise.
Its logic table and circuit are drawn as:

x1 x2 x1 ↑ x2
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
x1
x2 x1 ↑ x2

Theorem. { NAND } is functionally complete.

Ã
¤: Note x1 ↑ x2 = xy. Thus
Z
x = xx = x ↑ x
x ∨ y = x y = x ↑ y = (x ↑ x) ↑ (y ↑ y).
Since { OR, NOT } is functionally complete,
so is { NAND }. ¤
20
Combinatorial circuits of NOT and OR using
NAND:
x
x

x
x∨y
y

s
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‫כ‬ r gate _
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Consider the combinatorial circuit to compute

the function f given as follows:

x y z f (x, y, z)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
21
The disjunctive normal form of f is

f (x, y, z) = xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xy z.

The combinatorial circuit that computes f has
9 gates as shown on page 441.

Õ
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24
Consider two outputs:

y1 = ab
y2 = bc ∨ ab = bc ∨ y1.

a y1
b

y2
c

Definition. A half adder accepts as input two

bits x and y and produces as output the binary
sum cs of x and y. The term cs is a two-bit
binary number. We call s the sum bit and c
the carry bit.

25
¤, The table for the half-adder circuit is:
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x y c s
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0

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26
Definition. A full-adder accepts as input three
bits x, y, and z and produces as output the bi-
nary sum cs of x, y, and z. The term cs is a
two-bit binary number.

[Full-Adder Circuit]
The table for the full-adder circuit is:

x y z c s
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0

One can easily check that

s = x ⊕ y ⊕ z; c = xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz.

27
Using the tools set up earlier:

Ea ∨ Ea = E, E = E ∨ Ea,
we get:

c = xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz = xy ∨ xyz ∨ xyz

= xy ∨ xyz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz
= xy ∨ xz ∨ xyz
= xy ∨ xz ∨ xyz ∨ xyz
= xy ∨ xz ∨ yz
= xy ∨ (x ∨ y)z.
The full-adder circuit is given on page 445.

Half-adder and full-adder circuits \

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28
M = x3x2x1, N = y3y2y1  \ ½
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x1 Half s z1
Adder c s
y1 z2
Full
x2
Adder c s z
y2 3
Full
x3
Adder c z
y3 4

29