2020 Nasa Technology Taxonomy PDF

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
2020
NASA
Technology
Taxonomy
The page intentionally left blank.
i
CONTENTS
Letter from the Chief Technologist. . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
TX01: Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
TX02: Flight Computing and Avionics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
TX03: Aerospace Power and Energy Storage. . . . . . . . . 27
TX04: Robotic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
TX05: Communications, Navigation, and
Orbital Debris Tracking and
Characterization Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
TX06: Human Health, Life Support, and
Habitation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
TX07: Exploration Destination Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
TX08: Sensors and Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
TX09: Entry, Descent, and Landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
TX10: Autonomous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
TX11: Software, Modeling, Simulation, and
Information Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
TX12: Materials, Structures, Mechanical Systems,
and Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
TX13: Ground, Test, and Surface Systems . . . . . . . . . 157
TX14: Thermal Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
TX15: Flight Vehicle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
TX16: Air Traffic Management and
Range Tracking Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
TX17: Guidance, Navigation, and Control . . . . . . . . . . 201
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
ii
Letter from the Chief
Technologist
“And as we renew our commitment to lead in space, let’s go with
confidence and let’s go with faith. Faith in the vision and the goal
that’s articulated today: that we can achieve it; that Americans can
achieve anything that we put our minds to. Faith in the extraordinary
ingenuity and capability of the men and women of NASA and
America’s space enterprise, and their ability to meet those challenges
if given the resources and the support to do it. And especially faith in
the courage of the men and women who are now, and those who will
join, the storied ranks of American astronauts—that next generation
of restless pioneers that will carry American leadership into space. It’s
extraordinary to think of the heroes that will be forged in our renewed
commitment to space.” – Vice President Michael Pence
As NASA embarks on its renewed commitment to lead in space, we must overcome significant
technical challenges to achieve the goal of a sustainable return to the surface of the Moon. We will
build on six decades of leadership in space and our work in low-Earth orbit to pave the way to the
Moon and on to Mars. The Artemis program will carry the first woman and next man to the Moon,
and establish sustainable exploration with our commercial and international partners. NASA is
pursuing an ambitious program to explore our solar system and beyond. Key priorities include a Mars
Sample Return mission, launch of the James Webb Space Telescope and a robust program of Earth
observation. In addition, our transformative aeronautics technology research is making air travel safer
and more efficient, and pioneering the next generation of aircraft.
American ingenuity and innovation will be critical to the development of new technologies necessary
to achieve NASA’s important missions. As NASA undertakes an integrated technology research and
development effort, a common technology taxonomy is more important than ever. For this reason,
the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy was created as an important update to the Technology Area
Breakdown Structure (TABS) from the roadmaps of previous years.
The 2020 Taxonomy is an update to the 2015 TABS. This new edition builds on previous releases and
the insight from subject matter experts from across the Agency. The 2020 Taxonomy has expanded
the total number of technology areas to 17 and consolidated other areas. The update reflects a shift
to a structure that aligns technology areas based on technical disciplines. The updates also include
new technologies relevant to NASA, such as cybersecurity and advancements in artificial intelligence.
iii
The technology Taxonomy is key to NASA’s ability to manage and communicate its technology
portfolio by providing a structure for articulating the diverse technologies relevant to NASA’s mission.
Together, NASA and its partners in other government agencies, international space agencies,
academia, and industry, will pave the way to new frontiers in space and aeronautics.
Douglas Terrier
Chief Technologist
iv
Introduction The 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy provides a
NASA engages in a multitude of technology structure for articulating the technology development
development activities to enable NASA missions by disciplines needed to enable future space missions and
broadening knowledge of and capabilities in aeronautics, support commercial air travel. The taxonomy identifies,
science, and space. To manage and communicate categorizes, and communicates the technology areas
this extensive and diverse technology portfolio, NASA relevant to advancing the Agency’s mission. The
uses a technology taxonomy. This taxonomy identifies, 2020 revision is comprised of 17 distinct technical
organizes, and communicates the technology areas discipline based Taxonomies (TXs) that provide a
that NASA advances in order to achieve future space breakdown structure for each technology area. The
missions and aeronautics activities. taxonomy uses a three-level hierarchy for grouping
and organizing technology types. Level 1 represents
The 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy is an update
the technology area, which is the title of that area (e.g.
to the Technology Area Breakdown Structure (TABS)
TX01: Propulsion Systems). Level 2 is a list of the
of the 2015 NASA Technology Roadmaps. The TABS,
subareas (e.g. TX01.1 Chemical Space Propulsion).
now referred to as the taxonomy, is deeply ingrained
Level 3 categorizes the types of technologies within
within NASA documentation, TechPort, solicitations,
the subareas (e.g. TX1.1.1 Integrated Systems and
websites, and many other places domestically and
Ancillary Technologies). Also included is an example
internationally. In particular, the taxonomy provides a
technologies section that provides a non-exhaustive
structure for articulating NASA’s technology portfolio,
sample of relevant technologies.
which is key to NASA’s ability to manage and
communicate its technology development efforts. The taxonomy is a foundational element of NASA’s
technology management process. NASA’s Mission
The 2020 NASA Technology Directorates (MDs) reference the taxonomy to solicit
technology proposals and to inform decisions on
Taxonomy NASA’s technology policy, prioritization, and strategic
NASA continues to push the boundaries of investments. These investments are tracked in TechPort,
space missions and aeronautics activities, a publically available web-based software system that
pursuing challenging goals that require advanced serves as NASA’s integrated Agency technology data
technological capabilities. Progressively ambitious source and decision support tool. TechPort uses the
space exploration presents challenges such as taxonomy in organizing the numerous, varied technology
sustaining a human presence in space, efficiently projects that NASA supports.
navigating to previously inaccessible locations, and
communicating over unprecedented distances. History
For aeronautics, increasing air traffic presents the
need for next generation air traffic control; high The 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy is part of an
fidelity, integrated, distributed simulation systems; evolution that began with the original roadmaps and
and next generation vehicles that reduce noise and TABS drafted in 2010, followed by updates in 2012
carbon output. Solutions to these and many other and 2015.
technical challenges require innovative technology
development across many areas, building on proven The effort to develop the roadmaps began in 2010
capabilities as well as developing new ones. when NASA identified 14 Space Technology Areas,
including top technical challenges and relevant
v
spaceflight missions. NASA publicly distributed a set 2015 Roadmaps were being used. Based on the
of draft roadmaps that included the original TABS assessment, it was decided that the 2020 revision
in December 2010. The National Research Council would decouple the TABS from the roadmaps and
(NRC) conducted a review and released a final report, incorporate a technical discipline based taxonomy
NASA Space Technology Roadmaps and Priorities: approach to align like technologies under a
Restoring NASA’s Technological Edge and Paving technology area.
the Way for a New Era in Space, early in 2012. The
final versions of the roadmaps and related TABS were The other major change in this revision is the shift
released to the public in April 2012. from emphasis on generic roadmaps to MD-owned
technology development strategies. This change
The 2015 Technology Roadmaps enhanced and focused on MD-identified strategic capabilities needs
expanded the TABS of the 2012 Roadmaps, and their corresponding plans to mature the enabling
responding to NASA’s changing needs, advances in technologies required. The new approach, the Strategic
technology, and recommended improvements from the Technology Integration Framework (STIF), captures
NRC and other stakeholders. NASA began the effort the capability needs of each MD and its associated
to update the Technology Roadmaps by determining technology investment strategies. The STIF provides
how the development process, roadmap scope, and traceability of actual technology investments, offering
roadmap content could be improved. NASA gathered the technology development community insight into the
input from the NASA Technology Executive Council strategic needs and technology plans of the Agency.
(NTEC), a 2013 Technical Interchange Meeting, and
the NASA Center Technology Council (CTC). Using the
decisions from the NTEC, and the input from the CTC
Development Process
and external stakeholders, NASA made improvements During 2018, the CTC, working with OCT, performed
to the development process and the roadmaps content the first round of structural realignment and content
and format. revisions of the new taxonomy. Agency SMEs, including
Technical Fellows, Systems Capability Leaders,
In 2014, the Technology Roadmap development team
Principal Technologists, and other technical Agency
was formed with members from across the Agency
experts, participated in this early round of revision.
to create new draft TABS and roadmaps. As the draft
During this phase of development, it was recognized
roadmaps were developed, NASA held meetings with
that the taxonomy revision would benefit from leveraging
other government agencies to obtain insights and
the SMEs’ established Agency role as advisors to
assess the technology candidates. The roadmaps
develop and maintain the NASA Technology Taxonomy.
went through an internal NASA review in the spring
This SME presence would also provide consistency and
of 2015, with a release to the public for review and
continuity in subsequent revisions of the taxonomy.
comment. These roadmaps and their TABS included
several improvements such as an expanded scope The draft taxonomy, resulting from the initial
and greater standardization. realignment and revisions, underwent a broad two-
phase review. The first was an internal NASA-wide
The 2020 revision process began in 2017 and
review that solicited comments from NASA MDs,
was led by NASA’s CTC, along with the Office of
NASA Offices, NASA Centers, and the Jet Propulsion
the Chief Technologist (OCT) and subject matter
Laboratory. That review was followed by a public
experts (SMEs) from across the Agency with a
review and comment period. This combination of
review of the 2015 TABS. In addition, a survey of
reviews further informed and refined the revision by
the 2015 Technology Roadmaps user community
providing additional realignments and clarifications to
was conducted to provide insight on how the
vi
both the restructuring and the technical elements of • Split TA4 Robotics and Autonomous Systems into
the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy. separate technology areas, TX04 Robotics and
TX10 Autonomous Systems
In addition to the taxonomy revision, a companion
document providing a crosswalk between the 2015 • Removed TA10 Nanotechnology as an independent
TAs and the updated 2020 TXs was developed. This technology area; nanotechnologies are now
document allows readers to identify where technology represented in other technology areas as appropriate
areas have moved with the update. (e.g. nanopropellants are in TX01 Propulsion)
• Split TA15 Aeronautics into TX15 Flight Vehicle

High-Level Changes from Systems and TX16 Air Traffic Management;
2015-2020 incorporated other aeronautics technologies into
other technology areas as appropriate
The updated 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy reflects
a shift to a structure that aligns Technology Areas based • Created TX17 Guidance, Navigation, and Control
on technical disciplines. To achieve this shift the revision (GN&C)
retains, modifies and introduces new Level 1 and
Level 2 technology areas while dissolving others and
Description of the TXs
combining them with existing areas. The new structure
expands to 17 Technology Areas and replaces the 4th The 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy includes the
level “Technology Candidates” with an unnumbered sub- following 17 TXs:
section listing of example technologies for that section.
Figure 1 shows the breakdown of the structure used in TX01: Propulsion Systems
the 2020 Technology Taxonomy. The 2020 update also This area covers technologies for chemical and
includes new technologies relevant to NASA, such as non-chemical propulsion systems or their related
cybersecurity and advancements in artificial intelligence. ancillary systems for propulsion, space launch
propulsion, or in-space propulsion applications.
The following are highlights of the major changes in
the new taxonomy structure:
TX02: Flight Computing and Avionics
• Added a Level 2 section at the end of each TX to This area covers unique electronics and
capture those technologies not explicitly featured computing hardware when applied to flight
elsewhere in the TX but clearly belonging in the systems, whether in space or atmospheric.
TX section (e.g. TX01.X, TX02.X etc.)
• Retained and updated a crosscutting section (TX00) TX03: Aerospace Power and Energy Storage
with the addition of systems not explicitly featured in This area covers the different components of a
TX 1-17 that cross-map across the TX areas power system—power generation, energy storage,
and power management and distribution—that
• Combined TA1 Launch Propulsion Systems and require technological improvements to enable or
TA2 In-Space Propulsion Technologies into one enhance NASA missions.
area, TX01 Propulsion, and included elements of
propulsion for atmospheric systems
• Created TX02 Flight Computing and Avionics
vii
Figure 1. The second-level breakdown of the structure used in the 2020 Technology Taxonomy. This document contains
details at the third level, with fourth-level technology examples provided in all cases.
viii
TX04: Robotic Systems TX10: Autonomous Systems
This area covers technologies for robotic systems This new area covers technologies that (in the
that will be leveraged as science explorers, context of robotics, spacecraft, or aircraft) enable
precursor explorers preceding crewed missions, the system to operate in a dynamic environment
as crew helpers, as EVA mobility aids, and as independent of external control.
caretakers of unattended assets.
TX11: Software, Modeling, Simulation, and
TX05: Communications, Navigation, Information Processing
and Orbital Debris Tracking and This area covers modeling, simulation, and
Characterization Systems information technology as well as software
This area covers technologies for transferring technologies that increase NASA’s understanding
commands, spacecraft telemetry, mission data, and mastery of the physical world and are the
and voice for human exploration missions, while basis of new solution paradigms across the
maintaining accurate timing and providing navigation breadth of NASA’s missions.
support. Orbital debris can be tracked and
characterized by some of the same systems used TX12: Materials, Structures, Mechanical
for spacecraft communications and navigation, as Systems, and Manufacturing
well as by other specialized systems. This area covers technologies for developing new
materials with improved or combined properties,
TX06: Human Health, Life Support, and structures that use materials to meet system
Habitation Systems performance requirements, and innovative
This area covers technologies that are specific to manufacturing processes.
the human element and those that directly affect
crew needs for survival and wellbeing, including the TX13: Ground, Test, and Surface Systems
environment and interfaces that crew encounter. This area covers technologies for preparing,
assembling, validating, executing, supporting, and
TX07: Exploration Destination Systems maintaining aeronautics and space activities and
This area covers the broad range of technologies operations, on Earth and on other planetary surfaces.
associated with enabling successful activities in
space, from mission operations to in-situ resource TX14: Thermal Management Systems
utilization. This area covers technologies for acquiring,
transporting, and rejecting heat, as well as insulating
TX08: Sensors and Instruments and controlling the flow of heat to maintain
This area covers technologies for instruments and temperatures within specified limits.
sensors, including remote observation capabilities.
TX15: Flight Vehicle Systems
TX09: Entry, Descent, and Landing This area covers technologies for aerosciences
This area covers entry, descent, and landing and flight mechanics. Aerosciences is the
technologies needed to enable both current and prediction of vehicle and component atmospheric
future missions. flight performance and flow qualities to enable
robust and efficient flight vehicle development,
achieving performance requirements while
ix
minimizing environmental impacts. Flight
mechanics provides the analysis, prediction,
measurement, and test of vehicle dynamics,
trajectories, and performance.
TX16: Air Traffic Management and Range

Tracking Systems
This area covers safety and automation
technologies that include far reaching
concepts and technologies for future planning
and operations and ones that safely extend
the capabilities and range of uses for air
transportation and commercial space integration.
TX17: Guidance, Navigation, and Control

(GN&C)
This area covers the unique GN&C system
technologies that enable new missions; reduce
cost, schedule, mass or power while maintaining
or improving GN&C performance; improve system
safety and longevity; or reduce environmental
impact of aerospace vehicle operations.
x
TX01
Propulsion
Systems
Overview
This section addresses technologies for chemical and non-chemical
propulsion systems or their related ancillary systems. These propulsion
systems may be used for aeronautic propulsion, space launch propulsion, or
in-space propulsion applications.
1
2
TX01 Propulsion Systems
TX01.1 Chemical Space

Propulsion
Chemical propulsion includes systems that operate through chemical
reactions that heat and expand a propellant (or use a fluid dynamic
expansion as in a cold gas) to provide thrust.
TX01.1.1 Integrated Systems and Ancillary

Technologies
This area covers systems and technologies that provide additional launch
vehicle and in-space propulsion functions, other than primary ascent
or propulsion. These systems include both mechanical and propulsive
systems.
Example Technologies
For Launch Vehicles For In-Space Propulsion
• Thrust Vector Control (TVC) • CubeSat propulsion
• Main propulsion systems • Propellant Management Devices (PMDs)
• Reaction Control Systems (RCS) • Pressure regulation mechanisms
• Roll Control Systems (RoCS) • Propellant thermal control systems
• Separation motors • Propellant vapor control systems
• Ullage settling motors • Long-duration propellant-compatible materials
• Abort propulsion systems • High-performance main engines
• Propellant storage and transfer • Low-impulse attitude-control systems
• Nanocomposites • Propellant slosh control
• Green propellants • Deep-throttling precision lander engines
TX01.1.2 Earth Storable

Earth storable propellants remain stable over a range of Earth terrestrial
pressures and temperatures and can be stored in a closed vessel for long
An RS-25 engine, the type periods of time.
used for NASA’s upcoming
Space Launch System (SLS), Example Technologies
is test fired. (NASA)
• Kerosene • Green propellants (LMP-103S, AF-315E)
• Hydrazine • Water
• Monomethylhydrazine • Ionic liquids
• Hydrogen peroxide • Ammonium dinitramide (ADN)-based propellants
• Nitrogen tetroxide mixed oxides of nitrogen • Hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN)-based propellants
3
TX01.1.3 Cryogenic
Cryogenic propulsion systems or subsystems operate with propellants that
are liquefied gases at low temperatures.
• Liquid oxygen (LOX) • Methane (CH4) pump-fed main engine LOX
• Methane (CH4) • Liquid hydrogen (LH) reaction and attitude control engine
• Pressure-fed main engine LOX • LOX/RP-1
• Methane (CH4) pump-fed main engine LOX • LOX/LH based engine
TX01.1.4 Solids
This area covers propulsion systems that operate with solid propellants,
where the propellants are pre-mixed oxidizers and fuels.
• Polybutadiene Acrylic Acid Acrylonitrile Prepolymer (PBAN)
• Hydroxyl Terminated Poly Butadiene (HTPB)
TX01.1.5 Hybrids
Hybrid propulsion systems or subsystems operate with propellants that
utilize a hybrid of solid fuel and liquid oxidizer.
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene thermoplastic
• Paraffin-based fuels
TX01.1.6 Gels
Gelled and metallized fuels are a class of thixotropic (shear-thinning) fuels
that improve the performance of rocket and air-breathing systems.
• Gelled oxygen (O2)/hydrogen (H2)
• Gelled MMH/IRFNA propellants
• Nanogelled propellants
4
TX01.1.7 Cold Gas

Cold gas propulsion systems use the stored pressure of inert gasses to
increase thrust.
• Cold gas systems for small satellites
• Upper stages
• Human space exploration
TX01.1.8 Warm Gas

Warm gas propulsion systems or subsystems use the energy of a heated
gas to create thrust or increase the pressure in the system.
• Pressurization for flight systems
Advanced Electric Propulsion Systems Contract, Technology Demonstration Unit, TDU-3 Check-
out Test Hardware Installed in Vacuum Facility 5, VF-5. (NASA)
5
TX01.2 Electric Space

Propulsion
Electric propulsion converts electric energy to interact with and accelerate
a reaction mass to generate thrust.

Technologies
This area covers pertinent technology areas that are strongly coupled
to, but are not part of, electric in-space propulsion, such that focused
development within these related areas will allow significant improvements
in performance for some in-space propulsion technology areas.
• Engine health monitoring
• Materials and manufacturing
• Heat rejection systems for in space propulsion
TX01.2.2 Electrostatic
This area covers electric propulsion systems that use electrostatic fields to
ionize and accelerate a propellant.
A Hall ion thruster in
Example Technologies operation. (NASA)
• Ion engines
• Hall thrusters
• Electrospray propulsion
TX01.2.3 Electromagnetic
This area covers electric propulsion that interacts with a reaction mass
using electromagnetic fields.
• Pulsed inductive thruster
• Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster
• Electrodynamic launch, e.g. double-sided linear induction motor (DSLIM)
6
TX01.2.4 Electrothermal
This area covers electric propulsion that heats the propellant prior to
expansion through a nozzle.
• Resistojets
• Arcjets
This is an artist’s concept of a possible Low Boom Flight Demonstration Quiet Supersonic Transport (QueSST) X-plane
design. The award of a preliminary design contract is the first step towards the possible return of supersonic passenger
travel – but this time quieter and more affordable. (NASA)
7
TX01.3 Aero Propulsion

Aero propulsion systems are designed to operate in Earth’s atmosphere.

Technologies
This area covers integrated systems and ancillary technologies relevant to
enabling propulsion systems for atmospheric flight.
• Engine health monitoring
• Materials and manufacturing
• Emissions control
• Noise management
TX01.3.2 Turbine Based Combined Cycle

A Turbine Based Combined Cycle is a combination propulsion system that
consists of a turbine engine and ram or dual-mode scramjet.
• Dual mode scramjet
TX01.3.3 Rocket Based Combined Cycle

A combined-cycle propulsion system generally consists of an ejector-
ramjet or rocket mode for liftoff, followed by ramjet, scramjet, and rocket
modes for acceleration to orbital velocity.
• Ejector ramjet
8
TX01.3.4 Pressure Gain Combustion

Pressure gain combustion (PGC) describes a family of physical processes
and configurations that provide an increase in total pressure during the
combustion process within a fixed volume combustor. Each of these
combustors uses gas dynamic waves to confine the combustion process
(all but the pulsejet also pre-compress the fuel/air mixture) to achieve an
approximation to constant volume combustion.
• Pulse detonation engines (PDE)
• Rotating detonation engines (RDE)
• Pulsejets
• Wave rotors
TX01.3.5 Turbine Based Jet Engines

This area covers Brayton cycle-based air-breathing propulsion systems,
the baseline of commercial aviation industry. This area includes adaptation
of conventional jet engines as fly back booster engines designed to
withstand the launch environment imposed by a conventional vertical
rocket launch.
• Turbine jet engine
The second and final qualifi-

cation motor (QM-2) test for
TX01.3.6 Ramjet/Scramjet
the Space Launch System’s A Ramjet/Scramjet is an adaptation of traditional ramjet and scramjet air
booster is seen, Tuesday, breathing propulsion systems to provide acceleration of an Earth-to-orbit
June 28, 2016, at Orbital launch system within the atmosphere.
ATK Propulsion System’s
(SLS) test facilities in Prom- Example Technologies
ontory, Utah. (NASA/Bill
Ingalls)
• Ramjet/scramjet
9
TX01.3.7 Reciprocating Internal Combustion

In the reciprocating internal combustion technology area, multi cylinder
engines, each containing a piston, turn a crankshaft to drive a propeller.
• Air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines
TX01.3.8 All Electric Propulsion

All electric systems use electrical energy storage as the only power source.
• Permanent magnet synchronous motor
• Distributed electronic propulsion
TX01.3.9 Hybrid Electric Systems

Hybrid electric systems use a turbine driven generator combined with
electrical energy storage as the power source.
• Series/parallel partial hybrid
TX01.3.10 Turboelectric Propulsion

Turboelectric systems use a turbine driven generator as the power source.
Partial turboelectric systems split the thrust between a turbo fan and the motor
driven fans.
• Partial turboelectric
10
TX01.3.11 Engine Icing

Engine icing technologies reduce or prevent ice formation on aircraft
engines.
• Electro-expulsive deicing
• Pneumatic deicing
• Thermal anti-icing systems
• Fluid-based deicing approaches
• Electro-impulsive approaches
TX01.3.12 Alternative Low Carbon Jet Fuel

Alternative jet fuels have lower carbon emissions than conventional
petroleum-based fuels over the entire life cycle of the fuels.
• Biojet fuels
• Hydrogen-based fuels
11
TX01.4 Advanced Propulsion A notional concept for an interplan-

etary vehicle using an advanced
propulsion system. (NASA)
Advanced propulsion includes propellant-less and emerging technologies
and physics concepts.
TX01.4.1 Solar Sails

Sail propulsion uses lightweight structures with a large surface area
to produce thrust by reflecting solar photons (solar) or atmospheric
molecules (drag), thereby transferring much of their momentum to the sail.
• Solar sail
TX01.4.2 Electromagnetic Tethers

Electromagnetic tethers are long, lightweight cables that produce thrust
through the Lorentz force by carrying electrical current and interacting with
a planetary magnetosphere.
• Electromagnetic tethers
TX01.4.3 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) engines use a fission reactor (solid,
liquid or gas) in the thrust chamber to heat large mass flow of propellant to
extremely high temperatures for high specific impulse at high thrust.
• Solid state NTP
• Gas and liquid ore NTP
12
TX01.4.4 Other Advanced Propulsion Approaches

Other advanced propulsion technologies include technologies and physics
concepts that could result in breakthroughs that enable missions not
previously possible.
• Beamed energy
• Fusion propulsion
• High energy-density materials
• Antimatter propulsion
• Advanced fission
• Breakthrough propulsion
TX01.X Other Propulsion

Systems
This section covers propulsion system technologies that are not otherwise
covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX01 of the 2020 NASA
Technology Taxonomy.
Employees unload a RS25D rocket engine at NASA’s John C. Stennis Space Center on
January 17, 2012. The engine—and 14 others—will be stored at the facility for future
testing and use on NASA’s new Space Launch System (SLS). (NASA)
13
14
TX02
Flight Computing
and Avionics
Overview
All forms of space systems require some aspect of electronics and
computing capability. This section captures the unique hardware aspects
of those capabilities when applied to flight systems, whether in space or
atmospheric.
15
16
TX02 Flight Computing
and Avionics
TX02.1 Avionics Component

Technologies
Component technologies constitute the electronic parts utilized in building
avionics subsystems.
TX02.1.1 Radiation Hardened Extreme Environment

Components and Implementations
Radiation Hardened (rad-hard) components are technologies tolerant
to radiation and/or extreme temperatures. These technologies allow
for miniaturization and increased ruggedness of spacecraft electronics
for enhancing flexibility in vehicle configuration and design. This area
also includes technologies for fabricating electronic components for
space environments, rad-hard-by-design implementation techniques,
and implementations developed to deal with extreme temperatures
environments that would obviate the need for thermal management
systems.
• Radiation mitigation techniques
• Rad-hard/tolerant Graphical Processor Unit (GPU) and display elements
• Rad-hard/tolerant data processing
• Rad-hard/tolerant general purpose flight processor
• Rad-hard/tolerant high-capacity memory
• Nanoelectronics based memory devices
• Two-dimensional (high-capacity memory)
• Nano electronics-based memory devices
• 2D nanomaterials based electronics
• Components with on-chip thermal control capability
• Advanced passive technologies (e.g. super capacitors)
The GPM High Gain Antenna System (HGAS) in integration and

testing at Goddard Space Flight Center. GPM is a joint mission
between NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
(JAXA). The Core Observatory will link data from a constellation of
current and planned satellites to produce next-generation global
measurements of rainfall and snowfall from space. (NASA)
17
and Avionics
TX02.1.2 Electronic Packaging and Implementations

Advanced electronic packaging and implementations are novel methods,
materials, and designs for packaging and integrating electronic circuits
at the component, board, and box levels. These technologies improve
mass, volume, and power of atmospheric and space vehicle avionics, and
support analog and digital electronics for tolerance to both radiation and
extreme temperatures.
• Stacked or 2.5D/3D chips/packages/modules
• High density interconnect technologies
• Chip-on-board technologies
• Additively manufactured electronic packaging
• Solderless interconnects and interposers
• System-in-package
• Advanced passive device technologies (e.g. 3D passive arrays)
TX02.1.3 High Performance Processors

High Performance Processors provide advanced data processing
functions at high speeds delivering powerful and reliable computing
resources capable of executing computationally expensive algorithms in
a short period. This area includes energy efficient computations, Single
Event Effect (SEE) immune data systems, processing modules, resources
supporting real time operating systems, data processing architectures, and
scalable and multi-core computing architectures.
• Scalable, multi-core processors
• Low-power processors
• Synaptic, brain-like processors
• Rad-hard/tolerant processors
• Fault-tolerant processors
• Digital signal processors (DSP)
• Graphics processing units (GPU)
18
and Avionics
TX02.1.4 High Performance Memories

High Performance rad-hard Memories utilize more advanced memory
technologies (volatile and non-volatile) to provide increased memory
bandwidth and improved power utilization at orders of magnitude increase
in density.
• Rad-hard high-density on-board memory
• Rad-hard/tolerant high-capacity memory
• Double Data Rate (DDR3/4)
• Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM)
TX02.1.5 High Performance Field Programmable

Gate Arrays
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) technologies optimize
aerospace application performance through implementation on one-
time programmable devices or re-programmable devices. Embedded
processors, signal processing, high-speed interfaces, and other elements
implemented in FPGA fabrics are included.
• Rad-hard/tolerant FPGAs
• Techniques for FPGA radiation hardening
• FPGA hard/soft cores
TX02.1.6 Radiation Hardened ASIC Technologies

Various Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and technologies
that are rad-hard/tolerant for space/aero applications, including structured
ASICs that offer an intermediate design approach between ASICs and
FPGAs, potentially providing high performance and low cost.
• Rad-hard/tolerant structured ASICs
• System-on-a-chip (SoC) devices
• Intellectual property (IP) cores
• Complex digital logic systems
• Rad-hard/tolerant housekeeping ASICs
• Network interface ASICs
19
and Avionics
TX02.1.7 Point-of-Load Power Converters

Miniature, highly efficient point-of-load (POL) convertors help eliminate
the mass and complexity of traditional DC-DC power convertor slices.
Developing fault tolerant, rad-hard point-of-load converters would reduce
the mass and complexity of avionics assemblies.
• Fault-tolerant point-of-load converters
• Rad-hard/tolerant point-of-load converters
• Multi-output point-of-load converters
• Digitally controlled point-of-load converters
TX02.1.8 Wireless Avionics Technologies

Wireless avionics technologies interface with wireless networks such
as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, or utilize radio frequency identification (RFID) This is an overall
technologies, potentially reducing overall system mass and permitting view of the wiring for
easier reconfiguration by physically moving the sensor and/or changing the simulated shuttle
the controlling software characteristics. payload bay in the
Shuttle Avionics
Example Technologies Integration Laboratory
(SAIL) at the Johnson
• RFID-based sensors
Space Center in
Houston on July 12,
• Wi-Fi-based sensors 2011. (NASA/ Houston
• Utilization of wireless access points for data aggregation Chronicle, Smiley N.
Pool)
• Wireless wearable sensors for monitoring astronauts
20
and Avionics
TX02.2 Avionics Systems and

Subsystems
Avionics systems/subsystems are the building blocks for vehicles and
spacecraft that implement key functionality for Command and Data Handling,
Data Acquisitions, and other essential functions for NASA missions.
TX02.2.1 Spacecraft Command and Data Handling

Systems (C&DH)
Spacecraft C&DH are the core integrated avionics systems for managing
the spacecraft, including but not limited to the integration of command
and telemetry processing, real-time control systems utilizing sensor inputs
for state determination, network management, and data storage systems
required to control spacecraft and meet mission requirements.
• General purpose or specialized processing systems
• Data recorders and storage systems
• Health management systems
• Vehicle flight controls
• Hazard avoidance systems
• Crew input and display systems
• Spacecraft hi-rel fault-tolerant architectures
• Real-time control systems
NASA Ames Research Center has developed and tested a prototype low-
cost avionics package for space launch vehicles that provides complete
GNC functionality in a package smaller than a tissue box. (NASA)
21
and Avionics
TX02.2.2 Aircraft Avionics Systems

Aircraft avionics systems are the electronic systems used to control an
aircraft directly, cooperatively, or autonomously, providing a means for
both crew input control and feedback through displays and instruments.
Aircraft avionics include but are not limited to the integration of real-time
control systems utilizing sensor inputs for state determination, network
management, and data storage systems required to control and operate
an aircraft safely and effectively.
• Aircraft control systems
• Autopilots
• Flight deck management systems
• Terrain awareness/warning systems
• Collision avoidance systems
• Health management systems
• General purpose or specialized processing systems
• Crew input and display systems
• Aircraft hi-rel fault-tolerant architectures
TX02.2.3 Vision and Virtual/Augmented Reality

Avionics
This area covers vision systems combined with advanced displays and
pilot/crew input devices to provide effective situational awareness and
interactive data management of modern aircraft and spacecraft through
both traditional and virtual/augmented reality system approaches.
• External visions systems for safe take-off/landing
• Integrated data and real-time imaging into heads-up displays
• Augmented reality interactive guidance systems
• Augmented reality systems to manage information and improve crew efficiency
22
and Avionics
TX02.2.4 Low Power Embedded Computer Systems

Low power embedded computers are designed to have low size, weight,
and power (SWaP) to implement specific aerospace applications.
These processing systems could be embedded within subsystems and
instruments.
• Rad-hard/tolerant embedded computers or microcontroller systems
• Real-time prcoessor boards/systems
• Instrument or peripheral embedded processing systems
• Power saving implementations and techniques
TX02.2.5 High Speed Onboard Interconnects and

Networks
High speed onboard networks support future onboard processing needs
for increased numbers and performance of processing elements and
memory devices with increased capacity and performance.
• Digital high-speed interconnects/fabrics
• Gigabit Ethernet
• Fiber optic network waveguide
• Rad-hard/tolerant network switches and routers
• PCI Express
TX02.2.6 Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition systems collect and deliver data in an environment with
an increasing selection of heterogeneous instruments and sensors that
generate larger volumes of data at higher rates.
• Structural health monitoring and thermal health monitoring (SHM/THM) system integration
• Sensor webs
• High analog-bandwidth/sampling rate
• Multiplexed analog to digital converters (ADC)
• Advanced standards for data acquisition interfaces and data storage
WESH-TV 2 News Anchor Wendy Chioji sits in the cockpit of a space

shuttle while touring Kennedy Space Center. (NASA)
23
and Avionics
TX02.2.7 Data Reduction Hardware Systems

This area covers data reduction hardware systems used to reduce and/or
manage large volumes of data.
• Data duplication hardware
• Near real-time video loss less compression
• Lossy video compression
• Radio frequency (RF) compression
• Real-time data compression
TX02.2.8 Use of Advanced Commercial-off-the-Shelf

(COTS) Technologies
Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) technologies offer higher performance,
ready availability, and potential SWaP advantages. These advantages may
come at the cost of unknown radiation and reliability performance; lack of
guaranteed process, traceability, and configuration control; and shorter
product life cycles. Successful use of advanced COTS benefits from the
availability of and attention to guidelines, best practices, lessons learned,
risk mitigation techniques, and other information sharing to ensure
the components meet the requirements for the mission, environment,
applications, and lifetime.
• Uses of advanced commercial microcircuits, semiconductors, and passives
• Guidelines of using prediction-error minimization (PEM) with Cu wire bonds, and nano- and composite connectors
• Implimentation of commercial processors, FPGAs, memories, analog-to-digital/digital-to-analog converters (ADC/DAC)
• Power management
TX02.2.9 Hardware Enabling Secure Avionics

This area covers subsystems and/or devices needed to support the
elements of secure operations.
• Secure boot loaders
• Encryption/decryption devices
• Specialized secure hardware
24
and Avionics
TX02.3 Avionics Tools,

Models, and Analysis
This area covers tools, models, analyses, databases, design techniques and
processes for avionics evaluation, development, and support.
TX02.3.1 Electronics Development Tools

This area covers advanced digital design tools that will enable complex
systems to be implemented quickly and cost effectively, while having the
fault tolerance to operate reliably in the space environment. As technology
scales to smaller fabrication processes, higher clock speeds, and greater
miniaturization, design tools will need to adapt.
• Automated hardware development toolsets
• Electronic design automation tools
• Assitive manufactured electronics development tools
• High-level synthesis tools
• Printed circuit board (PCB) design tools
• Cable design tools
• Techniques for circuit design correctness and validation
James Peckham, an TX02.3.2 Space Radiation Analysis and Modeling

nLogic Inc. test engineer Space radiation analysis and modeling tools include models of the
supporting the Stages
Office at the Marshall radiation environments, radiation transport codes for estimating particle
Center, runs an avionics fluxes/doses for sensitive components, SEE rate estimation packages,
flight simulation to see how databases of historical radiation test data, and physics-based codes to
SLS will perform during simulate device radiation response and other tools/techniques needed to
launch. (NASA/Boeing) ensure correct operation in mission environments.
• IRENE, ESP, and PSYCHIC environmental models
• CRÈME-96 and CRÈME-MC SEE rate estimation software packages
• MULASSIS, Monte Carlo N-Particle/ Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended (MCNP/MCNPX),
NOVICE transport codes
• DAVINCI, SPICE part and circuit simulation routines, model-based system engineering,
and mission assurance approaches
25
and Avionics
TX02.3.3 Avionics Reliability and Fault-Tolerance

Analysis and Modeling
This area covers analysis and modeling of the reliability and fault tolerance of In Orbiter Processing
avionics system hardware. Reliability and fault tolerance are key properties Facility-1 at NASA’s
of aerospace avionics systems that become increasingly more important Kennedy Space Center
in Florida, the cockpit of
and difficult to understand and implement as avionics systems become more space shuttle Discovery
complex and utilize new components and technologies. This area includes is brightly lit for the last
analysis and modeling of these properties of the avionics system hardware. time as preparations are
made for the shuttle’s final
Example Technologies power down during Space
• Fault tolerance modeling and coverage estimation Shuttle Program transition
and retirement activities.
• Fault injectors
(NASA)
• Reliability estimation
• Failure Mode and Effects Anlysis/Failure Mode, Effects, Criticality Analysis (FMEA/FMECA)
generators and coverage estimation tools
TX02.3.4 Electromagnetic Environment Effects

The discipline known as Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3)
encompasses various forms and sources of electromagnetic interference and
its control, including nuclear electromagnetic pulse (EMP); lightning EMP;
electrostatic charge accumulation and discharge, triboelectrification (AKA
p-static), and plasma vehicle charging; hazards of electromagnetic radiation to
personnel (HERP), fuel (HERF), and ordnance (HERO); switching transients
in hardware and on platforms; LRU level conducted and radiated electric and
magnetic field emissions and susceptibility; transmission line applications; signal
and power integrity; electrical bonding; electrical referencing (AKA “grounding”);
electromagnetic shielding, cable shielding; and other related areas as they pertain
to avionics, electrical power, and multiple other discipline areas and systems.
• E3 2D and 3D modeling capability, including Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) and integral
electromagnetic solvers, with aerodynamic and thermal environment interfaces
• E3 analysis tools, including SPICE and Signal and Power integrity software
• Electromagnetic interference/electromagnetic pulse/electrostatic discharge (EMI/EMP/ESD)
transient filtering and protection circuitry and techniques
TX02.X Other Flight

Computing and Avionics
This area covers Fight Computing and Avionics technologies that are not
otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX02 of the 2020
NASA Technology Taxonomy.
26
TX03
Aerospace Power
and Energy
Storage
Overview
Many state of the art power systems are too heavy, bulky, or inefficient to
meet future mission requirements, and some cannot operate in extreme
environments. The different components of a power system—power
generation, energy storage, and power management and distribution
(PMAD)—each require technological improvements to enable or enhance
the missions currently in NASA’s plans.
27
28
TX03 Aerospace Power
and Energy Storage
TX03.1 Power Generation and

Energy Conversion
Power generation and conversion identifies the methods of generating
power from chemical, solar, and nuclear sources, as well as energy
conversion technology.
TX03.1.1 Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic electrical power generation converts photons into electrical
power, including photovoltaic cells, cell integration, and mechanical and
structural technologies for cell arrays.
• 25-150 kW-class solar arrays
• Reliably retractable solar arrays
• Reduced-cost photovoltaic blankets
• Extreme environment solar cells and panels
TX03.1.2 Heat Sources

Thermal energy source technology captures nuclear or solar irradiation for
electrical power generation or process heat.
• Conventional radioisotope, fission, or solar-thermal heat sources linked with novel aspects of
heat collection such as heat pipes, heat pumps, etc.
TX03.1.3 Static Energy Conversion

Static energy conversion generates electrical power through the conversion
of heat using non-mechanical processes.
Technicians test the deploy-
ment of one of the three • Enhanced multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generators
massive solar arrays that • Thermionic generators
power NASA Juno space-
craft. (NASA/JPL-Caltech/
Lockheed Martin)
29
and Energy Storage
TX03.1.4 Dynamic Energy Conversion

Dynamic energy conversion generates electrical power or mechanical work
through the conversion of heat using mechanical heat engines.
• Advanced Stirling radioisotope generator
• 1-10 kWe Stirling fission power system
• Brayton and Rankine cycle generators with solar, fission, or chemical energy sources
TX03.1.5 Electrical Machines

Electric machines include motors, generators, and other devices that
exchange electrical energy and mechanical work.
• High-efficiency, high-power motors/generators for electric aircraft
• Wind turbines
• Shape memory alloy and piezoelectric motors and actuators
TX03.1.6 Other Advanced Concepts for Generating/

Converting Power
This area covers advanced concepts for generating and converting power.
• Electrodynmaic tether energy harvesting
• Nuclear fusion heat sources
• Nuclear thermionic avalanche cells
• Alpha/beta voltaics
• Thermophotovoltaics
A Kilopower fission reactor power generator prototype

is on display in the Stirling Research Lab at NASA’s
Glenn Research Center. The Kilopower Reactor Using
Stirling Technology (KRUSTy) test was successfully
completed at the Nevada National Security Site in
March 2018. (NASA)
30
and Energy Storage
TX03.2 Energy Storage

Energy storage includes methods of storing energy after it has been
generated from solar, chemical, or nuclear sources.
TX03.2.1 Electrochemical: Batteries

Batteries store and convert chemical energy to electricity.
• High-specific-energy
• Human-rated advanced secondary chemistries beyond lithium-ion
• Nanoelectronics
• Super/ultracapacitors
• Extreme environment energy storage
• Flow batteries
TX03.2.2 Electrochemical: Fuel Cells

Fuel cells store and convert chemical energy to electricity.
• Regenerative fuel cells
• Hydrogen/oxygen-based regenerative fuel cells
• Solid oxide fuel cells
• Fuel reformation or electrolysis
TX03.2.3 Advanced Concepts for Energy Storage

Advanced concepts for energy storage include solutions that could be
transformational for aerospace applications, including electro-mechanical
systems (e.g. flywheels) and solar-chemical systems based on in-situ
resources.
The X-57 Battery System. Example Technologies

(NASA/Electric Power
System) • Flywheel technologies including broad temperature range applications
• Advanced high-strength flywheel materials
• Superconducting bearings
• Solar energy stored as high-energy-density chemical fuels
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage
• Other non-chemical storage devices
31
and Energy Storage
TX03.3 Power Management

and Distribution
Power management and distribution technologies manage and control
electric power generated from a source.
TX03.3.1 Management and Control

Management and control includes the control algorithms, models, and
sensors needed to control a spacecraft, rover, probes, aircraft power bus, or
other vehicles, to include fault detection, isolation, and recovery.
• Autonomous fault detection, isolation, and recovery (FDIR) algorithms and technologies for
complex power systems
• Heirarchical and distributed control of a power system
• Power source and energy storage control
• Real-time power system simulation
TX03.3.2 Distribution and Transmission

Distribution and transmission includes the switchgear, wiring, and other
components necessary for electric power transmission, wired or wireless, as
well as the fault protection aspects of the distribution system.
• High-conductivity carbon nanotube wire
• High-voltage power distribution
• Modular switchgear development
• All forms of wireless power transmission (magnetic, radio frequency, and optical)
An experimental radio-controlled model aircraft

is seen here in flight powered only by light
energy beamed to it by a spotlight. (NASA)
32
and Energy Storage
TX03.3.3 Electrical Power Conversion and

Regulation
Electrical power conversion and regulation focuses on electrical power
conversion from one form to another, including power regulators, power
converter topologies and architectures, and modular standards for
conversion.
• Modular power converters
• Electrical propulsion power processing units (power electronics related to electric propulsion)
• High-voltage power topologies for instrument power supplies
• Solar energy stored as high-energy-density chemical fuels
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage
• Other non-chemical storage devices
TX03.3.4 Advanced Electronic Parts

Advanced electronic parts include high-power and harsh-environment parts,
components, and subsystems.
• High-voltage semiconductors and passive components
• Extreme radiation-hardened power distribution
TX03.X Other Aerospace

Power and Energy Storage
This area covers Aerospace Power and Energy storage technologies that
are not otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX03 of the
2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy.
NASA Glenn Technician Mark Springowski works on a 10-kilowatt Stirling Power Con-
version Unit, which is part of the Fission Surface Power Technology Demonstration Unit.
This is a system level demonstration of a surface power system, which could potentially
be used to support manned missions to the moon or Mars. (NASA)
33
and Energy Storage
34
TX04
Robotic
Systems
Overview
For human exploration, robots will be leveraged as precursor explorers
preceding crewed missions, as crew helpers, as extravehicular activity
(EVA) mobility aids, and as caretakers of assets left behind. For science
exploration, robots will blaze new trails on distant and hostile worlds to
better our understanding of the universe and to extend the reach of the
human race. By expanding our planetary access capability, manipulating
assets and resources, and understanding planetary bodies using remote
and in-situ sensors, we can prepare planets for human arrival, support
crews in-space operations, and manage assets left behind.
35
36
TX04 Robotic Systems
TX04.1 Sensing and

Perception
Sensing and perception provides situational awareness for exploration
robots, human-assistive robots, and autonomous vehicles and improves
drones and piloted aircraft navigation and flight.
TX04.1.1 Sensing for Robotic Systems

Robotic sensing capabilities and situational awareness are needed for
robotic operations that involve interaction with the environment. Additional
sensing types increase the exploration range of surface and below-
surface mobility systems, assist in detecting landing hazards in planetary
exploration, and enable robotic manipulation in space without close human
supervision.
• Space-qualifiable force and torque sensors
• Space-qualifiable tactile sensors
• Three dimensional (3D) range imaging sensors for surface mobility, above-surface mobility,
and manipulation
• In-situ camera geometric calibration diagnostics and self-calibration
TX04.1.2 State Estimation

State estimation uses inputs from inertial sensors, vision systems, and other
sensors to provide essential knowledge of the relative position, attitude, and
motion of the vehicle near or on the surface of other bodies, as well as the
internal state of the system (i.e. system health status).
• Vision-based aiding of dead reckoning for navigation of surface vehicles
• Map-based position estimation for navigation of surface vehicles
NASA’s R5 robot studying a • Vision-based aiding of dead reckoning for above-surface vehicles
doorknob during the Darpa • Map-based position estimation for navigation of above-surface vehicles
Robotics Challenge in
• Radio frequency (RF) navigation aiding for above-surface vehicles
Miami in December 2013.
(NASA) • Altimeter for small above-surface vehicles
• Manipulator state estimation
• Manipulation object state estimation
37
TX04.1.3 Onboard Mapping and Data Analysis

Onboard mapping and analysis provides maps of natural terrain and
human-made surfaces and structures, as well as surface and subsurface
property maps that aid in robot navigation or manipulation of objects.
Onboard mapping of complex 3D structures, such as lava tubes and
human-made space structures, is needed for some advanced planetary
characterization scenarios, as well as in-space robotic servicing.
• Terrain mapping and classification
• Landmark mapping from image sequences and other navigation data
• Three dimensional (3D) modeling from multiple observations
TX04.1.4 Object, Event, and Activity Recognition

Object, event, and activity recognition of static objects, dynamic natural
events, and dynamic human activities near the vehicle provides awareness
of these items and enables onboard decisions about how to react to
them. Natural objects that are important to recognize include: landmarks
that facilitate navigation; obstacles to rovers or landers; and objects that
are important to science investigations, such as geologic targets and
atmospheric phenomena.
• Natural object recognition
• Human-made object recognition
• Event recognition
38
TX04.2 Mobility
Mobility provides coverage and access for space exploration and can be
enhanced or expanded through advances in component technologies,
such as actuation and structures.
TX04.2.1 Below-Surface Mobility

Below-surface mobility offers access to traverse across and in extreme
terrain topographies, through natural and human-made cavities and holes
including deep craters, gullies, canyons, lava tubes, and soft, friable terrains
for finding the best samples for scientific analysis.
• Subsurface access through natural cavities
• Subsurface access through human-made holes
• Burrowing mobility
• Long-endurance submerged mobility
TX04.2.2 Above-Surface Mobility

Above-surface mobility provides longer range and greater coverage
of planetary surfaces at a more rapid pace, independent of the terrain
topography and in substantial gravity and extreme heat or cold.
• Ballistic systems
• Static-lift systems
• Dynamic-lift systems
• Power-lift systems
The Surrogate robot (“Surge”) was built at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena,
California. Researchers are developing it in order to extend humanity’s reach into hazardous
environments to perform tasks such as using environmental test equipment, closing valves, or
gaining access to closed compartments. (NASA)
39
TX04.2.3 Small-Body and Microgravity Mobility

Small-body and microgravity mobility provides surface coverage and in-situ
access to designated targets on small bodies with low gravity, as well as
in-space mobility inside and around the International Space Station (ISS) or
other space assets. Major challenges include fine control of mobility platforms,
power, communication, thermal cycling, and mobility in shadowed regions.
• Free-floating robots
• Hopping/tumbling surface robots
• Anchoring robots
• Wheeled/tracked/hybrid robots
TX04.2.4 Surface Mobility

Surface mobility provides long-range exploration with large payload mass
fractions and modest energy budgets while increasing the traverse speed
of both manned and unmanned planetary rovers.
• Mobility subsystem for crewed surface transport
• Mobility system for uncrewed surface transport
• Rappelling mobility systems
• Climbing mobility systems
• Soft/friable terrain mobility systems
TX04.2.5 Robot Navigation and Path Planning

Robot navigation and path planning provides a highly reliable, well-
characterized, and fast autonomous or semi-autonomous mobility
capability to navigate to designated targets on planetary surfaces (surface,
below-surface, or above-surface).
• Adaptive autonomous surface navigation
• Autonomous navigation for tethered systems
• Onboard real-time planning and scheduling
• Ground-based mixed initiative planning and scheduling
• Plan/sequence/schedule verification tools
• Onboard executives and state management
• Low-altitude above-surface navigation
• Below-surface and small-body/microgravity navigation
40
TX04.2.6 Collaborative Mobility

Collaborative mobility provides an ability to distribute or collaborate on
tasks using multiple mobile platforms or using a combination of platforms
and crew. It also provides cooperative mobility including cooperation
of surface and above-surface assets for both terrestrial and planetary
science missions (for example, mapping, seismic sounding or atmospheric
transmission spectroscopy), and additionally can expedite engineering
and construction of habitats. .
• Collaborative mobility algorithm
• Manipulation for collaborative mobility, including swarms
TX04.3 Manipulation
Manipulation positions crewmembers and instruments in space and on
planetary bodies. It also provides the capability to extract and handle
samples of multiple forms and scales from various depths.
TX04.3.1 Dexterous Manipulation

Dexterous manipulation provides the capability for a robot to reliably handle,
position, and control objects and interfaces on spacecraft, equipment, tools,
flexible bags, and natural objects. Dexterous manipulation also allows
robots to achieve compliant force/force resolution for safe operations in the
vicinity of humans and in deep-space environments.
• Dexterous manipulator arms
• Dexterous manipulator end effectors
• Robust, safe, and efficient manipulator control schemes
Phoenix robotic arm
connects with “Alice,” a
rock of interest on the
Martian surface. (NASA)
41
TX04.3.2 Grappling Technologies

Grappling technologies capture, hold, and manipulate natural and human-
made free-flying objects. Grappling systems that can operate in deep space
environments enable capturing of orbiting sample caches for sample return
missions, and increase vision and control system capabilities to handle
larger structures for assembly of on-orbit spacecraft for future human
exploration missions to near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) and planetary bodies.
• Robots that can grapple objects and free-flying spacecraft using surface features, then berth
them to the robot’s spacecraft through a rigidized interface
• Advanced ground control techniques
• Advanced vision and control systems for enhancing situational awareness and control
of large objects
TX04.3.3 Contact Dynamics Modeling

Contact dynamics modeling provides an understanding of forces/torques
generated on objects and platforms through mobility or manipulation. The
results can be used to prevent harm to the contacting bodies and assure
that the contact characteristics support the mission.
• End-to-end systems modeling
• Modeling of contact dynamics
• Dynamic simulation
• Granular media simulation
TX04.3.4 Sample Acquisition and Handling

Sample acquisition and appropriate handling includes the actions and
means to extract or collect, move, transfer, or modify samples (regolith,
cuttings, volatile samples) that have been acquired, loading them into
instruments or packaging systems for analysis.
• Robotic and deep robotic drilling
• Surface/shallow robotic sample acquisition
• Subsurface robotic sample acquisition
• Sample handling
• Regolith/volatiles sample handling and transfer
• Robotic excavation
• Sterilization of drilling equipment at destination
• Biobarriers for drilling equipment to maintain sterile condition
42
TX04.4 Human-Robot
Interaction
Human-robot system interaction is crucial for future space exploration
and must be effective, efficient, and natural. Space exploration requires
human-system interaction across multiple spatial ranges, in the presence
of multiple control loops, and over a wide range of time delays. A robot
may be remotely operated by an astronaut in close proximity, by an
astronaut in-orbit above a planetary surface, or by mission controllers on
Earth with progressive reductions in situational awareness and response
time. The ultimate efficacy of robotic systems depends greatly upon the
interfaces that humans use to operate them.
TX04.4.1 Multi-Modal and Proximate Interaction

Multi-modal interaction allows for humans to interact with robots using
multiple modes of communication, e.g. voice, gesture recognition.
Proximate interaction allows for humans to interact with a robot side-by-side.
Technologies to assist in these can enable humans to safely and efficiently
control a larger number of robotic and autonomous assets, reducing overall
demands on astronauts’ time for future exploration missions.
• Virtual environment (VE)
• Multi-modal dialogue
• Robot-to-suit interfaces
• Intent recognition and reaction
• Feedback displays for proximate interaction
TX04.4.2 Distributed Collaboration and

Coordination
Distributed collaboration and coordination provides a distributed system
Johnson Space Center’s that is capable of managing control and telemetry information among
Robonaut (foreground) heterogeneous agents and offers more effective interaction between
performing a mock weld humans and machines, reducing overall demands on astronauts’ time for
while Ames Research
Center’s K10 robot assists
future missions.
two EVA crew inspecting a
previously welded seam.
(NASA) • Interaction architecture
• In-line performance metrics
• Notification and summarization
43
TX04.4.3 Remote Interaction

Remote interaction allows supervisory control of complex remote systems
across a space in the presence of varying communication latencies,
bandwidths, and dropouts.
• Supervisory control
• Decision support tools for remote interaction
TX04.5 Autonomous
Rendezvous and Docking
Autonomous rendezvous and docking (AR&D) enable future human and
robotic missions. The goal is to provide a robust, safe AR&D capability
for human and robotic systems that reduces the reliance on human
interaction.
TX04.5.1 Relative Navigation Sensors

Relative navigation sensors improve detector sensitivity, reliability, field of
view, and performance, thus permitting two vehicles to rendezvous, perform
proximity operations, and dock/capture anywhere in the solar system,
independent of communications with the ground.
• Three dimensional (3D) imaging sensor
• Visible camera
• Long-wave infrared (LWIR) camera
TX04.5.2 Rendezvous and Docking Algorithms Raven, attached to

Rendezvous and docking algorithms are independent of gravity fields and ISS, is designed to test
provide more robust and flexible software at lower cost to address a wider autonomous rendezvous.
range of future missions that require AR&D. Raven images in visible
(top), lidar (center), and
Example Technologies infrared (bottom) of a
Cygnus spacecraft visiting
• Rendezvous targeting the ISS. (NASA)
• Proximity operations/capture/docking guidance
44
TX04.5.3 Rendezvous, Proximity Operations, and

Capture (RPOC) Flight and Ground Systems
Rendezvous, proximity operations, & capture (RPOC) flight and ground
systems include tools and techniques for RPOC system architectures,
requirements, and specifications; fault management and fault tolerance;
development of standards; operations tools and best practices; and other
system support functions related to RPOC.
• Cislunar module aggregation/assembly flight system RPOC architecture
• Large telescope assembly aggregation/servicing flight system RPOC architecture
• Gateway visiting vehicles RPOC monitoring architecture
• Lunar/Mars sample return RPOC architecture
• Precision formation flying architecture
• Robotic grapple and berth (Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Beyond LEO, Crew Assisted, Autonomous)
• Small sat inspection of large assets
• Legacy vehicle servicing RPOC architecture
• Orbit debris remediation
• Cislunar/Mars RPOC ground/mission system architecture
TX04.5.4 Capture Sensors

Capture sensors, which include force, moment, strain, contact, and
proximity sensors, sense the close proximity or contact with spacecraft or
natural objects during capture.
• Robot arm force moment sensor
• Robotic tool contact sensors
• Robot close proximity sensors
• Docking and berthing contact sensors
45
TX04.5.5 Capture Mechanisms and Fixtures

Technologies that enable a spacecraft to affect capture and release of
another spacecraft or natural space object (small body) include robotic
manipulators and tools for grapple, small body sampling systems, orbiting
sample collection systems, orbit debris capture systems, and any other
system used to affect capture of an object. Additionally, these technologies
can include those that are specifically designed to facilitate capture,
such as passive grappling. Note: The docking and berthing aspect
of mechanism fixtures is captured in TX12.3.8 Docking and berthing
mechanisms and fixtures.
• Dexterous / long reach robotics
• Grapple tools (cooperative, Marman Ring, Rock, Sample Canister)
• Other grippers
• Touch and go sampling mechanism
• Sample canister retrieval mechanism
• Robotic grapple and berth (Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Beyond LEO, Crew Assisted, Autonomous)
• Orbiting sample capture mechanism
• Harpoon, net, passive grapple
TX04.5.6 Robot Control for Vehicle Capture and

Berthing
Robot control technologies primarily constitute the development of robust,
reliable, and computationally efficient mathematical algorithms and
processes for the functions of autonomous real-time control of robotic
manipulators to meet mission requirements.
• Robotic manipulator capture of free-flying spacecraft
• Robotic manipulator positioning of grappled vehicle for berthing (both with low mass ratio and
high mass ratio between captured and capturing vehicles)
46
TX04.5.7 Modeling, Simulation, Analysis, and Test

of Rendezvous, Proximity Operations, and Capture
Technologies/techniques for the development of advanced software tools
to model, simulate and analyze the dynamic response of space vehicles,
robotic manipulators, and other capture systems to forces exerted
by actuators (e.g. thrusters, wheels, motors), the environment, or an
active spacecraft on a nearby object (contact dynamics, thruster plume
impingement). Also included are technologies for the development of
modern ground-based guidance navigation and control (GN&C), robotic,
and capture motion simulation testbeds.
• Multi-vehicle closed loop hi-fidelity attitude and orbit simulation
• Capture contact dynamics
• Flexible modes analysis
• Finite element modeling (FEM) analysis
• Proximity operations thruster plume impingement modeling and analysis
• Robotic manipulator kinematic simulation (reach and access, etc.)
• Robotic manipulator high fidelity dynamics simulation of capture and berthing
• Relative navigation sensor hardware-in-the-loop (HWIL) testing of vehicle and small body
proximity operations
• Grapple, berthing, docking, and small body contact (Touch-and-Go (TAG)/landing) HWIL
testing with high fidelity 6DOF motion and contact dynamics
• High fidelity synthetic image generation for testing of vehicle- and terrain-relative pose/nav
estimation systems
47
TX04.6 Robotics Integration

Robotic systems are inherently multi-disciplinary and complex, and they
may include heterogeneous teams that work together or with humans to
achieve a common goal. Systems engineering provides the framework for
achieving this coordination and integration.
TX04.6.1 Modularity, Commonality, and Interfaces

Modularity, commonality, and interface aims to increase the flexibility of
robotic systems, such as cooperating heterogeneous robots and common
human-robot interfaces. Desired technical capabilities include modular
and common interfaces to allow for changes in operations and services in
the field.
• Refueling Interfaces
• Self-assembling robots
• Self-configuring robots
• Marsupial robot interfaces
• Human machine interface standards
TX04.6.2 Modeling and Simulation for Robots

Robot modeling and simulation includes software tools to assist in
synthesis, trade studies, and optimization of complex robotic systems.
They also include the ability to preview and optimize operations using
concurrent dynamic simulation of alternative control options.
• End-to-end system modeling
• Modeling of contact dynamics
• Dynamic simulation
• Granular media simulation
• Human-in-the-loop assessment systems
Astrobee is a system of three free-flying,

cube-shaped robots and a recharging station
that operates inside the International Space
Station. (NASA)
48
TX04.6.3 Robot Software

Robot software provides architectures, frameworks, design patterns,
and advances in software to enable the realization of intelligent robots
from component technologies and provide standardized interfaces and
messages. Challenges include managing overall software complexity,
striking the right balance between flexibility and complexity, and
addressing heterogeneity of hardware.
• Robotic architectures and frameworks

• Standardized messaging protocols
• Model-based robotic software
• Robot operating systems
TX04.X Other Robotic

Systems
This area covers robotic system technologies that are not otherwise
Drew Smith, a robotics engineer, makes adjustments to the Regolith Advanced

Surface Systems Operations Robot (RASSOR) during testing in the regolith bin inside
Swamp Works at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on June 5, 2019. (NASA)
49
50
TX05
Communications,
Navigation, and
Orbital Debris Tracking
and Characterization
Systems
Overview
Space communications and navigation infrastructure is the means of
transferring commands, spacecraft telemetry, mission data, and voice for
human exploration missions, while maintaining accurate timing and providing
navigation support. Orbital debris can be tracked and characterized by some
of the same systems used for spacecraft communications and navigation,
as well as by other specialized systems. Orbital debris tracking and
characterization systems can be improved using radio frequency and optical
techniques similar to those used in communications and navigation systems,
as well as other dedicated systems.
51
52
TX05 Communications, Navigation,
and Orbital Debris Tracking and
Characterization Systems
TX05.1 Optical
Communications
Optical communications includes technologies required to make
communications with light practical and take advantage of the virtually
unconstrained bandwidth available in the optical spectrum.
TX05.1.1 Detector Development

Detector development includes the development of high detection efficiency,
low-dark-count, low-jitter photon counting detectors and readout systems for
both ground and flight applications.
• Tungsten silicide (WSi) superconducting arrays
• High T superconducting arrays (e.g., MgB2)
• Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) flight arrays
TX05.1.2 Large Apertures

Large apertures are multi-meter diameter optical apertures for both ground
(> 10 meters diameter) and flight (> 5 meters diameter) applications.
• Virtual, large, ground-based apertures
• Lightweight, space-based, large aperture optics
• Space-based optical arrays
TX05.1.3 Lasers
Lasers in this area are high direct current-to-optical power efficiency, high
peak-to-average power, reliable, and flight-qualified.
This is a 3-foot 1-meter
aperture main telescope • High direct current-optical efficiency
located at the NASA Jet
• Greater than 10W
Propulsion Laboratory
Optical Communications • Space-qualified pulse-position modulation (PPM) laser transmitter
Telescope Laboratory
ground station. (NASA)
53
TX05.1.4 Pointing, Acquisition, and Tracking (PAT)

PAT techniques and technologies provide efficient, accurate pointing of the
optical terminal and acquisition and tracking of the optical signal, primarily
in flight. PAT may also include interaction with the ground terminals or be
“beaconless.”
• Disturbance-free platform
• Autonomous high-accuracy star tracker
TX05.1.5 Atmospheric Mitigation

Atmospheric mitigation measures and models the atmospheric channel and
its effects on optical propagation, as well as mitigating atmospheric effects
on both uplink and downlink.
• Solar differential image motion monitor (DIMM)
• Daytime adaptive optics for uplink and downlink
• Weather forecasting for handover
TX05.1.6 Optimetrics
Optimetrics includes optical techniques for ranging, Doppler, and astrometric
measurement derived from the optical communications signal.
• Embedded optical tracking for spacecraft navigation
TX05.1.7 Innovative Signal Modulations

Innovative signal modulations include technologies for modulating
intersatellite links and direct-to-Earth communications with optics receivers.
• Coherent modulation/demodulation systems
• Modulating retro-reflectors
54
TX05.2 Radio Frequency

Radio frequency technology development seeks to increase the productivity
of the constrained spectrum bands that are allocated to space users.
TX05.2.1 Spectrum-Efficiency
Spectrum-efficiency includes flight and ground techniques and technologies
that allow more efficient utilization of the radio frequency (RF) spectrum.
• Advanced interference management
• Adaptive spectrum sharing/management
• Bandwidth efficient modulations
TX05.2.2 Power-Efficiency
Power-efficiency includes flight and ground techniques and technologies
that make more efficient use of the available system power.
• Traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs)
• Solid-state power amplifiers (SSPAs)
TX05.2.3 Atmospheric Characterization and

Mitigation
Atmospheric characterization and mitigation measures and models the RF
channel and its effects on RF propagation, as well as mitigating these effects.
NASA GPM Radio
Frequency Engineer • LEO Ka-band propagation studies
David Lassiter monitors
the progress of an all-
day launch simulation for
the Global Precipitation
Measurement (GPM)
Core Observatory at
the Spacecraft Test and
Assembly Building 2
(STA2). (NASA/Bill Ingalls)
55
TX05.2.4 Flight and Ground Systems

Flight and ground systems aim to reduce mass, power, and cost
requirements on spacecraft; reduce dependence on manual control from
Earth; and reduce ground operations reconfiguration times (while improving
network security).
• Cognitive networks
• Ultra wideband systems
• Intelligent, multipurpose software defined radio
TX05.2.5 Launch and Re-Entry Communications

Launch and re-entry communications mitigate the communications and
tracking effects occurring during Earth launch and reentry.
• Mitigation of reentry plasma effects
TX05.2.6 Innovative Antennas

Flight and ground antennas provide more innovative effective apertures
than those currently in operation, with high efficiency but lower mass per
unit area and accurate pointing.
• Deployable antennas
• Phased array antennas
• Atmospheric phase compensation for uplink arrays at Ka-Band
• Small-satellite distributed multiple input multiple output (MIMO)
• Conformal, low-mass antenna systems
• Antenna array architecture enablers
56
TX05.2.7 Innovative RF Technologies

Innovative RF technologies include flight and ground radio frequency
electronics that are higher frequency, wider bandwidth, more efficient, and
more linear than those currently in operation.
• GaN on diamond
• Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMIC)
• Non-hermetic hybrids
• Advanced substrate materials
• Advanced printed wiring board (PWB) materials
• Advanced interconnects
• Use of digital CMOS technology for RF applications
TX05.3 Internetworking
Internetworking deals with the adaptation of Earth’s Internet technology and
processes throughout the solar system.
TX05.3.1 Disruption Tolerant Networking

Disruption tolerant networking (DTN) techniques and technologies provide
data delivery across multiple data links that may be disrupted and/or have
long delays.
• DTN basic services
TX05.3.2 Adaptive Network Topology

Adaptive network topologies and protocols, including mesh networking, are
The Disruption Tolerant capable of optimizing data connectivity among elements in spaceflight or on
Network protocols will
enable the Solar System planetary surfaces.
Internet, allowing data to
be stored in nodes until Example Technologies
transmission is successful.
• Ad hoc and mesh networking of mobile elements
(NASA)
• Disruption tolerant networking routing
• Disruption tolerant networking quality of service
57
TX05.3.3 Information Assurance

Information assurance techniques and technologies ensure system safety,
data integrity, availability, and confidentiality and enable use of all available
links and networks—some of which may be provided by other agencies or
countries.
• Security and key Management protocols and techniques for DTN networks
• Techniques to enable dual use of links and networks
• Protocols to enable system self-awareness
• Bundle security protocol
TX05.3.4 Integrated Network Management

Integrated network management architectures and protocols effectively
support network operations when network topology includes nodes with
disrupted and/or long delay links.
• Protocols to effectively support autonomous operations with network monitoring, configuration,
and control mechanisms
58
TX05.4 Network Provided

Position, Navigation, and
Timing
Network Provided Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) technologies
support onboard space platform guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C)
autonomy by reducing reliance on Earth-based systems for ground-based
tracking, ranging, trajectory and orbit determination, and maneuver planning
and execution functions. This area also includes technologies for space
flight dynamics/mission design tools and techniques.
TX05.4.1 Timekeeping and Time Distribution

Timekeeping and time distribution technologies include integrated, space-
qualified systems with ultra-high time accuracy and frequency stability,
long lifetimes, high operability and reliability, as well as technologies
and architectures for distributing precise time and frequency signals or
information to distributed points in a network.
• Atomic clocks
• Ultra-high performance crystal oscillators
TX05.4.2 Revolutionary Position, Navigation, and

Timing Technologies
Revolutionary PNT technologies are navigational concepts and technologies
that have the potential to enable “game changing” capabilities for future
mission architectures.
• X-Ray navigation
• Neutrino-based navigation and tracking technologies
NASA’s integrated Atomic
Clock Payload on General
Atomics Electromagnetic
Systems US’s Orbital Test
Bed Spacecraft. (NASA)
59
TX05.5 Revolutionary
Communications
Technologies
Revolutionary communications concepts and technologies have the
potential to enable “game changing” capabilities for future mission and
network architectures.
TX05.5.1 Cognitive Networking

Cognitive networking adapts to different scenarios by changing the network
and various channels, applying machine learning and artificial intelligence
for the system to self-identify networks that are to be used at any given time
and self-respond to changing situations.
• Cognitive networks
• Cognitive radios
• Cognitive antennas
TX05.5.2 Quantum Communications

Quantum communications use entangled photons for transmissions,
enabling highly secure communication systems.
• High efficiency photon entangled sources
• Quantum repeaters
• High efficiency quantum detectors
• Quantum cryptography
This image shows crystals used for storing entangled photons,

which behave as though they are part of the same whole.
Scientists use crystals like these in quantum teleportation
experiments. (NASA/Félix Bussières/University of Geneva)
60
TX05.5.3 Hybrid Radio and Optical Technologies

Game changing hybrid technologies offer the flexibility of providing high
data rates on the RF and optical domain with interchangeable primary and
secondary links to optimize data throughput.
• Teletenna
• Vibration isolation platforms
• Beaconless pointing
• Cognitive control systems
• High data rate protocols
TX05.6 Networking and

Ground Based Orbital Debris
Tracking and Management
Networking and Ground Based Orbital Debris Tracking and Management
aims to develop an international and global network to acquire and track
orbital debris or other uncooperative targets to protect space assets.
TX05.6.1 Orbital Debris Tracking

Orbital debris tracking includes environment definition, orbit determination
and prediction models, acquisition and tracking technologies, cooperative
and uncooperative targets, and monitoring and communications.
• Radars
• Optical sensors
The Goldstone Deep • Laser ranging
Space Communications
Complex, located in
the Mojave Desert in
California, is one of three
complexes that comprise
NASA’s Deep Space
Network (DSN). (NASA/
JPL-Caltech)
61
TX05.6.2 Orbital Debris Characterization

Orbital debris characterization technologies provide knowledge of debris
characteristics such as shape, behavior, and mass, allowing for better long
term orbital predictions and improved modeling for drag, solar radiation
pressure (SRP), and altitude dependent forces.
• Three dimensional (3D) range image sensors for sample acquisition
• Environment modeling
• Autonomous telescope and sensor technologies
• Space-qualifiable tactile sensors
TX05.6.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation

Orbital debris monitoring and collision avoidance limits collision activities,
mitigates mission-ending risks to operational payloads, and mitigates risks
to human space activities.
• Robotics
• Sensors for high performance navigation architectures
• Space tubs
• Conductive or momentum-exchange tethers
• Drag augmentation devices
• Solid rocket moor de-orbit devices
• Solar sails
• Sensor systems that feed Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) and optical feature recognition
data to guidance system including autonomous systems
• Mitigation and remediation technologies and characterization
• Lasers
TX05.6.4 Orbital Debris Monitoring Software

Platforms
Orbital debris monitoring software platforms ingest orbital tracking
observations, calculate orbits and uncertainties, predict potential collisions,
and monitor for orbital changes and collisions.
62
TX05.7 Acoustic
Communication
Acoustic communication technologies make communications with elastic
waves at sonic or ultrasonic frequencies and enable transmission through
water and ice.
• Sonar
• Acoustic sensors
• Active and passive sensors including geophones and seismic receivers
TX05.X Other
Communications, Navigation,
and Orbital Debris Tracking
and Characterization
Systems
This area covers communications, navigation, and orbital debris tracking
and characterization systems technologies that are not otherwise covered
by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX05 of the 2020 NASA Technology
Taxonomy.
This illustration depicts a concept for operation of an optical communications system

on NASA Mars Telecommunications Orbiter. (NASA)
63
64
TX06
Human Health,
Life Support,
and Habitation
Systems
Overview
This section covers technologies that are specific to the human element
and directly affect crew needs for survival and wellbeing, including the
environment to which the crew is exposed and interfaces that crewmembers
encounter.
65
66
TX06 Human Health, Life
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.1 Environmental
Control and Life Support
Systems (ECLSS) and
Habitation Systems
Life support and habitation systems maintain an environment suitable for
sustaining human life throughout the duration of a mission.
TX06.1.1 Atmosphere Revitalization

Atmosphere revitalization maintains a safe and habitable atmosphere within
a spacecraft, surface vehicle, or habitat.
• CO2 removal (closed loop), oxygen recovery

• Trace contaminant control
• Particulate and microbial control
• Cabin ventilation
• Oxygen supply
• High-pressure oxygen supply
TX06.1.2 Water Recovery and Management

Water recovery and management provides a safe and reliable supply
of potable water to meet crew consumption and operational needs,
including supply and storage, recycling, and management through
dormant mission periods.
• Wastewater collection
A mockup of the Water
Recovery System (WRS) • Wastewater processing
section of the ECLSS used • Brine processing
aboard the International
• Potable water microbial control
Space Station (ISS).
(NASA)
67
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.1.3 Waste Management

Waste management provides for safe collection, processing, resource
recovery, and volumetrically efficient storage of waste.
• Metabolic waste management
• Planetary methane waste control
• Contingency urine collection
• Trash volume reduction and stabilization
• Long duration trash storage
• Trash/waste removal systems
TX06.1.4 Habitation Systems

Habitation systems enable the crew to efficiently utilize vehicle systems
(i.e. ECLSS), maintain vehicle hygiene including through uncrewed
mission periods, store/prepare/consume food, perform crew hygiene,
and sleep effectively.
• Distributed and integrated lighting and noise mitigation
• Long-wear clothing or clothes cleaning
• Lightweight crew quarters with minimal CO2 accumulation
• Lightweight mobility aides
• Smart habitat automation of crew housekeeping (vacuum cleaner) and maintenance functions
• High oxygen compatible fabrics
• Reusable/repurposable packaging materials
TX06.1.5 ECLSS Modeling and Simulation Tools

ECLSS modeling and simulation tools help develop and understand
next generation life support systems that often present special cases not
available in industry tools.
• Chemical process modeling (e.g. complex fluid precipitation thresholds) and biological system
modeling (higher plant metabolisms
• Microbial behavior in bioprocessors or undesired biofilm contamination
68
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.2 Extravehicular
Activity Systems
Extravehicular activity (EVA) systems are those associated with
enabling astronauts to perform work outside of a spacecraft’s habitable
environment.
TX06.2.1 Pressure Garment

The suit, or pressure garment, is the set of components a crewmember
wears and uses, including the torso, arms, legs, gloves, joint bearings,
helmet, and boots. The suit employs a complex system of soft-goods
and mobility elements to optimize performance while pressurized without
inhibiting unpressurized operations. The Launch, Entry, and Abort (LEA) suit
also contains provisions to protect the crewmember from both nominal and
off-nominal environments (e.g. acceleration, noise, chemical) encountered
during launch, entry, and landing, as well as potential descent/ascent to
planetary surfaces.
• LEA arm mobility via soft constant volume joints and enhanced patterning
• LEA in-suit waste containment
• Pressurized and non-pressurized rear-entry suit ingress systems
• Dust protectant mobility bearings and mechanisms
• Pressure Garment System (PGS) Materials Layup – Vacuum
• Mars PGS Layup
• PGS for 1st to 99th Percentile American
• Advanced helmet and extravehicular visor systems
• Lightweight structures
• High-performance EVA gloves
• Higher-performance intravehicular activity (IVA) gloves
• Reusable drink/nutrition bag
A suit technician fits the • LEA occupant protection materials, analytical tools, and technologies
communications carrier • Human waste containment and removal
on an astronaut stand-
in before pressurizing
the spacesuit at NASA
Kennedy Space Center
in Florida. (NASA/Cory
Huston)
69
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.2.2 Portable Life Support System

The Portable Life Support Systems (PLSS) performs functions required
to keep a crewmember alive during an EVA. These functions include
maintaining thermal control of the astronaut, providing a pressurized oxygen
(O2) environment, and removing products of metabolic output such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Control of all life support functions
requires a system of critical avionics to transfer and monitor data, supply
and store power, provide voice and data communication, and alert IVA and
EVA crew of potential system faults.
• Closed-loop heat rejection system with zero consumables Spacesuit Water Membrane
Evaporator (SWME)-radiator hybrid
• Heat pump radiator hybrid
• Closed-loop heat rejection system with zero consumables
• PLSS radiator
• PLSS fan
• PLSS pressure sensor
• Closed-loop on-back regenerable CO2 and humidity control
• Closed-loop consumable CO2 removal, low mass
• Alternate CO2 sorbent
• Atmospheric constituent sensor
• Alternate Contaminant Control Cartridge (CCC) Sorbent
• CO2 and H2O membrane
• Battery package
• Integrated radio/audio system
• Autonomous checkout
TX06.2.3 Informatics and Decision Support Systems

The Informatics system collects and transfers several types of non-critical
data to and from other mission assets, provides avionics hardware to
perform numerous data display and in-suit processing functions, and
furnishes information and decision support systems to supply data and
guidance that enables crewmembers to perform their tasks with more
autonomy, higher performance, and/or greater efficiency.
• EVA informatics
• Suit-integrated personal locating technologies
• Graphical displays
• Advanced crew to informatics interfaces
70
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.2.4 Decompression Sickness Mitigation

Decompression sickness mitigation includes tools to quantitatively
measure astronaut risk due to decompression sickness (DCS) and
tools to improve operations, planning, and system design for planetary
surface missions for which existing microgravity DCS countermeasures
are not applicable. This area also includes integrated countermeasures
that reduce decompression sickness risk, operational overhead, vehicle
design impacts (e.g. materials flammability, consumables manifesting,
etc.), and human performance impacts (e.g. fatigue, injury risk, reduced
performance at higher suit pressures).
• Probabilistic DCS risk models
• Reduced ppN2 vehicle atmospheres
• Venous gas emboli monitoring
• Adjunctive (e.g. pharmaceutical) DCS treatments
• Variable pressure space suits
TX06.3 Human Health and

Performance
Human Health and Performance technologies and solutions support
optimal and sustained performance throughout the duration of a mission
and promote the health of the crew pre-, during, and post-mission.
TX06.3.1 Medical Diagnosis and Prognosis

This functional area provides a suite of medical technologies, knowledge,
and procedures that reduce the likelihood and/or consequence of both
nominal and off-nominal medical events during exploration missions.
A medical pack aboard
the International Space • Emerging screening technologies
Station. (NASA) • Preventative countermeasures
• Low resource imaging modalities
• Laboratory analysis platforms and assays
• Sterile fluid generation
• Medication packaging options and long-term medication storage
• Medical equipment re-use and in-situ manufacturing
• Integrated medical equipment and software suite, autonomous clinical care and decision support
71
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.3.2 Prevention and Countermeasures

Prevention and countermeasure tools validate technologies to address the
effects of the space environment on human systems and countermeasures
to maintain crew physical health, behavioral health, and sustained
performance on extended-duration missions.
• Cell/tissue culture, animal models
• Induced pluripotent stem cells
• Exercise equipment systems (hardware and software)
• Integrated prevention and treatment for visual changes and non-invasive intracranial
pressure measuremen
• Water control standards for microbes, probiotic delivery, antimicrobial medications
• Integrated technologies to monitor crew health and performance during exercise
• Countermeasure effectiveness
• Vibration isolation technologies for exercise equipment
TX06.3.3 Behavioral Health and Performance

Behavioral health and performance technologies provide countermeasures
and conduct monitoring to reduce the psychosocial, neurobehavioral, and
performance risk associated with extended space travel and return to Earth.
• Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT)
• Objective sleep measures for spaceflight operations
• Optimal use of light as a countermeasure
• Medications to promote sleep, alertness, and circadian entrainment
• Scheduling software
• Countermeasure to enhance behavioral health
• Tool to predict, detect, and assess decrements in behavioral health
• Cognitive assessment tool
• Tools for treating behavioral health problems during long-duration spaceflight missions
• Tool to effectively monitor and measure team health and performance fluctuations
• Social support countermeasures
• Advanced exercise software to enhance psychological and physiological benefits
72
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.3.4 Contact-less/Wearable Human Health and

Performance Monitoring
Wearable and flexible sensors and electronics are technologies for human
health and performance monitoring that are either a) contact-less and
vehicle-integrated or b) sufficiently lightweight, flexible, and unrestrictive to
be wearable by the astronaut.
• Biometric wireless sensors
• Soft, stretchable sensors
• Metal-rubber, textile sensors
TX06.3.5 Food Production, Processing, and

Preservation
Food production, processing, and preservation technologies include both
space and Earth technologies that safely produce and handle food to
reduce up-mass and retain maximum nutritional value.
• Bioregenerative food system
• Vegetable production system
• Packaged food mass reduction
• Vegetable cleaning and safety verification
• Stabilized foods
• Low oxygen permeability barrier films
• Plants habitat
TX06.3.6 Long Duration Health

Technology advancements are needed to identify, characterize, and prevent
or reduce long-term health risks associated with space travel, exploration,
and return to terrestrial life.
• Defining metrics for long-term health
• Understanding trade-offs between in-mission health and long-term health
• Technologies to enable occupational surveillance
73
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.3.7 System Transformative Health and

Performance Concepts
This area covers technologies to fundamentally transform the manner in
which human health and performance occur in space.
• Autonomous clinical care
• Artificial gravity
• Bioengineering
TX06.4 Environmental
Monitoring, Safety, and
Emergency Response
Environmental monitoring, safety, and emergency response technologies
ensure crew health and safety by protecting against spacecraft hazards
and ensuring effective response should an accident occur.
TX06.4.1 Sensors: Air, Water, Microbial, and

Acoustic
Air, water, microbial, and acoustic sensors monitor the environmental
health of aircraft and accurately determine and control the physical,
chemical, and biological environments of crew living areas and their
environmental control systems.
• Atmosphere quality sensors
• Airborne particle sensor Spacecraft Atmosphere
Monitor (SAM) is one of
• Water quality sensor
the smallest (mass and
• Biocide sensor power) autonomous GCMS
• Water total organic carbon sensor instruments ever built and
will continuously monitor the
• Microbial sensor
major components found in
• Acoustic monitoring air in real-time. (NASA)
74
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.4.2 Fire: Detection, Suppression, and

Recovery
Spacecraft fire safety technologies ensure crew health and safety by
reducing the likelihood of a fire, or, if one does occur, minimizing the risk to
the crew, mission, and/or system.
• Combustion model in low and partial gravity
• Cabin fire: detection system, cabin fire extinguisher
TX06.4.3 Protective Clothing and Breathing

Protective clothing and breathing apparatuses address off-nominal
situations within the habitable compartments of the spacecraft, including
events such as fire, chemical release, microbial contamination, and
unexpected depressurization.
• Advanced respirator
• Advanced clothing
• Common filtering cartridge mask
TX06.4.4 Remediation
Remediation provides the crew with the ability to clean the habitable
environment of the spacecraft in the event of an off-nominal situation,
including fire, an inadvertent chemical release, or microbial contamination.
• Contingency air scrubber
• Contingency microbial remediation
• Post-fire air scrubber
75
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.5 Radiation
Radiation technologies increase crew mission duration in the free-
space radiation environment while remaining below the space radiation
permissible exposure limits.
TX06.5.1 Radiation Transport and Risk Modeling

Radiation transport and risk modeling tools enable, quantify, and reduce
uncertainty in assessing astronaut risk due to space radiation exposure,
as well as improve mission operations, mission planning, and system
design for LEO, deep-space, lunar, and Mars missions.
• Integrated mortality risk projection model tool
• Cancer risk projection model
• Degenerative risk projection model (includes heart and circulatory)
• Central nervous system (CNS) risk projection model
• Performance degradation model set (acute and central nervous system)
• Digital twin
• Transport and nuclear physics modeling tool(s) for radiation exposure (transport codes)
TX06.5.2 Radiation Mitigation and Biological

Countermeasures
Radiation mitigation and biological countermeasures aim to minimize
or prevent physical, cognitive, and behavioral disorders due to space
radiation without adverse side effects and loss of life.
• Countermeasures for in-flight acute radiation syndrome
• Countermeasures for in-flight CNS effects
This computer simulation,
• Countermeasures against degenerative effects based on data from
• Countermeasures against cancer NASA’s Mars Atmosphere
and Volatile Evolution,
• Combined pharmaceutical interaction tool
or MAVEN, spacecraft,
• Individual sensitivity toolkit shows the interaction of the
streaming solar wind with
Mars’ upper atmosphere.
(NASA)
76
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.5.3 Protection Systems

Integrated radiation protection shielding technologies provide passive or
active shielding through design advances, advanced materials, lightweight
structures, and in-situ resources.
• Radiation protective materials and material systems for primary and secondary structures
• In-situ passive shielding from and in the spacecraft
• In-situ passive shielding from planetary surface materials
• High-temperature superconductor technology and performance for active shielding systems
• Lightweight structural materials for magnet fixtures for active shielding systems
• Cooling systems for active shielding
• Integrated design tool
• Uncertainty models for thick shielding
• Active shielding modeling tool set
TX06.5.4 Space Weather Prediction

Solar particle event (SPE) forecasting and alert systems seek to minimize
operational constraints for missions outside the protection of Earth’s geo-
magnetic field.
• Tool for all-clear forecasting of SPE onset
• Tool for forecasting SPE intensity and evolution
• Probabilistic models (tools) of SPE spectral characteristics and astronaut risks
• Ensemble coronal mass ejection forecasting for mission impact assessment
• High-performance computing architecture that supports real-time implementation of
operation forecasts
77
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.5.5 Monitoring Technology

Radiation Monitoring technologies are active electronic devices composed
of dedicated sensors and dedicated readout and processing electronics.
Radiation sensors are specific to the type of radiation being detected (e.g.,
charged particles, neutrons, gamma-rays). The processing electronics
are specific to the sensor it is paired with as well as the quantity of
the radiation field being measured. Radiation monitoring is used to
characterize the radiation environment that crew and spacecraft are being
exposed to during phases of mission. The radiation monitoring can also
inform the impacts of a given radiation environment exposure to humans
and spacecraft hardware.
• Active personal dosimetry for Intravehicular activities and extravehicular activities
• Compact biological dosimetry (biodosimetry)
• In-situ active warning and monitoring dosimetry
• Miniaturized low-power charged-particle spectrometers with active warning
• Miniaturized low-power neutron spectrometers with active warning
TX06.6 Human Systems

Integration
Human Systems Integration (HSI) focuses on improving total system
performance by integrating human considerations throughout the design,
implementation, and operation of hardware and software through
application of technologies that support analysis, testing, and modeling of
human performance, interface controls/displays, and human-automation
interaction. Human system domain activities associated with human
The 20-G Centrifuge at NASA
factors engineering, training, habitability, operations effectiveness, safety, Ames Research Center.
and maintainability are considered concurrently and integrated with all (NASA/Dominic Hart)
other system design activities.
78
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.6.1 Human Factors Engineering

Human factors engineering focuses on ensuring that the system design is
integrated and compatible with human tasks, and the sensory, perceptual,
mental, and physical attributes of the user personnel who will operate,
control, maintain, train, and support the equipment, system, or facility
throughout its life cycle.
• Frameworks for dynamic multi-agent function allocation
• Advanced user interfaces
• Tools to augment human physical and cognitive performance
• Integrated human-system verification and validation (V&V) methods
• Human physical and cognitive performance models
• Human-systems interfaces for increased autonomy and new environments
• New con-ops models for crew-vehicle-ground interactions
TX06.6.2 Training
Training focuses on enabling users, operators, maintainers, trainers and
support personnel to acquire, maintain or enhance their knowledge and
skills, and concurrently develops their cognitive, physical, sensory, team
dynamics, and adaptive abilities to conduct operations. The goal of the
training/instructional system should be to develop and sustain ready, well-
trained personnel, while considering options that can reduce life-cycle
costs and provide positive contributions to the system.
• Framework for an integrated training design that supports skill acquisition, retention,
and transfer
• Simulators designs based on human perception capabilities that provide the necessary
level of fidelity to ensure training transfer to the operational environment
• Just-in-time training capabilities for in-mission or on-the-job initial and refresher training
79
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.6.3 Habitability and Environment

Habitability and environment technologies focus on external and internal
environment considerations for human habitat, and exposure to the
natural environment, including factors of living and working conditions
necessary to sustain the safety, health, performance, and morale of the
user population which directly affect personnel effectiveness and mission
success.
• Robust countermeasures to mitigate environmental impacts on human performance and
capability to perform
• Integrated habitat support system
• Long-duration microgravity workstation and habitat tools
TX06.6.4 Operations Effectiveness

This area covers technologies for applying human system integration
knowledge and processes to enable robust, cost-effective operations
while minimizing risk of human error. Operations effectiveness influences
mission architecture, system design, command and control structure,
operations system design, and operations planning and execution for
increased mission performance. This area includes operability and human
effectiveness for flight and ground crews to drive system design and
development phases, as well as trades for function allocation, automation,
and autonomy.
• Mission architecture modeling for crew size determination in response to mission
task/function definition
• Formal allocation of functions between crew, ground operators, and automation/autonomy,
as well as among multiple loci of control
• Operations design for multiple communications time-delay regimes
• Control and display design to maximize situational awareness and reduce distraction
• Training methodologies to ensure effective human response when automation/autonomy
fails in time-critical situations
80
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.6.5 Integrated Systems Safety

The focus of this domain is to address hazards and to minimize the risk
of death, injury, acute or chronic illness, or disability; and/or reduced job
performance of personnel who operate, maintain, train, or support the
system. Special attention should be given to integration, since some
hazards may occur due to the integration of components, and not the
design of the component.
• Integrated risk and hazard analysis tools
• Integrated failure analysis tools
• System safety taxonomies
• Root-cause analysis tools
TX06.6.6 Maintainability and Supportability

This area focuses on design to simplify maintenance and optimize human
resources, spares, consumables, and logistics, which are essential due to
limited time, access, and distance for space missions.
• Integrated electronic technical manuals
• Tool management system
• Onboard skills training
• Reliable reliability analyses
• Onboard failure prediction, detection, and diagnostics system
• Human task assistance system (may include “robots”)
• Onboard, on-demand component fabrication (note: must address cable, IC, suit component/
fabric, and computer display fabrication, in addition to mechanical fab)
• Integrated ecological system (sewage and organic matter—including anaerobic products such
as methane, H2, and succinates—processing by organisms, plant growth for food and air)
• Onboard biotechnology capability to deal with unforeseen medical and ecological failures
• Onboard logistics and stowage management system
The interior of the ECLSS module inside SpaceX’s headquarters and factory in
Hawthorne, California. The module is the same size as the company’s Crew Dragon
spacecraft and is built to test the Environmental Control and Life Support System, or
ECLSS, that is being built for missions aboard the Crew Dragon including those by
astronauts flying to the International Space Station on flights for NASA’s Commercial
Crew Program. (NASA/SpaceX)
81
Support, and
Habitation Systems
TX06.X Other Human Health,

Life Support, and Habitation
Systems
This area covers human health, life support, and habitation systems
technologies that are not otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs
outlined in TX06 of the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy.
82
TX07
Exploration
Destination
Systems
Overview
Exploration destination systems covers the broad range of technologies
associated with enabling successful activities in space, from missions
operations to in-situ resource utilization.
83
84
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.1 In-Situ Resource

Utilization
In-situ resource utilization technologies identify, acquire, and utilize local
resources, both natural and discarded, for useful products and services.
TX07.1.1 Destination Reconnaissance and

Resource Assessment
Destination reconnaissance and resource assessment technologies
characterize, sample, and map the surface environment to quantify the
locations and abundances of material and energy resources accessible
from the surface. Orbital remote sensing or deployed surface devices
and instruments are used to probe, sample, and analyze possible
dynamic atmospheric and surface/subsurface material composition and
physical/chemical properties. This mapping includes the combination of
environmental, terrain, geological, and resource information to estimate
accessibility and plan extraction operations.
• Instruments and devices to: detect, locate, and quantify specific surface and subsurface
chemical species (such as water or other high-value elements or minerals)
• Determine properties of the destination atmosphere including composition, dynamic behavior,
and other environmental factors related to utilization of atmospheric resources; measure
geotechnical (mechanical) properties of the destination surface and subsurface for
assessments of resource accessibility
• Assess or measure interactions between the surface environment and exploration capabilities
(e.g. rocket plumes) that may affect resource accessibility
• Models and simulations to extend discrete-site resource sampling into a broader mapping of
accessible resources
Robotic construction
of lunar infrastructure.
A NASA Innovative
Advanced Concept
(NIAC) project. (NASA)
85
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.1.2 Resource Acquisition, Isolation, and

Preparation
Resource acquisition, isolation, and preparation technologies access,
extract, isolate, concentrate, modify, and purify resource-bearing materials
in preparation for further processing. Resource-bearing materials include
locally acquired materials and byproducts of mission operations that
become available for recycling.
• Instruments and devices functioning in the relevant gravity environment to: penetrate, cut,
drill, extract, or excavate surface and subsurface regolith that is either resource-bearing or
inert overburden
• Prepare granular regolith through grinding, crushing, sorting, and mixing; collect, filter, isolate,
and accumulate resource-bearing atmospheric gases
• Collect, separate, and purify recyclable water and organic and inorganic by-products of
mission operations
• Convey resource-bearing granular surface materials or atmospheric gases from the point of
extraction to resource processing assets
• Separate target resources from extraterrestrial materials and gases including beneficiation and
atmospheric gas separation
• Models and simulations to identify and quantify opportunities for systemic power reduction,
durability, and reliability enhancements for resource acquisition systems
TX07.1.3 Resource Processing for Production of

Mission Consumables
This area covers resource processing technologies that produce mission
consumables, such as water, breathable oxygen, inert gases, and
propellants, from pre-processed resources.
• Instruments and devices functioning in the relevant gravity environment including: thermal
mechanical components and reactors to extract end-product resources from inert materials
(e.g. thermal reactors for volatile extraction from regolith
• Chemical, electrochemical, and biological materials, catalysts, components, and reactors
to extract and combine resources to produce end-products (e.g. catalytic reactors to produce
methane, electrolysis devices to produce oxygen, etc.)
• Phase-change devices to extract or distill end-product gases from by-product recycling
sources (e.g. cryocoolers for gas product drying)
• Filtration and purification devices for meeting mission-critical end use requirements
• Crosscutting technologies for enhancing production system durability and reliability in harsh
environments (e.g. dust tolerant seals and bearings)
• Crosscutting technologies for utilizing sources of high-temperature thermal energy for process
heating (e.g. integrated solar concentrators
• Models and simulations to identify and quantify opportunities for systemic reductions in power
requirements and enhancements in durability and reliability for resource processing systems
86
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.1.4 Resource Processing for Production of

Manufacturing, Construction, and Energy Storage
Feedstock Materials
This area covers resource processing technologies that produce feedstock
for in-situ manufacturing, construction, and thermal energy storage systems.
• Instruments and devices functioning in the relevant gravity environment, including: production
of granular material by grinding, crushing, sorting, and mixing
• Chemical, electrochemical, and biological processing to extract and combine resources to
The next step in produce manufacturing feedstock (e.g. metal extraction and separation, ceramic materials
human spaceflight is extraction, plastic production, etc.)
the establishment of
• Physical, chemical, thermal, and biological pretreatment of raw feedstock materials to meet
U.S. preeminence in purity standards required for manufacturing or construction processes
cislunar space through
the operations and the • Evaluation of suitability of locally-produced and recycled material batches for intended
deployment of a U.S.- construction and assembly processes
led Gateway, here seen • Conveyance of feedstock to manufacturing and construction assets
with an Orion spacecraft. • Models and simulations to identify and quantify opportunities for systemic reductions in power
(NASA) requirements and enhancements in durability and reliability for resource processing systems
87
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.2 Mission
Infrastructure, Sustainability,
and Supportability
This area covers technologies required to establish a self-sufficient,
sustainable, and affordable space exploration program.
TX07.2.1 Logistics Management

Logistics management technologies institute a centralized logistic depot
to manage and optimize the use of Earth-supplied consumables at the
exploration destination via residual recovery, repurposing, recycling,
commonality, and parts repurposing.
• Propellant scavenging
• Flexible, vacuum-rated liquid storage bags
• Power scavenged wireless sensor tag systems
• Dense zone technology (radio frequency identification enclosure)
• Sparse zone technology
• Logistics complex event processing
• Six degrees of freedom logistics tag system
• Packaging foam
• Additive printer feedstock
• Autonomous logistics translation and unpacking
• Logistical waste (e.g. food packaging, cargo transfer bags, etc.) repurposing or recycling into
new materials, logistics carriers, packaging, and restraint systems
In this artist’s concept

image, the Gateway is
shown mid-assembly.
The first logistics module
carrying cargo and other
goods is docked to the
spaceship as it orbits the
Moon. (NASA)
88
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.2.2 In-Situ Manufacturing, Maintenance,

and Repair
In-situ manufacturing, maintenance, and repair technologies manufacture
items using feedstock produced from in-situ resources and recycled
materials and provide system evaluation, preventive maintenance, and
corrective actions for human exploration systems.
• Design tools configured to accommodate broad-specification feedstock properties into design
safety factors and manufacturing tolerances
• Instruments and devices functioning in the relevant gravity environment, including: additive
manufacturing using broad-specification feedstock from terrestrially delivered, locally
produced, and recycled materials
• Subtractive manufacturing using broad-specification feedstock from terrestrially delivered,
locally produced, and recycled materials
• Evaluating suitability of locally produced and recycled material batches for intended
manufacturing processes
• Quality assurance and mission suitability of devices and parts manufactured using terrestrially
delivered, locally produced, and recycled materials
• Devices to conduct routine, early fault detection of operational surface systems
TX07.2.3 Surface Construction and Assembly

Surface construction and assembly covers technologies for construction,
assembly, disassembly, and reverse assembly of surface structures,
including both traditional construction, assembly, and disassembly
concepts and advanced systems.
• Instruments and devices functioning in the relevant gravity environment, including
consolidation and stabilization of regolith on large scales, including microwave and
concentrated solar irradiation and the addition of physical or chemical additives
• Manufacturing of structural elements using feedstock derived from locally-produced and
recycled materials
• Assembly of structural and environmental barrier systems from terrestrially-delivered and/or
locally-derived elements
• Quality assurance and mission suitability of structural elements and environmental barrier
systems constructed and assembled in-situ
• Design tools configured to accommodate broad-specification feedstock properties into design
safety factors and manufacturing tolerances for construction and assembly systems
• Human-robotics (e.g. low-latency telerobotics), autonomous robotic systems
89
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.2.4 Micro-Gravity Construction and Assembly

Micro-gravity construction and assembly technologies transform the way
we manufacture, assemble, disassemble, reverse assemble, and repair
large structures in space, providing a robust space infrastructure freed
from launch window scheduling, launch vehicle mass limitations, and
astronaut safety concerns.
• On-orbit three dimensional (3D) manufacturing
• Robotic arms/manipulators
• In-space truss manufacturing
• Low-latency telerobotics
TX07.2.5 Particulate Contamination Prevention and

Mitigation
Particulate contamination prevention and mitigation provides a layered
engineering defense that incorporates technologies for contamination
prevention, exterior cleaning and protection, interior cleaning and
protection, and gas quality preservation, as well as technologies
associated with modeling plume and soil interactions.
• “Tunnels” to minimize regolith transfer during extravehicular activities (EVAs)
• Air and airlock cleaning; sample handling; dust covers
• Dissipation, reduction, and/or elimination of triboelectric charge build-up
• Passive cleaning
• Dust repellant, dust shedding materials and coatings
• Electrodynamic removal
• Electron discharge and bombardment
• Magnetic brushes and dust removal brushes
• Self-cleaning connectors
• Forced gas showers and forced gas cleaning of hard surfaces
• Failure Isolation, Detection, and Recovery (FIDR)
• Plume mitigation
• Deployable landing surfaces and deployable/erectable blast curtain around landing site
• Plume-resistant concrete
• High fidelity, two-phase flow modeling for plume-soil interaction
90
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.3 Mission Operations

and Safety
This area covers mission operations and safety technologies to manage space
missions, usually from the point of launch through the end of the mission.
TX07.3.1 Mission Planning and Design

Mission planning and design technologies manage space missions from the
point of launch through the end of the mission for long-duration missions
over long time delays. Technologies should address the integrated coupling
of trajectory, spacecraft, and system design.
• Software for rapid mission development and analysis
• Toolsets for spacecraft design and mission simulation
• Concurrent engineering tools and processes
• Rapid prototyping
TX07.3.2 Integrated Flight Operations Systems

Integrated flight operations for long-duration, deep-space missions will
require striking complex balances between ground and space operations,
with a shift towards increasing crew autonomy that will benefit from
autonomous systems and comprehensive, highly-integrated operational
systems. Transparent and resilient systems and procedures must be
designed that enable the human role in flight-critical systems.
• Autonomous crew operations
• Autonomous ground operations
• Validated adaptive decision support for Earth-independent operations and contingency
U.S. Navy divers, Air response
Force pararescuemen
and Coast Guard • Technologies to enable real-time situation understanding and shared intent between humans
and machines
rescue swimmers
practice Orion recovery • Validated resilient teaming of humans and machines in limited nominal and off-nominal
techniques at the conditions that properly allocate roles and responsibilities
Neutral Buoyancy • Advanced ground launch operations for ascent vehicles
Laboratory (NBL) at
• Mission architecture modeling: ensuring mission objectives can be met by the combination of
the agency’s Johnson human performance and system capability
Space Center in
Houston. (NASA) • Informing mission architecture selection
• Automated FDIR
91
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.3.3 Training
Training technologies support efficient and effective crew and mission
operations training and multi-agent teaming for complex systems for
nominal, off-nominal, infrequent, and unexpected events.
• Training methodologies to ensure effective human response when automation/autonomy fail in
time-critical situations
• Efficient and effective multi-agent team training and performance
• Just in time training technologies based on understanding of acquisition and maintenance of
skilled performance and expertise
• Training environments and task support tools that are integrated with system design
• New training methods and tools required for evolving skills and tasks
• Intelligent software utilizing expert systems
• Data mining algorithms
• Advanced or intelligent hardware (such as lightweight, low-power virtual reality (VR) systems,
situational awareness sensors, etc.)
TX07.3.4 Integrated Risk Assessment Tools

Integrated risk assessment tools for deep space, long-duration missions
help identify and analyze risks, reducing threats to crew and missions.
• Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) toolset
92
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
TX07.3.5 Planetary Protection

These technologies address threats to the Earth-Moon system from
astronauts, hardware, and extraterrestrial samples returning from Mars.
• Sterilization modalities beyond time/temperature
• Cleanable adhesive surfaces for variable gravity
• Cleaning protocols beyond alcohol and bleach
• Microbial burden identification and monitoring and particle transport modeling
• Recontamination prevention and modeling
• Debris quantification for planetary material
• Biobarriers for whole spacecraft
• Dust analyzers
• Standoff detection of biological contamination
• Post-return sample containment and sample containment systems
• Trajectory analysis
Inside Laboratory
TX07.X Other Exploration

1 in Building 836 at
Vandenberg Air Force
Base, California,
Destination Systems
planetary protection
samples are analyzed
prior to processing
the payload fairing
for NASA’s upcoming This area covers exploration destination systems technologies that are not
InSight mission to Mars. otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX07 of the 2020 NASA
(NASA) Technology Taxonomy.
93
TX07 Exploration
Destination
Systems
In the Astrotech payload processing

facility near Kennedy Space Center in
Florida, spacecraft technicians move a
lifting device toward the Juno spacecraft,
enclosed in an Atlas payload fairing,
during operations to lift the spacecraft
onto a transporter for its trip to Space
Launch Complex 41. The fairing will
protect the spacecraft from the impact
of aerodynamic pressure and heating
during ascent and will be jettisoned
once the spacecraft is outside Earth’s
atmosphere. (NASA)
94
TX08
Sensors and
Instruments
Overview
This area focuses on the development of technologies for instrumentation and
sensing, including remote observation capabilities.
95
96
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.1 Remote Sensing

Instruments and Sensors
Remote sensing instruments and sensors include components, sensors,
and instruments sensitive to electromagnetic radiation; particles (charged,
neutral, dust); electromagnetic fields, both direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC); acoustic energy; seismic energy; or whatever
physical phenomenology the science requires. These instruments and
sensors can be either active or passive devices in practice, depending
upon the measurement regime and detection technology.
TX08.1.1 Detectors and Focal Planes

Detectors, focal planes and readout integrated circuits provide large-format
array technologies that require high quantum efficiency (QE); low noise,
high resolution, uniform, and stable response; low power and cost; and
high reliability. These technologies include low-noise, high-speed, low-
power and radiation hardened readout integrated circuit (ROIC) electronics;
superconducting sensors; spectral detectors; polarization-sensitive
detectors; radiation-hardened detectors; and micro-Kelvin and sub-Kelvin
high sensitivity detectors that cover the spectrum from submillimeter wave
(Far-IR) to X-ray.
• Backshort Undergrid bolometer arrays
• Mercury Cadmium Telluride and Strained Superlattice Arrays
• Charge coupled devices
• Sidecar readout integrated circuits
• Radiometric calibration and abnormality correction algorithms (e.g. non-uniformity)
Artist’s illustration of
a concept for NASA’s
GeoCarb mission,
which will map
concentrations of key
carbon gases above
the Americas from
geostationary orbit.
(NASA)
97
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.1.2 Electronics
Electronics includes analog and mixed signal instrument electronics and the
associated packaging technology, designed for reuse and/or extensibility,
with reduced volume, mass, and power that can operate over a wide
temperature range and other extreme environments such as high radiation.
This includes detector support electronics such as digital back ends, high-
voltage power supplies, wireless networking techniques, and integrated
electronic, photonic, and sensor readouts that enable significant signal
processing and data compression.
• Analog and mixed-signal instrument front end electronics application-specific integrated
circuits (ASICs), Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and discrete components
(e.g., radio frequency (RF) System on Chip, Multi-Channel Digitizer (MCD)
• Control and bias voltage electronics
• Low noise amplifiers
• Multi-channel A/D and D/A Converters Goddard technologist
Noosha Haghani holds one
• Trans-impedance amplifiers and bias generators of many electronics cards,
• Space cube which she and her team
• Onboard Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) processor designed for a new avionics
system called MUSTANG.
• Modular Unified Space Technology Avionics for Next Generation missions (MUSTANG) MUSTANG has been
• Nanoelectronics baselined for two upcoming
NASA missions. (NASA/W.
Hrybyk)
TX08.1.3 Optical Components

Optical component technologies are ultimately aimed at
finding breakthrough technologies that can enable entirely
new instrument or observatory architectures. Optical
component technologies are grouped in the following
categories: ultraviolet imaging, wide field of view imaging for
near-Earth asteroids, and instruments for quantum inter-
ferometry. These improvements in optical components must
omplement improvements in associated detectors.
• Mirrors, lenses, interferometers, gratings, prisms,

and fibers
• Dynamic pointing components (e.g. field steering
mirrors)
• Active optical elements
• Advanced surface technologies (e.g. frequency
selective surfaces and composites)
• Ground metrology and systems
98
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.1.4 Microwave, Millimeter-, and

Submillimeter-Waves
Microwave and radio transmitter and receiver component technologies for
the 30 kHz to 10 THz range include integrated radar transmitter/ receiver
(T/R) modules and integrated radiometer receivers, active microwave
instruments (radar), passive radiometers (microwave and infrared), and
crosscutting technologies such as radiation-hardened electronics.
• Laser heterodyne and gas correlation radiometers
• Low noise receivers
• Transmit/receive modules
• Couplers/combiners, isolators, amplifiers, filters, antennas, and waveguide components
TX08.1.5 Lasers
Passive laser technologies, such as laser heterodyne radiometry, can
involve low-power elements such as distributive feedback (DFB) lasers;
active laser systems that pass through the atmosphere to make a
measurement, such as light detecting and ranging (LIDAR) require higher
powered laser elements.
• Pulsed lasers and the electro-optical components that support them like fibers, gratings,
crystals, laser diodes, electro-optical modulators, nanolasers
TX08.1.6 Cryogenic/Thermal
Space-qualified cryogenic and thermal systems include both passive and
active technologies used to cool instruments and focal planes, sensors,
and large optical systems. Cryogenic and thermal system component
This artist’s concept technologies are grouped in the following categories: micro-Kelvin, sub-
shows the Lunar Flashlight Kelvin (K), 4 to 20 K, and low-cost cryocoolers; all have requirements for
spacecraft, a six-unit low power, low mass, and low exported vibration during operation.
CubeSat designed to
search for ice on the Example Technologies
Moon’s surface using
special lasers. The
• Adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators
spacecraft will use its near-
infrared lasers to shine light • Dilution refrigerators
into shaded polar regions • Sorption coolers and supporting components
on the Moon, while an
• Cryocoolers, like Stirling refrigerators, Brayton Cycle refrigerators, pulse tube refrigerators,
onboard reflectometer will Joule-Thomson coolers
measure surface reflection
and composition. (NASA- • Supporting cryogenic thermal control components like heat straps, heat pipes, cryogenic
JPL-CalTech) radiators
99
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.2 Observatories
Observatory technologies are necessary to design, manufacture, test,
and operate space telescopes and antennas that collect, concentrate,
or transmit photons. Observatory technologies enable or enhance large-
aperture monolithic and segmented single apertures as well as structurally
connected or free-flying sparse and interferometric apertures. Applications
span the electromagnetic spectrum.
TX08.2.1 Mirror Systems

Mirror systems development aims to provide increased sensitivity and
resolution, such as improved resolution of X-ray grazing incidence optics
and reduced areal costs for aperture systems > 10 m in diameter.
• Ground metrology and systems
• Integrated electronic, integrated photonic, sensor readouts that enable significant data
compression
• Low-noise, low-power, high-performance analog and mixed signal electronic components
• Electronics packaging technology capable of operating in and surviving extreme temperatures
• Sensor electronics designs to accommodate reduced size, weight, and power (SWaP),
including wireless networking techniques
• Analog and Mixed-Signal Instrument front end electronics ASICs
• FPGAs and discrete components
• Space cube
• Onboard Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) processor
• Modular Unified Space Technology Avionics for Next Generation missions (MUSTANG)
• Nanoelectronics
• Supporting high-voltage power supplies
The James Webb Space Telescope mirrors have completed deep-

freeze tests and are removed from the X-ray and Cryogenic test
Facility at Marshall Space Flight Center. (NASA)
100
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.2.2 Structures and Antennas

Structure and antenna development aims to provide lightweight, space
compatible metering structures that can be efficiently packaged for launch,
precisely deployed or erected on orbit, and maintain stability for instrument
operation by including adaptive control of the deployed shape, wavefront
control, and materials. The systems include phased arrays and reflectors
and may be either static or scanning.
• James Webb Space telescope (JWST) deployment system and the JWST sunshade
• Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) and NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)
deployable mesh antenna and boom system
• Metering system for the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NUSTAR) X-ray optics
TX08.2.3 Distributed Aperture

Distributed aperture technologies aim to provide a robust, reliable
capability for precise in-space positioning of multiple spacecraft over both
small (50m for an exoplanet interferometer or X-ray telescope) and large
(50mm for a starshade and a telescope ) inter-spacecraft distances, and
to implement long-baseline instrumentation and distributed sensors.
• Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure (SPECS)
• Laser interferometer space antenna
101
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.3 In-Situ Instruments

and Sensors
In-situ instruments and sensors include components, sensors, and
instruments sensitive to fields and particles able to perform in-situ
characterization of Earth and planetary atmospheres and the space
environment, as well as vehicle and habitat monitoring.
TX08.3.1 Field and Particle Detectors

Field detectors include millimeter wave through X-ray sensors, magnetic and
electric field sensors, gravity-wave sensors, magnetometers, and imaging
radiometers and spectrometers. Particle detectors include neutral particle
sensors, ionic particle sensors, and plasma detectors. Supporting electronic
technologies for power, mitigating environmental effects such as temperature
drift or background radiation contamination, and calibration are included.
• Fast Plasma Instrument (FPI)
• Dual Ion Sensors (DIS)
• Dual Electron Sensors (DES)
• Analog Fluxgate Magnetometer (AFG)
TX08.3.2 Atomic and Molecular Species

Assessment
Sensors for atomic and molecular species identification include mass
spectrometers, such as Ion trap, Orbitrap, Quadrupole mass filters, and
time-of-flight; microscopes and optical spectrometers for chemical analysis
such as femtosecond lasers; Raman laser systems or passive optical
chemical sensors, Fourier Transform spectrometers; grating spectrometers;
laser heterodyne radiometers; X-ray diffraction; tunable diode laser
absorption instruments; LIDARs; and gas correlation radiometers.
This is a close-up view of
Example Technologies the “spectrometer-on-a-
chip” technology that could
• Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) dramatically reduce the size
• Mars Organic Molecule Analyser (MOMA) of spectrometers in the future.
(Credit: NASA Goddard/Chris
• Gas chromatographs Gunn)
• Microfluidic systems
• Absorption spectrometers
102
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.3.3 Sample Handling

Sample handling technologies accept samples from the devices gathering
them and deliver them to the appropriate instrument for analysis, seal
and store samples to maintain the local environment, and separate and
prepare samples for chemical analysis while maintaining sample and
environmental integrity.
• The rock abrasion tool (RAT)
• Drills
• Sample return storage units
• Sample preparation tools
TX08.3.4 Environment Sensors

Environment sensors provide the local environmental measures such
as vehicle health and habitation health and include sensors such as
seismometers, weather sensors (temp, wind speed, atmospheric pressure,
humidity), static electric field, chemical species, structural measures
(pressure, strain, etc.), particle detectors.
• Temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, atmospheric pressure, seismic sensors
TX08.3.5 Electromagnetic Wave-Based Sensors

Electromagnetic wave-based sensors are sensor systems utilizing Ultra
Violet, millimeter wave, and fiber-optic based detectors for discrete
measurements, and for system monitoring and control.
• Strain, temperature, pressure, structure/materials, sensors
103
TX08 Sensors and
Instruments
TX08.3.6 Extreme Environments Related to Critical

System Health Management
Extreme environment sensors are those capable of operating in extreme
environments including high temperatures or extreme temperature ranges,
high pressures, highly reactive flows, high vibration and acceleration
levels, cryogenic environments, high vacuum, reduced or near-zero
gravity, exposures to abrasive particulate impacts.
• Sensors of temperature, pressure, vibration, electrical current and voltage, torque, mechanical
stress and strain, chemicals, and optical or electromagnetic characteristics
TX08.X Other Sensors and

Instruments
NASA’s OSIRIS-REx
spacecraft is revealed after its
protective cover is removed
inside the Payload Hazardous
This area covers sensors and instruments technologies that are not Servicing Facility at Kennedy
otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX08 of the 2020 Space Center. (NASA/Dimitri
NASA Technology Taxonomy. Gerondidakis)
104
TX09
Entry, Descent,
and Landing
Overview
This area covers entry, descent, and landing (EDL) technology developments,
conducted in a coordinated and sustained manner, to enable not only the
current planned set of missions, but also the mission sets and science
goals that may not be realizable based on current and near-term evolving
technologies, nor by heritage technologies that are no longer available.
105
106
TX09 Entry, Descent,
and Landing
TX09.1 Aeroassist and

Atmospheric Entry
Aeroassist and Atmospheric Entry (AAE) is a mission segment where a
spacecraft transits a planetary atmosphere from direct entry or orbit. Key
functions of the spacecraft during the entry segment are aerodynamic
stability, thermal management, guidance and control, and structural integrity.
TX09.1.1 Thermal Protection Systems

Thermal Protection System (TPS) is the set of thermal and structural
materials, integration techniques, and manufacturing methods that protect
the entry system from the extreme heating and aerodynamic forces
experienced by a spacecraft during hypersonic atmospheric transit.
• Extreme environment ablative TPS
• High-reliability TPS
• Conformal ablative TPS
• Multifunctional, shock layer radiation-reflective material
• Multifunctional, Micrometeoroid Orbital Debris (MMOD)-tolerant materials
• Solar and space radiation attenuating materials
• Multifunctional thermo-structural materials
• Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE)
NASA’s Orion
spacecraft floats in the
Pacific Ocean after
splashdown from its first
flight test in Earth orbit.
(NASA)
107
and Landing
TX09.1.2 Hypersonic Decelerators

Hypersonic decelerators are entry system components that generate
and manage aerodynamic forces on the transiting spacecraft during
AAE, principally drag for deceleration and lift for guidance and control.
Traditionally, the decelerator is an enveloping rigid aeroshell that surrounds
the payload. Other concepts include inflatable or mechanically deployed
aerosurfaces either on the fore-facing spacecraft or trailing tethered devices.
Hypersonic decelerators may be largely passive or actively controlled to
achieve a desired trajectory while maintaining operational constraints on
heating, deceleration rate, or other parameters.
• Sample return capsules

• Entry vehicles with lift/drag (l/d) 0.4 to < 2.0
• Enhanced aerodynamics for slender vehicles
• Entry vehicles with lift/drag (l/d) > 2.0
• Aerodynamics modulation hardware
• Control modulation software
• Entry guidance software
TX09.1.3 Passive Reentry Systems for SmallSats

Passive reentry systems facilitate deorbit and reentry without attitude control
and propulsion systems, making them very attractive for small satellite
missions for which the mass, cost and complexity of an active deorbit
system would be prohibitive.
• Drag sails
• Composite booms
• Lightweight, foldable aerobrakes
108
and Landing
TX09.2 Descent
Descent is a mission phase of EDL that bridges the entry and terminal
descent and landing phases, with initiation typically in the low supersonic
to high subsonic speed regime, after the entry heat pulse is complete.
The primary technical objective is to further decelerate the spacecraft and
position it accurately for staging to terminal descent and landing. This
deceleration can be obtained via aerodynamic forces with systems such as
inflatables or parachutes, or via a propulsion system.
TX09.2.1 Aerodynamic Decelerators

Aerodynamic decelerators are deployable descent system components
that generate aerodynamic forces on the spacecraft, principally drag for
deceleration, and lift for guidance and control. Parachutes or parafoils are
traditionally employed for this purpose, but other deployable or inflatable
devices, attached or trailing, may scale more effectively to higher mass
missions.
• Supersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (SIAD)
• Mechanically deployed decelerators and methods of active control
• Steerable and guided deployable decelerators
• Dual-mode attached decelerator systems
• Ballutes
TX09.2.2 Supersonic Retropropulsion

Supersonic Retropropulsion (SRP) is a propulsive descent technology that
initiates in the supersonic flow regime, augmenting or largely replacing
aerodynamic drag for deceleration while also providing an effective means
of trajectory control.
Boeing conducted
the first in a series
• Advanced algorithms and sensors for SRP
of reliability tests of
its CST-100 Starliner • Deep-throttling, high-thrust engines for Mars descent
flight drogue and main
parachute system by
releasing a long, dart-
shaped test vehicle
from a C-17 aircraft
over Yuma, Arizona.
(NASA/Boeing)
109
and Landing
TX09.3 Landing
Landing is a mission phase of EDL that encompasses the terminal descent
and touchdown elements, with initiation typically in the low subsonic speed
regime after completion of descent. The primary objective is to facilitate
safe touchdown of the spacecraft on the planetary surface with prescribed
accuracy and landing loads, while not causing unacceptable risk from
landing system elements such as rocket plume impingement.
TX09.3.1 Touchdown Systems

Touchdown systems enable safe and robust landing in conditions ranging
from water to relatively uncharacterized terrain to controlled ground space.
• Penetrators and spike anchors
• Mid-air retrieval (MAR)
• Active landing gear
• Energy modulators (e.g., crushables, airbags)
• Skids or runners
TX09.3.2 Propulsion Systems for Landing

Propulsion systems for landing enable elimination of the vertical velocity
component while providing for hazard avoidance and/or divert maneuvers
with the goal of fuel efficient and safe touchdown.
• High efficiency propulsion
• Propulsive descent systems
• Deep throttling capabilities for fuel efficient and safe touchdowns
An artist’s impression
capturing the moments before
Mars 2020 lands on the
surface of the Red Planet.
(NASA)
110
and Landing
TX09.4 Vehicle Systems

Vehicle Systems enables a thorough understanding of overall design space,
requirements, constraints, and available technologies. A key component of
vehicle systems is the development of accurate tools for analyzing the end-
to-end vehicle performance for EDL.
TX09.4.1 Architecture Design and Analysis

Architecture analysis provides top-level analysis capabilities enabling
informed architecture trades and technology development decisions
to reduce analysis cycle time, minimize life cycle cost, maximize
performance and reduce risk.
• High-fidelity, integrated performance models
• Dynamic behavior modeling
• Model-based systems engineering
TX09.4.2 Separation Systems

Separation systems enable transition between EDL mission segments,
including separation from cruise stage prior to entry as well as all staged
events during the atmospheric transit.
• Mechanical or inflatable deployment of staged systems
• Rigidizable aeroshell sub-systems
• Propulsive-based hypersonic stage separation
TX09.4.3 System Integration and Analysis for EDL

EDL system integration and analysis implements and maintains a flexible
This artist concept simulation structure that evolves with the EDL system definition to enable
shows thrusters firing performance, design, and risk decisions throughout the life cycle.
during the entry,
descent and landing Example Technologies
phase for NASA Mars
Science Laboratory • Event-driven environment simulation
mission to Mars.
(NASA)
111
and Landing
TX09.4.4 Atmosphere and Surface Characterization

Atmosphere and surface characterization includes modeling of
atmospheric and surface conditions with sufficient engineering fidelity to
ensure robust atmospheric transit in the presence of uncertainties as well
as precision landing and appropriate hazard avoidance.
• Descent sensors to detect the surface and determine altitude and velocity
• Automated systems to convert orbital data to onboard maps
• Advanced sensors for real-time three dimensional (3D) terrain mapping
• Advanced sensors for terrain imaging and surface and subsurface characterization
TX09.4.5 Modeling and Simulation for EDL

Modeling and simulation for EDL refers to the computer codes, underlying
physical models, and processes that enable configuration definition
and design verification and validation for systems that—short of a full
scale flight test—cannot be tested exactly in the configuration and
environment for which it is intended to operate. The models cover both
the environmental response to the presence of the system in operation,
and the operational performance of the system in the environment. A key
concern is understanding and modeling of interactions between rocket
plumes and the ground.
• Multi-disciplinary coupled analysis tools
• Aerothermodynamics modeling
• Ablative material response models
• Non-ablative material response models
• TPS quantification models and processes
• Numerical methodologies and techniques
• Autonomous aerobraking
• Orbital debris entry and breakup modeling
• Meteor entry and breakup modeling
• Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI) tools
• SRP modeling tools
• Aerodynamic modeling tools
• Plume-surface interaction
• Multi-scale simulation tools
112
and Landing
TX09.4.6 Instrumentation and Health Monitoring

for EDL
EDL instrumentation serves two primary purposes: First, by providing
data on system performance during EDL, instrumentation allows
engineers to validate the overall design, assess margin, validate design
simulations, and target future modeling improvements to those areas
where disagreement is largest. Second, health monitoring instrumentation
ensures that the EDL system components are undamaged and capable of
performing their function.
• TPS instrumentation
• Radiometers and spectrometers for entry vehicle heat shields
• Distributed instrumentation
• Miniaturized, micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS)-based sensors for entry vehicles
• Semi- or non-intrusive instrumentation concepts
• Remote observation platforms for Earth entries
TX09.4.7 Guidance, Navigation and Control (GN&C)

for EDL
Guidance, navigation and control (GN&C) includes software and
hardware required to execute de-orbit through landing phases of EDL
with accuracy and robustness. Guidance algorithms are needed to find
constrained, optimal paths for entry targeting, entry flight, and surface
targeting. Control systems and algorithms are required to effectively steer
vehicles to follow guided trajectories with minimum propellant, power, and
mass requirements. Navigation systems and algorithms are needed to
accurately determine vehicle state and attitude relative to environment and
targets. Environment modeling includes technology that generates models
or maps of terrain from images or other measurements.
• Advanced guidance algorithms for safe precision landing
• Advanced sensors for spacecraft velocimetry and altimetry
• Terrain digital elevation map or 3D model generation (offline)
• Terrain digital elevation map or 3D model generation (onboard)
• Synthetic terrain model generation/simulation
113
and Landing
TX09.X Other Entry, Descent,

and Landing
The heat shield of Orion
This area covers EDL technologies that are not otherwise covered by the undergoing inspection.
sub-paragraphs outlined in TX09 of the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy. (NASA)
114
TX10
Autonomous
Systems
Overview
Autonomous systems (in the context of robotics, spacecraft, or aircraft) are
a cross-domain capability that enables the system to operate in a dynamic
environment independent of external control.
115
116
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.1 Situational and Self-

Awareness
Situational and self-awareness technologies interrogate, identify, and
evaluate both the state of the environment and the state of the system.
Examples include artificial neural networks (including deep learning),
unsupervised learning, supervised learning, reinforcement learning,
feature learning, and support vector machine.
TX10.1.1 Sensing and Perception for Autonomous

Systems
Sensing and perception technologies for autonomous systems collect and
process information internal and external to the system from sensors and
instruments.
• Three dimensional (3D) sensing and perception from stereo vision or light detection
and ranging (LIDAR)
• Force and tactile sensing
• Science-instrument sensing (e.g. spectrometers) that is eventually used in decision-making
• Tools that assess data validity and manage uncertainty
• System-health and housekeeping sensors
• Space-suit sensors that track astronauts’ motions
TX10.1.2 State Estimation and Monitoring

State estimation and monitoring technologies estimate internal and external
states from raw or processed inputs generated by multiple sensors/
instruments, ascertainment, and continual comparison to expected states.
Visualization of Example Technologies

a planetary rover
and spectrometer • Pose estimation for a rover
measurements during • Pose estimation for an in-space robotic-assembly arm
a lunar analog robotic • Velocity estimation for an aerial vehicle
prospecting mission
in the Mojave Desert. • Oxygen-level estimation and monitoring
(NASA) • Battery health-state estimation
• Wind-speed estimation for a balloon explorer
• Tools that assess data validity and manage uncertainty
117
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.1.3 Knowledge and Model Building

Knowledge and model building technologies create information sources
about the environment or the system from sensing, perception, and human
interaction that can be queried.
• Fusion of multi-sensor data over time to generate physical or dynamical models of the system
or environment
• Topographic mapping of a planetary surface from multiple surface and/or near-surface assets
• Atmospheric modeling for aerial mobility
• Ontologies for natural-language processing
• Ontologies for object manipulation
• Vehicle habitability status from integrated physics based models of life support, power,
thermal, and environmental sensors
TX10.1.4 Hazard Assessment

Hazard assessment technologies evaluate whether the state of the
environment, the state of the system, and/or their interaction pose a threat
to the safety of actions (or inactions) that are contemplated, which could
compromise the system or mission.
• Terrain hazard assessment for spacecraft planetary landing
• Traversability analysis for surface mobility
• Collision-risk assessment of aerial mobility
• Safety-assessment for a life-support system
TX10.1.5 Event and Trend Identification

Event and trend identification technologies analyze data (about
environment or system) to identify events and trends that may affect future
state, operations, or decision-making.
• Characterization of system performance
• Prediction of weather events
• Prediction of air traffic
• Science data analytics for decision making
118
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.1.6 Anomaly Detection

Anomaly detection technologies determine that the environment or system
does not exhibit expected characteristics.
• Detection of abnormal behavior in a component or subsystem
• Identification of a weather anomaly
• Identification of excessive rover sinkage in loose sandy terrain
TX10.2 Reasoning and Acting

Reasoning and acting technologies analyze and evaluate situations
(present, future or past) for decision making and for directing actions to
achieve a goal or a mission.
TX10.2.1 Mission Planning and Scheduling

Mission planning and scheduling technologies select goals, objectives,
and activities to achieve a mission, subject to the situation and constraints.
• Selection of science observations (e.g. for satellites and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAVs))
• Replanning/rescheduling after unexpected event (e.g. opportunistic science, responding to
changing weather conditions)
• Rescheduling after system fault (e.g. choosing new observation after instrument fails, choosing
new objectives after mechanical system fault limits motion, etc.)
• Mixed initiative planning/scheduling of human spacecraft activities
• Autonomous habitat recovery and survivability planning
The Robot
Sequencing and
Visualization Program
(RSVP) for the Mars
Science Laboratory
Mission (MSL) is
built upon prior Mars
Pathfinder and Mars
Exploration Rover
mission operations
software. (NASA)
119
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.2.2 Activity and Resource Planning and

Scheduling
Activity and resource planning and scheduling technologies select and
order activities to be performed while managing system resources to
achieve mission goals.
• Power/energy consumption and production planning/scheduling
• Planning/scheduling given constraints, such as fuel, life support system consumables (air,
water), spacecraft memory, communication link (availability, bandwidth, latency), etc.
• Planning/scheduling given consumables for science ops (e.g. number of sample containers)
• Mixed initiative planning/scheduling of human spacecraft activities
• Piloted aircraft decision support
TX10.2.3 Motion Planning

Motion planning technologies generate or modify a path or trajectory to
reach a desired target physical location or configuration subject to system
and environment constraints.
• Robotic arm/manipulator kinematics/dynamic planning
• Robot surface motion planning
• Spacecraft attitude/trajectory planning
• Aircraft path planning
TX10.2.4 Execution and Control

Execution and control technologies change the system state to meet
mission goals and objectives, according to a plan or schedule, subject
to control authority and permission, and based on mission phase,
environment or system state.
• Reactive control (e.g. aircraft see-and-avoid, rover hazard avoidance, fault response)
• Discrete control/scripting/mode control, contingent control (e.g. integration of fault
management and planning/scheduling)
• Subsystem procedure and automation control and situational awareness for human operator
120
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.2.5 Fault Diagnosis and Prognosis

Fault diagnosis and prognosis technologies identify faults, prediction of
future faults, and assessment of system capability as a consequence of
those faults.
• UAV/spacecraft battery prognostics
• Structural health monitoring
• Spacecraft control moment gyro monitoring
• Cryogenic storage leak detection (internal/external)
• Aircraft engine health monitoring
TX10.2.6 Fault Response

Fault response technologies restore nominal or best possible system
configuration and operations after a fault.
• Spacecraft fault impacts reasoning
• Power system reconfiguration
• Life support system reconfiguration
• Robot arm reconfiguration
• Aircraft emergency landing planner
TX10.2.7 Learning and Adapting

Learning and adapting technologies adapt to changing environments and
conditions without explicit re-programming using knowledge collected from
the past, or from other systems’ experiences.
• Learning planning/scheduling models
• Learning fault models
• Learning anomalies
• Learning for system degradation
• Learning models for state estimation and control
121
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.3 Collaboration and

Interaction
Collaboration and interaction technologies support two or more elements
or systems working together to achieve a defined outcome.
TX10.3.1 Joint Knowledge and Understanding

Joint knowledge and understanding technologies support collection,
assembly, sharing, and interpretation of information and intent among
elements to solve problems and plan actions/responses.
• Management of aircraft and spacecraft fault diagnostic and prognostics
• Speech recognition interfaces (including non-verbal attributes such as prosody) for aircraft
flight management
• Integration of information across activities and systems
TX10.3.2 Behavior and Intent Prediction

Behavior and intent prediction technologies forecast the actions of other
elements or systems to support collaboration and interaction.
• Workload estimation across mixed initiative systems
• Integration of information for prognostic system prediction
• Response prediction and limitations for alerting and interaction (e.g. aircraft “detect and avoid”
alerting)
• Confidence estimation for predictions across activities and elements (e.g. weather events)
• Prediction for precursors for rare events
• Prediction of human response to critical autonomy functions
Sharing data from the
cupola aboard the
International Space
Station (ISS). (NASA)
122
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.3.3 Goal and Task Negotiation

Goal and task negotiation technologies support agreement on current
and future activities, their priorities, and their disposition among
elements or systems.
• Space mission planning systems
• Airline Operations Center (also known as Airline Operations Control Center)
• Context-based function allocation between humans, robotic agents, and habitat
TX10.3.4 Operational Trust Building

Operational trust building technologies assure that the system is
operating in a manner consistent with expectations of all elements.
• Aircraft Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA)
• Aircraft navigation performance monitoring
• Transition of autonomy levels between crewed and uncrewed habitats
TX10.4 Engineering and

Integrity
This area covers design considerations, processes, and properties
necessary to implement autonomy.
TX10.4.1 Verification and Validation of Autonomous

Systems
A view of the mockup
Verification and validation (V&V) technologies determine that an
arm, end effector, autonomous system meets the requirements (verification) and fulfills its
and lander top deck intended purpose (validation).
of Insight during a
simulation. (NASA) Example Technologies
• Scalable formal methods for adaptive and uncertain systems (i.e., model checking, theorem
proving, static analysis)
• Model validation frameworks
• Work analysis and operations concepts for autonomous behaviors
• Uncertainty propagation analysis
123
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.4.2 Test and Evaluation of Autonomous

Systems
Test and evaluation technologies characterize the functionality and
capabilities of the autonomous system.
• Automated systems testing
• Model-based testing and accreditation
• Statistical edge-case testing approaches
• Non-destructive testing
• Testbeds for assessment of autonomous systems in laboratory and operational settings
TX10.4.3 Operational Assurance of Autonomous

Systems
Operational assurance confirms, before or during operations, that an
autonomous system is operating safely, efficiently, and in a manner that
does not adversely affect the operation of other systems.
• Runtime monitoring
• Certifications for adaptive systems
• Model invalidation
• Operational approval method for complex integrated systems
• Risk management approaches
TX10.4.4 Modeling and Simulation of Autonomous

Systems
Modeling and simulation technologies represent an autonomous system
and/or its operation for use in system design, evaluation, or operational
assessment.
• Monte Carlo techniques
• Immersive environments
• Standardized simulation infrastructure and frameworks
• Model-based systems engineering
124
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
TX10.4.5 Architecture and Design of Autonomous

Systems
This area covers methods and tools for system composition and
development that promote the existence and support the assessment of
attributes of the system, such as performance, resilience, robustness,
scalability, safety, and reliability.
• Correct-by-design controller synthesis
• Scalable frameworks
• Contract-based design
• Fault-tolerant design
• Distributed communications infrastructure
TX10.X Other Autonomous

Systems
This area covers autonomous systems technologies that are not otherwise
An artist’s rendering of a series of mobile, autonomous robots working together on the

surface of Mars. (NASA/Phil Smith)
125
TX10 Autonomous
Systems
126
TX11
Software,
Modeling,
Simulation, and
Information
Processing
Overview
This area focuses on enabling the NASA mission by developing modeling,
simulation, information technology, and software technologies that ultimately
increase NASA’s understanding and mastery of the physical world.
127
128
TX11 Software, Modeling,
Simulation, and
Information Processing
TX11.1 Software
Development, Engineering,
and Integrity
This area covers technologies for the design, development, testing and
verification of software systems.
TX11.1.1 Tools and Methodologies for Software

Design and Development
Tools and methodologies for software design and development provides
frameworks, languages, tools, processes, and standards that will
enable the management of both short- and long-term complexity in the
development and test of flight, ground, and model software.
• Software Development Model Based and Auto Code Generation Techniques
• Metrics useful for engineering and management for determining software quality, safety,
and security
• Formal methods verification of software requirements and design
• Compiler directive languages for portable high-performance and hybrid computing
• Static code analyzers
• System Level Modeling
TX11.1.2 Verification and Validation of Software

Boeing’s Structural Test Systems
Article of its CST-100 The procedures and testing used to determine that a software system meets
Starliner spacecraft
arrives at the company’s
the requirements (verification) and fulfills its intended purpose (validation).
Huntington Beach,
California, facilities for
evaluations. Built to
the specifications of an • Model-based testing
operational spacecraft, • Payloads and Components Real-Time Automated Test System (PACRATS)
the STA is intended to • Code coverage testing techniques
be evaluated through
a series of thorough • Continuous automated software analysis and testing techniques
testing conditions. • SysML Model Based Systems Engineering (MBSE)
(NASA)
129
Simulation, and
TX11.1.3 Test and Evaluation

This area covers the testing environment, simulations, models, and
procedures used to evaluate software system functionality and capabilities
in software-only and integrated software-hardware testbeds.
• Real-time and non-real-time test environments
• Mechanism models
• Command and control simulation
• Non-integrated subsystem testing
• Extended testability analysis tools
• Payloads and components
TX11.1.4 Operational Assurance

This area covers the procedures, processes, and standards used to assure
that a software system while operating is executing in a manner that does
not affect the operation of other systems and protects safety and efficiency
during operations.
• Software partitioning technologies
• Fault tolerance techniques
• Common mode failure techniques
• Software fault detection approaches
• Systems and methods for active diagnosis and self-healing of software systems
TX11.1.5 Architecture and Design of Software

Systems
This area covers the development of conceptual / behavioral models and
the development of system specifications including resilience and the
human roles in a system.
• Software development methodologies that emphasize modeling and/or human interaction
• Human/machine interfaces and interactions
• Astronaut programming and fault management interfaces
130
Simulation, and
TX11.1.6 Real-Time Software

Real-time software is designed for use onboard spacecraft or aircraft to
control or manage the vehicle where timing is critical, providing a level
of guarantee that a task can complete or an action will be taken by their
specified timing requirements.
• Fault detection response
• Mechanism control, engine/thruster control
• Science data sampling
• Image exposure control; guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C)
TX11.1.7 Frameworks, Languages, Tools, and

Standards
A common set of frameworks, languages, tools, and standards will enable
the management of both short- and long-term complexity in sharing,
exchanging, and integrating software solutions from diverse sources. These
technologies will reduce the costs associated with software development.
• Reusable software libraries
• Common simulation frameworks
• Common ground system architectures
• Common communication protocols
• Common standards for trajectory parameterization/models
• Common command and data handling architectures
TX11.1.8 Software Analysis and Design Tools

A software analysis and design tool is a computer program that software
developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other
software programs and applications. A collection of software tools provides
programming support capabilities throughout the software life cycle.
• Software development, test, and load testing tools
• Defect tracking tools
• Static analysis tools
• Software configuration management tools
• Security testing tools
• Data management tools; compilers; and multi-core and distributed processing
131
Simulation, and
TX11.1.9 Software Cyber Security

Software cyber security prevents, detects, and responds to attacks on
mission systems by applying secure coding and development practices.
Software cyber security requires IT technologies for assurance of full-lifecycle
information integrity, cybersecurity situational awareness, and software
developer security analysis for space, ground and aeronautical software.
• Secure development environments to control authorized access
• Secure coding practices and tools for mission systems
• Security verification of externally developed software
TX11.2 Modeling
Modeling technologies support autonomous, integrated, and interoperable
modeling capabilities throughout NASA’s mission portfolios.
TX11.2.1 Software Modeling and Model Checking

Software modeling and modeling checking (also known as Defect
Identification and Mitigation) technologies utilize or create models of the
software logic and data flows within the larger system context in order to
analyze cyber-physical interactions, generate semantically well-formed
source code, or generate tests for full code coverage.
• Hybrid model checking

• Automated software testing environment
• Software development environment with program synthesis
The NASA Sea Level Change Data Analysis Tool (DAT) has been
designed to allow for quick-look comparisons and analysis of NASA
datasets of sea level change. The datasets range from sea level
observations, to ice observations, to model output to quickly study
anomalies and get immediate results on potential relations between
different datasets. (NASA)
132
Simulation, and
TX11.2.2 Integrated Hardware and Software

Modeling
Integrated hardware and software modeling technologies provide the
ability to evaluate hardware and software systems early in the design
process; expose the complex and unintended interactions between
the hardware and software; transform designs into models that can be
assessed and analyzed for integrated system performance; ensure
verification of interface requirements; and identify possible failure modes
early in the design process and continuously use the model throughout the
development, testing, and operation of the system.
• Hardware/software (HW/SW) interface modeling specification language
• Intelligent hardware and software interface reasoning framework
• Automated design specification knowledge capture system
TX11.2.3 Human-System Performance Modeling

Human-system performance modeling ensures that new and relevant
human-related technologies are infused into all vehicle and habitat
designs and associated operational concepts. Digital human models have
their greatest impact on mission design if the validated models can be
seamlessly integrated within mission models.
• Integrated human-systems models
• Human digital twin
• Toolset for automated task generation for human-system modeling
• Augmented reality and virtual reality (AR/VR)
TX11.2.4 Science Modeling

Science modeling uses mathematical models to quantify the physical
processes as a function of underlying variables.
• Fortran compatible and interoperable parallel libraries
• High performance processor toolset for science modeling
• Quality metrics for science data
• Toolset for concurrent data diagnostics and acquisition for science modeling
• Software infrastructure for sensor webs
• Planetary contaminant modeling
133
Simulation, and
TX11.3 Simulation
Simulation technologies provide engineering data and insight into the level
of risk across the entire lifecycle of NASA’s distributed, heterogeneous,
and long-lived mission systems.
TX11.3.1 Distributed Simulation

Distributed simulation provides the ability to model the sequential (time- and
state-based) behavior of a defined system across a geographically-distributed
and network-connected collection of heterogeneous computer systems.
• Immersive environments for distributed simulation of NASA systems
• High-speed computer networks
• Standardized NASA simulation interoperability infrastructure
• Standardized NASA simulation data exchange standard
• Cross-domain simulation toolset and integration framework
TX11.3.2 Integrated System Lifecycle Simulation

Integrated system lifecycle simulation enables the interfaces, algorithms,
and collaborative, networked platforms necessary for development of large,
complex, multi-decadal, systems of systems.
• Model and simulation interface specifications
• Federated simulations
• Enterprise-level modeling and simulation repositories
• Digital thread
• SysML MBSE tool/data base driven digital platform technology
X-57 principal investigator
Sean Clarke flies the
X-57 simulator at NASA’s
Armstrong Flight Research
Center, examining ideal
maneuvers and reaction
times for flight. (NASA/
Lauren Hughes)
134
Simulation, and
TX11.3.3 Model-Based Systems Engineering

(MBSE)
Simulation-based systems engineering employs computational modeling
and simulation methods to aid in design, development, certification, and
sustainment of complex aerospace vehicles and systems throughout
their lifecycles. These technologies support critical decision-making
by mitigating the effects of variability and uncertainty for missions and
mission environments where testing and measurement systems alone are
insufficient or cost-prohibitive.
• Multi-Domain Modeling (MDM) Frameworks
• High-Performance Simulations (HPS)
• Adaptive Model Updating (ADU) Toolset
• Advanced Diagnostics and Prognostics (ADP) Toolset
• Robust Decision-Making (RDM) Framework
• Onboard predictive physics-based vehicle simulation
• Digital twin
TX11.3.4 Simulation-Based Training and Decision

Support Systems
Simulation-based training and decision support systems provide new
approaches for the development of human-in-the-loop full mission testing
and training simulations that are needed to reduce time and costs and
ensure mission success and safety.
• Onboard simulation-based trainers
• Integrated mission human-in-the-loop simulation system
• Digital-human-in-the-loop simulation system
135
Simulation, and
TX11.3.5 Exascale Simulation

Physics-based exascale environments are needed to support the
emerging requirements of multifaceted mathematics in complex
systems, such as algorithms and analysis of methodologies for multi-
scale and multi-physics simulation. These environments extend
simulation performance and capability, the ability to seamlessly generate
representative meshes, and the ability to numerically validate exascale
data from various sources in near-real time.
• Extreme-scale software for modeling and simulation
• Extreme-scale geometry and grid generation environments
• Extreme-scale numerical validation environment
TX11.3.6 Uncertainty Quantification and

Nondeterministic Simulation Methods
Uncertainty quantification and nondeterministic simulation methods
identify, classify, model, and propagate all forms of uncertainty present
in a system to enable understanding and management of their impact on
system performance, resources, robustness, reliability, and safety.
• Robust System Uncertainty Modeling Toolset
• Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) Toolset
• Discrete Event Simulation (DES)
• Aleatory and Epistemic Uncertainty Assessment Toolset
• Toolset for Global Sensitivity Analysis of Uncertain Systems
• Software Toolset for Robust Design in the Presence of Uncertainty
• Surrogate Models for Uncertainty Quantification
• Six sigma analysis and optimization
• First and second order reliability methods
• Importance sampling
• Mean value methods
• Monte Carlo Sobol and descriptive sampling
136
Simulation, and
TX11.3.7 Multiscale, Multiphysics, and Multifidelity

Simulation
Multiscale, multiphysics, and multifidelity simulation develops methods
needed to represent physical processes at operative length and time
scales and unify best-physics representations across multiple disciplines.
• Sequential Multiscale Analysis Toolset
• Concurrent Multiscale Analysis Toolset
• Energetic Extreme Flux Analysis Toolset
• Chemically Extreme Environment Analysis Toolset
• Thermomechanically Extreme Environment Analysis Toolset
• Electro-Magnetic Extreme Analysis Toolset
• Lattice-Boltzmann computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
• Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian Method
• Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics
• Discrete Element Method
• Parametric and Topological Optimization
• Low to high frequency electromagnetic simulation
• High accuracy acoustic modeling
• Dynamic Behavior modeling/Multiscale Simulation tool
TX11.4 Information
Processing
The center of the Milky
Way galaxy imaged by This area covers technologies for triaging data with intelligent onboard
NASA Spitzer Space algorithms and thoroughly analyzing the data using ground-based systems.
Telescope is displayed These technologies include data lifecycles, intelligent data understanding,
on a quarter-of-a- semantic technologies, collaborative science and engineering, cyber
billion-pixel, high- infrastructure and security, digital assistant, and edge computing.
definition 23-foot-wide
7-meter LCD science
visualization screen at
NASA Ames Research
Center. (NASA)
137
Simulation, and
TX11.4.1 Science, Engineering, and Mission Data

Lifecycle
Science, engineering, and mission data lifecycle technologies support the
increasingly data-intensive nature of NASA science and exploration missions
including the need to consider the data lifecycle from the point of collection to
the application and use of the data.
• Reference information system architecture frameworks

• Distributed information architecture frameworks
• Information modeling frameworks
• Onboard data capture and triage methodologies
• Real-time data triage and data reduction methodologies
• Scalable data processing frameworks
• Massive engineering and science data analysis methodologies
• Remote data access framework
• Massive data movement services
• Large-scale data dissemination environments
• Toolset for massive model data
TX11.4.2 Intelligent Data Understanding

Intelligent data understanding technologies provide the ability to automatically
mine and analyze datasets that are large, noisy, and of varying modalities,
including discrete, continuous, text, and graphics, and extract or discover
information that can be used for further analysis or decision making.
• Intelligent data collection and prioritization toolset
• Event detection and intelligent action toolset
• Data on demand toolset
• Intelligent data search and mining toolset
• Data fusion toolset
• Information representation standards for persistent data
• Artificial intelligence (AI)
• Robot-automated cross-program standardization
138
Simulation, and
TX11.4.3 Semantic Technologies

Technologies that utilize natural language processing to combine disparate
data sets and mine large data sets for new insights. These technologies
ingest textual (and mixed text/numeric/graphical) documentation,
metadata, and data to automate data assimilation, data mining, and data
characterization tasks.
• Semantic Enabler for Data (Text, Binary, and Databases)
• Ultra Large-Scale Visualization and Incremental Toolset
• Semantic Bridge Framework, Analysis of Competing Hypotheses (ACH) Framework
• Shape similarity search
• Three Dimensional (3D) shape and semantic comparison
TX11.4.4 Collaborative Science and Engineering

Collaborative science and engineering technologies allow distributed
teams with disparate expertise and resources, including those of partner
agencies and contractors, to work in a unified manner.
• Immersive Data Explorer
• Distributed Collaborative Engineering Frameworks
• Distributed Collaborative Science Data Analysis Frameworks
TX11.4.5 Cyber Infrastructure

Cyber infrastructure includes storage, computation, network
communications, data management services (including data archiving),
distributed computing, and cross-cutting software services.
• On-demand, multi-mission data storage and computation
• Scalable data management frameworks
• Scalable data archives systems
• High performance networking
• Block chain
139
Simulation, and
TX11.4.6 Cyber Security

Cyber security involves protecting information systems and data from
attack, damage, or unauthorized access, and requires technologies
for assurance of full-lifecycle information integrity and cyber security
situational awareness and analysis.
• Cyber security and information assurance framework
• Cyber security situational assessment environment
• User/asset geographic tracking system
• Anomaly detection system
• Secure cloud bursting infrastructure
• Cyber security situational assessment of environment for mission operations
• Security analysis and verification tools
• Techniques for verifying security requirements
TX11.4.7 Digital Assistant

A digital assistant is a set of artificial intelligence applications with a
natural language interface that perform information processing or low-level
cognitive tasks on behalf of the user.
• Pilot or astronaut advisor (e.g. CIMON)
TX11.4.8 Edge Computing

Edge computing is a combination of hardware and software technologies
that enable information processing at the edge of network where the
information is acquired.
• In-situ data analysis
• In-situ data triage
• Autonomous sensor targeting
• Autonomous event detection
140
Simulation, and
TX11.5 Mission Architecture,

Systems Analysis, and
Concept Development
This area covers technologies to support the definition of mission
architectures, performing systems analysis and vehicle or concept
development activities.
TX11.5.1 Tools and Methodologies for Defining

Mission Architectures or Mission Design
This area covers high level or generic tools, methodologies, and practices
used to support the definition of mission architecture concepts, mission
designs, and architecture strategies.
• Mission planner/monitor
• Adaptive systems framework
• Multi-agent master framework
• Non-smooth optimization methods
• Operational research
• Combinatorial optimization
TX11.5.2 Tools and Methodologies for Performing

Systems Analysis
A close up shot This area covers technologies that enable systems analyses that yield
of the Playbook meaningful insights into novel, complex, and highly coupled systems
mission planning ranging from rapid turnaround impact assessments to variable order and
interface. Astronaut fidelity models and non-deterministic methods.
Andreas Mogensen,
from the European Example Technologies
Space Agency, using
Playbook during • Trade space analysis tools
the NASA Extreme
Environments Mission • Design and data visualization
Operations (NEEMO) • Automated system-level performance evaluation and characterization tool
19 Mission. (NASA) • Dynamic behavior modeling/SysML MBSE tool
• Coupled trajectory/spacecraft/system design
141
Simulation, and
TX11.5.3 Tools and Methodologies for Vehicle or

Concept Definition Activities
This area covers tools and methodologies for conceptual-level exploration
of vehicle systems including vehicle definition studies.
• High fidelity vehicle simulator
TX11.6 Ground Computing

This area covers advanced computing and data storage technologies for
big data analysis and high-fidelity physics-based simulations for Earth and
space science, as well as aerospace research and engineering.
TX11.6.1 Exascale Supercomputer

Exascale supercomputers provides peak computational capability of
≥1 exaFLOPS,1018 floating point operations per second, for exascale
performance of NASA computations, with excellent energy efficiency
and reliability, to support NASA’s exponentially growing high-end
computational needs.
• Commercial sector supplied supercomputer at another government agency sustained 14.4
petaFLOPS (PFLOPS = 10^15 floating point operations per second) on a fluid dynamics
simulation
TX11.6.2 Automated Exascale Software

Development Toolset
The U.S. Geological
The Automated Exascale Software Development Toolset provides Survey’s Earth Resources
automated, exascale application performance monitoring, analysis, Observation and Science
tuning, and scaling. (EROS) Center holds
petabytes of data gathered
Example Technologies from Earth observation
satellites. (USGS/NASA)
• Auto parallelizing compiler for shared-memory computers
142
Simulation, and
TX11.6.3 Exascale Supercomputer File System

The Exascale Supercomputer File System provides online data storage
capacity of ≥ 1 exabyte, enabling data storage for exascale modeling
and simulation (M&S) and data analysis, with sufficient performance and
reliability to maintain productivity for a broad array of NASA applications.
• 20 petabyte parallel distributed file system for the Pleiades supercomputer
TX11.6.4 Quantum Computer

Quantum computers utilize quantum effects such as superposition and
entanglement to enable the solution of certain computational problems,
such as optimization or pattern recognition, where an exhaustive search
of all possibilities or computations by a conventional computer would be
infeasible.
• 7-qubit quantum computer
TX11.6.5 Public Cloud Supercomputer

Public cloud supercomputers provide additional resources for NASA
supercomputer users, such as for mission-critical computing in an
emergency.
• Huge public clouds exist, such as those operated by the commercial sector, which can do
computing on demand
TX11.6.6 Cognitive Computer

Cognitive computers provide efficient, adaptable brain-like computing,
using synthetic neurons and synapses, programmed by learning from
instances, to sense, predict, and reason.
• Brain-inspired chip architecture based on a scalable, interconnected, configurable network of
“neurosynaptic cores”
143
Simulation, and
TX11.6.7 High Performance Data Analytics Platform

High performance data analytics platforms provide a computing and
storage environment optimized for high-performance data analytics,
supporting interactive exploration and analysis with petabyte-scale
observational and computed data sets.
• Data is downloaded from various sources to the local computer, where commercial and
custom software perform interactive data analysis
TX11.6.8 Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-
demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing
resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services)
that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management
effort or service provider interaction.
• Cloud-based data archive centers for science data
TX11.X Other Software,

Modeling, Simulation, and
This area covers software, modeling, simulation, and information
processing technologies that are not otherwise covered by the sub-
paragraphs outlined in TX11 of the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy.
Copernicus, a generalized spacecraft trajectory design and

optimization system, is capable of solving a wide range of trajectory
problems such as planet or moon centered trajectories, libration
point trajectories, planet-moon transfers and tours, and all types of
interplanetary and asteroid/comet missions. (NASA)
144
TX12
Materials,
Structures,
Mechanical
Systems, and
Manufacturing
Overview
This section covers technologies for developing new materials with improved
or combined properties, structures that use materials to meet system
performance requirements, and innovative manufacturing processes.
145
146
TX12 Materials, Structures,
Mechanical Systems, and
Manufacturing
TX12.1 Materials
This area covers synthesized and tailored materials that have multiple
functions to meet specific mission needs.
TX12.1.1 Lightweight Structural Materials

Lightweight structural materials reduce the mass and increase the
efficiency of structures and structure components including advanced
metallics, nanomaterials, polymers, matrix composites, multifunctional
materials, damage detecting/damage tolerant materials, and self-repairing/
self-healing materials.
• Nanofibers, fibers, resins and adhesives that enable the tailoring of large monolithic structures
• Materials that perform multiple functions, materials that include mechanisms for fast,
in-situ repairs
• Topology optimized structures; architectured foams
• Novel low density metal
• Composite alloys
TX12.1.2 Computational Materials

Computational materials predict life, tailor or improve properties, and guide
experimental validation.
• Multiscale modeling, linking atomistic to continuum scale for life prediction modelling and
tailoring of structural, thermal, functional materials
NASA’s Space Launch • Characterization techniques to validate the models
System (SLS) core
• Integrated computational materials engineering (ICME), a product design technique
stage is installed
in Test Stand 4697 • Materials Genome Initiative (MGI) which includes the infrastructure (e.g. materials databases)
at NASA’s Marshall to discover, manufacture, and deploy advanced materials
Space Flight Center
in Huntsville, Alabama
in July 2019. (NASA/
Boeing)
147
Manufacturing
TX12.1.3 Flexible Material Systems

Flexible material systems are textiles and other materials that can be
easily bent without breaking, including materials for soft robotics, flexible
sensors and electronics, and flexible structural materials. Flexible material
systems also encompass metal structures that use interconnected rigid
connections and compliant metal structures that can deform through
elastic deformation.
• Applications to habitats and deployable structures, balloons, parachutes, space suits,
metalized films and solar sails, tethers, multifunctional materials that include materials that
enable the morphing or deployment of aerospace structures, compliant mechanisms based on
elastic deformation of thin sections, flexible metal cloth created through additive
manufacturing, biobarrier fabrics for planetary protection
TX12.1.4 Materials for Extreme Environments

Materials for extreme environments protect against harsh environments
and operating conditions. These hot structures are designed to deliver
component capabilities that sustain loads and pressures, provide stiffness
and stability, or provide support or containment at operating conditions
typically thousands of degrees above room temperature.
• Materials used for radiation environments, heat shields, cryo-insulators, high-temperature
materials including nanomaterials, metallic, ceramic matrix composites, ultrahigh temperature
ceramics, advanced alloys, insulators, materials that resist abrasive wear, materials with high
wear resistance in vacuum, controllable Composite Technology for Exploration (CTE)
materials, and materials for ultra-low temperatures including amorphous metals
TX12.1.5 Coatings
Coatings are materials, nanomaterials, and amorphous materials that
provide thin, lightweight barrier protection from environmental hazards
that include light, dust, fouling, temperature, harsh gases, chemical attack
icing, putative microbial life forms, and atomic oxygen.
• Includes films, optical blacks, nanofibers, nanocomposites, thermal barrier coatings,
environmental coatings
148
Manufacturing
TX12.1.6 Materials for Electrical Power Generation,

Energy Storage, Power Distribution and Electrical
Machines
This area covers materials for energy generation, harvesting, storage
and distribution with application to fuel cells, batteries, capacitors, energy
harvesting devices, motors and generators, and thermal management of
power electronics.
• Solid oxide, advanced anodes, advanced cathodes, polymer electrolyte membranes, graphene
sheets, piezoelectric and thermoelectric materials, phase change materials, magnetostrictive
materials, high strength magnetic materials, superconducting materials, amorphous and
nanocrystalline coatings, diamond-like coatings, thermally sprayed materials, cold sprayed
materials, hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces, nano-patterned surfaces, coatings that
provide sensing
TX12.1.7 Special Materials

This area covers materials with specialized functions.
• Adhesive materials concepts, nanofiltering and fluid barrier materials, porous/non-porous
materials, optically transparent window materials, materials with negative refractive index,
aerogels, metamaterials, topological materials, functionally graded materials, metallic
glasses, nanocrystalline metals, materials with controllable CTE, multifunctional laminates,
shape memory alloys, high entropy alloys, multi-functional materials
TX12.1.8 Smart Materials

Smart materials enable actuation of systems such as morphing wings,
thermal/mechanical actuators, and superelasticity.
• Shape memory alloys
• Piezoelectrics
149
Manufacturing
TX12.2 Structures
This area covers lightweight, robust, multifunctional, smart structures that
are reliable and predictable.
TX12.2.1 Lightweight Concepts

Lightweight concepts are efficient structures and structural systems
using new and innovative approaches to develop beyond-state-of-the-
art mass reductions for affordable, enhanced performance, reliable, and
environmentally responsible aerospace applications.
• Components for space vehicles and surface habitats, in-space depots and landers, solar or
antenna arrays, complex precision deployables, propulsion systems, and terrestrial airframes
and engines which function either as primary load bearing or as secondary structures
• Technologies used for these components may include either rigid construction (e.g., shell
or truss structures) or expandable configurations (e.g., inflatable structures) having efficient
structural geometries (e.g., hat-stiffened shells) constructed from advanced materials (e.g.,
polymer matrix composites) using advanced fabrication methods (e.g., additive manufacturing)
TX12.2.2 Design and Certification Methods

Design and certification methods balance a mixture of high-fidelity
analytical, deterministic and probabilistic tools, failure prediction
capabilities, and validation of the tools with test data to create a model-
based design, development, test, and evaluation process that provides for
“Virtual Digital Certification.”
• High-fidelity, integrated, verified tools and processes for analysis, design, manufacturing,
certification and sustainment of structures under all loading and environmental conditions
• Improved methods for allowable predictions and models for predictive failure (especially An initial, hand-assembled
composites) version of the wing,
illustrating the lattice
pattern used in its design.
(NASA/Kenny Cheung)
150
Manufacturing
TX12.2.3 Reliability and Sustainment

Reliability and sustainment aims to develop and include statistically
based designs, tools and methods for dependable determination of the
participation of structural reliability into the overall flight vehicle reliability
concomitant with the needed autonomy for complex missions.
• Predictive damage/life extension prediction methods
• Structural/thermal health monitoring
• Virtual digital fleet leader/digital twin sustainment
TX12.2.4 Tests, Tools, and Methods

An integrated package of hardware and software allows high-fidelity model
correlation at the vehicle level to better understand vehicle response to
flight environments and to better incorporate this information to advance
certification, reliability, and sustainment for aerospace applications.
• Integrated flight test data identification model
• Full field data acquisition system and model verification and validation
• Virtual digital certification method and system
• Virtual digital fleet leader testing
TX12.2.5 Innovative, Multifunctional Concepts

Innovative and multifunctional technologies combine subsystems/
capabilities into the structure for mass and volume savings beyond state
of the art, include reconfigurable, adaptive and smart structures.
• Multifunctional pressurized/non-pressurized structures including multi-use structures
• Actively controlled and adaptive structures
• Integrated windows
• Four dimensional (4D) printed parts
• Advanced heat exchangers with load-bearing capacity
• Excavating tools with integrated sensing
• Radiation and debris shielding with integrated sensing
151
Manufacturing
TX12.3 Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems improve life and reliability of mechanisms to extend
mission life. These systems improve the precision alignment capability of
mechanisms to extend the capability of deployable structures.
TX12.3.1 Deployables, Docking, and Interfaces

Deployables, docking, and interfaces combine and/or separate aerospace
vehicles and aerospace vehicle systems either remotely or with humans in
the loop.
• Interfaces that streamline connectivity
• Precision hinges, latches, grappling mechanisms, low-shock releasing and deploying
mechanisms
• Reliable packaging techniques for deployables
• Applications to all ranges of structure sizes
• Provisions for operation in harsh environment
• Integrated Docking and Automated Rendezvous Systems Design, Docking Systems for
Exploration
• Deployables such as solar arrays, antennae, booms, reflectors, and solar sails
TX12.3.2 Electro-Mechanical, Mechanical, and

Micromechanisms
This area covers the development and testing of tools and interfaces for
electro-mechanical, mechanical, and micromechanisms.
• Robotic tools and interfaces that will allow robotic assembly, manipulation, and servicing of
aerospace vehicles and components as well as interfaces
Recently, engineers
• Fluid transfer and refueling at Northrop Grumman
• Provisions for operation in harsh environment Corporation in Redondo
Beach, California were
testing the Deployable
Tower Assembly (DTA)
for the James Webb
Space Telescope (JWST)
to ensure it worked
properly. (NASA/Northrop
Grumman)
152
Manufacturing
TX12.3.3 Design and Analysis Tools and Methods

This area covers the combination of numerical analysis methods of
different disciplines to enable creation of a single model of aerospace
vehicle mechanical systems, reducing overall stack-up of margins.
TX12.3.4 Reliability, Life Assessment, and Health

Monitoring
This area covers technologies for timely anomaly detection, prognosis,
and life assessment prediction for vehicles or mechanical systems.
• Integrated health monitoring systems including embedded sensors

• Damage and remaining life prediction techniques
TX12.3.5 Certification Methods

Certification methods provide the ability to model complex or integrated
system failure modes with high confidence.
• Digital probabilistic representation and virtual evaluation of the flight system—including
incorporation of testing results—with comprehensive diagnostic and prognostic capabilities to
enable efficient development and certification and safe, autonomous operation throughout the
service life of system
TX12.3.6 Mechanical Drive Systems

This area covers materials to enable advanced mechanical and magnetic
gears for power transmission, and high strength materials for advanced
flywheel mechanical energy storage.
• High capacity, high efficiency magnetic materials
• Materials that maintain elasticity under cryogenic conditions
153
Manufacturing
TX12.3.7 Mechanism Life Extension Systems

Mechanism life extension involves the limitations of mechanism life in
extreme and harsh environments, particularly overcoming the life-limiting
properties of current lubrication and components in harsh environments of
dust and cryogenics.
• Long-life bearing/lube system
• Cryo long-life actuator
TX12.3.8 Docking and Berthing Mechanisms and

Fixtures
Technologies that enable a spacecraft to affect docking and berthing of
another spacecraft or natural space object (small body) include robotic
manipulators and tools for docking systems, berthing systems, and any
other system used to affect docking and berthing of an object. Additionally,
these technologies can include those that are specifically designed to
facilitate docking and berthing, such as passive berthing and docking
fixtures. Note: The robotic manipulator and tools for capture are captured
in TX04.5.5 Capture mechanisms and fixtures.
• Dexterous/long reach robotics
• Other grippers
• Marman ring & other berthing mechanism
• Stinger/LAE docking mechanism
• Lunar/Mars surface robotic docking mechanism
• Electromagnetic docking
• Crew docking mechanism
• Deep space crew docking system (deep space, Lunar surface, Mars surface)
• Touch and go sampling mechanism
• Harpoon
• berthing and docking fixtures
154
Manufacturing
TX12.4 Manufacturing
This area covers innovative physical manufacturing processes and
integrate with analysis and design through a ‘digital thread.’
TX12.4.1 Manufacturing Processes

Deployables, docking, and interfaces combine and/or separate aerospace
vehicles and aerospace vehicle systems either remotely or with humans in
the loop.
• Additive manufacturing of metallics and nanofiber/fiber/ceramic matrix based composites,
especially for large structures
• In-space fabrication, assembly and repair
• Advanced casting and injection molding of metal components, including amorphous metals,
metal matrix composites and high-strength aluminum alloys
• Advanced subtractive manufacturing processes including wire-Electrical Discharge Machining
(EDM), water jetting and surface finishing
• Advanced laminate or sheet metal fabrication
TX12.4.2 Intelligent Integrated Manufacturing

Intelligent integrated manufacturing technologies comprise the “digital
thread” model-based manufacturing environment.
• Integration of smart sensors, controls, and measurement, analysis, decision support, and
communication software tools for process control
• Model-based, digital implementation that integrates design, manufacturing and product
This rocket engine fuel support processes
pump has hundreds
of parts including a
turbine that spins
at over 90,000 rpm.
This turbopump was
made with additive
manufacturing and
had 45 percent fewer
parts than pumps
made with traditional
manufacturing.
(NASA)
153
Manufacturing
TX12.4.3 Electronics and Optics Manufacturing

Process
Electronics and optics manufacturing process produces logic, electrical,
electronic components of increased efficiency, for extreme environments
and precision optics component manufacturing.
• Optical materials, components, structures
• Precision optics for large scale applications
• Advanced architecture nanoelectronics
• One dimension/two dimension (1D/2D) nanoelectronics
• Vacuum-tube nanoelectronics
• Flexible electronics
TX12.4.4 Sustainable Manufacturing

Sustainable manufacturing reduces (or eliminates) hazardous materials in
production processes.
• Removing hazardous materials from by-product of manufacturing processes, using green
energetic compounds
TX12.4.5 Nondestructive Evaluation and Sensors

Non-destructive devices and nanodevices deployment and embedding
rapidly and autonomously interrogate large structure areas, understand
as-build conditions, accurately characterize structural integrity and
environment, and detect and assess anomalies.
• Special focus on increased sensitivity and selectivity, with reduced mass, power consumption
and a smaller overall footprint
• Sensors, sensor networks, processing software for data reduction and damage location and
life prediction
154
Manufacturing
TX12.4.6 Repurpose Processes

Repurpose processes support the recycling and reuse of spent material
and structures at destinations, for repair or new application.
• Reuse vehicle tanks for habitats and storage
• Packaging for building material
• Metals components as additive manufacturing feedstock
TX12.5 Structural Dynamics

Loads and Structural Dynamics is a specialty branch of structural and
mechanical engineering that deals with the determination of the vibration
response of a structure subjected to dynamic (time varying) forces in
its operational environment. It involves the interaction of aerodynamic,
dynamic, elastic, damping, inertia, and control forces acting on vehicles and
structures. Included are response and stability investigations of linear and
nonlinear systems using analytical, empirical, and experimental techniques.
Structural dynamics technologies support effective and efficient
deterministic and stochastic predictions of the mechanical (global and
local static and dynamic) environments and associated structural dynamic
behavior for the structural and system capabilities for future aerospace
missions. Included are test technologies and techniques used in the
verification and validation of structural and mechanical systems and
associated numerical models for critical loads and environments.
TX12.5.1 Loads and Vibration

ESA’s European
Service Module This area covers advanced loads and dynamics analysis capabilities
arrived in Cleveland with a focus on non-linear modeling and analysis and uncertainty
in November and was quantification. This area includes novel vibration control techniques
transported to NASA applicable to systems such as on-orbit docking and capture and advanced
Glenn’s Plum Brook
Station for testing
aero propulsion systems (e.g. electromagnetic loading of structures for
in the Space Power electric aircraft propulsion).
Facility in 2016.
(NASA) Example Technologies
• Development of variational coupled loads analysis techniques
• Advanced fast coupled loads analysis tools
• Enhanced structural nonlinear joint dynamics modeling
• Turbomachinery response analysis tools
155
Manufacturing
TX12.5.2 Vibroacoustics
This area covers modeling and analysis techniques for high/mid-frequency
range (e.g., Boundary Element Method based techniques).
• Enhanced internal payload fairing acoustic environment modeling approaches
• Advanced vibroacoustic model correlation techniques
• Structural damping integration methods (active/adaptive strategies to mitigate fatigue, failure,
control-structures interactions, structural vibration and acoustics)
TX12.5.3 Shock and Impact

This area covers enhanced modeling and correlation tools and techniques
with test validation.
• Shock analysis methods and tools
• Impact blast and fragmentation assessment tools
TX12.5.4 Test, Tools, and Methods

This area covers operational modal analysis for large space flight
hardware structural systems and multi-dimensional test techniques.
• Large structures operational modal analysis test techniques
• Smart dynamic testing approaches inclusive of multi-input/multi-output techniques
TX12.X Other Manufacturing,

Materials, and Structures
This area covers manufacturing, materials, and structures technologies that
are not otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX12 of the
2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy.
156
TX13
Ground, Test,
and Surface
Systems
Overview
The Ground, Test, and Surface Systems taxonomy includes technological
innovations in capabilities, infrastructure, and processes to prepare,
assemble, validate, execute, support, and maintain aeronautics & space
activities and operations, on Earth and on other planetary surfaces to address
risk, decrease operations and maintenance costs, and increase safety and
mission availability.
157
158
TX13 Ground, Test, and
Surface Systems
TX13.1 Infrastructure
Optimization
Optimization of infrastructure (the facilities, resources, commodities,
and support systems necessary to perform NASA missions) focuses on
technologies to decrease infrastructure complexity, reduce operations
and maintenance (O&M) costs, increase safety and reliability, and enable
multi-customer utilization. Optimization should provide the best balance
between required functionality, efficiency, flexibility and life-cycle costs.
TX13.1.1 Natural and Induced Environment

Characterization and Mitigation
Natural environments are defined as the naturally occurring conditions
(temperature, rain, corrosion, humidity, salt, lightning, dust, wind,
electrostatic charges, solar radiation, icing, etc.) to which mission
infrastructure will be subjected. Induced environments are defined as the
environments and conditions generated during the performance of activities
by the infrastructure during assembly, disassembly, reversible assembly,
testing, and processing on Earth or in space; and launch and recovery
operations. (e.g., vibration, shock, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI),
plume exhaust, hydrogen embrittlement, environmental impacts, etc.).
• Active and passive means to reduce acoustic energy associated with launch
• Electrostatic charge build-up resistant materials and coatings
• Advanced flame trench surface materials
• Automated deep-deployment sediment analysis
The completed • Materials compatible with advanced propulsion systems/commodities

spacecraft that will • Corrosion detection under coatings, lightning-induced effects assessment tools
carry the Mars 2020 • Acoustic noise cancellation system
rover to the Red
Planet next year • Environmental remediation technologies
hangs suspended • New ground processing methods that reduce waste and pollution
by cables inside the
Space Simulator
Facility at NASA’s Jet
Propulsion Laboratory
in Pasadena,
California. (NASA/
JPL-Caltech)
159
Surface Systems
TX13.1.2 Launch/Test/Ops Site Management

Launch/Test/Ops Site Management provides the facilities, servicing
equipment, methodologies, and an experienced support team needed for
safe processing, testing and launch of NASA’s flight vehicles.
• Collision avoidance and prognostics for cranes
• Variable geometry flame trenches
• Mobile launch pad kit
• Advanced flame trench surface materials
• Field repair through predictive and reconfigurable components
• Prognostics and diagnostics tools for ground operations
TX13.1.3 Commodity Recovery

Commodity conservation and recovery technologies are needed to optimize
use of mission consumables and recover unused commodities in systems,
commodities used to condition systems (such as purging), or commodities
that are mixed with other constituents as a part of a process.
• Helium waste stream recovery
• Hydrogen pooling mitigation
• Purge systems optimization
• Water recovery
• Helium purge instrumentation
• Helium capture, storage, and re-purification systems
160
Surface Systems
TX13.1.4 Propellant Production, Storage and

Transfer
Technology development for propellant production, storage, and transfer aims
to increase on-site production and improve storage capability, verify quality,
enhance distribution and conservation of fluids to reduce commodity costs
and losses (from boil off and non-optimal usage), eliminate waste (from lack
of commodity management and combustion products), mitigate hazards
exposure to personnel, and reduce servicing durations and frequencies.
• On-demand production of propellants
• Zero boil-off storage
• Toxic/green propellant storage and distribution
• Smart materials for leak detection
• Active/passive transfer technologies
• Production of propellants and other fluids from fresh/salt water, biomass or landfill
• Propellant loading and transfer technologies for reduced gravity environments
• Thermal insulation systems
TX13.1.5 Ground and Surface Logistics

Ground and surface logistics technologies reduce the size of the logistics
footprint; ensure timely availability of logistical support; ensure resilience
of the supply chain across programs; and ensure integrity of component
pedigrees through on-demand manufacturing, modeling supply chain
resilience, secure manufacturing technologies, and emerging parts planning
and location systems.
• Counterfeit part countermeasures

• Supply chain and supplier economic resilience modeling
• Digital product lifecycle management
• Service life prediction methods
• Built-in test enhanced life forecasting
• Calibration methods for surfaces systems
• Additive manufacturing of spare parts using in-situ surface materials
• Thermal insulation systems
161
Surface Systems
TX13.1.6 Test, Operations, and Systems Safety

Test, operations, and systems safety technological advancements for
monitoring and controlling the safety and performance requirements of flight
vehicles are aimed towards evolving situational awareness and providing real-
time insight into hazards, technical risk and performance margin.
• Non-traditional sensors for fault isolation
• Precision lightning strike locator system
• Virtual hazardous operations modeling
• On-demand, custom-fitted and lighter-weight Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Ground safety tools for radioactive payload processing robotic caretakers for hazardous
operations/locations, automated alignment and coupling systems
• Probabilistic risk modeling
• Risk-based assessments
• Multiphysics coupled therma-hydraulic and neutronics criticality models
TX13.1.7 Impact/Damage/Radiation-Resistant
Systems
Impact, damage, radiation-tolerant systems include approaches to enhance
system robustness in extreme environments and can range from very low
to high temperatures, pressures, etc. Robustness of systems can include
nanomaterials systems, metamaterials, radiation resistant materials, self-
repairing systems, improved interlaminar interfaces, multifunctional systems,
in-situ health monitoring, and repair mechanisms.
• Flexible structures
• Refractory materials hardened for foreign-object debris
• Self-healing systems
• Impact damage resistant ceramic nanocomposites
• Radiation hardened or resistant and shielding materials
• Carbon nanotube and graphene materials
• Nanosensors and embedded sensors for in-situ health monitoring
162
Surface Systems
TX13.2 Test and Qualification

This area covers the test and qualification environments necessary to
validate the performance of flight vehicles, components, and ground/
surface systems, including the methodologies and capabilities associated
with test and qualification performance.
TX13.2.1 Mechanical/Structural Integrity Testing

Mechanical/structural integrity testing characterizes material properties,
performance, and integrity to ensure reliable and safe structural
components and verifies component performance under dynamic
conditions and in cyclic processes.
• Advanced non-conventional Schlieren techniques
• Temperature/pressure sensitive paint
• Advanced force measurement system
• Quick demate and remate T-0 couplers
• Composite materials repair
• Accelerated corrosion and material degradation testing
• Smart materials for damage detection
• Dynamic impact photogrammetry
• High volume and high flow testing at high (6000psi) and ultra-high (>7500 psi) complex and
high thrust propulsion systems testing
TX13.2.2 Propulsion, Exhaust, and Propellant

Management
Propulsion, exhaust, and propellant management provides commodity
Test technicians at loading, rocket engine acoustic energy abatement, and propellant
Northrop Grumman’s
(formerly (Orbital ATK)
servicing capabilities to increase safety of operations.
facility in Promontory,
Utah, examine the
Space Launch System • Hyperspectral Imaging for cryogenic/toxic/non-hazardous fluids leak
(SLS) booster aft skirt,
• Fire detection and mitigation including propellant fire/flame detection
which is set up for final
validation testing of • Advanced techniques to scale up to a launch pad or engine test stand environment
its avionics command • Detonation/conflagration effects
and control system.
• Modular flame trench
(NASA/Orbital ATK)
• Universal propellant servicing system
• Small robots for repairs and mitigation actions
• Automated umbilicals
• Rocket exhaust capture and filtration
163
Surface Systems
TX13.2.3 Non-Destructive Inspection, Evaluation,

and Root Cause Analysis
Technologies and techniques are needed to perform “in-place” non-
destructive inspection and evaluation testing before and during the critical
path operations to ensure component performance during processing
and launch activities and enable testing to determine the root cause of
component failure.
• Miniaturized robotic inspection devices
• Radiography; integrated, multi-parameter, ground-powered sensors for non-destructive
evaluation
• Molecular agents for predictive health of fluid systems
• Composite Overwrap Pressure Vessel (COPV) analysis technologies
TX13.2.4 Verification and Validation of Ground, Test,

and Surface Systems
Verification and validation technologies enhance the ability to determine
the degree to which a ground, test, and surface systems design
implementation matches intended usage and meets life-cycle mission
concepts and critical performance requirements.
• Standardized wireless data acquisition systems
• Advanced high-speed photography
• Augmented reality for design, process engineering, and test support
TX13.2.5 Flight and Ground Testing Methodologies

This area covers technologies specific to enabling flight systems testing
for aeronautics and aerospace applications.
• Runway surface movement detection system
• Advanced overrun runway materials
• Formation flying
• Advanced antenna systems for flight operations
• Aerospace traffic control system
• Adaptive flight instrumentation
• Arc jet test capabilities for flight qualification
• Weather prediction models/aeroscience ground test facilities
164
Surface Systems
TX13.2.6 Advanced Life-Cycle Testing Techniques

This area covers technologies for high fidelity, useful life testing of
components and systems (fatigue, stress, thermal, fault recovery,
performance automation).
• Built-in test enhanced life forecasting
• Rapid test reconfigurability
• Accelerated life testing
• Adaptive systems
• Test autogeneration and execution
• Models and approaches for remaining useful life prognostics
• Fault detection, isolation and diagnosis; modeling, engineering and analysis tools
TX13.2.7 Test Instruments and Sensors

This area covers sensor, instrumentation, and data acquisition technologies
to enable specialized, repeatable, adaptive and highly specialized
verification and operational testing required for NASA missions.
• Integrated, multi-parameter, ground-powered sensors for continuous monitoring
• Radio frequency identification (RFID) wireless instrumentation systems
• Hyperspectral imaging
• Non-traditional sensors for fault isolation
• Ablation spectroscopy
165
Surface Systems
TX13.2.8 Environment Testing

Environment testing technologies verify and ensure that aeronautics,
aerospace and space systems can perform in the stringent environments
that define NASA missions, including natural/induced environments of shock,
vibration, temperature, thermal cycling, vacuum, humidity, radiation, dust,
corrosion, weather, acoustics, cryogenics, and micrometeoroid orbital debris.
• Multi-parameter testing, extreme environment characterization and prediction
• Corrosion real-time and accelerated testing
• Precision and small-scale data acquisition systems
• Outgassing and off gassing
• Material compatibility with optics
• Health monitoring
• Weather analysis
• Dust tolerant systems
• Passive and active systems to mitigate cryogenics losses
• In-situ health monitoring
TX13.3 Assembly, Integration,

and Launch
Assembly, integration, and launch is comprised of facilities, equipment,
processes, and skills that move components through the receiving and
inspection process, the assembly and test of subsystems, the integration
into the final launch configuration, and the final launch sequence activities.
New technologies and concepts can realize dramatic increases in
responsiveness and mission availability.
TX13.3.1 Offline Element Processing Exploration Ground

Offline element processing is heavily tied to ‘factory’ support systems and Systems’ mobile launcher
specific vehicle configuration information; transformational technologies is seen atop crawler-
and future servicing capabilities aim to provide greater flexibility, better transporter 2 at Kennedy
Space Center’s Launch
management of critical path activities, and the ability to merge offline and Complex 39B in Florida on
launch site infrastructure and support systems. June 27, 2019. (NASA)
• Automated alignment, coupling, assembly, and transportation systems
• Portable heads-up display for maintenance work instructions
• Intelligent crane controls
166
Surface Systems
TX13.3.2 Vehicle and Payload Assembly and

Integration
The assembly of flight hardware in final flight configuration requires a
set of facilities, equipment, and processes unique to that vehicle and
payload. Transformational technologies and future servicing capabilities
can provide greater mission flexibility, enable a greater number of
simultaneous activities, and provide the ability to share infrastructure and
support systems between multiple NASA activities.
• Robotic assistants for assembly
• Self-cleaning couplers
• Automated umbilicals
• Common ground test systems (i.e., between elements and integration levels)
• Wireless power for prelaunch servicing (e.g., payload power and testing) and for umbilicals
TX13.3.3 Launch, Recovery and Reutilization

At the end of a mission, payloads and samples are recovered and the
launch infrastructure is repaired, refurbished, or revalidated as needed
before the next launch. Technology development focuses on rapid
fueling and de-fueling, staging, payload insertion, mission execution, and
assessment of infrastructure readiness.
• Wireless power interfaces for ground systems at pad
• Sounding rocket ground systems
• Anti-icing cryogenic couplers
• Deployable sensor networks for launch monitoring
• Extraterrestrial sample return containment
• Unmanned aerial vehicles for payload recovery
In this view looking up inside the Vehicle Assembly Building at NASA’s Kennedy
Space Center in Florida, a crane lowers the Space Launch System (SLS) Core Stage
pathfinder into High Bay 3 on Oct. 16, 2019. The pathfinder is being used by Exploration
Ground Systems and its contractor, Jacobs, to practice offloading, moving and stacking
maneuvers, using important ground support equipment to train employees and certify all
the equipment works properly. ( NASA/Ben Smegelsky)
167
Surface Systems
TX13.4 Mission Success

Technologies
This area covers technologies that collectively enhance mission success
and reduce long-term risk to NASA Programs.
TX13.4.1 Mission Planning

Planning and scheduling technologies aim to optimize the use of
resources during NASA missions, from the execution of daily work tasks,
to working within all constraints and requirements to plan long-range
activities such as launch manifests and facility utilization.
• Intelligent planning and scheduling
• Multi-dimensional integration of mission plans with closed-loop activity scheduling
TX13.4.2 Team Preparedness and Training

Team preparedness and training technologies help flight crews and ground
support personnel maintain proficiency and preparedness for making
critical decisions as they address the complex operating states and
failure modes of NASA systems. Heads-up displays, three dimensional
(3D) immersive systems, augmented reality, and the ability to draw on
high-fidelity information learning systems and training aids on demand
are examples of emerging technologies that will be needed as missions
become longer and more complex.
• Immersive training
• Virtual training
• Advanced ground crew work instructions and procedures display Engineers at NASA’s
Johnson Space Center in
• Personal/biometric confirmation technology
Houston are evaluating
• Integrated, just-in-time training management technology how crews inside a
mockup of the Orion
spacecraft interact with the
rotational hand controller
and cursor control device
while inside their Modified
Advanced Crew Escape
spacesuits. (NASA)
168
Surface Systems
TX13.4.3 High-Fidelity Simulation and Visualization

High-fidelity simulation and visualization technologies provide situational
awareness to flight crews, test engineers, and mission operations teams by
seamlessly mining, visualizing, and sharing high-fidelity engineering models of
ground and surface systems, related support systems, and operational states in
real time, which reduces mission risk and allows for adaptive decision making.
• Concurrent multi-user multi-dimensional situational information environment
• Automatic model-based configuration of control systems
TX13.4.4 Autonomous, Real-Time Command and

Control
Autonomous, real-time command and control technologies aim to provide
the capability to perform closed-loop command and control for high-energy
systems in extreme environments.
• Automatic generation of control software and test algorithms
• Real time data and voice loops to mobile devices
• State aware monitor and control
• Highly secure and access-controlled flexible data networking
• Intelligent procedures for operations sequencing and system troubleshooting
169
Surface Systems
TX13.4.5 Operations, Health and Maintenance for

Ground and Surface Systems
Technologies for operations, health and maintenance for ground and
surface systems aim to reduce the mean-time-between-failure and mean-
time-to-repair of supporting ground systems and enable capabilities for
pre-staging and operation of unattended commodity production, logistics,
support systems, and other surface infrastructure.
• Anomaly and fault detection, isolation and diagnosis
• Prediction and prognosis algorithms for components and systems; autonomous inspection,
maintenance, and repair (IMR) support systems
• Test, verification, and calibration methods for surface systems
• Commodity management
• Nuclear material handling and testing
• In-situ servicing
• Dust mitigation
• Robotic caretakers for IMR operations
• System data and performance trending/characterization
TX13.4.6 Ground Analogs for Space/Surface Systems

Ground Analogs for space/surface Systems aim to simplify launch and
surface operations and expand operational and architectural options,
enable efficient handling of consumable commodities in space, decrease
reliance on terrestrial support, reduce mass and volume of replacement
parts required to sustain long-duration human exploration missions,
increase the operational availability of spacecraft systems with little or
no increase in logistics spares mass and volume, and reduce crew time
required for performance of maintenance operations.
• Portable gravity offload system for ground checkout
• Autonomous commodities (e.g., LOX, helium, water, air) storage and transfer operations
• Launch and landing pad materials
• Excavation tools, prospecting free flyers, regolith operations technologies for mining and excavation
• Common interfaces for small launchers and payloads
• Zero power reactor
170
Surface Systems
TX13.X Other Ground, Test,

and Surface Systems
This area covers ground, test, and surface systems technologies that are
not otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX13 of the 2020
NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems conducts a water flow test with the mobile
launcher at Kennedy Space Center’s Pad 39B in Florida on July 2, 2019. It is
the first of nine tests to verify the sound suppression system is ready for launch
of NASA’s Space Launch System for the first Artemis mission. During launch,
400,000 gallons of water will rush onto the pad to help protect the rocket,
NASA’s Orion Spacecraft, mobile launcher, and launch pad from the extreme
acoustic and temperature environment. (NASA/Kim Shiflett)
171
Surface Systems
172
TX14
Thermal
Management
Systems
Overview
Thermal management systems acquire, transport, and reject heat, as well
as insulate and control the flow of heat to maintain temperatures within the
specified limits. Virtually all vehicles and related equipment require some
level of thermal control, some much more tightly controlled than others, and
the design approach and technologies employed vary widely depending on
application.
173
174
TX14 Thermal Management
Systems
TX14.1 Cryogenic Systems

Cryogenics is the art, science, and engineering of achieving extremely low
temperatures below 150 C and involves research, technology development,
design, analysis, characterization, and testing of components through
ground/flight evaluations supporting qualification and use of cryogenic
fluids/temperatures for flight. Cryogenics employs unique skills, facilities,
and expertise as the thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, material behaviors,
and component/system responses vary significantly at low temperatures.
Applications include all aspects of propulsion, science, ground operations,
other unique applications, supporting analysis, safety and test.
TX14.1.1 In-space Propellant Storage and Utilization

In-space propellant storage and utilization technologies aim to extend
cryogenic storage duration from hours to years and develop fluid
management technologies to control, transfer, and utilize cryogenic
propellants. These technologies enable a broad range of missions including
but not limited to landers, ascent stages, in-space transfer vehicles, habitats,
and in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) operations and encompasses both in-
space or extraterrestrial destination surface environments.
• Vacuum and partial vacuum insulation systems
• Low conductive heat-load structure
• Solar shields applications to limit insulation exposure
• Cryocoolers and integration for reduced/zero boil-off of propellants and provide liquefaction
• Micro-g fluid dynamics (2-phase transport, surface wetting, surface tension, evaporation
condensation)
• Propellant acquisition/management devices (surface tension devices)
A robot places • Instrumentation/mass gauging in micro-g conditions; pressurization and pressure control
composite fibers on (passive/active) and propellant mixing/destratification
the tank’s inner wall
• Propellant systems/hardware chill-down
structure. Engineers
at Boeing Research & • Low leakage, multi-use isolation valves
Technology formed the • Propellant transfer for stages, ISRU, other applications
composite cryogenic
tank using automated • Propellant slosh dynamics
fiber placement at the • Liquefaction for ISRU and other applications
Boeing Developmental • Heat rejection (cryocoolers or thermodynamic vents, other systems)
Center in Tukwila,
Washington. (NASA) • Valves, actuators, and components
175
Systems
TX14.1.2 Launch Vehicle Propellant

Launch vehicle propellant technologies include all propellant handling
aspects for both the vehicle and its payload while on the pad and during
the ascent and on-orbit deployment phases. This subcategory includes
technologies relevant to commercial launch industry enabling growth to
support NASA Earth-to-orbit needs for cargo, science, and crew.
• Tank/line insulation suitable for atmospheric conditions/survive ascent environment
• Composite structures and components and lines for cryogenic application
• Propellant stratification and management
• Ascent/staging slosh/ullage collapse/geysering management
• Vehicle feedline chill and operation
• Instrumentation/mass gauging to track propellant inventory
• Autogenous and helium pressurization systems for cryogenic propellants
• Settled cryogenic fluid operations
• Quick disconnects (vehicle and payloads)
TX14.1.3 Thermal Conditioning for Sensors,

Instruments, and High Efficiency Electric Motors
This area includes cost-effective, high-efficiency, low-weight/vibration
cryocoolers and advanced sub-Kelvin cooling technology; technologies for
thermal management for cryogenic applications to unique flight science
sensors and instrumentation; and technologies to integrate cryocoolers
into superconduction machines and power electronics for electrified
aircraft. This area also includes technologies relevant to NASA’s unique
wide-ranging science mission and research activities as well.
• Integrated thermal control/parasitics
• Cryocooler refrigeration above and below 10 K
• Magnetic refrigeration, dilution coolers, multi-stage mechanical coolers, multi-stage passive
coolers and Turbo-Brayton cryocoolers
• Joule-Thomson effect
• Solid cryogens heat sink
• Liquid hydrogen spacecraft dewars
• Vapor cooling for instruments and storage hardware
• Solar shields/baffles for spacecraft cryogenic systems
• Coatings to limit thermal load on spacecraft cryogenic systems
• Heat rejection and thermal switches
• Thermal parasitics for cryogenic fluids/ cryocooler systems
• Emerging applications for cryogenic environments such as low-temperature mechanisms (e.g. planetary exploration)
• Integrated cryocoolers for superconducting motors
176
Systems
TX14.1.4 Ground Testing and Operations

This area includes technologies to increase efficiency, reduce cost, and
improve capability for cryogenic propellant usage in on-Earth operations
and testing, including safe autonomous operations, densification, and
point-of-use liquefaction and storage.
• Advanced thermal insulation systems and concepts
• Densification of propellants/fluids at small and large scale (cooling below the normal boiling
point (NBP))
• NBP fluids for propellant loading and conditioning
• Large scale refrigeration systems and technology
• Quick disconnects
• Cryogenic pumps
• Automation/fault detection
• Leak/fire detection for cryogenic systems
• Instrumentation for ground cryogenic systems (temperature, pressure, gauging, flow, etc.)
TX14.1.5 Cryogenic Analysis, Safety and Properties

This area includes technologies to develop, improve, and validate
detailed thermal and fluid analysis techniques for cryogenic components
and hardware as well as cryogenic safety approaches, methodology
and application for ground and flight environments. This subcategory
also includes improved and expanded expertise and knowledge in
materials applications for unique cryogenic environments spanning data,
manufacturing, and specialized design and testing to meet mission needs.
• Integrated thermal modeling
• Cryogenic systems
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) (gravity and micro-gravity environments)
• Cryogenic propellant/fluid safety oxygen
• Fuels (e.g., H2, CH4) and inerts (e.g., N2)
• Cryogenic hardware systems safety
• Cryogenic properties (solid, liquid, vapor, and mixture)
• Other materials of construction at cryogenic temperatures (strength, thermal/electrical
conductivity, emissivity, magnetism, and superconductivity)
• Material properties testing apparatus (strength, thermal/electrical conductivity, and emissivity)
• Additively manufactured materials for cryogenic applications
• Superconductive magnets/motors
177
Systems
TX14.2 Thermal Control

Components and Systems
Thermal control components and systems provide capabilities that enable a
vehicle to maintain operational temperature limits. A vehicle utilizes various
components to achieve the primary functions of waste energy acquisition,
transport, rejection/storage/reclamation, and temperature control within
hardware limits through various mission environments. These functions are
enabled through core capabilities of analysis, performance monitoring via
sensors, and verification and validation to ensure mission success.
TX14.2.1 Heat Acquisition

Heat acquisition is the function within a vehicle that captures energy
from a heat source. This function can be achieved through active and
passive heat transfer within a thermal control system. The primary function
of heat acquisition is to ensure the rate of waste energy transfer to a
thermal control system either maintains a component within operational
temperature limits or is sufficient for useful reapplication elsewhere
(heat reclamation/harvesting). This area includes technologies to more
effectively capture heat on a flight and a surface mission including cold
plates, evaporators, and heat exchangers, as well as methods to advance
robustness, life, efficiency, and temperature range of operability.
• Cold plates and evaporators
• Liquid/liquid heat exchangers and air/liquid heat exchangers
• Boiling heat transfer
• Evaporation heat transfer
• Condensation heat transfer A National Historic
• Crew cabin/avionics temperature and cabin humidity controls Landmark, Chamber A at
• Hydrophilic coatings and surfaces Johnson Space Center is
famous for being used to
• Condensing heat exchangers test Apollo moon mission
• High heat load collection (500 kW - 1 MW) hardware, including suited
• Freezer and refrigerator astronauts inside the
chamber on occasion.
The chamber was used
to conducted tests on
the James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST). (NASA/
Chris Gunn)
178
Systems
TX14.2.2 Heat Transport

Heat transport enables moving waste energy from a vehicle component
and/or system for either rejection to the environment or re-use elsewhere
within the vehicle. This area includes technologies for both spacecraft
and electrified aircraft propulsion thermal management. The transport of
energy is accomplished using active and/or passive capabilities within a
thermal control system. Technologies include those items that can more
effectively transfer heat, as well as methods to advance robustness, life,
efficiency, and temperature range of operability.
• Heat pipes (e.g. constant conductance, variable conductance, diode)
• Capillary pumped fluid loops and loop heat pipes
• Mechanically pumped fluid loops (e.g., single phase and two phase)
• Thermal straps
• Forced air cooling (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC))
• Fans
• Heat pumps (e.g., thermoelectric coolers, vapor compression systems)
• Vapor cooling
• Heat switches (e.g. paraffin, coefficient of thermal expansion, shape memory alloys)
• Solid state conduction bars/doublers (e.g. high thermal conductivity composites)
• Loop heat pipe and high heat load transport (500 kW - 1 MW)
• Two phase heat transport and pool boiling
TX14.2.3 Heat Rejection and Storage

This area includes technologies to more effectively reject heat on a flight.
Technologies are needed to make these methods more reliable and
standardized and increase the capability for effective ground testing. This
area includes technologies that manage system heat primarily through the
use of the thermal and/or optical properties of a given material. This area
includes in-space and ground applications.
• Radiators and radiator turn-down devices (e.g. louvers, heat switches, variable conductance
heat pipes)
• Phase change materials
• Transpiration cooling
• Heat sinks, optical coatings, variable coatings, sunshades, molten salts, cryogens,
evaporation, boiling, and condensation
• Autonomous radiator maintenance
• Dust tolerant radiators
• High heat load 500 - 500 kW rejection
179
Systems
TX14.2.4 Insulation and Interfaces

This area includes technologies associated with insulations, including
technologies to enhance interface conductance and also to reduce heat
transfer across interfaces. This area also includes technologies for the
prevention of heat intrusion to undesired locations, such as cryogenic
propellant tanks, ground equipment, and certain spacecraft components
as well as prevention of heat loss from given systems (e.g. crewed
vehicles and maintenance of avionics operating temperatures).
• Multi-layer insulations
• Foam insulations
• Aerogels
• Thermal gap fillers
TX14.2.5 Thermal Control Analysis

Thermal control analysis software is used to analyze the full thermal
performance of a system, including orbital analysis, radiation analysis,
thermal and fluid solvers, and optimization of design parameters through
simulation. Technologies can include methods to more effectively link
these functions, allow the analysis to be faster and more automated,
perform uncertainty analysis, and decrease the time needed for thermal
model development.
• Thermal solvers
• Orbit analysis
• Radiation analysis
• Optimization
• Fluid flow analysis
• Layered composite insulation systems
• Coupled, multi-physics simulations for temperature induced phenomena affecting system
performance
• Structural-thermal-optical (STOP) analysis
• Detailed thermal network analysis to evaluate the thermal performance of a given system
180
Systems
TX14.2.6 Heating Systems

Heating systems provide energy to maintain temperatures, either
electrically or through radioactive decay using technologies such as thin-
film heater, ceramic heaters.
• Electric heaters
• Nuclear-based heating source (e.g. radioisotope heater units, general-purpose heat source)
• Chemical/combustion-based heating source
TX14.2.7 Verification and Validation of Thermal

Management Systems
Verification and validation technologies support thermal testing of vehicle
thermal systems and/or components, thermal model correlation, and the
inspection of thermal control systems or hardware.
• Testing, correlation, and inspection
TX14.2.8 Measurement and Control

This area includes technologies to improve measurement and control of
thermal systems.
• Sensors
• Mechanical thermostats
• Temperature control software and algorithms
181
Systems
TX14.3 Thermal Protection

Components and Systems
Thermal protection components and systems is the set of thermal and
structural materials, integration techniques, and manufacturing methods that
protect the entry system from the extreme heating and aerodynamic forces
experienced by a spacecraft during hypersonic atmospheric transit. Key
challenges include increased thermal performance, high reliability, damage
tolerance, and integration methods that do not create vulnerabilities in the
spacecraft. For many exploration missions, thermal and structural load
bearing capability are often required, with multifunctional material solutions
offering overall system mass efficiency.
TX14.3.1 Thermal Protection Materials

Thermal protection materials (TPM) are the materials and coatings designed
to tolerate high temperatures while insulating the spacecraft from the
incident heating. Materials are often generally classified as single or multi-
use, with application dependent on operations. This category also includes
fundamental research and development of new material concepts, as well
as materials testing used to determine underlying properties.
• Tiles and blankets
• Rigid and conformal ablators
• Flexible materials
• Foams (i.e., ascent Thermal Protection Systems (TPSs))
• Coatings
• Materials research, development and testing
• Multi-functional materials (MMOD resistance, radiation reflective, etc.) NASA’s 3-Dimensional
Multifunctional Ablative
Thermal (3D-MAT)
Protection System project
designed and developed
a game changing woven
thermal protection system
(TPS) technology tailored
to the needs of the Orion
Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle
(MPCV) compression pad
for the lunar return mission,
EM-1, and beyond. (NASA)
182
Systems
TX14.3.2 Thermal Protection Systems

TPSs encompass the integration of thermal protection materials, structure,
bonding agents and gap fillers along with the manufacturing techniques and
processes to enable the construction of an entire aeroshell. Included in this
area are active and passive systems as well as hot structures for which the
same material carries both thermal and structural loads for the aeroshell.
• Active, passive, semi-passive, ablative, insulative, heat pipes, transpiration cooled thermal
protection concept development
• Multilayer flexible (e.g., Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) thermal
protection system)
• Ceramic matrix composite hot structures
• Carbon-carbon hot structures, attachment/integration
TX14.3.3 Thermal Protection Analysis

Thermal protection analysis encompasses the numerical approaches
to simulate the incident environments as well as the material thermal
and structural response to those environments. Such analyses can be
performed via a range of approaches from fully uncoupled to fully coupled
depending on mission requirements.
• Aeroheating (convective and radiative)
• Ablation, thermal, thermo-structural, coupled, and margin policy development
• Reliability assessment and failure analysis
• Computational materials design
TX14.3.4 Thermal Protection Systems Testing

TPS testing encompasses experimental methods used to characterize the
performance of TPS and TPM when subjected to relevant environments.
Such testing can explore a single aspect of the flight environment (e.g. heat
flux), or combinations of several aspects. Also included in this area are
techniques for characterizing the test facilities, ranging from instrumentation
to improved simulation capability.
• Arc jet, laser-based, wind tunnel, solar tower, radiant, thermo-mechanical, pressurized
elevated temperature, and combined (e.g., Laser Enhanced Arc-jet Facility (LEAF) Lite)
flight testing
• Facility characterization (e.g. modeling, instrumentation)
183
Systems
TX14.3.5 Thermal Protection System

Instrumentation
TPS instrumentation encompasses in-situ or remote techniques to
measure the incident environment and/or the response of the TPS to that
environment during flight.
• Thermocouples
• Heat flux gauges
• Recession sensors
• Strain sensors
• Radiometer/spectrometers
• Sensor networks
• Integrated Structural Health Monitoring (ISHM)
• Remote observation platforms
• Pressure sensors
TX14.X Other Thermal

Management Systems
This area covers thermal management systems technologies that are not
otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX14 of the 2020
184
TX15
Flight Vehicle
Systems
Overview
Flight Vehicle Systems is composed of the disciplines of Aerosciences and
Flight Mechanics. Aerosciences is the prediction of vehicle and component
atmospheric flight performance and flow qualities to enable robust and
efficient flight vehicle development, achieving performance requirements
while minimizing environmental impacts. Flight Mechanics provides the
analysis, prediction, measurement, and test of vehicle dynamics, trajectories,
and performance, and enables mission success for a wide range of vehicles.
185
186
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.1 Aerosciences
Aerosciences is the prediction of vehicle and component atmospheric
flight performance and flow qualities to enable robust and efficient flight
vehicle development, achieving performance requirements while minimizing
environmental impacts. The technologies involved in aerosciences require
development of analytical and empirical systems; computational analysis;
ground testing technologies in wind tunnels, arc jets, ballistic ranges, water
channels; and flight technologies in specific technical areas.
TX15.1.1 Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics uses computational analysis, ground test, and flight to predict
vehicle and component atmospheric flight performance and flow qualities
(e.g. six-component aerodynamic forces and moments, detailed pressure
distributions, qualitative and quantitative off-body flow characteristics).
• Flow characterization through analysis and testing, with prediction and characterization of
unsteady separated flow being a primary technology challenge
• Target vehicles include aircraft, launch vehicles, entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems,
abort systems, parachutes, and inflatable decelerators across all speed regimes from
subsonic to hypersonic; characterization of subsonic, transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic
flows, junction flows, landing gear, high lift systems, and innovative control effectors
• New technologies to predict and analyze the underlying unsteady flow characteristics driving
buffet and aeroacoustics for aircraft, launch vehicles and spacecraft
• Advanced aerodynamic predictive capability required to enable efficient atmospheric flight
vehicle designs
TX15.1.2 Aerothermodynamics
Aerothermodynamics uses computational analysis, ground test, and flight to
Key aerosciences predict vehicle and component aeroheating environments and flow qualities
technologies
are enabling the
(e.g. convective and radiative heating, surface temperature, heat flux,
development of interactions with vehicle components like thermal protection systems).
advanced supersonic
transports with reduced Example Technologies
sonic boom signatures,
allowing them to overfly • Forebody and afterbody heating characteristics with heating prediction on capsule afterbodies
the Continental United in separated flow
States and other • Shock layer radiation prediction and characterization; advanced predictive technology
populated regions.
(NASA)
187
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.1.3 Aeroelasticity
Aeroelasticity is the coupled interaction of vehicle aerodynamics with vehicle
structures and control systems, including static aeroelastic deformation, flutter,
buffet, control surface buzz, aeroservoelasticity, and limit cycle oscillations.
• Computational aeroelastic tools coupling Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) with structural
dynamics methodologies to predict flutter, buffet, limit cycle oscillations and aeroservoelastic
interactions
• Advanced unsteady CFD techniques to predict nonlinear fluctuating pressure fields for launch
vehicle and aircraft buffet, control surface buzz and other nonlinear aero structural interactions
• Advanced ground test techniques and strategies to simulate and predict the performance of
coupled aero/structural systems as well as complex unsteady flows and loads
• Advanced aircraft systems such as truss-braced wing and other concepts based on high
aspect ratio wing configurations enabled by advanced static and dynamic aeroelastic
prediction methodology
• Active flutter suppression; aeroelastic tailoring; active static/buffet/gust load alleviation
TX15.1.4 Aeroacoustics
Aeroacoustics is a branch of acoustics that studies noise generation
via either turbulent fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with
surfaces, including periodically varying flows such as shock waves and
noise generated by landing gears and deflected aero surfaces; and non-
periodic unsteady flows such as those encountered during ascent of
launch vehicles and spacecraft. These technologies are applied to fixed-
wing, vertical lift, Unmanned Aerial Systems/Urban Air Mobility vehicles,
launch vehicles, abort vehicles, and spacecraft.
• Integrated approach to computational predictive methods, sensors, and test techniques
to study aeroacoustic effects generated by shock motion, flow separation and reattachment,
exhaust plumes and plume impingement, and sonic booms
• Prediction of aeroacoustic effects on vehicle structure, vehicle subsystems (such as
electronics), the community, and methods to mitigate these effects for operations including
buffet and aeroacoustic load reduction, noise reduction, sonic boom mitigation, and efficient
airframe-engine integration
188
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.1.5 Propulsion Flowpath and Interactions

Propulsion flowpath and interactions looks at the details of flow into,
through and out of the propulsion system and how these flows interact
and/or are impacted by the vehicle. This is a broad area including rocket
plumes, reaction control systems, inlet flows, nozzle and exhaust flows,
combustion, distributed electric propulsion, hypersonic propulsion flow,
and tightly integrated/coupled propulsion systems.
• Technology challenges include prediction and characterization of flow-related performance for
integrated propulsion systems
• Applications include distributed electronic propulsion, propulsion integration for sustained
hypersonic flight, highly integrated efficient propulsion systems for aviation, Reaction Control
Systems (RCS) during spacecraft entry, supersonic retro propulsion, launch abort vehicles,
launch vehicle ascent, and stage separation
TX15.1.6 Advanced Atmospheric Flight Vehicles

This area covers unconventional vehicle concept designs enabled by
advancements in understanding of flow and fluid phenomena.
• Concept flow-related technologies supporting development of subsonic transports, supersonic
transports, hybrid electric concepts, advanced spacecraft, launch vehicle and abort vehicles,
planetary EDL and ascent vehicles, and urban air vehicles
TX15.1.7 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

Technologies
This area covers Advanced CFD algorithms, strategies, and tools leading
toward a vehicle Certification by Analysis capability.
• Advanced algorithms and computational strategies allowing predictive and design tools to
operate efficiently on emerging high performance computing architectures
• Advanced algorithms and tools to predict smooth-body, separated flows, chemically reacting
flows, forced and naturally occurring unsteady flows
• Direct numerical simulation, large eddy simulation, and detached eddy simulation
• Particle methods like Lattice Boltzmann
• Geometry modeling
• Grid generation
• Large-data post processing technologies adapted to and integrated in CFD tools, methods,
and strategies
189
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.1.8 Ground and Flight Test Technologies

This area covers advanced ground test capabilities, techniques, and
strategies to enable development and validation of atmospheric flight vehicle
concepts, validation of new CFD technology, and vehicle and flow research.
• Technologies that incorporate advanced sensors, measurement techniques, and processes
into ground testing in wind tunnels, ballistic ranges, water channels, arc jets and other ground
test facilities as well as similar technologies for flight testing
• Advanced pressure and temperature measurement, qualitative and quantitative off-body Emerging ground and
measurement techniques, advanced static and dynamic pressure sensitive paint, advanced flight test techniques and
load balances, including flow-through balances for powered testing, and model deformation strategies are used to
measurement systems for aeroelastic test provide critical data to the
• Flight testing leverages similar technology and extends into remote thermal imaging development of advanced
techniques for direct aerothermodynamic measurements of flight vehicles and technologies flight vehicles and validation
like background oriented Schlieren techniques for off-body flow measurement, visualization of the tools used to predict
and interaction their performance. (NASA)
190
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.2 Flight Mechanics

Flight mechanics provides the analysis, prediction, measurement, and test
of vehicle dynamics, trajectories, and performance throughout the project
life cycle, from mission definition, vehicle sizing and requirements, end-to-
end modeling and simulation, refining the vehicle design, verification that
design requirements are met, flight test, and mission operations.
TX15.2.1 Trajectory Design and Analysis

Trajectory design and analysis technologies support the design,
optimization, analysis, and reconstruction of space vehicle and air vehicle
flight trajectories.
• Trajectory Design and Optimization. Includes design and optimization of space vehicle and
air vehicle trajectories. Includes definition of the envelope of acceptable trajectories given
the capabilities of the vehicle, and determination of the optimal trajectory. For space vehicles,
includes ascent; orbital targeting, orbital maintenance, and on-orbit rendezvous; interplanetary
trajectories; theoretical astrodynamics; low-thrust design and optimization; planetary moon
tour design; three-body orbit modeling and design; and entry through landing. For air
vehicles, includes takeoff, mission execution or cruise, and approach/landing
• Trajectory Reconstruction. Technologies that enhance post-flight and on-board procedures
that use real-time, telemetered or recorded flight data to determine as-flown estimates of
vehicle performance (propulsion, aerodynamics, GN&C, etc.) and encountered environment
characteristics (atmosphere, and gravity
• End-to-end mission design and optimization of space vehicles and air vehicles. Involves
integrating trajectory solutions from the various phases of flight to optimize the overall mission
in terms of duration, mass, propellant, flexibilities, and requirements for associated
subsystems, such as lighting, communications, power, propulsion, etc. Helps evaluate
interactions and trades between other disciplines (aero, propulsion, structures, GN&C, etc.)
and identifies/establishes subsystem performance and requirements
Halo orbits in the Earth-

Moon system designed
using the Copernicus
Trajectory Design and
Optimization Program.
(NASA)
191
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.2.2 Flight Performance and Analysis

Flight performance and analysis supports the analysis and prediction of
(open and closed-loop) vehicle performance and dynamics (including flying/
handling qualities, system identification, and performance requirements,
certification and model validation) during a maneuver, mission phase, or
end-to-end mission for all current and advanced vehicle concepts, and for
all phases of flight.
• Technologies and techniques for the analysis, design, and prediction of vehicle performance
parameters and evaluation against vehicle and mission requirements and constraints, such
as 3DOF analyses for preliminary designs and trade studies followed by high fidelity 6-DOF
evaluations with GN&C in the loop
• Technologies to aid in the analysis and evaluation and prediction of vehicle dynamics
effects, and their impact on overall vehicle performance and stability/control, including the
study, estimation, and analysis of open-loop (bare airframe) vehicle stability and controllability
characteristics and the effects of the flight control system on these characteristics
• Technologies that enhance the analysis and prediction of vehicle flying and/or handling
qualities, and evaluation of vehicle and/or pilot ability to adequately perform desired mission
profile, including pilot-in-the-loop handling qualities (vehicle performance and workload)
methods, analysis, and testing
• Technologies for system identification including the use of statistical methods to extract
vehicle models from flight data through the use of planned maneuvers or effector commands,
which allows comparison of flight-derived vehicle models with ground-based predictions and
allows updating of ground-based flight simulations to more closely represent observed flight NASA pilot Nils Larson
characteristics evaluates software in
the X-59 simulator that
• Research into methods, application and analysis of system identification methods, test could predict where
techniques and flight test data; development, refinement and verification and validation of
vehicle performance requirements
sonic booms would be
felt on the ground and
• Technologies that help with model validation includes evaluation and comparison against the intensity. (NASA/
truth models of measured environmental conditions or measured system and sub-system Lauren Hughes)
characteristics and responses
192
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.2.3 Flight Mechanics Testing and Flight

Operations
Flight mechanics testing and flight operations supports the designing,
planning, and conducting flight and ground-based tests (experimental and
computational) focused on vehicle flight mechanics using flight dynamic test
facilities, CFD tailored to flight-dynamic prediction, and/or pilot-in-the-loop
ground-based simulators and in-flight full-scale and sub-scale test beds.
• Technologies to aid in-flight and post-flight assessments of vehicle performance and handling
such as trajectories and environments
• Technology development of sensors and systems to gather relevant flight data during flight
tests and operational flights
• Technologies to aid in the planning and conducting flight tests and functional flights using
ground-, air, and space-based assets
• Technologies and techniques for the analysis of requirements to create safe flight trajectories
and observational assets for test personnel, crew, and public
• Technologies aimed in the planning and conducting tests and experiments using sub-scale to
Synthetic vision cockpit full-scale test articles (e.g. wind tunnel tests across the Mach range) to obtain aerodynamic
display in Research Flight and other data for assessing flight-dynamic behavior of vehicles, for simulation models, and
Deck simulator at NASA stability and control analyses
Langley Research Center • Use of existing measurement techniques, and development of new and novel techniques
in Hampton, Virginia. when state-of-the-art systems are not adequate, including use of piloted simulators for
(NASA) evaluation of aircraft and space vehicle flying and handling qualities
193
TX15 Flight Vehicle
Systems
TX15.2.4 Modeling and Simulation for Flight

Modeling and simulation for flight supports the design, development,
and implementation of vehicle flight dynamic simulations (simulation
architecture, coordinate systems, equations of motion, etc.) and subsystem
models (aerodynamic, aerothermal, propulsion, power, thermal, mass
property, slosh, aero-servo-elastic structural, natural environment, geodesy,
gravity, and uncertainty models) to enable accurate analysis and predictions
of vehicle dynamics, trajectories, and performance.
• Development of technologies that simulate the physics of flight vehicles, including GN&C,
natural environment models, and vehicle subsystem (plant) models that affect vehicle
performance and dynamics
• Development of visualizations of the flight vehicle to better communicate and determine
operational performance
• Integration of visualization tools with trajectory design, reconstruction, and end-to-end
mission design
• Math models of vehicle subsystems (aerodynamic, aerothermal, propulsion, power, thermal,
mass property, slosh, aero-servo-elastic, structural, sensors, effectors, separation systems
etc.) and environments (atmosphere, gravity, geodesy, etc.) that can be included as a software
component in flight mechanics tools such as 6-DOF flight simulation
• Uncertainty modeling
• Simulation and trajectory visualization
TX15.X Other Flight Vehicle

Systems
This area covers flight vehicle systems technologies that are not otherwise
194
TX16
Air Traffic
Management and
Range Tracking
Systems
Overview
Air Traffic Management and Range Tracking Systems are composed of technology
disciplines associated with a modernized Air Traffic Management (ATM) system
and range operations. The Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen)
is the Nation’s plan for a modernized ATM system that will achieve much higher
levels of operational capacity and efficiency while maintaining or improving
safety and other performance measures. The areas for NASA include safety and
automation technologies which include far reaching concepts and technologies for
future planning and operations and safely extend the capabilities and range of uses
of the National Airspace System (NAS) for air transportation and commercial space
integration. Air Traffic Management and Range Tracking Systems are unique
technology areas within NASA and with the increasing amount of commercial
space providers, and the regulatory oversight of the Federal Aviation Administration
for Commercial Crew Program missions, there is a drive toward converging Range
safety into general flight safety.
195
196
TX16
Air Traffic Management
and Range Tracking
Systems
TX16.1 Safe All Vehicle

Access
This area aims to enable safe scalable, routine, high-tempo airspace
access for all users. Representative vehicle examples include but are not
limited to general aviation, urban air mobility (UAM), commercial aircraft
operations, unmanned vehicles, supersonic aircraft, rotorcraft, balloons,
and commercial space vehicles.
• Develop concepts and procedures that enable the safe integration of all vehicle types in the
NAS, with examples such as Unmanned Aircraft Systems Traffic Management (UTM)
Prototype for user services
• UAM viability demonstrations
• Safety technologies for new vehicle concepts
• Multi-domain situational awareness and prognostic safety awareness, prediction and
alerting tools
• Technologies for safe global operations with resilient degradation; virtual airspace visualization
concepts and technologies
TX16.2 Weather/Environment
This area aims to develop tools that provide weather and environmental
information to avoid inclement weather/environmental conditions affecting
ground and flight deck operations.
• Improved weather and hazard awareness detection, prediction and alerting technologies,
including aircraft state and health management
• Hazards include precipitation, winds, wind shears, microbursts, clear air turbulence, and icing
Urban air mobility means a safe and efficient

system for vehicles, piloted or not, to move
passengers and cargo within a city. (NASA)
197
TX16
and Range Tracking
Systems
TX16.3 Traffic Management

Concepts
This area covers technologies and procedures to enable improved efficiency
and predictability of ground, departure, en-route and descent portions of
flight, for high density of mixed manned and unmanned vehicles.
• Deployment of NextGen technologies including enhanced required navigation performance
(RNP) arrival, integrated arrivals/departures/surface operations, and integrated air-ground
applied weather demonstration
• Operator prioritization services integrated with air navigation service provider tools
• Safety analyses for new airspace concepts
• Fully integrated, service-based ground, flight deck and operations management technologies
• Scalable integration of airspace and application technologies
TX16.4 Architectures and

Infrastructure
This area covers architectures and infrastructure that support existing
operations and enable the integration of new vehicles, new operations and
new business models, including advanced communications technologies
and infrastructure and cyber-security.
• Operator prioritization services integrated with air navigation service provider tools
• Develop requirements for a secure integrated CNS (Communications, Navigation,
Surveillance) system for Trajectory Based-Operations (TBO) and future autonomous
operations
• Guidelines and standards for initial Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) integration in the NAS
• Technologies, guidelines, scalable architecture and standards for integration of all vehicles
types into the NAS
A view of the electronic display used in simulations

of the FIM technology to prepare pilots and flight
coordinators for test flights that took place in 2017.
(NASA)
198
TX16
and Range Tracking
Systems
TX16.5 Range Tracking,

Surveillance, and Flight
Safety Technologies
Technologies to increase the efficiency of range operations across land,
air, sea, and space applications by increasing overall responsiveness and
providing a greater ability to track the entire course of a launch vehicle,
without expensive ground assets, for quantifying mission safety/risk/
success. While these functions are similar to those conducted by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), they are unique because of the
relative speed of launch vehicles and have traditionally been handled
separately from traditional air traffic management operations.
• Space based surveillance assets, “smart” sonar buoys for range (sea) operations
• Onboard tracking
• Advanced (near-zero loss) telemetry systems for ascent or re-entry
• Advanced antenna systems; multiple simultaneous tracking solutions
• Autonomous onboard flight analysis
• Autonomous flight abort/termination systems
• Anti-jamming and anti-spoofing communications
• Aerospace traffic control system capable of monitoring, deconflicting, debris tracking, weather
overlays, and local and global scheduling
• Rapid reconfiguration for concurrent launches, reentries, and flights of diverse flight platforms
(manned/unmanned aircraft/launch vehicles/buoyant systems)
A NASA Langley team will capture long range images of the SpaceX
launch with the help of a sophisticated camera and telescope system
on a gyro-stablized tracking mount. (NASA)
199
TX16
and Range Tracking
Systems
TX16.6 Integrated Modeling,

Simulation, and Testing
This area covers tools and methodologies that combine live, virtual, and
constructive assets for developing, analyzing, testing and integrating
novel concepts.
• ATM testbed
• Operational ATM testbed with predictive capabilities
• Shadow-mode capability in which virtual and constructive simulations run in tandem with the
live NAS
• Modeling to include real-time multi-vehicle near continuous optimization with real-time data
• Virtual and augmented reality injection into live systems so that they perceive a test range as a
different target environment (e.g. UAM);
• Visualization tools and technologies for autonomous ATM methods
TX16.X Other Air Traffic

Management and Range
Tracking Systems
This area covers Air Traffic Management and Range Tracking Systems
technologies that are not otherwise covered by the sub-paragraphs
outlined in TX16 of the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy.
Researchers are testing new tools at FutureFlight Central, a

comprehensive, 360-degree simulation of an air traffic control tower
at NASA Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley. (NASA)
200
TX17
Guidance,
Navigation, and
Control (GN&C)
Overview
All forms of aerospace systems require some form of guidance, navigation,
and control (GN&C) capability, either on-board, ground-based or a
combination of both. This section of the taxonomy captures the unique GN&C
system technologies that enable new missions; reduce cost, schedule, mass
or power while maintaining or improving GN&C performance; improve system
safety and longevity; or reduce environmental impact of aerospace vehicle
operations.
201
202
TX17 Guidance, Navigation,
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.1 Guidance and

Targeting Algorithms
Guidance and targeting algorithms primarily constitute the development
of robust, reliable, and computationally efficient mathematical algorithms
(and their associated software implementation) for the functions of on-
board or ground-based computation of desired/reference space system
flight paths and/or attitudes, and changes in flight paths and/or attitudes,
required to meet mission requirements.
TX17.1.1 Guidance Algorithms

This area covers technologies for the development of algorithms (and
associated software) for autonomous real-time or near-real-time selection
of desired targets and the computation of the maneuvers to attain those
targets while optimizing system performance.
• Ascent guidance, abort guidance, and multi-vehicle formation flying guidance
• Vehicle 6DOF path planning
• Optimal attitude slewing guidance
• Next-generation entry guidance and powered descent guidance to support the functions of
entry, descent, and landing (EDL) precision/pinpoint landing on planets/small bodies
• Computationally efficient trajectory/attitude optimization tools for onboard use
TX17.1.2 Targeting Algorithms

This area covers technologies for the development of algorithms (and
associated software) for autonomous real-time or near-real-time selection of
desired targets and the computation of the maneuvers to attain those targets.
• On-the-fly adaptive guidance for opportunistic exploration and science observation
OSIRIS-REx is the third mission in NASA’s New Frontiers Program.

OSIRIS-REx launched in September 2016 and arrives at Bennu on
December 3, 2018. This image illustrates the mission’s carefully-
designed orbit maneuvers and mapping campaigns on its journey to
Bennu and back.
203
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.2 Navigation
Technologies
Navigation technologies primarily consist of the robust, reliable, and
computationally efficient mathematical algorithms (and their associated
software implementation) for the functions of flight path/orbit/trajectory
state estimation.
TX17.2.1 Onboard Navigation Algorithms

This area covers algorithms (and their associated flight software) for
autonomous onboard estimation of flight path/orbit/trajectory parameters
and associated uncertainties from navigation sensor measurements.
• Algorithms for optical navigation
• Terrain relative navigation
• Autonomous rendezvous and docking
• Autonomous hazard detection and avoidance
• Autonomous space-based navigation (optical or Global Positioning System (GPS) Cislunar)
• X-ray and X-ray pulsar navigation
• Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM)
• Light detection and ranging (LIDAR)-based navigation
• Inertial navigation (translation) filter and Inertial attitude estimation filter
• Ascent vehicle filter
• Earth-independent deep space navigation
• Celestial and landmark navigation
• Vehicle-relative navigation (translation) filter and vehicle-relative attitude filter
• Swarm navigation
• Angles-only navigation
• Double line of sight navigation
• Small body proximity operations and landing filter
NASA’s Deep Space Atomic

Clock, lanched in 2019,
is testing new technology
for deep-space navigation.
(NASA)
204
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.2.2 Ground-based Navigation Algorithms

This area covers algorithms and tools for the ground-based estimation of
flight path/orbit/trajectory parameters and associated uncertainties from
navigation sensor measurements.
• Filtering and estimation technologies for the optimum selection of data types
• Measurement frequencies and advanced techniques/methods for uncertainty analysis
• Technologies for ‘lights out’ ground system navigation autonomy to reduce flight operations
team size/cost
TX17.2.3 Navigation Sensors

This area covers technologies for onboard sensors/sensor systems
(sensor hardware and embedded sensor software) for taking
measurements required to estimate flight path/orbit/trajectory parameters.
This area includes navigation sensors/sensor systems for both absolute
navigation function and relative navigation functions.
• Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs)
• Precision gyroscopes
• Accelerometers
• GPS/Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers
• LIDARs, laser rangefinders, and laser altimeters
• Radio frequency (RF)-based inter-spacecraft ranging systems
• Visible and IR wavelength cameras
• Precision frequency and timing devices such as oscillators and clocks
• Cold atom sensors
• Navigation transponders and beacons
• Velocimeters
• Radars
205
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.2.4 Relative Navigation Aids

This area covers technologies for cooperative onboard relative navigation
aids for improving the accuracy, range, and computational complexity
of measurements required to estimate the orbit/trajectory parameters
of one object with respect to another. These aids may be paired with
specific sensors or general aids installed on spacecraft to facilitate future
planned or unplanned on-orbit operations. This area includes technologies
for cooperative onboard relative navigation aids for improving the
accuracy, and range of, and reducing the computational complexity of
measurements required to estimate the orbit/trajectory parameters of one The Station Explorer for
object with respect to another. These may be paired with specific sensors X-ray Timing and Navigation
or general aids installed on spacecraft to facilitate future planned or Technology (SEXTANT)
unplanned on-orbit operations. technology demonstration,
which NASA’s Space
Example Technologies Technology Mission
Directorate had funded under
• Retro-reflective corner cubes its Game Changing Program,
took advantage of the 52
• Visual and IR fiducials X-ray telescopes and silicon-
• Reflective tape drift detectors that make up
• LED targets NASA’s Neutron-star Interior
Composition Explorer, or
• RF beacon NICER, to study the potential
• Radio Wave Marker (RF Retro-Reflector) for x-ray navigation. (NASA)
206
and Control (GN&C)

Capture Sensor Processing and Processors
This area includes all types of sensor processing algorithms, software,
and firmware, to convert raw sensor data into relative navigation
measurements, including range, bearing, relative position, relative velocity
or Doppler, accelerations, and relative position and attitude (pose). This
area also includes algorithms necessary for calibration of sensors, and for
the control of sensors (i.e. automatic gain control). This area also includes
compute elements specifically designed to accommodate rendezvous and
capture measurement processing.
• Vis. Cam. Vehicle Centroid/Bearing; IR cam. Vehicle Centroid/Bearing; Retroreflector Centroid
Bearing; Landmark (i.e. crater) Bearing; Terrain Feature Bearing; Laser Retro Range &
Bearing; Laser Vehicle Range & Bearing
• Relative GPS (LEO); Relative GPS Beyond LEO
• Coop RF Range, Doppler (Veh-to-Veh); Coop RF bearing (veh-to-veh); Non-Coop RF Range,
Bearing, Doppler (Veh-to-Veh);
• Marman Ring tracking
• Illum Retro 2D Image 6DOF pose; Coop LIDAR 6DOF pose; Coop Vis. Cam. 6DOF pose;
Coop. RF/Radar pose; Non-Coop. Vis. Cam. 6DOF pose; Non-Coop. Stereo Vis 6DOF Pose;
Non-Coop. IR Cam. 6DOF pose; Non-Coop. LIDAR-based 6DOF pose; Non-Coop. RF-based
6DOF pose; Terrain-Relative Visible 6DOF pose; Terrain-Relative LIDAR 6DOF pose
• Camera Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
• High performance space flight computing elements
• Relative Navigation Sensor imbedded pose and terrain-relative navigation processing
• LIDAR calibration
• IR Camera calibration
207
and Control (GN&C)

Capture Trajectory Design and Orbit Determination
This area covers spacecraft trajectory design and orbit determination to
support rendezvous and proximity operations in several specific orbital
regimes. Trajectory design for missions performing rendezvous and
proximity operations includes the inertial motion of a spacecraft starting
and launch, and continuing to the design of relative motion to achieve
rendezvous, proximity operations, capture, and departure from another
space object (spacecraft or small body). Orbit determination is the
inertial navigation function (ground or onboard) required to allow onboard
systems to acquire the relative navigation estimate required to complete
the mission.
• LEO Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO) trajectory design and orbit determination
• Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
• Sun-Earth Lagrange Point RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
• Lunar Near Rectilinear Halo Orbit (NRHO) RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
• Lunar Distant Retrograde Orbit (DRO) RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
• Lunar Orbit RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
• Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) (aka Phasing Orbit) RPO trajectory design and orbit determination
TX17.3 Control Technologies

Control technologies primarily constitute the development of robust, reliable,
and computationally efficient mathematical algorithms (and their associated
software implementation) for the functions of autonomous exo- and endo-
atmospheric flight path/orbit/trajectory control and/or space system attitude/
attitude rate control. This area also includes advanced technologies for
modeling and simulation as well as technologies for the development of a
new generation of control force, moment, and torque actuators.
The Mars Helicopter is a technology demonstration that will travel to the Red Planet
with the Mars 2020 rover. It will attempt controlled flight in Mars’ thin atmosphere,
which may enable more ambitious missions in the future. (NASA)
208
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.3.1 Onboard Maneuvering/Pointing/

Stabilization/Flight Control Algorithms
This area covers algorithms (and associated flight software) for autonomously
commanding actuators (e.g. spacecraft thrusters, reaction wheels or control
surfaces/propulsors) to orient/slew/point/stabilize a vehicle’s attitude/attitude
rate or to influence changes in a vehicle’s flight path/orbit/trajectory.
• Adaptive flight control for launch vehicles/spacecraft/landers/atmospheric exploration vehicles
time optimal (or fuel optimal) spacecraft slew control
• Orbital rendezvous (Lambert Targeted Finite Burn)
• Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) Targeted Finite Burn
• Deep Space (DS) Rendezvous (DS Rendezvous Finite Burn)
• Proximity Operations (vehicle and small body) (Closed-loop Relative Translation Control,
Closed-loop Relative Translation Control (uncontrolled client), Closed-loop Relative Attitude
Control, Vehicle 6DOF Path Planning, Payload Extraction from Launch vehicle)
• Formation flying (Formation acquisition control, Precision formation flying control)
TX17.3.2 Dynamics Analysis, Modeling, and

Simulation Tools
This area covers technologies/techniques for the development of advanced
software tools to model, simulate, and analyze the dynamic response of an
air or space vehicle to forces exerted by actuators (e.g. thrusters, control
surfaces) or by the environment, or by an active spacecraft on a nearby object
(e.g. contact dynamics, thruster plume impingement). This area also includes
technologies to analyze the stability and control of the vehicle including control-
structure interaction and to assess the ability to meet mission requirements.
• Flexible multi-body dynamics modeling tools/codes
• Finite element model reduction and manipulation tools/codes
• Modeling and simulation graphical display tools/codes
• Multi-vehicle closed loop hi-fidelity attitude and orbit simulation
• Capture contact dynamics
• Flexible modes analysis
• Proximity operations thruster plume impingement modeling and analysis
• Robotic manipulator kinematic simulation (reach and access, etc.)
• Robotic Manipulator high fidelity dynamics simulation of capture and berthing
• Relative navigation sensor hardware-in-the-loop (HWIL) testing of vehicle and small body
proximity operations
• Grapple, berthing, docking, and small body contact (TAG/landing) HWIL testing with high
fidelity 6DOF motion and contact dynamics
• High fidelity synthetic image generation for testing of vehicle- and terrain-relative pose/nav
estimation systems
209
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.3.3 Ground-based Maneuvering/Pointing/

Stabilization/Flight Control Algorithms
This area covers technologies/strategies/techniques for the highly-automated
ground-based formulation of space system maneuvers to change the vehicle’s
attitude/flight path/orbit/trajectory to meet mission requirements/constraints.
• Algorithms for ground-based maneuver design, in a highly-automated manner
• Emphasis on attitude and trajectory optimization technologies that can accommodate various
system constraints
TX17.3.4 Control Force/Torque Actuators

This area covers technologies for space systems onboard force/torque
producing actuators (both hardware and embedded software) for the six
degrees of freedom control of vehicle flight path or attitude. This area includes
technologies that enable safe operations during rendezvous, proximity
operations, and capture while allowing attitude to be constrained by relative
navigation sensor pointing towards and limiting thruster plume on the object.
• Next generation reaction wheels
• Cold-gas attitude control micro-thrusters
• Precision delta-v thrusters
• Thrust Vector Control (TVC) actuators
TX17.3.5 GN&C actuators for 6DOF Spacecraft

Control During Rendezvous, Proximity Operations,
and Capture
This area covers technologies that enable spacecraft to perform safe proximity
operations with other space objects while allowing spacecraft attitude to be
constrained by relative navigation sensor pointing towards and limiting thruster
plume on the object.
• 6DOF RCS thrusters
210
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.4 Attitude Estimation

Technologies
Attitude estimation technologies primarily constitute the development of
robust, reliable, and computationally efficient mathematical algorithms
(and their associated software implementation) for the functions of
autonomous space system attitude/attitude rate state estimation. This
area also includes advanced technologies for the development of a new
generation of attitude/attitude rate measurement sensors.
TX17.4.1 Onboard Attitude/Attitude Rate Estimation

Algorithms
This area covers algorithms (and associated flight software) for functions
of autonomous onboard estimation of attitude/attitude rate and their
associated uncertainties/biases from attitude/attitude rate sensor
measurements.
• Kalman filters
• Relative pose estimators
TX17.4.2 Ground-Based Attitude Determination/

Reconstruction Algorithm Development
This area covers technologies for the development of algorithms and
software for ground-based estimation/reconstruction of attitude and
associated uncertainties from measurements.
• Sparse data trajectory reconstruction tools
• Orbit determination tools/codes for formation flying spacecraft constellations
211
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.4.3 Attitude Estimation Sensors

This area covers technologies for the development of sensors (hardware
plus embedded software) for measuring attitude. This area includes
attitude sensors/sensor systems for both single-platform absolute attitude
measurement functions and vehicle-to-vehicle relative attitude (i.e.,
relative “pose”) measurement functions.
• Star trackers
• Celestial sensors
• Inertial measurement units
• Gyroscopes
• LIDAR/Vis Cameras/IR Cameras (for relative pose measurement)
• Limb sensors
TX17.5 GN&C Systems

Engineering Technologies
This area covers technologies for developing GN&C architectures and
fault management systems and providing and improving the testing and
verification of GN&C systems.
TX17.5.1 GN&C System Architectures,

Requirements and Specifications
This area covers technologies for modern tools (tool sets) that support the
development of GN&C conceptual/behavioral models and requirements,
and development of system specifications to meet requirements. This
area includes technologies that support the assessment of architectural
autonomy trades (i.e. advanced GN&C System Engineering tools
that reveal where infusion of autonomy has greatest payoff/return on
investment in terms of mission performance and risk). An artistic rendering of
simulated trajectories
Example Technologies within the Solar System.
(NASA)
• GN&C system architectural trade analysis tools/codes
• GN&C system sensitivity analysis tools/codes
• Multi-parameter system optimization tools/codes
212
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.5.2 GN&C Fault Management/Fault Tolerance/

Autonomy
This area covers technologies and strategies for the architecting and
development of autonomous GN&C and robotic systems with high
reliability and robustness.
• GN&C fault management / fault tolerance algorithms, filters, and estimators for increased
autonomy in GN&C systems
• Proximity operations (Collision Detection (RPO), Collision Avoidance Maneuver design (LEO),
Collision Avoidance Maneuver design (GEO), Collision Avoidance Maneuver design (Deep
Space))
• Capture (Collision Detection (Robot), Collision Avoidance (Robot))
• Landing (Descent Corridor Monitoring, Hazard Detection and Avoidance, Onboard Mission
Manager (autonomous task sequencing))
TX17.5.3 GN&C Verification and Validation Tools

and Techniques
This area covers technologies for modern tools (tool sets) that support the
testing/checking that a GN&C system meets requirements (verification)
and that it fulfills its intended purpose (validation).
• Technologies for the verification and validation of highly autonomous systems
• Technologies/techniques/methods for modeling non-deterministic systems
TX17.5.4 GN&C Ground Testbeds/Test Facilities

This area covers technologies for the development of modern ground-
based GN&C, robotic, and capture motion simulation testbeds. This area
also includes hi-fidelity simulation of relative navigation sensors (e.g. for
generation of synthetic imagery).
• GN&C system autonomy assessment testbeds, high-precision pointing and micro-vibration
jitter assessment testbeds
213
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.5.5 Vehicle Flight Dynamics and Mission

Design Tools/Techniques
This area covers technologies for the design and optimization of space
vehicle and air vehicle trajectories, including technologies for new mission
design tools and associated mission design techniques that optimize
mission/vehicle performance.
• Computationally efficient trajectory and attitude optimization tools for onboard use
• Improved trajectory and mission design tools and visualization methods for faster trajectory,
vehicle, and mission design cycles
TX17.5.6 System Identification

This area covers technologies for extracting vehicle models, onboard or
on the ground, from flight data through the use of planned maneuvers
or effector commands. These technologies allow comparison of flight-
derived vehicle models with ground-based predictions and allow updating
of ground-based flight simulations to more closely represent observed
flight characteristics.
• Computationally efficient algorithms for embedded online real time parameter estimation
• Tools/code for advanced maximum likelihood system dynamics estimation
• Prediction-error minimization (PEM) tools, codes, and algorithms
• Tools for sub-space system identification
• Tools and codes to represent nonlinear system dynamics
• Tools/codes for nonlinear autoregressive with external input (ARX) models with wavelet
network, tree-partition, and sigmoid network nonlinearities
• Tools and codes for grey-box system identification for estimating parameters of a user-
defined model
• Tools and codes for exploiting the identified model for system response prediction and
plant modeling
214
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.5.7 End-to-End Modeling and Simulation of

GN&C Systems
This area covers technologies for the development of software-based
models and tools and tool sets for end-to-end flight system simulation
and for the purposes of system robustness and performance assessment.
This area includes development of improved uncertainty quantification
and modeling techniques, development of visualizations of the flight
vehicle to better communicate and determine operational performance,
and development of automation for manually intensive analyses and
processing large volumes of data.
• GN&C modeling and simulation for increased autonomy
• Technologies, techniques, and methods for modeling non-deterministic systems
TX17.5.8 Flying/Handling Qualities

This area covers technologies for improving analysis and prediction of air
or space vehicle flying and/or handling qualities, and evaluation of vehicle
and/or pilot ability to adequately perform the desired mission profile. This
area includes pilot-in-the-loop handling qualities (vehicle performance and
workload) methods, analysis, and testing.
• Advanced tools for designing-in desired handling qualities and for evaluating handling qualities
for piloted space vehicles
• Tools for assessing pilot workloads, pilot performance, and handling qualities for advanced
air and space vehicles (e.g. vehicles with increased structural flexibility, vehicles with
increased levels of automation/autonomy)
TX17.5.9 Onboard and Ground-Based Terrain and

Object Simulation, Mapping, and Modeling Software
This area includes technology, either onboard or on the ground that
generates models or maps of a space object (spacecraft or small natural
body) from images or other data acquired by a spacecraft flying in the
vicinity of said space object.
• Terrain digital elevation map or three dimensional (3D) model generation (offline)
• Terrain digital elevation map or 3D model generation (onboard)
• Vehicle 3D model generation (offline)
• Vehicle 3D model generation (onboard)
215
and Control (GN&C)
TX17.6 Technologies
for Aircraft Trajectory
Generation, Management,
and Optimization for
Airspace Operations
This area covers technologies for strategic and tactical management of
air vehicles.
TX17.6.1 Strategic Management of Air Vehicles

This area covers technologies for traffic flow management and operations
optimization for air vehicles.
• Algorithms, ground software, and onboard software for improved traffic flow management and
operations optimization for air vehicles
TX17.6.2 Tactical Management of Air Vehicles

This area covers technologies for separation assurance and conflict
resolution for air vehicles.
• Algorithms, ground software, and onboard software for separation assurance and conflict
resolution for air vehicles
TX17.X Other Guidance,

Navigation, and Control Members of the Air Traffic
Operations Lab (ATOL)
team look into a briefing
This area covers GN&C technologies that are not otherwise covered room from one of the
by the sub-paragraphs outlined in TX17 of the 2020 NASA Technology control rooms. (NASA/
David C. Bowman)
Taxonomy.
216
Acronyms
217
218
Acronyms
2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
3DOF Three Degrees of Freedom
6DOF Six Degrees of Freedom
AAE Aeroassist and Atmospheric Entry
AC Alternating Current
ACH Analysis of Competing Hypotheses
ADC Analog to Digital Converter
ADP Advanced Diagnostics and Prognostics
ADU Adaptive Model Updating
AFG Analog Fluxgate Magnetometer
AGC Automatic Gain Control
AI Artificial Intelligence
AR Augmented Reality
AR/VR Augmented Reality / Virtual Reality
AR&D Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking
ARX Autoregressive with External Input
ASIC Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
ATM Air Traffic Management
C&DH Command and Data Handling
CCC Contaminant Control Cartridge
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CNS Central Nervous System
CNS Communications, Navigation, Surveillance
COPV Composite Overwrap Pressure Vessel
COTS Commercial-Off-The-Shelf
CPU Central Processing Unit
CTE Composite Technology for Exploration
CW Clohessy-Wiltshire
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
DC Direct Current
DCS Decompression Sickness
DDR3/4 Double Data Rate Type 3/4
DES Discrete Event Simulation
DES Dual Electron Sensors
219
Acronyms
DFB Distributive Feedback

DIMM Solar Differential Image Motion Monitor
DIS Dual Ion Sensors
DRM Design Reference Missions
DRO Distant Retrograde Orbit
DSLIM Double-Sided Linear Induction Motor
DSP Digital Signal Processors
DTN Disruption Tolerant Networking
E3 Electromagnetic Environment Effects
ECLSS Environmental Control and Life Support System
EDL Entry, Descent, Landing
EDM Electrical Discharge Machining
EM Electromagnetic
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
EMP Electromagnetic Pulse
ESD Electrostatic Discharge
ESP Emission of Solar Protons
EVA Extravehicular Activity
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FDIR Fault Detection, Isolation, and Recovery
FDTD Finite Difference Time Domain Technique
FEM Finite Element Modeling
FIDR Failure Isolation, Detection, and Recovery
FMA Flight Mode Annunciators
FMEA Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
FMECA Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array
FPI Fast Plasma Instrument
FSI Fluid Structure Interaction
GCMS Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer
GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit
GN&C Guidance, Navigation, and Control
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
GPU Graphical Processor Unit
220
Acronyms
HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit

HERF Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel
HERO Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance
HERP Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Personnel
HIAD Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator
HPS High-Performance Simulations
HSI Human-Systems Integration
HVAC Heating, Ventilations, and Air Conditioning
HVPS High Voltage Power Supplies
HW/SW Hardware/Software
HWIL Hardware-In-The-Loop
ICME Integrated Computational Materials Engineering
IMR Inspection, Maintenance and Repair
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
InGaAs lndium Gallium Arsenide
IP Intellectual Property
IR Infrared
ISHM Integrated Structural Health Monitoring
ISRU In-situ Resource Utilization
ISS International Space Station
IVA Intravehicular Activity
JWST James Webb Space Telescope
LAE Low Altitude Emission
LDMS Laser Desorption Mass Spectrometry
LEA Launch, Entry, and Abort
LEAF Laser Enhanced Arc-Jet Facility
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
lnGaAs lndium Gallium Arsenide
LWIR Longwave Infrared
M&S Modeling and Simulation
MAR Mid-Air Retrieval
MBMA Model-Based Mission Assurance
MBSE Model-Based System Engineering
MCD Multi-Channel Digitizer
221
Acronyms
MCNP Monte Carlo N-Particle

MCNPX Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended
MDM Multi-Domain Modeling
MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
MgB2 Magnesium Diboride
MGI Materials Genome Initiative
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MMIC Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit
MMOD Micrometeoroid Orbital Debris
MOMA Mars Organic Molecule Analyser
MPD Magnetoplasmadynamic
MRAM Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory
MUSTANG Modular Unified Space Technology Avionics for Next Generation
NAS National Airspace System
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NBP Normal Boiling Point
NDE Non-Destructive Evaluation
NEA Near-Earth Asteroid
NextGen Next Generation Air Transportation System
NISAR NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar
NRHO Near Rectilinear Halo Orbit
NTP Nuclear Thermal Propulsion
NUSTAR Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array
O&M Operations and Maintenance
OTE Optical Telescope Element
PACRATS Payloads and Components Real-Time Automated Test System
PAT Point, Acquisition, and Tracking
PBAN Polybutadiene Acrylic Acid Acrylonitrile Prepolymer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PDE Pulse Detonation Engine
PEM Prediction-Error Minimization
PGC Pressure Gain Combustion
PGS Pressure Garment System
PLSS Portable Life Support System
PMAD Power Management and Distribution
222
Acronyms
PMD Propellant Management Device

PNT Position, Navigation, and Timing
POL Point-of-Load
PPE Personnel Protective Equipment
PPM Pulse-Position Modulation
PRA Probabilistic Risk Assessment
psi Pounds per square inch
PVT Psychomotor Vigilance Task
QE Quantum Efficiency
R&D Research and Development
RAT Rock Abrasion Tool
RCS Reaction Control Systems
RDE Rotating Detonation Engine
RDM Robust Decision-Making
RF Radio Frequency
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RNP Required Navigation Performance
RoCS Roll Control Systems
ROIC Readout Integrated Circuit
RPO Rendezvous, Proximity Operations
RPOC Rendezvous, Proximity Operations, & Capture
RTG Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
S/C Spacecraft
S/W Software
SAM Sample Analysis at Mars
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SCLT System Capability Leadership Team
SEE Single-Event Effects
SHM Structural Health Monitoring
SIAD Supersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator
SLAM Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
SMAP Soil Moisture Active Passive
SoC System-on-a-Chip
SPE Solar Particle Event
SPECS Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure
223
Acronyms
SRP Supersonic Retropropulsion

SRP Solar Radiation Pressure
SSPA Solid-State Power Amplifiers
STOP Structural-Thermal-Optical
SWaP Size, Weight, and Power
SWME Spacesuit Water Membrane Evaporator
T/R Transmitter/Receiver
TA Technology Area
TAG Touch-and-Go
TBO Trajectory Based-Operations
THM Thermal Health Monitoring
TPM Thermal Protection Materials
TPS Thermal Protection Systems
TVC Thrust Vector Control
TWTA Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers
UAM Urban Air Mobility
UAS Unmanned Aircraft System
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UTM Unmanned Aircraft Systems Traffic Management
UV Ultraviolet
V&V Verification and Validation
VE Virtual Environment
VR Virtual Reality
WSi Tungsten Silicide
224
Acknowledgements
The development of the 2020 NASA Technology Taxonomy has been the
result of the dedication of a wide group of people across NASA. Without their
support the creation of this invaluable tool would not have been possible. The
authors would like to acknowledge the following for their efforts: NASA Center
Chief Technologists, NASA Office of the Chief Engineer Technical Fellows,
NASA Principal Technologists, NASA System Capability Leaders, NASA
TechPort team, NTEC Working Group, NASA OCT team, Bryce Space and
Technology Corp., and many others across NASA.
225
Special thanks goes to: Christopher Moore
Robert Mueller
Mike Aguilar Carie Mullins
Deborah Amato Michelle Munk
Husna Aziz Patrick Murphy
Louis Barbier Dan Murri
J.F. Barthelemy Cynthia Null
Jill Bauman Harry Partridge
Barbara Brown Jose Perotti
Will Bryan Lisa Pratt
John Carr Charles Quincy
Yuan Chen Jacqueline Quinn
Ronald Clayton Mary Reveley
Greg Clements Steve Rickman
Al Conde Erica Rodgers
Don Cornwell Hank Rotter
Julie Crooke Richard Russell
Chris Culbert Kurt Sacksteder
John Dankanich Naseem Saiyed
Gregory L. Davis Gerry Sanders
Neil Dennehy John Sankovic
Homayoon Dezfuli Dave Schuster
Tony Diventi Michael Seablom
Dan Dorney Madeline Shaughnessy
Zach Drewry Rubik Sheth
Michael Dube Upendra Singh
Jay Falker Greg Smith
Terry Fong Tiffany Smith
Robyn Gatens Phil Smith
Helen Grant Teresa R. Spagnuolo
Elaine Gresham John Sprague
Timothy Griffin Dave Steitz
Fred Hadaegh Darcia Stewart
Kim Hambuchen Barry Sullivan
Amanda Hernandez Florence Tan
Robert Hodson Douglas Terrier
Peter M. Hughes Kurien Thomas
Chris Ianello Ramona Travis
Kauser Imtiaz Shun (Peter) Tschen
Dexter Johnson John Vickers
William Kimmel Michael Vinje
Teresa Kline David Voracek
Peter Lillehei Phil Weber
Kathleen Loftin Phillip Williams
Erica Marquard Julie Williams-Byrd
Susan Minor Aron Wolf
David J. Miranda Lisa Wood
Carolyn Mizell Ken Wright
Sharon Monica Jones Nancy Zeitlin
226

2020 Nasa Technology Taxonomy PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2020 Nasa Technology Taxonomy PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2020 Nasa Technology Taxonomy PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Split TA15 Aeronautics into TX15 Flight Vehicle

• Created TX02 Flight Computing and Avionics

TX16: Air Traffic Management and Range

TX17: Guidance, Navigation, and Control

TX01.1 Chemical Space

TX01.1.1 Integrated Systems and Ancillary

TX01.1.2 Earth Storable

TX01.1.7 Cold Gas

TX01.1.8 Warm Gas

TX01.2 Electric Space

TX01.2.1 Integrated Systems and Ancillary

TX01.3 Aero Propulsion

TX01.3.1 Integrated Systems and Ancillary

TX01.3.2 Turbine Based Combined Cycle

TX01.3.3 Rocket Based Combined Cycle

TX01.3.4 Pressure Gain Combustion

TX01.3.5 Turbine Based Jet Engines

The second and final qualifi-

TX01.3.7 Reciprocating Internal Combustion

TX01.3.8 All Electric Propulsion

TX01.3.9 Hybrid Electric Systems

TX01.3.10 Turboelectric Propulsion

TX01.3.11 Engine Icing

TX01.3.12 Alternative Low Carbon Jet Fuel

TX01.4 Advanced Propulsion A notional concept for an interplan-

TX01.4.1 Solar Sails

TX01.4.2 Electromagnetic Tethers

TX01.4.3 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

TX01.4.4 Other Advanced Propulsion Approaches

TX01.X Other Propulsion

TX02.1 Avionics Component

TX02.1.1 Radiation Hardened Extreme Environment

The GPM High Gain Antenna System (HGAS) in integration and

TX02.1.2 Electronic Packaging and Implementations

TX02.1.3 High Performance Processors

TX02.1.4 High Performance Memories

TX02.1.5 High Performance Field Programmable

TX02.1.6 Radiation Hardened ASIC Technologies

TX02.1.7 Point-of-Load Power Converters

TX02.1.8 Wireless Avionics Technologies

TX02.2 Avionics Systems and

TX02.2.1 Spacecraft Command and Data Handling

TX02.2.2 Aircraft Avionics Systems

TX02.2.3 Vision and Virtual/Augmented Reality

TX02.2.4 Low Power Embedded Computer Systems

TX02.2.5 High Speed Onboard Interconnects and

TX02.2.6 Data Acquisition Systems

WESH-TV 2 News Anchor Wendy Chioji sits in the cockpit of a space

TX02.2.7 Data Reduction Hardware Systems

TX02.2.8 Use of Advanced Commercial-off-the-Shelf

TX02.2.9 Hardware Enabling Secure Avionics

TX02.3 Avionics Tools,

TX02.3.1 Electronics Development Tools

James Peckham, an TX02.3.2 Space Radiation Analysis and Modeling

TX02.3.3 Avionics Reliability and Fault-Tolerance

TX02.3.4 Electromagnetic Environment Effects

TX02.X Other Flight

TX03.1 Power Generation and