System Theory

David Easton’s ‘systems theory’, though developed for ‘constructivist’
purposes and is a conceptual framework for analysing politics, yet it is useful

for constructing an empirical theory of Political Science as well as using it in
understanding actual forces operating in a political system. The political actors
and citizens can know ‘what’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ of political operations, and
take remedial actions. Third world countries can gain a lot from its study and
actual use, avoiding many risks, crises, and difficulties. Advanced countries
already make use of it in one form or other.
Systems theory, as it stands today, has only analytical or conceptual

relationship with general systems theory. Historically, systems theory is prior,
methodologically more empirical, and, practically more useful. But it relates,
only to one discipline. Like general systems theory, it does not cover all
political and non-political phenomena, and conjoins or does housekeeping for
all disciplines.
However, systems theory, too has not yet emerged as an explanatory

empirical theory, and is still used for constructivist or heuristic purposes, and
as a conceptual framework or approach for political analysis. It is particularly
framed for the study of politics and its central conceptual apparatus is also
used in a narrower sense. Recently, there has been a successful thrust by
automation and computerisation programmes. Relevant data have been
collected and set on computers, operated on the outlines of systems theory,
and results read out to relevant segments of political life.
onsidering the development of an all-inclusive and universal or abstract theory

as unattainable by empirical methods, political scientists have adopted the
limited perspective of ‘ systems theory’. Several disciplines have contributed
to its making and development. It represents interdisciplinary nature of
modern Political Science. ‘Systems’ concept makes empirical and
comparative study possible even of those political institutions, apart from the
state, such as, international political system, city, political party, etc.
The concept is helpful in studying changes like transformation, feedback,

exchange, tension, conflict and development. Besides Easton, Gabriel
Almond, Talcott Parsons, Karl Deutsch, Morton Kaplan and others have made
such studies. Systems theory analyses interactions, structures, institutions,
and processes pertaining to politics. Politics involves power, authority,
physical coercion, and allocation of values for society.
In all shades of politics, political processes, and structures are enmeshed with
several other elements, factors, and considerations. As such, a ‘political
system’ cannot be physically separated from its non-political aspects, and is,
therefore, usually understood and studied in an analytical manner. Society as
a whole makes up the general social system, which contains many
subsystems.
Political system is one of these subsystems. When the political system is to be

studied as a whole along with its intra-subsystems, then, it is treated as a
‘system’. Besides that, ‘system’ can be considered as a part of environment.
Thus, the concept of ‘system’ both in interlocking micro and macro forms
saves us from the error of considering ‘systems’ as isolated, separate, or
independent entities.
Besides throwing light on their interconnections, one can examine their

discrete nature, and separate empirical existence. According to Almond, the
political system in a society, is ‘legitimate, order maintaining’ or transforming
system’. Wiseman maintains that every political system involves political
structures, actors, or roles performed by their agents, interaction-patterns
existing between individuals or collectivities, and political processes. In the
‘political system’ of Kaplan also, there are recognisable multivariate interests.
Instead of always being opposite, sometimes they are complementary to each

other. There are regular structures and channels to reach the decisions and
judgments related to particular interests. General rules are prescribed to
govern the actors and activities relating to particular decisions and judgments.
Easton, therefore, regards the political system engaged in decision-making
and implementing the authoritative allocation of values for society.
The systems approach is an external standard that measures effectiveness based on long-term
growth or sustainability. Effective systems are characterized by a steady state that systems theorists
call homeostasis in order to “avoid the static connotations of equilibrium and to bring out the
dynamic, processual, potential-maintaining properties of basically unstable… systems.”Buckley
(1967), p. 14. If an organization is able to maintain homeostasis, which includes not just survival but
also growth, then it is effective. This perspective is broader and more comprehensive than the goal-
attainment approach because it is not limited to measuring effectiveness as meeting goals
determined by powerful internal coalitions that may or may not be propitious for the whole
organization. Pfeffer and Salancik defined effectiveness as “how well an organization is meeting the
demands of the various groups and organizations that are concerned with its activities.”Pfeffer and
Salancik (1978), p. 11.
Most effective organizations, according to systems theory, adapt to their environments. Pfeffer and
Salancik described the environment as the events occurring in the world that have any effect on the
activities and outcomes of an organization. Environments range from “static” on one extreme to
“dynamic” on the other. Static environments are relatively stable or predictable and do not have
great variation, whereas dynamic environments are in a constant state of flux. Because environments
cannot be completely static or constantly changing, organizations have varying levels of dynamic or
static environments.
Organizations that exist in dynamic environments must be open systems in order to maintain
homeostasis. Because dynamic environments are constantly changing, they create a lot of
uncertainty about what an organization must do in order to survive and grow. The key to dealing
with uncertainty is information. An open organization monitors its environment and collects
information about environmental deviations that is labeled as input. Input can also be thought of as
a form of feedback. The most important information is negative input, according to systems
theorists, because this information alerts the organization to problems that need to be
corrected. Negative input tells the organization that it is doing something wrong and that it must
make adjustments to correct the problem; positive input tells the organization that it is doing
something right and that it should continue or increase that activity.

Organizations then organize and process this information to formulate solutions or responses to
these changes. As Cutlip, Center, and Broom noted, open systems use information to respond to
environmental changes and adjust accordingly. The adjustments affect the structure or process of the
organization, or both. The structure is what the organization is, whereas process is what the
organization does. Adjustments are “intended to reduce, maintain, or increase the deviations.”Cutlip,
Center, and Broom (2006), p. 181. For example, an organization can alter its structure by downsizing
to remain competitive. Other organizations may change their processes in order to adhere to new
environmental laws. Processing positive and negative input to adjust to environmental change is
called throughput. In the throughput of information, the organization analyzes it and tailors it
strategically to fit with the organization’s goals, values, and within the relationship context it holds
with publics.
The public relations professional can use the academic concept of systems theory to implement
protocols for regular feedback to the organization, thereby aligning it with the desires of publics in its
environment. This theory can also be useful in understanding the role of research and feedback in
creating a thoroughly analyzed and consistent strategy (the throughput stage of information in
systems theory). The analysis of information and creation of strategy known as throughput helps to
conceptualize and justify not only the research budget of the public relations department but also the
need for making decisions that strategically align the public communications of an organization with
the information needed by publics. The practical implementation of this approach keeps public
relations from being used as a simple publicity function, and places the function squarely in the
strategic planning process.
Systems theory, however, is not without some shortcomings. The first shortcoming relates to
measurement, and the second is the issue of whether the means by which an organization survives
really matter. Robbins noted that one criticism of this approach is that its focus is on “the means
necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.”Robbins (1990),
p. 62. Measuring the means, or process, of an organization can be very difficult when compared to
measuring specific end goals of the goal-attainment approach.

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What are the main components of a political system according to systems theory?

What are the main components of a political system according to systems theory?

How does systems theory view the relationship between a political system and its environment?

How does systems theory view the relationship between a political system and its environment?

David Easton’s ‘systems theory’, though developed for ‘constructivist’

purposes and is a conceptual framework for analysing politics, yet it is useful

Systems theory, as it stands today, has only analytical or conceptual

However, systems theory, too has not yet emerged as an explanatory

onsidering the development of an all-inclusive and universal or abstract theory

The concept is helpful in studying changes like transformation, feedback,

Political system is one of these subsystems. When the political system is to be

Besides throwing light on their interconnections, one can examine their

Instead of always being opposite, sometimes they are complementary to each

dynamic, processual, potential-maintaining properties of basically unstable… systems.”Buckley

attainment approach because it is not limited to measuring effectiveness as meeting goals

Salancik (1978), p. 11.

something right and that it should continue or increase that activity.

organization does. Adjustments are “intended to reduce, maintain, or increase the deviations.”Cutlip,

called throughput. In the throughput of information, the organization analyzes it and tailors it

strategic planning process.

necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.”Robbins (1990),

measuring specific end goals of the goal-attainment approach.

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