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WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF DEVELOPMENT AGENTS IN

ETHIOPIA
Technical Report · June 2012

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3576.7766
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WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB PERFORMANCE
OF DEVELOPMENT AGENTS IN ETHIOPIA
Submitted by
Kassa Belay, Ranjan S. Karippai, Dawit Alemu, Abera Deressa and

Jemal Yousuf
Haramaya University
To
Rural Capacity Building Project
Ministry of Agriculture
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
June, 2012
Table of contents
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................... iv
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................ 6
1.4 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 7
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ..................................................................... 7
1.6 Organization of the Report ................................................................................... 8
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 9
2.2 Concept and Definition of Motivation ................................................................. 9
2.3 Concept and Definition of Performance............................................................. 10
2.4 Studies on Job Performance ............................................................................... 11
2.5 Empirical Evidences on Work Motivation and Job Performance of DAs ......... 12
2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study.................................................................. 15
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 17
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 22
4.2 Work Motivation of Development Agents ......................................................... 22
4.3 Job Performance of Development Agents .......................................................... 26
4.3.1 Self rating of job performance by DAs ....................................................... 26
4.3.2 Supervisors‟ rating of job performance of DAs .......................................... 28
4.3.3 Farmers‟ rating on job performance of Das ................................................ 29
4.3.4 Relationship of selected factors with work motivation of DAs .................. 34
4.3.5 Relationship of selected factors with job performance of DAs ................... 35
5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 37
6. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 42
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 46
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 The Number of Sample Zones and Districts Covered by the Study, by Regional
State .................................................................................................................... 17
Table 2 National level distribution of DAs based on their work motivation (n = 181) .... 22
Table 3 Region wise distribution of DAs based on their work motivation (n = 181)....... 24
Table 4 Distribution of DAs based on their self rated job performance (n = 181) ........... 26
Table 5 Region wise distribution of DAs based on their job performance (n = 181) ....... 27
Table 6 Supervisors‟ rating of professional competence of DAs (n = 42) ....................... 28
Table 7 Supervisors‟ rating of technical competence of DAs (n = 42) ............................ 29
Table 8 Farmers‟ rating of professional competence of DAs (n = 1658) ......................... 30
Table 9 Farmers‟ rating of technical competence of DAs (n = 1658) .............................. 30
Table 10 Region wise farmers‟ rating on professional competence of DAs (n = 1658) .. 31
Table 11 Region wise farmers‟ rating on technical competence of DAs (n = 1658)........ 33
Table 12 Relationship of selected factors with work motivation of DAs (n = 181) ......... 34
Table 13 Relationship of selected factors with job performance of DAs (n = 181) ......... 35
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Ethiopian economy largely depends on agricultural sector, which is mainly rain fed
and subsistence in nature. However, currently this sector is unable to feed the
growing population of about 85 millions. Commercialization of small holder farming
is given thrust in current policy, but diffusion of improved agricultural technologies is
of prime importance for this to happen. Development Agents (DAs) are the main
actors in agricultural technology dissemination at grass-roots level. There are three
DAs in each kebele for crops, livestock and natural resource management. In
addition, one cooperative and one veterinary expert each at Diploma level for 3
kebeles are also put in place. However, their commitment and performance will
depend on how far they are motivated in their jobs. DAs in Ethiopia are generally
have heavy workload, with a jurisdiction of 800 – 1200 households in each kebele In
addition to agricultural extension professional tasks, they are entrusted with other
assignments like credit distribution and repayment collection, input delivery,
mobilizing farmers for cooperatives and public works etc. With starting of Farmers‟
Training Centers (FTCs), they are also responsible to conduct modular and non
modular trainings, demonstrations and exhibitions. Recent studies in Haramaya
University in the last three years revealed that many DAs have low morale and
absenteeism due to the poor incentive structure and work environment. A large
number of them join degree courses by distance or continuing education mode in
subjects other than their professional specializations and get ready to leave the job.
Moreover, many NGOs employ DAs with field work experience preferred to fresh
degree graduates. Hence, RCBP decided to conduct a national level research about
DAs with specific objectives of assessing their work motivation and job performance,
analyzing their knowledge and skill gaps and to identify the major factors affecting
work motivation and job performance.
The study covered all regions of the country, and 28 districts were randomly selected
scattered in the regions. Three kebeles in each district were randomly selected. All
iv
DAs and 20 farmers in each kebele were the respondents of the study. Data were
collected from 1658 farmers, and 181 DAs in addition to woreda level supervisors
and other key informants at zonal and regional levels using questionnaires, checklists
and focused group discussion (FGD) guides developed for the study. Primary and
secondary data of qualitative and quantitative in nature were collected and used for
analysis. Primary quantitative data were gathered from DAs (self rating), farmers
(client rating), and supervisors (superior rating). Superior and client ratings were on
professional competence and technical competence of DAs. The data on major factors
affecting DAs work motivation and job performance were collected by self rating,
FGDs and key informant interviews. Totally 168 FGDs and 156 key informant
interviews (KIIs) were conducted for this study, in addition to survey with 1658
farmers, 181 DAs and 42 supervisors. Later, the quantitative data were analyzed
using descriptive statistics like means, standard deviations, frequencies, and
percentages. Chi square test was used for comparisons among regions and Pearson‟s
Product Moment Correlation was used to identify factors related to work motivation
and job performance. Analysis of qualitative data of FGDs and KIIs was done using
narrations and interpretations for triangulations.
The results of this study indicated that about 67% of DAs were in medium level of
work motivation, while about 29% of them were in low level. The major reasons
attributed to this lower motivation levels were lower salary, lack of appropriate
incentive mechanism, limited access to internal promotion, less opportunities for
higher education in the professional streams, challenging nature of the profession
itself, very high workload, duties and responsibilities irrelevant to the profession,
multiple chains of command, lack of favorable policy environment at lower levels,
and poor infrastructural facilities such as accommodation and transport. Turn over
rate was high in most of the study areas. High gender disparity in DAs‟ male – female
ratio was also observed in all the locations.
v
When the data on work motivation were analyzed to compare among regions, 100%
DAs were in low work motivation in Benishangul Gumuz region, even though it was
self rating. In SNNPR, 56.5% of sampled DAs and in Oromia 31.2% were in low
category. In Afar, Amhara, Harari and Dire Dawa, more than 20% were in low work
motivation level. No DA was found in high category in SNNP, Dire Dawa, Gambella
and Benishangul Gumuz regions. Chi square test revealed that difference among
regions was statistically significant at less than 1% level in the case of work
motivation.
When the job performance was assessed, the self rating by DAs indicated that 58.0%
of them were in medium category while 8.8% were in low category. In Benishangul
Gumuz, SNNP, Tigray and Oromia regions, 25.0%, 21.7%, 16.7% and 14.6% rated
themselves as low performers. In Benishangul Gumuz and Gambella, nobody rated
themselves as high performers. The difference in self rating of job performance
among regions was statistically significant at less than 1% level.
In the case of professional competence of DAs, supervisors rated 73.8% of DAs in

medium and 21.4% in high category, and remaining in low. But in technical
competence, 69.1% were in medium and 23.8% in high categories. Farmers rated
professional and technical competence of DAs as somewhat appreciable when
compared to self rating and superiors‟ rating, with about 85% in medium and high
categories. Probably, farmers believe that what DAs deliver is right and they do not
have clear idea about the technology packages, as indicated in FGDs.
While analyzing the major factors affecting work motivation, job satisfaction,
adequacy of supervision, working conditions, recognition, promotion opportunities,
and degree of involvement were highly correlated positively with work motivation of
DAs at less than 1% level of significance. In the case of job performance, job
satisfaction, adequacy of supervision, working conditions, recognition and degree of
vi
involvement were positively and significantly related, while age and distance from
living place were negatively related.
To conclude, large majority of the DAs had medium or low levels of work
motivation, which in turn affected their job performance as well. Good majority were
in medium and low levels of job performance, which raises serious concerns. High
turn over rate is visible in all places and job satisfaction is low due to various reasons
mentioned earlier.
Based on the findings of the study, several policy recommendations are suggested.
Necessary efforts to be made to improve the clarity in job descriptions of DAs
(clearing the role ambiguity, avoiding non professional activities and work overload)
in agricultural extension organization. Supervisors are to be from different fields of
specializations and the DAs are to be provided technical guidance. Supervision
should not mean finding faults, but it should be supportive and guidance of technical
matters. Necessary budget provisions are to be made to make FTCs well equipped
and means and ways are to be found for income generation in FTCs through adequate
land allocation and conducting demonstrations and crops cultivation. To reduce the
travel constraints, provision of loans on minimum interest rates to buy motor bikes by
DAs on long term repayment basis as salary deductions, since the unwieldy area of
operation constrains the frequent field visits of DAs.
Better participatory planning process would help the DAs to own the programs and
projects with higher sense on involvement, with more commitment and satisfaction.
Additional incentive mechanism has to be designed for the extra working hours and
weekend tasks, particularly in FTC based trainings and farmers‟ field days connected
to demonstrations. It is desirable to set uniform and transparent promotion criteria, to
facilitate the DAs to strive to fulfill them by better performance and time bound
vii
goals. Performance appraisal criteria should be made transparent and the feedback
mechanism based on such appraisals should be strengthened.
Regular short term in-service training programs are to be organized to enhance their
professional and technical knowledge and skills. Performance appraisal reports
should be considered as needs assessments to fill the knowledge and skill gaps in
selection of participants to such trainings. Higher learning programs are to be devised
for career up-gradation of DAs and to reduce turn over from their profession.
Ministry of Education and Ministry of Agriculture have to jointly discuss it and frame
a policy in this regard. As indicated in the study, cross subject assignments are to be
avoided to enhance their work motivation and incentive mechanism for extra work
has to be designed.
viii
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Ethiopia, with a population of about 85 millions is the third most populous country in
Africa just behind Nigeria and Egypt. The Ethiopian economy is based on agriculture,
which accounts for about 50% of GDP, 90% of exports, and 85% of total employment
(FDRE, 2010). Ethiopian agriculture is virtually small-scale, subsistence-oriented and
crucially dependent on rainfall. About 90 percent of the country‟s agricultural output is
generated by subsistence farmers who use traditional tools and farming practices
(MoFED, 2008; Dercon et al., 2009; Ejeta, 2011). Low productivity characterizes
Ethiopian agriculture. The average grain yield for various crops is a little over one metric
ton per hectare (Byerlee et al., 2007; Dercon et al., 2009). The livestock sub-sector plays
an important role in the Ethiopian economy. The majority of smallholder farmers depend
on animals for draught power, cultivation and transport of goods. The sub-sector also
makes significant contribution to the food supply in terms of meat and dairy products as
well as to export in terms of hides and skins which make up the second major export
category. However, the productivity in the sub-sector is decreasing as a result of poor
management systems, shortage of feed and inadequate health care services (FDRE,
2010).
A closer look at the performance of the Ethiopian agriculture reveals that over the last
three decades it has been unable to produce sufficient quantities to feed the country‟s
rapidly growing population (Ashworth, 2005; Berhanu et al., 2006; Quinones, 2007).
Even worse, the country experienced the worst droughts in living memory that claimed
the lives of several thousands of people. At present, there is an agreement among the
policy makers, academic community and development practitioners that the widespread
adoption of output-enhancing inputs by smallholder farmers holds the greatest potential
for achieving food security, improving the livelihoods of rural communities and making
smallholder agriculture more commercially oriented (Abera, 2010; Belay, 2011; Ejeta,
2011). However, several barriers stand in the way of widespread adoption of output-
1
enhancing inputs. An important barrier to the adoption of improved inputs is the fact that
agriculture in Ethiopia is dominated by subsistence-oriented smallholders, who are
reluctant to adopt technologies which increase the production risks associated with their
staple crops. Other factors that limit wide-scale adoption include, inadequate information
flow from extension agents to farmers, lack of alternative appropriate technologies that
can suit the various needs of smallholder farmers, shortage and/or late availability of
improved inputs and their ever increasing prices and lack of resources or input credits.
It should be, however, noted that the dissemination of standard packages of inputs and
practices alone in most developing countries has not brought about meaningful
improvements in smallholder farmers‟ livelihoods and incomes. Part of the explanation
for the poor performance of public agricultural extension services in many developing
countries has to do with the „top-down‟ approach to extension work which focuses only
on farm level interventions that result in agricultural productivity improvements.
However, the reality on the ground reveals that smallholder farmers face the core
problem of low productivity combined with, among others, lack of market access,
distorted market prices, inadequate market information, high transaction costs, shortage
of working capital and underdeveloped and unreliable infrastructure (Anderson, 2007;
World Bank, 2008). Given this state of affairs, it has become imperative to shift away
from the conventional extension system, which focuses only on productivity-enhancing
technology promotion, toward an approach that empowers farmers and fosters linkages
and alliances from production to consumption.
In the Ethiopian context, for national progress to occur, change in agriculture is essential.
Substantial change in agriculture is needed if diets are to be improved, if a surplus is to be
produced for sale and if agriculture is to enter a phase of self sustained growth. A great
deal of responsibility for bringing about this change rests on the Federal Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA), the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and eventually on the shoulders
of Development Agents (DAs), who are at the front-line of the struggle for progressive
change in agriculture in Ethiopia (Berhanu et al., 2006).
2
Ethiopia has adopted and has been vigorously pursuing Agricultural Development Led
Industrialization (ADLI) as a national development strategy. The main thrust of ADLI is
accelerating agricultural development by means of technological and institutional
innovations, transforming the production system to that of more productive and market
oriented and achieving pro-poor, gender sensitive and ecologically sound agricultural and
rural development. Therefore; the economic development strategies and polices in
general, and agricultural development strategies and policies in particular, are based on
building the production capacity of human resources. Building the production capacity of
the human resource needed to be done focusing on preparedness to work and self-
initiation of the human power. This can be done by continuously improving the
agricultural skill and professionalism, thereby improving the generation, multiplication
and dissemination of technology (FDRE, 2001).
Development Agents (DAs) are implementers of these policies and strategies with well
defined and pre-determined roles. So, they are expected to hear the heart beats of the
farmers in terms of agriculture and rural development. They are major implementers of
the policies and strategies at the proximity of farmers more than all other actors. DAs will
effectively and efficiently discharge these responsibilities if, and only if, they are
motivated in their job. In the same way, the awaking of humanism and humanization all
over the world has enlarged the scope of applying principles of human resource
management in any organization. More and more attention is being paid to motivational
aspects of human resource, particularly the need for self- esteem, group belonging and
self-actualization (Pareek and Rao, 1992).
In order to make employees motivated and committed to their jobs in agricultural and
rural development activities, there is a need for strong and effective motivation at the
grass root level. in the context of Ethiopia, it is imperative that Das who spearhead
agricultural and rural development interventional at the kebele level be motivated and
have interest in what they do.
3
Generally in agricultural organizations, especially at lower levels, administration and
management skills, if acquired at all, are learned by trial and error. As it is seen in
different firms they train managers for different position of authorities, in addition to the
subject of management that has been taught in colleges and universities. An important
objective of management should be to motivate staff to make the efforts necessary for the
achievement of the goals of the organization, or to put it another way, it is their job to
make it rational for staff to do what is required of them. Managers have to devote
considerable attention to the understanding of the motivation process. Employees work
harder and perform better if motivated with their jobs (Beder, 1990; Wantanabe, 1991).
Belay and Degnet (2004) stated that the effectiveness of agricultural extension work
highly depends on the availabilities of extension professionals and DAs who are
qualified, motivated, committed and responsive to the ever-changing social, economic
and political environment. In the current set up, three diploma holder DAs, one each in
the areas of crop production, livestock production and natural resource management,
have been placed in each kebele. In addition to the Development Agents, two peripatetic
experts (trained in cooperatives management and veterinary medicine) are assigned for
every three Kebeles. This is a good beginning but a lot more needs to be done in terms of
DAs-farmers ratio in the rural areas.
Development Agents are not only required to have the skills and abilities but must also be
well motivated to work under complex and fluid circumstances with little supervision.
The DAs are expected to diagnose farmers‟ problems, and have the willingness to do so;
communicate effectively with farmers‟ group; and present options based on principles of
science and good agricultural practices, which widen the real choices available to farm
families (Van den Ban, 1996). Therefore; the present study is an attempt to assess the
current status of DAs in terms of their levels of work motivation and job performance and
to identify the major factors which might influence their work motivation and job
performance in Ethiopia.
4
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Development Agents in Ethiopia in general face heavy workload. First they are expected
to serve a large number of farmers ranging from 800 to 1400 rural households. Secondly,
they are often required to be involved in various non-extension activities. They are often
over loaded with different assignments, such as credit distribution and collection of
repayment, forecasting of inputs demand/need assessment and delivery, mobilizing of
farmers for public works, kebele administrative adjudication, and persuading farmers to
become members of cooperatives, which are in most cases non-extension activities that
are not related with their normal duties. Moreover, currently, DAs look after safety net
program, which would need separate employees of its own as full time. With the
establishment of Farmers‟ Training Centers (FTCs) in each kebele, The DAs are expected
to conduct modular and non modular trainings, arrange demonstrations of improved
technologies, prepare exhibitions and provide information and advisory services.
However, many people in rural areas consider DAs as government spokesmen rather than
facilitators in rural development endeavor (Belay, 2002).
Recent studies conducted in Haramaya University by Yohannes (2009) Zelalem (2011)

and Tesfaye (2012) identified the following development agent related factors that have a
bearing on extension service delivery: the low morale, absenteeism and high turnover of
DAs, perhaps because of the poor incentive structure and work environment. Several
Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) and DAs quit the agricultural extension service and
join better paying NGOs or other government offices. They quit their jobs usually after
they had gained good experience in the field, and acquiring higher educational levels
(degrees) in other fields of study, mostly unrelated to agricultural extension profession.
Moreover, many of the NGOs prefer diploma holders with work experience in field
extension rather than fresh degree holders to work as community facilitators and field
project managers.
5
Individuals responsible for managing an organization and supervising their subordinates
have a variety of responsibilities. One among these is the ability to inspire and motivate
their staff and subordinates. These could encourage the staff to strive for excellence, to
promote productivity, and to ensure the continuation of work outputs even during
difficult times. But, low levels of work motivation of the grass root level staff will affect
their job performance and hence reputation among the clients and this consequently leads
to job dissatisfaction.
Under such circumstances farmers may not get appropriate professional support to solve
their production related problems. Even though there might be other factors and reasons
contributing to the performance of the agricultural sector, DAs play a key role in
improving agricultural production and productivity.
The general observations in almost all regions of the country indicate that a large number
of DAs are pursuing degree courses through distance learning mode in private
universities or colleges in fields which are unrelated to their present job, with an
objective of changing jobs and moving to urban centers. This fact poses a serious threat
to the national agricultural extension system in general and to the goal of achieving food
security in particular. Unfortunately, there is no systematic research conducted at national
level on crucial issue of work motivation and job performance of DAs as the grass root
level functionaries, except very few and isolated studies in some locations of the country.
Therefore; this national level study was conducted to fill this information gap and
forward feasible recommendations for policy formulations and useful interventions.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
General objective: The general objective of the study was to assess the work motivation
and job performance level of DAs in Ethiopia and to analyze the major factors that might
influence their motivation and job performance.
The Specific objectives were:
 to examine the level of work motivation and job performance of DAs;
6
 to assess the knowledge and skill gaps of DAs in relation to their professional
tasks; and
 to identify major factors that might influence the work motivation and job
performance of DAs.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The effectiveness of agricultural extension provision relies on the effectiveness of the

bureaus of agriculture and extension staff, especially of DAs. A fundamentally important
dimension of agricultural extension leaders‟ role for successful management is
motivating DAs to increase their performance and bring about job satisfaction.
Because of this, managers, process owners, extension officers and supervisors of the
national agricultural extension system as a whole should thoroughly know the current
level of work motivation and job performance of DAs and factors that hinder their work
motivation and job performance. The present study will broaden these extension
organization officials‟ insights regarding work motivation and job performance of DAs.
Therefore, it might help them to develop strategies that sustain a highly motivated,
experienced and professionally satisfied front line extension work force. The result of this
investigation would also help MoA to reduce the current high turnover costs by looking
into ways and means of retaining DAs in their profession for which they are trained at
huge costs.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
Work motivation and job performance are affected by several factors when one looks at
the theories related to them. Given the diversity of human behavior in terms of
motivation, this research does not claim to cover all such aspects, but has rather focused
on issues of practical concern to recommend feasible interventions
7
Moreover, due to limitation of time available to complete the study and the vast rural
areas with diverse agro-ecology, the scope of this study was limited to selected 28
districts, spread over all the regional states of Ethiopia. Location specific issues might
affect the topic of concern differently in various locations, but enhanced understanding of
the conceptual framework of work motivation and job performance can be utilized by
policy makers and extension organization managers in their efforts to motivate DAs for
their better goal achievement in their districts in particular and in the country in general.
1.6 Organization of the Report
This chapter has introduced the background of the study, statement of the problem,
objectives, significance, scope and limitations of the study. Chapter two includes
literature review and conceptual framework. In chapter three, the research methodology
is discussed with particular focus on sampling technique, data collection and analysis. In
chapter four, the findings of the study are presented and interpreted. At the end,
summary, conclusions and recommendations are put forth in chapter five.
8
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of relevant literature was made to develop a theoretical base for this study. The
objectives of this review were to outline a conceptual framework for this national study.
The review addressed concepts, important facts, and different empirical studies on work
motivation and job performance of employees in agricultural extension and related fields.
Finally, the conceptual framework of this study is presented based on the analysis of the
issue under consideration.
2.2 Concept and Definition of Motivation
Motivation is a complex phenomenon. Several theories attempt to explain how

motivation works. In management circles, probably the most popular explanations of
motivation are based on the needs of the individual. All people have needs that they want
to be satisfied. Some are primary that deal with the physical aspects of behavior while
some are at secondary levels of psychological in nature, and are considered unlearned
adequately. These needs vary significantly from one culture and an individual to another.
Secondary needs consist of internal states, such as the desire for power, achievement, and
love. These needs are responsible for most of the behavior that a manager or a supervisor
is concerned with and for the rewards a person seeks in an organization (Burrows, 2000).
Many contemporary and classic authors have defined the concept of motivation.
Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives purpose, direction,
and intensity to behavior (Kreitner, 1995); and an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied
need (Higgins, 2000). In the work context, motivation is defined as an individual‟s
willingness to exert and maintain an effort towards organizational goal (Anh, 2003). For
this study, motivation is operationally defined, in line with Robbins (2005), as
9
development agents‟ intensity, direction, and persistence of efforts towards better
performance to attaining organizational goals
2.3 Concept and Definition of Performance
Most traditional performance concepts assume that an outside task or goal is given, and
that this goal or task is simply taken over. Performance is then measured in terms of how
far the employee actually has achieved the goal or the task as expected. Interestingly,
passive concepts are also used for describing employees' reactions to work place changes.
Currently, organizations are going through a multitude of changes because of rapid
technological development, a dynamic environment, different organizational ideas, and a
changing job concept (Frese and Fay, 2001). On the importance of personal initiative and
an active performance, the same authors argue that tomorrow's jobs will require a higher
degree of personal initiative than today's because of global competition, the faster rate of
innovations, new production concepts, and changes in the job concepts. Global
competition will reign not only on the organizational level, but also more and more on the
individual level as well.
Performance is a multi-dimensional concept. On the most basic level, they can be

distinguished between task and contextual performance. Task performance refers to an
individual‟s proficiency with which s/he performs activities which contribute to the
organization‟s „technical core‟. This contribution can be both direct (e.g., in the case of
production workers), or indirect (e.g., in the case of managers or staff personnel).
Contextual performance refers to activities which do not contribute to the technical core
but which support the organizational, social, and psychological environment in which
organizational goals are pursued. Contextual performance includes not only behaviors
such as helping co-workers or being a reliable member of the organization, but also
making suggestions about how to improve work procedures.
10
Performance is what the organization hires one to do, and do well. Thus, performance is
not defined by the action itself but by judgmental and evaluative processes. Moreover,
only actions which can be scaled, i.e., measured, are considered to constitute
performance.
2.4 Studies on Job Performance
In relation to the subject of this study, the findings of a research by Adeasiji and
Akinsomtan (1995) pointed out the following factors as being important in positively
influencing the job performance of extension agents: salary increase; job security; better
promotion; opportunity for further training; recognition; increased responsibility;
adequate vehicle loan; revision of good supervision; annual leave opportunity; and
adequate housing allowances.
Similarly, Samdrup and Chaincharn (2010) used rating scales with a pool of positive and
negative statements to obtain a quantitative measure of respondents‟ perceptions towards
the job performance of Extension Agents. More precisely, a four point rated scale was
used to rate the overall job performance of Extension Agents working under the target
respondents based on their understandings and perspectives. The categories used to
measure job performance included: technical competency; communication skills;
planning and design making skills; knowledge management, (KM) ability to generate and
share ideas; ability in net working and building linkages; performance achievement in
programs, Projects and in meeting targets, quality of extension work output; delivery of
work output on time; attendance and punctuality; interpersonal relationship; initiative;
attitude towards extension work; team work; commitment to extension work; and
reliability in assigning an extension task.
11
2.5 Empirical Evidences on Work Motivation and Job Performance of DAs
Various studies have been undertaken across the developing world in view of identifying
important factors that affect the work motivation and job performance of extension agents
and consequently the effectiveness of extension organizations. In what follows, the
findings of some of these studies are reviewed.
In developing countries most extension personnel are working under difficult and
disadvantageous conditions. Fieldwork in many developing countries is characterized by
conditions that foster low morale, lack of mobility, virtually no equipment and extremely
low salaries (Wiggins, 1986; Belay, 2008). Likewise, a study which has been conducted
in Nigeria identified financial incentives, remuneration and salary and mobility of staff as
the factors rated as the most important motivation factors, especially for female extension
agents (Ajayi and Banmeke, 2006).
According to Belay (2008), most extension field staff in Ethiopia are ill-prepared to
assume the emerging roles of extension workers, which include, among others:
developing farmers‟ own capacity to think for themselves and develop their own solution;
coordinating and organizing knowledge acquisition from several sources; serving as a
link to the world outside the village; reaching marginalized, resource-poor and women
farmers; applying technical knowledge to site-specific socioeconomic and agronomic
conditions; and feeding back information on farmers‟ constraints and potentials to
encourage relevant research. These new roles call for a fundamental reorientation of the
existing field staff to enable them acquire skills of facilitation, technical know-how,
negotiation, conflict resolution and nurturing community organizations. Reorientation
programs are extremely important to turn the existing inadequately trained, mostly
underpaid and overworked frontline field staff, who prescribe “prepackaged messages”,
into technically competent, highly qualified, effective and more client-oriented extension
workers.
12
Yohannes (2009), Zelalem (2011) and Tesfaye (2012) conducted studies on work
motivational status of development agents and the underlying factors influencing DAs
work motivation in achieving extension organizations‟ goals in Ethiopia. The study
results showed that the main causes of poor level of work motivation among DAs in the
study woredas were due to organizational management and management related
problems. Of those factors recognition system, the work itself, and organizational
administration for the first job satisfaction factors (work incentives, work location, job
security, supervision system), institutional factors (job description, perceived
performance appraisal, perceived policy environment), and psychological factors (attitude
of DAs towards their job) were found most important to influence development agents‟
work motivation. Based on the findings of their studies, these same studies underscored
that managers and supervisors should improve management system to motivate DAs.
Furthermore, they recommended that managers and supervisors of extension
organizations needed to be trained not only in the technical aspects of extension work but
also in human relations, problem solving, sensitivity towards disadvantaged groups, and
basic concepts of management. Finally yet importantly, the studies further suggested that
managers and supervisors must continuously assess DAs level of work motivation and
also identify the underlying factors contributing to the undesirable level of work
motivation so as to design motivational mechanisms to prevent low performance and
turnover of DAs.
In a recent study among DAs in agro-pastoral areas of Borana in Ethiopia, Tesfaye

(2012) found that personal characters (age and service year), work environment factors
(work location, dependable supervisors and work incentives) institutional factors (job
description and performance appraisal systems) and psychological factor (attitude of
DAs towards their job) influenced t hei r job performance.
The work motivation and morale of extension staff are very poor in many countries. The
reasons are many. The bureaucratic structure of extension administration, lack of rewards
13
and incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues, and the low esteem given to
extension are the major causes of poor motivation and morale (Freeman and Stoner,
1992).
Promotion criteria are based on seniority and length of service. Thus the bureaucratic
structure of extension organizations is a basic hindrance to designing a better reward
system. In Kenya, the pay and career opportunities of extension workers are comparable
to other government employees (Onyango, 1987). Recommendations have already been
made to equate the status of agricultural extension with that of agricultural research by
offering an equal salary structure, professional advancement, and incentives and rewards
(FAO, 1993).
Low motivation among extension staff has been further aggravated by poor working
conditions and the lack of adequate incentives. The field worker who is the most crucial
link between the extension system and its clientele, is usually overworked and underpaid
with large area of operation and worse still, deprived of logistic support, such as
transport, housing and office space (Moris, 1987). The study also noted that it is hard for
extension to serve its clients well without adequate staff incentives. In Kenya, these
incentives include housing, transportation, pay health insurance, subsistence allowances
while on official duty, and working under well trained extension supervisors with
personnel management skills needed to motivate their staff.
Agents' needs should be identified regularly in order to provide meaningful, motivational,

staff incentive. Furthermore, as times and conditions change, past motivational strategies
become ineffective (Kreitner, 1995).
According to Chambers (1993), although the extension workers are fairly secure in their
jobs, their pay and allowances are less than those of their peers working in similar
departments or private, or even in research and management positions.
14
The system of promotion and career mobility tends to be very arbitrary. Field workers
remain at the same position for many years regardless of job performance (Mannento,
1989). Most extension workers are not aware of the procedures or criteria used to assess
performance and to award promotions. Under these circumstances, the field extension
staff are not likely to be motivated in their jobs and their work performance is likely to
suffer.
The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates
employee differs given the context in which the employee works. What is clear, however,
is that employees rank interesting work as the most important motivational factor.
Dependable supervisors should help develop a good interpersonal relationship between

the supervisor and the agent. Supervision in extension is the process of giving the agents
instruction, guidance, and discipline which they require to fulfill their duties and
responsibilities.
A study by Mamusha and Volker (2005) in Tigray in Ethiopia revealed that DAs receive
limited technical support from supervisors. According to the DAs, who provided
information for the study in question, the important aspect for their supervisors was to get
the job done, no matter how, and to report accomplishments to higher officials. The DAs
reported that they try their level best to meet the expectations of their supervisors, on
whom their promotion and job security depended.
2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study
In this study, efforts were made to assess DAs work motivation and job performance
levels in their work places. Based on review of literature, and field observations and
interactions, potential factors which were assumed to be important in affecting DAs work
motivation and job performance were categorized as: work environment factors,
institutional factors, psychological factors and personal characteristics. Therefore, this
15
study tried to analyze the effects of these factors on the two major issues under inquiry.
The conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 3.
Work environment factors

 Adequacy of supervision
 Work incentives
 Perceived pay structure
 Work location
 Recognition
 Job security
 Supervision
 The quality of work life
 Promotion avenue

Demographic
factors Work Psychological factors
 Age motivation and
job  Attitude of DAs
 Work towards their job
performance of
experience
DAs
Institutional factors
 Perceived job
description
 Perceived policy
environment
 Perceived
performance
appraisal
Figure 3: Conceptual framework of the study
16
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the sampling procedures, types and sources of data, methods of data
collection and analysis. As noted earlier, this study was undertaken as a nationwide study,
with sample districts, kebeles and respondents selected based on careful scrutiny of the
situation on the ground and criteria jointly set out by the study team and experts of the
Rural Capacity Building Project (RCBP) of the MoA.
Table 1 The Number of Sample Zones and Districts Covered by the Study, by
Regional State
Regional State Number of Number of

Zones Districts
Amhara National Regional State 2 5
Afar National Regional State 1 2
Benishangul Gumuz National Regional State 1 1
Dire Dawa Administration* 1 1
Harari National Regional State* 1 1
Gambella National Regional Stat 1 1
Oromia National Regional State 3 7
Somali National Regional State 1 2
Southern Peoples Nations & Nationalities Regional State 2 4
Tigray National Regional State 2 4
Total 15 28
* the administrative units are not sub-divided into zones
The study made use of both primary and secondary data. The data were collected from 28
randomly selected districts that are spread across all regional states of the country. More
precisely, the sample districts were selected in such a way that they represent all the
17
RCBP intervention districts in the country. Towards this end, the list of RCBP
intervention zones and districts by regional state was obtained from the RCBP office.
Included in this list were all zones and districts where RCBP had made investments and
interventions for capacitating FTCs and human resource capacity building. From this list,
the sample zones and districts were randomly selected in line with the originally
approved number of zones and districts set out in the technical proposal.
Data for this study were collected from development agents, sample farmers, supervisors
of development agents. More precisely, of the 131 districts where RCBP has made
interventions, 28 (21.37%) were included in the sample. In each selected district, three
kebeles were again randomly selected, while at the same time making sure that not all
selected kebeles are located either far away or in close proximity to the district
headquarters. This precaution was taken with the belief that remoteness might have
influence on the work motivation and job performance of DAs. Then after, in each
selected kebele, all the three DAs, cooperative agents and veterinary technicians as well
as 20 randomly selected farmers were included as survey respondents. Moreover, district
level supervisors of DAs were included among the survey respondents to
complement/cross-check information obtained from DAs and farmers. In general, a total
of 84 kebeles, 252 DAs, 84 supervisors and other officials, and 1680 farmers were
included in the original study plan. However, in the course of data collection, only 181
DAs could be contacted as the remaining (71 development agents) were not available in
the sampled kebeles either because they were out for different reasons or were not
anymore on duty at the time of the survey. This in a way indicates the problem of
absenteeism, which is in fact one of the serious bottlenecks of agricultural extension
service provision in rural Ethiopia. However, based on experience from earlier studies, a
deliberate decision was made to increase the number of farmer respondents so as to
address the problems of non-response and/or incomplete response to important questions
by some of the respondents.
The final list of selected zones, woredas and research institutes were as follows:
18
Southern Tigray Zone of Tigray Region:
Amba Alagie and Raya Azebo woredas
Alamata Agricultural Research Center
Eastern Tigray Zone of Tigray Region:

Gulo Mekeda and Saesie TsedaAmba woredas
Mekelle Agricultural Research Center
Mekelle University
North Shewa Zone of Amahara Region:

Bason Worana and Menjer Shenkora woredas
Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center
West Gojjam Zone of Amhara Region:

Dembecha, Bure and Bahir Dar Zuria woredas
Adet Research Center and Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI)
Bahir Dar University
Metekal Zone of Benishagul Gumuz Region:

Dangur woreda and Pawe Research Center
Wolayta zone of SNNPR:

Ofa and Damotegale woredas
Wolayta Research Center
Sidama zone of SNNPR

Dara and Shebedino woredas
Hawassa Research Center
Hawassa University
East Shewa zone of Oromia Region

Dugda, and Adama woredas
Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center
19
Melkassa Agricultural Research Center
West Shewa Zone of Oromia Region:

Ejere and Ambo woredas
Holeta Research Center and Ambo Research Center
South West Shewa Zone of Oromia Region:

Woliso woreda
East Hararghe zone of Oromia Region:

Grawa and Melke Belo woredas
Fedis Research Center
Agnua zone of Gambella Region

Abobo woreda
Abobo Research Center of GARI
Jijiga zone of Somali Region:

Jijiga and Gurzum woredas
Somali Regional Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Research Institute (SoRPARI)
Harari Region:
Erer woreda
HU Research Center, Babile
Afar Region:
Dalifagie woreda of Zone 5
Amibara woreda of Zone 3
Werer Research Center
Dire Dawa Administration:

Three rural kebeles of Dire Dawa
20
A performance rating approach was used in this study. More specifically, rating
scales were prepared and pre-tested for self rating, higher officials‟ rating and clients‟
rating on the job performance of DAs. Likewise, a rating scale was used for self
rating of work motivation. Additional questions / scales were included in the
questionnaires for DAs to identify the determinants of the two aspects under
investigation. In addition to data pertaining to job performance and work motivation,
collected using ratings scales, other data were generated through Focused Group
Discussions with DAs and farmers in the selected kebeles as well as Key Informant
Interviews with officials of different levels, local leaders and farmer representatives.
The data thus collected were analyzed using appropriate tools. The primary
quantitative data gathered through interviews with farmers, questionnaires
administered to DAs and higher officials were analyzed using descriptive statistics
such as means, frequencies, percentages and rank order categorization. Chi square test
was administered to see the differences among the regions in terms of work
motivation and job performance of DAs. Moreover, Person‟s correlation was carried
out to identify the important factors that are related to the work motivation as well as
job performance.
21
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the analyses of the huge amount of data collected are presented in the
following sequence. At first, the chapter presents the national scenario of work
motivation of DAs as rated by themselves followed by region wise analysis of the same.
The results of desk study on different aspects are also included in appropriate places. This
is followed by the job performance of DAs based on self rating and its region wise
distribution. Then, the job performance based on supervisors‟ ratings of DAs‟
professional and technical competence at national level is provided. After this, farmers‟
ratings of the two dimensions of job performance at national and region wise distribution
are presented and discussed. Thereafter, the findings of Pearson‟s Correlation and
Multiple Linear Regression analyses are furnished to see the major factors that are
influencing the work motivation and job performance of DAs at national level.
4.2 Work Motivation of Development Agents
The results of analysis of work motivation of DAs as rated by themselves at national

level are furnished hereunder in Table 2 below.
Table 2 National level distribution of DAs based on their work motivation (n = 181)
Categories of work motivation
Category Frequency Percent Chi square Sig
Low 53 29.3
Medium 121 66.9

109.039*** .000
High 7 3.9
Total 181 100.0
*** Significant at 1% level
As it could be seen from the Table, a large majority of DAs (about 67%) were in the
medium category of work motivation, 29.3% were in low category and only about 4%
had highly motivated in their job. The chi square test showed that difference in levels of
work motivation among DAs was highly significant at less than 1% level. Similar results
22
were reported by Yohannes (2009), Zelalem (2011) and Tesfaye (2012) also in their
research findings from different parts of Ethiopia.
In addition to the survey among the DAs using semi structured questionnaire, FGDs and
informal discussions with DAs and supervisors were conducted on work motivation of
DAs in all sampled woredas. The information obtained in these qualitative data collection
process was almost similar everywhere. It was indicated that lower salary, lack of
appropriate incentive mechanism, limited access to internal promotion, less opportunities
for higher education in the professional streams, challenging nature of the profession
itself, very high workload, duties and responsibilities irrelevant to the profession,
multiple chains of command, lack of favorable policy environment at lower levels, and
poor infrastructural facilities such as accommodation and transport have influenced the
job dissatisfaction, low work motivation and high rate of turnover of DAs.
Mechanized and specialized agriculture approach in the TVET college level training,
which is far away from the reality on the ground of the subsistence farming in the country
was another challenge reported by the DAs. Due to lower levels of work motivation, high
rate of turn over was reported in almost all regions of the country. Many DAs are
continuing their higher education at degree level by distance mode or as continuing
education in private universities and colleges, but not in subjects related to their current
profession, and the common topics of study are business management, accounting,
marketing management, office administration, economics, ICT etc. Lack of opportunities
for career up-gradation by higher learning in the profession was reported as a serious
concern by almost all respondent DAs of this study. The supervisor respondents also
endorsed this concern and suggested that some policy amendments are required to create
higher education at degree levels in the professional streams.
A fact revealed by desk study was that the numbers of DAs in the three subject
specializations in many woredas are not equal, as a result of high turn over. In the case of
male – female ratio of DAs also high disparity was observed, with a few numbers of
females as compared to males. In Dire Dawa, the ratio was 10: 1, while in Harar it was
11:1. The situation is worse in rural woredas of some other regions. This results in less
access to extension services by female farmers, particularly female headed households,
23
since the patriarchal system of the society and male oriented and male dominated
extension system many times marginalize female farmers in service delivery.
Further analysis of the data on work motivation of DAs was done to see the variations
among all the regions in the country and the results are presented in Table 3 below.
Table 3 Region wise distribution of DAs based on their work motivation (n = 181)
Region wise categories of work motivation
Region categories of work motivation Total
low medium high
Frequency 3 13 2 18
Tigray
% within Region 16.7% 72.2% 11.1% 100.0%
Frequency 4 12 1 17
Afar
% within Region 23.5% 70.6% 5.9% 100.0%
Frequency 8 18 1 27
Amhara
% within Region 29.6% 66.7% 3.7% 100.0%
Frequency 15 32 1 48
Oromia
% within Region 31.2% 66.7% 2.1% 100.0%
R Frequency 1 16 1 18
eSomali
g % within Region 5.6% 88.9% 5.6% 100.0%
i Frequency 4 0 0 4
oBenishangul
n % within Region 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 1 9 0 10
Gambella
% within Region 10.0% 90.0% 0.0% 100.0%
SNNP
% within Region 56.5% 43.5% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 2 6 1 9
Harari
% within Region 22.2% 66.7% 11.1% 100.0%
Frequency 2 5 0 7
Dire Dawa
% within Region 28.6% 71.4% 0.0% 100.0%

Total
% within Region 29.3% 66.9% 3.9% 100.0%
Chi Square = 35.651** Sig = 0.024 ** Significant at 5% level
AS revealed by the results presented in the above Table, all the respondents (100%) in
Benishagul Gumuz region were in low work motivation category, followed by the
24
majority in SNNP (56.5%) and a large number in Oromia (31.2%) regions had low work
motivation. In regions like Afar, Amhara, Harari and Dire Dawa also recorded more than
20% of the respondents in low category. The overall percentage of low work motivation
was 29.3% as shown in Tables 1 and 2. As can be observed in Table 2, in all regions
except Benishngul Gumuz, large majority of DAs were in medium category. It may be
noted that no respondent was in high motivation category in regions like SNNP, Dire
Dawa, Gambella and Benishngul Gumuz regions. The chi square test revealed that the
difference in levels of work motivation of DAs were among regions at statistically
significant at less than 5% level. The probable reasons for this difference, as indicated in
FGDs and KIIs, are the difference in working situations, infrastructure, enabling
environment etc.
In the case of Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz, the obvious remoteness of the rural
kebeles contributed to the low work motivation, while in Dire Dawa, it might be the lack
of desired promotion or transfer opportunities to urban based offices, as revealed by Key
Informants. Some DAs in Dire Dawa indicated that they do not get Per Diem whenever
they have to visit urban based offices for official work. The respondents in Gambella
indicated that Lack of incentives to work in the harsh environment, less promotion
chances, lack of recognition and poor supervision and guidance and unfavourable
performance appraisal as the factors contributing to low levels of work motivation. In the
case of SNNP, which is a large region, other reasons also could be attributed to the low
work motivation. For instance, the desk study of five years data in Darra woreda in
Sidama zone of SNNP revealed that there was a gradual decline in the number of DAs in
position from 147 in 2000 EC to 119 in 2004 EC, which is the time of this survey. Out of
those in place, 30 DAs are pursuing higher studies in other subjects mentioned above. In
the same woreda, during the past four years, 27 DAs left their job and only two were
promoted to higher positions in the organization. Some of the respondent DAs in Sidama
zone had the opinion that the promotion mechanism is not unbiased and it demoralizes
many DAs, which leads to de-motivation of them. The FGD conducted with DAs in
Damotgale woreda in Wolayta zone of SNNP disclosed that in some cases, DAs are
assigned to work in the subjects which are not their specialization.
25
The turn over rates of DAs are high as evidenced from desk studies conducted in the
study woredas. For instance, in Raya Azebo woreda of Tigray region recorded 10 DAs
left the job in last six months, while the number was 17 in one year in Gulo Mekada as
per the records obtained. Similar rates were reported in many other woredas as well. In
some of the woredas, data were not available, or not properly recorded.
4.3 Job Performance of Development Agents
In this section, the results of analysis of data on job performance of DAs from self rating,
supervisors‟ rating and farmers‟ rating are furnished and discussed.
4.3.1 Self rating of job performance by DAs

The results of self rating of Development Agents on their job performance at national
level are provided here in Table 4.
Table 4 Distribution of DAs based on their self rated job performance (n = 181)
Categories of job performance
Category Frequency Percent Chi square Sig.
low 16 8.8
medium 105 58.0

65.646*** .000
high 60 33.1
Total 181 100.0
*** Significant at less than 1% level
The results in Table 4 on job performance of DAs as rated by themselves in terms of

fixed criteria related to their job description in the Ministry of Agriculture, and the items
of measurement scale implied the professional and technical competence of DAs. The
rating for 12 items of job tasks was on a continuum of five points ranging from “very
well doing” to “unable to do” With the total 181 sample respondents, the results disclosed
that majority of them (58.0%) were in medium category. About one third of them
(33.1%) rated themselves to be in the high category of job performance, while 8.8% of
them rated themselves to be low performers. The chi square test indicated that there is a
significant difference among the self rating scores of DAs at less than 1% level, which
26
implies the considerable variation in job performance of DAs in the country. Similar
findings were reported by Tesfaye (2012) in his study conducted in Borena also.
Further analysis was made on job performance region wise to see how this variation
appears to be in different regions of the country, and the results are provided in Table 5.
Table 5 Region wise distribution of DAs based on their job performance (n = 181)
Region wise categories of job performance
Categories of job performance Total
Low Medium High
Frequency 3 7 8 18
Tigray
% within Region 16.7% 38.9% 44.4% 100.0%
Frequency 0 9 8 17
Afar
% within Region 0.0% 52.9% 47.1% 100.0%
Frequency 0 19 8 27
Amhara
% within Region 0.0% 70.4% 29.6% 100.0%
Oromia
% within Region 14.6% 60.4% 25.0% 100.0%
Frequency 0 11 7 18
Somali
% within Region 0.0% 61.1% 38.9% 100.0%
Region
Frequency 1 3 0 4
Benishangul
% within Region 25.0% 75.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 0 10 0 10
Gambella
% within Region 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 5 5 13 23
SNNP
% within Region 21.7% 21.7% 56.5% 100.0%
Frequency 0 6 3 9
Harari
% within Region 0.0% 66.7% 33.3% 100.0%
Frequency 0 6 1 7
Dire Dawa
% within Region 0.0% 85.7% 14.3% 100.0%
Frequency 16 105 60 181
Total
% within Region 8.8% 58.0% 33.1% 100.0%
Chi square = 39.933*** Sig = 0.002 ** Significant at less than 1% level

A cursory view of Table 4 above reveals that Benishangul Gunuz, SNNP, Tigray and
Oromia regions had considerable number of DAs in low performance category with
25.0%, 21.7%, 16.7% and 14.6% respectively, while all other regions recorded none in
that category, as rated by themselves. In Benishangul Gumuz and Gambella regions,
nobody rated themselves as high performers. A good number of DAs rated themselves as
medium performers, and in Gambella all the ten respondents categorized themselves in
this level. The chi square test revealed that there was a significant difference among the
regions in levels of performance of DAs at less than 1% level. The probable reasons for
this difference could be the differences in working conditions, nature of settlement
27
patterns of farming community as well as organizational climate, as indicated by Key
Informants and FGDs with DAs.
4.3.2 Supervisors’ rating of job performance of DAs

To cross check the self rating by DAs on their job performance, two ratings were used
from supervisors on the professional competence and technical competence in relation to
the job performance. Totally 42 supervisors rated the competence of DAs reflecting their
job performance. The ratings of supervisors on the professional competence of DAs are
presented in Table 6 below.
Table 6 Supervisors’ rating of professional competence of DAs (n = 42)
Categories of professional competence
low 2 4.8
medium 31 73.8
32.714*** .000
high 9 21.4
Total 42 100.0

As could be seen in Table 5 above, a large majority of supervisors (73.8%) rated their
subordinate DAs to be in the medium category of professional competence as a reflection
of their job performance. Only 21.4% rated the DAs with high professional competence, ,
and 4.8% were in low professional competence category. Professional competence scale
consisted of 14 items reflecting their professional skills to perform all tasks related to the
job description of DAs and the chi square test revealed that the rating by supervisors
varied significantly among categories at less than 1% level. The result calls for upgrading
of professional competence of DAs by making meaningful interventions, since only
21.4% had high level of professional competence.
Further, the technical competence of DAs was also assessed by supervisors‟ rating. The
scale for this purpose included 21 items reflecting the technical knowledge and skills
related to different job tasks they are expected to perform in relation to crops, livestock
28
and natural resource management. Even though the DAs have different specializations,
the supervisors were requested to rate the DAs considering their specialization and
scoring was done accordingly. The results of supervisors‟ rating on technical competence
of DAs are provided in Table 7 below.
Table 7 Supervisors’ rating of technical competence of DAs (n = 42)
Categories of technical competence
low 3 7.1
medium 29 69.1
25.857*** .000
high 10 23.8
Total 42 100.0

The results of supervisors‟ rating of technical competence of DAs disclosed that large
majority (69.1%) of DAs were categorized with medium level of technical competence,
while only 23.8% were rated as with high level of technical competence. The chi sqyuare
test indicated that there was significant difference among the categories of rating at less
than 1% level. Technical competence determines the capacity to delver proper knowledge
and skills on farming practices for farmers, and the deficiency in this regard will
adversely affect their job performance. The result implies that the training given at
ATVET colleges might not be enough to impart necessary technical knowledge and skills
on various aspects of farming, given the varied situations of agricultural sector in the
country.
4.3.3 Farmers’ rating on job performance of Das
To get a comprehensive picture of the job performance of DAs, rating by the clients was
also carried out in addition to self rating and supervisors‟ rating. Similar to supervisors‟
rating, 1658 farmers were interviewed for rating of DAs with respect to their professional
competence and technical competence, using similar scales. The results of farmers‟ rating
on the professional competence of DAs at national level are presented in Table 8 below.
29
Table 8 Farmers’ rating of professional competence of DAs (n = 1658)
Categories of professional competence
low 205 12.4
medium 713 43.0

328.720*** .000
high 740 44.6
Total 1658 100.0
The Table 8 above reveals that the professional competence of DAs as rated by farmers,
and 44.6% farmers rated DAs in high professional competence category and 43.0% rated
DAs in medium level. The chi square test showed that there was significant difference
among the rating categories at less than 1% level. The probable reasons for the better
rating of professional competence as against the supervisors‟ rating might be the close
contacts between the DAs and farmers in a given kebele, and personal familiarity since
DAs are the grass root level functionaries working in the kebeles. Moreover, the farmers
might not wish to belittle these workers as they are the service providers in agricultural
sector, which is closely linked with the lives of farming community.
Similar to supervisors‟ rating, technical competence of DAs was also rated by farmer
respondents and the results are furnished in Table 9 below.
Table 9 Farmers’ rating of technical competence of DAs (n = 1658)
Categories of technical competence
Category Frequency Percent Chi square Sig
30
low 225 13.6
medium 735 44.3

292.641*** .000
high 698 42.1
Total 1658 100.0
Similar to rating for professional competence, a large majority of farmers rated their DAs
either in medium or high categories of technical competence, with 44.3% and 42.1%
respectively. However, the chi square test revealed that there was significant difference
among the categories at less than 1% level. The scale to rate the technical competence
consisted of 21 items on different technical aspects of agriculture, and the farmers might
consider what the DAs suggest as right, and this might have influenced their rating as
well. This could be one of the probable reasons for the variations between supervisors‟
rating and farmers‟ ratings of professional and technical competence of DAs.
Table 10 below depicts the results of farmers‟ rating on professional competence of DAs
for different regions in the country to see the variations among regions.
Table 10 Region wise farmers’ rating on professional competence of DAs (n = 1658)
Region wise categories of professional competence
Region Categories of professional competence Total
31
Low Medium High
Frequency 67 122 25 214

Tigray
% within region 31.3% 57.0% 11.7% 100.0%
Afar
% within region 9.2% 33.3% 57.5% 100.0%
Frequency 17 147 140 304

Amhara
% within region 5.6% 48.4% 46.1% 100.0%
Frequency 22 160 238 420

Oromia
% within region 5.2% 38.1% 56.7% 100.0%
Somali
% within region 50.0% 47.5% 2.5% 100.0%
Frequency 0 3 57 60
Benishangul
% within region 0.0% 5.0% 95.0% 100.0%
Frequency 0 54 6 60
Gambella
% within region 0.0% 90.0% 10.0% 100.0%

SNNP
% within region 1.7% 25.8% 72.5% 100.0%
Harari
% within region 20.0% 33.3% 46.7% 100.0%
Dire Dawa
% within region 20.0% 80.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 205 713 740 1658

Total
% within region 12.4% 43.0% 44.6% 100.0%
Chi square = 613.774*** Sig = .000 *** Significant at less than 1% level
It is interesting to note that, out of the 60 farmer respondents, 95% rated the DAs in high
category of professional competence, even though none of the DAs in the area rated
themselves as high performers. In SNNP, Afar and Oromia regions also, majority of
farmer respondents rated their DAs in high category of professional competence. In
Somali region, 50% of farmers rated DAs as lower in professional competence, while in
32
Tigray region, 31.3% of farmers rated their DAs in the same category. There was
significant difference among the regions for farmers‟ rating of professional competence
of DAs at less than 1% level.
Table 11 Region wise farmers’ rating on technical competence of DAs (n = 1658)

Region wise categories of technical competence
Region Categories of technical competence Total
Low Medium High
Frequency 37 118 59 214
Tigray
% within region 17.3% 55.1% 27.6% 100.0%
Afar
% within region 30.0% 58.3% 11.7% 100.0%
Frequency 28 123 153 304
Amhara
% within region 9.2% 40.5% 50.3% 100.0%
Frequency 15 165 240 420
Oromia
r % within region 3.6% 39.3% 57.1% 100.0%
e Frequency 72 46 2 120
Somali
g % within region 60.0% 38.3% 1.7% 100.0%
i Frequency 0 1 59 60
Benishangul
o % within region 0.0% 1.7% 98.3% 100.0%
n Frequency 0 60 0 60
Gambella
% within region 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0%
SNNP
% within region 1.7% 39.2% 59.2% 100.0%
Harari
% within region 20.0% 31.7% 48.3% 100.0%
Dire Dawa
% within region 35.0% 65.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Frequency 225 735 698 1658
Total
% within region 13.6% 44.3% 42.1% 100.0%
Chi square = 630.634*** Sig. = .000 *** Significant at less than 1% level
Further, region wise analysis was done to see the region wise variations in farmers‟ rating
of technical competence of DAs. The results of that analysis are presented in Table 11
above.
33
As in the case of professional competence, except one farmer respondent, all the other 59
rated their DAS as having high technical competence. However, all the 60 respondents in
Gambella rated the DAs in medium level of technical competence. In Somali region 60%,
in Dire Dawa 35% and in Afar 30% of the farmers rated their DAs as low in technical
competence. The chi square test indicated a significant difference at less than 1% level
among the regions in terms of farmers‟ rating of technical competence of DAs
4.3.4 Relationship of selected factors with work motivation of DAs

The relationship between work motivation of DAs and selected variables was tested using
Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation and the results are provided in Table 12 as
follows.
Table 12 Relationship of selected factors with work motivation of DAs (n = 181)

No. Variable r Sig.
1 Work experience as DA .029 .695
2 Age .022 .773
3 Living place distance from family -.033 .663
4 Job satisfaction .493*** .000
5 Adequacy of supervision .586*** .000
6 Working conditions .661*** .000
7 Recognition .645*** .000
8 Promotion opportunities .607*** .000
9 Degree of involvement .627*** .000
***Significant at less than 1% level
As could be observed in the above Table 12, the factors such as job satisfaction,
adequacy of supervision, working conditions, recognition, promotion opportunities, and
degree of involvement were found to be highly correlated positively with work
motivation of DAs at less than 1% level of significance. This implies that the satisfaction
derived by DAs from their daily task fulfillment motivates them to continue in their
present job. Perceived adequacy of supervision and guidance to accomplish tasks
successfully and congenial working conditions, and recognition of good work by
supervisors and farming community, and chances of fair promotion to higher positions
and degree of involvement in planning, implementation and evaluation of programs and
projects are also significantly related to the work motivation of them. The findings are in
34
line with the earlier results reported by Yohannes (2009), Zelalem (2011) and Tesfaye
(2012).
4.3.5 Relationship of selected factors with job performance of DAs

With regard to the relationship of selected factors and job performance of DAs, again
Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation test was applied and the results are depicted in
Table 13 below.
Table 13 Relationship of selected factors with job performance of DAs (n = 181)

No. Variable r Sig.
1 Work motivation .144 .052
2 Work experience as DA -.079 .291
3 Age -.167** .025
4 Living place distance from family -.167* .100
5 Job satisfaction .283*** .000
6 Adequacy of supervision .233*** .002
7 Working conditions .213*** .004
8 Recognition .190*** .010
9 Promotion opportunities .169** .023
10 Degree of involvement .216*** .004
***, **, * Significant at less than 1%, 5%, and 10% levels respectively
Out of the ten factors used for analysis, eight of them were found to be statistically
significant and related to job performance of DAs at different levels. The factors such as
job satisfaction, adequacy of supervision, working conditions, recognition and degree of
involvement were positively and significantly related with job performance at less than
1% level. However, age was negatively and significantly correlated with job performance
at less than 5% level, while living place distance was also negatively correlated at less
than 10% level. Promotion opportunities also showed a positive and significant
relationship at less than 5% level.
These results implies that when job satisfaction, perceived adequacy of supervision and
guidance, favorableness of working conditions, recognition from supervisors and farmers
for the good work done, and degree of involvement in planning, implementation and
35
evaluation of programs and projects increases, job performance of DAs also will increase.
Same is the case of perception about promotion opportunities. But, the results further
indicated that when age in the same position and living place distance from family
increase, the job performance level might go down. It is natural to observe that when the
DAs at higher age continue in the same position without much promotion chances,
frustration on the job and feeling of monotony will occur and that might affect the
performance o the job adversely. When they are continuing away from family for a long
time, familial issues as well as lonely life will also affect the job performance. The
research of Tesfaye (2012) also has indicated similar findings.
36
5. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
This nation wide study revealed some serious concerns regarding the work motivation
and job performance of Development Agents in the agricultural extension system of the
country. Large majority of the DAs had medium or low levels of work motivation, which
in turn affected their job performance as well. Even though self rating and farmers‟ rating
of job performance recorded slightly better levels, supervisors‟ rating of professional
competence as well as technical competence of DAs had shown that a large majority
were in medium and low levels, which raises serious concerns. It was found that a good
number of DAs are pursuing their higher studies in subjects which are not related to their
current profession, mainly due to lack of opportunities for career up-gradation in the
professional subjects. Turn over rate was also high I most of the regions. Another reason
attributed to the higher learning in non professional subjects was the desire to leave the
job due to low salary, harsh working conditions, less promotion opportunities, over
workload, low recognition, less incentives for extra work and non professional work
assignments.
The FGDs and Key Informant interviews with different categories of respondents could
triangulate the quantitative data collected through survey, and the findings were
confirmed and discussed. Based on the results of this study, the following policy
recommendations are suggested for necessary policy interventions and action.
 This investigation revealed that DAs work motivation is affected by tasks which
are not related to agricultural extension profession. FGDs and informal interviews
with DAs in almost all regions indicated that lack of clearly defined job
descriptions is one of the challenges of working for extension services. Most of
them have the opinion that they are overloaded, but without incentives, which
affected their work motivation. Therefore, efforts have to be made to improve the
situation (clearing the role ambiguity, avoiding non professional activities and
work overload) in extension organization.
37
 Adequacy of supervision was found to be one of the significant factors related to
work motivation of DAs. Supervision is being carried out on weekly basis, by one
supervisor assigned for three kebeles, but in many cases they were also reported
to have less knowledge and skills to give technical support to the DAs. Moreover,
the supervisors‟ technical background might not be adequate to guide the DAs
with different specializations. FGDs with DAs in different regions suggested that
a supervision and guidance mechanism in the three specialization fields such as
crops, livestock and natural resource management is needed. Hence, it is
recommended that supervisors are to be from different fields of specializations
and even if number of kebeles to be covered is increased, all specialists are to be
available for the DAs to provide technical guidance and supervision. Supervision
should not mean finding faults, but it should be supportive and guidance of
technical matters.
 Another significantly contributing factor as revealed by this study was favorable

working conditions, which enhances the work motivation of DAs and thus adding
to the job satisfaction. As indicated in FGDs and Key Informant interviews,
logistics and facilities would create favorable working conditions. Basic facilities
in FTCs to provide modular and non modular trainings, required minimum budget
to conduct trainings, demonstrations and exhibitions, and transport facilities were
reported to be essential to support the professional tasks. In many cases, in spite
of adequate professional and technical competence, DAs were constrained to limit
the accomplishment of job tasks due to the lack of these facilities. Hence, it is
suggested that serious consideration has to be given to create favorable working
conditions with basic facilities in FTCs. There are some FTCs supported by some
agencies like IPMS or NGOs, which could show better performances. Necessary
action has to be taken to make FTCs well equipped. Means and ways are to be
sought to generate income from demonstrations and crops in the land allocated for
FTCs to make facilities to some extent without depending budget allocations.
38
 To reduce the travel constraints, a policy decision to provide loans on minimum
interest rates to buy motor bikes by DAs, on long term repayment basis as salary
deductions, since the unwieldy area of operation constrains the frequent field
visits of DAs. Moreover, since individual contact method cannot address the
requirement of advisory services in the country, group approach has to be
promoted by organizing farmers groups.
 Still another factor significantly contributing to the work motivation is the degree
of involvement in planning, implementation and evaluation of programs and
projects. It was observed that there is a mechanism to involve DAs in planning
process, but later modifications are made at supervisory levels, and DAs are
mandated to implement the revised tasks. Hence, a better participatory planning
process would help the DAs to own the programs and projects with higher sense
on involvement, with more commitment and satisfaction.
 Less recognition for the extra work and fulfillment of job tasks was also found to
be significantly affecting their work motivation. In FGDs, it was pointed out that
the working hours of DAs are more compared to other civil servants at grass root
level, even with an average of more than eight hours per day and sometimes on
weekends. Additional incentive mechanism has to be designed for the extra
working hours and weekend tasks, particularly in FTC based trainings and
farmers‟ field days connected to demonstrations. Salary enhancement cannot be
recommended since parity in same rank is the principle of civil service in the
country.
 Most of the DAs pointed out that the promotion criteria are unclear while
considering to higher positions. According to Key Informants in supervisory
positions in many woredas of this study, there are definite criteria followed for
promotions such as performance records, good communication skills, academic
grade points and length of service. However, at least there are some instances of
DAs continuing in the same position even after serving for 20 years. Hence, it
would be desirable to promotion criteria more transparent, so as to facilitate the
DAs to strive to fulfill them by better performance and time bound goals.
39
Performance appraisal criteria should be made more transparent and the feedback
mechanism based on such appraisals should be strengthened.
 In order to improve the professional and technical competence of DAs, which are
found in medium or low levels in most cases, regular short term in-service
training programs are to be organized to enhance their professional and technical
knowledge and skills. Professional competence enhancement in terms of
communication and interpersonal skills, organizing and coordination skills,
extension teaching methods, and other areas of professional competence are to be
separately considered from technical competence trainings. Performance appraisal
reports should be considered as needs assessments to fill the knowledge and skill
gaps in selection of participants to such trainings. These trainings should not be
incentive opportunities for good performers, but opportunities to enhance capacity
for those who are deficient in such aspects.
 One of the reasons of pursuing higher studies is the desire to change the
profession and to move to urban based employment. Another reason indicated is
the lack of opportunities for higher learning in their professional subjects. It
would be worth considering that the Ministry of Education to amend the policy
for admission for degree programs accepting the ATVET diploma holders also
with a minimum 5 years period of work experience under Ministry of Agriculture.
The ongoing Mid-career degree program in Haramaya University and Hawassa
University supported by Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE)
and the new initiative to launch a tailor-made Bachelor‟s degree in General
Agriculture for DAs in four universities in the country with 70% distance mode
and remaining by face-to-face learning in the campuses is admirable. It is
proposed that the face to face mode will be carried out in off seasons of the
cropping. But, this alone may not fulfill the up-gradation needs of DAs in the
country, who are more than 50,000 in number. Hence, due consideration should
be given for expansion of this strategy, using the facilities of other universities as
well. In doing so, extension organizations may benefit both in terms of reduced
turn over in agricultural extension profession and increased performance of DAs.
40
 In many of the study woredas, DAs were assigned with work in subjects other
than their area of specialization. The reason is absence of DA in that subject of
specialization, mostly due to high turn over rates. This leads to technical
incompetence, and loss of credibility among farmers. A Development Agent
specialized in crops is forced to offer training and advice in live stock or
otherwise. As far as possible, such situations are to be avoided and if necessary
and inevitable, the specialist DA from the nearby kebele has to be assigned with
additional incentives to fill the gap.
 The wide gap in male-female ratio of DAs creates gender disparities in extension
service delivery, making female headed households and women farmers being
marginalized. Increasing the number of female DAs may not be immediately
practical since enrolments in ATVETs have wide gender gaps. Hence, to make the
male development agents also more gender sensitive, it is recommended that a
course on gender mainstreaming may be included in the curriculum of ATVETs
and to address the issues of women farmers and female headed households.
41
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Desk Study Checklist on DAs (to be collected from Federal, Regional,
Woreda, FTC, and Cooperative offices)
1. Number of DAs in place for the last five years and their professional streams.
2. Rate of turnover of DAs for the last five years and their streams.
3. Reasons, if known for the turnover of DAs.
4. Data on DAs perusing degree level study in subjects other than their professional
subjects.
5. Number of DAs promoted to higher positions in the last five years.
6. Performance assessment reports of DAs at different levels.
7. Male-Female ratio of DAs at different levels.
8. Criteria for promotion of DAs to higher positions.
9. Incentive mechanisms for DAs for good performances.
10. Criteria for selection to trainings, higher studies, and other official engagements.
11. Mechanisms to participate DAs in project planning, implementation, and evaluation.
12. Supervision and support mechanisms for the functioning of DAs.
46
Appendix 2: FGD Guide for DAs on their job performance and satisfaction
1. Do you think that DAs are satisfied with their present job?
2. If not, what are the reasons?
3. What are the constraints for DAs to fulfill their prescribed job tasks?
4. In your opinion, the present knowledge and skill you have are adequate to
perform your job effectively?
5. What are you suggestions to improve the knowledge and skill of DAs to perform
better?
6. Are the criteria for promotion of DAs to higher positions satisfactory? If not, what
are your suggestions?
7. Are the incentive mechanisms for DAs for good performances satisfactory? If not,
what is to be done?
8. Do you think that supervision and support mechanisms for the functioning of DAs
are adequate? If not, what are your suggestions?
9. Rank the following factors according to their importance on work motivation and
job satisfaction of Development Agents.
Give Rank 1 to most important, and 14 to the least important factor.
No Motivation and Satisfaction Factors Rank according to Other Remarks

Importance
1 Dependable supervisors
2 Appropriate incentive system
3 Attractive pay/salary
4 Favorable work distance from
Home/family.
5 Good Recognition mechanism
6 Stable job security
47
7 Good Supervision mechanism
8 Better quality of work life
9 Relevant duties & responsibilities
10 Favorable performance appraisal
system
11 Favorable policy environment
12 Encouraging Promotion system
13 Favorable Attitude to the current job
14 High achievement
10. Describe main factors which affect work motivation of Development Agents
according to your perception.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………
11. What are your suggestions to improve job performance, work motivation, and job
satisfaction of DAs, and to retain them on the job?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
12. How do you rate the knowledge and skill gaps of DAs in terms of their job
description and expectations in the context of functioning of FTCs also?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
13. What type of On-the-job trainings you suggest to improve the job performance
and job satisfaction of DAs?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
48
Appendix 3: FGD Guide for farmers on DAs
1. Do you know the DAs in your kebele/FTC and the specialization of each of them?
2. What are your expectations from these DAs?
3. In what way you get assistance from these DAs to improve your farming practices?
4. What is your opinion about the functioning of FTC in your kebele?
5. How do you rate the selection of participants for the trainings conducted in FTCs?
6. How do you rate the support given by DAs to women and poor farmers?
7. How do you rate the functioning of DAs in distribution of inputs?
8. How do you rate the functioning of DAs in conducting demonstrations and field
days?
9. If you think job performance of DAs can be improved further, what are your
suggestions?
10. What are your suggestions to improve functioning of FTCs?
11. In your opinion, what additional knowledge and skill are required by DAs in your
kebele?
12. What are your suggestions to strengthen the relation and linkages between DAs and
farmers?
49
Appendix 4: KII Checklist on DAs (to be collected from Federal, Regional, Woreda,
FTC, and Cooperative offices)
1. Reasons, if known for the turnover of DAs in the past.
2. Reasons for DAs perusing degree level study in subjects other than their
professional subjects.
3. Male-Female proportion and reasons for differences of DAs at different levels.
4. Criteria for promotion of DAs to higher positions.
5. Incentive mechanisms for DAs for good performances.
6. Criteria for selection to trainings, higher studies, and other official engagements.
7. Mechanisms to participate DAs in project planning, implementation, and

evaluation.
8. Supervision and support mechanisms for the functioning of DAs.
9. How you categorize Development Agents based on their current work

motivational level.
No Motivational Level Percentage out of total DAs
1 Highly motivated
2 Medium motivated
3 Low motivated
10. Rank the following factors according to their importance on work motivation and
job satisfaction of Development Agents.
Give Rank 1 to most important and 14 to the least important factor.
50
No Motivation and satisfaction factors Rank according to Other Remarks
Importance
1 Dependable supervisors
2 Appropriate incentive system
3 Attractive pay/salary
4 Favorable work distance from
Home/family.
5 Good Recognition mechanism
6 Stable job security
7 Good Supervision mechanism
8 Better quality of work life
9 Relevant duties & responsibilities
10 Favorable performance appraisal
system
11 Favorable policy environment
12 Encouraging Promotion system
13 Favorable Attitude to the current job
14 High achievement
11. Describe main factors which affect work motivation of Development Agents
according to your perception.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………
12. What are your suggestions to improve job performance, work motivation, and job
satisfaction of DAs, and to retain them on the job?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
13. How do you rate the knowledge and skill gaps of DAs in terms of their job
description and expectations in the context of functioning of FTCs also?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
51
14. What type of On-the-job trainings you suggest to improve the job performance
and job satisfaction of DAs?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
52
Appendix 5: Questionnaire for Development Agents
I. General Background
1. Area of specialization?
1. Crop production [ ] 2. Natural resource management [ ]
3. Cooperatives [ ] 4. Animal health [ ]
2. Are you currently working in your area of specialization? 1. Yes [ ] 0. No [ ]
3. Work experience as DA _______________(Years)
4. Age___________ years old
5. Living in distance from family? 1. Yes [ ] 0. No [ ]
II. Motivation
Use the following scale of rating: 1=strongly disagree 2=Disagree 3= Neutral

4=Agree 5=strongly agree
Indicator Rating
1) I am given opportunity to take part in decisions

related to extension and other assignments
2) I am given opportunity to improve competences

through training
3) I receive monetary reward other than my salary
4) I receive non-monetary gifts from time to time
5) I receive appropriate recognition from my

organisation
6) I am placed in an area of work of great interest
7) I have necessary tools to effectively carry out work
8) There is adequate transportation for my work
53
Indicator Rating
9) I am provided with accommodation or given support

to secure one
10) I am paid per diem and other allowances regularly
11) Promoted on time based on performance
Total score
III. Job Satisfaction
Use the following scale of rating: 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4.

Agree 5. Strongly agree
Indicator Rating
1) I am never bored with my work
2) My job is challenging but satisfying
3) I am more enjoying the job than my colleagues who

are DAs.
4) I like my job tasks, which I really enjoy.
5) I will never like to give up this job for another with

equal conditions of service
6) I feel enthusiastic about my work
7) I am never tired of my job
8) I have opportunity to use my skills and abilities in

my job
54
Indicator Rating
9) My workload is what is adequate
10) I see my job as providing positive satisfying pleasure

to individuals
Total score
IV. Supervision
Use the following scale of rating: 1=Strongly disagree 2=Disagree 3=Somewhat agree
4=Agree 5=Strongly agree
Indicators Rating
1) I receive scheduled supervisory visits from my

supervisors
2) My performance as DA is evaluated on schedule by

my supervisor
3) I receive scheduled evaluation feedback from my

supervisors
4) I receive constructive criticism from my supervisors

when necessary
5) I am provided with current information on my

profession through the supply of current bulletins
6) I receive appropriate punishment from supervisors

when deserved
7) I have good relations with my supervisors
8) My supervisors make their expectations very clear
55
Indicators Rating
9) My supervisors promote participation
10) I am treated as a colleague, partner and friend by my

supervisor
11) I can count on the respect and loyalty of my

supervisors, until I prove undeserving
Total score
V. Work Condition
Indicators Rating
1) Working conditions in the Agricultural Extension

Services are generally conducive to me
2) Working condition have improved since I joined

Agric Extension Services
3) I am provided with the right equipment for my work
4) Facilities provided for my job are enough
5) Promises made to me as DA are mostly kept by

management
6) Working conditions are managed promptly and in a

way that is comfortable to me
7) My personal problems are dealt with in a sympathetic

and positive manner
56
Indicators Rating
8) Information concerning me are provided in full and

accurate details as soon as possible
9) Problems of DAs are discussed and decisions

reached quickly and easily
10) Adequate provision is made for annual leave
Total score
VI. Recognition
Indicators Rating
1) I receive verbal recognition for good performance

from my supervisor when necessary
2) I receive tangible recognition from my supervisors

when necessary
3) I am sometimes mentioned for praises by my clients

at functions such as farmers day
4) I am given a fair chance of winning a best Extension

workers award
5) My achievements are acknowledge by my

supervisors
6) I am given material awards as a show of appreciation

for good performance by my clients
Total score
57
VII. Promotion
Indicators Rating
1) I am given promotion related to my years of service
2) Promotion follows prescribed routine spelt out in

condition of service
3) I have opportunities for promotion like other staff

categories
4) I am not discriminated against in terms of promotion

by supervisors
5) I am promoted on time based on my performance
6) Promotion in Agricultural Extension is based on

principle of fairness and equity
Total score
VIII. Involvement/ Participation
Indicators Rating
1) I have the opportunity to take part in setting goals for

my organisation
2) I receive feedback on the extend to which goals set
for my organisation are achieved
58
Indicators Rating
3) I have the opportunity to take part in setting my

personal performance goals
4) I receive feedback on the extend of achievement of
personal goals set for me
5) Goals set for me are clear
6) Goals set for me are specific
7) Goals set for me are achievable
8) Goals set for me are measurable
9) Goals set for me are achievable given the resource s

and equipment available to me
Total score
VIII. Job Performance (Self rating)

Would you please genuinely rate your job performance with respect to the following on
the scale [5= Doing very well; 4= Doing somewhat well; 3= Doing but with difficulty 2=
Partially doing; 1= Unable to do]
No Tasks Rate
1 Assessing and compiling basic data on kebele potential resources and
problems/constraints.
2 Forming group development structure at kebele level for development and
planning every activity by participation of the community at household,
sub-group (1 to 5), group, zone and kebele level.
3 Giving successful training at FTC based on training curriculum
theoretically and practically
4 Assessing true demand of inputs and technologies, facilitating distribution
and applying technological package (including coffee, tree, fruit and
animal feed seedlings)
5 Facilitating workshops, conferences, seminars, exhibition at a planned
time on different titles for all households
6 Disseminate extension knowledge through effective and efficient use of
extension methods covering all households within a planned time.
59
7 Forming strong attachment, communication and coordination within
partners and stakeholders for community development
8 Proper credit management of inputs and technologies given to
communities by cooperatives and union.
9 Living and working at kebele site all over the year with good discipline
10 Collecting, compiling, introducing and performing scaling-up
works/innovation
11 Timely activity reporting whenever required
12 Performing any additional activities given by other sectors
60
Appendix 6: Questionnaire for Supervisors’ Rating of Job Performance of DAs
Region: _______________
Zone: _______________
Woreda: ________________
Questionnaire number: ___________
1) How do you rate professional competence of DAs with respect to the following
scale:
[1= Very low competence; 2= Low competence; 3= High competence; 4= Very high
competence]
No. Indicators of professional competence Ratings
1 Interpersonal communication
2 Group communication
3 Organizing and forming groups
4 Simplifying technical information to farmers
5 Using analogy in communication
6 Listening to farmers
7 Demonstrating a leadership role
8 Handling sensitively the needs of diverse groups
9 Problem solving
10 Use of appropriate audio-visual aids
11 Facilitating participatory learning and action
12 Supervising farmers
13 Monitoring activities with farmers
14 Evaluating programmes with farmers
61
2) How do you rate technical competence level of DAs on scale:
Ratings
1 Land preparation for sowing crops
2 Knowledge on time of sowing crops
3 Nursery site selection and preparation
4 Demonstrating conservation ploughing
5 Mechanical soil and water conservation techniques
6 Biological soil and water conservation techniques
7 Water harvesting techniques
8 Knowledge on irrigation
9 Compost preparation and application
11 Timing and ways of fertilizer application
12 Weed identification and management
13 Insect identification and control in crops
14 Disease identification and control in crops
15 Knowledge on appropriate time of harvesting crops
16 Knowledge on post harvest handling of crops
17 Livestock breed selection for specific purpose (fattening, dairying)
18 Mastery of livestock breeding (heat period, AI)
62
19 Livestock feed management
20 Chicken selection for specific purpose (meat, egg)
21 Disease identification and control in livestock
21 Providing market information on crops and livestock
63
Appendix 7: Questionnaire for Farmers' Rating of Job Performance of DAs
Region: _______________
Zone: _______________
Woreda: ________________
Questionnaire number: ___________
1. How do you rate professional competence of DAs with respect to the

following scale:
[1= Very low competence; 2= Low competence; 3= High competence; 4= Very high
competence]
No. Indicators of professional competence Ratings
1 Interpersonal communication
2 Group communication
3 Organizing and forming groups
4 Simplifying technical information to farmers
5 Using analogy in communication
6 Listening to farmers
7 Demonstrating a leadership role
8 Handling sensitively the needs of diverse groups
9 Problem solving
10 Use of appropriate audio-visual aids
11 Facilitating participatory learning and action
12 Supervising farmers
13 Monitoring activities with farmers
14 Evaluating programs with farmers
2. How do you rate technical competence level of DAs using the following scale:
64
[1= Very low competence; 2= Low competence; 3 = High competence; 4= Very high
competence]
No Indicators of technical competence Ratings

1 Land preparation for sowing crops
2 Knowledge on time of sowing crops
3 Nursery site selection and preparation
4 Demonstrating conservation ploughing
5 Mechanical soil and water conservation techniques
6 Biological soil and water conservation techniques
7 Water harvesting techniques
8 Knowledge on irrigation
9 Compost preparation and application
11 Timing and ways of fertilizer application
12 Weed identification and management
13 Insect identification and control in crops
14 Disease identification and control in crops
15 Knowledge on appropriate time of harvesting crops
16 Knowledge on post harvest handling of crops
17 Livestock breed selection for specific purpose (fattening, dairying)
18 Mastery of livestock breeding (heat period, AI)
19 Livestock feed management
20 Chicken selection for specific purpose (meat, egg)
21 Disease identification and control in livestock
21 Providing market information on crops and livestock
65
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WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF DEVELOPMENT AGENTS IN

Technical Report · June 2012

Kassa Belay Dawit Alemu

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

RiPPLE: Action Research View project

Rice Commercialization and Agrarian Change View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Kassa Belay, Ranjan S. Karippai, Dawit Alemu, Abera Deressa and

In the case of professional competence of DAs, supervisors rated 73.8% of DAs in

Recent studies conducted in Haramaya University by Yohannes (2009) Zelalem (2011)

1.3 Objectives of the Study

 to examine the level of work motivation and job performance of DAs;

1.4 Significance of the Study

The effectiveness of agricultural extension provision relies on the effectiveness of the

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

1.6 Organization of the Report

2.2 Concept and Definition of Motivation

Motivation is a complex phenomenon. Several theories attempt to explain how

2.3 Concept and Definition of Performance

Performance is a multi-dimensional concept. On the most basic level, they can be

2.4 Studies on Job Performance

In a recent study among DAs in agro-pastoral areas of Borana in Ethiopia, Tesfaye

Agents' needs should be identified regularly in order to provide meaningful, motivational,

Dependable supervisors should help develop a good interpersonal relationship between

2.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study

Work environment factors

Figure 3: Conceptual framework of the study

Regional State Number of Number of

Afar National Regional State 1 2

Benishangul Gumuz National Regional State 1 1

Dire Dawa Administration* 1 1

Harari National Regional State* 1 1

Gambella National Regional Stat 1 1

Oromia National Regional State 3 7

Somali National Regional State 1 2

Southern Peoples Nations & Nationalities Regional State 2 4

Tigray National Regional State 2 4

Eastern Tigray Zone of Tigray Region:

North Shewa Zone of Amahara Region:

West Gojjam Zone of Amhara Region:

Metekal Zone of Benishagul Gumuz Region:

Wolayta zone of SNNPR:

Sidama zone of SNNPR

East Shewa zone of Oromia Region

West Shewa Zone of Oromia Region:

South West Shewa Zone of Oromia Region:

East Hararghe zone of Oromia Region:

Agnua zone of Gambella Region

Jijiga zone of Somali Region:

Dire Dawa Administration:

4.2 Work Motivation of Development Agents

The results of analysis of work motivation of DAs as rated by themselves at national

Categories of work motivation

Category Frequency Percent Chi square Sig

Medium 121 66.9

Total 181 100.0

*** Significant at 1% level

Region categories of work motivation Total

Chi Square = 35.651 Sig = 0.024 Significant at 5% level

Chi square = 39.933* Sig = 0.002 Significant at less than 1% level