GFRAS - NELK - Module - 3 - Programme - Management - Manual PDF

Module 3: Agricultural Extension
Programme Management
In 2012 GFRAS developed the “New Extensionist” document, which details
the role that extension plays in an agricultural innovation system, and the
strategies and capacities needed (at individual, organisational, and system
level) http://www.g-fras.org/en/activities/the-new-extensionist.html. Based
on this document the GFRAS Consortium on Extension Education and
Training emerged to promote the New Extensionist, mainly through training,
curricula review, and research on extension.
The Learning Kit contains 13 modules designed for self-directed, face-

to-face, or blended learning and can be a useful resource for individual
extension field staff, managers, and lecturers.
The Agricultural Extension Programme Management module is developed as

part of the New Extensionist Learning Kit http://www.g-fras.org/fr/652-the-
new-extensionist-core-competencies-for-individuals.html
We acknowledge the generous support of the European Union contributions

through the Global Forum on Agricultural Research for the development of
the New Extensionist position paper, its validation, and the development
of these learning materials. Special thanks go to a core group of GFRAS
Consortium on Education and Training and to CAEPNet for reviewing the
module and providing feedback.
Lead author: Mercy Akeredolu

Technical writer: Heike Lucht
Editor: Caryn O’Mahony
Quality assurer: Margeaux Erasmus
Layout: Deborah Els
Coordination team: Kristin Davis, Hlamalani Ngwenya,
Lorenz Schwarz & Natalie Ernst
Financial support:
This module was made possible through the support of the Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). The contents of this
module are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of GIZ or Government.
2016
All work by Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
ii
Contents
Module 3: Agricultural Extension Programme
Management.......................................................1
Module overview......................................................................3
Module introduction..................................................................4
Study unit 1: Theories and practice of agricultural

extension management..................................................... 6
Study unit overview..................................................................6
Study unit introduction.............................................................6
Session 1.1: Definition, theories and principles of

management..................................................................... 7
Introduction.............................................................................7
What is management?..............................................................7
Management styles and approaches..........................................8
Session 1.2: Functions of management.......................... 12
Introduction...........................................................................12
Planning and organising..........................................................12
Staffing, directing and coordinating.........................................12
Reporting and budgeting........................................................13
Concluding remarks................................................................14
Study unit 2: Approaches to management strategies of

extension organisations.................................................. 15
Study unit overview................................................................15
Study unit introduction...........................................................15
iii
Session 2.1: Publicly funded extension systems............. 16
Introduction...........................................................................16
Older systems........................................................................16
Case study 1: Ministry of Agricultural Extension Services of

Uganda.................................................................................17
Modern extension systems......................................................19
Case study 2: Farming systems research and extension in

Zimbabwe..............................................................................20
Case study 3: Privatisation in the Netherlands..........................22
Session 2.2: Privately funded extension systems........... 22
Introduction...........................................................................22
Private sector.........................................................................22
Case study 4: Privatisation in Australia.....................................23
Voluntary organisations..........................................................24
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).................................25
Case study 5: Sasakawa in Africa............................................25
Cost sharing approaches.........................................................26
Study unit 3: Leadership, motivation and group dynamics.

........................................................................................ 28
Session 3.1: Leadership................................................... 29
Introduction...........................................................................29
iv
What is leadership?................................................................29
Leadership types....................................................................31
What is motivation?................................................................32
Session 3.2: Work group dynamics and creativity.......... 37
Introduction...........................................................................37
Conceptualisation of group dynamics.......................................37
Roles in the group..................................................................38
Communication in the group...................................................39
Types of techniques for group dynamics..................................39
Study unit 4: Extension programmes and programme

planning.......................................................................... 42
Session 4.1: The importance of extension programmes

and planning.................................................................... 43
Introduction...........................................................................43
What is an extension programme?...........................................43
What is extension programme planning?..................................44
Session 4.2: Extension programmes, types, assumptions

and principles.................................................................. 45
Introduction...........................................................................45
Types of extension programmes..............................................45
Principles of outcomes-focused planning..................................46
v
Session 4.3: Programme development cycle and steps in
programme planning....................................................... 47
Introduction...........................................................................47
Overview of the programme planning cycle..............................47
Study unit 5: Managing organisational change and

conflict resolution........................................................... 51
Session 5.1: Organisational change................................ 52
Introduction...........................................................................52
What is organisational change?...............................................52
Role of management during organisational change...................52
Session 5.2: Conflicts and conflict management............ 54
Introduction...........................................................................54
Situations of conflict...............................................................54
Conflict management..............................................................55
Study unit 6: Involvement of farmers and tools in

programme planning....................................................... 58
vi
Session 6.1: Involving stakeholders in planning extension
programmes.................................................................... 59
Introduction...........................................................................59
Importance of involvement.....................................................59
Involvement methods.............................................................60
Session 6.2: Tools in programme planning .................... 61
Introduction...........................................................................61
Needs assessments................................................................61
Resource mobilisation.............................................................61
Action plan............................................................................62
Study unit 7: Time management..................................... 64
Session 7.1: Good time management and defining goals...

........................................................................................ 66
Introduction...........................................................................66
What is time management?....................................................66
Defining goals........................................................................68
Session 7.2: Analysing energy allocation ....................... 70
Introduction...........................................................................70
What is the concept of energy?...............................................70
Ensuring good energy flow in the workplace.............................70
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Session 7.3: Identifying personal style .......................... 72
Introduction...........................................................................72
The importance of self review in management.........................72
Study unit 8: Human resource management.................. 75
Session 8.1: Human resource management functions.... 76
Introduction...........................................................................76
Human resource management functions..................................76
Organisational theories and human resources...........................77
Session 8.2: Legal implications of human resource

management................................................................... 79
Introduction...........................................................................79
Employment law and employee rights......................................79
Labour relations.....................................................................80
International human resource management ............................80
Study unit 9: Coordination and control in agricultural

extension management................................................... 83
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Session 9.1: Organisational control................................ 84
Introduction...........................................................................84
Nature of organisational control..............................................84
Session 9.2: The control process..................................... 85
Introduction...........................................................................85
Control process......................................................................85
Methods of control.................................................................85
Obstacles to effective control..................................................86
Session 9.3: Principles of and barriers to coordination.. 87
Introduction...........................................................................87
Meaning of coordination and types of coordination...................87
Principles and barriers to effective coordination .......................88
Pluralism in extension and coordination...................................89
Concluding remarks ...............................................................90
Study unit 10: Management information systems.......... 91
Session 10.1: Basic information system concepts.......... 92
Introduction...........................................................................92
Components of the business information system......................92
Web development and HTML..................................................94
Information systems in global business today...........................94
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Session 10.2: Working with management information
system staff..................................................................... 95
Introduction...........................................................................95
Securing information systems..................................................95
Ethical issues.........................................................................95
Session 10.3: Using computer applications systems in

management................................................................... 97
Introduction...........................................................................97
Tools and techniques for MIS..................................................97
MIS in extension organisations................................................98
Study unit 11: Monitoring and evaluation.................... 100
Study unit overview..............................................................100
Study unit introduction......................................................... 101
Session 11.1: Monitoring for effective management.... 102
Introduction.........................................................................102
Meaning of monitoring.......................................................... 102
Principles and approaches of monitoring................................ 102
Monitoring indicators............................................................ 103
Linking monitoring to outcomes............................................ 103
Session 11.2: Evaluation for effective management .... 105
Introduction.........................................................................105
Meaning and importance of evaluation................................... 105
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Models of extension programme evaluation ........................... 106
Designing extension evaluation ............................................ 107
Types of evaluation.............................................................. 108
Concluding remarks ............................................................. 110
Glossary .........................................................111
Definitions...........................................................................111
Abbreviations.......................................................................116
Resources.......................................................118
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1. Before you begin
1.1 General instruction
This module should be used in conjunction with the workbook
provided. As you read through the module, you will find different
visual features that are designed to help you navigate the
document.
Activity Case Did you Example Keywords Take note

Study know
Figure 1: Icons used to highlight important information

throughout the manual
The module makes use of keywords (difficult or technical words

that are important for you to understand). To ensure that you
receive the full benefit from the module, keywords will be marked
the first time they occur and defined in a box containing the
keywords symbol. Make sure that you read the definition of any
words that you are unsure about.
1.2 Activities
Each session in the module will contain various types of activities
to help you become knowledgeable and competent. The module
contains three types of activities:
A pre-assessment is to be completed before reading through

the module overview and introduction, and a post-assessment
is to be completed once the entire module has been covered. This
will measure the degree to which your knowledge has improved
by completing the module.
xii
Each session contains one or more session activities to be
completed in the workbook where indicated in the module. These
activities measure your ability to recall and apply theoretical
knowledge.
At the end of each study unit a summative assessment needs

to be completed. These assessments are longer than the session
activities and will test your knowledge on all the work within the
study unit.
1.3 Assessment instructions

Keep the following in mind before doing any of the assessments:
yy All assessments are to be completed in the provided workbook.
yy The manual contains all relevant information you will need to
complete the questions, if additional information is needed,
such as the use of online sources, facilities will be made
available.
yy Work through the activities in a study unit and make sure
that you can answer all the questions before attempting the
summative assessment. If you find that you are not certain of
any part of the training material, repeat that section until you
feel confident.
yy The summative assessment must be done under the
supervision of your trainer at the end of your learning period.
xiii
Part of the New Extensionist Learning Kit
Module 3: Agricultural Extension

Programme Management
Module outcomes
After completing this module, you will be able to:
1. List the theories and explain the practice of agricultural
extension management:
yy Describe the basic concepts of extension programme
management; and
yy Describe the theories, principles, process and
functions of a good manager.
2. Differentiate between approaches to management
strategies or extension organisations:
yy Describe the various extension approaches and
elaborate on the implications for organisational
management.
3. Explain the concept and relevance of leadership,
motivation, and group dynamics in management:
yy Explain what leadership is;
yy List the qualities of good leadership;
yy Explain how to motivate employees within your
organisation;
yy Describe group dynamics to improve performance
standards;
yy Explain how to reduce conflicts within a group; and
yy Explain how establish guidelines and consensus to
improve teamwork.
4. Describe the importance of agricultural extension
programmes and the process of programme planning:
yy Describe the basic concepts of extension
programmes; and
yy Describe the programme planning process.
5. Explain the importance of farmer involvement and apply
the tools of programme planning:
1
Module 3: Agricultural Extension Programme Management
yy Explain the basic mechanisms of agricultural markets;

and
yy Explain the benefits of stakeholder involvement in
planning successful programmes.
6. Create an action plan for your time management
process and identify ways to evaluate and improve your
efforts:
yy Describe your goals;
yy Analyse how you are currently allocating your energy
and time;
yy Identify elements of your personal work style that
contribute to your effective use of time; and
yy Gather a collection of time management tools and
strategies that you can use to take control of your
time.
7. Explain the relevance of human resource management:
yy Explain the basic concepts of supervision, staffing
and appraisal; and
yy Describe the combinations of the management
functions for effective personnel management.
8. Explain the importance of coordination and control
within a pluralistic system of extension:
yy Explain the need for coordination and control for
effective organisational management; and
yy Apply the tools of coordination and control within
your organisation.
9. Explain the management information system and its role
in organisational management:
yy Explain basic information system concepts as applied
to business operations and management; and
yy Work with the MIS staff to make technical decisions
10. Explain how large-scale computer application systems
can assist with business management and operations.
11. Explain the concept of MELS and its application for
effective organisational management:
2
yy Define evaluation and monitoring processes in

extension;
yy Explain the importance and characteristics of
evaluation in extension;
yy Identify the uses of evaluation;
yy Explain the meaning of monitoring processes and
their indicators; and
yy Identify the methods used in monitoring extension
activities and give various examples of indicators of
extension.
Pluralistic system: An extension system that includes

stakeholders from private and public sectors.
Module overview
Over the years, agricultural extension has moved towards a
participatory approach. This has created a need for extension
organisations to be more responsive to those using their
services. Economic crises have triggered a need for increased
accountability, restructuring and reform in agricultural
extension since the early 1990s. At the national level,
inappropriate public extension policies, limited public
funds, lack of accountability, and growing rural poverty
have prompted developing countries to re-examine the
relevance of agricultural extension in rural development.
Agricultural extension faces the challenge of establishing a
well-managed, effective, and accountable system that meets
the needs of many farmers engaged in diverse and complex
farming systems, as well as effectively monitoring, evaluating and
assessing the impact of extension services. These challenges are
the result of how dependent extension is on the performance of
the agricultural research system and its feedback linkages as well
3
as the inherent problems in ensuring political commitment and

the economic sustainability of agricultural extension.
Participatory approach: An approach where farmers or

stakeholders are included in the decision making process.
Restructuring: Changing the way management within an
organisation is structured or changing the way a programme is
managed.
Diverse: Made up of different farming systems.
This module has been designed to introduce extensionists to

the key terms and concepts required to understand agricultural
extension programme management and to begin building the
knowledge, skills and attitudes they require to manage extension
effectively.
Module introduction
This module combines critical areas of extension programme
planning and management of extension programmes.
Management is usually connected with organising, selecting
executives or personnel, establishing plans, measuring results,
and coordinating, controlling and delegating activities.
Extension services are essential in enabling farmers
to improve their practices and help them respond to
emerging challenges. Knowledge, ideas and skills gained
through extension programmes can help farmers increase
their productivity, reduce losses and gain better access to
markets. The positive impact of extension services is well
demonstrated globally.
Extension activities are developed through programme
development. Extension services are considered to be proactive,
responsive and collaborative organisations committed to the
growth and development of people through continuous learning.
4
Reactive programming implies actions or

Proactive: adaptation in response to change where
To create change is seen as a loss or a threat. The
or control a extension workers spend most of their time
situation. and other resources responding to requests
Responsive: that have no central focus or objective.
To react to a Proactive programming suggests the
situation. educational programme or the educational
Collaborative: effort was well thought out. It depicts a
To work plan for expected changes and openness to
together with new or different ways of doing something,
different groups where change is seen as an opportunity.
or departments. Proactive programming ensures that
Reactive: a comprehensive educational effort is
Response to specifically designed to bring about change
change. and has a significant, positive impact on the
Interrelated lives of individuals and groups. It indicates
factors: All the new extensionist is well aware of the
factors are complex interrelated factors necessary to
related to each direct innovative change. This means that the
other in some new extensionist must have a philosophical
way. base for programme development, is
aware of the need for and the role of
an organisational structure in educational programming,
understands the programme development process, is
aware of the resources needed and has a framework for
establishing priorities.
Complete the pre-assessment in your workbook.
5
Study unit 1: Theories and practice of

agricultural extension management
Study unit outcomes

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
yy Describe the basic concepts of extension programme
management; and
yy Describe the theories, principles, processes and
functions of a good manager.
Study unit overview

This study unit provides an introduction to the core definitions of
extension programme management and the theories, practices
and processes involved in extension programme management.
Study unit introduction

In this study unit you will learn about the theories and practice
of agricultural extension management, and how a good
manager uses these in the workplace.
6
Session 1.1: Definition, theories and

principles of management
Session outcomes
After completing this session, you should be able to:
yy Explain the theories of management and its principles;
and
yy Explain the management process to guide you in your
work.
Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to the concept of
management as guiding human and physical resources into
dynamic agricultural extension organisational units.
What is management?
Management involves giving direction and making decisions,
formulating policies and plans, implementing the formulated
policies and plans, and monitoring them. To be a good
manager you need to be able to form balanced
judgements, which are important for making rational
decisions. Management also involves maintaining
interpersonal relationships with subordinates,
peers, other sectors, departments, organisations and
superiors. This can be done by using management
techniques for planning, executing and evaluating operations.
Management can also provide administrative services such as
clerical accounting. Administration involves the creation and
maintenance of an environment in which individual employees
work together towards the accomplishment of organisational
goals.
7
Interpersonal relationships: Your relationship with others in

the workplace or in a social setting.
Subordinates: Those holding a lower position in the workplace
than you do, if you are their manager.
Peers: Those working on the same level, or in a similar position to
you. Your colleagues.
Superiors: Managers or supervisors. Those holding a higher
position in the workplace than you do.
Management styles and approaches

There are different management styles and approaches you can
use depending on the situation and the needs of the organisation.
Before the Industrial Revolution there was no formal analysis
of management and how effective it was in a given situation.
The Scientific Management or Classical Management Theory was
pioneered by Frederick W. Taylor when he implemented a more
structured and analytical approach to management with the goal
of increasing worker productivity. This is a production orientation
management style.
The basic principles of Classical Management Theory are that
management develops a standard method in a scientific
way for doing each job, all work
is planned to avoid interruptions,
Industrial
employees are chosen to do a job
Revolution:
based on their abilities and skills,
The period
and some form of incentive should be
in history in
given to employees to encourage them
Britain where
to be productive.
the invention
Behavioural Management Theory deals with of machines
employee behaviour and what motivates caused a rapid
employees to be productive. It also takes development in
into account the working environment and industry.
employee work satisfaction. This theory is
8
based on the idea that management takes an interest in the

people they are managing in such a way that they make their
team members feel valued and that they play an important part
in achieving organisational goals.
The Modern Management Theory, which emerged in the 1960s,
aims to bring together the ideas of a production-centred
management approach and the employee-focused management
approach. The system’s approach highlights the organisation
as a whole, which is made up of independent and interrelated
subsystems.
The Contingency Theory was developed by J.W. Lorsch and P.R.
Lawrence during the 1970s. This approach is based on the idea
that under different situations, management problems will differ
and the management style must be adjusted to address the
specific problems presented in a given situation.
Management principles
The decisions and actions of managers are guided by a few basic
principles that determine management’s success:
yy Good management relies on delegating tasks to increase
productivity. This means dividing work into smaller tasks and
assigning each task to someone in the workforce who has
the skills and ability to do the job the best;
yy A good manager will show authority when assigning
tasks and take responsibility for their decisions;
yy Another important principle of management is
discipline. Where there is discipline there is proper
conduct in interpersonal relationships and respect for
authority within the organisation;
yy Management must always act in the best
Authority:
interest of the organisation they serve
A superior’s
and not make decisions for personal gain.
right to give an
Employees must be treated fairly and
order to their
kindly in the workplace. It is important
subordinates.
that managers stay neutral when dealing
with their employees;
9
yy A manager will benefit from encouraging their employees to

show initiative in anything they do. This drive to contribute
will add new ideas to an organisation and keep the employees
motivated to be productive; and
yy A good manager will make sure there is a
sense of team spirit in the workplace. This refers to
an environment in which co-workers develop a mutual
understanding and trust, which helps them work together to
get tasks done efficiently and on time.
Scope and levels of management

Within management there is a wide scope that covers all aspects
of production, marketing, finances and personnel.
Production management is responsible for planning, organising,
directing and controlling all production functions within an
organisation.
Marketing management is responsible for identifying consumer
needs and then putting everything in place so that the goods and
services that will satisfy those needs can be delivered. It includes
market research and advertising and choosing the correct
channel of distribution. Salespeople will report to marketing
management.
Financial management is responsible for making sure that
an organisation has enough financial resources available
for operation. They are responsible for calculating costs
of projects and then choosing the correct sources of
funding to suit a specific project.
Personnel management is responsible for recruiting,
selecting, and training employees as well as for managing
compensation, promotions and transfers, and employee welfare
services. They are responsible for keeping employee records in an
organisation.
Different levels of management will take responsibility for making
decisions for different aspects of organisational operations.
10
Depending on the size of an organisation, top management

will usually have the most authority and responsibility. Top
management refers to the Board of Directors, Managing Director
(MD), General Manager (GM), the Chief Executive Officer (CEO),
who is the head of a company and their second in command,
and the Chief Operating Officer (COO). Middle level management
refers to department managers, deputy managers, and assistant
managers. Lower level management includes the supervisors.
A chain of command ensures that the subordinates in a given
group report to their direct superiors, who will then report to
higher levels of management and so on. Respecting this chain of
command ensures that issues relevant to lower level employees
are resolved quickly without wasting the time and energy of top
management.
Management skills
The basic skills that a good manager should have are the
ability to plan well, the ability to delegate tasks, to ability to
communicate well and the ability to motivate the people who
report to them.
Complete Activity 1.1 in your workbook.
11
Session 1.2: Functions of management
Session outcomes
yy List the functions of management which increase
organisational efficiency through management; and
yy List the functions of management which an effective
extension professional possesses.
Introduction
As a manager, you are expected to perform certain functions to
move the organisation forward. Some of these functions relate to
how you plan, organise, control, coordinate, direct and supervise.
These functions of management are discussed in this section.
Planning and organising

A good manager understands the value of planning and
organising. A manager must have good problem solving skills
and use these to set up a detailed action plan. An action plan
will be based on the philosophy, policy, and objectives of
the organisation. It will outline things that need to be
accomplished to move the organisation forward and have
a detailed description of which techniques will be used
to accomplish these goals. Organisation encompasses
establishing structures and systems through which
activities are arranged, defined, and coordinated in terms of
some specific objectives.
Staffing, directing and coordinating

As you have already learned, personnel management deals with
staff selection and training as well as working at maintaining
favourable working conditions. Employees can report to personnel
12
management with complaints if they feel unsatisfied with

anything in their work environment.
The main function of management in an organisation is to
give the organisation direction. Management is responsible for
making decisions, giving instructions and leading the organisation
towards a common goal.
Management, especially upper level management, is responsible
for coordinating the various sectors within an organisation so
that they work together harmoniously for the benefit of the
organisation as a whole.
Reporting and budgeting

A good manager has good communication skills. This is important
for the management function of reporting. This type of feedback
serves the purpose of keeping the staff and the public, to whom
you are accountable, informed of progress or changes that are
happening in the organisation.
Financial management is usually responsible for the function
of budgeting within an organisation. Financial managers make
financial plans, maintain the accounting and manage the control
of revenue. They are responsible for keeping costs in line with
the organisation’s objectives.
13
Concluding remarks
In this unit, you have learned that management involves giving
direction and making decisions, formulating policies and plans,
implementing the formulated policies and plans and monitoring
them. There are different management styles and approaches
you can use, depending on the needs of the organisation or the
situation.
The core functions of management that relate to planning,
organising, coordinating, directing and supervising are important
for moving an organisation forward.
Complete the summative assessment in your workbook.
14
Study unit 2: Approaches to management

strategies of extension organisations
Study unit outcomes

yy Explain the various extension management approaches;
and
yy Explain the relevance of private and public funded
extension.
Study unit overview

This unit provides an overview of the various management
strategies in the different agricultural extension systems that have
existed or currently exist within our various contexts.

The organisation involved in agricultural extension management
can be categorised mainly into publicly funded extension
systems and privately funded extension systems. Within
these exist a range of various forms of systems that
have been in existence over the years, like the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA) and the World Bank Training and
Visit system, and more recent ones like the project and
programme management system, the decentralised system
and commodity based extension system. Understanding these
systems will help you develop good management strategies for
your organisation.
15
Session 2.1: Publicly funded extension

systems
Session outcomes
yy Explain the relevance of publicly funded extension
systems in extension programme management.
Introduction
About 85% of extension services around the world are public
extension programmes funded by national governments. There
are many streams of organisations devoted to agricultural
extension under public extension systems. In this session, you
will learn about the various public oriented extension systems and
how they are managed.
Older systems
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research

(ICAR)
ICAR is an independent organisation
in the Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare of the Government Horticulture:
of India under the Department of Relating to crop
Agricultural Research and Education production.
(DARE).
ICAR plays a major role in coordinating, guiding and managing
research and education in all sectors of agriculture including
horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country.
16
Ministry of Agriculture system

The Ministry of Agriculture is the government
level management of national resources and Actors:
services available to support farmers. The Stakeholders
major role of managers in the agricultural such as
extension system is to make sure that any farmers,
relevant knowledge produced gets out to suppliers or
the people who need to use it for their investors.
development. In this way, the extension
system serves as a facilitating agent in
coordinating actors along the value chain involved in service
delivery. More details of the role of the extensionist as a facilitator
for development can be found in Module 7.
Staff members should have access to the knowledge available
within the organisation. They also need to be creative in how
they put this knowledge together to make it easy to communicate
to the farmers.
To be successful, the extension system will need a social climate
that encourages the sharing and critical analysis of knowledge
developed and used by its technical staff.
Case study 1: Ministry of Agricultural

Extension Services of Uganda
Within the Ministry of Agricultural Extension is the
Directorate of Agricultural Extension Services, which has two
departments, namely the Department of Extension and Skills
Management, and the Department of Agricultural Investment
and Enterprise Development.
The Department of Extension and Skills Management has
divisions which are each responsible for the management
of information and communication, skills management and
agricultural extension coordination.
17
The Department of Agricultural Investment and Enterprise

Development has divisions that are responsible for the
management of agribusiness services and primary process
and value addition.
Within each division there is room for experts to specialise in
and focus on one area of agriculture so that the Ministry as a
whole can make all the information a farmer needs available
to them in order for them to prosper.
Agribusiness: Farming for profit and managing farming like a

business.
World Bank Training and Visit System

The Training and Visit (T&V) extension system was promoted by
the World Bank in over 50 developing countries between 1975
and 1998. The main reason the T&V system disappeared was that
it was financially unsustainable because of high recurrent costs
paired with limited available funding.
This extension system was designed to address the challenges
of poor interaction between extensionists and research
scientists, poor interaction of extensionists with farmers
and a lack of accountability. It based its function on a
hierarchical structure and a strict farm visit schedule
that was known to the supervisors.
To improve the accountability of village-level workers to
their superiors, a single line of command and the rule of no
involvement in any non-extension duties were introduced to stop
higher level officials and extension workers from being tempted
to take payment for services outside of their job description.
18
Frequent training was supposed to encourage

extension workers to improve their skills and
Hierarchical
their overall knowledge in their field. In
structure:
theory, there were opportunities for
Different levels
extensionists to receive feedback from
of management
farmers during such training sessions. It was
within an
found that there was no incentive for them to
organisation
ask for or report such feedback and so this
where each
system did not improve the accountability of
level reports to
extension workers to the farmers.
the one above
It was also found that there was not much it.
interest from research scientists in investing Systems
in interaction with extensionists. approach:
Extension
When it was decided that a larger field-level
service
team was needed to reach a larger area, a
provision is
multi-level hierarchical structure with more
seen as a whole
mid-level managers and technical experts
made up of
was introduced. There was also a need for
many different
more local-level offices with vehicles and
individual parts.
motorcycles to improve mobility. All these
new developments meant higher investment
and running costs compared to the situation that existed
before the T&V system was introduced. With limited funding
available, this system became financially unsustainable.
Modern extension systems
Farming systems research and extension

(FSRE)
This is a more participatory and farmer-first approach to modern
extension systems where a systems approach to extension
service provision is used.
19
Case study 2: Farming systems research

and extension in Zimbabwe
The farming systems research and extension (FSRE)
methodology was developed after prescriptive agricultural
development models failed. The realisation was that many
technologies recommended by these models did not apply
to the objectives and socio-economic circumstances of
smallholder farmers or to the agro-ecological conditions of an
area.
The FSRE methodology is centred on problem solving, and
is systems-oriented, interdisciplinary, farmer-oriented and
iterative. It emphasises the role of constraint diagnosis
and on-farm trials as a way of facilitating links between the
farmers, researchers and extension workers. In Zimbabwe,
FSRE has largely been championed by the Farming Systems
Research Unit within the Department of Research and
Specialist Services (DR & SS), while AGRITEX (Department
of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services) has been
more active at the grassroots level where extension workers
identify trial farmers and monitor on-farm trials.
The most important innovation of FSRE is its focus on the
smallholder farmer. Research and extension programmes are
no longer determined exclusively by the priorities of research
stations and extension organisations but by the needs of
the farmers and their specific farming systems. The farming
systems perspective also involves far greater concern for
local resource utilisation, including the use of traditional
knowledge. However, traditional FSRE has tended to be more
extractive than participatory, resulting in a failure to start
the research and dissemination process at the farmer level.
Past and current FSRE efforts have also tended to emphasise
traditional crop systems, and paid little attention to livestock
components or systems. It has been criticised for its
weaknesses in drawing extension considerations from practice
and in incorporating its findings into the extension system.
20
Iterative: Frequent repetition of actions.

Constraint diagnosis: Identifying the limitations of extension
programmes.
21
Session 2.2: Privately funded extension

systems
Session outcomes
yy Explain the relevance of privately funded extension
systems in agricultural extension programme
management.
Introduction
In this session, you will learn about the
contributions of the private sector and
autonomous organisations as well as Autonomous
the contributions voluntary organisations organisations:
make to agricultural extension and rural Organisations
development work. There are quite a that have
few voluntary organisations in countries their own
with technical and managerial resources management.
that undertake development work
and implement them successfully. Their activities help to
supplement government activities at the field level.
Private sector
Case study 3: Privatisation in the

Netherlands
In 1990, the Netherlands transferred approximately half of
its field extension personnel from its public extension service,
with initial government financial support, to the farmer
associations. The Ministry of Agriculture continued to sponsor
parts of the extension service responsible for linking research
and the privatised extension services, policy preparation,
implementation, and promotion and regulatory tasks.
22
A board which represents farmers’ organisations and

government equally is responsible for directing the
resulting new organisation.
Member subscriptions to farmer associations and direct
payment for individual analyses form the basis of partial
contribution by Dutch farmers to the cost of the new
organisation. Eventually, farmers will contribute 50% of the
cost of services with individual analyses paid fully by the
farmer clients.
Case study 4: Privatisation in Australia

It is worth noting that there is no true privatisation of
agricultural extension services in practice, but there is a
definite shift towards a pluralistic approach. In the Australian
state of Victoria, a review of extension services determined
that it would be more efficient if private advisers deliver
services to individuals who benefit directly, rather than have
government employed extensionists recover costs for services
provided by charging government fees.
A number of challenges were encountered with this approach
because of the complexities of extension service delivery and
the varying nature and levels of development of different
agricultural sectors. To address these challenges, the Victoria
government proposed outsourcing for the delivery of future
extension programmes so that rural industry organisations
can take greater responsibility for technology transfer. This
means that the government extension agency only employs
extension project staff they believe are essential, and
include the private sector professional services with skills to
supplement those skills that the agency cannot offer on a
contract basis. Specific projects funded by the rural industry
and the federal government will then employ agricultural
consultants and contract staff to help with service delivery
suited to the project.
23
Voluntary organisations
India has a number of voluntary organisations which implement
a wide range of programmes. There is much variation in the
number of organisations present in different states. Some
important voluntary organisations working in more than one state
are Bharatiya Agro-Industries Federation (BAIF) and Professional
Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN).
BAIF focuses on livestock development, water resource
management, environmental conservation and livelihood
development in 16 states through nine associate organisations.
PRADAN promotes livelihoods in different sectors ranging
from agriculture and natural resource management to rural
microenterprises.
The Syngenta Foundation India (SFI) supports sustainable
agricultural projects in increasing water conservation and usage,
breeding varieties adapted to local situations and linking farmers
with information that would lead to long-term productivity and
income generation for farmers.
India’s major fertiliser company in the
cooperative sector, KRIBHCO, (Krishak Catalyst:
Bharati Cooperative Limited) has initiated Causing a
the Gramin Vikas Trust (GVT) with change without
the support from the Government being directly
of India and the Department for involved in
International Development (DFID), making the
UK to act as a catalyst to enable changes.
the rural communities to improve their
livelihoods in resource poor areas.
24
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
Case study 5: Sasakawa in Africa

The structure of Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) is
based on a matrix management model, which reflects both
its thematic and country-level focus, and the high degree of
programmatic integration.
SAA is governed by the Board of Directors which consists
of 11 members. The Executive Director serves as Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) and is complemented by a Managing
Director (MD) who is the Chief Operating Officer (COO) of
the organisation. The COO works closely with the MD of
Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension (SAFE) in the area of
human resource development.
The organisation’s strategic goals correspond directly with
the five Themes shown in Figure 1. There are five Thematic
Directors, including the SAFE MD, who lead planning and
programming for their respective areas. Four Country
Directors drive the implementation of country programmes,
with staff of each Theme located in the four current focus
countries.
SAA BOARD
CHAIRMAN
EXECUTIVE COMMITEE
EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS
PROGRAMMES MANAGEMENT
MANAGING DIRECTOR
ETHIOPIA
Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4 Theme 5

MALI
MALI
Crop Post-Harvest Public-Private Human Monitoring,
Productivity & Partnerships Resource Evaluation
Enhancement Agroprocessing & Development &
NIGERIA
NIGERIA
Market Access (SAFE) Learning
UGANDA
Figure 1: Management structure of Sasakawa

25
Cost sharing approaches

Cost sharing is a system where user fees are paid by those using
services for their individual benefit. It is an emerging model in
developed and developing countries. Stakeholders consider it a
sustainable approach to service delivery because of its potential
to generate resources which can increase productivity and
income through better technology transfer and best practices in
agriculture.
This approach focusses on those farmers who are unable to pay
the full cost of services provided. It depends on the willingness
of the farmers to promote programmes that they feel will benefit
their local situations and often willingness to pay is used as a
measure of how successful a programme is.
An example of this type of system is Farmer Field Schools (FFS)
in Uganda. This is an experiential learning approach that aims to
strengthen and equip farmers with practical knowledge in aspects
of farm management. This includes training farmers how to best
manage their land and livestock in their specific situation.
Another example is the National Agricultural Advisory Services
(NAADS) programme which is a joint venture of the private and
public sectors that provides public agricultural advisory and
extension services, especially to rural poor farmers.
26
Concluding remarks
Below are the key points you should obtain from this unit:
About 85% of extension services around the world are public
extension programmes funded by the national governments.
There are many voluntary organisations whose activities help to
supplement government activities in the field level with technical
and managerial resources.
A pluralistic approach to service delivery depends on the correct
division of management functions and cooperation between
public and private extension service providers.
27
Study unit 3: Leadership, motivation and

group dynamics
Study unit outcomes

yy Define leadership;
yy Explain the qualities of good leadership;
yy Explain how to motivate employees within your
organisation;
yy Explain how group dynamics can improve performance
standards;
yy Explain how conflict in a group can be reduced; and
yy Establish guidelines and consensus to improve
teamwork.
Study unit overview

People working in an extension organisation need to participate
willingly and harmoniously, and be motivated to achieve the
objectives of the organisation. Poor leadership can undo the
work that has gone into planning, staffing and organisation,
and make it impossible to achieve the objectives of the
organisation.

This unit looks at leadership and leadership theories
and styles, the qualities of good leaders and the practice of
leadership as well as motivation theories and practices. You will
learn how to stimulate and motivate the desire to investigate
and innovate, how to design dynamic and group animation
techniques and the importance of skills and attitudes related to
the professionalism of the social educator as an instrument of
social change.
28
Session 3.1: Leadership
Session outcomes
yy Explain the concept and theories of leadership;
yy Describe how management can influence individuals and
groups within organisations to achieve organisational
goals;
yy Explain why motivation is important in extension
management; and
yy Explain how you will apply motivation within an
organisation.
Introduction
In this session you are introduced to the concept of leadership
and the various theories of leadership. This session discusses the
nature of leadership and how managers can influence individuals
and groups within an organisation to achieve the overall goals
and objectives of the organisation. You will also learn why
motivation is important and how to apply motivation within
your organisation.
What is leadership?
Leadership is the action of leading a group. Within an
organisation, management and leadership can be used
interchangeably. It is the role of management to make the
necessary decisions to lead the organisation towards a goal.
Leadership is important in an organisation because it gives the
organisation direction. It is important for extension managers to
understand leadership so that they know how their decisions can
influence moving their organisation, and its beneficiaries, forward.
29
Theories of leadership
There are different leadership theories. Contingency:
The four theories considered to be core A possible
leadership theories are: future event
yy Trait theories; that cannot be
yy Behavioural theories; predicted with
yy Contingency theories; and certainty.
yy Power and influence theories. Dictate:
Give an order
Trait theories focus on the personality
that must be
traits that make a good leader. It was
obeyed without
traditionally believed that leadership traits
question.
were something you were born with.
Nowadays, trait theories are used to identify
which traits are useful for leadership, such as integrity, empathy,
assertiveness and good decision making skills. Having these
qualities will not automatically make you a good leader and some
skills may have to be developed further.
Behavioural theories focus on how a leader behaves. Do they
dictate or do they encourage their team to get involved in
decision making?
Contingency theories focus on how a situation can influence
leadership. These theories state that the type of leadership
style will change depending on the situation. Leadership
style will change depending on whether a quick decision
is needed, whether it is important to get the full support
of your team or whether a leader needs to be more task-
oriented or people-oriented in a given situation.
Power and influence theories focus on what a leader’s source
of power is. These theories look at how a leader can use their
own power and influence to complete a task. Do you use your
personal appeal and charm to motivate your team to do the job?
Do others respect you because you are an expert in the field?
30
There is also a school of thought that people will only do

something if they will be rewarded for it. This means that
sometimes tasks might have to be designed and set around some
form of reward structure to motivate the team to complete the
given task. Leading by example can also be a powerful motivating
tool for the team you lead.
Leadership types
There are three main types of leaders:
yy Autocratic leaders;
Autocratic:
yy Democratic leaders; and
Being dictatorial
yy Laissez-faire leaders.
or domineering.
An autocratic leader makes decisions without Democratic:
consulting their team. This is the leadership Being open to
style best suited to situations where quick the ideas of
decisions are needed, or when input from others.
your team is not necessary for a successful Laissez-faire:
result. Being non-
interventionist
A democratic leader encourages their
or lax.
team to give input in the decision making
process. This is the preferred leadership
style for situations where the team’s agreement is vital to
get a successful result. One drawback is that there may be
many different ideas and perspectives given and it can be
difficult to manage.
A laissez-faire or non-interventionist leader will not
interfere.They will let the team make most of the
decisions. This leadership style is appropriate when the
team is highly motivated and able to get things done without
much supervision.
A leader’s behaviour can impact their performance. The best

leader is one who can use the correct leadership style in different
situations.
31
What is motivation?
Motivation is the will or desire to achieve a goal. It is one of the
most important concerns within extension organisation. How you
motivate your team as a manager will determine how well and
how quickly the given tasks are completed.
Below are a few examples of the different models of motivation
you can draw on to understand how to motivate your team.
Example 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of human needs in a paper
titled A Theory of Human Motivation in 1943. This hierarchy is often
shown as a pyramid, as shown in Figure 2, with the most basic
needs at the bottom moving upwards towards the least fundamental
needs. The hierarchy structure suggests that the most fundamental
needs must be met before an individual will be motivated to meet
any of the higher level needs.
Physiological needs refer to all the physical requirements for the
human body to function properly in order for a person to survive.
Safety needs refer to things like physical safety in times of conflict,
economic safety and job security, health and well-being and having
a safety net against the impact of accidents or serious illness. For
you, the extensionist, this level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
becomes relevant in your work in a few scenarios. If, for example,
you are working in any situation where there is political conflict, or
perhaps a risk of illness in an area, or even when handling livestock
where there is a risk of personal injury on the job. If you are a
manager of a team that is working under such conditions, then this
will be something you will need to plan for to make sure these needs
are met for your employees.
The need for love and belonging points to a person’s need to form
relationships with friends, family or colleagues, where they feel
they belong to a group. Esteem needs encompass the need to feel
respected and includes self-respect and self-esteem. A person’s
desire to be recognised can be a powerful motivator for them to
32
engage in a specific profession or hobby. A person needs to

feel that they are contributing to a cause and that they have value.
This is important to note as a manager, because making your team
members feel valued will achieve better results and cooperation.
The extensionist needs to enjoy working with people and needs to
feel like they are contributing to the upliftment of the community
they serve. If the extensionist believes in the programme and the
vision of the community, then they will be motivated to give the best
advice for the situation.
Finally, self-actualisation refers to the full potential a person has and
how they realise that potential. Maslow described this last level as a
person’s desire to achieve everything that they can to become the
best they can be. As a manager, you will have to remember that all
the lower level needs of your team must be met in the context of
the workplace before they will be able to realise their full potential.
Your management potential will also only be realised once you have
mastered your own lower level needs.
Figure 2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
33
Example 2: Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene

Theory
This theory, developed by Frederick Herzberg, is also called the Two-
Factor Model. He theorised that there are separate factors in the
workplace that contribute to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and
that these act independently of one another. Although Herzberg’s
theory is related to Maslow’s theory of human motivation, he stated
that individuals will rather look to satisfy their higher level needs
connected to recognition, achievement, responsibility, advancement
and the type of work, than be content with lower level needs
at work connected to minimum salary levels and good working
conditions. As extensionist you may find job satisfaction in your
role in contributing to community upliftment through the extension
programmes you implement. By taking responsibility and working
with the community you serve, you gain recognition and a feeling of
achievement when they make progress in their farming.
By proposing the two-factor model, Herzberg suggests that
administrators must recognise and attend to job characteristics
that lead to worker satisfaction as well as those that lead to
dissatisfaction at work to be able to improve productivity and job
attitudes.
Example 3: Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

You have seen that the theories of Maslow and Herzberg approach
motivation as a function of internal needs and the effort required
to satisfy these needs. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory makes the
assumption that the behaviour of an individual is the result of
conscious choices they make to minimise pain and maximise
pleasure. It separates the effort that results from motivation,
performance and outcomes, and states that a person’s motivation is
made up of the link between effort, performance and motivation.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory recognises that employee performance
is based on personality, skills, knowledge, experience and ability
(individual factors) and hinges on perceptions. It is about the
associations people make about expected outcomes and the
34
contribution they feel they can make towards achieving those

outcomes, rather than about self interest in rewards.
As an extensionist you need to enjoy working with people. You also
need to have the skills, knowledge, experience and ability to offer
advisory services to farmers in a way that is easy to understand
so that they have confidence in your advice. Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory states that you will feel satisfied in your job when you feel
you are making a difference in the community you serve.
Example 4: Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory

The Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory explains why remuneration and
working conditions are not the only factors in motivation. People are
more likely to be motivated when they feel they are treated fairly.
When people feel cheated, or unfairly treated, it can cause them to
feel dissatisfied and demotivated.
The central theme of this theory is that because people value fair
treatment it will cause them to be motivated to maintain fairness in
their relationships with their colleagues and the organisation. Adams’
equity theory adds another dimension to employee satisfaction:
the comparison with “referent” others. If an employee feels that
they have been fairly rewarded for the time and effort they put
into the job compared to how referent others were rewarded for
their inputs in the job, then they will be happy in their work and
motivated to continue working as hard as they have been working.
Equity Theory also suggests that if an employee feels underpaid for
the effort they put into their work, it could result in the employee
resenting the organisation and possibly their co-workers and have a
negative effect on employee performance.
On the other hand, the idea of recognition for good job performance
and the act of thanking an employee for their effort will make
the employee feel valued, increase satisfaction and motivate the
employee to continue performing well.
This is also important to know as an extensionist in the field. If the
farmer feels they are appreciated and valued, they will be motivated
35
to cooperate. Similarly, if you manage your team within an

organisation, it is up to you as manager to make sure that all your
extensionists are treated fairly and that they are able to do their
work to the best of their ability under the circumstances.
Remuneration: Payment or salary.

Referent others: People you consider to be in a similar situation,
with whom you compare your own situation.
36
Session 3.2: Work group dynamics and

creativity
Session outcomes
yy Explain how to improve the functioning of groups and
the quality of its consequences for individuals;
yy Explain how to improve group performance standards
through knowledge of the strategies, techniques and
resources of observation and group coordination;
yy Explain which skills are necessary to reduce the quality,
effectiveness and productivity of teamwork;
yy Reduce the negative consequences of conflicts within a
group; and
yy Establish appropriate guidelines and consensus for
group interaction.
Introduction
In this session, you will learn how to
Diversity: work with groups, improve their
To have qualities, manage the diversity in
differences in groups and how to grow groups
personality, within your organisation to achieve
ability, gender, the desired results. You will gain
culture etc. in a an understanding of how you can
group. improve the quality, effectiveness and
productivity of teamwork. You will learn the
value of group animation as an instrument for instigating social
change.
Conceptualisation of group dynamics

It is important to remember that no two people are exactly alike.
Within a group of people who will need to work together you will
37
find diverse personalities and work styles. Diversity within a team

should be encouraged because it is good for generating creative
approaches to problem solving. There will be many different
options to choose from when faced with a challenge. The
drawback of diverse personalities within a group is that there may
be conflicting ideas which can disrupt the harmony in a team.
Roles in the group

Within a group it is natural for someone to take the lead. The
team leader needs to be decisive, but also needs to be open to
the ideas of others. They need to be able to lead the team in
making the decisions needed to complete a given task. The team
needs to be able to trust that their leader is able to drive the
team forward and accurately represent the views of the team as
a whole. In the field, the extensionist usually takes the lead as
the advisor to the group of farmers, such as at a farmers’ day. It
is also up to the extensionist to be aware of the different roles
of the groups within a farm. There may be the owner and or
manager and the workers who are responsible for different tasks
on the farm. Their roles will depend on what type of farming is
done, i.e. crop production or livestock production. As extensionist,
you need to be sure to consult with the correct person for the
information you need.
The size of the group will depend on how the organisation
is structured and which task has been assigned to a
team. Each person in the team will be assigned a role
or specific task, and every member of the group will
need to work together to complete the overall task the
team was assigned. The work is divided according to the
skills and capabilities of each team member so that everyone
can contribute to the project in a positive way to deliver the best
possible result. In an extension organisation, depending on the
size of the organisation, there will be advisory teams for different
aspects of farming, e.g. crop production, livestock production,
soil management, financing solutions, etc. For an extension
programme to work, the different departments need to cooperate
38
to design the programme that will best suit the needs of a specific
community or group of farmers. There can also be different
extensionists responsible for visiting and service provision to a
specific region within an area.
Communication in the group

It cannot be stressed enough that good communication is the key
to getting a job done well without conflict.
It is important that the team leader makes sure that every
member of their team knows exactly what they are expected to
do to complete a given task. Clear guidelines will save time and
energy because the correct information will be collected right
away. It is also important for the team to meet to give feedback.
This allows everyone to know how the individual parts of a
project are progressing and if there are any challenges that need
to be resolved. Feedback needs to be delivered in a constructive
manner so that the project can move forward in a timely manner.
Team members can benefit from suggestions from their team
leader or team members, because it can give them new ideas on
how to approach a specific problem.
Types of techniques for group dynamics

As team leader you will need to be aware of differences in
personality between the team members. Some may be
naturally comfortable working with others, while others
may be dominant and try to take over. Being aware
of this can help you assign tasks to people based on
whether they work well alone or with others.
Be aware of competition within a team and between teams.
Competition can be a powerful motivator for some to achieve the
tasks they are assigned, but make sure that competitive people
stay focused on the overall goal of their team so that this is
achieved in favour of personal success. Competition between
teams can also be a healthy and powerful motivator for each
team to produce their best work to gain recognition. A job well
39
done can also strengthen trust between team members and

encourage them to continue to work together well.
Competition between strong personalities
within a group can lead to conflict. Similarly,
Overbearing:
overbearing team members may cause
To take over the
the more reserved team members to feel
conversation or
conflicted and dissatisfied in the group.
activities in a
Make sure there is respect, honesty and
group without
good communication between team
being asked to
members to prevent conflict arising from
do so.
miscommunication. Frequent and regular
feedback will help keep everyone updated on
progress or where they can improve.
40
Concluding remarks
In this unit, you learned about leadership, how to motivate a
team and group dynamics.
Leadership is important in an organisation because it gives the
organisation direction. There are different leadership styles and
the best leader is one who knows which style to use in a given
situation for best results.
How you motivate your team as a manager will determine how
well and how quickly the given tasks are completed. There are
different models of motivation that can help you understand how
best to motivate your team in a given situation. Understanding
group dynamics in the team is important for you to manage a
group to work well together and to minimise conflicts within a
group.
41
Study unit 4: Extension programmes and

programme planning
Study unit outcomes

yy Describe the basic concepts of extension programmes;
and
yy Describe the programme planning process.
Study unit overview

This unit provides an introduction to the core definitions of
extension programmes, components, programme planning and
the stages involved in extension programme planning.

In this study unit you will learn about the importance of extension
programmes and how programme planning is like a cycle. You
will also learn about the types and principles of different
extension programmes.
42
Session 4.1: The importance of extension

programmes and planning
Session outcomes
yy Define extension programme components;
yy Define the programme planning process and stages in
extension programme planning; and
yy Explain the importance of extension programme
planning.
Introduction
Programmes are the heart and soul of extension work.
Extension’s clients and funders expect officers and managers
to design and implement programmes that make a difference
in people’s lives, both individually and collectively. A clear
understanding of the primary components of a programme is the
foundation for designing and delivering the type of programmes
that provide solutions for life issues. You will learn about
these components in this session.
What is an extension programme?

An extension programme is an all-inclusive set of
activities designed with a target client base in mind that
focuses on the continuous education and development
of clients. The educational component is meant to generate
specific outcomes for the client base.
These programmes are usually made available to farmers
by government extension service providers or other private
consultants as a way to increase their farming knowledge and
production potential. This knowledge can be shared through
information packs, workshops, presentations, demonstrations and
field days.
43
An extension programme will be successful in generating lasting

change within a community if the planning process is optimised.
What is extension programme planning?

The process of programme planning is explained better when
you look at it as a cycle or progression of certain stages as
shown in Figure 3. Programme planning begins by looking at
where the problems are (situation analysis), finds a solution
to those problems (programme objective), moves the solution
into actuality through the use of extension methods and
communication (programme execution/implementation), makes a
continuous study of how successful the extension methods have
been (evaluation), and then uses the evaluation result as basis to
readjust the extension programme (reconsideration).
ysis
Anal Pro
n gr
tio a
a
m
tu
m
Si
eO
bjec
tive
Programme planning
process
Eva
lua
n
io
on
ti
t
at
m en
Im ple
Figure 3: The extension programme planning process
44
Session 4.2: Extension programmes,

types, assumptions and principles
Session outcomes
yy Identify different types of extension programmes; and
yy Explain the principles of extension programme planning.
Introduction
Planning is essential in order to find solutions for community
problems or issues, or to assess needs. The various types of
extension programmes are described in this session.
Types of extension programmes

There are different types of extension programmes, each
designed to address a specific need. Extension programmes can
be designed to address development, where the objective is to
implement a plan that will drive change for the benefit of an
organisation or community. Extension programmes can be
implemented in order to share information and educate a
target audience. These programmes can involve learning
institutions and their faculties to address pressing issues
in agriculture.
An extension programme can be reactive or proactive.
A reactive programme will be planned to address a specific
problem, challenge or need within an organisation or community.
Information gathered in the planning phase will guide the
action plan of the programme. Proactive extension programmes
are designed to drive change with the objective of uplifting a
community or improving a situation within an organisation.
45
Principles of outcomes-focused planning

There are a few basic principles to stick to when using outcomes-
focused planning. These are briefly discussed below:
1. Always make decisions based on data and facts. Collect
enough good information for rational decision making.
2. Seek out stakeholders that will understand the issues you face.
Involve them in the planning process so they can help guide
the programme.
3. Set specific targets and goals to ensure planning covers all
aspects of what you intend to achieve at the end. Make sure
the target clients know which behaviours, skills and attitudes
they will need to change for the programme to be successful.
4. Identify and understand the root causes of the problems you
intend to address. This will help you find the best approach
to overcome any potential hurdles you might encounter in the
planning process.
5. Always aim for sustainable and lasting change within a
community. Strive to make a significant positive impact with
the proposed programme.
6. Prepare to evaluate your progress and adjust or refine the plan
on a continuous basis, so that the programme will always fulfil
its purpose in the community it serves.
46
Session 4.3: Programme development

cycle and steps in programme planning
Session outcomes
yy Describe the programme development cycle; and
yy Identify and explain the steps in extension programme
planning.
Introduction
By following a careful, systematic, step-by-step approach to
planning your project, you will ensure that all the needs of the
target clients are discovered and considered, so that how they
will be addressed will be properly planned for. It will also give the
programme a better chance of making the biggest impact with
the resources available.
Overview of the programme planning cycle

The eight basic steps that you should follow in your
programme planning cycle are briefly discussed below.
1. Engage stakeholders in dialogue:
A potential stakeholder is a valuable source of
information. This is anyone who shares your
commitment to your programme. There are many
ways to engage with stakeholders, either through
face-to-face informal conversations or through more formal
advisory groups. Remember that the diversity of stakeholders
can give you access to many different perspectives and
opinions, but can also lead to conflict if the group is not kept
focused on the ultimate collective goal. The key stakeholders
the extensionist needs to engage are investors for the
extension programme and the farmers who will be involved in
the programme implementation.
47
2. Conduct a situation analysis:

The situation analysis is needed to uncover the root cause of
problems that the programme needs to address. By visiting
farms and talking to farmers’ associations you can find out
if there are any specific needs that they want addressed in
their area. Are the crop varieties suited to their soil types
and rainfall area? Are they experiencing drought? Are the
type of livestock breed and production system suited to their
environment? You may find that training and resources on
relevant topics can be useful for building the knowledge
base. Engaging with state specialists can create a deeper
understanding of relevant issues that need to be addressed,
e.g. what are the markets doing? Is there any market that the
local farmers can enter to be more productive?
The primary goal of this step is to prioritise the issues and
approaches related to your programme.
3. Develop programme goals and objectives:
Programme goals are broad and general. On the other hand,
programme objectives, as illustrated by the SMART acronym,
are specific:
yy Specific – Is the objective specific and clear about what will
be achieved?
yy Measurable – Is the objective measurable?
yy Achievable – Is the objective achievable given the time,
resources, and programming?
yy Relevant – Is the objective relevant and clearly linked
to the desired result?
yy Time-limited – Is the objective stated so it is clear
when it will be achieved?
4. Develop programme logic model:
The programme logic model is the foundation for programme
planning. It encourages systematic thinking to address critical
questions that will guide you in how to deliver and refine a
high-quality programme that has a good chance of creating
lasting change. The key questions to consider are:
yy Which long-term, intermediate, and short-term outcomes is
your programme designed to affect?
48
yy What financial and human resources do you have available

to you and how much time, energy, and resources can you
dedicate to this programme?
yy What are the most important activities that you will need
for you to encourage ongoing participation to achieve your
outcomes?
yy Why do you think the programme will achieve the intended
results?
yy Which external factors will impact participant outcomes and
affect your ability to deliver a strong programme?
5. Develop an educational programme, approach, and materials:
Consider how you can maximise the impact of your
programme with the time, resources and expertise you have
available to you. The educational materials and approaches
you use should be developed based on existing resources that
are available from other countries, state specialists, or your
focus team.
6. Deliver the programme:
When you deliver your programme, you should evaluate
and reflect on which aspects are working and which need
improvement. This is done by collecting feedback and
evaluating the information to make changes or report
outcomes.
7. Evaluate, analyse, and report:
Feedback can be collected through informal and formal
channels. It should include how well a workshop
was received or how well the intended objectives
were achieved. Analysis of this information serves
to determine which areas need improvement. Annual
reports serve to inform stakeholders of progress made
and where refinement is needed.
8. Learn, modify, and improve:
Evaluation gives the extension educator and other stakeholders
the opportunity to reflect, learn and refine techniques with
the goal of modifying and improving the programme. It also
provides the opportunity to report accomplishments.
49
Concluding remarks
In this unit you learned about the importance of extension
programmes. Programmes are the heart and soul of extension
work. Extension’s clients and funders expect officers and
managers to design and implement programmes that make a
difference in people’s lives, both individually and collectively.
An extension programme is an all-inclusive set of activities
designed with a target client base in mind that focuses on the
continuous education and development of the client.
The process of programme planning, when considered as a cycle,
begins with a situation analysis, finds a solution to identified
problems, moves the solution into actuality through programme
implementation, makes a continuous study of how successful the
extension methods have been and then uses the feedback as a
basis to readjust the extension programme.
50
Study unit 5: Managing organisational

change and conflict resolution
Study unit outcomes

yy Describe various challenges that come with change; and
yy Explain how to manage the conflicts related to these
changes.
Study unit overview

Any time your organisation takes initiative to change something,
managers can expect conflict to arise. Change can be stressful,
even when it is for the better. Frequently, a bit of uncertainty is
attached and at times individuals show resistance to change even
when they will not be negatively affected. It is this resistance
that leads to conflicts related to organisational change. Managing
transitions and the conflicts that erupt during these transitions is
an important management function and this is what this unit is
all about.

In this study unit you will learn about managing
organisational change and dealing with any conflicts that
might arise as a result of the change process.
51
Session 5.1: Organisational change
Session outcomes
yy Explain the role of management in organisational
change.
Introduction
Change is necessary for growth and development but not all
change is comfortable. The discomfort of facing a new way of
doing things can result in resistance to change as well as conflict.
This session will help you understand the role of management in
organisational change.
What is organisational change?

Organisational change is the process of finding new ways of
adapting an organisation to changing circumstances to ensure it
survives. It may include reshuffling staff or changing the way
the organisation operates.
Role of management during organisational

change
Management takes the role of the
leader in an organisation. This means Beneficial:
that a manager will be in the position Resulting in
to have to drive the transition process by gain or an
making the right decisions. They may have to advantage.
make decisions to abandon certain projects
that are no longer beneficial to the organisation, or that may
not be financially sustainable.
52
Managers are also responsible for their employees and can find
themselves in the difficult position of telling staff members that
jobs will need to be cut or that employees will need to prepare
to be transferred elsewhere in an organisation as part of a
restructuring process.
If there are key stakeholders involved in projects run by an
organisation, or stakeholders invested in the organisation
itself, the manager of the relevant departments will need
to communicate their intention to make changes to these
stakeholders in a timely manner. Involving stakeholders in the
transition process will give them the opportunity for any concerns
to be voiced. This open communication can help diminish
resistance to change and reduce the chance of conflicts erupting.
As a manager of an extension programme, you will be responsible
for evaluating the needs of your target group, e.g. small-scale
crop farmers or livestock farmers in a community. You will need to
decide which programme or technology will benefit this group and
then manage the planning process. This means you will have to
coordinate with the investors and the farmers who have agreed to
be involved in implementing the chosen programme. The farmers
will need to be managed to keep them on target and it will be
up to you to track the progress and adjust the course of action
to meet the targets. You will also need to report back to the
different stakeholders, i.e. farmers and investors, regularly
to make sure everyone is in agreement with how the
programme is running.
53
Session 5.2: Conflicts and conflict

management
Session outcomes
yy Identify situations where conflict may arise during
organisational change; and
yy Explain how conflict resolution can be managed during
Introduction
Conflicts in an organisation can arise from miscommunication
and a resistance to change. This session will help you
identify situations where conflicts may arise and give you an
understanding of how to manage conflict resolution during
Situations of conflict
During organisational change there may be a need for
restructuring. This can mean cutting down on staff
numbers, transferring staff to different departments
or offices in a different location. It can also mean
abandoning any project that is not making a meaningful
impact for the resources that have been invested in
it. Organisational change and restructuring can affect
stakeholders who have invested in the organisation itself, or are
invested in projects run by the organisation.
Conflicts can arise when management has to inform their
employees of the proposed changes in staff structure. Perhaps
some employees will need to find other jobs due to downsizing in
54
tough economic times. This can cause the affected employees to

feel demotivated during their notice period, or that they are not
as valuable as they thought they were.
Perhaps employees who are transferred to different departments
to work under different managers may feel conflicted about
having to adjust to a new work environment, new colleagues and
a different management style.
Stakeholders who have invested resources into a project may be
upset if the organisational changes will have a direct impact on
them and they are not prepared to make the changes. Perhaps
the particular project is not showing returns and cannot be
maintained, and stakeholders and investors may be upset if the
project is terminated without being told about it.
Conflict management
Now that you can identify situations where conflict may arise,
how do you manage conflict? The most important tool for conflict
management is good communication. When people know what to
expect from a situation, they will be less anxious about accepting
the changes. You should also remain calm and respectful and be
open to listening to the concerns that may be voiced. You as
a manager must be confident in your decisions and it will be
up to you to sway the necessary people to support your
decisions to move the organisation forward.
If you are in a position to have to inform staff of job
losses or transfers, think of Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs and remember that job and financial security
are important needs. People do not like to be taken by
surprise. If you know staff restructuring will happen, it is
your job as a manager to inform the people who will be directly
affected by it early enough to give them time to make necessary
alternative arrangements.
55
Similarly, if you know you have to involve stakeholders in

organisational change, it will serve you well to determine the level
of influence they have. It might help reduce their resistance to
change if you communicate with the stakeholders in person, so
that you can openly discuss any concerns they may have.
Be sure to highlight the benefits of the proposed changes in such
a way that is not misleading, but that it will make them more
likely to support your decisions.
56
Concluding remarks
In this unit you learned about organisational change. You also
learned that change is necessary for growth and development
and not all change is comfortable. The discomfort of facing a
new way of doing things can result in resistance to change and
conflict.
Be confident in your ability as a manager and take responsibility
for driving the change process. Good communication, respect
and staying calm in a conflict situation will help you manage and
diffuse the situation. Be open to the concerns of those affected
by proposed changes and highlight how the changes can benefit
them to gain their support.
57
Study unit 6: Involvement of farmers and

tools in programme planning
Study unit outcomes

yy Explain the importance of stakeholder involvement in
extension programme planning; and
yy Describe market types, market linkage methods and
where value chains are situated within global market
systems.
Study unit overview

This unit provides an introduction to the core economic concepts
required to understand market processes and where value chains
are situated within global market systems.

In this study unit you will learn about the importance of
involving farmers and other stakeholders in the extension
programme planning process. You will be introduced to
some tools in programme planning that you can use in
your work.
58
Session 6.1: Involving stakeholders in

planning extension programmes
Session outcomes
yy Describe the importance of involving stakeholders in
programme planning; and
yy Identify practical ways of involving stakeholders in
programme planning.
Introduction
Involvement is important in programme
planning as a central theme of a planning
Beneficiary:
model. Planning is the act of making the
Anyone
beneficiary of a programme participate in
who gains
the programme. It is also defined as a series
something from
of joint actions by farmers and extension
the programme.
officers that lead to the development of
the programme.
There are various ways of involving stakeholders in
extension in the programme planning process, depending
on the type of programme and their interest. This
session introduces you to practical ways of involvement
that you can use in the planning of your programme.
Importance of involvement
For an extension programme to be successful, it needs to address
the needs of the target group. By involving farmers in the
planning and decision making processes, you will gather better
information about the needs that the programme must address. It
will also keep them motivated to actively implement the proposed
programme steps in order to make the changes that will benefit
59
them. Farmer involvement is also an important step towards

uplifting them to become responsible for their own development
long after the extension programme has ended.
Involvement methods
You can involve farmers in programme planning by meeting with
them in person to discuss the needs and challenges they face in
their farming operations. As an extension manager, it will be your
job to delegate the task of gathering information about the needs
faced by the target clients to the extension workers in the field.
They can collect this information during farm visits and field days.
The extension workers should also be told to communicate that
an extension programme plan is intended. This will allow those
who need to actively participate in the implementation of the
programme to give feedback on their interest in accepting such a
programme.
Interest in participating in the programme can be generated
through advertising on social media, where available, or
advertising on radio or on noticeboards. Farmers’ associations
should also be engaged in the planning process.
Other stakeholders can be engaged through personal meetings
or written communication to encourage them to be actively
involved in programme planning. In some cases, some form
of material incentive can be offered, where stakeholders
will directly benefit from the programme’s success and
this can motivate them to actively participate in guiding
the programme to meet specific needs.
Some stakeholders might spontaneously express an interest
in being involved in the planning of a programme based on
a need that they have identified in their context. This can be
positive if addressing this need can benefit them and others in
some way.
60
Session 6.2: Tools in programme planning
Session outcomes
yy Identify tools of programme planning; and
yy Apply tools in programme planning.
Introduction
Various tools are needed to ensure that your programme planning
exercise is participatory and tailored towards meeting the needs
of your intended beneficiaries. This session will help you become
more familiar with these tools.
Needs assessments
A needs assessment is an essential part of programme planning.
It combines information gathered by extension workers during
farm visits and information about the local and global markets.
It leads to brainstorming ideas between stakeholders and
those responsible for programme planning for the purpose of
identifying the needs that the extension programme must
address to make a lasting impact in a community. It helps
prioritise which needs must be addressed most urgently.
Identifying the needs that the plan must address also
helps you identify which stakeholders will be most likely
to make a positive and meaningful contribution in the
planning process.
Resource mobilisation
A community forum can be used to take stock and give feedback
about which resources are available to the community. It can also
help identify any beneficial market opportunities. The use of
gender-based designs can be particularly useful in communities
61
where there are clear gender roles within

the community. The resources you have Gender
available to you will influence your approach roles: Specific
to meeting the programme objectives. activities that
are assigned to
Action plan a gender based
on cultural
Once your needs assessment and resource
norms.
mobilisation is complete, you can move on
to setting up an action plan. This is a step-
by-step and detailed description of all the actions and decisions
that you need to make or implement to bring about the changes
that will solve problems or improve a situation. It is important
that all aspects are planned for, which means you need to include
budgets, timelines that tasks need to be completed in and which
human resources you need to make the programme successful.
The steps to use when you plan a programme have already been
covered in Session 4.
62
Concluding remarks
For an extension programme to be successful it needs to address
the needs of the target group. Involvement is the act of making
the beneficiary of a programme participate in it. It is also defined
as a series of joint actions by farmers and extension officers
leading to the development of the programme.
Farmer involvement is also an important step towards uplifting
them to become responsible for their own development long after
the extension programme has ended. There are various ways of
involving stakeholders in extension in the programme planning
process depending on the type of programme and their interest.
63
Study unit 7: Time management
Study unit outcomes

yy State your goals;
yy Analyse how you are currently allocating your energy
and time;
yy Identify elements of your personal work style that
contribute to your effective use of time;
yy Assemble a collection of time management tools and
strategies that you can use to take control of your time;
and
yy Create an action plan for your time management
process and identify ways to evaluate and improve your
efforts.
Study unit overview

In this unit, you will get to understand the concept of time
management and practice techniques that will help you use
your time more effectively so that you can direct energy
towards activities that will further your professional and
personal goals.
Much like money, time is both valuable and limited. It
must be protected, used wisely, and budgeted. People
who practice good time management techniques often
find that they:
yyAre more productive;
yy Have more energy for things they need to accomplish;
yy Feel less stressed;
yy Are able to do the things they want;
yy Get more things done; and
yy Relate more positively to others.
64

In this study unit you will learn how important it is to manage
your time and energy properly for you to be efficient in
your work. You will be taught how to identify your personal
management style to make the best of your skills as a manager.
65
Session 7.1: Good time management and

defining goals
Session outcomes
yy Explain the concept of time management;
yy Set goals;
yy Explain the limitations of time management; and
yy Describe how to achieve balance in time management.
Introduction
This session introduces you to the concept of time management,
setting your goals, the limitations of time management, and how
to achieve balance in time management.
What is time management?

Time management involves allocating a realistic amount of time
to an individual task. The reason you allocate a timeline to
tasks is so that you will be able to track your progress and
determine if you are effectively using the time you have
available to you, or if there are tasks that you could be
completing in less time than you have been doing.
Time is a finite resource. The concept of time is more
than just seconds, minutes and hours. A work day and a
work week have a set number of hours.
Your routine tasks can be allocated a number of hours, days,
weeks or months in which they need to be completed. Project
goals can be set in terms of short-term, medium-term or long-
term time allocations. Long-term time allocations can mean
months or sometimes even years may be needed to complete a
task or project. In the extension context, routine tasks can
66
include seasonal tasks. For crop farmers it will be the time they
prepare the fields, when they plant the crops, how long the crops
take to grow and then the time taken for harvesting. In a
livestock farming context, routine tasks will include animal
vaccinations, managing breeding seasons, when to wean the
young animals, and how long it takes for animals to grow heavy
enough for market. Your job as extensionist will be to help
farmers manage their routine farming tasks so that they can get
the best production in the most efficient way.
Some of the main time wasters in the
Routine: workplace are lack of planning and
Activities or tasks organisation, procrastination, lack of
you do at the delegation and interruptions. Planning
same time every and organising your time will help you
day. know what you need to do and allow
Procrastination: you to systematically complete all your
To put off doing tasks. Delegation can help you to reduce
tasks that you your workload and allow more tasks to
need to do now be completed in a shorter time, without
until later. compromising the quality of the work.
Constant interruptions by phones or
meetings cannot always be avoided, but knowing when to take
calls and have meetings will help you be more productive.
Procrastination is the biggest time thief and leads to crisis
management and stress that could have been prevented.
Procrastination can steal your time as extensionist, when
you put off doing regular farm visits to get feedback
from the farmers you work with. If you delay taking
action in a situation where the farmer might otherwise
benefit from a new technology or a change in how they do
things, you will also be wasting valuable time.
Good time management starts with being aware of how much
time you have available to allocate to a particular task or project.
Is the task or project urgent? Does it require time-consuming
activities such as research or distant travel to gather information?
Next, you need to set realistic deadlines for individual tasks to
67
be completed. You will need to be aware of how quickly you are

able to complete a task, depending what the demands are. For
example, there is usually a minimum time you need to allow for
a crop to grow to maturity or for an animal to be ready to breed.
These are set times that you cannot make less, and you will
need to work around this. If possible, you may want to delegate
individual tasks to others so that there are more hours available
to complete a project than there would have been had you
worked on completing the tasks alone. Delegating tasks can be
useful if you find you have many farmers to visit but you will not
have enough time to get to everyone. You might want to send
your colleagues to specific areas to cover more ground than if you
tried to do everything on your own. It is important to make time
for feedback sessions with these colleagues so that everyone has
all the information they need for decision making.
On a personal level, being able to balance your work and leisure
time will leave you feeling more relaxed and productive in your
work. By planning your time carefully you will be able to allow
yourself some time to focus on things that help you better cope
with stressful situations that sometimes arise when you are
manager.
Being efficient and thorough in completing the tasks you are
assigned, or have assigned, means that you will minimise
the number of work hours spent on that task. Delegating
tasks so that many people work on a project at the same
time can have the same effect. Every person will devote
a relatively small amount of time to one task as part of
completing the bigger project, which shortens the time
it takes to complete than if each task had been done in
sequence.
Defining goals
Defining your goals in life or your career will help you decide how
best to allocate your time to the various activities that will help
you achieve these goals.
68
To define your goal, you will need to describe your dreams. What
is it that you have always wanted to do in life or in your career?
Next, spend some time identifying regrets you have in life or in
your career. What opportunities did you miss out on? What would
you have liked to achieve by this point in your life or career?
What would you have liked to do differently?
To define your goals clearly, you will need
to articulate them. Write them down. Articulate: To
Be specific about what it is you wish to put into words.
achieve and how you want to achieve it.
Add a timeline to the goals. Allocate a realistic amount of time
to each task so that you can track your progress as you work
towards achieving your goal.
69
Session 7.2: Analysing energy allocation
Session outcomes
yy Define and understand the concept of energy; and
yy Explain how good energy flow in the workplace can be
achieved.
Introduction
In this session, you are introduced to how best to spend your
energy and the energy of your staff, how to ensure good energy
flow by task analysis, and effective time usage.
What is the concept of energy?

As we have said before, time is a finite resource. Energy,
however, can be renewed if given the opportunity for it. Energy
resources in this context refer to the emotions, body, mind and
spirit of a person. Adjusting the habits and behaviours of your
workforce can promote their well-being as they engage in
activities that will renew their energy reserves. This means
that your staff members need enough time to recharge
and relax so that they can continue to engage in their
work with enthusiasm and focus.
Ensuring good energy flow in the

workplace
To ensure there is a good energy flow within the workplace, it will
be your responsibility as a manager to ensure that the tasks you
delegate are given to the people who are best suited to complete
the task because they have the skills and the time to work on it.
You might identify someone in your organisation who is skilled
in dealing with livestock farming. If you have identified an area
70
where farmers need some guidance on how to make the most

out of their herd or flock, you may ask this employee to go visit
those farmers. There may also be areas where language can be
a barrier. If you have an employee in your organisation who is
fluent in certain languages, you may want to delegate such visits
to them.
You will need to analyse how time is used in the workplace
so that you can identify if your staff are working a reasonable
number of hours to complete the given tasks. This will help you
identify if they are wasting time or if they have not been given
enough time to avoid stressful working conditions. If you are
managing other extensionists, you might want to make time
for regular feedback meetings and keep track of their farm visit
schedules to see if they are using their time wisely or if changes
are needed.
If you see your staff members are consistently working long
hours and productivity is declining, analyse if they are making
time to engage in activities that will benefit their energy levels.
Perhaps reconsider how you delegate tasks to make sure the
workload is fairly distributed according to the capability and skills
of each staff member.
71
Session 7.3: Identifying personal style
Session outcomes
yy Explain the importance of self-review in management;
yy Identify your personal strengths as a manager;
yy Identify your personal motivators as a manager; and
yy Evaluate the time management process.
Introduction
A good manager reviews their work at the end of the day to
know how much they have accomplished for a programme or
project. By doing this constant evaluation, they get to know
their strengths and also the motivators and elements that lead
to wasted time. This will help them improve their negotiation
and delegation skills. It will also help them select tools that work
better in their management to create an action plan to evaluate
the whole time management process of the organisation.
The importance of self review in

management
By taking the time on a daily basis to review your
personal progress on a project you are working on, you
will be able to identify areas where you might need to
improve your time allocation for certain tasks.
Identify where your personal strengths are. If you are doing
something that you are not very good at doing, it will take you
much longer to complete.
Identify your personal motivators. How are you best motivated to
start and complete a task? Analyse what your preferences are in
the tasks you do. Remember that procrastination is the biggest
72
time waster. You will be more likely to complete tasks that you
enjoy doing faster because you will start them right away with
enthusiasm and be motivated to finish them.
By evaluating the time management process of a project, you will
be able to identify where you were wasting time unnecessarily.
Did you perhaps not plan meetings well enough to give you
enough time for other tasks that needed your attention? Through
self-evaluation you will also be able to see if there are tasks that
you should delegate to increase productivity. You will also be able
to set up an effective action plan to help you manage your time
more effectively.
These same principles can help you when you review the same
qualities in your staff. You will be able to see which tasks are best
delegated to people who will get the job done quickly and do it
well.
73
Concluding remarks
Good time management means that you will be more productive
and have more energy for things you need to accomplish. If you
plan your time well you will feel less stressed and get more done.
It is important to delegate tasks and make sure there is enough
time allocated for each task to avoid stress. By doing regular self-
evaluation, you will be able to track your progress and determine
where you need to adjust your time management plan.
74
Study unit 8: Human resource

management
Study unit outcomes

yy Describe the basic concepts of supervision, staffing, and
appraisal; and
yy Describe combinations of the management functions for
effective personnel management.
Study unit overview

This unit is an introduction to the human resources function
and related elements and activities. The unit outlines the roles
and functions of members of the human resources department.
Emphasis is placed on the modern day importance of human
resource management (HRM) and the new corporate view of the
function.
You will be exposed to practical
Termination: situations where there is a need for
To end a contract employee counseling, discipline
of employment. and termination. You must
understand the role of HRM in
providing these services to you or to those who work
under you.

In this study unit you will learn about the function of HRM in an
organisation. You will also be introduced to the legal implications
of HRM.
75
Session 8.1: Human resource

management functions
Session outcomes
yy Define HRM; and
yy Explain the function of HRM within an organisation.
Introduction
Human resources is the workforce that is in the employ of an
organisation. Managing all aspects related to the staff of an
organisation is the responsibility of HRM. They are there to make
sure the right type of person is employed by an organisation and
that, moving forward, employees are performing at a level that is
in line with the organisation’s objectives.
Human resource management functions

The functions of HRM include job analysis, recruiting and hiring
the correct staff for specific positions, managing wages,
salaries, benefits and incentives, evaluating employee
performance and resolving disputes. HRM is also
responsible for training employees so they can add value
to the organisation. HRM deals with employees across
all levels in an organisation. In the extension context,
HRM will recruit people who hold the required degrees or
diplomas in agriculture. They will evaluate if candidates are
suited to working well with people, and if they will be available to
travel long distances as consultants in rural areas. Some recruits
may be more suited to in-house advisory services, where they
help the managers of the organisation in decision making related
to crop or animal product prices for example.
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HRM has the task of monitoring staff turnover within an

organisation. This means they need to analyse if staff turnover is
happening at an acceptable rate, and, if it is too high, explain
why people are not staying employed in an organisation. This is
linked to job satisfaction and enrichment. If employees are
leaving because they are unsatisfied in the workplace, it is the
duty of HRM to investigate how they can improve job satisfaction
moving forward to increase staff retention.
Staff turnover: This is a term that describes how often an

employee in a specific job is replaced by someone new.
Job satisfaction: To feel happy in the work that you do in an
organisation.
Staff retention: To keep the same employees working in an
organisation for a long time.
Part of HRM is firing and supervising all employees. Performance

appraisals are a method of assessing if an employee is performing
satisfactorily within their job according to the organisation’s
objectives. It can determine whether they should be promoted,
rewarded with a bonus, transferred to another department or
office, or fired.
Organisational theories and human

resources
HRM will adopt a people-oriented management style for
the simple reason that their purpose in an organisation
is to manage people and monitor how the working
environment affects productivity and job satisfaction. The
work environment encompasses everything from interpersonal
relationships in the workplace, to workload and the rewards an
employee can expect for effort put into their work.
HRM must be able to assist employees in maintaining their
emotional and physical well-being while employed in an
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organisation. This assistance includes skills training in specific

areas (conflict management or skills development) or access
to various health professionals if there is a need for it. Conflict
management training can be especially valuable for the
extensionist in the field who will be required to deal with many
different personalities and social structures within specific
communities. They will need to be able to help the farmers make
changes in a non-threatening way and be able to work with a
community in their upliftment.
Current issues and trends in HRM

HRM needs to be equipped to
sufficiently prepare employees to Globalisation:
handle globalisation. This means When organisations
that employees will need to be trained operate on an
adequately to adapt to working under international scale
international conditions. and start to develop
international
Increasing diversity in the workplace
influence.
means there will be people of different
Harmonious:
ages, genders, ethnicities, cultural
To work together
backgrounds, religious beliefs etc.
without conflict.
all working together. HRM needs
to adapt their approaches to
encourage a harmonious working environment for all
groups within the modern workforce.
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Session 8.2: Legal implications of human

resource management
Session outcomes
yy Explain the legal implications in HRM; and
yy Explain the need for and the importance of equal
employment opportunity in agricultural extension.
Introduction
It is important that HRM is equipped to settle disputes or similar
matters according to the rules and regulations outlined by law.
Employment law and employee rights

HRM must perform its duties in keeping with employment law
and employee rights at all times. Employees are required to be
informed of their rights in the workplace, and this task falls
within the duties that HRM has.
It is important that employees are compensated fairly
for the work they do in the position they hold for them
to have job satisfaction. Employee compensation also
becomes important in the event where the employee is
retrenched or their contract is terminated. Depending
on the situation, HRM must follow the correct procedures
according to law when terminating employment to prevent
legal action against the organisation.
In the event where employees are injured while doing their work,
HRM is responsible for doing all the administrative work for the
employee so that they can be compensated for any medical costs
incurred or wages lost due to the injury.
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The terms and conditions of different situations are governed

by employment law and can differ for different job sectors. It
is therefore important that employees are made aware of their
rights relevant to their field.
Retrenched: A term used to describe termination of

employment when an organisation is forced to reduce its staff
due to difficult economic conditions. Retrenched employees are
offered severance packages when their contract of employment is
terminated.
Labour relations
Labour relations is an important function of HRM. It deals with
managing the terms and conditions of employment within an
organisation with the vision of creating relationships that are free
of conflict between management and their subordinates. It is also
important in creating productive working environments and
ensuring fair treatment of staff. It is the responsibility of HRM to
ensure that employees have access to equal employment
opportunity positions.
Equal employment opportunity positions are job

opportunities for employees that fit a certain set of criteria
for the position. These opportunities are designed to give
minority groups an equal opportunity to be employed in
positions that they were previously excluded from.
International human resource management

For an organisation to be effective and successful internationally,
HRM can recruit and retain human resources internationally to
add value to the organisation. This means dealing with
international employment laws and making sure that international
recruits have the correct and necessary legal documents to allow
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them to work in a foreign country. HRM

will also be responsible for organising visa Visa:
applications where relevant for the Documentation
employees that are being sent to another required by some
country. countries that give
you permission to
cross their borders
Complete Activity 8.2 in your
to visit, study or
workbook.
work there.
81
Concluding remarks
HRM is responsible for a variety of functions in an organisation.
These tasks include recruiting, hiring, training and firing all
employees in an organisation.
Another responsibility of HRM is management of wages, salaries,
benefits and incentives as well as appraising the performance
of all employees to determine if their performance meets the
objectives of the organisation. They must equip employees to be
able to work well in a diverse working environment and under
international conditions.
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Study unit 9: Coordination and control in

agricultural extension management
Study unit outcomes

yy Justify the need for coordination and control for
effective organisational management; and
yy Apply the tools of coordination and control within your
organisation.
Study unit overview

Coordination means getting the various Accomplishment:
job roles and responsibilities of yourself, Something that
the staff in your unit, staff in other has been achieved,
units in the same organisation and the for example goals
broader community to work in harmony. and programme
The control function completes the management.
process of management by measuring
accomplishment against plans. This unit discusses the
nature of coordination and control, and how these could
be used to make sure that resources are not wasted in
achieving the overall organisational and national goals of
extension in a time where pluralism is becoming more
popular.

In this study unit you will learn about the importance of
coordination and organisational control in agricultural extension
management. You will be introduced to the control process and
the principles and barriers of coordination.
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Session 9.1: Organisational control
Session outcomes
yy Explain the concept of organisational control; and
yy Elaborate on the nature of organisational control.
Introduction
Organisational control is the process of establishing and
maintaining authority over all subordinates and throughout all
chains of command in an organisation.
Nature of organisational control

It is the responsibility of the manager to know what the
organisation’s vision and goals are and to be aware of
performance standards that must be met by the employees. A
good manager must be able to analyse whether their employees’
actual performance meets the targets according to the plan.
This information helps the manager adjust the organisation’s
plan or adjust the management style to get employees to
meet performance targets better.
Organisational control allows the manager to measure
progress, give feedback and direct their team to succeed.
This makes plans effective and allows the organisation to
achieve their goals in an efficient way.
Controls are a way of alerting managers to problems. It helps
them make better decisions because it gives them the information
they need to make the necessary decisions to adjust the plan.
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Session 9.2: The control process
Session outcomes
yy Explain the control process;
yy Describe methods of organisational control; and
yy Identify obstacles to effective control.
Introduction
The control process of an organisation usually uses systems to
help a manager analyse information about how the organisation
and its staff are functioning so that they can make the best
administrative decisions. This is especially true for large
organisations where there are large amounts of information for
the manager to analyse.
Control process
The control process involves collecting information about
organisational performance and then allocating, evaluating
and regulating resources on a continuous basis to achieve
the goals of an organisation.
Managers need to be aware of the performance
standards within an organisation and it is the duty
of management to communicate these performance
standards to their employees.
Methods of control
Policies and procedures ensure that the organisation’s activities
are consistent and all activities are integrated.
Feedback on project progress is a valuable method of control.
It helps evaluate how a project is progressing and provides
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feedback to everyone working on the project. This can lead to

employees either speeding things up or maintaining the pace they
were working at.
Obstacles to effective control

A lack of resources, ineffective
measuring techniques, a time lag in Ineffective:
information flow and a limited capacity Not giving the
to analyse information are some major result you want.
obstacles that can make control processes Time lag: A delay
ineffective. in time between
activities.
A lack of resources means there are not
enough resources available to allocate to
meeting performance objectives or taking corrective action.
If performance measurements are inaccurate, they will not be
useful to the manager in decision making and the organisation
might not meet performance standards. A time lag in information
means that by the time the manager has become aware of a
problem that needs corrective action, it will be too late to make
changes to the plan in order to steer the organisation’s course
back on track. This causes the organisation’s operations to
become inefficient.
If a manager does not have the capacity to analyse large
sets of performance data, then they will not be able to
gather enough meaningful information to help them
make decisions on how to direct their employees.
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Session 9.3: Principles of and barriers to

coordination
Session outcomes
yy Define coordination and identify types of coordination;
yy Explain principles of and barriers to effective
coordination; and
yy Explain the concept of pluralism in extension and
coordination.
Introduction
Coordination is a key function of management. It is the process of
getting all organisational responsibilities, activities, management
and control structures to work together for the purpose of
achieving the organisation’s goal in an efficient way.
Meaning of coordination and types of

coordination
There are different types of coordination:
yy Internal coordination deals with coordination between
different sectors or between departments within an
organisation;
yy External coordination deals with coordination between
communities, government, investors, customers,
suppliers and research institutions. For this to be successful,
the organisation’s policies and activities must be in line with
those of the external organisations they want to work with;
yy Vertical coordination refers to different levels within an
organisation working with one another for the purpose of
moving the organisation towards its goals. The authority and
delegation of top management ensures vertical coordination
runs smoothly;
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yy Horizontal coordination happens between teams on the

same management level in an organisation. An example of
this would be marketing management working closely with
production management within an organisation to deliver
services;
yy Procedural coordination describes how employees behave
towards each other and the relationship they have with the
organisation they serve; and
yy Substantive coordination deals with the activities of an
organisation.
Vertical: Moving upwards.

Horizontal: Moving sideways.
Substantive: Important, serious, or related to real facts.
Principles and barriers to effective coordination

Lack of commitment from leadership can be a major barrier
to coordination. The support of senior levels of management
can increase the effectiveness of the coordination process. An
insufficient budget can hinder coordination efforts, especially
in external coordination. If there are no documented
accountability frameworks in place, coordination will fail.
Everyone involved needs to know what the terms of
governance and accountability are. In the context of
pluralistic service provision, financial support from
external investors together with government departments
is crucial in creating enough resources for a proposed
extension programme to run long enough to give the
target community time to become self-sufficient. The goal of
an extension programme is to drive upliftment in a community
who otherwise does not have the means to become more
productive in their situation.
If there is no process of evaluation in place, and no clearly
defined baselines with which to measure progress, coordination
will not be effective. There needs to be clear leadership to direct
88
the path of coordination. Each organisation

involved in coordination needs to have an Baselines: A
established culture that supports the situation or value
initiative. The extensionist who manages a that exists before
particular programme will be responsible any changes are
for the evaluation of the programme’s implemented.
progress as well as for reporting to the
investors regularly. The baselines will be
the initial situation of the community before the programme was
implemented, e.g. crop yields or livestock performance. The ideal
situation will be that the investors will see progress as a result of
the programme that they are funding and that they will be
committed to funding the programme for an agreed upon time
period. The extensionist will have planned how long funding
would be needed before farmers become self-sufficient.
Pluralism in extension and coordination

Pluralism in extension involves different stakeholders from private
and public sectors working together to achieve service delivery
goals for a target client group. The advantages of coordination
between different organisations are that these organisations can
pool their financial and human resources and reach more of
their target clients with service delivery than they would have
been able to do on their own.
Stakeholder engagement is important for coordination
to be successful in the extension context. Time and
effort needs to be spent identifying and engaging key
stakeholders for successful coordination in a programme.
In order for the coordination relationship between private
and public sector organisations to be long-lasting and successful,
there need to be clearly defined and agreed upon goals in place.
89
Concluding remarks
Coordination is a key function of management and there are
different types of coordination. In pluralistic extension service
delivery systems, coordination between public and private sector
organisations has the advantage of pooled financial and human
resources to reach more of the target clients with service delivery.
90
Study unit 10: Management information

systems
Study unit outcomes

yy Describe basic information system concepts as applied
to business operations and management;
yy Explain how to work with the MIS staff to make
technical decisions; and
yy Explain how large-scale computer applications systems
can assist with business management and operations.
Study unit overview

This unit is an introduction to MISs and their role in supporting
and transforming modern organisations and management
activities. A wide range of topics are covered here to give you an
overview of how MIS fits into the workplace.

In this study unit you will learn the value of MISs
in extension programme management. You will be
introduced to basic information system concepts
and how to apply them in extension programme
management.
91
Session 10.1: Basic information system

concepts
Session outcomes
yy Explain the relevance of hardware, software and
communication networks;
yy Explain the relevance of storage components in business
processes; and
yy Explain the function of the digital firm.
Introduction
In the information age, the information used by management is
recorded, monitored, analysed and stored digitally rather than
being filed as manual hardcopies. It is important for you to be
familiar with the relevance of business information systems in
management.
Information age: The time period that started when

computer-based technology was first introduced.
Hardcopies: Any document that has been printed on
paper.
Components of the business information

system
To stay current with modern technology trends, your
organisation will need to have some form of hardware, software,
communication networks and storage components in place.
Hardware refers to physical machines such as computers, laptops,
printers etc. Software refers to the programmes or applications
that are run on the hardware components for specific purposes.
92
For example, HRM can use payroll software to record and manage
all the wage and salary accounting records for all employees in
an organisation. They can store records and calculate employee
remuneration more quickly and efficiently using software than
they could by hand.
Communication networks refer to workplace intranets, where all
computers in an office are linked on a network and all employees
can share information with one another directly from their
computers or smartphones. It includes email, wireless networks
(WiFi), telephones and Internet connections.
Record keeping is a very important part of organisation
management. Records are there to be evaluated to track
progress and see if there are things that need to be readjusted
to improve efficiency. Digital storage is convenient because it
requires less physically space than volumes of paper files and it
can be accessed immediately without much effort when needed.
Information can be stored on USB flash drives, external storage
devices or even in a central server within an organisation.
It is also important to note that making backup copies of all
records is important. In the event of computer malfunction,
network disruptions, or damage to hardware, a backup copy
of current records will save time and energy in recovering
information. Keeping current records safe will ensure that
the company processes can continue without major delays
or disruptions.
In the farming context, there are many available
recording software options available. For crop production
there are programmes that track seasonal weather
patterns and create reports of crop yield trends for the
farmer to see where they need to adjust their methods. In
livestock production, software can record milk yields, herd or
flock numbers, it can remind you when vaccinations should be
done and when the animals should be bred. These technologies
are designed to make the management of the farming operations
easier to evaluate at a glance. It is also a good source of
information for the extensionist who can compare the production
93
of one farm with another and see which methods work best in a
particular setting.
Web development and HTML

In the modern age of technology, your organisation can benefit
from having a website that people can access from anywhere in
the world to find the information they are looking for. Extension
organisations can benefit from having websites if the people
served by the extension programme are in the position to access
it, either with a smartphone or through a laptop and Internet
connection.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the language used to
create web pages. Understanding HTML and web development
are specialised areas. It would be in the organisation’s best
interest to employ people with the skills and knowledge to focus
on web development tasks, including fixing problems and keeping
websites updated.
Information systems in global business today

Information systems are important in global business because
it allows information sharing and communication with people
from all over the world in real time. It allows an organisation
to keep up to date with the latest information available and
also gives others a window into what your organisation
does.
Another growing trend is e-business, where a company
buys and sells their products and services through the
Internet. This is convenient in agricultural extension service
provision because it creates an opportunity to give technical
support to farmers at the moment they need it, provided they
have access to the Internet. It saves time and money on sending
an advisor into the field for small things. It also allows extension
information from other countries to be accessed across the globe.
94
Session 10.2: Working with management

information system staff
Session outcomes
yy Describe the ethical issues in the information age; and
yy Describe issues of social impact, privacy and security.
Introduction
With the growing number of people using the Internet to conduct
business, there are some issues surrounding ethics, social impact,
privacy and security to be considered. This session introduces you
to these aspects of using MIS.
Securing information systems

Different management departments are
Ethical: responsible for different management
Relating to moral functions within an organisation.
principles. Management has an ethical
obligation to protect the
information they work with and
to ensure that software products are used in an ethical
way. The information which each department works with
will determine how they need to secure their information
systems. The more sensitive the information, the greater
the need for implementing security measures.
Ethical issues
Financial management will need to ensure that their information
systems are secure against abuse by unauthorised persons and
computer fraud. This is especially important when e-commerce
is practiced and money is transferred electronically for goods or
95
services provided. It is essential that customers buying products

online have confidence that their financial information is safe
when they make a transaction on your organisation’s website.
HRM will need to make sure that the privacy of employee records
is protected and that managers are aware of the organisation’s
code of ethics. Production and marketing management will need
to protect the privacy of their customer, supplier and product
information. This is especially important to remember when
market research is done using online surveys.
There are many antivirus and malware protection software
options available and it is the responsibility of your information
technology (IT) department to stay current with this protection.
Files can also be password protected to limit access to sensitive
information by unauthorised personnel. Securing office intranet
and wireless connection networks with passwords will limit
unauthorised access to your organisation’s communication
networks and also limit access to confidential information.
E-commerce: Buying and selling goods and services

using the Internet.
Antivirus: Computer software that protects the files on
your computer from attack by programmes that enter the
computer system through the Internet and damage the
files or steal information.
Malware: A type of computer software that is designed
to damage the computer system.
96
Session 10.3: Using computer

applications systems in management
Session outcomes
yy Describe how current application software is used to
solve typical business problems.
Introduction
Using computer application systems in management can save
time and effort when it comes to analysing information for the
purposes of decision making. The tools and techniques of MIS
and its application in extension organisations are discussed here.
Tools and techniques for MIS

There are different MIS tools available
Recurring: and they can be used in combination
The same depending on the needs of
transactions management. Some tools discussed
happening here are Transaction Processing
regularly. Systems (TPS), Operation
Transaction Information Systems (OIS) and
trends: The Decision Support Systems (DSS).
pattern of an
TPS can be used by an
increase or
organisation to record and document
decrease in sales
all the routine, recurring business
that is seen for a
transactions such as inventories, customer
particular period
transactions, orders and sales. This system
of time. It is a
allows the organisation to see if there are
result of supply
any transaction trends that arise and it
and demand
allows better resource allocation to deal
interaction.
with the needs that these trends indicate.
97
OIS includes the tools used to plan and schedule meetings or

production functions. It helps the operations manager to monitor
stock levels and allows them to best allocate human resources
to manufacturing tasks. In the agricultural context, this type of
system would be used in a feed mill.
Top management uses DSS to make managerial decisions.
This analysis system uses computers, computing tools and
mathematical and scientific models. This system helps the
company’s managers analyse and evaluate all the methods it
uses in all management departments it oversees. This allows the
manager make decisions which will save money, time, human and
material resources, and generate the greatest returns. It allows
for the most efficient action plans to be implemented.
MIS in extension organisations

Extension organisations serve to offer technical support to
farmers. There has been an increase in the use of information
systems for on-farm recording of livestock and crop information.
Extensionists should be aware that these records are valuable in
evaluating the impact of service provision.
Production data can be a valuable source of feedback used to
evaluate the impact and success of the implementation of an
extension programme. Programme managers can analyse
and evaluate the data to identify that all the needs of
the target clients have been met and adjust resource
allocation if these needs have or have not been met.
98
Concluding remarks
With the growing number of people using the Internet to conduct
business, there are some issues surrounding ethics, social impact,
privacy and security to be considered. This session introduces you
to these aspects of MIS usage.
Extension organisations can benefit from having websites if the
people served by the extension programme are in the position
to access it, either with a smartphone or through a laptop and
Internet connection.
There are different MIS tools available and they can be used in
combination depending on the needs of management. MISs can
be useful in extension organisations to track the effectivity of
extension programme implementation.
99
Study unit 11: Monitoring and evaluation
Study unit outcomes

yy Define evaluation and monitoring processes in
extension;
yy Explain the importance and characteristics of evaluation
in extension;
yy Identify the uses of evaluation;
yy Explain the meaning of monitoring processes and their
indicators; and
yy Identify the methods used in monitoring extension
activities and the various examples of indicators of
extension.
Study unit overview

There is an increased demand that extension programmes
give evidence of value for money and results both at national
levels and among international organisations and bilateral
agencies. Investments in extension are aimed at complex
transformations in how people live and how they manage
their natural resources. These transformations can be
rigorously evaluated, but require mixed methods. In
order to assess their value, you will need qualitative
and quantitative data, as well as the acknowledgement
that the change processes resulting from extension are
non-linear, dynamic, and multidimensional. The roles of
monitoring and evaluation are complementary. In this unit, these
two concepts are discussed so that both field level staff and
extension managers have a better understanding of how to apply
these concepts.
100
Bilateral agencies: A government agency based in one country

that provides aid for people in other countries.
Qualitative data: Information that cannot be measured but
depends on opinion.
Quantitative data: Information that can be measured.
Dynamic: Always changing.
Multidimensional: Having more than one dimension, needing to
be approached from more than one viewpoint.

In this study unit you will learn how important monitoring and
evaluation is for any extension programme to be successful. You
will learn about the principles of monitoring, different models
of evaluation and how to design extension evaluation for a
programme to be a success.
101
Session 11.1: Monitoring for effective

management
Session outcomes
yy Define the meaning of monitoring;
yy Describe the principles and approaches of monitoring;
yy Identify monitoring indicators; and
yy Link monitoring to outcomes.
Introduction
Monitoring is usually needed for good
evaluations. Information needs to be Intervention:
systematically collected to track progress A course of action
and improve on it during the course of taken to create
an intervention. This information is positive change.
needed for evaluation teams to make a
rigorous and verifiable assessment of the
progress that has been made.
Meaning of monitoring
Monitoring means to observe and check the progress of
a project over time. This process in extension involves
gathering information on project inputs, outputs, impact,
effort and complementary activities that are critical to
achieving the objectives.
Principles and approaches of monitoring

The principles of monitoring state that the information gathered
should be used in decision making. There needs to be constant
reference back to a standard or base value to determine if
102
progress is happening. If there is no baseline to refer to, a pilot

project should be done to establish a reference value.
There are different methods you can use to monitor progress,
and the method you choose will depend on the type of
intervention or project you are implementing. Some methods
that may be useful in providing extension services are activity
progress reports, statistical analysis of administrative databases
and reviewing service provision records.
Monitoring indicators
Input, effect, output and impact are performance indicators that
you monitor. They are measurable indicators of progress. Input
includes things like time the staff put into a project. Effects
are the results of the changes that were made. Output will be
things like training days and advisory services delivered by an
organisation. Impact refers to the long-term changes that happen
as a result of a programme or intervention.
In the field, monitoring indicators might be crop yields or
livestock production information that is recorded regularly.
Depending on the type of extension programme you have
introduced, these indicators might show you that there is
more education and training needed for the farmers so they
can manage their farming activities more efficiently. It
might show you that the changes you implemented are
showing an improvement in yields and it is meeting your
performance targets you set up in your plan.
The validity, reliability, relevance, sensitivity, specificity,
timeliness and cost effectiveness of an indicator will
determine how good the indicator is for monitoring progress.
Linking monitoring to outcomes

It is important to know what the expected outcomes and
objectives of a programme or intervention are before it is
implemented, so that you will know how to monitor its progress.
103
If you do not know what the targets are, you will not know if
there has been progress or not.
In the extension context, if you know the market needs a specific
crop yield and you have involved some farmers in contributing to
achieving this target, you will need to monitor individual farmer’s
crop yields to make sure the target is achievable. You will not
force a small scale farmer to produce a crop beyond what their
land can yield. You will evaluate how many farmers are available
to cooperate and each one will then contribute what their land is
capable of yielding towards the target yield.
104
Session 11.2: Evaluation for effective

management
Session outcomes
yy Explain the importance of evaluation;
yy Identify the steps in evaluation;
yy Explain the design of evaluation in extension; and
yy List different types of evaluation.
Introduction
In this session, you will learn what the definition of evaluation
is and how useful it is to assess how effective the chosen
administrative, organisational and supervisory procedures are.
Evaluations are often criticised for not having a sufficient evidence
base. This is often because monitoring data is impossible to
collect during the evaluation itself. Many evaluations are
designed based on the assumption that a reasonable quantity
and quality of data is available, only to find that this is not
the case.
Meaning and importance of evaluation

Evaluation involves checking the effectiveness of the
tools and methods used in an extension programme to
bring about change in a community or organisation. It gives
a basis for adjusting and improving the extension programme.
This process helps the extension agents determine the degree to
which they are accomplishing what they set out to do and gives
them the opportunity to make a report to the public about their
activities or the value of a programme.
105
Models of extension programme evaluation

There are different models for programme evaluation. Some of
the major models are discussed below.
Expert model
This model depends on experts making judgements on the
strengths and limitations of a programme based on interviews,
document analysis, their own perspectives or standards that are
set by stakeholders.
Goal-free model
The main focus of this model is for external evaluators to identify
environmental and farming conditions and then to compare the
needs identified by the extension programme to what people
experience as a result of extension programme implementation.
This model is used to identify the needs that the programme has
not met and then uses this information to make changes.
Attainment of objectives model

This model assumes that the programme’s success depends
on achieving the outcomes compared to the original goals
and objectives. In this evaluation model, it is important to
outline measurable objectives from the beginning and
then gather information that will indicate how much
progress has been made in meeting these objectives.
Management decision model

This model allows managers to gather the information they
need to make decisions. Stakeholder participation is very
important in this model because their decisions are influenced
by evaluation. One disadvantage of this model is that major
stakeholders hold the most decision making power and their
decisions are given preference over the views of less powerful
stakeholders.
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Naturalistic model
This model is valuable in making positive collaborative changes
when conflict resolution skills are combined with evaluation. This
is because this model assumes that programmes are negotiations
between stakeholders and the outcome of evaluation is based
on disagreements about objectives, expectations, problems,
opportunities, policies, procedures, and suggested changes in
methods or activities.
Experimental model
This approach is used to determine if the changes to programme
outcomes were caused by programme inputs or from other
influences. Evaluating the success of a programme depends on
comparing the outcomes of an experimental group (e.g. farmers
who received training) to the outcomes of a control group (e.g.
farmers who did not receive training). There are some ethical
implications with using this model, because it is not ethical to
withhold services from people who could benefit from them.
Participatory evaluation model

This model relies on the extensionists and farmers identifying
an ongoing major situation that needs to be changed, then
to critically reflect on how their own activities might be
maintaining the negative situation. After new assumptions
and practices are introduced, results are validated
or invalidated based on whether a positive change
happened when the new approach was adopted.
Designing extension evaluation
Steps in evaluation
You can use the following steps in the evaluation process:
1. Choose an extension project or activity;
2. Find out more about the background of the target clients;
3. Analyse the extension teaching methods;
107
4. Drawing up an action plan;

5. Determine sample sizes and collect data;
6. Arrange and edit the collected data;
7. Interpret the facts; and
8. Plan how to use the findings to improve the programme or
make decisions.
Types of evaluation
Evaluation of extension in the value chain

In the value chain, adding value to products or services means
that people will be prepared to pay more for a product or service
that they think has benefitted them than one that they felt did
not benefit them. Evaluation in the value chain assesses whether
the value added is the best value for money or if there are areas
that need to be improved to maximise the value of a product or
service. Value for money should reflect results that are valued by
farmers as users of extension services.
Evaluation accountability in extension

An element of evaluation is reporting the progress of activities
of a programme to stakeholders or the public. Receiving
feedback or complaints in response to these progress reports
ensures that the programme managers will be accountable
to the stakeholders. It also adds information that allows
programme managers to make changes to improve the
programme.
Evaluation of human resources in extension

Employee performance appraisals are a type of evaluation
used in human resource management to assess if an employee
is adding value to the organisation, if they are entitled to a
promotion or increased remuneration for their efforts or if they
are underperforming.
108
Evaluation of extension sustainability and ownership

In donor-funded interventions, sustainability can only be proven
to be successful or not sometime after external funding has been
discontinued.
109
Concluding remarks
Monitoring is usually needed for good evaluations. Monitoring
in extension involves gathering information on project inputs,
outputs, impact, effort and complementary activities that are
critical to the achievement of the objectives.
The evaluation process helps extension agents determine the
degree to which they are accomplishing what they set out to do
and gives them the opportunity to make a report to the public
about their activities or the value of a programme.
Value for money should reflect results that are valued by farmers
as users of extension services.
Complete the post-assessment in your workbook.
110
Glossary
Definitions
Word Definition
Actor Stakeholders such as farmers, suppliers
or investors.
Accomplishment What has been achieved.
Agribusiness Farming for profit and managing
farming like a business.
Antivirus Computer software that protects your
files on the computer from attack by
programmes that enter the computer
system through the Internet and
damage the files or steal information.
Articulate To put into words.
Authority A superior’s right to give an order to
their subordinates.
Autocratic Organisations that have their own
organisations management.
Baselines A situation or value that exist before
any changes are implemented.
Beneficial Resulting in gain or an advantage.
Beneficiary Anyone who gains something from the

programme.
Bilateral agencies A government agency based in one
country that provides aid to people in
other countries.
111
Word Definition
Catalyst Causing a change without being
directly involved in making the
changes.
Collaborative To work together with different groups
or departments.
Constraint diagnosis Identifying the limitations in extension
programmes.
Contingency A possible future event that cannot be
predicted with certainty.
Democratic Being open to the ideas of others.
Dictate To give an order that must be obeyed
without question.
Diverse Made up of different farming systems.
Diversity To have differences in personality,
ability, gender, culture etc. in a group.
Dynamic Always changing.
E-commerce To buy and sell goods and services
using the Internet.
Ethical Relating to moral principles.
Gender roles Specific activities that are assigned to a
gender based on cultural norms.
Globalisation When organisations operate on an
international scale and start to develop
international influence.
Hardcopies Any document that has been printed
on paper.
Harmonious To work together without conflict.
112
Word Definition
Hierarchical structure Different levels of management within
an organisation where each level
reports to the one above it.
Horizontal Moving sideways.
Horticulture Relating to crop production.
Industrial Revolution The period in history in Britain where
the invention of machines caused a
rapid development in industry.
Ineffective Not giving the result you want.
Information Age The time period that started when
computer based technology was first
introduced.
Interpersonal Your relationship with others in the
relationships workplace or in a social setting.
Interrelated factors All factors are related to each other in
some way.
Intervention A course of action taken to create a
positive change.
Iterative Frequent repetition of actions.
Job satisfaction To feel happy in the work that you do
in an organisation.
Laissez-faire Being non-interventionist or lax.
Malware A type of computer software that is
designed to damage the computer
system.
Multidimensional Having more than one dimension.
Needing to be approached from more
than one viewpoint.
113
Word Definition
Overbearing To take over the conversation or
activities in a group without being
asked to do so.
Participatory An approach where farmers or
approach stakeholders are included in the
decision making process.
Peers Those working on the same level,
or in a similar position to you. Your
colleagues.
Pluralistic system An extension system that includes
stakeholders from private and public
sectors.
Proactive To create or control a situation.
Procrastination To put off doing tasks you need to do
now until later.
Quantitative data Information that can be measured.
Qualitative data Information that cannot be measured
but depends on opinion.
Reactive Response to change.
Recurring The same transactions happening
regularly.
Referent others People you consider to be in a similar
situation, with whom you compare
your own situation.
Remuneration Payment or salary.
Responsive To react to a situation.
114
Word Definition
Restructuring Changing the way management
within an organisation is structured,
or changing the way a programme is
managed.
Retrenched A term used to describe termination of
employment when an organisation is
forced to reduce its staff due to difficult
economic conditions. Retrenched
employees are offered severance
packages when their contract of
employment is terminated.
Rigorously Thoroughly, in a strict way.
Routine Activities or tasks you do at the same
time every day.
Subordinates Those holding a lower position in the
workplace than you do, if you are their
manager.
Staff retention To keep the same employees working
in an organisation for a long time.
Staff turnover A term that describes how often an
employee in a specific job is replaced
by someone new.
Substantive Important, serious, or related to facts.
Superiors Managers or supervisors. Those
holding a higher position in the
workplace than you do.
System approach Extension service provision is seen as
a whole made up of many different
individual parts.
Termination To end a contract of employment.
115
Word Definition
Time lag A delay in time between activities.
Transaction trends The pattern of an increase or decrease
in sales that is seen for a particular
period of time. It is a result of supply
and demand interaction.
Vertical Moving upwards.
Visa Documentation required by some
countries that give you permission to
cross their borders and visit, study or
work there.
Abbreviations
Abbreviation Description
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural
Research
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
DARE Department of Agricultural
Research and Education
T&V extension system The Training and Visit extension
system
FSRE Farming systems research and
extension
DR&SS Department of Research and
Specialist Services
AGRITEX Department of Agricultural
Technical and Extension Services
BAIF Bharatiya Agro-Industries
Federation
116
Abbreviation Description
PRADAN Professional Assistance for
Development Action
SFI Syngenta Foundation India
KRIBHCO Krishak Bharati Cooperative
Limited
GVT Gramin Vikas Trust
DFID Department for International
Development
NGOs Non-governmental organisations
SAA Sasakawa Africa Association
CEO Chief Executive Officer
COO Chief Operating Officer
MD Managing Director
SAFE Sasakawa Africa Fund for
Extension
HRM Human resource management
TPS Transaction Processing Systems
OIS Operation Information System
DSS Decision Support Systems
e.g. For example
etc. Et cetera
117
Resources
The following resources were used in writing this manual.
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yy Byarugaba, Beatrice. Ministry of Agricultural Extension Services
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W5830E/w5830e0d.htm
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121
Other modules of the New Extensionist modules are:

1. Introduction to the New Extensionist
2. Extension Methods and Tools
3. Extension Programme Management
4. Professional Ethics
5. Adult Education for Behavioural Change
6. Knowledge Management for RAS
7. Facilitation for Development
8. Community Mobilisation
9. Farmer Organisational Development
10. Value Chain Extension
11. Agricultural Entrepreneurship
12. Gender in Extension and Advisory Services
13. Risk Mitigation and Adaptation
Other related modules developed by GFRAS are on:

• Evaluation of Extension Programmes
• Policy Advocacy for RAS
122

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Module 3: Agricultural Extension

The Learning Kit contains 13 modules designed for self-directed, face-

The Agricultural Extension Programme Management module is developed as

We acknowledge the generous support of the European Union contributions

Lead author: Mercy Akeredolu

Study unit 1: Theories and practice of agricultural

Study unit overview..................................................................6

Study unit introduction.............................................................6

Session 1.1: Definition, theories and principles of

Management styles and approaches..........................................8

Session 1.2: Functions of management.......................... 12

Planning and organising..........................................................12

Staffing, directing and coordinating.........................................12

Reporting and budgeting........................................................13

Study unit 2: Approaches to management strategies of

Study unit overview................................................................15

Study unit introduction...........................................................15

Case study 1: Ministry of Agricultural Extension Services of

Modern extension systems......................................................19

Case study 2: Farming systems research and extension in

Case study 3: Privatisation in the Netherlands..........................22

Session 2.2: Privately funded extension systems........... 22

Case study 4: Privatisation in Australia.....................................23

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs).................................25

Case study 5: Sasakawa in Africa............................................25

Cost sharing approaches.........................................................26

Study unit 3: Leadership, motivation and group dynamics.

Study unit overview................................................................28

Study unit introduction...........................................................28

Session 3.1: Leadership................................................... 29

Session 3.2: Work group dynamics and creativity.......... 37

Conceptualisation of group dynamics.......................................37

Roles in the group..................................................................38

Communication in the group...................................................39

Types of techniques for group dynamics..................................39

Study unit 4: Extension programmes and programme

Study unit overview................................................................42

Study unit introduction...........................................................42

Session 4.1: The importance of extension programmes

What is an extension programme?...........................................43

What is extension programme planning?..................................44

Session 4.2: Extension programmes, types, assumptions

Types of extension programmes..............................................45

Principles of outcomes-focused planning..................................46

Overview of the programme planning cycle..............................47

Study unit 5: Managing organisational change and

Study unit overview................................................................51

Study unit introduction...........................................................51

Session 5.1: Organisational change................................ 52

What is organisational change?...............................................52

Role of management during organisational change...................52

Session 5.2: Conflicts and conflict management............ 54

Study unit 6: Involvement of farmers and tools in

Study unit overview................................................................58

Study unit introduction...........................................................58

Session 6.2: Tools in programme planning .................... 61

Study unit 7: Time management..................................... 64

Study unit overview................................................................64

Study unit introduction...........................................................65