Power System Protection Part - 1 DR - Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq

Power System Protection Part – 1 Dr.Prof.
Mohammed Tawfeeq
Power System protection

Introduction
· Protection is the art or science of continuously monitoring the

power system, detecting the presence of a fault and initiating the
correct tripping of the circuit breaker.
· The objectives of power system protection are to :

— Limit the extent and duration of service interruption
whenever equipment failure, human error, or adverse natural
events occur on any portion of the system
— Minimize damage to the system components involved in
the failure and Prevention of human injury
· Protection engineering concerned with the design and operation

of "protection schemes".
· Protection schemes are specialized control systems that monitor

the power system, detecting faults or abnormal conditions and
then initiate correct action.
· In this course the power system is considered as all the plant and
equipment necessary to generate, transmit, distribute and utilize
the electric power.
2
Power System Protection Part – 1 Dr.Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq
Secondary systems in a Power system

· Protection
· Auto control for voltage, frequency, reactive power compensation, power flow,
network configuration and stability
· Metering for billing, operational control and statistical data
· Local manual control (plant status, voltage level reactive power support,
network configuration)
· Remote manual control via communications links (SCADA)
· Plant condition monitoring and alarming (temperature,

malfunction, maintenance need, operating duty)
· Communications infrastructure
· Instrument transformers - current and voltage transformers
3
Protection against faults and abnormalities
Faults :
The principal electrical system faults are short circuits and overloads.
Short circuits may be caused in many ways, including failure of insulation
due to excessive heat or moisture, mechanical damage to electrical
distribution equipment, and failure of utilization equipment as a result of
overloading or other abuse.
Short circuits may occur between two-phase conductors, between all phases
of a poly-phase system, or between one or more phase conductors and
ground. The short circuit may be solid (or bolted) or welded, in which case
the short circuit is permanent and has relatively low impedance. The main
types of faults in a power system are:
■ Short-cir cuit faults (3Ф, 2 Ф, Ф g, 2 Ф g)
■ Open -cir cuit faults (open condu ct or)
■ Complex faults (inter -circuit, broken conducto r, cross -country etc)
■ Inter -turn faults in windings
Abnormalities:
■ Real power deficit - underfrequency

■ Power swings
■ Overload and excessive operating temperature
■ Power frequency overvoltage or undervoltage
■ Underexcitation of synchronous machines
■ Overfluxing of power transformers
■ Asynchronous operation of synchronous machines
■ Overfrequency
■ Mechanical defects i.e. leaking oil, tap changer mechanism faults .
4
Types of Faults
· Short circuit type faults (solidly earth fault)
5
· Faults in Windings
6
· Single-Phase-Ground: 70 – 80 %
· Phase-Phase-Ground: 17 – 10 %
· Phase-Phase: 10 – 8 %
· Three-Phase: 3 – 2 %
Causes of Short-Circuit Faults
· Insulation breakdown due to inherent weakness Lightning
· Birds and animals bridging insulators
· Dig-ups for underground cables
· Poles collapsing
· Conductors breaking
· Vehicle impact
· Wind borne debris
· Incorrect operation by personnel
· Etc
7
Effects of Short- Circuit Type Faults
■ Large or very large currents can flow through parts of the

network - thousands or tens of thousands of Amps can be
involved
■ These large currents can only be allowed to flow for a very

short time otherwise equipment and generators would be
damaged, most likely terminally - allowable short-circuit
current flow duration could range from as short as 10
milliseconds up to say 3 seconds.
■ Arcs, sparking and the heating effect of short-circuit

currents can start fires involving non-electrical assets /
property
■ Very large mechanical forces can be caused by short -

circuit currents which have potential to break or damage
equipment
■ Electric current can "escape" from the network conductors

and flow through paths where they could create a hazard to
people or livestock and cause damage to non-electrical
assets/property
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· between load (normal) and fault

(abnormal) conditions
· Not be confused by non-damaging transient

conditions
· Be - coordinate with other protection

systems
· enough to prevent damage and hazards - but

not too fast
· Have no " " i.e. unprotected zones

· High degree of and
· Secure against incorrect operation
· Should not restrict rating of primary plant and

equipment
· Should be
9
The isolation of faults and abnormalities requires the application of

protective equipment that senses when an abnormal current flow exists and
then removes the affected portion from the system. The primary protective
equipment components are shown in the following figure:
PR Protection Relay
CB Circuit Breaker
Equip Protected Item
CT Current Transformer
VT Voltage Transformer
DC Aux DC Auxiliary supply
HMI Man-machine interface
PCL Communications Link
Tr CB trip coil
The two primary protective equipment components used in the isolation of

faults and abnormalities are circuit breakers, and protective relays.
1
Elements of a Protection System
1 4
2.1
5
2 A D
2.2
2.4 mP
F.A.
2.3
3
1 – CT or VT , 2- Relay 3- TC 4- CB 5- DC supply
F.A. = Fault Alarm


1
n The function of transducers (usually CT and VT) is to

provide current and voltage signals to the relays, to
detect deviations of the parameters watched over .
2.1
2 A D
n Relays are the logic 2.2

elements which 2.4 mP
initiate the tripping F.A.
and closing 2.3
operations. 3
2

1 4
2 n Circuit breakers
isolate the fault by
interrupting the
current.
n Tripping power, as
well as power 1 4
required by the
relays, is usually
provided by the
station battery
because is safer 2.1
than the ac faulted
system.
2 A D
5
2.2
2.4 mP
F.A.
2.3
3
3
Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq

Protective Relays
What is a Relay?
· Device which receives a signal from the power system and
determines whether conditions are "normal" or "abnormal"
(measuring function)-
· If an abnormal condition is present, relay signals circuit breaker

to disconnect equipment that could be damaged (Switching or
signaling function)
· "Relays" signal from system to circuit breaker.
What is the Purpose of the Relay?
The purpose of the protective relaying systems is to isolate only the faulty
component of power system.
Relaying equipments are classified into two groups:
1. Primary relaying equipment.
2. Back-up relaying equipment.
Primary relaying is - the first line of defense for protecting the equipments.
Back-up protection relaying works only when the primary relaying
equipment fails (they are slow in action).
4
Functional Diagram of Relaying
5
Desirable Relay Characteristics
■ Speed (1/60 sec)

* Minimizes damage from current
* Maximizes power transfer during normal conditions,
stability
■ Security
* Relay should not cause circuit breaker to open during
normal conditions
■ Dependability
* Relay should cause circuit breaker to open
during abnormal conditions
■ Sensitivity
n Ability of a relay to detect all faults for the expected
limiting system and fault conditions
■ Selectivity
nAbility of a relay system to discriminate between
faults internal and external to its intended

protective zones.
6
7

Classifications of Relays
Classification of Relays
Protection relays can be classified in accordance with the function which they
carry out, their construction, the incoming signal and the type of protection.
1. General function:
Auxiliary.
Protection.
Monitoring.
Control.
2. Construction:
· Electromagnetic.
· Solid state.
· Microprocessor.
· Computerized.
· Nonelectric (thermal, pressure ......etc.).
3. Incoming signal:
· Current.
· Voltage.
· Frequency.
· Temperature.
· Pressure.
· Velocity.
· Others.
4. Type of protection
· Over current.
· Directional over current.
· Distance.
· Over voltage.
· Differential.
· Reverse power.
· Other.
8
Definitions:
■ Normally open contact ( N/O): is one which is open when the relay is not
energized.
■ Normally closed contact (N/C): is one which is closed when the relay is not
energized.
■ Operating force or torque: that which tends to close the contacts of the relay.
■ Restrain force or torque: that which opposes the operating force or torque
and tend to prevent the closure of the relay contacts.
■ Pick-up level: the value of the actuating quantity (current or voltage), which is
on the border above which the relay operates.
■ Drop-out or reset level: the value of current or voltage below which a relay
opens its contacts and comes to original position..
■ Operating time: the time which elapses between the instant when the
actuating quantity exceeds the pick-up value to the instant when the relay
contacts close.
■ Reset time: the time which elapses between the instant when the actuating
quantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contact
returns to its normal position.
■ Primary relays: the relays which are connected directly in the circuit to be
protected.
■ Secondary relays: the relays which are connected in the circuit to be
protected through CTs and V.Ts.
■ Auxiliary relays: relays which operate in response to the opening or closing of
its operating circuit to assist another relay in the performance of its function. This
relay may be instantaneous or may have a time delay.
■ Reach: a distance relay operates whenever the impedance seen by the relay
is less than a prescribed value, this impedance or rt]ic corresponding distance is
known as the reach of the relay.
■ Instantaneous relay: One which has no intentional time-delay and operates in
less than 0.1 second.
■ Blocking: preventing the protective relay from tripping cither due to its own
characteristics or to an additional relay.
■ Time delay relay : One which is designed with a delaying means .
9

Types of Relays
The main types of protective relays are summaries in the following diagram:
Types of Relay
Solid Electromagnetic Computerized

State
Others:
Temperature
Pressure
Magnetic Magnetic Digital Numerical

Induction Attraction Relays Relays
Attracted Plunger
Armature Type
Wattmetric Induction Shaded Pole

Type Cup
21

Electromagnetic Relays
1. Electromagnetic relays
Electromechanical Relays
Research Began at the End of the 19th
Century
The Relay Family Was Completed in
the 1930’s
They Are Still in Use
These relays were the earliest forms of relay used for the protection of power
systems, and they date back nearly 100 years. They work on the principle of
a mechanical force causing operation of a relay contact in response to a
stimulus. The mechanical force is generated through current flow in one or
more windings on a magnetic core or cores, hence the term
electromechanical relay. The principle advantage of such relays is that they
provide galvanic isolation between the inputs and outputs in a simple, cheap
and reliable form – therefore for simple on/off switching functions where the
output contacts have to carry substantial currents, they are still used.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types as
follows:
a. magnetic attracted armature relays

b. magnetic induction relays
c. moving coil
d. thermal
However, only attracted armature and induction types have significant

application at this time, all other types having been superseded by more
modern equivalents. Electromagnetic relays are constructed with
electrical, magnetic and mechanical components, have an operating coil
and various contacts and are very robust, inexpensive and reliable.
However they required maintenance by skilled personnel.
2
1.1 . Magnetic attraction relays
Magnetic attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC, and operate by

the movement of a piece of metal when it is attracted by the magnetic
field produced by a coil. There are two main types of relay in this class.
› Attracted armature type (clapper type)
› Plunger type
1.1.1 The attracted armature relays: which are shown in Fig.1,

consists of a bar or plate of metal which pivots when it is attracted
towards the coil.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 1 Attracted armature-type relays
22
· The armature is attracted to the electromagnet when the current

reaches a certain predetermined value (iop – operating current). The
force of the armature will trip the link mechanism of the circuit
breaker, or it may operate as a relay and close the contacts of a
separate tripping circuit. The armature is attracted against gravity or a
spring. By adjusting the distance of the armature from the
electromagnet, or the tension of the spring, the current at which the
trip operates can be varied to suit the circuit conditions.
· The armature carries the moving part of the contact, which is
closed or opened according to the design when the armature is
attracted to the coil.
1.1.2 Plunger type relay: The other type is the piston or solenoid relay,
illustrated in Figure 2, in which α bar or piston is attracted axially within the
field of the solenoid. In this case, the piston also carries the operating
contacts. This called plunger type relay.
Figure 2 Solenoid-type (plunger) relay
· It can be shown that the force of attraction is equal to K 1I2 - K2, where
Κ1 depends upon the number of turns on the operating solenoid, the
air gap, the effective area and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
among other factors. K2 is the restraining force, usually produced by a
spring. When the relay is balanced, the resultant force is zero and
therefore Κ112 = K2, so that :
I = K 2 / K1 =constant.
23
This equation can be proved as follows:
Atracted armature relay analysis
In general, the mechanical force produced by an electric magnet is

propotional to φ2; i.e:
F (t )aj 2
mmf N
j= = i where
R R
lg
R = al = reluctance
mo A g
Ni N 2i 2
So ja or j 2a
lg l g2
Hence F (t ) = kj j
2
Where k j is constant
N 2i 2 N2
= kj 2 = k1i 2 , k1 = kj l 2
lg g
The net force is

Fn (t ) = F (t ) - k 2 = k1i 2 - k 2
Where k 2 = restraining force produced by the spring
When the relay is balanced Fn (t ) = 0
0 = k1I 2 - k2
So k1I 2 = k2
k2
or I = = constant
k1
I = RMS value of i
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· In order to control the value at which the relay starts to operate, the
restraining tension of the spring or the resistance of the solenoid
circuit can be varied, thus modifying the restricting force. Attraction
relays effectively have no time delay and, for that reason, are widely
used when instantaneous operations are required.
Example :
An electromagnetic relay of attracted armature type has constants
k1 = 0.6 and k 2 = 10 find whether the relay will operate or not
when:
(a) A current of 4A flows through the relay winding.
(b) A current of 5A flows through the relay winding.
(c) Find the minimum current required to operate the relay.
Solution:
(a) For 4A current:
Fn (t ) = k1 I 2 - k 2 = 0.6(4) 2 - 10 = -0.4 N
So the relay will not operate. Since, the restrain force

> operating force.
(b) For 5A current:
Fn (t ) = k1 I 2 - k 2 = 0.6(5) 2 - 10 = 15 - 10 = 5N
Hence, the relay will operate, since, the operating

force > restrain force
(c) The minimum current required to operate the relay
is when the relay becomes at balanced condition, i.e
Fn (t ) = 0
25
k2 10
or I= = = 4.08 A
k1 0.6
1. 2. M ag ne ti c induction relays
An induction relay works only with alternating current. Induction relays can
be grouped into three classes as set out below.
1.2.1. Wattmetric-type relay
It consists of an electromagnetic system consists of two electromagnets

constructed as shown in Fig.4, which operates on a moving conductor, in the
form of a disc.
Fig.4. Induction type overload relay
Electromagnetic Induction Principle

· Induction type relay: General operating principle:
The two magnets of the induction type relay produce two alternating
magnetic fields j1 & j 2 :
26
j1 = j1m sin wt
j 2 = j 2m sin(wt + q )
where j 2 leads j1 by an angle q .
j1 & j 2 produce eddy currents in the rotating disc which are iφ1 and iφ2
dj 1
ij 1a
dt
dj 2
ij 2a
dt
or
ij1aj1m cos wt
ij 2aj2 m cos(wt + q )
F1 is the force produced by intersection of j1 and ij 2 .
27
F2 is the force produced by intersection of j 2 and ij1 .

The net force is
F = F2 - F1a[j 2 ij1 - j1ij 2 ]
Thus Faj1mj 2m [sin(wt + q ) cos wt - sin wt cos(wt + q )]
Now sin(wt + q ) cos wt = sin wt cos wt cos q + sin q cos 2 wt
- sin wt cos(wt + q )= - sin wt cos wt cos q + sin 2 wt sin q
= sin q (cos 2 wt + sin 2 wt ) = sin q
Hence Faj1mj 2 m sin q
The net torque produced
T = Fr aF
or
T = K1j1mj 2m sin q
Let Φ1 is the R.M.S value of j1 , Φ2 is the R.M.S value of j 2

So
FaF1F 2 sin q
or
TaF1F 2 sin q
In terms of currents:
TaI 1 I 2 sin q
or
T = K t I 1 I 2 sin q
28
· Induction Type Relay with plug settings
Fig.6 Induction type relay with
Plug settings
1.2.2. Induction-Cup relay
The operation is similar to the induction disc; here, two fluxes at right angles
induce eddy currents in a bell-shaped cup which rotates and carries the
moving contacts. A four-pole relay is shown in Figure 7.
Fig 7.Four-pole induction-cup relay.
29
1.2.3. Shaded-pole relay
In this case operation of the electromagnetic section is short-circuited by

means of a copper ring or coil. This creates a flux in the area influenced
by the short circuited section (the so-called shaded section) which lags the
flux in the nonshaded section, see Figure 8.
Fig.8 Shaded – pole Relay
Ø Note that the main coils has TAPS, this means that the
number of turns is actually adjustable.
In the electromagnetic induction principle, the relay element has a non-
magnetic rotor (an aluminum or copper disc or cylinder) in which coils
create magnetic fluxes that induce circulating currents. The interaction
between the fluxes and the circulating currents generates torque. This is the
operation principle of induction motors.
If the current is sinusoidal and the iron core is assumed to have a linear
behavior, the magnetic field and the magnetic flux in the iron core are
sinusoidal too. Note that the flux is divided in two parts. One flows through
the normal (‘pole”) and the other flows through the shaded pole. These two
fluxes are similar in magnitude but different in angle.
Features of the Induction Principle
Suitable for AC Systems
The Torque Does Not Vary With Time: No Vibration
Inherent Rejection of DC Offset: Low Overreach
31

Solid State Relays
2. Solid State Relays

Research Began in the 1940’s
First Commercial Products in the Late
1950’s
Full Development in the 1960’s
Advantages Over Electromechanical
Relays
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides
a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any
moving components, increasing long-term reliability. Introduction of static
relays began in the early 1960’s. Their design is based on the use of
analogue electronic devices instead of coils and magnets to create the relay
characteristic. Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and
diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances
in electronics enabled the use of linear and digital integrated circuits in later
versions for signal processing and implementation of logic functions.. Figure
9 shows a small overcurrent relay and the circuit board for a simple static
relay.
Fig.9 . Small overcurrent relay and the circuit board for a simple static relay.
3
Solid State Relay Principle of Operation

Solid state relays (static relays) are extremely fast in their operation. They
have no moving parts and have very quick response time and they are very
reliable.
Figure 1 shows the elements used in a single – phase time lag overcurrent
relay.
R
Relay
CT
Rectifier
C
Fig.1
· The AC input from the current transformer CT is rectified and

converted to DC voltage Vin through shunt resistance.
· A delay time circuit (RC) is used to produce the required time delay.
· If Vin < VR, the base – emitter of transistor TR1 is reversed bias
forcing the transistor to be in the cut off state.
· When Vin > VR, transistor TR1 will be in the ON state and in turn will
turn on TR2 and the output relay is activated.
· VR is set by R1 and R2.
32

Computerized Relays
3. Computerized Relay
3.1. Digital relays
Research Began in the 1960’s
Basic Developments: Early 1970’s
A Technical and Economic Solution:
the Microprocessor
Commercial Relays: Early 1980
A digital protective relay is a microcomputer controlled relay. The data
acquisition system collects the transducers information and converts it to the
proper form for use by the microcomputer. Information from CT and PT and
other systems is amplified and sampled at several kHz. The sampled signals
are digitized with A/D converter and fed to registers in microprocessor
system. The microprocessor may use some kind of counting technique, or
use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to compare the information with
preset limits for overcurrent , over/under voltage…etc, and then send
command through D/A converter to alarm or trip signals to the circuit
breakers.
33
Operation :
· The relay applies A/D (analog/digital) conversion processes to the

incoming the voltages and currents.
· The relay analyzes the A/D converter output to extract the magnitude
of the incoming quantity (RMS value) using Fourier transform
concept. Further, the Fourier transform is commonly used to extract
the signal's phase angle relative to some reference.
· The digital relay is capable of analyzing whether the relay should trip
or restrain from tripping based on current and/or voltage magnitude
(and angle in some applications).
Examples of digital relays are shown in Figure 10.
Fig.10 Digital relays
Signal Path for Microprocessor Relays

The signal path for voltage and current input signals are shown in Fig.11.
Fig.11
34
· After the currents and voltages are reduced to acceptable levels by the
instrument transformers, the signals are filtered with an analog filter
· The signal then digitized and re-filtered with a digital filter.
· Numerical operating quantities are then calculated from the processed
waveforms.
Digital Relay Construction
Analog Input Subsystem

Discrete Input Subsystem
A/D Converter
Microprocessor
Discrete output Subsystem
Operating signaling and communication subsystems
Fig.12
35
Discrete Input Subsystem

Surge Suppression
Signal Conditioning
!
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
36
Sampling frequency is the inverse of sampling rate.
37
The digital filter smoothes the signal by eliminating DC and frequencies

components those are different than the fundamental (when required).
38
39
These routines implement the protection function:

overcurrent, directional, distance,differential, etc.
Other Features :
· The relay has some form of advanced event recording. The event
recording would include some means for the user to see the timing of
key logic decisions, relay I/O (input/output) changes, and see in an
oscillographic fashion at least the fundamental frequency component
of the incoming AC waveform.
· The relay has an extensive collection of settings, beyond what can be
entered via front panel knobs and dials, and these settings are
transferred to the relay via an interface with a PC (personal computer),
and this same PC interface is used to collect event reports from the
relay.
· The more modern versions of the digital relay will contain advanced
metering and communication protocol ports, allowing the relay to
become a focal point in a SCADA system.
41
Advantages of Digital Relays
Low Cost
Multifunctionality
Protection and control
Measurement
Fault recording
Communications capability
Compatibility with Digital Integrated Systems
High Reliability
Relays (integration, self-testing)
Protection system (supervised by the relays)
Sensitivity and Selectivity
New Protection Principles
New Relay Operating Characteristics
Maintenance-Free
Reduced Burden on CTs and VTs
Adaptive Protection
4

Numerical Relays
3.2. NUMERICAL RELAYS
The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on points of fine
technical detail, and is rarely found in areas other than Protection. They can
be viewed as natural developments of digital relays as a result of advances in
technology. Typically, they use a specialized digital signal processor (DSP)
as the computational hardware, together with the associated software tools.
Numerical measurement treatment
I1 U
1 numerically the measurement
value is converted into a
D
000101001001
A logical digit and then
compared with another digit
setting value stored 000101001011
in EEPROM stored in a memory
meas. current 1,05 A
no pick-up
setting value 1,10 A
meas. current 1,15 A pick-up

setting value 1,10 A
42
Mode of operation
Analog Inputs
Analog-Digital-Conversion
yes Fault detection no
Protection program Routine program
Command and information output
Advantages of numerical technolo gy
· Comprehensive information supply
· clear representation of the fault sequence
Fault sequence of event and disturbance recording indicate
q What actually happened ?
q What did the current and voltage signals look like (CT
saturation) ?
q When did the protection issue a trip signal ?
q How long did the circuit breaker need to operate ?
q What was the magnitude of the interrupted current ?
q How did the system behave after the circuit breaker

tripped ?
43
Electromagnetic vs Computerized
44
ANSI Device Numbers

The ANSI Standard Device Numbers denote what features a protective device supports
(such as a relay or circuit breaker). These types of devices protect electrical systems and
components from damage when an unwanted event occurs, such as a electrical fault.
List of Device Numbers

· 1 - Master Element
· 2 - Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay
· 3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay
· 4 - Master Contactor
· 5 - Stopping Device
· 6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
· 7 - Anode Circuit Breaker
· 8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
· 9 - Reversing Device
· 10 - Unit Sequence Switch
· 12 - Overspeed Device
· 13 - Synchronous-speed Device
· 14 - Underspeed Device
· 15 - Speed - or Frequency-Matching Device
· 20 - Elect. operated valve (solenoid valve)
· 21 - Distance Relay
· 23 - Temperature Control Device
· 25 - Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device
· 26 - Apparatus Thermal Device
· 27 - Undervoltage Relay
· 29 - Isolating Contactor
· 30 - Annunciator Relay
· 32 - Directional Power Relay
· 36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Devices
· 37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
· 38 - Bearing Protective Device
· 39 - Mechanical Conduction Monitor
· 40 - Field Relay
· 41 - Field Circuit Breaker
· 42 - Running Circuit Breaker
· 43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
· 46 - Reverse-phase or Phase-Balance Relay
· 47 - Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay
· 48 - Incomplete-Sequence Relay
· 49 - Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay
· 50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent
· 51 - AC Time Overcurrent Relay
45
· 52 - AC Circuit Breaker
· 53 - Exciter or DC Generator Relay
· 54 - High-Speed DC Circuit Breaker
· 55 - Power Factor Relay
· 56 - Field Application Relay
· 59 - Overvoltage Relay
· 60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay
· 61 - Machine Split Phase Current Balance
· 62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
· 63 - Pressure Switch
· 64 - Ground Detector Relay
· 65 - Governor
· 66 - Starts per Hour
· 67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
· 68 - Blocking Relay
· 69 - Permissive Control Device
· 71 - Level Switch
· 72 - DC Circuit Breaker
· 74 - Alarm Relay
· 75 - Position Changing Mechanism
· 76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
· 78 - Phase-Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step Protective Relay
· 79 - AC-Reclosing Relay
· 81 - Frequency Relay
· 83 - Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay
· 84 - Operating Mechanism
· 85 - Carrier or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay
· 86 - Lockout Relay
· 87 - Differential Protective Relay
· 89 - Line Switch
· 90 - Regulating Device
· 91 - Voltage Directional Relay
· 92 - Voltage and Power Directional Relay
· 94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
· 95 - Reluctance Torque Synchrocheck
· 96 - Autoloading Relay
46
Methods of Fault Detections

q Magnitude of current – Overcurrent protection
q Magnitude of current in earth and neutral – Earth fault
protection
q Magnitude and angle of Impedance (Ratio V/I)
Impedance protection
q Difference between two currents – Differential
protection
q Difference between phase angles of two currents –
phase comparison protection
q Magnitude of negative sequence current
q Magnitude of voltage – Overvoltage or undervoltage
protection
q Magnitude of frequency – Overvoltage or
underfrequency protection
q Temperature – Thermal protection
q Specials i.e. transformer gas protection
47
Power System Protection Part – 2 Dr.Prof. Mohammed Tawfeeq

Zones of Protection
Zones of protection
Zone of protection of a relay is the place or the distance that the relay can protect
easily.Fig.1 shows an example of protection zones for three circuit breakers.It is to be
noted that the protection zones are overlapped.
CB1
Zone of protection of CB1
CB2 CB3
In power systems, all power system elements must be encompassed by at

least one zone
n The more important elements must be included in at least two zones
n Zones must overlap to prevent any element from being unprotected.
n The overlap must be finite but small to minimize the likelihood of a

fault inside this region.
n A zone boundary is usually defined by a CT and a CB.
n The CT provides the ability to detect a fault inside the zone
n The CBs provide the ability to isolate the fault.
8

Zones of Protection
CLOSED AND OPEN PROTECTION ZONES
OPEN ZONE
CLOSED ZONE
PROTECTION
PROTECTION
ZONE OF PROTECTION ZONE OF PROTECTION
Relay 87
Distance Relay 50/51
Overcurrent
Primary Zones of protection
Zone3
Zone 5
Zone 4
Zone1
Zone2
05

Zones of Protection
Primary protection in power

systems
0

Zones of Protection
Backup protection
n It is essential that provision be made to
clear the fault by some alternative
protection system in case of the
primary protection fails to operate.
These are referred to as backup
protection systems
n Ideally primary and backup are

independent (relay,breaker,CT,PT)
n Slower than primary
n Sometimes backup protection opens

more circuit breakers than absolutely
necessary to clear the fault
n Provide primary protection when usual

primary equipment out of service
0

Zones of Protection
Two Types of Backup

Protection
Back up relaying may be installed
locally, in the same substation, or
remote in other substations or
places:
n Local backup : Clears fault in the

same station where the failure
has occurred
n Remote backup : Clears fault on

station away from where the
failure has occurred
0

Zones of Protection
Primary and Back up protection

at the same location
( Local Backup)
Backup
REACH OF PROTECTION 21P Primary
REACH OF PROTECTION 21B
Fault
Transmission line
21P
21B
08

Zones of Protection
Local backup protection at

differente locations
REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF THE TRANSFORMER
REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF BUS TIE BREAKER
REACH OF PROTECTION 21
21
50/51
50/51
B/B2 B/B1
00

Zones of Protection
Remote back up protection
REACH OF PROTECTION 21B

REACH OF PROTECTION 21A
21 21
SUBSTATION B SUBSTATION A
n Selectivity and zones of protection

Selectivity is defined in terms of regions of a power
system (zones of protection) for which a given relay is
responsible.
n The relay will be considered secure if it responds only to
faults within its zone of protection
0
Example : Consider the following simple power system:
A D
G1 G2
B E
G H J K
C F
L M
Q R
N P
LOAD
Discuss the local and remote backup protection for two fault
locations as follows:
0
Case 1: Local Backup
A D
G1 G2
B E
G H J K
C F
F1
I
L M
Q R
N P
LOAD
Breaker closed Breaker opened
For fault at F1: Suppose that breaker J operate and breaker H

failed to operate.
Therefore:
04
G and I must operate as local backup protection

Case 2: Local Backup
A D
G1 G2
B E
G H J K
C F
L M
Q R
N P
F2
LOAD

For fault at F2: Suppose that breakers P and Q operate and
breaker M failed to operate.
Therefore:
L must operate as local backup protection and I should tripped

by communication signal (Transfer Trip)
0
Case 3: Remote Backup
A D
G1 G2
B E
G H J K
C F
I
F1
L M
Q R
N P
LOAD

For fault at F1: Suppose that breaker J operate and breaker H
failed to operate.
Therefore:
E, F, L and M must operate as Remot backup protection
5
Case 4: Remote Backup
A D
G1 G2
B E
G H J K
C F
L M
Q R
N P
F2
LOAD

For fault at F1: Suppose that breakers P & Q operate and
breaker M failed to operate.
Therefore:
I, B, and C must operate as Remot backup protection

Power System Protection Part - 1 DR - Prof.Mohammed Tawfeeq

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Power System Protection Part – 1 Dr.Prof.

Power System protection

· Protection is the art or science of continuously monitoring the

· The objectives of power system protection are to :

· Protection engineering concerned with the design and operation

· Protection schemes are specialized control systems that monitor

Secondary systems in a Power system

· Metering for billing, operational control and statistical data

· Remote manual control via communications links (SCADA)

· Plant condition monitoring and alarming (temperature,

· Instrument transformers - current and voltage transformers

Protection against faults and abnormalities

■ Short-cir cuit faults (3Ф, 2 Ф, Ф g, 2 Ф g)

■ Open -cir cuit faults (open condu ct or)

■ Complex faults (inter -circuit, broken conducto r, cross -country etc)

■ Inter -turn faults in windings

■ Real power deficit - underfrequency

· Short circuit type faults (solidly earth fault)

Causes of Short-Circuit Faults

· Insulation breakdown due to inherent weakness Lightning

· Birds and animals bridging insulators

· Dig-ups for underground cables

· Wind borne debris

· Incorrect operation by personnel

Effects of Short- Circuit Type Faults

■ Large or very large currents can flow through parts of the

■ These large currents can only be allowed to flow for a very

■ Arcs, sparking and the heating effect of short-circuit

■ Very large mechanical forces can be caused by short -

■ Electric current can "escape" from the network conductors

· between load (normal) and fault

· Not be confused by non-damaging transient

· Be - coordinate with other protection

· enough to prevent damage and hazards - but

· Have no " " i.e. unprotected zones

· Secure against incorrect operation

· Should not restrict rating of primary plant and

The isolation of faults and abnormalities requires the application of

The two primary protective equipment components used in the isolation of

Elements of a Protection System

F.A. = Fault Alarm

Elements of a Protection System

n The function of transducers (usually CT and VT) is to

n Relays are the logic 2.2

Elements of a Protection System

Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq

· If an abnormal condition is present, relay signals circuit breaker

· "Relays" signal from system to circuit breaker.

What is the Purpose of the Relay?

Functional Diagram of Relaying

Desirable Relay Characteristics

■ Speed (1/60 sec)

faults internal and external to its intended

Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq

■ Time delay relay : One which is designed with a delaying means .

Power System protection Dr. Mohamad Tawfeeq

Solid Electromagnetic Computerized

Magnetic Magnetic Digital Numerical