DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY
VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

PROJECT TITLE

INDIA AND BANGLADESH RELATIONS

SUBJECT

POLITICAL SCIENCE

NAME OF THE FACULTY

T.Y. NIRMALA DEVI

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

AMRUTHA YANAMDALA

ROLL NO. & SEMESTER

19LLB018

SECOND SEMESTER

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to “Prof. T.Y NIRMALA DEVI ”, who have given me
the golden opportunity to do this project on “INDIA AND BANGLADESH RELATIONS”,
which also helped me in doing a lot of research and through which I came to know about so
many new things. I am thankful for her invaluable help and guidance without which it
would not have been possible to make the project.
Her insight into the topic and continuous motivation has been a great source of inspiration
for me.

I would also like to thank my friends who supported me through the making of my project
and helped me as and when they could.

2
 ABSTRACT

India was the first country to recognize Bangladesh as a separate and independent state and
established diplomatic relations with the country immediately after its independence in
December 1971. The relationship between India and Bangladesh is anchored in history, culture,
language and shared values of secularism, democracy, and countless other commonalities
between the two countries. It is based on sovereignty, equality, trust, understanding and win-win
partnership that goes far beyond a strategic partnership. In the last couple of years, the
relationship has been further strengthened including through cooperation in new and high-
technology areas.

India’s connections with Bangladesh are human advancement, social, social and financial. There
is much that joins the two nations-a mutual history and normal legacy, semantic and social ties,
energy for music, writing and expressions of the human experience. With Bangladesh, India
shares not just a typical history of battle for flexibility and freedom yet in addition continuing
sentiments of both friendly and additionally familial ties. This shared trait is reflected in multi-
dimensional relations with Bangladesh at a few levels of association. The two countries need to
experience an adjustment in outlook, especially at the political level. There is a requirement for
more noteworthy comprehension, exchange, discretion, provincial participation and less
impedance in each other’s interior undertakings. While it might be anything but difficult to just
rundown these issues, conquering them would be troublesome, chiefly because of the general
geopolitical impulses, the chronicled heritage, and the common question in the locale. This paper
will examine some recent trends, as well as explore a possible framework for the future direction
of India-Bangladesh relations.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….…………………….6

2. HISTORY………………………….................................................................................7

3. AREAS OF CONTENTION……………………………………………………………..…7-9

4. BILATERAL INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS……………………………………….9

5. SECURITY & BORDER MANAGEMENT………………………………………..…...9-10

6. SHARING OF RIVER WATERS………………………………………………………10

7. BILATERAL TRADE AND INVESTMENT ………………………………………….10

8. INDIA’S ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE TO BANGLADESH……………………..….10-11

9. POWER AND ENERGY SECTOR COOPERATION………....................……….…11-12

10. CONECTIVITY ………………………………………………………………….…….12-13

11. TRAINING AND CAPACITY-BUILDING………………………………………….….13

12. CULTURAL EXCHANGES ……………………………………………..……………….14

13. INDIAN COMMUNITY IN BANGLADESH ……………………………………….…..14

14. HIGH LEVEL VISITS AND EXCHANGES …………………………………………14-15

15. DISPUTE RESOLUTION……………………………………………………………..15-17

16. COOPERATION………………………………………………………………………..17-20

17. CONECTIVITY…………………………….………………………………………….20-21

18. CHALLENGES………………………………………………………………………..21-24

19. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………….25

20. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………….…25

4
 SYNOPSIS

Object of the study :

To understand the relations between the two countries i.e. between the India and

Bangladesh.

Scope of the study:

The study is limited to the various relations between the India and Bangladesh.

Significance of the study:

The study helps us to understand the importance of relations between the India and

Bangladesh.

Literature Review:

The information is taken from the books, web sources, articles, journals etc.

Research Methodology:

The study is based on Doctrinal method of research.

Types of Research:

This research is critical and explanatory study.

Research Question:

Whether the relations between the India and the Bangladesh lead to the development of

the both countries in various sectors?

5
 INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh and India are South Asian neighbours. Bangladesh was created with Indian Armed
Forces help, in 1971 at the wake of the Liberation War against Pakistan. Diplomatic Relations
between the two countries was followed by the visit of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in
19th March 1972, at Dhaka, where the she had signed the Indo-Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship,
Co-operation and Peace Relations, popularly known as the 'Indira-Mujib Treaty of 1972, with
then Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur Rahman1 .

The relations between the 2 countries have usually been friendly, although sometimes there are
border disputes. The historic land boundary agreement was signed on 6 June 2015 which opened
a new era in the relations and further stopped all irritants in ties 2. They are common members of
SAARC, BIMSTEC, IORA and the Commonwealth. The two countries share many cultural ties.
In particular, Bangladesh and the east Indian state of West Bengal are Bengali-speaking.
Bangladesh has a High Commission in New Delhi with Deputy and Assistant High Commissions
in Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati and Agartala3. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with
Assistant High Commissions in Khulna, Rajshahi and Chittagong4.

In 1971, the Bangladesh Liberation War broke out between East Pakistan and West Pakistan;
India intervened in December 1971 on behalf of East Pakistan and helped secure East Pakistan's
independence from Pakistan as the country of Bangladesh. In a 2014 survey, 70% of
Bangladeshis expressed a favorable opinion and perception of India 5. Since the visit of Indian
Prime Minister Narendra Modi to Bangladesh in 2015 and round back visit of Bangladeshi Prime
Minister Sheikh Hasina to India in 2017, the notable developments that have taken places
include resolution of long-pending land and maritime boundaries asserting the issue of enclaves,
conclusion of over ninety instruments comprising in the hi-tech areas, i.e., electronics, cyber-
security, space, information technology, and civil nuclear energy and observed increase in

1
 http://rroa.co.in/pdf/The_Indira_Mujib_Treaty.pdf
2
Serajul Quadir (6 June 2015). "India, Bangladesh sign historic land boundary agreement". Reuters India.
3
Diplomatic Missions in South Asia". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Bangladesh. 13 March 2020.
Retrieved 13 March2020
4
 "Indian Mission, High Commission of India, Dhaka, Bangladesh". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of
India. 13 March 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
5
Pew Research Center. "Chapter 4: How Asians View Each Other". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 July 2015.

6
bilateral trade from US$9 billion to US$10.46 billion in the Fiscal Year (FY) 2018-19, followed
by US$7 billion to US$9 billion in FY 2017-18, an increase of 28.5 percent6 .

HISTORY:

India's links with Bangladesh are civilisational, cultural, social, and economic. There is much
that unites the two countries – a shared history and common heritage, linguistic and cultural ties,
passion for music, literature and the arts 7 . The two nations were strong allies during the
Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. From the mid-1970s, however, relations worsened because
Bangladesh developed closer ties with Islamic nations, participated in the Organization of the
Islamic Conference, and increased emphasis on Islamic identity over the country's
ethnolinguistic roots. The two countries developed different Cold War alliances in the 1980s,
which further chilled bilateral relations8 9. With the onset of economic liberalization in South
Asia, they forged greater bilateral engagement and trade. The historic Ganges Water Sharing
Treaty was concluded in 1996. India and Bangladesh are close strategic partners in counter-
terrorism. They are also the largest trading partners in South Asia10.

AREAS OF CONTENTION:

1. A major area of contention has been the construction and operation of the Farakka Barrage by
India to increase water supply in the River Hooghly. Bangladesh insists that it does not receive a
fair share of the Ganges waters during the drier seasons, and gets flooded during the monsoons
when India releases excess waters. See also Sharing of Ganges Waters.

2. There have also been disputes regarding the transfer of Teen Bigha Corridor to Bangladesh.
Part of Bangladesh is surrounded by the Indian state of West Bengal. On 26 June 1992, India
leased three bigha land to Bangladesh to connect this enclave with mainland Bangladesh. There

6
 Latifee, Enamul Hafiz; Hossain, Md. Sajib (22 August 2019). "Forging stronger Indo-Bangla economic ties". The Independent. Independent
Publications Limited. Retrieved 25 August 2019
7
 "India-Bangladesh Relations"  (PDF). Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India. Archived from the original  (PDF) on 4 March 2016
8
 David Lewis (2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-139-50257-3. By 1974,
Pakistan had recognised Bangladesh, and Mujib ... began participating in the Organization of the Islamic Conference. This, in turn, brought an end to
the early positive phase of Bangladesh's relationship with India ... Saudi Arabia to recognise Bangladesh ... Zia's new emphasis on building a stronger
Islamic identity in place of the earlier emphasis on an ethnolinguistic foundation. This shift also contributed to the creation of a more anti-Indian
domestic political climate ... Ershad's government continued to build on the positive relation that Zia started building with the United States ... Relations
with China also continued to remain close, but unlike Zia, Ershad did not make any effort to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union.
9
M. Saleem Kidwai (2010). US Policy Towards the Muslim World: Focus on Post 9/11 Period. University Press of America. pp. 240–. ISBN 978-0-
7618-5158-5.
10
"Trade between India and Bangladesh". Business Standard. 17 December 2014.

7
was a dispute regarding the indefinite nature of the lease. The dispute was resolved by a mutual
agreement between India and Bangladesh in 2011.11

3. Terrorist activities carried out by outfits based in both countries, like Banga Sena and Harkat-
ul-Jihad-al-Islami.12 Recently India and Bangladesh had agreed jointly to fight terrorism.13

4. Bangladesh has consistently denied India transit facility to the landlocked North Eastern
Regions of India. Although India has a narrow land link to this North Eastern region, which is
famously known as the Siliguri Corridor or "India's Chicken Neck".14

5. Illegal Bangladeshi immigration into India.[15] The border is porous and migrants are able to
cross illegally, though sometimes only in return for financial or other incentives to border
security personnel.[15] Bangladeshi officials have denied the existence of Bangladeshis living in
India and those illegal migrants found are described as having been trafficked.[15] This has
considerable repercussions for those involved, as they are stigmatized for having been involved
in prostitution, whether or not this has actually been the case. Cross border migrants are also at
far higher risk of HIV/AIDS infection.15

6. Continuous border killing of Bangladeshi people by Indian border guards, aiding illegal
immigrants, helping in armed dacoity, fake money transfer and illegal drug trades by both Indian
and Bangladeshi people are the major problems between Bangladesh and India.

7. Both Bangladesh and India made claims over the same seawater at the Bay of Bengal before
settlement of the issue.16

11
Nishit Dholabhai (21 July 2011). "24/7 access for Bangla via corridor". The Telegraph. Calcutta. Archived
from the originalon 2 October 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
12
Bangladeshi Immigrants Stoke Terror in India". Asia Sentinel. 15 May 2008. Archived from the original on 17
July 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
13
Haroon Habib (1 September 2008). "Delhi, Dhaka to strengthen border management". The Hindu. Chennai.
Retrieved 24 October2012.
14
 "No transit deal with India: Bangladesh". The Times Of India. 29 August 2011.

15
  Fiona Samuels; Sanju Wagle (2011). "Population mobility and HIV and AIDS: review of laws, policies and
treaties between Bangladesh, Nepal and India". Overseas Development Institute. London. Archived from the
original on 20 September 2012.
16
"India, Bangladesh to discuss maritime dispute". Thaindian News. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2012.

8
8. There was a minor glitch in their relation when former Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan
Singh accidentally mentioned that 25% of Bangladeshis are anti-Indian, during an informal press
meet.17

Bilateral institutional mechanisms:

There are more than 50 bilateral institutional mechanisms between India and Bangladesh in the
areas of security, trade & commerce, power & energy, transport & connectivity, science and
technology, defence,rivers & maritime affairs etc. A Joint Consultative Commission (JCC) led
by the Ministers of Foreign/External Affairs coordinates and oversees implementation of
initiatives taken between the two countries as well as explores newer avenues for cooperation.
The 3rd JCC was held in New Delhi on 20September, 2014.The 4th JCC is expected to be held
in Dhaka soon.18 A list of some important bilateral mechanisms and list of important bilateral
documents concluded between the two countries since 1971 is on the website of High
Commission.19

Security & Border Management:

India and Bangladesh share 4096.7 km. of border, which is the longest land boundary that India
20
shares with any of its neighbours. The India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (LBA)
came into force following the exchange of instruments of ratification in June 2015. On July 31,
2015 the enclaves of India and Bangladesh in each other’s countries were exchanged and strip
maps were signed. Residents of these erstwhile enclaves, who opted to retain their Indian
citizenship made a final movement to India by November 30, 2015. A number of agreements
related to security cooperation have been signed between both the countries. The Coordinated
Border Management Plan (CBMP) signed in 2011 aims to synergize the efforts of both the
Border Guarding Forces for checking cross border illegal activities and crimes as well as for
maintenance of peace and tranquility along the India-Bangladesh border. The settlement of the

17
Jayanth Jacob (24 July 2011). "After gaffe, PM calls Sheikh Hasina, announces Bangladesh dates". The Hindustan
Times. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
18
"India/Bangladesh: Indiscriminate Killings, Abuse by Border Officers". Human Rights Watch. 9 December 2010.
Retrieved 29 October 2012.
19
"India's shoot-to-kill policy on the Bangladesh border". The Guardian. 23 January 2011. Retrieved 29
October 2012
20
"Khaleda Zia assures counter-terror co-operation to India". Yahoo News. Indo Asian News Service. 29 October
2012. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2012.

9
maritime boundary arbitration between Indiaand Bangladesh, as per UNCLOS award of July 7,
2014, has paved the way for the economic development of this part of the Bay of Bengal.21

Sharing of River Waters:

India and Bangladesh share 54 common rivers. A bilateral Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) is
working since June 1972 to maintain liaison between the two countries to maximize benefits
from common river systems. Besides the meetings of the JRC (37 meetings held so far), JRC
Technical level meetings are also held regularly. The Ganga Waters Treaty signed in 1996 for
sharing of waters of river Ganga during lean season (January 1-May 31) is working
satisfactorily. Regular meetings of the Joint Committee on Sharing of Ganga Waters are held to
take stock of the implementation of the provisions of the treaty

Bilateral Trade and Investment:

The first Trade Agreement between India and Bangladesh was signed in 1972. The India-
Bangladesh Trade Agreement was last renewed in PM’s visit in June 2015 for a period of 5 years
with a provision for auto renewal. There are a number of other trade related agreements that have
been signed between both countries.22 Bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has grown
steadily over the last decade. In the five years, total trade between the two countries has grown
by more than 17%.India’s exports to Bangladesh in the period July 2016 – March 2017 stood at
US$ 4489.30 million and imports from Bangladesh during FY 2016-17 stood at US$ 672.40
million. More details on bilateral trade statistics are on the website of High Commission. India
has provided duty free quota free access to Bangladesh on all tariff lines except tobacco and
alcohol under South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) since 2011. Four Border Haats, two each
in Tripura and Meghalaya, have been established for the benefit of bordering communities.
Additional Border Haats on the India-Bangladesh border are under consideration. Total Indian
investment proposals in Bangladesh registered with the Bangladesh Investment Development
Authority (BIDA) exceed US$ 3billion. Indian Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Bangladesh
reached US$ 88.0million in 2015-16. During PM Sheikh Hasina’s visit in April 2017, 13

21
Haroon Habib (1 October 2012). "BSF promises to bring down border casualties to zero". The Hindu.
Retrieved 29 October2012
22
"Bangladeshi dies as BSF throws stones". The Daily Star (Bangladesh). 25 July 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2012

10
agreements worth around US$ 10 billion of mainly Indian investment in power and energy
sectors in Bangladesh were signed.23

India’s Economic Assistance to Bangladesh:

India has extended 3 Lines of Credits to Bangladesh in the last 7 years amounting to US$ 8
billion.24 This makes Bangladesh the largest recipient of LOC funds from India till date. During
the visit of Bangladesh PM to India in January 2010, India had announced a US$1 billion Line of
Credit (LOC) for Bangladesh covering projects in public transportation, roads, railways, bridges
and inland waterways etc. Most of these projects have been completed and the remaining areat
various stages of completion. India had extended the second LOC of US$ 2 billion during the
visit of Prime Minister Modi to Bangladesh in June 2015. This LOC covers 15 projects in areas
of Roads, Railways, Power, Shipping, SEZs, Health & Medical Care and Technical Education.
During the visit of Bangladesh PM to India in April 2017, India extended a third LOC of US$
4.5 billion to Bangladesh. The new LOC will cover projects in areas of Port Page 4 of 7
Construction, Railways, Roads, Airports, Power & Energy, Telecommunications, and Shipping
etc. In addition to LOC funds, Government of India also providesgrant assistance to Bangladesh
for projects under ‘Aid to Bangladesh’. Projects such as construction of school/college buildings,
laboratories, dispensaries, deep tube wells, community centres, renovation of historical
monuments/buildings etc have been financed by Government of India under this programme. At
present, three Sustainable Development Projects (SDPs) are being undertaken in the cities of
Rajshahi, Khulna and Sylhet.25 The extended development work of RabindraNath Tagore’s
ancestral house in Shilaidaha is as well as 36 community clinics in selected districts of
Bangladeshis also being undertaken. One of the biggest projects under the Indian grant assistance
is the Bangladesh section of the Agartala-Akhaura rail-link.

Power and Energy Sector Cooperation:

Cooperation in power sector has become one of the hallmarks of India Bangladesh relations.
Bangladesh is currently importing about 660 MW of power from India. In March 2016, the two

23
"WB: Video showing BSF torture surfaces". IBN Live. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
24
"Bangladesh group hacks BSF website to 'avenge border killings'". Times of India. 15 February 2012.
Retrieved 29 October 2012
25
"India and Bangladesh historic border deal gives citizenship to 50,000 people". IBTimes UK. 1 August 2015.
Retrieved 8 November 2015

11
Prime Ministers inaugurated the export of power from Tripura to Bangladesh as well as export of
Internet bandwidth to Tripura from Bangladesh. Supply of another 500 MW is expected to begin
in 2018. The 1320 MW coal-fired Maitree thermal power plant, a 50:50 JV between National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) of India and Bangladesh Power Development Board
(BPDB), is being developed at Rampal. 26 During Bangladesh PM’s visit in April 2017,
agreements for generation/ supply/ financing of more than 3600 MW electricity were signed
between Indian public /private companies and Bangladesh side. Energy sector cooperation
between India and Bangladesh has also seen considerable progress in the last two years. Many
Indian public sector units such as Indian Oil Corporation, Numaligarh Refinery Limited, Petronet
LNG Ltd are working with their Bangladeshi counterparts in the oil and gas sector of
Bangladesh. India has agreed to fund the construction of India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline
from Siliguri to Parbatipur for supply of Diesel to Bangladesh from Numaligarh Refinery
Limited. ONGC Videsh Ltd has acquired two shallow water blocks in consortium with Oil India
Limited and is currently exploring these blocks. The possibility of gas grid interconnectivity for
the mutual benefit of the two countries is also being explored.

Connectivity:

India-Bangladesh is a good example of connectivity through all modes of transport. The

movement of goods by road is operationalised through 36 functional Land Customs Stations
(LCSs) and 2 Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) along the border. This includes thePetrapole-
BenapoleICP through which more than 50% of the bilateral Page 5 of 7 trade takes place on
account of which it has been decided to operate these land ports on 24x7basis since 01August,
2017.27 The Protocol on Inland Water Trade and Transit (PIWTT) has been operational since
1972. It permits movement of goods over barges/vessels from India through the river systems of
Bangladesh on eight specific routes. Trans-shipment of goods to North-eastern States of India
through Ashuganj river port and further through AkhauraAgartala by road commenced in June
2016 under the PIWTT. Coastal Shipping Agreement signed during the visit of Prime Minister
Narendra Modi to Bangladesh in June 2015 has also enabled direct sea movement of
containerized/bulk/dry cargo between the two countries. In February 2017,container ship

26
Sougata Mukhopadhyay (7 September 2011). "India-Bangladesh sign pact on border demarcation". CNN-IBN.
Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2011
27
"Bangladesh-India joint military exercise begins". Zee News. 29 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2012

12
services have started between Kolkata and Pangaon (which is just around 20 km from Dhaka)
under this framework. Out of the erstwhile 6 rail links that existed, four Broad Gauge inter-
country rail links between the two countries are operational now. The Radhikapur-Birol rail link
was the latest to be put back in operation during PM Sheikh Hasina’svisit in April 2017. Apart
from these, work on the remaining two new rail links isongoing. The 7thnew rail-link between
Agartala and Akhaura is being financed under grant assistance of India. The ‘Maitree Express’
between Kolkata and Dhaka now operates 4 days a week and has been converted into a fully AC
train service. The trial run of the 2nd Maitri Express between Khulna-Kolkata was conducted
during PM Sheikh Hasina’svisit to India in April 2017 and will be operational soon. There are
regular bus services between Kolkata-Dhaka, Shillong-Dhaka and Agartala-Kolkata via Dhaka.
A new bus service (Dhaka-Khulna-Kolkata) was launched during PM Sheikh Hasina’svisit in
April 2017. The Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal – Motor Vehicle Agreement (BBINMVA)
is expected to significantly boost connectivity by road. The trial run of Cargo Movement on
Trucks from Kolkata to Agartala via Dhaka and Dhaka to New Delhi via Kolkata and Lucknow
was conducted in August 2016. There are presently around 100 flights operating weekly between
India and Bangladesh connecting various Indian cities like New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai to Dhaka and Chittagong. From Bangladesh, US-Bangla Airlines, NOVOAIR, Regent
Airways and Biman Bangladesh; and from India, Jet Airways, Spice Jet and Air India are
operating flights between India and Bangladesh.28

Training and Capacity-Building:

A number of training courses are being conducted for interested Bangladesh officials / nationals
including personnel of administration, police, judiciary, fire-fighters, narcotic officials, nuclear
scientists, teachers etc. Bangladesh is also an important ITEC partner country, and around 800
participants from Bangladesh avail of training courses under the ITEC programme annually. In
addition, scholarships are granted by ICCR (Indian Council for Cultural Relations) every year to
students from Bangladesh for pursuing general courses in arts, sciences, engineering and also
specialized courses for culture, drama, music, fine arts and sports, etc.

28
"India, Bangladesh sign MoU on cooperation in health, medical science". The Economic Times

13
Cultural Exchanges:

The Indira Gandhi Cultural Centre (IGCC), High Commission of India, is a Cultural Centre of
the Indian Council for Cultural Relations of India in Bangladesh. Inaugurated in 2010, IGCC
regularly organizes programmes covering a wide-gamut of cultural activities. The IGCC also
holds regular training courses in Yoga, Hindi, Hindustani Classical Music, Manipuri Dance,
Kathak and Painting. The courses are very popular with the Bangladeshi students. IGCC Hindi
teacher also teaches Hindi at Institute of Modern Languages in University. ICCR has initiated a
Tagore Chair in University of Dhaka since 2011. A MoU was also signed in January 2017 for a
‘Hindi’ Chair in Universityof Dhaka. A 100-member Youth Delegation is visiting India annually
since 2012. High Commission of India has been publishing a print and electronic edition of
Bengali literary monthly magazine 'Bharat Bichitra' for the last 43 years. The magazine has a
wide readership in Bangladesh.29

Visa:

The Indian High Commission in Dhaka and the two Assistant High Commissions in Chittagong
and Rajshahi together issue the highest number of Indian visas compared to any other Indian
Mission. The numbers are increasing manifold with the figures touching 9.33 lakhs in 2016.
There are 12 Indian Visa ApplicationCentres (IVAC) in Bangladesh managed by the State Bank
of India (SBI): 4 in Dhaka (Gulshan, Dhanmondi, Motijheel and Uttara), Chittagong, Sylhet,
Rajshahi, Khulna, Mynmensingh, Rangpur, Barisal and Jessore.30

Indian community in Bangladesh:

About 10,000 strong Indian community is estimated to be living in Bangladesh. Indians in

Bangladesh are well respected for their hard work and managerial skills and as a community are
doing very well socially and economically. Most of the Indians are Page 7 of 7 engaged in Ready
Made Garment (RMG) sector or as top professionals in MNCs. Around 3000 Indian students are
also pursuing medical courses in different Universities/colleges in Bangladesh.31

High Level Visits and Exchanges:

29
"India offers scholarships for Bangladeshi students for higher studies". The Independent. Dhaka
30
"$2 billion line of credit to Bangladesh to create 50,000 Indian jobs". The Times of India
31
"Despite Sushma Swaraj's assurance, Indian students in Bangladesh continue protests". hindustantimes.com/. 14
January 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.

14
 There have been regular high-level visits and exchanges between the two countries. There have
also been frequent visits at Ministerial level as well as between senior officials on a regular basis.
Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina paid a State Visit to India from07-10 April 2017.
During the visit, 36 bilateral documents were concluded in various areas including in high
technology areas of Civil Nuclear Energy, Space, Information Technology, Defence, Capacity
building etc.32 A 3rdLine Of Credit (LOC) worth US$ 4.5 billion was also extended to
Bangladesh. The two Prime Ministers presided over a commemorative ceremony in honour of
Indian martyrs of Liberation War of Bangladesh.33 Prior to this visit, PM Hasina had visited India
on 16-17 October 2016 to participate in the BRICS-BIMSTEC Outreach Summit. Prime Minister
Narendra Modi paid a State visit to Bangladesh on 6-7 June, 2015. During the visit, 22 bilateral
documents were concluded, including the exchange of instrument of ratification for India-
Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) and a 2ndLine of Credit (LOC) worth US$ 2
billion.34 After assuming charge, External Affairs Minister of India SmtSushmaSwaraj and
Minister of State for External Affairs Lt. Gen (Retd) V.K.Singh had paid their first standalone
overseas visits to Bangladeshon 25-27 June and 24 August 2014 respectively. Former President
Pranab Mukherjee visited Bangladesh in March 2013, which was his first trip abroad since
assuming office. President of Bangladesh, Mr. Md. Abdul Hamid visited India in December
2014, which was the first visit by Bangladesh’s ‘ceremonial Head of State’ after a gap of 42
years. The list of bilateral visits at the level of Heads of State / Heads of Government is on the
website of High Commission.35

Dispute Resolution:

Two key disputes between India and Bangladesh, namely, LBA and Maritime Boundary, has
peacefully been resolved during Narendra Modi's government.

Ratification of LBA:
32
 "Top Indian military officer visits Bangladesh, discusses steps to boost defence ties". The Week Magazine. 23
March 2019. Retrieved 29 February 2020
33
"India-Bangladesh trade may almost double to $10 billion by 2018: CII". The Economic Times
34
"Multilateral dialogue on energy cooperation soon: Bangladesh FM". The Hindu Business Line
35
(https://www.hcidhaka.gov.in/pages.php?id=1624).

15
 One of the greatest successes of the Modi government towards Bangladesh is the ratification
of the 70- years-old border dispute, the LBA. Ratification of LBA was always been a major
issue in Indo –Bangladesh ties. Geographically, India-Bangladesh shares a territorial border
of approximately 4,096 kilometres and a disputed area of approximately 6 kilometres. It is
worth mentioning that although LBA got momentum during the official visit of Manmohan
Singh to Dhaka in September 2011, the ratification failed due to the disagreement of Indian
opposition parties, mainly BJP, in the parliament. However, during Modi’s tenure, although
there were some initial hurdles, LBA ratification bill was passed undisputedly in Rajya Sabha
which was followed by Lok Sabha. During the 100th Constitutional Amendment, all 331
members of Lok Sabha voted for LBA which came up 4 decades after the Indira-Mujib
Treaty (Gupta, 2015). The ratification of the LBA has resolved the three delicate issues of
Indo-Bagladesh ties, which are:

(i) the exchange of 162 enclaves located along India-Bangladesh border;

(ii) the demarcation of 6.5 kilometres new boundary; and
(iii) the exchange of adverse possessions of each other’s territories (Ali, 2015).

Resolution of Maritime Boundary:

On 7th July 2014, the Hague-based Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) delivered its verdict
in favour of Bangladesh and against India on the maritime boundary between two countries in
the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh decided to pursue international arbitration at the PCA in 2009
under the terms of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to settle the long-
standing sea boundary disputes. In their submissions to the PCA, while India claimed a
boundary based on the equidistance principle, Bangladesh demanded the boundary based on
equity. Bangladesh’s claim was logical as boundary based on the equidistance principle can
make Bangladesh a "zone-locked" state by the maritime zones of India and Myanmar.
Therefore, without an equitable determination of sea boundary, Bangladesh would only have a
trivial exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. PCA accepted the line of argument by
Bangladesh and gave the judgment where Bangladesh was awarded 19,467 square kilometres of
the total 25,602 square kilometres (roughly 80 percent) of disputed sea area. However, India
welcomed the decision of PCA which contributed to resolving the decades-long sea boundary
dispute between two neighbouring states. Bangladeshi Foreign Minister Abul Hassan Mahmood

16
Ali rightly contended that “We commend India for its willingness to resolve this matter
peacefully by legal means and for its acceptance of the tribunal’s judgment” (Reuters, 2014). In
a statement, The Ministry of External Affairs of India stated that “The settlement of the
maritime boundary will further enhance mutual understanding and goodwill between India and
Bangladesh by bringing to closure a long-pending issue” (Reuters, 2014). Indi’s welcoming of
the verdict is a clear demonstration of newly formed Modi government’s emphasis on straitening
bilateral relations with immediate neighbours.

Cooperation: India–Bangladesh cooperation over economy, power, maritime, education and

political issue (i.e. political prisoners’ extradition) has reached a new height after Modi came to
power.

a. Economic Cooperation:

Economic cooperation has manifested in Modi’s foreign policy towards Bangladesh. Between
2004 and 2017, the bilateral trade between Bangladesh and India increased noticeably, formal
most USD 1.6 billion to USD 6. 8billion. Table 1gives a summary of import-export figures
between India and Bangladesh. Another notable aspect of economic cooperation is the
extensionofIndia’s line of credit for Bangladesh worth around USD 8billion. According to
Sushma Swaraj “[T]otally, three lines of credit amounting to USD 8 billion have been extended
by India to J. S. Asian Stud. This is by far the largest development assistance that India has
extended to any country worldwide” (The Hindu, 2017c). However, since independence,
Bangladesh has always been suffering acute trade deficit with India and this trade deficit
between two states has only been exacerbating over the years (Table 1). In 2017, the trade
deficit for Bangladesh is USD 6.12 billion. Notably, to boost Indian investments in Bangladesh,
a MoU has also signed to build two special economic zones for Indian companies in Bheramara
and Mongla, Bangladesh. Hopefully, these economic zones will act as a thrust to foster Indo–
Bangladesh economic ties in the foreseeable future. Contrarily, to facilitate the shipment of
Bangladeshi apparels to retail shops across India, the Indian government has announced
toprovide 50 acres of land in Gujrat to build a warehouse for Bangladeshi companies (The Daily
Star, 2015c). The warehouse is believed to contribute USD 1 billion worth of export to
Bangladesh annually. Indian investments in Bangladesh has also increased noticeably during
Modi’s tenure. For instance, two Indian giant power companies, namely, Adani Power Limited

17
and Reliance Power Limited inked a MoU with Bangladesh to invest USD 5.5 billion to build
two power plants capable of generating total 4,600 MW of electricity. It is worth mentioning
thatit will be the largest foreign direct investment in Bangladesh. In the fourth JCC meeting,
Sushma Swaraj, the Indian delegates of the meeting, signed two MoUs, one for establishing a
‘common facility center’ in Khulna for small and medium enterprises and another for exporting
of high speed diesel to Bangladesh. It is expected to boost the economy of the southern part of
Bangladesh (The Hindu, 2017c).

b. Power Cooperation:

India–Bangladesh power cooperation has got new momentum after Modi came to power. With
of view to easing the power shortage of electricity-starved Bangladesh, India is currently
exporting around 500 MW of electricity to Bangladesh. At the 9th meeting of Bangladesh–India
joint steering committee on power cooperation in Dhaka in May 2015, the decision has been
taken to provide additional 600 MW electricity to Bangladesh by 2017. Of this 600 MW, 500
MW of electricity will be supplied from West Bengal and 100 MW will be supplied from
Palatana power project in Tripura (The Daily Star, 2015a). And as discussed in the earlier
section, two more power plant will be built that will make an addition of 4,600 MW of
electricity to the national grid of Bangladesh. According to MoU, USD 3 billion will be invested
by Reliance Power Limited to build a liquefied natural gas-based power plant capable of
generating 3,000 MW and USD 2.5 billion will be invested by to set up a coal-based power plant
to generate 1,600 MW (Dhaka Tribune, 2015, 6 June; The Daily Star, 2015b, 7 June). From the
Bangladesh side, building a new electricity grid between Bangladesh and Northeastern states of
India were reviewed. According to The Daily Star,‘once set up, India will use Bangladesh’s soil
to transmit 6,000 MW of power from Assam to Bihar via Dinajpur’ (The Daily Star, 2015a).
Moreover, this new grid will help India in satisfying its desire to cross border energy trading
with SAARC member states (Karim, 2015).

C. Coastal Shipping and Maritime Cooperation:

18
With a view to reducing the trading cost, India– Bangladesh signed a draft agreement and two
separate pacts on coastal shipping cooperation in 2015. This agreement is expected to promote
India’s coastal shipping as the shipping cost will be cut by nearly two thirds using Chittagong
and Mongla ports of Bangladesh. Because of the direct access to Bangladeshi port, the overall
shipping time for Indian cargo vessels will also down considerably (Hindustan Times, 2015).
According to Modi, ‘[T]he coastal shipping agreement will boost bilateral trade. The Indian
economic zone will promote Indian investments in Bangladesh’ (The Hindu, 2015). In this age
of globalization and connectivity, blue economy and maritime security have emerged as a vital
part of countries’ foreign policy. India has already witnessed the ‘Mumbai Attack’ due to the
maritime security breach. Thus, maritime cooperation is an important issue for both India and
Bangladesh. During Modi’s visit to Dhaka, the world witnessed the signing of India-Bangladesh
maritime cooperation deal called ‘Blue Economy and Maritime Cooperation in the Bay of
Bengal and the Indian Ocean’. Besides the deal, an MoU has been inked between the University
of Dhaka and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of India and for collaborative
research on oceanography in the Bay of Bengal.

d. Cooperation over Education and Training:

The promotion of educational exchange, training and cooperation between India and
Bangladesh is also manifested during Modi’s tenure. Recently, the government of India has
announced to spend 35 corer Bangladeshi Taka in next 5 years to provide scholarships to the
descendants of Freedom Fighters. Every year two thousand students will be awarded this
scholarship (Bangla Telegraph, 2018). Two MoU’s have been singed Modi’s visit to Bangladesh
in June 2015 one between the University of Dhaka and Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) of India for collaborative research on oceanography in the Bay of Bengal, and
another between the University of Rajshahi and India’s Jamia Millia Islamia University for
educational cooperation. Providing training for human resource development is a crucial aspect
of Indo-Bangladesh relations that reached a new height during Modi’s regime. The Indian
government has launched a programme for providing training to Bangladeshi bureaucrats and
law enforcement agencies’ officers. Reportedly, over the next 3 years, 1500 Bangladeshi
bureaucrats and police officers will receive training in different Indian institutions (The
Economic Times, 2015).

19
e. Political Prisoners Extradition:

The progress regarding political prisoner extradition has been manifested after Modi came to
power. Although Bangladesh-India extradition treaty came into effect since October 2013, it
gained new momentum during Modi’s tenure which can be supported by the transference of
Indian separatist leader Anup Chetia to India in November 2015 waiting after nearly two
decades. Similarly, India also handed over Nur Hossain to Dhaka in November 2015, the prime
accused of sensational Narayanganj seven-murder case. It is believed that the implementation of
the extradition treaty will deepen Indo-Bangladesh security ties.

Connectivity:

Connectivity, both physical and sociocultural, has clearly manifested in Modi’s policy towards
Bangladesh.

a. Physical Connectivity:
The Bangladesh government’s decision to allow India use of its territory for transit of cargo
and passengers to the North East may be seen as a major initiative of Bangladesh in
strengthening India-Bangladesh relations to the next level in Bangladesh. The transit facility
was signed during Modi’s visit to Dhaka in June 2015 and was officially inaugurated on 16
June 2016. The transit facility has reduced the KolkataAgartala distance by half from 1600
kilometres to 800 kilometres and cut the transportation costs from $67 to $35 US dollars per
tonne with a transit fee of $192.25 per tonne. From the Indian side, strong determination
Modi governments to engage with Bangladesh through rail, road and waterways connectivity
can be reflected by the measures like initiating direct bus services between Kolkata–Dhaka–
Agartala and Dhaka. Guwahati–Shillong and mobilizing the establishment of a broad gauge
rail line of 15 kilometres length between Agartala, Bangladesh and Tripura, India. The latter
one will cut the distance between Agartala and Kolkata nearly one-third, from 1,650
kilometres to 515 kilometres. To materialize the rail line project, the Modi government has
already sanctioned 1000 crore INR in July 2015. This direct rail connectivity is believed to
promote socio-economic ties between these two countries to a greater extent (NDTV, 2015,
26 July). In addition, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) signed the historic Motor
Vehicle Agreement (MVA) to facilitate the road connectivity among these neighbours.

20
 BBIN-MVA is expected to boost the intra-regional trade by around 60 percent and global
trade around 30 percent. (The Daily Star, 2015d).
b. Socio-cultural Connectivity:
To strengthen the cultural ties between India and Bangladesh, Modi adopted the cultural
exchange programmes for the years 2015–2017 (Kashem and Islam, 2016). Notably,
‘Maitree Express’ has started running one additional round trip between Kolkata– Dhaka–
Kolkata since January 2015, which now runs thrice a week. In addition, with mutual consent,
both the governments have approved three borders ‘haats ’ito deepen their bilateral relations.
All these initiatives are believed to be imperative in promoting people-to-people connection
in the long run.

CHALLENGES : The following section attempts to explore the prime challenges in India–
Bangladesh relations.

Water Dispute:

While Bangladesh and India share 54 trans-boundary rivers, no other water sharing treaty expect
the Ganga Water Sharing Treaty is operational between the two countries. In recent time, the
dispute centred on the Teesta river water sharing has deteriorating Indo-Bangladesh relations to
an unprecedented level. It is unfortunate that this crucial issue has not been resolved for over 18
years. Besides, India’s attempt to create a dam and divert water has incited Bangladesh. There is
no denying that India needs more water for its ever increasing population, however, India cannot
ignore the water rights of Bangladesh. It is worth mentioning, the Modi government showed an
honest attempt at resolving the dispute, but his attempt was not honored by Mamata Banerjee-led
West Bengal Government. Regarding Teesta issue, the general perception in Bangladesh is of
being deprived of water rights. Moreover, although delayed, the Indian government’s
controversial project called “Tipaimukh Dam” contributed to deteriorate India-Bangladesh
relations to a larger extent. If India doesn’t take any positive approach with urgency, water
disputes would be the utmost reason of exacerbating the IndoBangladesh relations in future
which could be irreconcilable.

Non-tariff barriers:

21
Since its independence in 1971, Bangladesh has suffered severe trade deficit with India and it is
widening year after year (Table1). Expert opines that the reason for this imbalance is India’s
protectionist economic policy and excessive non-tariff barriers. There is no denying the fact that
government of India has provided the duty-free opportunity for maximum Bangladesh products
which can be reflected by the enlistment of only 25 items in India’s sensitive list for Bangladesh
compared to Bangladesh’s sensitive list for India which has 1241 items (Sharma, 2016),
however, non-tariff barriers in the form of customs and bureaucratic harassment delay shipment
from Bangladesh which lead to increase the shipping cost from Bangladesh side and contribute
to massive trade deficit. This vast trade deficit has now turned into a political issue rather than an
economic one. Many Bangladeshi including academicians and policy-makers now feel a sense of
deprivation which could be a major impediment to strengthening Indo-Bangladesh ties in future.
Indian government should be resolved with some urgency; otherwise, India may lose a huge
market of Bangladesh to China. China, with its welcoming and encouraging attitude, is very
proactive in this regard. It frequently organized exhibitions on Chinese products targeting only
Bangladeshi traders, promotes technology transfers and also explores importable Bangladeshi
commodities. Notably, India was Bangladesh’s largest import origin country in 2003, but it has
already lost its position to China (Sharma, 2016). This is alarming for India and this gap between
India and China may continue to widen massively if India doesn’t take proper care of the
aforementioned non-tariff barriers.

Rampal Power Plant:

On 11 January 2011, the governments of Bangladesh and India inked a memorandum of

understanding (MoU) to set up two coal-fired thermal power plants in Rampal, Bangladesh,
roughly 15 kilometres away from the Sundarban-the largest continuous mangrove forest in the
world. It is a joint venture initiative between the Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB)
and the Indian National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at a cost of USD 1.68 billion
capable of generating 1,320 MW electricity. There is no denying that government of Bangladesh
is trying to mitigate acute electricity shortage which is prerequisite for economic development;
however, due to its close proximity to the Sundarban, Rampal project has been facing severe
domestic resistance and international criticism since inception. Unfortunately, despite vigorous
domestic resistance, both governments’ obstinate attitude towards completion of the project by

22
any means is tarnishing the image of India and as well as ruling Awami League of Bangladesh.
While Seikh Hasina’s strong backing for the power plant directly correlating with her alleged
pleasing-India-at-any-cost attitude, India’s imperialist hegemonic attitude towards establishing
power plant creating an anti-India sentiment in the mind Bangladeshi people. Especially,
Bangladeshi people are increasingly becoming suspicious due to the duality of India’s intention.
While government of India refrained from establishing Nayachar thermal power plant in West
Bengal in 2015 (within 10 kilometres of the Sundarbans of India), the very same government is
promoting the Rampal project ignoring the public demand which tends Bangladeshi people to
think India is trying to outsourcing its energy trade at the same time getting rid of the pollution
problem. India’s disrespectful attitude towards the public demand of Bangladesh could lead to a
major debacle in Indo-Bangladesh ties in the long run.

Rohingya Issue:

Recent Rohingya crisis has resulted, although to a lesser extent, bitterness in IndoBangladesh
relation. More than 800,000 Rohingya have crossed the border into Bangladesh since August,
running from a military crackdown that was initiated after Rohingya militants attacked police
posts, killing 12 members of the security forces (The Guardian, 2017). There is no denying that
regional security is the prime concern of the Modi government. However, Bangladesh expected
Modi, being a regional leader, will address the alleged persecution of the Rohingya Muslim
community which will ease the repatriation process of Rohingya people in foreseeable future.
But unfortunately, Modi expressed his deep concern on extremist violence only in his visit to
Yangon on 5 September 2017 and stayed tight-lipped about the mass exudation and humanitarian
crisis (Hindustan Times, 2017a). And amid a burgeoning humanitarian catastrophe, New Delhi
threatened to deport the 40,000 Rohingyas on the ground of national security concerns which has
slightly blunted India’s regional and international image (Hindustan Times, 2017b). However,
opposite to the general perception, China played a vital role and proposed a three-stage path for
Rohingya repatriation (Lee, 2017), which world was expecting from India. It is undoubtedly true
that Myanmar is India’s gateway to Southeast Asia which might explain India’s softpeddled
attitude on the Rohingya issue. India has been working on connecting northeast Indian states to
Sittwe port (Upadhyay, 2017). However, Bangladesh is crucial for expanding India’s physical
connectivity. And shunning Bangladesh in regard to Rohingya refugees didn’t bring a good

23
message to Bangladeshi policymakers. Hopefully, India will get more involved in the long-term
resolution of the Rohingya crisis and avoid the misleading geopolitical strategy.

Alleged Illegal Migration of Bangladeshis to India:

Despite Bangladesh’s repeated denial, India constantly accesses Bangladesh for huge illegal
migration of Bangladeshis to the neighbouring Indian states to an extent that contributes to the
gradual demographic pattern change. The High Commissioner of India in Bangladesh repeatedly
expresses his concern over the illegal migration issue. According to the High Commissioner
“[W]e have to be circumspect in issuing visas particularly when we know that around 25,000
Bangladeshis do not return after entering India every year. Those who enter unrecorded are many
more. Our concern about illegal migrants cannot be brushed aside” (The Daily Star, 2009). Kiren
Rijiju, the Union Minister of State for Home Affairs of India, stated in Rajya Sabha that there are
around 2 crore illegal Bangladeshi immigrants staying in India (Jain, 2016). However, it is
merely an allegation as Rijiju did not provide any evidence to support his allegation. Indian
politicians frequently use this ‘illegal Bangladeshi’ issue as a populist move to gain public
attention. Very recently, Mamta Banerjee has accused cross border illegal Bangladeshi for poll
violence during Gram Panchayat elections in several districts of West Bengal without any kind
of proof. At least 21 people were killed during this poll violence (Dhaka Tribune, 2018). This
blame game between India and Bangladesh inhibits to strengthening India-Bangladesh ties to a
large extent.

Border Killings:

Except 1973, every year scores of Bangladeshis are being killed by Indian Border Security Force
(BSF). In a research from Odhikar (2017), between 2000 and 2017 4,138 Bangladeshi nationals
have been killed by BSF. This is undoubtedly not an attitude a friend (or younger brother) can
ever expect. Huge resentment is growing in Bangladesh which can irreversibly change the Indo-
Bangladesh relations for worst. Although, after Modi came to power, this number is slowly
decreasing, however, even one killing cannot be accepted. So, we hope Modi would take care of
this issue with utmost importance.

24
CONCLUSION:

This project has attempted to provide an overview of the recent progress in Indo–Bangladesh
ties during Narendra Modi's tenure. While challenging the popular perception, it is asserted that
even though BJP is in power now, India–Bangladesh relationship has reached a new height. In
fact, the peaceful resolution of the long-standing maritime dispute and the ratification of the
historic LBA is expected to strengthen the India–Bangladesh relations in the foreseeable future.
However, the challenges like water dispute, non-tariff barriers, Rampal power plant and regional
Rohingya issue, alleged illegal migration of Bangladeshis to India and border killings, need to be
addressed carefully for a sustainable friendly relation and establish a win-win situation. Last but
not least, in this age of growing interdependence and sharing, there is no alternative but to
strengthen Bangladesh–India relations.Therefore, consistency in Indo–Bangladesh friendly
relations needs to be maintained no matter which regime remains in power both in Dhaka and
Delhi.

REFERENCES:

 Ali, S.M. (2015, June 4). Modi’s forthcoming visit: A watershed moment for our bilateral
ties. The Daily Star, Retrieved 8 December
2017;http://www.thedailystar.net/oped/politics/watershed-moment-our-bilateral-
ties91639
 Dhaka Tribune. (2015, June 6). Bangladesh–India sign MoU for 4,600MW power.
Retrieved 8 December 2017; http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/20
15/06/06/bangladesh-india-sign-mou-for4600mw-power/ Dhaka Tribune.
 "India to sign two major defence deals with Bangladesh - The Economic Times". The
Economic Times. Retrieved 7 April 2017
 Benkin, Richard L. (2014). A quiet case of ethnic cleansing: The murder of Bangladesh's
Hindus. New Delhi: Akshaya Prakashan.
 Kamra, A. J. (2000). The prolonged partition and its pogroms: Testimonies on violence
against Hindus in East Bengal 1946-64.
 Rosser, Yvette Claire. (2004) Indoctrinating Minds: Politics of Education in Bangladesh,
New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 8129104318.

25