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CHEM 114:
INTRODUCTORY
CHEMISTRY
Marin: CHEM 114 - Introductory Chemistry
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This text was compiled on 06/21/2020

TABLE OF CONTENTS
This is a lecture and laboratory course that covers the fundamental concepts of chemistry. This course assumes no previous knowledge
of chemistry, presenting both chemical problem solving and laboratory skills. This course is intended primarily to prepare students for
CHEM 131.
1: THE CHEMICAL WORLD

1.1: THE SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY
1.2: CHEMICALS COMPOSE ORDINARY THINGS
1.3: HYPOTHESIS, THEORIES, AND LAWS
1.4: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD- HOW CHEMISTS THINK
1.5: A BEGINNING CHEMIST- HOW TO SUCCEED
2: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Chemistry, like all sciences, is quantitative. It deals with quantities, things that have amounts and units. Dealing with quantities is very
important in chemistry, as is relating quantities to each other. In this chapter, we will discuss how we deal with numbers and units,
including how they are combined and manipulated.
2.1: TAKING MEASUREMENTS

2.2: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION- WRITING LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS
2.3: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES- WRITING NUMBERS TO REFLECT PRECISION
2.4: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS
2.5: THE BASIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
2.6: PROBLEM SOLVING AND UNIT CONVERSIONS
2.7: SOLVING MULTISTEP CONVERSION PROBLEMS
2.8: UNITS RAISED TO A POWER
2.9: DENSITY
2.10: NUMERICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES AND THE SOLUTION MAP
2.E: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING (EXERCISES)
3: MATTER AND ENERGY

Energy is a very important quantity in science and the world around us. Although most of our energy ultimately comes from the sun,
much of the energy we use on a daily basis is rooted in chemical reactions. The gasoline in your car, the electricity in your house, the
food in your diet—all provide substances for chemical reactions to provide energy (gasoline, food) or are produced from chemical
reactions (electricity, about 50% of which is generated by burning coal).
3.1: IN YOUR ROOM

3.2: WHAT IS MATTER?
3.3: CLASSIFYING MATTER ACCORDING TO ITS STATE- SOLID, LIQUID, AND GAS
3.4: CLASSIFYING MATTER ACCORDING TO ITS COMPOSITION
3.5: DIFFERENCES IN MATTER- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
3.6: CHANGES IN MATTER- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
3.7: CONSERVATION OF MASS- THERE IS NO NEW MATTER
3.8: ENERGY
3.9: ENERGY AND CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGE
3.10: TEMPERATURE- RANDOM MOTION OF MOLECULES AND ATOMS
3.11: TEMPERATURE CHANGES- HEAT CAPACITY
3.12: ENERGY AND HEAT CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
3.E: EXERCISES
4: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

The basic building block of all matter is the atom. Curiously, the idea of atoms was first proposed in the fifth century BCE, when the
Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus proposed their existence in a surprisingly modern fashion. However, their ideas never
took hold among their contemporaries, and it wasn’t until the early 1800s that evidence amassed to make scientists reconsider the idea.
Today, the concept of the atom is central to the study of matter.
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4.1: EXPERIENCING ATOMS AT TIBURON
4.2: INDIVISIBLE- THE ATOMIC THEORY
4.3: THE NUCLEAR ATOM
4.4: THE PROPERTIES OF PROTONS, NEUTRONS, AND ELECTRONS
4.5: ELEMENTS- DEFINED BY THEIR NUMBERS OF PROTONS
4.6: LOOKING FOR PATTERNS- THE PERIODIC LAW AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
4.7: IONS- LOSING AND GAINING ELECTRONS
4.8: ISOTOPES- WHEN THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS VARIES
4.9: ATOMIC MASS- THE AVERAGE MASS OF AN ELEMENT’S ATOMS
5: MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS

Molecules are groups of atoms that behave as a single unit. Some elements exist as molecules: hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and so forth.
There are rules that can express a unique name for any given molecule, and a unique formula for any given name.
5.1: SUGAR AND SALT

5.2: COMPOUNDS DISPLAY CONSTANT COMPOSITION
5.3: CHEMICAL FORMULAS- HOW TO REPRESENT COMPOUNDS
5.4: A MOLECULAR VIEW OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
5.5: WRITING FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS
5.6: NOMENCLATURE- NAMING COMPOUNDS
5.7: NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
5.8: NAMING MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
5.9: NAMING ACIDS
5.10: NOMENCLATURE SUMMARY
5.11: FORMULA MASS- THE MASS OF A MOLECULE OR FORMULA UNIT
6: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
6.1: HOW MUCH SODIUM?
6.2: COUNTING NAILS BY THE POUND
6.3: COUNTING ATOMS BY THE GRAM
6.4: COUNTING MOLECULES BY THE GRAM
6.5: CHEMICAL FORMULAS AS CONVERSION FACTORS
6.6: MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
6.7: MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM A CHEMICAL FORMULA
6.8: CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS
6.9: CALCULATING MOLECULAR FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS
7: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Chemical reactions
encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no
change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation.
7.1: GRADE SCHOOL VOLCANOES, AUTOMOBILES, AND LAUNDRY DETERGENTS

7.2: EVIDENCE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
7.3: THE CHEMICAL EQUATION
7.4: HOW TO WRITE BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
7.5: AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY- COMPOUNDS DISSOLVED IN WATER
7.6: PRECIPITATION REACTIONS- REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION THAT FORM A SOLID
7.7: WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR REACTIONS IN SOLUTION- MOLECULAR, COMPLETE IONIC, AND
NET IONIC EQUATIONS
7.8: ACID–BASE AND GAS EVOLUTION REACTIONS
7.9: OXIDATION–REDUCTION REACTIONS
7.10: CLASSIFYING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
7.11: THE ACTIVITY SERIES
8: QUANTITIES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

8.1: CLIMATE CHANGE- TOO MUCH CARBON DIOXIDE
8.2: STOICHIOMETRY
8.3: MAKING MOLECULES- MOLE-TO-MOLE CONVERSIONS
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8.4: MAKING MOLECULES- MASS-TO-MASS CONVERSIONS
8.5: LIMITING REACTANT, THEORETICAL YIELD, AND PERCENT YIELD
8.6: LIMITING REACTANT, THEORETICAL YIELD, AND PERCENT YIELD FROM INITIAL MASSES OF REACTANTS
8.7: ENTHALPY- A MEASURE OF THE HEAT EVOLVED OR ABSORBED IN A REACTION
9: ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Atoms act the way they do because of their structure. We already know that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, and electrons orbit around the nucleus. But we need to know the structural details to
understand why atoms react the way they do. Virtually everything we know about atoms ultimately comes from light. Before we can
understand the composition of atoms (especially electrons), we need to understand the properties of light.
9.1: BLIMPS, BALLOONS, AND MODELS OF THE ATOM

9.2: LIGHT- ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
9.3: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
9.4: THE BOHR MODEL- ATOMS WITH ORBITS
9.5: THE QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL- ATOMS WITH ORBITALS
9.6: QUANTUM-MECHANICAL ORBITALS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
9.7: ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
9.8: THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF THE QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL
9.9: PERIODIC TRENDS- ATOMIC SIZE, IONIZATION ENERGY, AND METALLIC CHARACTER
10: CHEMICAL BONDING

How do atoms make compounds? Typically they join together in such a way that they lose their identities as elements and adopt a new
identity as a compound. These joins are called chemical bonds. But how do atoms join together? Ultimately, it all comes down to
electrons. Before we discuss how electrons interact, we need to introduce a tool to simply illustrate electrons in an atom.
10.1: BONDING MODELS AND AIDS DRUGS

10.2: REPRESENTING VALENCE ELECTRONS WITH DOTS
10.3: LEWIS STRUCTURES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS- ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED
10.4: COVALENT LEWIS STRUCTURES- ELECTRONS SHARED
10.5: WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR COVALENT COMPOUNDS
10.6: RESONANCE- EQUIVALENT LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR THE SAME MOLECULE
10.7: PREDICTING THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES
10.8: ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND POLARITY - WHY OIL AND WATER DON’T MIX
11: GASES
Gases have no definite shape or volume; they tend to fill whatever container they are in. They can compress and expand, sometimes to a
great extent. Gases have extremely low densities, one-thousandth or less the density of a liquid or solid. Combinations of gases tend to
mix together spontaneously; that is, they form solutions. Air, for example, is a solution of mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Any
understanding of the properties of gases must be able to explain these characteristics.
11.1: EXTRA-LONG STRAWS

11.2: KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY- A MODEL FOR GASES
11.3: PRESSURE- THE RESULT OF CONSTANT MOLECULAR COLLISIONS
11.4: BOYLE’S LAW- PRESSURE AND VOLUME
11.5: CHARLES’S LAW- VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE
11.6: GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW- TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
11.7: THE COMBINED GAS LAW- PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND TEMPERATURE
11.8: AVOGADRO’S LAW- VOLUME AND MOLES
11.9: THE IDEAL GAS LAW- PRESSURE, VOLUME, TEMPERATURE, AND MOLES
11.10: MIXTURES OF GASES- WHY DEEP-SEA DIVERS BREATHE A MIXTURE OF HELIUM AND OXYGEN
11.11: GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
12: LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

In Chapter 6, we discussed the properties of gases. Here, we consider some properties of liquids and solids. As a review, the Table
below lists some general properties of the three phases of matter.
12.1: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MOLECULES

12.2: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
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12.3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN ACTION- SURFACE TENSION AND VISCOSITY
12.4: EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
12.5: MELTING, FREEZING, AND SUBLIMATION
12.6: TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES- DISPERSION, DIPOLE–DIPOLE, HYDROGEN BONDING, AND ION-
DIPOLE
12.7: TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS- MOLECULAR, IONIC, AND ATOMIC
12.8: WATER- A REMARKABLE MOLECULE
13: SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture—a mixture of two or more substances that are so intimately mixed that the mixture behaves in
many ways like a single substance. Many chemical reactions occur when the reactants are dissolved in solution. In this chapter, we will
introduce concepts that are applicable to solutions and the chemical reactions that occur in them.
13.1: PRELUDE - TRAGEDY IN CAMEROON

13.2: SOLUTIONS- HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES
13.3: SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS DISSOLVED IN WATER- HOW TO MAKE ROCK CANDY
13.4: SOLUTIONS OF GASES IN WATER- HOW SODA POP GETS ITS FIZZ
13.5: SOLUTION CONCENTRATION- MASS PERCENT
13.6: SOLUTION CONCENTRATION- MOLARITY
13.7: SOLUTION DILUTION
13.8: SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
13.9: FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION AND BOILING POINT ELEVATION- MAKING WATER FREEZE COLDER AND
BOIL HOTTER
13.10: OSMOSIS- WHY DRINKING SALT WATER CAUSES DEHYDRATION
14: ACIDS AND BASES

Acids and bases are important classes of chemical compounds. They are part of the foods and beverages we ingest, they are present in
medicines and other consumer products, and they are prevalent in the world around us. In this chapter, we will focus on acids and bases
and their chemistry.
14.1: SOUR PATCH KIDS AND INTERNATIONAL SPY MOVIES

14.2: ACIDS- PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES
14.3: BASES- PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES
14.4: MOLECULAR DEFINITIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES
14.5: REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES
14.6: ACID–BASE TITRATION- A WAY TO QUANTIFY THE AMOUNT OF ACID OR BASE IN A SOLUTION
14.7: STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
14.8: WATER- ACID AND BASE IN ONE
14.9: THE PH AND POH SCALES- WAYS TO EXPRESS ACIDITY AND BASICITY
14.10: BUFFERS- SOLUTIONS THAT RESIST PH CHANGE
BACK MATTER
INDEX
INDEX
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: THE CHEMICAL WORLD
1.1: THE SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of matter and the ways in which different forms of matter combine with
each other. You study chemistry because it helps you to understand the world around you.
Everything you touch or taste or smell is a chemical, and the interactions of these chemicals with
each other define our universe. Chemistry forms the fundamental basis for biology and medicine.
From the structure of proteins and nucleic acids, to the design, synthesis and manufacture of drugs,
chemistry allows you
1.2: CHEMICALS COMPOSE ORDINARY THINGS

Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with the structure, composition, properties, and the
reactive characteristics of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Thus, chemistry is the study of literally
everything around us – the liquids that we drink, the gasses we breathe, the composition of everything from the plastic case on your
phone to the earth beneath your feet. Moreover, chemistry is the study of the transformation of matter.
1.3: HYPOTHESIS, THEORIES, AND LAWS

Although all of us have taken science classes throughout the course of our study, many people have incorrect or misleading ideas
about some of the most important and basic principles in science. We have all heard of hypotheses, theories, and laws, but what do
they really mean? Before you read this section, think about what you have learned about these terms before. What do these terms
mean to you? What do you read contradicts what you thought? What do you read supports what you thought?
1.4: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD- HOW CHEMISTS THINK

Science is a process of knowing about the natural universe through observation and experiment. Scientists go through a rigorous
process to determine new knowledge about the universe; this process is generally referred to as the scientific method. Science is
broken down into various fields, of which chemistry is one. Science, including chemistry, is both qualitative and quantitative.
1.5: A BEGINNING CHEMIST- HOW TO SUCCEED

Most people can succeed in chemistry, but it often requires dedication, hard work, the right attitude and study habits!
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1.1: The Scope of Chemistry
Learning Objectives
To recognize the breadth, depth, and scope of chemistry.
Define chemistry in relation to other sciences.
Identify the main disciplines of chemistry.
Chemistry is the study of matter—what it consists of, what its properties are, and how it changes. Matter is anything that has
mass and takes up space—that is, anything that is physically real. Some things are easily identified as matter—the screen on
which you are reading this book, for example. Others are not so obvious. Because we move so easily through air, we
sometimes forget that it, too, is matter. Because of this, chemistry is a science that has its fingers in just about everything.
Being able to describe the ingredients in a cake and how they change when the cake is baked, for example, is chemistry!
Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by observing, testing,
and then generating models that explain our observations. Because the physical universe is so vast, there are many different
branches of science (Figure 1.1.1). Thus, chemistry is the study of matter, biology is the study of living things, and geology is
the study of rocks and the earth. Mathematics is the language of science, and we will use it to communicate some of the ideas
of chemistry.
Figure 1.1.1 : The Relationships between Some of the Major Branches of Science. Chemistry lies more or less in the middle,
which emphasizes its importance to many branches of science.
Although we divide science into different fields, there is much overlap among them. For example, some biologists and
chemists work in both fields so much that their work is called biochemistry. Similarly, geology and chemistry overlap in the
field called geochemistry. Figure 1.1.1 shows how many of the individual fields of science are related. At some level, all of
these fields depend on matter because they all involve "stuff"; because of this, chemistry has been called the "central science",
linking them all together.
There are many other fields of science, in addition to the ones (biology, medicine,
etc.) listed here.
6/10/2020 1.1.1 https://chem.libretexts.org/link?97962

Example 1.1.1 : Science Fields
Which fields of study are branches of science? Explain.
a. sculpture
b. astronomy
Solution
a. Sculpture is not considered a science because it is not a study of some aspect of the natural universe.
b. Astronomy is the study of stars and planets, which are part of the natural universe. Astronomy is therefore a field of
science.
Exercise 1.1.1
Which fields of study are branches of science?
a. physiology (the study of the function of an animal’s or a plant’s body)
b. geophysics
c. agriculture
d. politics
Answer a:
yes
Answer b:
yes
Answer c:
yes
Answer d:
no
Areas of Chemistry
The study of modern chemistry has many branches, but can generally be broken down into five main disciplines, or areas of
study:
Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic properties, and phenomena in
chemical systems. A physical chemist may study such things as the rates of chemical reactions, the energy transfers that
occur in reactions, or the physical structure of materials at the molecular level.
Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon. Carbon is one of the most abundant
elements on Earth and is capable of forming a tremendously vast number of chemicals (over twenty million so far). Most
of the chemicals found in all living organisms are based on carbon.
Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemicals that, in general, are not primarily based on carbon.
Inorganic chemicals are commonly found in rocks and minerals. One current important area of inorganic chemistry deals
with the design and properties of materials involved in energy and information technology.
Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is the study of the composition of matter. It focuses on separating, identifying,
and quantifying chemicals in samples of matter. An analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an
unknown material in order to determine its various components.
Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in living things. Research may cover anything
from basic cellular processes up to understanding disease states so better treatments can be developed.

Figure 1.1.2 : (left) Measurement of trace metals using atomic spectroscopy.(right) Measuring hormone concentrations.
In practice, chemical research is often not limited to just one of the five major disciplines. A particular chemist may use
biochemistry to isolate a particular chemical found in the human body such as hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of
red blood cells. He or she may then proceed to analyze the hemoglobin using methods that would pertain to the areas of
physical or analytical chemistry. Many chemists specialize in areas that are combinations of the main disciplines, such as
bioinorganic chemistry or physical organic chemistry.
History of Chemistry
The history of chemistry is an interesting and challenging one. Very early chemists were often motivated mainly by the
achievement of a specific goal or product. Making perfume or soaps did not need a lot of theory, just a good recipe and
careful attention to detail. There was no standard way of naming materials (and no periodic table that we could all agree on). It
is often difficult to figure out exactly what a particular person was using. However, the science developed over the centuries by
trial and error.
Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert Boyle (1637 - 1691) began his research in
chemistry Figure 1.1.3. He developed the basic ideas about the behavior of gases. He could then describe gases
mathematically. Boyle also helped form the idea that small particles could combine to form molecules. Many years later, John
Dalton used these ideas to develop the atomic theory.
Figure 1.1.3 : Robert Boyle.

The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700's. Joseph Priestley (1733 - 1804) isolated and characterized several
gases: oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. It was later discovered that nitrous oxide ("laughing gas") worked as an
anesthetic. This gas was used for that purpose for the first time in 1844 during a tooth extraction. Other gases discovered
during that time were chlorine, by C.W. Scheele (1742 - 1786) and nitrogen, by Antoine Lavoisier (1743 - 1794). Lavoisier has
been considered by many scholars to be the "father of chemistry". Among other accomplishments, he discovered the role of
oxygen in combustion and definitively formulated the law of conservation of matter.
Chemists continued to discover new compounds in the 1800's. The science also began to develop a more theoretical
foundation. John Dalton (1766 - 1844) put forth his atomic theory in 1807. This idea allowed scientists to think about
chemistry in a much more systematic way. Amadeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856) laid the groundwork for a more quantitative
approach to chemistry by calculating the number of particles in a given amount of a gas. A lot of effort was put forth in
studying chemical reactions. These efforts led to new materials being produced. Following the invention of the battery by
Alessandro Volta (1745 - 1827), the field of electrochemistry (both theoretical and applications) developed through major
contributions by Humphry Davy (1778 - 1829) and Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867). Other areas of the discipline also
progressed rapidly.
It would take a large book to cover developments in chemistry during the twentieth century and up to today. One major area of
expansion was in the area of the chemistry of living processes. Research in photosynthesis in plants, the discovery and

characterization of enzymes as biochemical catalysts, elucidation of the structures of biomolecules such as insulin and DNA -
these efforts gave rise to an explosion of information in the field of biochemistry.
The practical aspects of chemistry were not ignored. The work of Volta, Davy, and Faraday eventually led to the development
of batteries that provided a source of electricity to power a number of devices (Figure 1.1.4).
Figure 1.1.4 : Battery developed by Volta. (CC BY-SA 3.0; (lef) GuidoB and(right) Kkkdc)
Charles Goodyear (1800 - 1860) discovered the process of vulcanization, allowing a stable rubber product to be produced for
the tires of all the vehicles we have today. Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) pioneered the use of heat sterilization to eliminate
unwanted microorganisms in wine and milk. Alfred Nobel (1833 - 1896) invented dynamite ( Figure 1.1.5). After his death,
the fortune he made from this product was used to fund the Nobel Prizes in science and the humanities. J.W. Hyatt (1837 -
1920) developed the first plastic. Leo Baekeland (1863 - 1944) developed the first synthetic resin, widely used for inexpensive
and sturdy dinnerware.
Figure 1.1.5 : Dynamite explosion in Panama, Central America (1908).

Today, chemistry continues to be essential to the development of new materials and technologies, from semiconductors for
electronics to powerful new medicines, and beyond.
Summary
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes and considers both macroscopic and microscopic
information.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
The five main disciplines of chemistry are physical chemistry, organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry
and biochemistry.
Many civilizations contributed to the growth of chemistry. A lot of early chemical research focused on practical uses. Basic
chemistry theories were developed during the nineteenth century. New materials and batteries are a few of the products of
modern chemistry.
Contributions & Attributions

This page was constructed from content via the following contributor(s) and edited (topically or extensively) by the LibreTexts
development team to meet platform style, presentation, and quality:
CK-12 Foundation by Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna Robinson, and Jean Dupon.
Marisa Alviar-Agnew (Sacramento City College)
Henry Agnew (UC Davis)

1.2: Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things
Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with the structure, composition, properties, and the reactive characteristics of
matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Thus, chemistry is the study of literally everything around us –
the liquids that we drink, the gasses we breathe, the composition of everything from the plastic case on your phone to the earth
beneath your feet. Moreover, chemistry is the study of the transformation of matter. Crude oil is transformed into more useful
petroleum products such as gasoline and kerosene by the process of refining. Some of these products are further transformed
into plastics. Crude metal ores are transformed into metals, that can then be fashioned into everything from foil to automobiles.
Potential drugs are identified from natural sources, isolated and then prepared in the laboratory. Their structures are
systematically modified to produce the pharmaceuticals that have led to vast advances in modern medicine. Chemistry is at the
center of all of these processes and chemists are the people that study the nature of matter and learn to design, predict and
control these chemical transformations. Within the branches of chemistry you will find several apparent subdivisions.
Inorganic chemistry, historically, focused on minerals and metals found in the earth, while organic chemistry dealt with
carbon-containing compounds that were first identified in living things. Biochemistry is an outgrowth of the application of
organic chemistry to biology and relates to the chemical basis for living things. In the later chapters of this text we will explore
organic and biochemistry in a bit more detail and you will notice examples of organic compounds scattered throughout the
text. Today, the lines between the various fields have blurred significantly and a contemporary chemist is expected to have a
broad background in all of these areas.
In this chapter we will discuss some of the properties of matter, how chemists measure those properties and we will introduce
some of the vocabulary that is used throughout chemistry and the other physical sciences.
Let’s begin with matter. Matter is defined as any substance that has mass. It’s important to distinguish here between weight
and mass. Weight is the result of the pull of gravity on an object. On the Moon, an object will weigh less than the same object
on Earth because the pull of gravity is less on the Moon. The mass of an object, however, is an inherent property of that object
and does not change, regardless of location, gravitational pull, or whatever. It is a property that is solely dependent on the
quantity of matter within the object.
Contemporary theories suggests that matter is composed of atoms. Atoms themselves are constructed from neutrons, protons
and electrons, along with an ever-increasing array of other subatomic particles. We will focus on the neutron, a particle having
no charge, the proton, which carries a positive charge, and the electron, which has a negative charge. Atoms are incredibly
small. To give you an idea of the size of an atom, a single copper penny contains approximately
28,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms (that’s 28 sextillion). Because atoms and subatomic particles are so small, their mass is
not readily measured using pounds, ounces, grams or any other scale that we would use on larger objects. Instead, the mass of
atoms and subatomic particles is measured using atomic mass units (abbreviated amu). The atomic mass unit is based on a
scale that relates the mass of different types of atoms to each other (using the most common form of the element carbon as a
standard). The amu scale gives us a convenient means to describe the masses of individual atoms and to do quantitative
measurements concerning atoms and their reactions. Within an atom, the neutron and proton both have a mass of one amu; the
electron has a much smaller mass (about 0.0005 amu).
Figure 1.2.1 : Atoms are incredible small. To give you an idea of the size of an atom, a single copper penny contains
approximately 28,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms (that’s 28 sextillion).
Atomic theory places the neutron and the proton in the center of the atom in the nucleus. In an atom, the nucleus is very small,
very dense, carries a positive charge (from the protons) and contains virtually all of the mass of the atom. Electrons are placed
in a diffuse cloud surrounding the nucleus. The electron cloud carries a net negative charge (from the charge on the electrons)
and in a neutral atom there are always as many electrons in this cloud as there are protons in the nucleus (the positive charges
in the nucleus are balanced by the negative charges of the electrons, making the atom neutral).

An atom is characterized by the number of neutrons, protons and electrons that it possesses. Today, we recognize at least 116
different types of atoms, each type having a different number of protons in its nucleus. These different types of atoms are
called elements. The neutral element hydrogen (the lightest element) will always have one proton in its nucleus and one
electron in the cloud surrounding the nucleus. The element helium will always have two protons in its nucleus. It is the number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom that defines the identity of an element. Elements can, however, have differing numbers of
neutrons in their nucleus. For example, stable helium nuclei exists that contain one, or two neutrons (but they all have two
protons). These different types of helium atoms have different masses (3 or 4 amu) and they are called isotopes. For any given
isotope, the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number. All elements exist as a
collection of isotopes, and the mass of an element that we use in chemistry, the atomic mass, is the average of the masses of
these isotopes. For helium, there is approximately one isotope of Helium-3 for every million isotopes of Helium-4, hence the
average atomic mass is very close to 4 (4.002602).
As different elements were discovered and named, abbreviations of their names were developed to allow for a convenient
chemical shorthand. The abbreviation for an element is called its chemical symbol. A chemical symbol consists of one or two
letters, and the relationship between the symbol and the name of the element is generally apparent. Thus helium has the
chemical symbol He, nitrogen is N, and lithium is Li. Sometimes the symbol is less apparent but is decipherable; magnesium
is Mg, strontium is Sr, and manganese is Mn. Symbols for elements that have been known since ancient times, however, are
often based on Latin or Greek names and appear somewhat obscure from their modern English names. For example, copper is
Cu (from cuprum), silver is Ag (from argentum), gold is Au (from aurum), and iron is (Fe from ferrum). Throughout your
study of chemistry, you will routinely use chemical symbols and it is important that you begin the process of learning the
names and chemical symbols for the common elements. By the time you complete General Chemistry, you will find that you
are adept at naming and identifying virtually all of the 116 known elements. Table 1.2.1 contains a starter list of common
elements that you should begin learning now!
Table 1.2.1 : Names and Chemical Symbols for Common Elements
Element Chemical Symbol Element Chemical Symbol
Hydrogen H Phosphorus P
Helium He Sulfur S
Lithium Li Chlorine Cl
Beryllium Be Argon Ar
Boron B Potassium K
Carbon C Calcium Ca
Nitrogen N Iron Fe
Oxygen O Copper Cu
Fluorine F Zinc Zn
Neon Ne Bromine Br
Sodium Na Silver Ag
Magnesium Mg Iodine I
Aluminum Al Gold Au
Silicon Si Lead Pb
The chemical symbol for an element is often combined with information regarding the number of protons and neutrons in a
particular isotope of that atom to give the atomic symbol. To write an atomic symbol, you begin with the chemical symbol,
then write the atomic number for the element (the number of protons in the nucleus) as a subscript, preceding the chemical
symbol. Directly above this, as a superscript, now write the mass number for the isotope, that is, the total number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus. Thus, for helium, the atomic number is 2 and there are two neutrons in the nucleus for the most
common isotope making the atomic symbol He. In the definition of the atomic mass unit, the “most common isotope of
4
2
carbon”, C, is defined as having a mass of exactly 12 amu and the atomic masses of the remaining elements are based on
12
6
their masses relative to this isotope. Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl) consists of two major isotopes, one with 18 neutrons (the
most common, comprising 75.77% of natural chlorine atoms) and one with 20 neutrons (the remaining 24.23%). The atomic

number of chlorine is 17 (it has 17 protons in its nucleus), therefore the chemical symbols for the two isotopes are 35
17
Cl and
Cl .
37
17
When data is available regarding the natural abundance of various isotopes of an element, it is simple to calculate the average
atomic mass. In the example above, Cl was the most common isotope with an abundance of 75.77% and Cl had an
35
17
37
17
abundance of the remaining 24.23%. To calculate the average mass, first convert the percentages into fractions; that is, simply
divide them by 100. Now, chlorine-35 represents a fraction of natural chlorine of 0.7577 and has a mass of 35 (the mass
number). Multiplying these, we get (0.7577 × 35) = 26.51. To this, we need to add the fraction representing chlorine-37, or
(0.2423 × 37) = 8.965; adding, (26.51 + 8.965) = 35.48, which is the weighted average atomic mass for chlorine. Whenever we
do mass calculations involving elements or compounds (combinations of elements), we always need to use average atomic
masses.

Paul R. Young, Professor of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Wiki: AskTheNerd; PRY askthenerd.com -
pyoung uic.edu; ChemistryOnline.com

1.3: Hypothesis, Theories, and Laws
Learning Objectives
Describe the difference between hypothesis and theory as scientific terms.
Describe the difference between a theory and scientific law.
Although all of us have taken science classes throughout the course of our study, many people have incorrect or misleading
ideas about some of the most important and basic principles in science. We have all heard of hypotheses, theories, and laws,
but what do they really mean? Before you read this section, think about what you have learned about these terms before. What
do these terms mean to you? What do you read contradicts what you thought? What do you read supports what you thought?
What is a Fact?
A fact is a basic statement establish by experiment or observation. All facts are true under the specific conditions of the
observation.
What is a Hypothesis?
One of the most common terms used in science classes is a "hypothesis". The word can have many different definitions,
depending on the context in which it is being used:
"An educated guess" - because it provides a suggested solution based on evidence to be a scientific hypothesis
Prediction - if you have ever carried out a science experiment, you probably made this type of hypothesis, in which you
predicted the outcome of your experiment.
Tentative or Proposed explanation - hypotheses can be suggestions about why something is observed, but in order for it to
be scientific, we must be able to test the explanation to see if it works, if it is able to correctly predict what will happen in a
situation, such as: if my hypothesis is correct, we should see ___ result when we perform ___ test.
A hypothesis is very tentative; it can be easily changed.
What is a Theory?
The United States National Academy of Sciences describes what a theory is as follows:
"Some scientific explanations are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them. The explanation
becomes a scientific theory. In everyday language a theory means a hunch or speculation. Not so in science. In science,
the word theory refers to a comprehensive explanation of an important feature of nature supported by facts gathered
over time. Theories also allow scientists to make predictions about as yet unobserved phenomena."
"A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that
have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation. Such fact-supported theories are not
"guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory." It is as
factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter (stating that everything is made of atoms) or the
germ theory of disease (which states that many diseases are caused by germs). Our understanding of gravity is still a
work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact."
Not some key features of theories that are important to understand from this description:
Theories are explanations of natural phenomenon. They aren't predictions (although we may use theories to make
predictions). They are explanations why we observe something.
Theories aren't likely to change. They have so much support and are able to explain satisfactorily so many observations,
that they are not likely to change. Theories can, indeed, be facts. Theories can change, but it is a long and difficult process.
In order for a theory to change, there must be many observations or evidence that the theory cannot explain.
Theories are not guesses. The phrase "just a theory" has no room in science. To be a scientific theory carries a lot of
weight; it is not just one person's idea about something
Theories aren't likely to change.

What is a Law?
Scientific laws are similar to scientific theories in that they are principles that can be used to predict the behavior of the natural
world. Both scientific laws and scientific theories are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence.
Usually scientific laws refer to rules for how nature will behave under certain conditions, frequently written as an equation.
Scientific theories are more overarching explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. As a
comparison, theories explain why we observe what we do and laws describe what happens.
For example, around the year 1800, Jacques Charles and other scientists were working with gases to, among other reasons,
improve the design of the hot air balloon. These scientists found, after many, many tests, that certain patterns existed in the
observations on gas behavior. If the temperature of the gas is increased, the volume of the gas increased. This is known as a
natural law. A law is a relationship that exists between variables in a group of data. Laws describe the patterns we see in large
amounts of data, but do not describe why the patterns exist.
What is a Belief?
A statement that is not scientifically provable. Beliefs may or may not be incorrect; they just are outside the realm of science
to explore.
Laws vs. Theories

A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific
laws when enough data and evidence has been accumulated. A theory does not change into a scientific law with the
accumulation of new or better evidence. Remember, theories are explanations and laws are patterns we see in large
amounts of data, frequently written as an equation. A theory will always remain a theory; a law will always remain a law.
Video 1.3.1 : What’s the difference between a scientific law and theory?
Summary
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that can be tested by further investigation.
A theory is a well-supported explanation of observations.
A scientific law is a statement that summarizes the relationship between variables.
An experiment is a controlled method of testing a hypothesis.


1.4: The Scientific Method- How Chemists Think
Learning Objectives
To identify the components of the scientific method
Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This
procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to
additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles (Figure 1.4.1).
Figure 1.4.1 : The Steps in the Scientific Method.
Step 1: Make observations

Observations can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do
not rely on numbers. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: the outside air temperature is cooler during
the winter season, table salt is a crystalline solid, sulfur crystals are yellow, and dissolving a penny in dilute nitric acid forms a
blue solution and a brown gas. Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number
and aunit. Examples of quantitative observations include the following: the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21°
Celsius, and 35.9 grams of table salt—whose chemical name is sodium chloride—dissolve in 100 grams of water at 20°
Celsius. For the question of the dinosaurs’ extinction, the initial observation was quantitative: iridium concentrations in
sediments dating to 66 million years ago were 20–160 times higher than normal.
Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis

After deciding to learn more about an observation or a set of observations, scientists generally begin an investigation by
forming a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for the observation(s). The hypothesis may not be correct, but it puts the
scientist’s understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested. For example, the observation that we
experience alternating periods of light and darkness corresponding to observed movements of the sun, moon, clouds, and
shadows is consistent with either of two hypotheses:
a. Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately exposing one side to the sun, or
b. the sun revolves around Earth every 24 hours.
Suitable experiments can be designed to choose between these two alternatives. For the disappearance of the dinosaurs, the
hypothesis was that the impact of a large extraterrestrial object caused their extinction. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately),
this hypothesis does not lend itself to direct testing by any obvious experiment, but scientists can collect additional data that
either support or refute it.

Step 3: Design and perform experiments
After a hypothesis has been formed, scientists conduct experiments to test its validity. Experiments are systematic observations
or measurements, preferably made under controlled conditions—that is, under conditions in which a single variable changes.
Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis

A properly designed and executed experiment enables a scientist to determine whether the original hypothesis is valid. In
which case he can proceed to step 5. In other cases, experiments often demonstrate that the hypothesis is incorrect or that it
must be modified thus requiring further experimentation.
Step 5: Development into a law and/or theory

More experimental data are then collected and analyzed, at which point a scientist may begin to think that the results are
sufficiently reproducible (i.e., dependable) to merit being summarized in a law, a verbal or mathematical description of a
phenomenon that allows for general predictions. A law simply says what happens; it does not address the question of why.
One example of a law, the law of definite proportions, which was discovered by the French scientist Joseph Proust (1754–
1826), states that a chemical substance always contains the same proportions of elements by mass. Thus, sodium chloride
(table salt) always contains the same proportion by mass of sodium to chlorine, in this case 39.34% sodium and 60.66%
chlorine by mass, and sucrose (table sugar) is always 42.11% carbon, 6.48% hydrogen, and 51.41% oxygen by mass.
Whereas a law states only what happens, a theory attempts to explain why nature behaves as it does. Laws are unlikely to
change greatly over time unless a major experimental error is discovered. In contrast, a theory, by definition, is incomplete and
imperfect, evolving with time to explain new facts as they are discovered.
Because scientists can enter the cycle shown in Figure 1.4.1 at any point, the actual application of the scientific method to
different topics can take many different forms. For example, a scientist may start with a hypothesis formed by reading about
work done by others in the field, rather than by making direct observations.
Example 1.4.1
Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, an observation.
a. Ice always floats on liquid water.
b. Birds evolved from dinosaurs.
c. Hot air is less dense than cold air, probably because the components of hot air are moving more rapidly.
d. When 10 g of ice were added to 100 mL of water at 25°C, the temperature of the water decreased to 15.5°C after the
ice melted.
e. The ingredients of Ivory soap were analyzed to see whether it really is 99.44% pure, as advertised.
Solution
a. This is a general statement of a relationship between the properties of liquid and solid water, so it is a law.
b. This is a possible explanation for the origin of birds, so it is a hypothesis.
c. This is a statement that tries to explain the relationship between the temperature and the density of air based on
fundamental principles, so it is a theory.
d. The temperature is measured before and after a change is made in a system, so these are observations.
e. This is an analysis designed to test a hypothesis (in this case, the manufacturer’s claim of purity), so it is an
experiment.
Exercise 1.4.1
Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative
observation.
a. Measured amounts of acid were added to a Rolaids tablet to see whether it really “consumes 47 times its weight in
excess stomach acid.”
b. Heat always flows from hot objects to cooler ones, not in the opposite direction.

c. The universe was formed by a massive explosion that propelled matter into a vacuum.
d. Michael Jordan is the greatest pure shooter ever to play professional basketball.
e. Limestone is relatively insoluble in water but dissolves readily in dilute acid with the evolution of a gas.
Answer a:
experiment
Answer b:
law
Answer c:
theory
Answer d:
hypothesis
Answer e:
observation
Summary
The scientific method is a method of investigation involving experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge,
solve problems, and answer questions. The key steps in the scientific method include the following:
Step 1: Make observations.
Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis.
Step 3: Test the hypothesis through experimentation.
Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis .
Step 5: Development into a law and/or a theory

Wikipedia

1.5: A Beginning Chemist- How to Succeed
Examples of the practical applications of chemistry are everywhere (Figure 1.5.1). Engineers need to understand the chemical
properties of the substances when designing biologically compatible implants for joint replacements or designing roads,
bridges, buildings, and nuclear reactors that do not collapse because of weakened structural materials such as steel and cement.
Archaeology and paleontology rely on chemical techniques to date bones and artifacts and identify their origins. Although law
is not normally considered a field related to chemistry, forensic scientists use chemical methods to analyze blood, fibers, and
other evidence as they investigate crimes. In particular, DNA matching—comparing biological samples of genetic material to
see whether they could have come from the same person—has been used to solve many high-profile criminal cases as well as
clear innocent people who have been wrongly accused or convicted. Forensics is a rapidly growing area of applied chemistry.
In addition, the proliferation of chemical and biochemical innovations in industry is producing rapid growth in the area of
patent law. Ultimately, the dispersal of information in all the fields in which chemistry plays a part requires experts who are
able to explain complex chemical issues to the public through television, print journalism, the Internet, and popular books.
Figure 1.5.1 : Chemistry in Everyday Life. Although most people do not recognize it, chemistry and chemical compounds are
crucial ingredients in almost everything we eat, wear, and use.
Hopefully at this point you are fully convinced of how important and useful the study of chemistry can be. You may, however,
still be wondering exactly what it is that a chemist does. Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter
undergoes. In general, chemists are interested in both characteristics that you can test and observe, like a chemical's smell or
color, and characteristics that are far too small to see, like what the oxygen you breathe in or the carbon dioxide you breath out
looks like under a microscope 1,000 times more powerful than any existing in the world today.
Wait a minute… how can a chemist know what oxygen and carbon dioxide look like under a microscope that doesn't even
exist? What happened to the scientific method? What happened to relying on observations and careful measurements? In fact,
because chemists can't see the underlying structure of different materials, they have to rely on the scientific method even
more! Chemists are a lot like detectives. Suppose a detective is trying to solve a murder case – what does she do? Obviously,
the detective starts by visiting the site of the crime and looking for evidence. If the murderer has left enough clues behind, the
detective can piece together a theory explaining what happened.
Even though the detective wasn't at the crime scene when the crime was committed and even though the detective didn't
actually see the murderer kill the victim, with the right evidence, the detective can be pretty sure he or she knows how it took
place. It's the same with chemistry. When chemists go into the laboratory, they collect evidence by making measurements.
Once they've collected enough clues from the properties that they can observe, they use that evidence to piece together a
theory explaining the properties that they can't observe – the properties that are too small to see.
What kinds of properties do chemists actually measure in the laboratory? Well, you can probably guess a few. Imagine that
you go to dinner at a friend's house and are served something that you don't recognize – what types of observations might you

make to determine exactly what you've been given? You might smell the food. You might note the color of the food. You
might try to decide whether the food is a liquid or a solid because if it's a liquid, it's probably soup or a drink. The temperature
of the food could be useful if you wanted to know whether or not you'd been served ice cream! You could also pick up a small
amount of food with your fork and try to figure out how much it weighs – a light dessert might be something like an angel
cake, while a heavy dessert is probably a pound cake. The quantity of food you've been given might be a clue too. Finally, you
might want to know something about the food's texture – is it hard and granular like sugar cubes, or soft and easy to spread,
like butter?
Believe it or not, the observations you are likely to make when trying to identify an unknown food are very similar to the
observations that a chemists makes when trying to learn about a new material. Chemists rely on smell, color, state (that is,
whether it is a solid, liquid or gas), temperature, volume, mass (which is related to weight, as you'll discover in a later section),
and texture. There is, however, one property you might use to learn about a food, but that you should definitely not use to learn
about a chemical - taste!
In the sections on the Atomic Theory, you'll see exactly how measurements of certain properties helped early scientists to
develop theories about the chemical structure of matter on a scale much smaller than they could ever hope to see. You’ll also
learn how these theories, in turn, allow us to make predictions about new materials that we haven't even created yet.
The video below gives you some important tips on how to study chemistry in this class. With practice, you too can learn to
think like a chemist, and you may even enjoy it!
Video 1.5.1 : How To Study Chemistry


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
2: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Chemistry, like all sciences, is quantitative. It deals with quantities, things that have amounts and
units. Dealing with quantities is very important in chemistry, as is relating quantities to each other. In
this chapter, we will discuss how we deal with numbers and units, including how they are combined
and manipulated.

Chemists measure the properties of matter and express these measurements as quantities. A
quantity is an amount of something and consists of a number and a unit. The number tells us how
many (or how much), and the unit tells us what the scale of measurement is. For example, when a
distance is reported as “5 kilometers,” we know that the quantity has been expressed in units of
kilometers and that the number of kilometers is 5.
2.2: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION- WRITING LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS

Chemists often work with numbers that are exceedingly large or small. For example, entering the mass in grams of a hydrogen atom
into a calculator requires a display with at least 24 decimal places. A system called scientific notation avoids much of the tedium and
awkwardness of manipulating numbers with large or small magnitudes.
2.3: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES- WRITING NUMBERS TO REFLECT PRECISION

Uncertainty exists in all measurements. The degree of uncertainty is affected in part by the quality of the measuring tool. Significant
figures give an indication of the certainty of a measurement. Rules allow decisions to be made about how many digits to use in any
given situation.
2.4: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS

To round a number, first decide how many significant figures the number should have. Once you know that, round to that many digits,
starting from the left. If the number immediately to the right of the last significant digit is less than 5, it is dropped and the value of
the last significant digit remains the same. If the number immediately to the right of the last significant digit is greater than or equal to
5, the last significant digit is increased by 1.
2.5: THE BASIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Metric prefixes derive from Latin or Greek terms. The prefixes are used to make the units manageable. The SI system is based on
multiples of ten. There are seven basic units in the SI system. Five of these units are commonly used in chemistry.
2.6: PROBLEM SOLVING AND UNIT CONVERSIONS

During your studies of chemistry (and physics also), you will note that mathematical equations are used in a number of different
applications. Many of these equations have a number of different variables with which you will need to work. You should also note
that these equations will often require you to use measurements with their units. Algebra skills become very important here!
2.7: SOLVING MULTISTEP CONVERSION PROBLEMS

Sometimes you will have to perform more than one conversion to obtain the desired unit.
2.8: UNITS RAISED TO A POWER

Conversion factors for area and volume can also be produced by the dimensional analysis method. Just remember that if a quantity is
raised to a power of 10 both the number and the unit must be raised to the same power of 10.
2.9: DENSITY
Density is a physical property found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume. Regardless of the sample size, density is always
constant.
2.10: NUMERICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES AND THE SOLUTION MAP

Chemists measure the properties of matter and express these measurements as quantities. A quantity is an amount of something and
consists of a number and a unit. The number tells us how many (or how much), and the unit tells us what the scale of measurement is.
For example, when a distance is reported as “5 kilometers,” we know that the quantity has been expressed in units of kilometers and
that the number of kilometers is 5.
2.E: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING (EXERCISES)

Exercises for Chapter 2 of Tro's Introductory Chemistry textmap.
1 6/21/2020
2 6/21/2020
2.1: Taking Measurements
Learning Objectives
To express quantities properly, using a number and a unit.
A coffee maker’s instructions tell you to fill the coffeepot with 4 cups of water and use 3 scoops of coffee. When you follow
these instructions, you are measuring. When you visit a doctor’s office, a nurse checks your temperature, height, weight, and
perhaps blood pressure (Figure 2.1.1); the nurse is also measuring.
Figure 2.1.1 : Measuring Blood Pressure. A nurse or a doctor measuring a patient’s blood pressure is taking a measurement.
Figure used with permission (GFDL; Pia von Lützau).
Chemists measure the properties of matter and express these measurements as quantities. A quantity is an amount of
something and consists of a number and a unit. The number tells us how many (or how much), and the unit tells us what the
scale of measurement is. For example, when a distance is reported as “5 kilometers,” we know that the quantity has been
expressed in units of kilometers and that the number of kilometers is 5. If you ask a friend how far he or she walks from home
to school, and the friend answers “12” without specifying a unit, you do not know whether your friend walks—for example, 12
miles, 12 kilometers, 12 furlongs, or 12 yards. Both a number and a unit must be included to express a quantity properly.
To understand chemistry, we need a clear understanding of the units chemists work with and the rules they follow for
expressing numbers. The next two sections examine the rules for expressing numbers.
Example 2.1.1
Identify the number and the unit in each quantity.
a. one dozen eggs
b. 2.54 centimeters
c. a box of pencils
d. 88 meters per second
SOLUTION
a. The number is one, and the unit is dozen eggs.
b. The number is 2.54, and the unit is centimeter.
c. The number 1 is implied because the quantity is only a box. The unit is box of pencils.
d. The number is 88, and the unit is meters per second. Note that in this case the unit is actually a combination of two
units: meters and seconds.
Key Take Away

Identify a quantity properly with a number and a unit.


2.2: Scientific Notation- Writing Large and Small Numbers
Learning Objectives
To express a large number or a small number in scientific notation.
To carry out arithmetical operations and express the final answer in scientific notation
Chemists often work with numbers that are exceedingly large or small. For example, entering the mass in grams of a hydrogen
atom into a calculator would require a display with at least 24 decimal places. A system called scientific notation avoids
much of the tedium and awkwardness of manipulating numbers with large or small magnitudes. In scientific notation, these
numbers are expressed in the form
n
N × 10 (2.2.1)
0
where N is greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 (1 ≤ N < 10), and n is a positive or negative integer (10 = 1). The
number 10 is called the base because it is this number that is raised to the power n . Although a base number may have values
other than 10, the base number in scientific notation is always 10.
A simple way to convert numbers to scientific notation is to move the decimal point as many places to the left or right as
needed to give a number from 1 to 10 (N). The magnitude of n is then determined as follows:
If the decimal point is moved to the left n places, n is positive.
If the decimal point is moved to the right n places, n is negative.
Another way to remember this is to recognize that as the number N decreases in magnitude, the exponent increases and vice
versa. The application of this rule is illustrated in Example 2.2.1.
Example 2.2.1 : Expressing Numbers in Scientific Notation

Convert each number to scientific notation.
a. 637.8
b. 0.0479
c. 7.86
d. 12,378
e. 0.00032
f. 61.06700
g. 2002.080
h. 0.01020
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
To convert 637.8 to a number from 1 to 10,

we move the decimal point two places to the
a left: 637.8 6.378 × 10
2
Because the decimal point was moved two

places to the left, n = 2.
To convert 0.0479 to a number from 1 to 10,
we move the decimal point two places to the
b right: 0.0479 4.79 × 10
−2

places to the right, n = −2.
This is usually expressed simply as 7.86.
c 7.86 × 10
0
(Recall that 100 = 1.)

Because the decimal point was moved four
d 1.2378 × 10
4

Explanation Answer
Because the decimal point was moved four

e 3.2 × 10
−4
places to the right, n = −4.

Because the decimal point was moved one
f 6.106700 × 10
1
place to the left, n = 1.

Because the decimal point was moved three
g 2.002080 × 10
3

h 1.020 × 10
−2
places to the right, n = -2.
Addition and Subtraction

Before numbers expressed in scientific notation can be added or subtracted, they must be converted to a form in which all the
exponents have the same value. The appropriate operation is then carried out on the values of N. Example 2.2.2 illustrates how
to do this.
Example 2.2.2 : Expressing Sums and Differences in Scientific Notation

Carry out the appropriate operation and then express the answer in scientific notation.
a. 2
(1.36 × 10 ) + (4.73 × 10 )
3
b. (6.923 × 10
−3
) − (8.756 × 10
−4
)
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
Both exponents must have the same value, so

these numbers are converted to either
2 2 2 2
(1.36 × 10 ) + (47.3 × 10 ) = (1.36 + 47.3) × 10 = 48.66 × 10
or
3 3 3 3
(0.136 × 10 ) + (4.73 × 10 ) = (0.136 + 4.73) × 10 ) = 4.87 × 10
3
a . 4.87 × 10
Choosing either alternative gives the same

answer, reported to two decimal places:
In converting 48.66 × 102 to scientific
notation, n has become more positive by 1
because the value of N has decreased.
Converting the exponents to the same value
gives either
−3 −3 −3
(6.923 × 10 ) − (0.8756 × 10 ) = (6.923 − 0.8756) × 10
or
b (69.23 × 10
−4
) − (8.756 × 10
−4
) = (69.23 − 8.756) × 10
6.047
−4 × 10
= 60.474 × 10
−4
−3
.
In converting 60.474 × 10-4 to scientific
Multiplication and Division

When multiplying numbers expressed in scientific notation, we multiply the values of N and add together the values of n .
Conversely, when dividing, we divide N in the dividend (the number being divided) by N in the divisor (the number by which
we are dividing) and then subtract n in the divisor from n in the dividend. In contrast to addition and subtraction, the exponents

do not have to be the same in multiplication and division. Examples of problems involving multiplication and division are
shown in Example 2.2.3.
Example 2.2.3 : Expressing Products and Quotients in Scientific Notation

Perform the appropriate operation and express your answer in scientific notation.
a. [(6.022 × 10
23
)(6.42 × 10
−2
)
−24
1.67 × 10
b. −28
9.12 × 10
−34
(6.63 × 10 )(6.0 × 10)
c. −2
8.52 × 10
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
In multiplication, we add the exponents:

23 −2 [23+(−2)] 21
(6.022 × 10 )(6.42 × 10 ) = (6.022)(6.42) × 10 = 38.7 × 10
a 3.87 × 10
22

21

In division, we subtract the exponents:

−24
1.67 × 10 1.67
[−24−(−28)] 4
= × 10 = 0.183 × 10
−28 9.12
9.12 × 10
b 1.83 × 10
3

4
notation, n has become more negative by 1

because the value of N has increased.
This problem has both multiplication and
division:
c −34 4.7 × 10
−31
(6.63 × 10 )(6.0 × 10) 39.78

[−34+1−(−2)]
= × 10
−2
(8.52 × 10 ) 8.52


2.3: Significant Figures- Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision
Learning Objectives
Identify the number of significant figures in a reported value.
The significant figures in a measurement consist of all the certain digits in that measurement plus one uncertain or estimated
digit. In the ruler illustration below, the bottom ruler gave a length with 2 significant figures, while the top ruler gave a length
with 3 significant figures. In a correctly reported measurement, the final digit is significant but not certain. Insignificant digits
are not reported. With either ruler, it would not be possible to report the length at 2.553 cm as there is no possible way that the
thousandths digit could be estimated. The 3 is not significant and would not be reported.
Figure 2.3.1 : Measurement with two different rulers.
Measurement Uncertainty
Some error or uncertainty always exists in any measurement. The amount of uncertainty depends both upon the skill of the
measurer and upon the quality of the measuring tool. While some balances are capable of measuring masses only to the nearest
0.1 g, other highly sensitive balances are capable of measuring to the nearest 0.001 g or even better. Many measuring tools
such as rulers and graduated cylinders have small lines which need to be carefully read in order to make a measurement.
Figure 2.3.1 shows two rulers making the same measurement of an object (indicated by the blue arrow).
With either ruler, it is clear that the length of the object is between 2 and 3 cm. The bottom ruler contains no millimeter
markings. With that ruler, the tenths digit can be estimated and the length may be reported as 2.5 cm. However, another person
may judge that the measurement is 2.4 cm or perhaps 2.6 cm. While the 2 is known for certain, the value of the tenths digit is
uncertain.
The top ruler contains marks for tenths of a centimeter (millimeters). Now the same object may be measured as 2.55 cm. The
measurer is capable of estimating the hundredths digit because he can be certain that the tenths digit is a 5. Again, another
measurer may report the length to be 2.54 cm or 2.56 cm. In this case, there are two certain digits (the 2 and the 5), with the
hundredths digit being uncertain. Clearly, the top ruler is a superior ruler for measuring lengths as precisely as possible.
Example 2.3.1 : Reporting Measurements to the Proper number of Significant Figures

Use each diagram to report a measurement to the proper number of significant figures.
a.

b.
Solutions
Explanation Answer
The arrow is between 4.0 and 5.0, so the

measurement is at least 4.0. The arrow is
between the third and fourth small tick
marks, so it’s at least 0.3. We will have to
estimate the last place. It looks like about
a. one-third of the way across the space, so let 4.33 psi
us estimate the hundredths place as 3. The
symbol psi stands for “pounds per square
inch” and is a unit of pressure, like air in a
tire). The measurement is reported to three
significant figures.
The rectangle is at least 1.0 cm wide but
certainly not 2.0 cm wide, so the first
significant digit is 1. The rectangle’s width is
past the second tick mark but not the third; if
each tick mark represents 0.1, then the
rectangle is at least 0.2 in the next significant
b. digit. We have to estimate the next place 1.25 cm
because there are no markings to guide us. It
appears to be about halfway between 0.2 and
0.3, so we will estimate the next place to be a
5. Thus, the measured width of the rectangle
is 1.25 cm. The measurement is reported to
three significant figures.
Exercise 2.3.1
What would be the reported width of this rectangle?
Answer
1.25 cm
When you look at a reported measurement, it is necessary to be able to count the number of significant figures. The table
below details the rules for determining the number of significant figures in a reported measurement. For the examples in the
table, assume that the quantities are correctly reported values of a measured quantity.

Table 2.3.1 : Significant Figure Rules
Rule Examples
237 has three significant figures.

1. All nonzero digits in a measurement are significant. 1.897 has four significant figures.
2. Zeros that appear between other nonzero digits (middle zeros) are 39,004 has five significant figures.
always significant. 5.02 has three significant figures.
3. Zeros that appear in front of all of the nonzero digits are called 0.008 has one significant figure.
leading zeros. Leading zeros are never significant. 0.000416 has three significant figures.
4. Zeros that appear after all nonzero digits are called trailing zeros. A 1400 is ambiguous.
number with trailing zeros that lacks a decimal point may or may not be 1.4 × 10 has two significant figures.
3
significant. Use scientific notation to indicate the appropriate 1.40 × 10 three significant figures.
3
number of significant figures. 1.400 × 10 has four significant figures.

3
5. Trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant. This 620.0 has four significant figures.
is true whether the zeros occur before or after the decimal point. 19.000 has five significant figures.
Exact Numbers
Integers obtained either by counting objects or from definitions are exact numbers, which are considered to have infinitely
many significant figures. If we have counted four objects, for example, then the number 4 has an infinite number of significant
figures (i.e., it represents 4.000…). Similarly, 1 foot (ft) is defined to contain 12 inches (in), so the number 12 in the following
equation has infinitely many significant figures:
Example 2.3.2
Give the number of significant figures in each. Identify the rule for each.
a. 5.87
b. 0.031
c. 52.90
d. 00.2001
e. 500
f. 6 atoms
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
a. All three numbers are significant (rule 1). 5.87 , three significant figures
b. The leading zeros are not significant (rule 3). The 3 and the 1 are
0.031, two significant figures
significant (rule 1)
c. The 5, the 2 and the 9 are significant (rule 1). The trailing zero is
52.90, four significant figures
also significant (rule 5).
d. The leading zeros are not significant (rule 3). The 2 and the 1 are
00.2001, four significant figures
significant (rule 1) and the middle zeros are also significant (rule 2).
e. The number is ambiguous. It could have one, two or three
500, ambiguous
significant figures.

Explanation Answer
f. The 6 is a counting number. A counting number is an exact

6, infinite
number.
Exercise 2.3.2
Give the number of significant figures in each.
a. 36.7 m
b. 0.006606 s
c. 2,002 kg
d. 306,490,000 people
e. 3,800 g
Answer a:
Answer b:
four significant figures.
Answer c:
four significant figures.
Answer d:
Infinite (Exact number)
Answer e:
Ambiguous, could be two, three or four significant figure.
Accuracy and Precision

Measurements may be accurate, meaning that the measured value is the same as the true value; they may be precise, meaning
that multiple measurements give nearly identical values (i.e., reproducible results); they may be both accurate and precise; or
they may be neither accurate nor precise. The goal of scientists is to obtain measured values that are both accurate and precise.
The video below demonstrate the concepts accuracy and precision.
Video 2.3.1: Difference between precision and accuracy.
Example 2.3.3
The following archery targets show marks that represent the results of four sets of measurements.

Which target shows
a. a precise, but inaccurate set of measurements?
b. a set of measurements that is both precise and accurate?
c. a set of measurements that is neither precise nor accurate?
SOLUTION
a. Set a is a precise, but inaccurate
b. Set c is both precise and accurate
c. Set d is neither precise nor accurate
Summary
Uncertainty exists in all measurements. The degree of uncertainty is affected in part by the quality of the measuring tool.
Significant figures give an indication of the certainty of a measurement. Rules allow decisions to be made about how many
digits to use in any given situation.

Sridhar Budhi

2.4: Significant Figures in Calculations
Learning Objectives
Use significant figures correctly in arithmetical operations.
Rounding
Before dealing with the specifics of the rules for determining the significant figures in a calculated result, we need to be able to
round numbers correctly. To round a number, first decide how many significant figures the number should have. Once you
know that, round to that many digits, starting from the left. If the number immediately to the right of the last significant digit is
less than 5, it is dropped and the value of the last significant digit remains the same. If the number immediately to the right of
the last significant digit is greater than or equal to 5, the last significant digit is increased by 1.
Consider the measurement 207.518 m. Right now, the measurement contains six significant figures. How would we
successively round it to fewer and fewer significant figures? Follow the process as outlined in Table 2.4.1.
Table 2.4.1 : Rounding examples
Number of Significant Figures Rounded Value Reasoning
6 207.518 All digits are significant
5 207.52 8 rounds the 1 up to 2

4 207.5 2 is dropped
3 208 5 rounds the 7 up to 8
2 210 8 is replaced by a 0 and rounds the 0 up to 1
1 200 1 is replaced by a 0
Notice that the more rounding that is done, the less reliable the figure is. An approximate value may be sufficient for some
purposes, but scientific work requires a much higher level of detail.
It is important to be aware of significant figures when you are mathematically manipulating numbers. For example, dividing
125 by 307 on a calculator gives 0.4071661238… to an infinite number of digits. But do the digits in this answer have any
practical meaning, especially when you are starting with numbers that have only three significant figures each? When
performing mathematical operations, there are two rules for limiting the number of significant figures in an answer—one rule
is for addition and subtraction, and one rule is for multiplication and division.
In operations involving significant figures, the answer is reported in such a way that
it reflects the reliability of the least precise operation. An answer is no more precise
than the least precise number used to get the answer.
Multiplication and Division

For multiplication or division, the rule is to count the number of significant figures in each number being multiplied or divided
and then limit the significant figures in the answer to the lowest count. An example is as follows:
The final answer, limited to four significant figures, is 4,094. The first digit dropped is 1, so we do not round up.
Scientific notation provides a way of communicating significant figures without ambiguity. You simply include all the
significant figures in the leading number. For example, the number 450 has two significant figures and would be written in
scientific notation as 4.5 × 102, whereas 450.0 has four significant figures and would be written as 4.500 × 102. In scientific
notation, all significant figures are listed explicitly.

Example 2.4.1
Write the answer for each expression using scientific notation with the appropriate number of significant figures.
a. 23.096 × 90.300
b. 125 × 9.000
SOLUTIONS
Explanation Answer
The calculator answer is 2,085.5688, but we

need to round it to five significant figures.
a Because the first digit to be dropped (in the 2.0856 × 10
3
tenths place) is greater than 5, we round up

to 2,085.6.
The calculator gives 1,125 as the answer, but
b 1.13 × 10
3
we limit it to three significant figures.
Addition and Subtraction

How are significant figures handled in calculations? It depends on what type of calculation is being performed. If the
calculation is an addition or a subtraction, the rule is as follows: limit the reported answer to the rightmost column that all
numbers have significant figures in common. For example, if you were to add 1.2 and 4.71, we note that the first number stops
its significant figures in the tenths column, while the second number stops its significant figures in the hundredths column. We
therefore limit our answer to the tenths column.
We drop the last digit—the 1—because it is not significant to the final answer.
The dropping of positions in sums and differences brings up the topic of rounding. Although there are several conventions, in
this text we will adopt the following rule: the final answer should be rounded up if the first dropped digit is 5 or greater and
rounded down if the first dropped digit is less than 5.
Example 2.4.2
a. 13.77 + 908.226
b. 1,027 + 611 + 363.06
SOLUTIONS
Explanation Answer

Explanation Answer
The calculator answer is 921.996, but

because 13.77 has its farthest-right
significant figure in the hundredths place we
a need to round the final answer to the 922.00 = 9.2200 × 10
2
hundredths position. Because the first digit to

be dropped (in the thousandths place) is
greater than 5, we round up to 922.00
The calculator gives 2,001.06 as the answer,
but because 611 and 1027 has its farthest-
b right significant figure in the ones place, the 2, 001.06 = 2.001 × 10
3
final answer must be limited to the ones

position.
Exercise 2.4.1
a. 217 ÷ 903
b. 13.77 + 908.226 + 515
c. 255.0 − 99
d. 0.00666 × 321
Answer a:
−1
0.240 = 2.40 × 10
Answer b:
3
1, 437 = 1.437 × 10
Answer c:
2
156 = 1.56 × 10
Answer d:
0
2.14 = 2.14 × 10
Remember that calculators do not understand significant figures. You are the one who must apply the rules of significant
figures to a result from your calculator.
Calculations Involving Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction

In practice, chemists generally work with a calculator and carry all digits forward through subsequent calculations. When
working on paper, however, we often want to minimize the number of digits we have to write out. Because successive
rounding can compound inaccuracies, intermediate roundings need to be handled correctly. When working on paper, always
round an intermediate result so as to retain at least one more digit than can be justified and carry this number into the next step
in the calculation. The final answer is then rounded to the correct number of significant figures at the very end.

Video 2.4.1 : Significant figures in mixed operations (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBntMndXQWA).
Video 2.4.2 : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__csP0NtlGI

In the worked examples in this text, we will often show the results of intermediate steps in a calculation. In doing so, we will
show the results to only the correct number of significant figures allowed for that step, in effect treating each step as a separate
calculation. This procedure is intended to reinforce the rules for determining the number of significant figures, but in some
cases it may give a final answer that differs in the last digit from that obtained using a calculator, where all digits are carried
through to the last step.
Example 2.4.3
Complete the calculations and report your answers using the correct number of significant figures.
a. 2(1.008g) + 15.99 g
b. 137.3 s + 2(35.45 s)
118.7g
c. − 35.5g
2
SOLUTIONS
Explanation Answer

Explanation Answer
2(1.008g) + 15.99 g =
Perform multiplication first.
2 (1.008g 4 sig figs) = 2.016 g 4 sig figs
The number with the least number of
significant figures is 1.008g; the number 2 is
an exact number and therefore has infinite
number of significant figures.
a Then, perform the addition. 18.01 g (rounding up)
2.016 g thousandths place + 15.99 g

hundredths place (least precise) = 18.006 g
Round the final answer.
Round the final answer to the hundredths
place since 15.99 has its farthest right
significant figure in the hundredths place
(least precise).
137.3 s + 2 (35.45 s) =
Perform multiplication first.
2 (35.45 s 4 sig figs) = 70.90 s 4 sig figs
significant figures is 35.45; the number 2 is
b number of significant figures. 208.2 s
Then, perform the addition.
137.3 s tenths place (least precise) + 70.90 s
hundredths place = 208.20 s
Round the final answer to the tenths place
based on 137.3 s.
118.7g
2
− 35.5g =
Perform division first.
118.7g
2
4 sig figs = 59.35 g 4 sig figs

significant figures is 118.7g; the number 2 is
c number of significant figures. 23.9 g (rounding up)
Perform subtraction next.
59.35 g hundredths place − 35.5 g tenths
place (least precise) = 23.85 g
Round the final answer to the tenths place
based on 35.5 g.
Exercise 2.4.2
Complete the calculations and report your answers using the correct number of significant figures.
a. 5(1.008s) - 10.66 s
b. 99.0 cm+ 2(5.56 cm)

Answer a
-5.62 s
Answer b
110.2 cm
Summary
Rounding
If the number to be dropped is greater than or equal to 5, increase the number to its left by 1. e.g. 2.9699 rounded to
three significant figures is 2.97
If the number to be dropped is less than 5, there is no change. e.g. 4.00443 rounded to four sig. figs. is 4.004
The rule in multiplication and division is that the final answer should have the same number of significant figures as there
are in the number with the fewest significant figures.
The rule in addition and subtraction is that the answer is given the same number of decimal places as the term with the
fewest decimal places.


2.5: The Basic Units of Measurement
Learning Objectives
State the different measurement systems used in chemistry.
Describe how prefixes are used in the metric system and identify how the prefixes milli-, centi-, and kilo- compare to
the base unit.
How long is a yard? It depends on whom you ask and when you asked the question. Today we have a standard definition of the
yard, which you can see marked on every football field. If you move the ball ten yards, you get a first down and it doesn't
matter whether you are playing in Los Angeles, Dallas, or Green Bay. But at one time that yard was arbitrarily defined as the
distance from the tip of the king's nose to the end of his outstretched hand. Of course, the problem there is simple: new king,
new distance (and then you have to remark all those football fields).
Figure 2.5.1 : Meter standard (left) and Kilogram standard (right).
SI Base Units
All measurements depend on the use of units that are well known and understood. The English system of measurement units
(inches, feet, ounces, etc.) are not used in science because of the difficulty in converting from one unit to another. The metric
system is used because all metric units are based on multiples of 10, making conversions very simple. The metric system was
originally established in France in 1795. The International System of Units is a system of measurement based on the metric
system. The acronym SI is commonly used to refer to this system and stands for the French term, Le Système International
d'Unités. The SI was adopted by international agreement in 1960 and is composed of seven base units in Table 2.5.1.
Table 2.5.1 : SI Base Units of Measurement
Quantity SI Base Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Temperature kelvin K
Time second s
Amount of a Substance mole mol
Electric Current ampere A
Luminous Intensity candela cd
The first units are frequently encountered in chemistry. All other measurement quantities, such as volume, force, and energy,
can be derived from these seven base units.
Unfortunately, The Metric System is Not Ubiquitous

The map below shows the adoption of the SI units in countries around the world. The United States has legally adopted
the metric system for measurements, but does not use it in everyday practice. Great Britain and much of Canada use a
combination of metric and imperial units.

Areas of world using metric system (in green). Only a few countries are slow or resistant to adoption including the United
States.
Prefix Multipliers
Conversions between metric system units are straightforward because the system is based on powers of ten. For example,
meters, centimeters, and millimeters are all metric units of length. There are 10 millimeters in 1 centimeter and 100
centimeters in 1 meter. Metric prefixes are used to distinguish between units of different size. These prefixes all derive from
either Latin or Greek terms. For example, mega comes from the Greek word μεγας , meaning "great". Table 2.5.2 lists the
most common metric prefixes and their relationship to the central unit that has no prefix. Length is used as an example to
demonstrate the relative size of each prefixed unit.
Table 2.5.2 : SI Prefixes
Prefix Unit Abbreviation Meaning Example
giga G 1,000,000,000 1 gigameter (Gm) = 10 9

m
mega M 1,000,000 1 megameter (Mm) = 10 6

m
kilo k 1,000 1 kilometer (km) = 1, 000 m

hecto h 100 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 m
deka da 10 1 dekameter (dam) = 10 m
1 1 meter (m)
deci d 1/10 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m
centi c 1/100 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m
milli m 1/1,000 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m
micro μ 1/1,000,000 1 micrometer (μm) = 10 −6
m
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 1 nanometer (nm) = 10 −9

m
pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 1 picometer (pm) = 10 −12

m
There are a couple of odd little practices with the use of metric abbreviations. Most abbreviations are lowercase. We use "m"
for meter and not "M ". However, when it comes to volume, the base unit "liter" is abbreviated as "L" and not "l". So we would
write 3.5 milliliters as 3.5 mL.
As a practical matter, whenever possible you should express the units in a small and manageable number. If you are measuring
the weight of a material that weighs 6.5 kg, this is easier than saying it weighs 6500 g or 0.65 dag. All three are correct, but
the kg units in this case make for a small and easily managed number. However, if a specific problem needs grams instead of
kilograms, go with the grams for consistency.
Example 2 5 1 : Unit Abbreviations

Example 2.5.1 : Unit Abbreviations
Give the abbreviation for each unit and define the abbreviation in terms of the base unit.
a. kiloliter
b. microsecond
c. decimeter
d. nanogram
SOLUTIONS
Explanation Answer
The prefix kilo means “1,000 ×,” so 1 kL

a kL
equals 1,000 L
The prefix micro implies 1/1,000,000th of a
b µs
unit, so 1 µs equals 0.000001 s.
The prefix deci means 1/10th, so 1 dm equals
c dm
0.1 m.
The prefix nano means 1/1000000000, so a
d ng
nanogram is equal to 0.000000001 g
Exercise 2.5.1
Give the abbreviation for each unit and define the abbreviation in terms of the base unit.
a. kilometer
b. milligram
c. nanosecond
d. centiliter
Answer a:
km
Answer b:
mg
Answer c:
ns
Answer d:
cL
Summary
Metric prefixes derive from Latin or Greek terms. The prefixes are used to make the units manageable.
The SI system is based on multiples of ten. There are seven basic units in the SI system. Five of these units are commonly
used in chemistry.


2.6: Problem Solving and Unit Conversions
Learning Objectives
To convert a value reported in one unit to a corresponding value in a different unit using conversion factors.
During your studies of chemistry (and physics also), you will note that mathematical equations are used in many different
applications. Many of these equations have a number of different variables with which you will need to work. You should also
note that these equations will often require you to use measurements with their units. Algebra skills become very important
here!
Converting Between Units with Conversion Factors

A conversion factor is a factor used to convert one unit of measurement into another. A simple conversion factor can be used
to convert meters into centimeters, or a more complex one can be used to convert miles per hour into meters per second. Since
most calculations require measurements to be in certain units, you will find many uses for conversion factors. What always
must be remembered is that a conversion factor has to represent a fact; this fact can either be simple or much more complex.
For instance, you already know that 12 eggs equal 1 dozen. A more complex fact is that the speed of light is 1.86 × 10 miles/ 5
sec. Either one of these can be used as a conversion factor depending on what type of calculation you might be working with
(Table 2.6.1).
Table 2.6.1 : Conversion Factors from SI units to English Units
English Units Metric Units Quantity
1 ounce (oz) 28.35 grams (g) *mass
1 fluid once (oz) 29.6 mL volume

2.205 pounds (lb) 1 kilogram (kg) *mass
1 inch (in) 2.54 centimeters (cm) length
0.6214 miles (mi) 1 kilometer (km) length
1 quarter (qt) 0.95 liters (L) volume
*pounds and ounces are technically units of force, not mass, but this fact is often ignored by the non-scientific community.
Of course, there are other ratios which are not listed in Table 2.6.1. They may include:
Ratios embedded in the text of the problem (using words such as per or in each, or using symbols such as / or %).
Conversions in the metric system, as covered earlier in this chapter.
Common knowledge ratios (such as 60 seconds = 1 minute).
If you learned the SI units and prefixes described, then you know that 1 cm is 1/100th of a meter.
1 −2
1 cm = m = 10 m (2.6.1)
100
or
100 cm = 1 m (2.6.2)
Suppose we divide both sides of the equation by 1m (both the number and the unit):
100 cm 1 m
= (2.6.3)
1 m 1 m
As long as we perform the same operation on both sides of the equals sign, the expression remains an equality. Look at the
right side of the equation; it now has the same quantity in the numerator (the top) as it has in the denominator (the bottom).
Any fraction that has the same quantity in the numerator and the denominator has a value of 1:

6
100 cm 1000 mm 1 × 10 μm
= = =1 (2.6.4)
1 m 1 m 1 m
We know that 100 cm is 1 m, so we have the same quantity on the top and the bottom of our fraction, although it is expressed
in different units.
Performing Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is amongst the most valuable tools physical scientists use. Simply put, it is the conversion between an
amount in one unit to the corresponding amount in a desired unit using various conversion factors. This is valuable because
certain measurements are more accurate or easier to find than others. The use of units in a calculation to ensure that we obtain
the final proper units is called dimensional analysis.
Here is a simple example. How many centimeters are there in 3.55 m? Perhaps you can determine the answer in your head. If
there are 100 cm in every meter, then 3.55 m equals 355 cm. To solve the problem more formally with a conversion factor, we
first write the quantity we are given, 3.55 m. Then we multiply this quantity by a conversion factor, which is the same as
multiplying it by 1. We can write 1 as 100 cm
1 m
and multiply:
100 cm
3.55 m × (2.6.5)
1 m
The 3.55 m can be thought of as a fraction with a 1 in the denominator. Because m, the abbreviation for meters, occurs in both
the numerator and the denominator of our expression, they cancel out:
3.55 m 100 cm
× (2.6.6)
1 1 m
The final step is to perform the calculation that remains once the units have been canceled:
3.55 100 cm
× = 355 cm (2.6.7)
1 1
In the final answer, we omit the 1 in the denominator. Thus, by a more formal procedure, we find that 3.55 m equals 355 cm. A
generalized description of this process is as follows:
quantity (in old units) × conversion factor = quantity (in new units)
You may be wondering why we use a seemingly complicated procedure for a straightforward conversion. In later studies, the
conversion problems you will encounter will not always be so simple. If you can master the technique of applying conversion
factors, you will be able to solve a large variety of problems.
In the previous example, we used the fraction 100 cm
1 m
as a conversion factor. Does the conversion factor also equal 1?
1 m
100 cm
Yes, it does; it has the same quantity in the numerator as in the denominator (except that they are expressed in different units).
Why did we not use that conversion factor? If we had used the second conversion factor, the original unit would not have
canceled, and the result would have been meaningless. Here is what we would have gotten:
2
1 m m
3.55 m × = 0.0355 (2.6.8)
100 cm cm
For the answer to be meaningful, we have to construct the conversion factor in a form that causes the original unit to cancel
out. Figure 2.6.1 shows a concept map for constructing a proper conversion.

Figure 2.6.1 : A Concept Map for Conversions. This is how you construct a conversion factor to convert from one unit to
another.
The general steps in performing dimensional analysis
1. Identify the "given" information in the problem. Look for a number with units to start this problem with.
2. What is the problem asking you to "find"? In other words, what unit will your answer have?
3. Use ratios and conversion factors to cancel out the units that aren't part of your answer, and leave you with units that
are part of your answer.
4. When your units cancel out correctly, you are ready to do the math. You are multiplying fractions, so you multiply the
top numbers and divide by the bottom numbers in the fractions.
Significant Figures in Conversions

How do conversion factors affect the determination of significant figures?
Numbers in conversion factors based on prefix changes, such as kilograms to grams, are not considered in the
determination of significant figures in a calculation because the numbers in such conversion factors are exact.
Exact numbers are defined or counted numbers, not measured numbers, and can be considered as having an infinite number
of significant figures. (In other words, 1 kg is exactly 1,000 g, by the definition of kilo-.)
Counted numbers are also exact. If there are 16 students in a classroom, the number 16 is exact.
In contrast, conversion factors that come from measurements (such as density, as we will see shortly) or that are
approximations have a limited number of significant figures and should be considered in determining the significant figures
of the final answer.
Example 2.6.1 Example 2.6.2
The average volume of blood in an adult

A hummingbird can flap its wings once in 18
Steps for Problem Solving male is 4.7 L. What is this volume in
ms. How many seconds are in 18 ms?
milliliters?
Identify the "given"information and what the Given: 4.7 L Given: 18 ms
problem is asking you to "find." Find: mL Find: s
List other known quantities 1 mL = 10
−3
L 1 ms = 10
−3
s
Prepare a concept map and use the proper

conversion factor.
−3
1 mL 10 s
4.7 L × = 4, 700 mL 18 ms × = 0.018 s
−3
10 L 1 ms
Cancel units and calculate. or or

1, 000 mL
1 s
4.7 L × = 4, 700 mL
18 ms × = 0.018 s
1 L 1, 000 ms
The amount in mL should be 1000 times The amount in s should be 1/1000 the given
Think about your result.
larger than the given amount in L. amount in ms.
Exercise 2.6.1
Perform each conversion.
a. 101,000. ns to seconds
b. 32.08 kg to grams
c. 1.53 grams to cg
Answer a:
−4
1.01000x 10 s
Answer b:
4
3.208x 10 g
Answer c:
2
1.53x 10 g
Summary
Conversion factors are used to convert one unit of measurement into another.
Dimensional analysis (unit conversions) involves the use of conversion factors that will cancel units you don't want and
produce units you do want.
Further Reading/Supplemental Links

Tutorial: Vision Learning: Unit Conversions & Dimensional Analysis http://visionlearning.com/library/mo...?
mid=144&1=&c3=


2.7: Solving Multistep Conversion Problems
Multiple Conversions
Sometimes you will have to perform more than one conversion to obtain the desired unit. For example, suppose you want to
convert 54.7 km into millimeters. We will set up a series of conversion factors so that each conversion factor produces the next
unit in the sequence. We first convert the given amount in km to the base unit which is meters. We know that 1,000 m =1 km.
Then we convert meters to mm, remembering that 1 mm = 10 −3
m .
Concept Map
Calculation
1, 000 m 1 mm
54.7 km × × = 54, 700, 000 mm (2.7.1)
−3
1 km 10 m
7
= 5.47 × 10 mm (2.7.2)
In each step, the previous unit is canceled and the next unit in the sequence is
produced, each successive unit canceling out until only the unit needed in the
answer is left.
Example 2.7.1 : Unit Conversion

Convert 58.2 ms to megaseconds in one multistep calculation.
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving Unit Conversion
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: 58.2 ms
to "find." Find: Ms
−3
1ms = 10 s
List other known quantities 6
1M s = 10 s
Prepare a concept map

−3
10 s 1 Ms
58.2 ms × × = 0.0000000582 Ms
1 ms 1, 000, 000 s
Calculate = 5.82 × 10
−8
Ms
Neither conversion factor affects the number of significant figures in

the final answer.
Example 2.7.2 : Unit Conversion

How many seconds are in a day?
Solution
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: 1 day
to "find." Find: s
1 day = 24 hours
List other known quantities 1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
24 hr 60 min 60 s
Calculate 1 d× × × = 86, 400 s
1 d 1 hr 1 min
Exercise 2.7.1
Perform each conversion in one multistep calculation.
a. 43.007 ng to kg
b. 1005 in to ft
c. 12 mi to km
Answer a:
−14
4.3007x 10 kg
Answer b:
83.75 ft
Answer c:
19 km
Career Focus: Pharmacist

A pharmacist dispenses drugs that have been prescribed by a doctor. Although that may sound straightforward,
pharmacists in the United States must hold a doctorate in pharmacy and be licensed by the state in which they work. Most

pharmacy programs require four years of education in a specialty pharmacy school. Pharmacists must know a lot of
chemistry and biology so they can understand the effects that drugs (which are chemicals, after all) have on the body.
Pharmacists can advise physicians on the selection, dosage, interactions, and side effects of drugs. They can also advise
patients on the proper use of their medications, including when and how to take specific drugs properly. Pharmacists can
be found in drugstores, hospitals, and other medical facilities. Curiously, an outdated name for pharmacist is chemist,
which was used when pharmacists formerly did a lot of drug preparation, or compounding. In modern times, pharmacists
rarely compound their own drugs, but their knowledge of the sciences, including chemistry, helps them provide valuable
services in support of everyone’s health.
A woman consulting with a pharmacist. This image was released by the National Cancer Institute, an agency part of the
National Institutes of Health. Image used with permission (Public Domain; Rhoda Baer (Photographer) via NIH).
Summary
In multistep conversion problems, the previous unit is canceled for each step and the next unit in the sequence is produced,
each successive unit canceling out until only the unit needed in the answer is left.
Contributors and Attributions

Anonymous

2.8: Units Raised to a Power
Skills to Develop
To convert a value reported in one unit raised to a power of 10 to a corresponding value in a different unit raised to the
same power of 10 using conversion factors.
Conversion factors for area and volume can also be produced by the dimensional analysis method. Just remember that if a
quantity is raised to a power of 10 both the number and the unit must be raised to the same power of 10. For example to
convert 1500 cm to m , we need to start with the relationship between centimeter and meter. We know that 1 cm = 10-2 m or
2 2
100 cm =1 m, but since we are given the quantity in 1500 cm2, then we have to use the relationship:
2 −2 2 −4 2
1 cm = (10 m) = 10 m (2.8.1)
CONCEPT MAP
CALCULATION
−2 2
2
10 m 2
1500 cm ×( ) = 0.15 m (2.8.2)
1 cm
or
2
2
1 m
2
1500 cm ×( ) = 0.15 m (2.8.3)
100 cm
or
2
2
1 m
2
1500 cm × = 0.15 m (2.8.4)
2
10, 000 cm
Example 2.8.1 : Volume of a sphere

What is the volume of a sphere (radius 4.30 inches) in cubic cm (cm3)?
Solution
What is the volume of a sphere (radius 4.30 inches) in cubic cm

Steps for Problem Solving
(cm3)?
Identify the "given” information and what the problem is asking you Given: radius = 4.30 in
to "find." Find: cm3 (volume)
Volume of a sphere: V = 4
3
3
× π× r
Determine other known quantities = 4

× 3.1416 × (4.3 0in )
3
3 –
= 333.04in 3

3
Calculate 33 3.04 in
3
(
2.54cm
)
3
= 5.46 × 10 cm
3
– 1 in
A centimeter is a smaller unit than an inch, so the answer in cubic

Think about your result
centimeter is larger than the given value in cubic inch.
Exercise 2.8.1
Lake Tahoe has a surface area of 191 square miles. What is the area in square km (km2)?
Answer:
495 km2

2.9: Density
Learning Objectives
Define density.
Use density as a conversion factor.
Density (ρ) is a physical property found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume. Regardless of the sample size,
density is always constant. For example, the density of a pure sample of tungsten is always 19.25 grams per cubic centimeter.
This means that whether you have one gram or one kilogram of the sample, the density will never vary. The equation, as we
already know, is as follows:
Mass
Density = (2.9.1)
Volume
or just
m
ρ = (2.9.2)
V
Based on this equation, it's clear that density can, and does, vary from element to element and substance to substance due to
differences in the relationship of mass and volume. Pure water, for example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm3 at 25° C. The
average densities of some common substances are in Table 2.9.1. Notice that corn oil has a lower mass to volume ratio than
water. This means that when added to water, corn oil will “float.”
Table 2.9.1 : Densities of Common Substances
Substance Density at 25°C (g/cm3)
blood 1.035
body fat 0.918

whole milk 1.030
corn oil 0.922
mayonnaise 0.910
honey 1.420
Density can be measured for all substances, solids, liquids and gases. For solids and liquids, density is often reported using the
units of g/cm3. Densities of gases, which are significantly lower than the densities of solids and liquids, are often given using
units of g/L.
Example 2.9.1 : Ethyl Alcohol

Calculate the density of a 30.2 mL sample of ethyl alcohol with a mass of 23.71002 g
SOLUTION
23.71002 g
ρ = = 0.785 g/mL (2.9.3)
30.2 mL
Exercise 2.9.1
a. Find the density (in kg/L) of a sample that has a volume of 36.5 L and a mass of 10.0 kg.
b. If you have a 2.130 mL sample of acetic acid with mass 0.002234 kg, what is the density in kg/L?
Answer a
0.274 kg/L
Answer b
1.049 kg/L

Density as a Conversion Factor
Conversion factors can also be constructed for converting between different kinds of units. For example, density can be used to
convert between the mass and the volume of a substance. Consider mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature and has a
density of 13.6 g/mL. The density tells us that 13.6 g of mercury have a volume of 1 mL. We can write that relationship as
follows:
13.6 g mercury = 1 mL mercury
This relationship can be used to construct two conversion factors:
13.6 g
=1 (2.9.4)
1 mL
and
1 mL
=1 (2.9.5)
13.6 g
Which one do we use? It depends, as usual, on the units we need to cancel and introduce. For example, suppose we want to
know the mass of 16 mL of mercury. We would use the conversion factor that has milliliters on the bottom (so that the
milliliter unit cancels) and grams on top so that our final answer has a unit of mass:
13.6 g
2.0 mL × = 27.2 g = 27 g (2.9.6)
1 mL
In the last step, we limit our final answer to two significant figures because the volume quantity has only two significant
figures; the 1 in the volume unit is considered an exact number, so it does not affect the number of significant figures. The
other conversion factor would be useful if we were given a mass and asked to find volume, as the following example
illustrates.
Density can be used as a conversion factor between mass and volume.

Example 2.9.2 : Mercury Thermometer Steps for Problem Solving
A mercury thermometer for measuring a patient’s temperature contains 0.750 g of mercury. What is the volume of this
mass of mercury?
SOLUTION
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: 0.750 g
to "find." Find: mL
List other known quantities 13.6 g/mL (density of mercury)
1 mL
0.750 g × = 0.055147. . . mL ≈ 0.0551 mL
Calculate 13.6 g
We have limited the final answer to three significant figures.

Exercise 2.9.2
What is the volume of 100.0 g of air if its density is 1.3 g/L?
Answer
77 L
Summary
Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume.
Density can be used as a conversion factor between mass and volume.


2.10: Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map

2.11: Taking Measurements
Learning Objectives
To express quantities properly, using a number and a unit.
A coffee maker’s instructions tell you to fill the coffeepot with 4 cups of water and use 3 scoops of coffee. When you follow
these instructions, you are measuring. When you visit a doctor’s office, a nurse checks your temperature, height, weight, and
perhaps blood pressure (Figure 2.11.1); the nurse is also measuring.
Figure 2.11.1 : Measuring Blood Pressure. A nurse or a doctor measuring a patient’s blood pressure is taking a measurement.
Figure used with permission (GFDL; Pia von Lützau).
Chemists measure the properties of matter and express these measurements as quantities. A quantity is an amount of
something and consists of a number and a unit. The number tells us how many (or how much), and the unit tells us what the
scale of measurement is. For example, when a distance is reported as “5 kilometers,” we know that the quantity has been
expressed in units of kilometers and that the number of kilometers is 5. If you ask a friend how far he or she walks from home
to school, and the friend answers “12” without specifying a unit, you do not know whether your friend walks—for example, 12
miles, 12 kilometers, 12 furlongs, or 12 yards. Both a number and a unit must be included to express a quantity properly.
To understand chemistry, we need a clear understanding of the units chemists work with and the rules they follow for
expressing numbers. The next two sections examine the rules for expressing numbers.
Example 2.11.1
Identify the number and the unit in each quantity.
a. one dozen eggs
b. 2.54 centimeters
c. a box of pencils
d. 88 meters per second
SOLUTION
a. The number is one, and the unit is dozen eggs.
b. The number is 2.54, and the unit is centimeter.
c. The number 1 is implied because the quantity is only a box. The unit is box of pencils.
d. The number is 88, and the unit is meters per second. Note that in this case the unit is actually a combination of two
units: meters and seconds.
Key Take Away

Identify a quantity properly with a number and a unit.


2.E: Measurement and Problem Solving (Exercises)
2.1: Measuring Global Temperatures
2.2: Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers
2.3: Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision
1. Define significant figures. Why are they important?

2. Define the different types of zeros found in a number and explain whether or not they are significant.
3. How many significant figures are in each number?
a. 140
b. 0.009830
c. 15,050
d. 221,560,000
e. 5.67 × 103
f. 2.9600 × 10−5
4. How many significant figures are in each number?
a. 1.05
b. 9,500
c. 0.0004505
d. 0.00045050
e. 7.210 × 106
f. 5.00 × 10−6
5. Round each number to three significant figures.
a. 34,705
b. 34,750
c. 34,570
2.5: The Basic Units of Measurement
2.6: Problem Solving and Unit Conversions
2.7: Solving Multistep Conversion Problems
2.8: Units Raised to a Power
2.9: Density
2.10: Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map
6/14/2020 2.E.1 https://chem.libretexts.org/link?97979

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
3: MATTER AND ENERGY
Energy is a very important quantity in science and the world around us. Although most of our energy
ultimately comes from the sun, much of the energy we use on a daily basis is rooted in chemical
reactions. The gasoline in your car, the electricity in your house, the food in your diet—all provide
substances for chemical reactions to provide energy (gasoline, food) or are produced from chemical
reactions (electricity, about 50% of which is generated by burning coal).
3.1: IN YOUR ROOM

3.2: WHAT IS MATTER?
Matter is anything that has mass and volume (takes up space). For most common objects that we
deal with every day, it is fairly simple to demonstrate that they have mass and take up space. You
might be able to imagine, however, the difficulty for people several hundred years ago to demonstrate that air has mass and volume.
Air (and all other gases) are invisible to the eye, have very small masses compared to equal amounts of solids and liquids, and are
quite easy to compress (change volume).
3.3: CLASSIFYING MATTER ACCORDING TO ITS STATE- SOLID, LIQUID, AND GAS
Three states of matter exist - solid, liquid, and gas. Solids have a definite shape and volume. Liquids have a definite volume, but take
the shape of the container. Gases have no definite shape or volume
3.4: CLASSIFYING MATTER ACCORDING TO ITS COMPOSITION

One useful way of organizing our understanding of matter is to think of a hierarchy that extends down from the most general and
complex to the simplest and most fundamental. Matter can be classified into two broad categories: pure substances and mixtures. A
pure substance is a form of matter that has a constant composition and properties that are constant throughout the sample. A material
composed of two or more substances is a mixture.
3.5: DIFFERENCES IN MATTER- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the substance.
Physical properties include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points. A chemical property describes the ability of a
substance to undergo a specific chemical change.
3.6: CHANGES IN MATTER- PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Change is happening all around us all of the time. Just as chemists have classified elements and compounds, they have also classified
types of changes. Changes are either classified as physical or chemical changes. Chemists learn a lot about the nature of matter by
studying the changes that matter can undergo. Chemists make a distinction between two different types of changes that they study -
physical changes and chemical changes.
3.7: CONSERVATION OF MASS- THERE IS NO NEW MATTER

The law of conservation of mass states that matter can not be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. So the mass of the product
equals the mass of the reactant. A reactant is when two or more elements chemically interact to make a new substance and a product
is the substance that is formed as the result of a chemical reaction. Mass and matter may not be able to be created or destroyed, but it
can change forms to other substances like liquids, gasses, solids, etc.
3.8: ENERGY
When we speak of using energy, we are really referring to transferring energy from one place to another. Although energy is used in
many kinds of different situations, all of these uses rely on energy being transferred in one of two ways. Energy can be transferred as
heat or as work.
3.9: ENERGY AND CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGE

Phase changes involve changes in energy. All chemical reactions involve changes in energy. This may be a change in heat, electricity,
light, or other forms of energy. Reactions that absorb energy are endothermic. Reactions that release energy are exothermic.
3.10: TEMPERATURE- RANDOM MOTION OF MOLECULES AND ATOMS

Three different scales are commonly used to measure temperature: Fahrenheit (expressed as °F), Celsius (°C), and Kelvin (K).
3.11: TEMPERATURE CHANGES- HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree
Celsius.
1 6/21/2020
3.12: ENERGY AND HEAT CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
Heat is a familiar manifestation of transferring energy. When we touch a hot object, energy flows from the hot object into our fingers,
and we perceive that incoming energy as the object being “hot.” Conversely, when we hold an ice cube in our palms, energy flows
from our hand into the ice cube, and we perceive that loss of energy as “cold.” In both cases, the temperature of the object is different
from the temperature of our hand.
3.E: EXERCISES
2 6/21/2020
3.1: In Your Room
Matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space; this includes atoms and anything made up of these, but not other
energy phenomena or waves such as light or sound. While this simple definition is easily applied, the way people view matter
is often broken down into two characteristic length scales: the macroscopic and the microscopic.
Figure 3.1.1 : A typical American university and college dormitory room in 2002. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Raul654).
The macroscopic scale is the length scale on which objects or phenomena are large enough to be visible almost practically
with the naked eye, without magnifying optical instruments. Everything that one can see, touch and handle in the dorm room
of Figure 3.1.1 is in the macroscopic scale and to describe each of these objects only few macroscopic properties are required.
However, each of these items can be decomposed into smaller microscopic scale properties.
The microscopic scale is the scale of objects and events smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye, requiring a
lens or microscope to see them clearly. All the everyday objects that we can bump into, touch or squeeze are ultimately
composed of atoms. This ordinary atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting subatomic particles—usually a nucleus of
protons and neutrons, and a cloud of orbiting electrons. Because of this, a large number of variables are needed to describe
such a system which complicates the characterization.
Matter vs. MAss

Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not the same in modern physics. Matter is itself a physical
substance of which systems may be composed, while mass is not a substance but rather a quantitative property of matter
and other substances or systems.

Wikipedia

3.2: What is Matter?
Learning Objectives
Define matter and explain how it is composed of building blocks known as "atoms".
We are all familiar with matter. The definition of Matter is anything that has mass and volume (takes up space). For most
common objects that we deal with every day, it is fairly simple to demonstrate that they have mass and take up space. You
might be able to imagine, however, the difficulty for people several hundred years ago to demonstrate that air has mass and
volume. Air (and all other gases) are invisible to the eye, have very small masses compared to equal amounts of solids and
liquids, and are quite easy to compress (change volume). Without sensitive equipment, it would have been difficult to convince
people that gases are matter. Today, we can measure the mass of a small balloon when it is deflated and then blow it up, tie it
off, and measure its mass again to detect the additional mass due to the air inside. The mass of air, under room conditions, that
occupies a one quart jar is approximately 0.0002 pounds. This small amount of mass would have been difficult to measure in
times before balances were designed to accurately measure very small masses. Later, scientists were able to compress gases
into such a small volume that the gases turned into liquids, which made it clear that gases are matter.
Figure 3.2.1 : Everything from an ant, to a truck, to the earth and even the entire galaxy is composed of matter. Images used
with permission from Wikipedia (CC_SA-BY-3.0; credit High Contrast)
Even though the universe consists of "things" as wildly different as ants and galaxies, the matter that makes up all of these
"things" is composed of a very limited number of building blocks. These building blocks are known as atoms, and so far,
scientists have discovered or created a grand total of 118 different types of atoms. Scientists have given a name to each
different type of atom. A substance that is composed of only one type of atom is called an element. At this point, what should
amaze you is that all forms of matter in our universe are made with only 118 different building blocks. In some ways, it's sort
of like cooking a gourmet, five-course meal using only three ingredients! How is it possible? To answer that question, you
have to understand the ways in which different elements are put together to form matter.
The most important method that nature uses to organize atoms into matter is the formation of molecules. Molecules are groups
of two or more atoms that have been bonded together. There are millions of different ways to bond atoms together, which

means that there are millions of different possible molecules. Each of these molecules has its own set of chemical properties,
and it's these properties with which chemists are most concerned. You will learn a lot more about atoms and molecules,
including how they were discovered, in a later part of the textbook.
Summary
All matter has mass and occupies space. All physical objects are made of matter. Matter itself is composed of tiny building
blocks known as "atoms". There are only 118 different types of atoms known to man. Frequently, atoms are bonded together to
form "molecules".

Wikipedia

3.3: Classifying Matter According to Its State- Solid, Liquid, and Gas
Learning Objectives
To describe the solid, liquid and gas phases.
Water can take many forms. At low temperatures (below 0 C), it is a solid. When at "normal" temperatures (between 0 C and
o o
100 C), it is a liquid. While at temperatures above 100 C, water is a gas (steam). The state the water is in depends upon the
o o
temperature. Each state (solid, liquid, and gas) has its own unique set of physical properties. Matter typically exists in one of
three states: solid, liquid, or gas.
Figure 3.3.1 : Matter is usually classified into three classical states, with plasma sometimes added as a fourth state. From left
to right: quartz (solid), water (liquid), nitrogen dioxide (gas).
The state a given substance exhibits is also a physical property. Some substances exist as gases at room temperature (oxygen
and carbon dioxide), while others, like water and mercury metal, exist as liquids. Most metals exist as solids at room
temperature. All substances can exist in any of these three states. Figure 3.3.2 shows the differences among solids, liquids, and
gases at the molecular level. A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape, and a
gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.

Figure 3.3.2 : A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States. (a) Solid O2 has a fixed volume and shape, and the
molecules are packed tightly together. (b) Liquid O2 conforms to the shape of its container but has a fixed volume; it contains
relatively densely packed molecules. (c) Gaseous O2 fills its container completely—regardless of the container’s size or shape
—and consists of widely separated molecules.
Plasma: A Fourth State of Matter
Technically speaking a fourth state of matter called plasma exists, but it does not naturally occur on earth, so we will omit
it from our study here.
A plasma globe operating in a darkened room. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Chocolateoak).
Solids
In the solid state, the individual particles of a substance are in fixed positions with respect to each other because there is not
enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the particles. As a result, solids have a definite
shape and volume. Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be
quite brittle.
Solids are defined by the following characteristics:
Definite shape (rigid)
Definite volume
Particles vibrate around fixed axes
If we were to cool liquid mercury to its freezing point of −39 C, and under the right pressure conditions, we would notice all
o
of the liquid particles would go into the solid state. Mercury can be solidified when its temperature is brought to its freezing
point. However, when returned to room temperature conditions, mercury does not exist in solid state for long, and returns back
to its more common liquid form.
Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and
negative ions called a crystal. The effect of this regular arrangement of particles is sometimes visible macroscopically, as
shown in Figure 3.3.3. Some solids, especially those composed of large molecules, cannot easily organize their particles in
such regular crystals and exist as amorphous (literally, “without form”) solids. Glass is one example of an amorphous solid.

Figure 3.3.3 : (left) The periodic crystalline lattice structure of quartz SiO in two-dimensions. (right) The random network
2
structure of glassy SiO in two-dimensions. Note that, as in the crystal, each Silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms,
2
where the fourth oxygen atom is obscured from view in this plane. Images used with permission (public domain)
Liquids
If the particles of a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can
move about each other while remaining in contact. This describes the liquid state. In a liquid, the particles are still in close
contact, so liquids have a definite volume. However, because the particles can move about each other rather freely, a liquid has
no definite shape and takes a shape dictated by its container.
Liquids have the following characteristics:
No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
Has definite volume
Particles are free to move over each other, but are still attracted to each other
A familiar liquid is mercury metal. Mercury is an anomaly. It is the only metal we know of that is liquid at room temperature.
Mercury also has an ability to stick to itself (surface tension) - a property all liquids exhibit. Mercury has a relatively high
surface tension, which makes it very unique. Here you see mercury in its common liquid form.
Video 3.3.1 : Mercury boiling to become a gas.

If we heat liquid mercury to its boiling point of 357 o
, and under the right pressure conditions, we would notice all particles
C
in the liquid state go into the gas state.
Gases

If the particles of a substance have enough energy to completely overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can
separate from each other and move about randomly in space. This describes the gas state, which we will consider in more
detail elsewhere. Like liquids, gases have no definite shape, but unlike solids and liquids, gases have no definite volume either.
The change from solid to liquid usually does not significantly change the volume of a substance. However, the change from a
liquid to a gas significantly increases the volume of a substance, by a factor of 1,000 or more. Gases have the following
characteristics:
No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
No definite volume
Particles move in random motion with little or no attraction to each other
Highly compressible
Table 3.3.1 : Characteristics of the Three States of Matter
Characteristics Solids Liquids Gases
shape definite indefinite indefinite
volume definite definite indefinite

relative intermolecular interaction
strong moderate weak
strength
relative particle positions in contact and fixed in place in contact but not fixed not in contact, random positions
Example 3.3.1
What state or states of matter does each statement, describe?
a. This state has a definite volume, but no definite shape.
b. This state has no definite volume.
c. This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact.
SOLUTION
a. This statement describes the liquid state.
b. This statement describes the gas state.
c. This statement describes the liquid state.
Exercise 3.3.1
What state or states of matter does each statement describe?
a. This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other.
b. This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space.
c. This state has a definite shape.
Answer a:
solid
Answer b:
gas
Answer c:
solid
Summary
Three states of matter exist - solid, liquid, and gas.
Solids have a definite shape and volume.
Liquids have a definite volume, but take the shape of the container.

Gases have no definite shape or volume


3.4: Classifying Matter According to Its Composition
Learning Objectives
Explain the difference between a pure substance and a mixture.
Explain the difference between an element and a compound.
Explain the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture.
One useful way of organizing our understanding of matter is to think of a hierarchy that extends down from the most general
and complex to the simplest and most fundamental (Figure 3.4.1). Matter can be classified into two broad categories: pure
substances and mixtures. A pure substance is a form of matter that has a constant composition (meaning it's the same
everywhere) and properties that are constant throughout the sample (meaning there is only one set of properties such as
melting point, color, boiling point, etc. throughout the matter). A material composed of two or more substances is a mixture.
Elements and compounds are both examples of pure substances.A substance that cannot be broken down into chemically
simpler components is an element. Aluminum, which is used in soda cans, is an element. A substance that can be broken
down into chemically simpler components (because it has more than one element) is a compound. For example, water is a
compound composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Today, there are about 118 elements in the known universe. In
contrast, scientists have identified tens of millions of different compounds to date.
Figure 3.4.1 : Relationships between the Types of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures
Ordinary table salt is called sodium chloride. It is considered a substance because it has a uniform and definite composition.
All samples of sodium chloride are chemically identical. Water is also a pure substance. Salt easily dissolves in water, but salt
water cannot be classified as a substance because its composition can vary. You may dissolve a small amount of salt or a large
amount into a given amount of water. A mixture is a physical blend of two or more components, each of which retains its own

identity and properties in the mixture. Only the form of the salt is changed when it is dissolved into water. It retains its
composition and properties.
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout the mixture. The salt water described
above is homogeneous because the dissolved salt is evenly distributed throughout the entire salt water sample. Often it is easy
to confuse a homogeneous mixture with a pure substance because they are both uniform. The difference is that the
composition of the substance is always the same. The amount of salt in the salt water can vary from one sample to another. All
solutions would be considered homogeneous because the dissolved material is present in the same amount throughout the
solution.
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout the mixture. Vegetable soup is a
heterogeneous mixture. Any given spoonful of soup will contain varying amounts of the different vegetables and other
components of the soup.
Phase
A phase is any part of a sample that has a uniform composition and properties. By definition, a pure substance or a
homogeneous mixture consists of a single phase. A heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more phases. When oil and
water are combined, they do not mix evenly, but instead form two separate layers. Each of the layers is called a phase.
Example 3.4.1
Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. filtered tea
b. freshly squeezed orange juice
c. a compact disc
d. aluminum oxide, a white powder that contains a 2:3 ratio of aluminum and oxygen atoms
e. selenium
Given: a chemical substance
Asked for: its classification
Strategy:
A. Decide whether a substance is chemically pure. If it is pure, the substance is either an element or a compound. If a
substance can be separated into its elements, it is a compound.
B. If a substance is not chemically pure, it is either a heterogeneous mixture or a homogeneous mixture. If its
composition is uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.
Solution
a. A) Tea is a solution of compounds in water, so it is not chemically pure. It is usually separated from tea leaves by
filtration.
B) Because the composition of the solution is uniform throughout, it is a homogeneous mixture.
b. A) Orange juice contains particles of solid (pulp) as well as liquid; it is not chemically pure.
B) Because its composition is not uniform throughout, orange juice is a heterogeneous mixture.
c. A) A compact disc is a solid material that contains more than one element, with regions of different compositions
visible along its edge. Hence a compact disc is not chemically pure.
B) The regions of different composition indicate that a compact disc is a heterogeneous mixture.
d. A) Aluminum oxide is a single, chemically pure compound.
e. A) Selenium is one of the known elements.
Exercise 3.4.1
Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a homogeneous mixture (solution).
a. white wine

b. mercury
c. ranch-style salad dressing
d. table sugar (sucrose)
Answer a:
homogeneous mixture (solution)
Answer b:
element
Answer c:
heterogeneous mixture
Answer d:
compound
Example 3.4.2
How would a chemist categorize each example of matter?
a. saltwater
b. soil
c. water
d. oxygen
SOLUTION
a. Saltwater acts as if it were a single substance even though it contains two substances—salt and water. Saltwater is a
homogeneous mixture, or a solution.
b. Soil is composed of small pieces of a variety of materials, so it is a heterogeneous mixture.
c. Water is a substance; more specifically, because water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, it is a compound.
d. Oxygen, a substance, is an element.
Exercise 3.4.2
How would a chemist categorize each example of matter?
a. coffee
b. hydrogen
c. an egg
Answer a:
a homogeneous mixture (solution), assume it's filtered coffee
Answer b:
element
Answer c:
heterogeneous mixture.
Summary
Matter can be classified into two broad categories: pure substances and mixtures. A pure substance is a form of matter that has
a constant composition and properties that are constant throughout the sample. Mixtures are physical combinations of two or
more elements and/or compounds. Mixtures can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous. Elements and compounds are
both examples of pure substances. Compounds are substances that are made up of more than one type of atom. Elements are
the simplest substances made up of only one type of atom.

Vocabulary
Element: A substance that is made up of only one type of atom.
Compound: A substance that is made up of more than one type of atom bonded together.
Mixture: A combination of two or more elements or compounds which have not reacted to bond together; each part in the
mixture retains its own properties.

Stephen Lower, Professor Emeritus (Simon Fraser U.) Chem1 Virtual Textbook

3.5: Differences in Matter- Physical and Chemical Properties
Learning Objectives
To separate physical from chemical properties.
All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can measure without
changing the composition of the sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume (the amount of space occupied by a
sample). Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances; they include its
flammability and susceptibility to corrosion. All samples of a pure substance have the same chemical and physical properties.
For example, pure copper is always a reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric acid to
produce a blue solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).
Physical Property
A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the
substance. Silver is a shiny metal that conducts electricity very well.It can be molded into thin sheets, a property called
malleability. Salt is dull and brittle and conducts electricity when it has been dissolved into water, which it does quite easily.
Physical properties of matter include color, hardness, malleability, solubility, electrical conductivity, density, melting points,
and boiling points.
For the elements, color does not vary much from one element to the next. The vast majority of elements are colorless, silver, or
gray. Some elements do have distinctive colors: sulfur and chlorine are yellow, copper is (of course) copper-colored, and
elemental bromine is red. However, density can be a very useful parameter for identifying an element. Of the materials that
exist as solids at room temperature, iodine has a very low density compared to zinc, chromium, and tin. Gold has a very high
density, as does platinum. Pure water, for example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm3 at 25°C. The average densities of some
common substances are in Table 3.5.1. Notice that corn oil has a lower mass to volume ratio than water. This means that when
added to water, corn oil will “float.”
Table 3.5.1: Densities of Common Substances
Substance Density at 25°C (g/cm3)
blood 1.035
body fat 0.918
whole milk 1.030
corn oil 0.922
mayonnaise 0.910
honey 1.420
Hardness helps determine how an element (especially a metal) might be used. Many elements are fairly soft (silver and
gold, for example) while others (such as titanium, tungsten, and chromium) are much harder. Carbon is an interesting
example of hardness. In graphite, (the "lead" found in pencils) the carbon is very soft, while the carbon in a diamond is
roughly seven times as hard.

Figure 3.5.1 : Pencil (left) and Diamond ring (right). Both are a form of carbon, but exhibit very different physical properties.
Melting and boiling points are somewhat unique identifiers, especially of compounds. In addition to giving some idea as to the
identity of the compound, important information can be obtained about the purity of the material.
Chemical Properties
Chemical properties of matter describes its "potential" to undergo some chemical change or reaction by virtue of its
composition. What elements, electrons, and bonding are present to give the potential for chemical change. It is quite difficult
to define a chemical property without using the word "change". Eventually you should be able to look at the formula of a
compound and state some chemical property. At this time this is very difficult to do and you are not expected to be able to do
it. For example hydrogen has the potential to ignite and explode given the right conditions - this is a chemical property. Metals
in general have they chemical property of reacting with an acid. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas -
this is a chemical property.
Figure 3.5.2 : Heavy rust on the links of a chain near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco; it was continuously exposed
to moisture and salt spray, causing surface breakdown, cracking, and flaking of the metal. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Marlith).
A chemical property of iron is that it is capable of combining with oxygen to form iron oxide, the chemical name of rust
(Figure 3.5.2). The more general term for rusting and other similar processes is corrosion. Other terms that are commonly used
in descriptions of chemical changes are burn, rot, explode, decompose, and ferment. Chemical properties are very useful in
identifying substances. However, unlike physical properties, chemical properties can only be observed as the substance is in
the process of being changed into a different substance.
Table 3.5.2 : Contrasting Physical and Chemistry Properties
Physical Property Chemical Property
Gallium metal melts at 30 oC Iron metal rusts.
Mercury is a very dense liquid. A green banana turns yellow when it ripens.
Gold is shiny. A dry piece of paper burns.

Example 3.5.1
Which of the following is a chemical property of iron?
a. Iron corrodes in moist air
b. Density = 7.874 g/cm3
c. Iron is soft when pure.
d. Iron melts at 1808 K.
SOLUTION
Iron corrodes in air is the only chemical property of iron from the list.
Exercise 3.5.1A
Which of the following is a physical property of matter?
a. corrosiveness
b. pH (acidity)
c. density
d. flammability
Answer:
c
Exercise 3.5.1B
Which of the following is a chemical property?
a. flammability
b. melting point
c. boiling point
d. density
Answer:
a
Summary
A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the
substance. Physical properties include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points. A chemical property describes
the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. To identify a chemical property, we look for a chemical
change. A chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that differ from the matter present before the change.
The formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the iron, oxygen, and water present
before the rust formed.


3.6: Changes in Matter- Physical and Chemical Changes
Learning Objectives
Label a change as chemical or physical.
List evidence that can indicate a chemical change occurred.
Change is happening all around us all of the time. Just as chemists have classified elements and compounds, they have also
classified types of changes. Changes are either classified as physical or chemical changes. Chemists learn a lot about the
nature of matter by studying the changes that matter can undergo. Chemists make a distinction between two different types of
changes that they study - physical changes and chemical changes.
Physical Change
Physical changes are changes in which no bonds are broken or formed. This means that the same types of compounds or
elements that were there at the beginning of the change are there at the end of the change. Because the ending materials are the
same as the beginning materials, the properties (such as color, boiling point, etc) will also be the same. Physical changes
involve moving molecules around, but not changing them. Some types of physical changes include:
Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa)
Separation of a mixture
Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching)
Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures)
As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it acquires the ability to flow. However, its composition does not change. Melting is
an example of a physical change. A physical change is a change to a sample of matter in which some properties of the material
change, but the identity of the matter does not. When we heat the liquid water, it changes to water vapor. But even though the
physical properties have changed, the molecules are exactly the same as before. We still have each water molecule containing
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom covalently bonded. When you have a jar containing a mixture of pennies and
nickels and you sort the mixture so that you have one pile of pennies and another pile of nickels, you have not altered the
identity of either the pennies or the nickels - you've merely separated them into two groups. This would be an example of a
physical change. Similarly, if you have a piece of paper, you don't change it into something other than a piece of paper by
ripping it up. What was paper before you started tearing is still paper when you're done. Again, this is an example of a physical
change.
Figure 3.6.1 : Ice Melting is a physical change. When liquid water (H O ) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears changed;
2
However, this change is only physical as the the composition of the constituent molecules is the same: 11.19% hydrogen and
88.81% oxygen by mass. (Public Domain; Moussa).
Physical changes can further be classified as reversible or irreversible. The melted ice cube may be refrozen, so melting is a
reversible physical change. Physical changes that involve a change of state are all reversible. Other changes of state include
vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to solid), and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolving is also a reversible
physical change. When salt is dissolved into water, the salt is said to have entered the aqueous state. The salt may be regained
by boiling off the water, leaving the salt behind.

Chemical Change
Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between molecules or atoms. This means that one substance
with a certain set of properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is turned into a different substance with different
properties. Chemical changes are frequently harder to reverse than physical changes.
One good example of a chemical change is burning a candle. The act of burning paper actually results in the formation of new
chemicals (carbon dioxide and water, to be exact) from the burning of the wax. Another example of a chemical change is what
occurs when natural gas is burned in your furnace. This time, on the left we have a molecule of methane, CH , and two 4
molecules of oxygen, O , while on the right we have two molecules of water, H O , and one molecule of carbon dioxide,
2 2
CO . In this case, not only has the appearance changed, but the structure of the molecules has also changed. The new
2
substances do not have the same chemical properties as the original ones. Therefore, this is a chemical change.
Figure 3.6.2 : Burning of wax to generate water and carbon dioxide is a chemical reaction. (CC-SA-BY-3.0; Andrikkos )
We can't actually see molecules breaking and forming bonds, although that's what defines chemical changes. We have to make
other observations to indicate that a chemical change has happened. Some of the evidence for chemical change will involve the
energy changes that occur in chemical changes, but some evidence involves the fact that new substances with different
properties are formed in a chemical change.
Observations that help to indicate chemical change include:
Temperature changes (either the temperature increases or decreases)
Light is given off
Unexpected color changes (a substance with a different color is made, rather than just mixing the original colors together)
Bubbles are formed (but the substance is not boiling - you made a substance that is a gas at the temperature of the
beginning materials, instead of a liquid)
Different smell or taste (do not taste your chemistry experiments, though!)
A solid forms if two clear liquids are mixed (look for floaties - technically called a precipitate)
Example 3.6.1
Label each of the following changes as a physical or chemical change. Give evidence to support your answer.
a. Boiling water
b. A nail rusting
c. A green solution and colorless solution are mixed. The resulting mixture is a solution with a pale green color.
d. Two colorless solutions are mixed. The resulting mixture has a yellow precipitate.
Solution
a. Physical: boiling and melting are physical changes. When water boils no bonds are broken or formed. The change
could be written: H O (l) → H O (g)
2 2
b. Chemical: The dark grey nail changes color to form an orange flaky substance (the rust); this must be a chemical
change. Color changes indicate chemical change. The following reaction occurs: Fe + O → Fe O 2 2 3

c. Physical: because none of the properties changed, this is a physical change. The green mixture is still green and the
colorless solution is still colorless. They have just been spread together. No color change occurred or other evidence
of chemical change.
d. Chemical: the formation of a precipitate and the color change from colorless to yellow indicate a chemical change.
Exercise 3.6.1
Label each of the following changes as a physical or chemical change.
a. A mirror is broken.
b. An iron nail corroded in moist air
c. Copper metal is melted.
d. A catalytic converter changes nitrogen dioxide to nitrogen gas and oxygen gas.
Answer a:
physical change
Answer b:
chemical change
Answer c:
physical change
Answer d:
chemical change
Separating Mixtures Through Physical Changes

Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) can be separated into their component substances by physical processes that rely on
differences in some physical property, such as differences in their boiling points. Two of these separation methods are
distillation and crystallization. Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is
converted to a gas at a given temperature. A simple distillation apparatus for separating a mixture of substances, at least one of
which is a liquid. The most volatile component boils first and is condensed back to a liquid in the water-cooled condenser,
from which it flows into the receiving flask. If a solution of salt and water is distilled, for example, the more volatile
component, pure water, collects in the receiving flask, while the salt remains in the distillation flask.

Figure 3.6.3 : The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water. The solution of salt in water is heated in the distilling flask
until it boils. The resulting vapor is enriched in the more volatile component (water), which condenses to a liquid in the cold
condenser and is then collected in the receiving flask.
Mixtures of two or more liquids with different boiling points can be separated with a more complex distillation apparatus. One
example is the refining of crude petroleum into a range of useful products: aviation fuel, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, and
lubricating oil (in the approximate order of decreasing volatility). Another example is the distillation of alcoholic spirits such
as brandy or whiskey. This relatively simple procedure caused more than a few headaches for federal authorities in the 1920s
during the era of Prohibition, when illegal stills proliferated in remote regions of the United States.
Another example for using physical properties to separate mixtures is filtration (Figure 3.6.4). Filtration is any of various
mechanical, physical or biological operations that separate solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by adding a medium through
which only the fluid can pass. The fluid that passes through is called the filtrate. There are many different methods of
filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances. Separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the
substance or objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or
gas. Methods of filtration vary depending on the location of the targeted material, i.e. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase
or suspended as a solid.

Figure 3.6.4 : Filtration for the separation of solids from a hot solution. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Suman6395).
Summary
Chemists make a distinction between two different types of changes that they study - physical changes and chemical
changes.
Physical changes are changes that do not alter the identity of a substance.
Chemical changes are changes that occur when one substance is turned into another substance.
Chemical changes are frequently harder to reverse than physical changes. Observations that indicate a chemical change
occurred include color change, temperature change, light given off, formation of bubbles, formation of a precipitate, etc.

Boundless (www.boundless.com)

3.7: Conservation of Mass- There is No New Matter
It may seem as though burning destroys matter, but the same amount, or mass, of matter still exists after a campfire as before.
Look at Figure 3.7.1 below. It shows that when wood burns, it combines with oxygen and changes not only to ashes, but also
to carbon dioxide and water vapor. The gases float off into the air, leaving behind just the ashes. Suppose you had measured
the mass of the wood before it burned and the mass of the ashes after it burned. Also suppose you had been able to measure the
oxygen used by the fire and the gases produced by the fire. What would you find? The total mass of matter after the fire would
be the same as the total mass of matter before the fire.
Figure 3.7.1 : Burning is a chemical process. The flames are caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning).
Images used with permission (CC BY-SA 2.5; Einar Helland Berger for fire and Walter Siegmund for ash).
Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass was created in 1789 by a French chemist, Antoine Lavoisier. The law of conservation of
mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. For example, when wood burns, the mass of the
soot, ashes, and gases, equals the original mass of the charcoal and the oxygen when it first reacted. So the mass of the product
equals the mass of the reactant. A reactant is when two or more elements chemically interact to make a new substance and a
product is the substance that is formed as the result of a chemical reaction (Video 3.7.1). Mass and matter may not be able to
be created or destroyed, but it can change forms to other substances like liquids, gasses, solids, etc.
Video 3.7.1 : This is a nice little demonstration showing the Conservation of Mass in action.
It's important to know the law well because if you're in a situation where there's a 300 kg tree that is burning down, when it is
done burning down, there are only ashes left and all of them together weigh 10 kg. Well, it makes you wonder where the other
290 kg went. The missing 290 kg was released into the atmosphere as smoke so the only thing left that you could see was the
10 kg of ash, and if you knew the law of conservation of mass then you would know that the other 290 kg had to go
somewhere because it had to equal the mass of the tree before it burnt down.

Example 3.7.1
If heating 10.0 grams of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produces 4.4 g of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 5.6 g of calcium oxide
(CaO), show that these observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.
Solution
Mass of the reactants = Mass of the products
10.0 g of CaCO = 4.4 g of CO + 5.6 g of CaO

3 2
10.0 g of reactant = 10.0 g of products
Because the mass of the reactant is equal to the mass of the products, the observations are in agreement with the law of
conservation of mass.
Exercise 3.7.1
Potassium hydroxide (KOH ) readily reacts with carbon dioxide (CO ) to produce Potassium carbonate (K CO ) and
2 2 3
water (H O ). How many grams of potassium carbonate is produced if 224.4 g of KOH reacted with 88.0 g of CO . The
2 2
reaction also produced 36.0 g of water.
Answer
276.4 g of potassium carbonate
The Law is also applicable to both chemical and physical changes, for example if you have an ice cube that melts into a liquid
and if you heat that liquid up, it becomes a gas. It looks like it disappeared, but it but it is still there.
Summary
Burning and other changes in matter do not destroy matter.
The mass of matter is always the same before and after the changes occur.
The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed.

Binod Shrestha (University of Lorraine)

3.8: Energy
Learning Objectives
Define heat and work.
Distinguish between kinetic energy and potential energy.
State the law of conservation of matter and energy.
Just like matter, energy is a term that we are all familiar with and use on a daily basis. Before you go on a long hike, you eat an
energy bar; every month, the energy bill is paid; on TV, politicians argue about the energy crisis. But what is energy? If you
stop to think about it, energy is very complicated. When you plug a lamp into an electric socket, you see energy in the form of
light, but when you plug a heating pad into that same socket, you only feel warmth. Without energy, we couldn't turn on lights,
we couldn't brush our teeth, we couldn't make our lunch, and we couldn't travel to school. In fact, without energy, we couldn't
even wake up because our bodies require energy to function. We use energy for every single thing that we do, whether we're
awake or asleep.
Ability to Do Work or Produce Heat

When we speak of using energy, we are really referring to transferring energy from one place to another. When you use energy
to throw a ball, you transfer energy from your body to the ball, and this causes the ball to fly through the air. When you use
energy to warm your house, you transfer energy from the furnace to the air in your home, and this causes the temperature in
your house to rise. Although energy is used in many kinds of different situations, all of these uses rely on energy being
transferred in one of two ways. Energy can be transferred as heat or as work.
When scientists speak of heat, they are referring to energy that is transferred from an object with a higher temperature to an
object with a lower temperature as a result of the temperature difference. Heat will "flow" from the hot object to the cold
object until both end up at the same temperature. When you cook with a metal pot, you witness energy being transferred in the
form of heat. Initially, only the stove element is hot – the pot and the food inside the pot are cold. As a result, heat moves from
the hot stove element to the cold pot. After a while, enough heat is transferred from the stove to the pot, raising the
temperature of the pot and all of its contents (Figure 3.8.1).
Figure 3.8.1 : Energy is transferred as heat from the hot stove element to the cooler pot until the pot and its contents become
just as hot as the element. The energy that is transferred into the pot as heat is then used to cook the food.
Heat is only one way in which energy can be transferred. Energy can also be transferred as work. The scientific definition of
work is force (any push or pull) applied over a distance. Whenever you push an object and cause it to move, you've done
work, and you've transferred some of your energy to the object. At this point, it's important to warn you of a common
misconception. Sometimes we think that the amount of work done can be measured by the amount of effort put in. This may
be true in everyday life, but it isn't true in science. By definition, scientific work requires that force be applied over a distance.
It does not matter how hard you push or how hard you pull. If you have not moved the object, you haven't done any work.
So far, we've talked about the two ways in which energy can be transferred from one place, or object, to another. Energy can be
transferred as heat, and energy can be transferred as work. But the question still remains – what IS energy? We'll try to at least
partially tackle that question in the next section.

Kinetic Energy
Machines use energy, our bodies use energy, energy comes from the sun, energy comes from volcanoes, energy causes forest
fires, and energy helps us to grow food. With all these seemingly different types of energy, it's hard to believe that there are
really only two different forms of energy – kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is energy associated with
motion. When an object is moving, it has kinetic energy. When the object stops moving, it has no kinetic energy. While all
moving objects have kinetic energy, not all moving objects have the same amount of kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic
energy possessed by an object is determined by its mass and its speed. The heavier an object is and the faster it is moving, the
more kinetic energy it has.
Kinetic energy is very common, and it's easy to spot examples of it in the world around you. Sometimes we even try to capture
kinetic energy and use it to power things like our home appliances. If you're from California, you might have driven through
the Tehachapi Pass near Mojave or the Montezuma Hills in Solano County and seen the windmills lining the slopes of the
mountains (Figure 3.8.2). These are two of the larger wind farms in North America. As wind rushes along the hills, the kinetic
energy of the moving air particles turns the windmills, trapping the wind's kinetic energy so that people can use it in their
houses and offices.
Figure 3.8.2 : A wind farm in Solano County harnesses the kinetic energy of the wind. Attribution: BDS2006 at the English
Wikipedia, CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons
Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy. It is energy that remains available until we choose to use it. Think of a battery in a
flashlight. If you leave a flashlight on, the battery will run out of energy within a couple of hours, and your flashlight will die.
If, however, you only use the flashlight when you need it, and you turn it off when you don’t, the battery will last for days or
even months. The battery contains a certain amount of energy, and it will power the flashlight for a certain amount of time, but
because the battery stores potential energy, you can choose to use the energy all at once, or you can save it and only use a
small amount at a time.
Any stored energy is potential energy. Unfortunately, there are a lot of different ways in which energy can be stored, and that
can make potential energy very difficult to recognize. In general, an object has potential energy because of its position relative
to another object. For example when you hold a rock above the earth, it has potential energy because of its position relative to
the ground. You can tell that this is potential energy because the energy is stored for as long as you hold the rock in the air.
Once you drop the rock, though, the stored energy is released as kinetic energy as the rock falls.
Chemical Energy
There are other common examples of potential energy. A ball at the top of a hill stores potential energy until it is allowed to
roll to the bottom. When you hold two magnets next to each other, they store potential energy too. For some examples of
potential energy, though, it's harder to see how "position" is involved. In chemistry, we are often interested in what is called
chemical potential energy. Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the atoms, molecules, and chemical bonds that make
up matter. How does this depend on position?
As you learned earlier, the world, and all of the chemicals in it are made up of atoms and molecules. These store potential
energy that is dependent on their positions relative to one another. Of course, you can't see atoms and molecules. Nevertheless,
scientists do know a lot about the ways in which atoms and molecules interact, and this allows them to figure out how much
potential energy is stored in a specific quantity (like a cup or a gallon) of a particular chemical. Different chemicals have

different amounts of potential energy because they are made up of different atoms, and those atoms have different positions
relative to one another.
Since different chemicals have different amounts of potential energy, scientists will sometimes say potential energy
depends not only on position, but also on composition. Composition affects potential energy because it determines
which molecules and atoms end up next to each other. For example, the total potential energy in a cup of pure water
is different than the total potential energy in a cup of apple juice, because the cup of water and the cup of apple juice
are composed of different amounts of different chemicals.
At this point, you might be wondering just how useful chemical potential energy is. If you want to release the potential energy
stored in an object held above the ground, you just drop it. But how do you get potential energy out of chemicals? It's actually
not that difficult. You use the fact that different chemicals have different amounts of potential energy. If you start with
chemicals that have a lot of potential energy and allow them to react and form chemicals with less potential energy, all the
extra energy that was in the chemicals at the beginning but not at the end is released.
Units of Energy
Energy is measured in one of two common units: the calorie and the joule. The joule (J) is the SI unit of energy. The calorie is
familiar because it is commonly used when referring to the amount of energy contained within food. A calorie (cal) is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 C. For example, raising the temperature of 100 g of
o
water from 20 C to 22 C would require 100 × 2 = 200 cal.

o o
Calories contained within food are actually kilocalories (kcal). In other words, if a certain snack contains 85 food calories, it
actually contains 85 kcal or 85, 000 cal. In order to make the distinction, the dietary calorie is written with a capital C.
1 kilocalorie = 1 Calorie = 1000 calories (3.8.1)
To say that the snack "contains" 85 Calories means that 85 kcal of energy are released when that snack is processed by your
body.
Heat changes in chemical reactions are typically measured in joules rather than calories. The conversion between a joule and a
calorie is shown below.
1 J = 0.2390 cal or 1 cal = 4.184 J (3.8.2)
We can calculate the amount of heat released in kilojoules when a 400. Calorie hamburger is digested.
4.184 kJ
3
400 Cal = 400 kcal × = 1.67 × 10 kJ (3.8.3)
1 kcal
Summary
Any time we use energy, we transfer energy from one object to another.
Energy can be transferred in one of two ways – as heat, or as work.
Heat is the term given to energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object due to the difference in their
temperatures.
Work is the term given to energy that is transferred as a result of a force applied over a distance.
Energy comes in two fundamentally different forms – kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
Potential energy is stored energy that depends on the position of an object relative to another object.
Chemical potential energy is a special type of potential energy that depends on the positions of different atoms and
molecules relative to one another.
Chemical potential energy can also be thought of as depending on chemical composition.
Energy can be converted from one form to another. The total amount of mass and energy in the universe is conserved.

Wikibooks

3.9: Energy and Chemical and Physical Change
Learning Objectives
Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Describe how heat is transferred in endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Determine whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic through observations, temperature changes, or an energy
diagram.
So far we've talked about how energy exists as either kinetic energy or potential energy and how energy can be transferred as
either heat or work. While it's important to understand the difference between kinetic energy and potential energy and the
difference between heat and work, the truth is, energy is constantly changing. Kinetic energy is constantly being turned into
potential energy, and potential energy is constantly being turned into kinetic energy. Likewise, energy that is transferred as
work might later end up transferred as heat, while energy that is transferred as heat might later end up being used to do work.
Even though energy can change form, it must still follow one fundamental law – Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can
only be changed from one form to another. This law is known as the Law of Conservation of Energy. In a lot of ways, energy
is like money. You can exchange quarters for dollar bills and dollar bills for quarters, but no matter how often you convert
between the two, you will not end up with any more or any less money than you started with. Similarly, you can transfer (or
spend) money using cash, or transfer money using a credit card, but you still spend the same amount of money, and the store
still makes the same amount of money.
A campfire is an example of basic thermochemistry. The reaction is initiated by the application of heat from a match.
The reaction converting wood to carbon dioxide and water (among other things) continues, releasing heat energy in
the process. This heat energy can then be used to cook food, roast marshmallows, or just keep warm when it's cold
outside.
An image of a campfire with colored flames, made by the burning of a garden hose in a copper pipe. (CC SA-BY 3.0;
Jared)
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

When physical or chemical changes occur, they are generally accompanied by a transfer of energy. The law of conservation of
energy states that in any physical or chemical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed. In other words, the entire
energy in the universe is conserved. In order to better understand the energy changes taking place during a reaction, we need to
define two parts of the universe, called the system and the surroundings. The system is the specific portion of matter in a given
space that is being studied during an experiment or an observation. The surroundings is everything in the universe that is not
part of the system. In practical terms for a laboratory chemist, the system is the particular chemicals being reacted, while the
surroundings is the immediate vicinity within the room. During most processes, energy is exchanged between the system and
the surroundings. If the system loses a certain amount of energy, that same amount of energy is gained by the surroundings. If
the system gains a certain amount of energy, that energy is supplied by the surroundings.

A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings. In the course
of an endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
The quantity of heat for a process is represented by the letter q. The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because
the system is gaining heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the
surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases. The
sign of q for an exothermic process is negative because the system is losing heat.
Figure 3.9.1 : (A) Endothermic reaction. (B) Exothermic reaction.

During phase changes, energy changes are usually involved. For example, when solid dry ice vaporizes (physical change),
carbon dioxide molecules absorb energy. Meanwhile, when liquid water becomes ice energy is released. Remember that all
chemical reactions involve a change in the bonds of the reactants. The bonds in the reactants are broken and the bonds of the
products are formed. Chemical bonds have potential energy or "stored energy". Because we are changing the bonding, this
means we are also changing how much of this "stored energy" there is in a reaction.
Energy changes are frequently shown by drawing an energy diagram. Energy diagrams show the stored/hidden energy of the
reactants and products as well as the activation energy. If, on an energy diagram, the products have more stored energy than
the reactants started with, the reaction is endothermic.. You had to give the reaction energy. If, on the energy diagram, the
products have less stored energy than the reactants started with, the reaction is exothermic.
Example 3.9.1
Label each of the following processes as endothermic or exothermic.
a. water boiling
b. gasoline burning
c. ice forming on a pond
Solution
a. endothermic - you must put a pan of water on the stove and give it heat in order to get water to boil. Because you are
adding heat/energy, the reaction is endothermic.
b. exothermic - when you burn something, it feels hot to you because it is giving off heat into the surroundings.
c. exothermic - think of ice forming in your freezer instead. You put water into the freezer, which takes heat out of the
water, to get it to freeze. Because heat is being pulled out of the water, it is exothermic. Heat is leaving.
Exercise 3.9.1
Label each of the following processes as endothermic or exothermic.
a. water vapor condensing
b. gold melting
Answer (a)
exothermic
Answer (b)
endothermic

Summary
Phase changes involve changes in energy. All chemical reactions involve changes in energy. This may be a change in heat,
electricity, light, or other forms of energy. Reactions that absorb energy are endothermic. Reactions that release energy are
exothermic.


3.10: Temperature- Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms
Learning Objectives
To identify the different between temperature and heat
To recognize the different scales used to measuring temperature
The concept of temperature may seem familiar to you, but many people confuse temperature with heat. Temperature is a
measure of how hot or cold an object is relative to another object (its thermal energy content), whereas heat is the flow of
thermal energy between objects with different temperatures. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in matter. In everyday usage, temperature indicates a measure of how hot or cold an object is. Temperature is an
important parameter in chemistry. When a substance changes from solid to liquid, it is because there was in increase in the
temperature of the material. Chemical reactions usually proceed faster if the temperature is increased. Many unstable materials
(such as enzymes) will be viable longer at lower temperatures.
Figure 3.10.1 : The glowing charcoal on the left represents high kinetic energy, while the snow and ice on the right are of
much lower kinetic energy.
Thermometers measure temperature by using materials that expand or contract when heated or cooled. Mercury or alcohol
thermometers, for example, have a reservoir of liquid that expands when heated and contracts when cooled, so the liquid
column lengthens or shortens as the temperature of the liquid changes.
Figure 3.10.2 : Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (left), Anders Celsius (center), and Lord Kelvin (right)

The Fahrenheit Scale
The first thermometers were glass and contained alcohol, which expanded and contracted as the temperature changed. The
German scientist, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit used mercury in the tube, an idea put forth by Ismael Boulliau. The Fahrenheit
scale was first developed in 1724 and tinkered with for some time after that. The main problem with this scale is the arbitrary
definitions of temperature. The freezing point of water was defined as 32 F and the boiling point as 212 F. The Fahrenheit
o o
scale is typically not used for scientific purposes.
The Celsius Scale

The Celsius scale of the metric system is named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701 - 1744). The Celsius scale
sets the freezing point and boiling point of water at 0 C and 100 C respectively. The distance between those two points is
o o
divided into 100 equal intervals, each of which is one degree. Another term sometimes used for the Celsius scale is
"centigrade" because there are 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water on this scale. However, the
preferred term is "Celsius".
The Kelvin Scale

The Kelvin temperature scale is named after Scottish physicist and mathematician Lord Kelvin (1824 - 1907). It is based on
molecular motion, with the temperature of 0 K, also known as absolute zero, being the point where all molecular motion
ceases. The freezing point of water on the Kelvin scale is 273.15 K, while the boiling point is 373.15 K. Notice that there is
no "degree" used in the temperature designation. Unlike the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales where temperatures are referred to
as "degrees F " or "degrees C", we simply designated temperatures in the Kelvin scale as kelvins.
Figure 3.10.1 : A Comparison of the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin Temperature Scales. Because the difference between the
freezing point of water and the boiling point of water is 100° on both the Celsius and Kelvin scales, the size of a degree
Celsius (°C) and a kelvin (K) are precisely the same. In contrast, both a degree Celsius and a kelvin are 9/5 the size of a
degree Fahrenheit (°F).
Converting between Scales

The Kelvin is the same size as the Celsius degree, so measurements are easily converted from one to the other. The freezing
point of water is 0°C = 273.15 K; the boiling point of water is 100°C = 373.15 K. The Kelvin and Celsius scales are related as
follows:
T (in °C) + 273.15 = T (in K) (3.10.1)
T (in K) − 273.15 = T (in °C) (3.10.2)
Degrees on the Fahrenheit scale, however, are based on an English tradition of using 12 divisions, just as 1 ft = 12 in. The
relationship between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius is as follows: where the coefficient for degrees Fahrenheit is
exact. (Some calculators have a function that allows you to convert directly between °F and °C.) There is only one temperature

for which the numerical value is the same on both the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales: −40°C = −40°F. The relationship between
the scales are as follows:
5
°C = × (°F − 32) (3.10.3)
9
9
°F = × (°C ) + 32 (3.10.4)
5
Example 3.10.1 : Temperature Conversions

A student is ill with a temperature of 103.5°F. What is her temperature in °C and K?
SOLUTION
Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius requires the use of Equation 3.10.3:
5
°C = × (103.5°F − 32) (3.10.1)
9
= 39.7 °C (3.10.2)
Converting from Celsius to Kelvin requires the use of Equation 3.10.1:

K = 39.7 °C + 273.15 (3.10.3)
= 312.9 K (3.10.4)
Exercise 3.10.1
Convert each temperature to °C and °F.
a. the temperature of the surface of the sun (5800 K)
b. the boiling point of gold (3080 K)
c. the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77.36 K)
Answer (a)
5527 K, 9980 °F
Answer (b)
2807 K, 5084 °F
Answer (c)
-195.79 K, -320.42 °F
Summary


3.11: Temperature Changes- Heat Capacity
If a swimming pool and wading pool, both full of water at the same temperature, were subjected to the same input of heat
energy, the wading pool would certainly rise in temperature more quickly than the swimming pool. The heat capacity of an
object depends both on its mass and its chemical composition. Because of its much larger mass, the swimming pool of water
has a larger heat capacity than the wading pool.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Different substances respond to heat in different ways. If a metal chair sits in the bright sun on a hot day, it may become quite
hot to the touch. An equal mass of water in the same sun will not become nearly as hot. We would say that water has a high
heat capacity (the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 C). Water is very resistant to changes in
o
temperature, while metals in general are not. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 C. The symbol for specific heat is c , with the p subscript referring to the fact
o
p
that specific heats are measured at constant pressure. The units for specific heat can either be joules per gram per degree
(J/g C) or calories per gram per degree (cal/g C). This text will use J/g C for specific heat.
o o o
Notice that water has a very high specific heat compared to most other substances. Water is commonly used as a coolant for
machinery because it is able to absorb large quantities of heat (see table above). Coastal climates are much more moderate than
inland climates because of the presence of the ocean. Water in lakes or oceans absorbs heat from the air on hot days and
releases it back into the air on cool days.
Figure 3.11.1 : This power plant in West Virginia, like many others, is located next to a large lake so that the water from the
lake can be used as a coolant. Cool water from the lake is pumped into the plant, while warmer water is pumped out of the
plant and back into the lake.
Summary
Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 C). o
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by
1 C.
o


3.12: Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations
Learning Objectives
To relate heat transfer to temperature change.
Heat is a familiar manifestation of transferring energy. When we touch a hot object, energy flows from the hot object into our
fingers, and we perceive that incoming energy as the object being “hot.” Conversely, when we hold an ice cube in our palms,
energy flows from our hand into the ice cube, and we perceive that loss of energy as “cold.” In both cases, the temperature of
the object is different from the temperature of our hand, so we can conclude that differences in temperatures are the ultimate
cause of heat transfer.
The specific heat of a substance can be used to calculate the temperature change that a given substance will undergo when it is
either heated or cooled. The equation that relates heat (q) to specific heat (c ), mass (m), and temperature change (ΔT ) is
p
shown below.
q = cp × m × ΔT (3.12.1)
The heat that is either absorbed or released is measured in joules. The mass is measured in grams. The change in temperature
is given by ΔT = T − T , where T is the final temperature and T is the initial temperature.
f i f i
Every substance has a characteristic specific heat, which is reported in units of cal/g•°C or cal/g•K, depending on the units
used to express ΔT. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy that must be transferred to or from 1 g of that
substance to change its temperature by 1°. Table 3.12.1 lists the specific heats for various materials.
Table 3.12.1: Specific Heats of Some Common Substances
Substance Specific Heat (J/g o
C)
Water (l) 4.18
Water (s) 2.06

Water (g) 1.87
Ammonia (g) 2.09
Ethanol (l) 2.44
Aluminum (s) 0.897
Carbon, graphite (s) 0.709
Copper (s) 0.385
Gold (s) 0.129
Iron (s) 0.449
Lead (s) 0.129
Mercury (l) 0.140
Silver (s) 0.233
The direction of heat flow is not shown in heat = mcΔT. If energy goes into an object, the total energy of the object increases,
and the values of heat ΔT are positive. If energy is coming out of an object, the total energy of the object decreases, and the
values of heat and ΔT are negative.
Example 3.12.1
A 15.0 g piece of cadmium metal absorbs 134 J of heat while rising from 24.0 o
C to 62.7
o
. Calculate the specific heat
C
of cadmium.
Solution
Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Known
Heat = q = 134 J
Mass = m = 15.0 g
o o o
ΔT = 62.7 C − 24.0 C = 38.7 C
Unknown
cp of cadmium =? J/g o
C
The specific heat equation can be rearranged to solve for the specific heat.
Step 2: Solve.
q 134 J o
cp = = = 0.231 J/g C (3.12.2)
o
m × ΔT 15.0 g × 38.7 C
Step 3: Think about your result.

The specific heat of cadmium, a metal, is fairly close to the specific heats of other metals. The result has three significant
figures.
Since most specific heats are known (Table 3.12.1), they can be used to determine the final temperature attained by a
substance when it is either heated or cooled. Suppose that a 60.0 g of water at 23.52 C was cooled by the removal of 813 J of
o
heat. The change in temperature can be calculated using the specific heat equation.
q 813 J
o
ΔT = = = 3.24 C (3.12.3)
o
cp × m 4.18 J/g C × 60.0 g
Since the water was being cooled, the temperature decreases. The final temperature is:
o o o
Tf = 23.52 C − 3.24 C = 20.28 C (3.12.4)
Example 3.12.2
What quantity of heat is transferred when a 150.0 g block of iron metal is heated from 25.0°C to 73.3°C? What is the
direction of heat flow?
SOLUTION
We can use heat = mcΔT to determine the amount of heat, but first we need to determine ΔT. Because the final
temperature of the iron is 73.3°C and the initial temperature is 25.0°C, ΔT is as follows:
ΔT = Tfinal − Tinitial = 73.3°C − 25.0°C = 48.3°C
The mass is given as 150.0 g, and Table 7.3 gives the specific heat of iron as 0.108 cal/g•°C. Substitute the known values
into heat = mcΔT and solve for amount of heat:
cal ∘
heat = (150.0 g) (0.108 ) (48.3 C) = 782 cal (3.12.5)
∘
g⋅ C
Note how the gram and °C units cancel algebraically, leaving only the calorie unit, which is a unit of heat. Because the
temperature of the iron increases, energy (as heat) must be flowing into the metal.
Exercise 3.12.1
What quantity of heat is transferred when a 295.5 g block of aluminum metal is cooled from 128.0°C to 22.5°C? What is
the direction of heat flow?
Answer
Heat leaves the aluminum block.
Example 3 12 2
Example 3.12.2
A 10.3 g sample of a reddish-brown metal gave off 71.7 cal of heat as its temperature decreased from 97.5°C to 22.0°C.
What is the specific heat of the metal? Can you identify the metal from the data in Table 3.12.1?
SOLUTION
The question gives us the heat, the final and initial temperatures, and the mass of the sample. The value of ΔT is as
follows:
ΔT = Tfinal − Tinitial = 22.0°C − 97.5°C = −75.5°C
If the sample gives off 71.7 cal, it loses energy (as heat), so the value of heat is written as a negative number, −71.7 cal.
Substitute the known values into heat = mcΔT and solve for c:
−71.7 cal = (10.3 g)(c)(−75.5°C)
−71.7 cal
c=
∘
(10.3 g)(−75.5 C)
c = 0.0923 cal/g•°C
This value for specific heat is very close to that given for copper in Table 7.3.
Exercise 3.12.2
A 10.7 g crystal of sodium chloride (NaCl) had an initial temperature of 37.0°C. What is the final temperature of the
crystal if 147 cal of heat were supplied to it?
Answer
The
Summary
Specific heat calculations are illustrated.


3.E: Exercises
3.1: In Your Room
3.2: What Is Matter?
1. What is matter?
2. What does weight mean?
3. In this chapter, we'll learn about atoms, which are the building blocks of all matter in the universe. As of 2011, scientists
only know of 118 different types of atoms. How do you think it's possible to generate so many different forms of matter
using only 118 types of building blocks?
4. Which do you think has more matter, a cup of water or a cup of mercury? Explain.
5. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. Mass and weight are two words for the same concept.
b. Molecules are bonded together to form atoms.
c. Alchemists couldn't make gold out of common metals because gold is an element.
d. The symbol for Gold in the periodic table is Gd.
6. Would you have more mass on the moon or on Earth?
7. Would you have more weight on the moon or on Earth? The force of gravity is stronger on the Earth than it is on the moon.
8. Match the following terms with their meaning.
Terms Definitions
(a) Mass a. a measure of the total quantity of matter in an object
(b) Volume b. a measure of how strongly gravity pulls on an object

(c) Weight c. a measure of the space occupied by an object
9. For the following statements, circle all of the options that apply:
Mass depends on…
(a) the total quantity of matter
(b) the temperature
(c) the location
(d) the force of gravity
Volume depends on…
(b) the temperature
(c) the object's shape (independent of size)
(d) the object's size (independent of shape)
Weight depends on…
(b) the temperature
(c) the location
(d) the force of gravity
3.3: Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition
3.5: Differences in Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties

3.6: Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical Changes
3.7: Conservation of Mass: There is No New Matter
3.8: Energy
1. Classify each of the following as energy primarily transferred as heat or energy primarily transferred as work:
a. The energy transferred from your body to a shopping cart as you push the shopping cart down the aisle.
b. The energy transferred from a wave to your board when you go surfing.
c. The energy transferred from the flames to your hotdog when you cook your hotdog over a campfire.
2. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:
a. When heat is transferred to an object, the object cools down.
b. Any time you raise the temperature of an object, you have done work.
c. Any time you move an object by applying force, you have done work.
d. Any time you apply force to an object, you have done work.
3. Rank the following scenarios in order of increasing work:
a. You apply 100 N of force to a boulder and successfully move it by 2 m.
b. You apply 100 N of force to a boulder and successfully move it by 1 m.
c. You apply 200 N of force to a boulder and successfully move it by 2 m.
d. You apply 200 N of force to a boulder but cannot move the boulder.
4. In science, a vacuum is defined as space that contains absolutely no matter (no molecules, no atoms, etc.) Can energy be
transferred as heat through a vacuum? Why or why not?
5. Classify each of the following energies as kinetic energy or potential energy:
a. The energy in a chocolate bar.
b. The energy of rushing water used to turn a turbine or a water wheel.
c. The energy of a skater gliding on the ice.
d. The energy in a stretched rubber band.
6. Decide which of the following objects has more kinetic energy:
a. A 200 lb. man running at 6 mph or a 200 lb. man running at 3 mph.
b. A 200 lb. man running at 7 mph or a 150 lb. man running at 7 mph.
c. A 400 lb. man running at 5 mph or a 150 lb. man running at 3 mph.
7. A car and a truck are traveling along the highway at the same speed.
a. If the car weighs 1500 kg and the truck weighs 2500 kg, which has more kinetic energy, the car or the truck?
b. Both the car and the truck convert the potential energy stored in gasoline into the kinetic energy of motion. Which do
you think uses more gas to travel the same distance, the car or the truck?
8. You mix two chemicals in a beaker and notice that as the chemicals react, the beaker becomes noticeably colder. Which
chemicals have more chemical potential energy, those present at the start of the reaction or those present at the end of the
reaction?
3.9: Energy and Chemical and Physical Change
3.10: Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms
3.11: Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity
3.12: Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations
1. A pot of water is set on a hot burner of a stove. What is the direction of heat flow?
2. Some uncooked macaroni is added to a pot of boiling water. What is the direction of heat flow?
3. How much energy in calories is required to heat 150 g of H2O from 0°C to 100°C?
4. How much energy in calories is required to heat 125 g of Fe from 25°C to 150°C?
5. If 250 cal of heat were added to 43.8 g of Al at 22.5°C, what is the final temperature of the aluminum?

6. If 195 cal of heat were added to 33.2 g of Hg at 56.2°C, what is the final temperature of the mercury?
7. A sample of copper absorbs 145 cal of energy, and its temperature rises from 37.8°C to 41.7°C. What is the mass of the
copper?
8. A large, single crystal of sodium chloride absorbs 98.0 cal of heat. If its temperature rises from 22.0°C to 29.7°C, what is
the mass of the NaCl crystal?
9. If 1.00 g of each substance in Table 7.3 were to absorb 100 cal of heat, which substance would experience the largest
temperature change?
10. If 1.00 g of each substance in Table 7.3 were to absorb 100 cal of heat, which substance would experience the smallest
temperature change?
11. Determine the heat capacity of a substance if 23.6 g of the substance gives off 199 cal of heat when its temperature changes
from 37.9°C to 20.9°C.
12. What is the heat capacity of gold if a 250 g sample needs 133 cal of energy to increase its temperature from 23.0°C to
40.1°C?
Answers
1. Heat flows into the pot of water.

3. 15,000 cal
5. 49.0°C
7. 404 g
9. Mercury would experience the largest temperature change.
11. 0.496 cal/g•°C

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
The basic building block of all matter is the atom. Curiously, the idea of atoms was first proposed in
the fifth century BCE, when the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus proposed their
existence in a surprisingly modern fashion. However, their ideas never took hold among their
contemporaries, and it wasn’t until the early 1800s that evidence amassed to make scientists
reconsider the idea. Today, the concept of the atom is central to the study of matter.
4.1: EXPERIENCING ATOMS AT TIBURON

4.2: INDIVISIBLE- THE ATOMIC THEORY
You learned earlier how all matter in the universe is made out of tiny building blocks called atoms.
All modern scientists accept the concept of the atom, but when the concept of the atom was first
proposed about 2,500 years ago, ancient philosophers laughed at the idea. It has always been difficult to convince people of the
existence of things that are too small to see. We will spend some time considering the evidence (observations) that convince scientists
of the existence of atoms.
4.3: THE NUCLEAR ATOM

While Dalton's Atomic Theory held up well, J. J. Thomson demonstrate that his theory was not the entire story. He suggested that the
small, negatively charged particles making up the cathode ray were actually pieces of atoms. He called these pieces "corpuscles,"
although today we know them as electrons. Thanks to his clever experiments and careful reasoning, J. J. Thomson is credited with the
discovery of the electron.
4.4: THE PROPERTIES OF PROTONS, NEUTRONS, AND ELECTRONS

Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so electrons contribute
virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom. Electrons have an electric charge of −1, which is equal but opposite to the charge of a
proton, which is +1. All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative charges "cancel out",
making atoms electrically neutral.
4.5: ELEMENTS- DEFINED BY THEIR NUMBERS OF PROTONS

Scientists distinguish between different elements by counting the number of protons in the nucleus. Since an atom of one element can
be distinguished from an atom of another element by the number of protons in its nucleus, scientists are always interested in this
number, and how this number differs between different elements. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (Z).
This number is very important because it is unique for atoms of a given element.
4.6: LOOKING FOR PATTERNS- THE PERIODIC LAW AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
Certain elemental properties become apparent in a survey of the periodic table as a whole. Every element can be classified as either a
metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid (or semi metal). A metal is a substance that is shiny, typically (but not always) silvery in color, and
an excellent conductor of electricity and heat. Metals are also malleable (they can be beaten into thin sheets) and ductile (they can be
drawn into thin wires).
4.7: IONS- LOSING AND GAINING ELECTRONS

Atom may lose valence electrons quite to obtain a lower shell that contains an octet. Atoms that lose electrons acquire a positive
charge as a result because they are left with fewer negatively charged electrons to balance the positive charges of the protons in the
nucleus. Positively charged ions are called cations. Most metals become cations when they make ionic compounds.
4.8: ISOTOPES- WHEN THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS VARIES

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but some may have different numbers of neutrons. For example, all
carbon atoms have six protons, and most have six neutrons as well. But some carbon atoms have seven or eight neutrons instead of
the usual six. Atoms of the same element that differ in their numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Many isotopes occur naturally.
4.9: ATOMIC MASS- THE AVERAGE MASS OF AN ELEMENT’S ATOMS

In chemistry we very rarely deal with only one isotope of an element. We use a mixture of the isotopes of an element in chemical
reactions and other aspects of chemistry, because all of the isotopes of an element react in the same manner. That means that we rarely
need to worry about the mass of a specific isotope, but instead we need to know the average mass of the atoms of an element.
1 6/21/2020
4.1: Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon
Take some aluminum foil. Cut it in half. Now you have two smaller pieces of aluminum foil. Cut one of the pieces in half
again. Cut one of those smaller pieces in half again. Continue cutting, making smaller and smaller pieces of aluminum foil.
It should be obvious that the pieces are still aluminum foil; they are just becoming smaller and smaller. But how far can you
take this exercise, at least in theory? Can you continue cutting the aluminum foil into halves forever, making smaller and
smaller pieces? Or is there some limit, some absolute smallest piece of aluminum foil? (Thought experiments like this—and
the conclusions based on them—were debated as far back as the fifth century BC.)
Most elements in their pure form exist as individual atoms. For example, a macroscopic chunk of iron metal is composed,
microscopically, of individual atoms. Some elements, however, exist as groups of atoms called molecules. Several important
elements exist as two-atom combinations and are called diatomic molecules. In representing a diatomic molecule, we use the
symbol of the element and include the subscript 2 to indicate that two atoms of that element are joined together. The elements
that exist as diatomic molecules are hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2),
and iodine (I2).

4.2: Indivisible- The Atomic Theory
Learning Objectives
Give a short history of the concept of the atom.
Describe the contributions of Democritus and Dalton to atomic theory.
Summarize Dalton's atomic theory and explain its historical development.
You learned earlier how all matter in the universe is made out of tiny building blocks called atoms. All modern scientists
accept the concept of the atom, but when the concept of the atom was first proposed about 2,500 years ago, ancient
philosophers laughed at the idea. It has always been difficult to convince people of the existence of things that are too small to
see. We will spend some time considering the evidence (observations) that convince scientists of the existence of atoms.
Democritus and the Greek Philosophers

About 2,500 years ago, early Greek philosophers believed the entire universe was a single, huge, entity. In other words,
"everything was one." They believed that all objects, all matter, and all substances were connected as a single, big,
unchangeable "thing." One of the first people to propose "atoms" was a man known as Democritus. As an alternative to the
beliefs of the Greek philosophers, he suggested that atomos, or atomon - tiny, indivisible, solid objects - make up all matter in
the universe.
Figure 4.2.1 : (left) Democritus by Hendrick ter Brugghen, 1628. Democritus was known as the "laughing philosopher." It
was a good thing he liked to laugh, because most other philosophers were laughing at his theories. (right): British physicist
and chemist John Dalton (1766-1844). Unlike the Greek philosophers, John Dalton believed in both logical thinking and
experimentation.
Democritus then reasoned that changes occur when the many atomos in an object were reconnected or recombined in different
ways. Democritus even extended this theory, suggesting that there were different varieties of atomos with different shapes,
sizes, and masses. He thought, however, that shape, size, and mass were the only properties differentiating the different types
of atomos. According to Democritus, other characteristics, like color and taste, did not reflect properties of the atomos
themselves, but rather, resulted from the different ways in which the atomos were combined and connected to one another.
The early Greek philosophers tried to understand the nature of the world through reason and logic, but not through experiment
and observation. As a result, they had some very interesting ideas, but they felt no need to justify their ideas based on life
experiences. In a lot of ways, you can think of the Greek philosophers as being "all thought and no action." It's truly amazing
how much they achieved using their minds, but because they never performed any experiments, they missed or rejected a lot of

discoveries that they could have made otherwise. Greek philosophers dismissed Democritus' theory entirely. Sadly, it took over
two millennia before the theory of atomos (or "atoms," as they're known today) was fully appreciated.
Greeks: "All thought and No Action"

Greek philosophers were "all thought and no action" and did not feel the need to test their theories with reality. In
contrast, Dalton's efforts were based on experimentation and testing ideas against reality.
While it must be assumed that many more scientists, philosophers, and others studied composition of matter after Democritus,
a major leap forward in our understanding of the composition of matter took place in the 1800's with the work of the British
scientists John Dalton. He started teaching school at age twelve, and was primarily known as a teacher. In his twenties, he
moved to the growing city of Manchester, where he was able to pursue some scientific studies. His work in several areas of
science brought him a number of honors. When he died, over 40,000 people in Manchester marched at his funeral.
The modern atomic theory, proposed about 1803 by the English chemist John Dalton (Figure 4.2.1), is a fundamental concept
that states that all elements are composed of atoms. Previously, we defined an atom as the smallest part of an element that
maintains the identity of that element. Individual atoms are extremely small; even the largest atom has an approximate
diameter of only 5.4 × 10−10 m. With that size, it takes over 18 million of these atoms, lined up side by side, to equal the width
of your little finger (about 1 cm).
Figure 4.2.1 John Dalton was an English scientist who enunciated the modern atomic theory.
Dalton studied the weights of various elements and compounds. He noticed that matter always combined in fixed ratios based
on weight, or volume in the case of gases. Chemical compounds always contain the same proportion of elements by mass,
regardless of amount, which provided further support for Proust's law of definite proportions. Dalton also observed that there
could be more than one combination of two elements.
From his experiments and observations, as well as the work from peers of his time, Dalton proposed a new theory of the atom.
This later became known as Dalton's atomic theory. The general tenets of this theory were as follows:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass,
and other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Dalton's atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception of three changes. We know
now that (1) an atom can be further subdivided, (2) all atoms of an element are not identical in mass, and (3) using nuclear
fission and fusion techniques, we can create or destroy atoms by changing them into other atoms.

Figure 4.2.2 : Dalton's symbols from his text "A New System of Chemical Philosophy."
The evidence for atoms is so great that few doubt their existence. In fact, individual atoms are now routinely observed with
state-of-the art technologies. Moreover, they can even be used for making pretty images or as IBM research demonstrate in
Video 4.2.1, control of individual atoms can be use used create animations.
Figure 4.2.23 : A Boy And His Atom: The World's Smallest Movie
A Boy and His Atom is a 2012 stop-motion animated short film released by IBM Research. The movie tells the story of a boy
and a wayward atom who meet and become friends. It depicts a boy playing with an atom that takes various forms. It was
made by moving carbon monoxide molecules viewed with a scanning tunneling microscope, a device that magnifies them 100
million times. These molecules were moved to create images, which were then saved as individual frames to make the film.
Summary
2,500 years ago, Democritus suggested that all matter in the universe was made up of tiny, indivisible, solid objects he
called "atomos." However, other Greek philosophers disliked Democritus' "atomos" theory because they felt it was
illogical.
Dalton's Atomic Theory is the first scientific theory to relate chemical changes to the structure, properties, and behavior of
the atom. The general tenets of this theory were as follows:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size,
mass, and other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.


4.3: The Nuclear Atom
Learning Objectives
Explain the observations that led to Thomson's discovery of the electron.
Describe Thomson's "plum pudding" model of the atom and the evidence for it.
Draw a diagram of Thomson's "plum pudding" model of the atom and explain why it has this name.
Describe Rutherford's gold foil experiment and explain how this experiment altered the "plum pudding" model.
Draw a diagram of the Rutherford model of the atom and label the nucleus and the electron cloud.
Dalton's Atomic Theory held up well to a lot of the different chemical experiments that scientists performed to test it. In fact,
for almost 100 years, it seemed as if Dalton's Atomic Theory was the whole truth. However, in 1897, a scientist named J. J.
Thomson conducted some research that suggested that Dalton's Atomic Theory was not the entire story. He suggested that the
small, negatively charged particles making up the cathode ray were actually pieces of atoms. He called these pieces
"corpuscles," although today we know them as electrons. Thanks to his clever experiments and careful reasoning, J. J.
Thomson is credited with the discovery of the electron.
Figure 4.3.1 : J.J. Thomson (center) concluded experiments that suggested that Dalton's (left) atomic theory was not telling
the entire story. Ernest Rutherford (right) later built on Thomson's work to argue for the model nuclear atom
Electrons and Plums

The electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897. The existence of protons was also known, as was the fact that atoms
were neutral in charge. Since the intact atom had no net charge and the electron and proton had opposite charges, the next step

after the discovery of subatomic particles was to figure out how these particles were arranged in the atom. This is a difficult
task because of the incredibly small size of the atom. Therefore, scientists set out to design a model of what they believed the
atom could look like. The goal of each atomic model was to accurately represent all of the experimental evidence about atoms
in the simplest way possible.
Following the discovery of the electron, J.J. Thomson developed what became known as the "plum pudding" model in 1904.
Plum pudding is an English dessert similar to a blueberry muffin. In Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom, the electrons
were embedded in a uniform sphere of positive charge like blueberries stuck into a muffin. The positive matter was thought to
be jelly-like or a thick soup. The electrons were somewhat mobile. As they got closer to the outer portion of the atom, the
positive charge in the region was greater than the neighboring negative charges and the electron would be pulled back more
toward the center region of the atom.
Figure 4.3.2 : The "plum pudding" model.

However, this model of the atom soon gave way to a new model developed by New Zealander Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)
about five years later. Thomson did still receive many honors during his lifetime, including being awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1906 and a knighthood in 1908.
Atoms and Gold

In 1911, Rutherford and coworkers Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden initiated a series of groundbreaking experiments that
would completely change the accepted model of the atom. They bombarded very thin sheets of gold foil with fast moving
alpha particles. Alpha particles, a type of natural radioactive particle, are positively charged particles with a mass about four
times that of a hydrogen atom.
Figure 4.3.3 : (A) The experimental setup for Rutherford's gold foil experiment: A radioactive element that emitted alpha
particles was directed toward a thin sheet of gold foil that was surrounded by a screen which would allow detection of the
deflected particles. (B) According to the plum pudding model (top) all of the alpha particles should have passed through the
gold foil with little or no deflection. Rutherford found that a small percentage of alpha particles were deflected at large
angles, which could be explained by an atom with a very small, dense, positively-charged nucleus at its center (bottom).
According to the accepted atomic model, in which an atom's mass and charge are uniformly distributed throughout the atom,
the scientists expected that all of the alpha particles would pass through the gold foil with only a slight deflection or none at
all. Surprisingly, while most of the alpha particles were indeed undeflected, a very small percentage (about 1 in 8000 particles)
bounced off the gold foil at very large angles. Some were even redirected back toward the source. No prior knowledge had
prepared them for this discovery. In a famous quote, Rutherford exclaimed that it was "as if you had fired a 15-inch [artillery]
shell at a piece of tissue and it came back and hit you."
Rutherford needed to come up with an entirely new model of the atom in order to explain his results. Because the vast majority
of the alpha particles had passed through the gold, he reasoned that most of the atom was empty space. In contrast, the
particles that were highly deflected must have experienced a tremendously powerful force within the atom. He concluded that

all of the positive charge and the majority of the mass of the atom must be concentrated in a very small space in the atom's
interior, which he called the nucleus. The nucleus is the tiny, dense, central core of the atom and is composed of protons and
neutrons.
Rutherford's atomic model became known as the nuclear model. In the nuclear atom, the protons and neutrons, which
comprise nearly all of the mass of the atom, are located in the nucleus at the center of the atom. The electrons are distributed
around the nucleus and occupy most of the volume of the atom. It is worth emphasizing just how small the nucleus is
compared to the rest of the atom. If we could blow up an atom to be the size of a large professional football stadium, the
nucleus would be about the size of a marble.
Rutherford's model proved to be an important step towards a full understanding of the atom. However, it did not completely
address the nature of the electrons and the way in which they occupied the vast space around the nucleus. It was not until some
years later that a full understanding of the electron was achieved. This proved to be the key to understanding the chemical
properties of elements.
Atomic Nucleus
The nucleus (plural, nuclei) is a positively charged region at the center of the atom. It consists of two types of subatomic
particles packed tightly together. The particles are protons, which have a positive electric charge, and neutrons, which are
neutral in electric charge. Outside of the nucleus, an atom is mostly empty space, with orbiting negative particles called
electrons whizzing through it. The figure below shows these parts of the atom.
Figure 4.3.4 : The nuclear atom

The nucleus of the atom is extremely small. Its radius is only about 1/100,000 of the total radius of the atom. If an atom were
the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be about the size of a pea! Electrons have virtually no mass, but protons and
neutrons have a lot of mass for their size. As a result, the nucleus has virtually all the mass of an atom. Given its great mass
and tiny size, the nucleus is very dense. If an object the size of a penny had the same density as the nucleus of an atom, its
mass would be greater than 30 million tons!
Holding It All Together

Particles with opposite electric charges attract each other. This explains why negative electrons orbit the positive nucleus.
Particles with the same electric charge repel each other. This means that the positive protons in the nucleus push apart
from one another. So why doesn't the nucleus fly apart? An even stronger force - called the strong nuclear force - holds
protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
Summary
Atoms are the ultimate building blocks of all matter.
The modern atomic theory establishes the concepts of atoms and how they compose matter.
Bombardment of gold foil with alpha particles showed that some particles were deflected.
The nuclear model of the atom consists of a small and dense positively charged interior surrounded by a cloud of electrons.



4.4: The Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Learning Objectives
Describe the locations, charges, and masses of the three main subatomic particles.
Determine the number of protons and electrons in an atom.
Define atomic mass unit (amu).
Dalton's Atomic Theory explained a lot about matter, chemicals, and chemical reactions. Nevertheless, it was not entirely
accurate, because contrary to what Dalton believed, atoms can, in fact, be broken apart into smaller subunits or subatomic
particles. We have been talking about the electron in great detail, but there are two other particles of interest to us: protons and
neutrons. We already learned that J. J. Thomson discovered a negatively charged particle, called the electron. Rutherford
proposed that these electrons orbit a positive nucleus. In subsequent experiments, he found that there is a smaller positively
charged particle in the nucleus which is called a proton. There is a third subatomic particle, known as a neutron.
Electrons
Electrons are one of three main types of particles that make up atoms. The other two types are protons and neutrons. Unlike
protons and neutrons, which consist of smaller, simpler particles, electrons are fundamental particles that do not consist of
smaller particles. They are a type of fundamental particles called leptons. All leptons have an electric charge of −1 or 0.
Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so electrons
contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom. Electrons have an electric charge of −1, which is equal but opposite
to the charge of a proton, which is +1. All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative
charges "cancel out", making atoms electrically neutral.
Unlike protons and neutrons, which are located inside the nucleus at the center of the atom, electrons are found outside the
nucleus. Because opposite electric charges attract each other, negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. This force
of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving through the otherwise empty space around the nucleus. The figure below is a
common way to represent the structure of an atom. It shows the electron as a particle orbiting the nucleus, similar to the way
that planets orbit the sun. This is however, an incorrect perspective, as electrons are more complicated as quantum mechanics
demonstrate.
Figure 4.4.1 : Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons. If an electrons were the mass of a penny, a proton or a
neutrons would have the mass of a large bowling ball!
Protons
A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. The other two particles are the neutron and electron. Protons are
found in the nucleus of the atom. This is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge
of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu), which is about 1.67 × 10 kilograms. Together with neutrons, they
−27
make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.
Neutrons
Atoms of all elements - except for most atoms of hydrogen - have neutrons in their nucleus. Unlike protons and electrons,
which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge - they are electrically neutral. That's why the neutrons in the diagram

above are labeled n . The zero stands for "zero charge". The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton,
0
which is 1 atomic mass unit (amu). (An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67 × 10 kilograms.) A neutron also has about the
−27
same diameter as a proton, or 1.7 × 10 meters.

−15
As you might have already guessed from its name, the neutron is neutral. In other words, it has no charge whatsoever and is
therefore neither attracted to nor repelled from other objects. Neutrons are in every atom (with one exception), and they're
bound together with other neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.
Before we move on, we must discuss how the different types of subatomic particles interact with each other. When it comes to
neutrons, the answer is obvious. Since neutrons are neither attracted to nor repelled from objects, they don't really interact with
protons or electrons (beyond being bound into the nucleus with the protons).
Even though electrons, protons, and neutrons are all types of subatomic particles, they are not all the same size. When you
compare the masses of electrons, protons, and neutrons, what you find is that electrons have an extremely small mass,
compared to either protons or neutrons. On the other hand, the masses of protons and neutrons are fairly similar, although
technically, the mass of a neutron is slightly larger than the mass of a proton. Because protons and neutrons are so much more
massive than electrons, almost all of the mass of any atom comes from the nucleus, which contains all of the neutrons and
protons.
Table 4.4.1 : Properties of Subatomic Particles
Relative Mass
Particle Symbol Mass (amu) Relative Charge Location
(proton = 1)
proton p+ 1 1 +1 inside the nucleus
electron e− 5.45 × 10−4 0.00055 −1 outside nucleus
neutron n0 1 1 0 inside the nucleus
Table 4.4.1 gives the properties and locations of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The third column shows the masses of the
three subatomic particles in "atomic mass units." An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-
12 atom. Atomic mass units (amu) are useful, because, as you can see, the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are
almost exactly 1 in this unit system.
Negative and positive charges of equal magnitude cancel each other out. This means that the negative charge on an electron
perfectly balances the positive charge on the proton. In other words, a neutral atom must have exactly one electron for every
proton. If a neutral atom has 1 proton, it must have 1 electron. If a neutral atom has 2 protons, it must have 2 electrons. If a
neutral atom has 10 protons, it must have 10 electrons. You get the idea. In order to be neutral, an atom must have the same
number of electrons and protons.
Summary
Electrons are a type of subatomic particle with a negative charge.
Protons are a type of subatomic particle with a positive charge. Protons are bound together in an atom's nucleus as a result
of the strong nuclear force.
Neutrons are a type of subatomic particle with no charge (they're neutral). Like protons, neutrons are bound into the atom's
nucleus as a result of the strong nuclear force.
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, but they are both much more massive than electrons
(approximately 2,000 times as massive as an electron).

The positive charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the negative charge on an electron. As a result, a neutral atom
must have an equal number of protons and electrons.
The atomic mass unit (amu) is a unit of mass equal to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom


4.5: Elements- Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
Learning Objectives
Define atomic number.
Define mass number.
Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom.
It's important to be able to distinguish atoms of one element from atoms of other elements. Elements are pure substances that
make up all other matter, so each one is given a unique name. The names of elements are also represented by unique one- or
two-letter symbols, such as H for hydrogen, C for carbon, or He for helium. However, it would more powerful if these names
could be used to identify the numbers of protons and neutrons in the atoms. That's where atomic number and mass number
come are useful.
Figure 4.5.1 : It is difficult to find qualities that are difference from each element and distinguish one element from another.
Each element, however, does have a unique number of protons. Sulfur has 16 protons, silicon has 14 protons, and gold has 79
protons. Images used with permission (public domain for sulfur and silicon, gold is licensed by CC-BY-SA-NC-ND;
Alchemist-hp)
Atomic Number
Scientists distinguish between different elements by counting the number of protons in the nucleus (Table 4.5.1). If an atom
has only one proton, we know it's a hydrogen atom. An atom with two protons is always a helium atom. If scientists count four
protons in an atom, they know it's a beryllium atom. An atom with three protons is a lithium atom, an atom with five protons is
a boron atom, an atom with six protons is a carbon atom . . . the list goes on.
Since an atom of one element can be distinguished from an atom of another element by the number of protons in its nucleus,
scientists are always interested in this number, and how this number differs between different elements. The number of protons
in an atom is called its atomic number (Z ). This number is very important because it is unique for atoms of a given element.
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons, and every element has a different number of protons in its atoms.
For example, all helium atoms have two protons, and no other elements have atoms with two protons.
Table 4.5.1 : Atoms of the First Six Elements
Name Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Number (Z) Mass Number (A)
Hydrogen 1 0 1 1 1
Helium 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium 3 4 3 3 7
Beryllium 4 5 4 4 9
Boron 5 6 5 5 11
Carbon 6 6 6 6 12
Of course, since neutral atoms have to have one electron for every proton, an element's atomic number also tells you how
many electrons are in a neutral atom of that element. For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. This means that an
atom of hydrogen has one proton, and, if it's neutral, one electron as well. Gold, on the other hand, has an atomic number of
79, which means that an atom of gold has 79 protons, and, if it's neutral, 79 electrons as well.

Neutral Atoms
Atoms are neutral in electrical charge because they have the same number of negative electrons as positive protons (Table
4.5.1). Therefore, the atomic number of an atom also tells you how many electrons the atom has. This, in turn, determines
many of the atom's chemical properties.
Mass Number
The mass number (A ) of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The mass of the atom is a unit
called the atomic mass unit (amu). One atomic mass unit is the mass of a proton, or about 1.67 × 10 −27
kilograms, which is
an extremely small mass. A neutron has just a tiny bit more mass than a proton, but its mass is often assumed to be one atomic
mass unit as well. Because electrons have virtually no mass, just about all the mass of an atom is in its protons and neutrons.
Therefore, the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom determines its mass in atomic mass units (Table 4.5.1).
Consider helium again. Most helium atoms have two neutrons in addition to two protons. Therefore the mass of most helium
atoms is 4 atomic mass units (2 amu for the protons + 2 amu for the neutrons). However, some helium atoms have more or
less than two neutrons. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Because
the number of neutrons can vary for a given element, the mass numbers of different atoms of an element may also vary. For
example, some helium atoms have three neutrons instead of two (these are called isotopes and are discussed in detail later on)
Why do you think that the "mass number" includes protons and neutrons, but not electrons? You know that most of the mass of
an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. The mass of an atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons. You have already
learned that the mass of an electron is very, very small compared to the mass of either a proton or a neutron (like the mass of a
penny compared to the mass of a bowling ball). Counting the number of protons and neutrons tells scientists about the total
mass of an atom.
mass number A = (number of protons) + (number of neutrons) (4.5.1)
An atom's mass number is very easy to calculate provided you know the number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Example 4.5.1
What is the mass number of an atom of helium that contains 2 neutrons?
Solution
(number of protons) = 2 (Remember that an atom of helium always has 2 protons.)
(number of neutrons) = 2
mass number = (number of protons) + (number of neutrons)
mass number = 2 + 2 = 4
A chemical symbol is a one- or two-letter designation of an element. Some examples of chemical symbols are O for oxygen,
Zn for zinc, and Fe for iron. The first letter of a symbol is always capitalized. If the symbol contains two letters, the second
letter is lower case. The majority of elements have symbols that are based on their English names. However, some of the
elements that have been known since ancient times have maintained symbols that are based on their Latin names, as shown in
Table 4.5.2.
Table 4.5.2 : Symbols and Latin Names for Elements
Chemical Symbol Name Latin Name
Na Sodium Natrium
K Potassium Kalium
Fe Iron Ferrum
Cu Copper Cuprum
Ag Silver Argentum
Sn Tin Stannum

Chemical Symbol Name Latin Name
Sb Antimony Stibium
Au Gold Aurum
Pb Lead Plumbum
Summary
Elements are pure substances that make up all matter, so each one is given a unique name.
The names of elements are also represented by unique one- or two-letter symbols.
Each element has a unique number of protons. An element's atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nuclei
of any of its atoms.
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the atom.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same number of protons) that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic
nuclei.


4.6: Looking for Patterns- The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
Learning Objectives
Explain how elements are organized into the periodic table.
Describe how some characteristics of elements relate to their positions on the periodic table.
In the 19th century, many previously unknown elements were discovered, and scientists noted that certain sets of elements had
similar chemical properties. For example, chlorine, bromine, and iodine react with other elements (such as sodium) to make
similar compounds. Likewise, lithium, sodium, and potassium react with other elements (such as oxygen) to make similar
compounds. Why is this so?
In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, organized the elements by atomic mass and grouped them according to their
chemical properties. Later that decade, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, organized all the known elements according to
similar properties. He left gaps in his table for what he thought were undiscovered elements, and he made some bold
predictions regarding the properties of those undiscovered elements. When elements were later discovered whose properties
closely matched Mendeleev’s predictions, his version of the table gained favor in the scientific community. Because certain
properties of the elements repeat on a regular basis throughout the table (that is, they are periodic), it became known as the
periodic table.
Mendeleev had to list some elements out of the order of their atomic masses to group
them with other elements that had similar properties.
The periodic table is one of the cornerstones of chemistry because it organizes all the known elements on the basis of their
chemical properties. A modern version is shown in Figure 4.6.1. Most periodic tables provide additional data (such as atomic
mass) in a box that contains each element’s symbol. The elements are listed in order of atomic number.
Figure 4.6.1 : A Modern Periodic Table. A modern periodic table lists elements left to right by atomic number. (Public
Domain; PubChem via NIH)

Features of the Periodic Table
Elements that have similar chemical properties are grouped in columns called groups (or families). As well as being numbered,
some of these groups have names—for example, alkali metals (the first column of elements), alkaline earth metals (the second
column of elements), halogens (the next-to-last column of elements), and noble gases (the last column of elements).
The word halogen comes from the Greek for “salt maker” because these elements
combine with other elements to form a group of compounds called salts.
To Your Health: Radon
Radon is an invisible, odorless noble gas that is slowly released from the ground, particularly from rocks and soils whose
uranium content is high. Because it is a noble gas, radon is not chemically reactive. Unfortunately, it is radioactive, and
increased exposure to it has been correlated with an increased lung cancer risk.
Because radon comes from the ground, we cannot avoid it entirely. Moreover, because it is denser than air, radon tends to
accumulate in basements, which if improperly ventilated can be hazardous to a building’s inhabitants. Fortunately,
specialized ventilation minimizes the amount of radon that might collect. Special fan-and-vent systems are available that
draw air from below the basement floor, before it can enter the living space, and vent it above the roof of a house.
After smoking, radon is thought to be the second-biggest preventable cause of lung cancer in the United States. The
American Cancer Society estimates that 10% of all lung cancers are related to radon exposure. There is uncertainty
regarding what levels of exposure cause cancer, as well as what the exact causal agent might be (either radon or one of its
breakdown products, many of which are also radioactive and, unlike radon, not gases). The US Environmental Protection
Agency recommends testing every floor below the third floor for radon levels to guard against long-term health effects.
Each row of elements on the periodic table is called a period. Periods have different lengths; the first period has only 2
elements (hydrogen and helium), while the second and third periods have 8 elements each. The fourth and fifth periods have
18 elements each, and later periods are so long that a segment from each is removed and placed beneath the main body of the
table.
Certain elemental properties become apparent in a survey of the periodic table as a whole. Every element can be classified as
either a metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid (or semi metal), as shown in Figure 4.6.2. A metal is a substance that is shiny,
typically (but not always) silvery in color, and an excellent conductor of electricity and heat. Metals are also malleable (they
can be beaten into thin sheets) and ductile (they can be drawn into thin wires). A nonmetal is typically dull and a poor
conductor of electricity and heat. Solid nonmetals are also very brittle. As shown in Figure 4.6.2, metals occupy the left three-
fourths of the periodic table, while nonmetals (except for hydrogen) are clustered in the upper right-hand corner of the periodic
table. The elements with properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals are called metalloids (or semi-
metals). Elements adjacent to the bold line in the right-hand portion of the periodic table have semimetal properties.
Figure 4.6.2 : Types of Elements. Elements are either metals, nonmetals, or metalloids (or semi metals). Each group is located
in a different part of the periodic table. (CC BY-NC-SA; Anonymous by request)
Example 4.6.1
Based on its position in the periodic table, classify each element below as metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid.

a. Se
b. Mg
c. Ge
SOLUTION
a. In Figure 4.6.1, selenium lies above and to the right of the diagonal line marking the boundary between metals and
nonmetals, so it should be a nonmetal.
b. Magnesium lies to the left of the diagonal line marking the boundary between metals and nonmetals, so it should be a
metal.
c. Germanium lies within the diagonal line marking the boundary between metals and nonmetals, so it should be a
metalloid.
Exercise 4.6.1
Based on its location in the periodic table, do you expect indium to be a nonmetal, a metal, or a metalloid?
Answer
Indium is a metal.
Another way to categorize the elements of the periodic table is shown in Figure 4.6.3. The first two columns on the left and
the last six columns on the right are called the main group elements. The ten-column block between these columns contains
the transition metals. The two rows beneath the main body of the periodic table contain the inner transition metals. The
elements in these two rows are also referred to as, respectively, the lanthanide metals and the actinide metals.
Figure 4.6.3 : Special Names for Sections of the Periodic Table. (CC BY-NC-SA; Anonymous by request)
Descriptive Names
As previously noted, the periodic table is arranged so that elements with similar chemical behaviors are in the same group.
Chemists often make general statements about the properties of the elements in a group using descriptive names with historical
origins.
Group 1: The Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. Hydrogen is unique in that it is generally
placed in Group 1, but it is not a metal.
The compounds of the alkali metals are common in nature and daily life. One example is table salt (sodium chloride); lithium
compounds are used in greases, in batteries, and as drugs to treat patients who exhibit manic-depressive, or bipolar, behavior.
Although lithium, rubidium, and cesium are relatively rare in nature, and francium is so unstable and highly radioactive that it
exists in only trace amounts, sodium and potassium are the seventh and eighth most abundant elements in Earth’s crust,
respectively.

Video: Alkali metals in water - Chemical elements: properties and reactions. (The Open University via
https://youtu.be/6ZY6d6jrq-0)
Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals
The alkaline earth metals are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. Beryllium, strontium, and
barium are rare, and radium is unstable and highly radioactive. In contrast, calcium and magnesium are the fifth and sixth most
abundant elements on Earth, respectively; they are found in huge deposits of limestone and other minerals.
Group 17: The Halogens
The halogens are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The name halogen is derived from the Greek words for “salt
forming,” which reflects that all the halogens react readily with metals to form compounds, such as sodium chloride and
calcium chloride (used in some areas as road salt).
Compounds that contain the fluoride ion are added to toothpaste and the water supply to prevent dental cavities. Fluorine is
also found in Teflon coatings on kitchen utensils. Although chlorofluorocarbon propellants and refrigerants are believed to
lead to the depletion of Earth’s ozone layer and contain both fluorine and chlorine, the latter is responsible for the adverse
effect on the ozone layer. Bromine and iodine are less abundant than chlorine, and astatine is so radioactive that it exists in
only negligible amounts in nature.
Group 18: The Noble Gases
The noble gases are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. Because the noble gases are composed of only single
atoms, they are called monatomic. At room temperature and pressure, they are unreactive gases. Because of their lack of
reactivity, for many years they were called inert gases or rare gases. However, the first chemical compounds containing the
noble gases were prepared in 1962. Although the noble gases are relatively minor constituents of the atmosphere, natural gas
contains substantial amounts of helium. Because of its low reactivity, argon is often used as an unreactive (inert) atmosphere
for welding and in light bulbs. The red light emitted by neon in a gas discharge tube is used in neon lights.
Example 4.6.2 : Groups

Provide the family or group name of each element.
a. Li
b. Ar
c. Cl
SOLUTION
a. Lithium is an alkali metal (Group 1)
b. Argon is a noble gas (Group 18)
c. Chlorine is a halogen (Group 17)

Exercise 4.6.2 : Groups
Provide the family or group name of each element.
a. F
b. Ca
c. Kr
Answer a:
Fluorine is a halogen (Group 17)
Answer b:
Calcium is a alkaline earth metal (Group 2)
Answer c:
Krypton is a noble gas (Group 18)
Example 4.6.3 : Classification of Elements

Classify each element as metal, non metal, transition metal or inner transition metal.
a. Li
b. Ar
c. Am
d. Fe
SOLUTION
a. Lithium is a metal.
b. Argon is a non metal
c. Americium is an inner transition metal
d. Iron is a transition metal.
Exercise 4.6.3 : Classification of Elements

Classify each element as metal, non metal, transition metal or inner transition metal.
a. F
b. U
c. Cu
Answer a:
Fluorine is a nonmetal.
Answer b:
Uranium is a metal (and a inner transition metal too)
Answer c:
Copper is a metal (and a transition metal too)
Summary
The periodic table is an arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic number. Elements that exhibit similar
chemistry appear in vertical columns called groups (numbered 1–18 from left to right); the seven horizontal rows are called
periods. Some of the groups have widely-used common names, including the alkali metals (Group 1) and the alkaline earth
metals (Group 2) on the far left, and the halogens (Group 17) and the noble gases (Group 18) on the far right.
The elements can be broadly divided into metals, nonmetals, and semi metals. Semi metals exhibit properties intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals. Metals are located on the left of the periodic table, and nonmetals are located on the

upper right. They are separated by a diagonal band of semi metals. Metals are lustrous, good conductors of electricity, and
readily shaped (they are ductile and malleable). Solid nonmetals are generally brittle and poor electrical conductors. Other
important groupings of elements in the periodic table are the main group elements, the transition metals, and the inner
transition metals (the lanthanides, and the actinides).
References
1. Petrucci, Ralph H., William S. Harwood, F. G. Herring, and Jeffrey D. Madura. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern
Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007.
2. Sisler, Harry H. Electronic structure, properties, and the periodic law. New york; Reinhold publishing corporation, 1963.
3. Petrucci, Ralph H., Carey Bissonnette, F. G. Herring, and Jeffrey D. Madura. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern
Applications. Custom Edition for CHEM 2. Pearson Learning Solutions, 2010.


4.7: Ions- Losing and Gaining Electrons
Learning Objectives
Define the two types of ions.
Most atoms do not have eight electrons in their valence electron shell. Some atoms have only a few electrons in their outer
shell, while some atoms lack only one or two electrons to have an octet. In cases where an atom has three or fewer valence
electrons, the atom may lose those valence electrons quite easily until what remains is a lower shell that contains an octet.
Atoms that lose electrons acquire a positive charge as a result because they are left with fewer negatively charged electrons to
balance the positive charges of the protons in the nucleus. Positively charged ions are called cations. Most metals become
cations when they make ionic compounds.
Cations
A neutral sodium atom is likely to achieve an octet in its outermost shell by losing its one valence electron.
+ −
Na → Na +e (4.7.1)
The cation produced in this way, Na+, is called the sodium ion to distinguish it from the element. The outermost shell of the
sodium ion is the second electron shell, which has eight electrons in it. The octet rule has been satisfied. Figure 4.7.1 is a
graphical depiction of this process.
Figure 4.7.1 : The Formation of a Sodium Ion. On the left, a sodium atom has 11 electrons. On the right, the sodium ion only
has 10 electrons and a 1+ charge.
Anions
Some atoms have nearly eight electrons in their valence shell and can gain additional valence electrons until they have an
octet. When these atoms gain electrons, they acquire a negative charge because they now possess more electrons than protons.
Negatively charged ions are called anions. Most nonmetals become anions when they make ionic compounds.
A neutral chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell. Only one more electron is needed to achieve an octet in
chlorine’s valence shell. (In table salt, this electron comes from the sodium atom.)
− −
e + Cl ⟶ Cl (4.7.2)
In this case, the ion has the same outermost shell as the original atom, but now that shell has eight electrons in it. Once again,
the octet rule has been satisfied. The resulting anion, Cl−, is called the chloride ion; note the slight change in the suffix (-ide
instead of -ine) to create the name of this anion. Figure 4.7.2 is a graphical depiction of this process.
Figure 4.7.2 : The Formation of a Chlorine Ion. On the left, the chlorine atom has 17 electrons. On the right, the chloride ion
has 18 electrons and has a 1− charge.

The names for positive and negative ions are pronounced CAT-eye-ons and ANN-
eye-ons, respectively.
In many cases, elements that belong to the same group (vertical column) on the periodic table form ions with the same charge
because they have the same number of valence electrons. Thus, the periodic table becomes a tool for remembering the charges
on many ions. For example, all ions made from alkali metals, the first column on the periodic table, have a 1+ charge. Ions
made from alkaline earth metals, the second group on the periodic table, have a 2+ charge. On the other side of the periodic
table, the next-to-last column, the halogens, form ions having a 1− charge. Figure 4.7.3 shows how the charge on many ions
can be predicted by the location of an element on the periodic table. Note the convention of first writing the number and then
the sign on a multiply charged ion. The barium cation is written Ba2+, not Ba+2.
Figure 4.7.3 : Predicting Ionic Charges. The charge that an atom acquires when it becomes an ion is related to the structure of
the periodic table. Within a group (family) of elements, atoms form ions of a certain charge.


4.8: Isotopes- When the Number of Neutrons Varies
Learning Objectives
Explain what isotopes are and how an isotope affect an element's atomic mass.
Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons of an element with a given mass number.
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but some may have different numbers of neutrons. For
example, all carbon atoms have six protons, and most have six neutrons as well. But some carbon atoms have seven or eight
neutrons instead of the usual six. Atoms of the same element that differ in their numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Many
isotopes occur naturally. Usually one or two isotopes of an element are the most stable and common. Different isotopes of an
element generally have the same physical and chemical properties. That's because they have the same numbers of protons and
electrons.
An Example: Hydrogen Isotopes

Hydrogen is an example of an element that has isotopes. Three isotopes of hydrogen are modeled in Figure 4.8.1. Most
hydrogen atoms have just one proton and one electron and lack a neutron. These atoms are just called hydrogen. Some
hydrogen atoms have one neutron as well. These atoms are the isotope named deuterium. Other hydrogen atoms have two
neutrons. These atoms are the isotope named tritium.
Figure 4.8.1 : The three most stable isotopes of hydrogen: protium (A = 1), deuterium (A = 2), and tritium (A = 3). (CC SA-
BY 3.0; Balajijagadesh).
For most elements other than hydrogen, isotopes are named for their mass number. For example, carbon atoms with the usual 6
neutrons have a mass number of 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12), so they are called carbon-12. Carbon atoms with 7 neutrons
have atomic mass of 13 (6 protons + 7 neutrons = 13). These atoms are the isotope called carbon-13.
Example 4.8.1 : Lithium Isotopes

a. What is the atomic number and the mass number of an isotope of lithium containing 3 neutrons.
b. What is the atomic number and the mass number of an isotope of lithium containing 4 neutrons?
SOLUTION
A lithium atom contains 3 protons in its nucleus irrespective of the number of neutrons or electrons.
a.
atomic number = (number of protons) = 3
mass number = 3 + 3
=6
b.
atomic number = (number of protons) = 3

mass number = 3 + 4
=7
Notice that because the lithium atom always has 3 protons, the atomic number for lithium is always 3. The mass number,
however, is 6 in the isotope with 3 neutrons, and 7 in the isotope with 4 neutrons. In nature, only certain isotopes exist.
For instance, lithium exists as an isotope with 3 neutrons, and as an isotope with 4 neutrons, but it doesn't exist as an
isotope with 2 neutrons or as an isotope with 5 neutrons.
Stability of Isotopes
Atoms need a certain ratio of neutrons to protons to have a stable nucleus. Having too many or too few neutrons relative to
protons results in an unstable, or radioactive, nucleus that will sooner or later break down to a more stable form. This process
is called radioactive decay. Many isotopes have radioactive nuclei, and these isotopes are referred to as radioisotopes. When
they decay, they release particles that may be harmful. This is why radioactive isotopes are dangerous and why working with
them requires special suits for protection. The isotope of carbon known as carbon-14 is an example of a radioisotope. In
contrast, the carbon isotopes called carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable.
This whole discussion of isotopes brings us back to Dalton's Atomic Theory. According to Dalton, atoms of a given element
are identical. But if atoms of a given element can have different numbers of neutrons, then they can have different masses as
well! How did Dalton miss this? It turns out that elements found in nature exist as constant uniform mixtures of their naturally
occurring isotopes. In other words, a piece of lithium always contains both types of naturally occurring lithium (the type with 3
neutrons and the type with 4 neutrons). Moreover, it always contains the two in the same relative amounts (or "relative
abundances"). In a chunk of lithium, 93% will always be lithium with 4 neutrons, while the remaining 7% will always be
lithium with 3 neutrons.
Dalton always experimented with large chunks of an element - chunks that contained all of the naturally occurring isotopes of
that element. As a result, when he performed his measurements, he was actually observing the averaged properties of all the
different isotopes in the sample. For most of our purposes in chemistry, we will do the same thing and deal with the average
mass of the atoms. Luckily, aside from having different masses, most other properties of different isotopes are similar.
There are two main ways in which scientists frequently show the mass number of an atom they are interested in. It is important
to note that the mass number is not given on the periodic table. These two ways include writing a nuclear symbol or by giving
the name of the element with the mass number written.
To write a nuclear symbol, the mass number is placed at the upper left (superscript) of the chemical symbol and the atomic
number is placed at the lower left (subscript) of the symbol. The complete nuclear symbol for helium-4 is drawn below:
The following nuclear symbols are for a nickel nucleus with 31 neutrons and a uranium nucleus with 146 neutrons.
59
Ni (4.8.1)
28
238
U (4.8.2)
92
In the nickel nucleus represented above, the atomic number 28 indicates the nucleus contains 28 protons, and therefore, it must
contain 31 neutrons in order to have a mass number of 59. The uranium nucleus has 92 protons as do all uranium nuclei and
this particular uranium nucleus has 146 neutrons.
Another way of representing isotopes is by adding a hyphen and the mass number to the chemical name or symbol. Thus the
two nuclei would be Nickel-59 or Ni-59 and Uranium-238 or U-238, where 59 and 238 are the mass numbers of the two
atoms, respectively. Note that the mass numbers (not the number of neutrons) are given to the side of the name.

Example 4.8.2 : POTASSIUM-40
How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in an atom of 40
19
?
K
SOLUTION
atomic number = (number of protons) = 19 (4.8.3)
For all atoms with no charge, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
number of electrons = 19 (4.8.4)
The mass number, 40 is the sum of the protons and the neutrons.
To find the number of neutrons, subtract the number of protons from the mass number.
number of neutrons = 40 − 19 = 21. (4.8.5)
Example 4.8.3 : Zinc-65

How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in an atom of zinc-65?
SOLUTION
number of protons = 30 (4.8.6)
For all atoms with no charge, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
number of electrons = 30 (4.8.7)
The mass number, 65 is the sum of the protons and the neutrons.
To find the number of neutrons, subtract the number of protons from the mass number.
number of neutrons = 65 − 30 = 35 (4.8.8)
Exercise 4.8.3
How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in each atom?
a. Co
60
27
b. Na-24
c. Ca
45
20
d. Sr-90
Answer a:
27 protons, 27 electrons, 33 neutrons
Answer b:
Answer c:

Answer d:
Summary
The number of protons is always the same in atoms of the same element.
The number of neutrons can be different, even in atoms of the same element.
Atoms of the same element, containing the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are known as
isotopes.
Isotopes of any given element all contain the same number of protons, so they have the same atomic number (for example,
the atomic number of helium is always 2).
Isotopes of a given element contain different numbers of neutrons, therefore, different isotopes have different mass
numbers.


4.9: Atomic Mass- The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
Learning Objectives
Explain what is meant by the atomic mass of an element.
Calculate the atomic mass of an element from the masses and relative percentages of the isotopes of the element.
In chemistry we very rarely deal with only one isotope of an element. We use a mixture of the isotopes of an element in
chemical reactions and other aspects of chemistry, because all of the isotopes of an element react in the same manner. That
means that we rarely need to worry about the mass of a specific isotope, but instead we need to know the average mass of the
atoms of an element. Using the masses of the different isotopes and how abundant each isotope is, we can find the average
mass of the atoms of an element. The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of the atoms in a naturally
occurring sample of the element. Atomic mass is typically reported in atomic mass units.
Calculating Atomic Mass

You can calculate the atomic mass (or average mass) of an element provided you know the relative abundances (the fraction
of an element that is a given isotope), the element's naturally occurring isotopes, and the masses of those different isotopes. We
can calculate this by the following equation:
Atomic mass = (%1 ) (mass1 ) + (%2 ) (mass2 ) + ⋯ (4.9.1)
Look carefully to see how this equation is used in the following examples.
Example 4.9.1 : Boron Isotopes

Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes. In a sample of boron, 20% of the atoms are B -10, which is an isotope of
boron with 5 neutrons and mass of 10 amu. The other 80% of the atoms are B -11, which is an isotope of boron with 6
neutrons and a mass of 11 amu. What is the atomic mass of boron?
SOLUTION
Boron has two isotopes. We will use the equation:
Isotope 1: % 1 = 0.20(Write all percentages as decimals), mass 1 = 10
Isotope 2: % 2 ,
= 0.80 mass2 = 11
Substitute these into the equation, and we get:

Atomic mass = (0.20) (10) + (0.80) (11) (4.9.3)
Atomic mass = 10.8 amu (4.9.4)
The mass of an average boron atom, and thus boron's atomic mass, is 10.8 amu.
Example 4.9.2 : Neon Isotopes

Neon has three naturally occurring isotopes. In a sample of neon, 90.92% of the atoms are Ne-20, which is an isotope of
neon with 10 neutrons and a mass of 19.99 amu. Another 0.3% of the atoms are Ne-21, which is an isotope of neon with
11 neutrons and a mass of 20.99 amu. The final 8.85% of the atoms are Ne-22, which is an isotope of neon with 12
neutrons and a mass of 21.99 amu. What is the atomic mass of neon?
SOLUTION
Neon has three isotopes. We will use the equation:
Isotope 1: % 1 = 0.9092 (write all percentages as decimals), mass 1 = 19.99
Isotope 2: % 2 ,
= 0.003 mass2 = 20.99

Isotope 3: %3 ,
= 0.0885 mass3 = 21.99
Substitute these into the equation, and we get:
Atomic mass = (0.9092) (19.99) + (0.003) (20.99) + (0.0885) (21.99) (4.9.6)
Atomic mass = 20.17 amu (4.9.7)
The mass of an average neon atom is 20.17 amu
The periodic table gives the atomic mass of each element. The atomic mass is a number that usually appears below the
element's symbol in each square. Notice that the atomic mass of boron (symbol B ) is 10.8, which is what we calculated in
Example 4.9.1, and the atomic mass of neon (symbol Ne) is 20.8, which is what we calculated in Example 4.9.2. Take time to
notice that not all periodic tables have th atomic number above the element's symbol and the mass number below it. If you are
ever confused, remember that the atomic number should always be the smaller of the two and will be a whole number, while
the atomic mass should always be the larger of the two and will be a decimal number.
Exercise 4.9.1
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes. In a sample of chlorine, 75.77% of the atoms are Cl-35, with a mass of
34.97 amu. Another 24.23% of the atoms are Cl-37, with a mass of 36.97 amu. What is the atomic mass of chlorine?
Answer
35.45 amu
Summary
An element's atomic mass is the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes of an element
An element's atomic mass can be calculated provided the relative abundances of the element's naturally occurring isotopes
and the masses of those isotopes are known.
The periodic table is a convenient way to summarize information about the different elements. In addition to the element's
symbol, most periodic tables will also contain the element's atomic number and the element's atomic mass.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5: MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS
Molecules are groups of atoms that behave as a single unit. Some elements exist as molecules:
hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and so forth. There are rules that can express a unique name for any given
molecule, and a unique formula for any given name.
5.1: SUGAR AND SALT

Both salt and sugar have radically different properties (both physical and chemical) than the
constituent elements that make up these compounds. That is a central feature of chemical reactions
as this chapter will discuss.
5.2: COMPOUNDS DISPLAY CONSTANT COMPOSITION

A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed
proportion. The elements carbon and hydrogen combine to form many different compounds. One of the simplest is called methane, in
which there are always four times as many hydrogen particles as carbon particles. Methane is a pure substance because it always has
the same composition. However, it is not an element because it can be broken down into simpler substances - carbon and hydrogen.
5.3: CHEMICAL FORMULAS- HOW TO REPRESENT COMPOUNDS

A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements. A
molecular formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule
of the compound. An empirical formula is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio.
5.4: A MOLECULAR VIEW OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Most elements exist with individual atoms as their basic unit. It is assumed that there is only one atom in a formula if there is no
numerical subscript on the right side of an element’s symbol. There are many substances that exist as two or more atoms connected
together so strongly that they behave as a single particle. These multi-atom combinations are called molecules. The smallest part of a
substance that has the physical and chemical properties of that substance.
5.5: WRITING FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

Formulas for ionic compounds contain the symbols and number of each atom present in a compound in the lowest whole number
ratio.
5.6: NOMENCLATURE- NAMING COMPOUNDS

The primary function of chemical nomenclature is to ensure that a spoken or written chemical name leaves no ambiguity concerning
which chemical compound the name refers to: each chemical name should refer to a single substance. A less important aim is to
ensure that each substance has a single name, although a limited number of alternative names is acceptable in some cases. Preferably,
the name also conveys some information about the structure or chemistry of a compound.
5.7: NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds are named by stating the cation first, followed by the anion. Positive and negative charges must balance. Some
anions have multiple forms and are named accordingly with the use of roman numerals in parenthes. Ternary compounds are
composed of three or more elements.
5.8: NAMING MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules. Examples include such familiar substances
as water and carbon dioxide. These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like sodium chloride. Ionic compounds are
formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal atoms. The resulting cations and anions are electrostatically
attracted to each other.
5.9: NAMING ACIDS

An acid can be defined in several ways. The most straightforward definition is that an acid is a molecular compound that contains one
or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
5.10: NOMENCLATURE SUMMARY

Brief overview of chemical nomenclature.
5.11: FORMULA MASS- THE MASS OF A MOLECULE OR FORMULA UNIT

Formula masses of ionic compounds can be determined from the masses of the atoms in their formulas.
1 6/21/2020
5.1: Sugar and Salt
Sodium chloride also known as table salt, is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of
sodium and chloride ions. It is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. Salt can be created by adding two very
reactive elements together: sodium (Na(s) metal and chlorine (Cl (g) gas.
2
2 Na(s) + Cl (g) → 2 NaCl(s) (5.1.1)

2
The element sodium (Figure 5.1.1a) is a very reactive metal; given the opportunity, it will react with the sweat on your hands
and form sodium hydroxide, which is a very corrosive substance. The element chlorine (Figure 5.1.1b) is a pale yellow,
corrosive gas that should not be inhaled due to its poisonous nature. Bring these two hazardous substances together, however,
and they react to make the ionic compound sodium chloride (Figure 5.1.1c), known simply as salt.
Figure 5.1.1 : Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride (a) Sodium is a very reactive metal. (b) Chlorine is a pale yellow,
noxious gas. (c) Together, sodium and chlorine make sodium chloride—salt—which is necessary for our survival. Source:
Photo on the left courtesy of reenhorn1 and photo in the center courtesy of Benjah-bmm27. Photo on the right © Thinkstock.
Salt is necessary for life. Na ions are one of the main ions in the human body and are necessary to regulate the fluid balance
+
in the body. Cl ions are necessary for proper nerve function and respiration. Both of these ions are supplied by salt. The taste
−
of salt is one of the fundamental tastes; salt is probably the most ancient flavoring known, and one of the few rocks we eat.
Clearly when the elemental sodium and chlorine combine (Equation 5.1.1), the resulting salt product has radically different
properties (both physical and chemical). This reaction is spectacular to observed (Video 5.1.1).
Video 5.1.1 : Making Table Salt using Sodium Metal and Chlorine gas
Another compound is sugar, which is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.
Sugar has the chemical formulate C H O and is constructed from different elements than salt: carbon, hydrogen and
12 22 11
oxygen. While sugar qualitatively resembles table salt (often confused in the kitchen), they two have distinctly different
physical and chemical properties. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. While sugar is made with
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, it is considerably hard to syntheses from the constituent elements than table salt (Equation

5.1.1). However, the thermal decomposition is considerably easiler and can be represented as as a dehydration of sucrose to
pure carbon and water vapor in Equation 5.1.2 and demonstrated in Video 5.1.2.
C H O (s) + heat → 12 C(s) + 11 H O(g) (5.1.2)
12 22 11 2
Video 5.1.2 : A science experiment in the kitchen shows what happens to sugar molecules when they are heated. The
experiment did not disappoint!
As with salt, sugar has radically different properties (both physical and chemical) than its constituent elements. That is a
central feature of chemical reactions as this chapter will discuss.

Wikipedia

5.2: Compounds Display Constant Composition
When building a hose, you start with a blueprint of what the house will look like. The plan states how many windows and
what kind, how many doors and what style, how many rooms and what type (bedroom, kitchen, other). The blueprint shows
how the different pieces will go together to make the house. As long as the blueprint is followed and exactly the same items
are used, the houses will be identical.
Compounds
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion. The elements
carbon and hydrogen combine to form many different compounds. One of the simplest is called methane, in which there are
always four times as many hydrogen particles as carbon particles. Methane is a pure substance because it always has the same
composition. However, it is not an element because it can be broken down into simpler substances - carbon and hydrogen.
Recall that the components of a mixture can be separated from one another by physical means. This is not true for a
compound. Table salt is a compound consisting of equal parts of the elements sodium and chlorine. Salt cannot be separated
into its two elements by filtering, distillation, or any other physical process. Salt and other compounds can only be
decomposed into their elements by a chemical process. A chemical change is a change that produces matter with a different
composition. Many compounds can be decomposed into their elements by heating. When sugar is heated, it decomposes into
carbon and water. Water is still a compound, but one which cannot be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by heating.
Instead, the passage of an electrical current through water will produce hydrogen and oxygen gases.
The properties of compounds are generally very different than the properties of the elements from which the compound is
formed. Sodium is an extremely reactive soft metal that cannot be exposed to air or water. Chlorine is a deadly gas. The
compound sodium chloride is a white solid which is essential for all living things (see below).
Figure 5.2.1 : (A) Sodium is so reactive that it must be stored under oil. (B) Chlorine is a poisonous yellow-green gas. (C) Salt
crystals, a compound of sodium and chlorine.
Summary
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion.
A chemical change is a change that produces matter with a different composition.


5.3: Chemical Formulas- How to Represent Compounds
Learning Objectives
Determine the number of different atoms in a formula.
Define chemical formula, molecular formula, and empirical formula.
A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements.
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio. The chemical formula for water is H O . Sulfuric acid is one of the
2
most widely produced chemicals in the United States and is composed of the elements hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The
chemical formula for sulfuric acid is H SO .
2 4
Certain groups of atoms are bonded together to form what is called a polyatomic ion that act as a single unit. Polyatomic ions
are discussed in more detail in section 5.5. Polyatomic ions are enclosed in parenthesis followed by a subscript if more than
one of the same ion exist in a chemical formula. The formula Ca3(PO4)2 represents a compound with the following:
3 Ca atoms
+ 2 PO43- ions
To count the total number of atoms for formulas with polyatomic ions enclosed in parenthesis, use the subscript as a multiplier
for each atom or number of atoms.
Ca3(PO4)2
3 Ca + 2 x1 P + 2 x 4 O = 3 Ca atoms + 2 P atoms + 8 O atoms
Molecular Formula
A molecular formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a
molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown below:
Figure 5.3.1 : The molecular formula for ammonia.

Note from the example that there are some standard rules to follow in writing molecular formulas. The arrangements of the
elements depend on the particular structure, so we will not concern ourselves with that point right now. The number of atoms
of each kind is indicated by a subscript following the atom. If there is only one atom, no number is written. If there is more
than one atom of a specific kind, the number is written as a subscript following the atom. We would not write N H for 3
ammonia, because that would mean that there are three nitrogen atoms and one hydrogen atom in the molecule, which is
incorrect.
Empirical Formula
An empirical formula is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio. Glucose is an
important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C H O . Since each of the
6 12 6
subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is CH O. When chemists analyze an unknown compound, often
2
the first step is to determine its empirical formula.

molecular formula: C H O
6 12 6
empirical formula: CH O 2
There are a great many compounds whose molecular and empirical formulas are the same. If the molecular formula cannot be
simplified into a smaller whole-number ratio, as in the case of H O or P O , then the empirical formula is also the molecular
2 2 5
formula.

Summary
A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements.
If only one atom of a specific type is present, no subscript is used.
For atoms that have two or more of a specific type of atom present, a subscript is written after the symbol for that atom.
Polyatomic ions in chemical formulas are enclosed in parentheses followed by a subscript if more than one of the same
type of polyatomic ion exist.
Molecular formulas do not indicate how the atoms are arranged in the molecule.
The empirical formula tells the lowest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound. The empirical formula does not
show the actual number of atoms.


5.4: A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds
Learning Objectives
Classify substances as atomic elements, molecular elements, molecular compounds, or ionic compounds
Atomic Elements
Most elements exist with individual atoms as their basic unit. It is assumed that there is only one atom in a formula if there is
no numerical subscript on the right side of an element’s symbol.
Molecular Elements
There are many substances that exist as two or more atoms connected together so strongly that they behave as a single particle.
These multi-atom combinations are called molecules. The smallest part of a substance that has the physical and chemical
properties of that substance. A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that has the physical and chemical properties of that
substance. In some respects, a molecule is similar to an atom. A molecule, however, is composed of more than one atom.
Table 5.4.1 : Elements That Exist as Diatomic Molecules
Hydrogen, H Oxygen Nitrogen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Some elements exist naturally as molecules. For example, hydrogen and oxygen exist as two-atom molecules. Other elements
also exist naturally as diatomic molecules. A molecule with only two atoms (Table 5.4.1). As with any molecule, these
elements are labeled with a molecular formula, a formal listing of what and how many atoms are in a molecule. (Sometimes
only the word formula is used, and its meaning is inferred from the context.) For example, the molecular formula for elemental
hydrogen is H2, with H being the symbol for hydrogen and the subscript 2 implying that there are two atoms of this element in
the molecule. Other diatomic elements have similar formulas: O2, N2, and so forth. Other elements exist as molecules—for
example, sulfur normally exists as an eight-atom molecule, S8, while phosphorus exists as a four-atom molecule, P4 (Figure
5.4.1).
Figure 5.4.1 : Molecular Art of S8 and P4 Molecules. If each green ball represents a sulfur atom, then the diagram on the left
represents an S8 molecule. The molecule on the right shows that one form of elemental phosphorus exists, as a four-atom
molecule.
Figure 5.4.1 shows two examples of how we will be representing molecules in this text. An atom is represented by a small ball
or sphere, which generally indicates where the nucleus is in the molecule. A cylindrical line connecting the balls represents the
connection between the atoms that make this collection of atoms a molecule. This connection is called a chemical bond.
Ionic Compounds
The elements in the periodic table are divided into specific groupings; the metals, the non-metals, the semi-metals, and so on.
These groupings are largely based on physical properties and on the tendency of the various elements to bond with other
elements by forming either an ionic or a covalent bond. As a general rule of thumb, compounds that involve a metal binding
with either a non-metal or a semi-metal will display ionic bonding. Thus, the compound formed from sodium and chlorine will
be ionic (a metal and a non-metal). The basic unit of ionic compounds are called formula units.
Molecular Compounds

Compounds that are composed of only non-metals or semi-metals with non-metals will display covalent bonding and will be
classified as molecular compounds. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) will be a covalently bound molecule (two non-metals) and
silicon dioxide (SiO2) will also be a covalently bound molecule (a semi-metal and a non-metal). The basic unit of molecular
compounds are called molecules.
Example 5.4.1
Provide the classification (i.e. atomic element, molecular element, molecular compound, or ionic compound) of each
substance.
a. Fe
b. PCl3
c. LiBr
d. P4
e. oxygen gas
SOLUTION
a. Fe, iron is an element that is represented with no subscript, so it is an atomic element.
b. PCl3 is made up of two nonmetals, so it is a molecular compound.
c. LiBr is made up of lithium, a metal and bromine a nonmetal, so it is an ionic compound.
d. P4 is a substance that is made up of four atoms of the same element, so it is a molecular element.
e. The formula for oxygen gas is O2 so it is a molecular element.
Exercise 5.4.1
Provide the classification (i.e. atomic element, molecular element, molecular compound, or ionic compound) of each
substance.
a. I2
b. He
c. H2O
d. Al
e. CuCl
Answer a:
molecular element
Answer b:
atomic element
Answer c:
molecular compound
Answer d:
atomic element
Answer e:
ionic compound



5.5: Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Learning Objectives
Write the correct formula for an ionic compound.
Recognize polyatomic ions in chemical formulas.
Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules. In the solid state, ionic compounds are in crystal lattice containing many ions each
of the cation and anion. An ionic formula, like NaCl, is an empirical formula. This formula merely indicates that sodium
chloride is made of an equal number of sodium and chloride ions. Sodium sulfide, another ionic compound, has the formula
Na S . This formula indicates that this compound is made up of twice as many sodium ions as sulfide ions. This section will
2
teach you how to find the correct ratio of ions, so that you can write a correct formula.
If you know the name of a binary ionic compound, you can write its chemical formula. Start by writing the metal ion with its
charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its charge. Because the overall compound must be electrically neutral, decide how
many of each ion is needed in order for the positive and negative charge to cancel each other out.
Example 5.5.1 : Aluminum Nitride and Lithium Oxide

Write the formula for aluminum nitride and lithium oxide.
Solution
Write the formula for aluminum nitride Write the formula for lithium oxide
1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation 3 + 3 − + 2 −

Al N Li O
(metal) first and the anion (nonmetal) second.
total charge of cations = total charge of total charge of cations = total charge of
2. Use a multiplier to make the total charge anions anions
of the cations and anions equal to each other. 1(3+) = 1(3-) 2(1+) = 1(2-)
+3 = -3 +2 = -2
3. Use the multipliers as subscript for each
Al N Li O
ion. 1 1 2 1
4. Write the final formula. Leave out all

AlN Li O
charges and all subscripts that are 1. 2
An alternative way to writing a correct formula for an ionic compound is to use the crisscross method. In this method, the
numerical value of each of the ion charges is crossed over to become the subscript of the other ion. Signs of the charges are
dropped.
Example 5.5.2 : The Crisscross Method for lead (IV) oxide

Write the formula for lead (IV) oxide.
Solution
Crisscross Method Write the formula for lead (IV) oxide
1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the 4 + 2 −
Pb O
anion (nonmetal) second.
2. Transpose only the number of the positive charge to become the
subscript of the anion and the number only of the negative charge to
become the subscript of the cation.
3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. Pb O
2 4
4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1. PbO
2

Exercise 5.5.2
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions.
a. the calcium ion and the oxygen ion
b. the 2+ copper ion and the sulfur ion
c. the 1+ copper ion and the sulfur ion
Answer a:
CaO
Answer b:
CuS
Answer c:
Cu2S
Be aware that ionic compounds are empirical formulas and so must be written as
the lowest ratio of the ions.
Example 5.5.3 : Sulfur Compound
Write the formula for sodium combined with sulfur.
Solution
Crisscross Method Write the formula for sodium combined with sulfur
1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the + 2 −
Na S
anion (nonmetal) second.
3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. This step is not necessary.
4. Write the final formula. Leave out all all subscripts that are 1. Na S
2
Exercise 5.5.3
Write the formula for each ionic compound.
a. sodium bromide
b. lithium chloride
c. magnesium oxide
Answer a:
NaBr
Answer b:
LiCl
Answer c:
MgO
Polyatomic Ions
Some ions consist of groups of atoms bonded together and have an overall electric charge. Because these ions contain more
than one atom, they are called polyatomic ions. Polyatomic ions have characteristic formulas, names, and charges that should

be memorized. For example, NO3− is the nitrate ion; it has one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms and an overall 1−
charge. Table 5.5.1 lists the most common polyatomic ions.
Table 5.5.1 : Some Polyatomic Ions
Name Formula
ammonium ion NH4+
acetate ion C2H3O2− (also written CH3CO2−)

carbonate ion CO32−
chromate ion CrO42−
dichromate ion Cr2O72−
hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion) HCO3−
cyanide ion CN−
hydroxide ion OH−
nitrate ion NO3−
nitrite ion NO2−
permanganate ion MnO4−
phosphate ion PO43−
hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42−
dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4−
sulfate ion SO42−
hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion) HSO4−
sulfite ion SO32−
The rule for constructing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions is the same as for formulas containing
monatomic (single-atom) ions: the positive and negative charges must balance. If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion
is needed to balance the charge, the entire formula for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in parentheses, and the numerical
subscript is placed outside the parentheses. This is to show that the subscript applies to the entire polyatomic ion. An example
is Ba(NO3)2.
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

Writing a formula for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions also involves the same steps as for a binary ionic
compound. Write the symbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion.
Example 5.5.4 : Calcium Nitrate

Write the formula for calcium nitrate.
Solution
Criss Cross Method Write the formula for calcium nitrate
1. Write the symbol and charge of the cation (metal) first and the 2 + −
Ca NO
anion (nonmetal) second. 3

3. Reduce to the lowest ratio. Ca (NO )
1 3 2
4. Write the final formula. Leave out all subscripts that are 1. If there
Ca(NO )
is only 1 of the polyatomic ion, leave off parentheses. 3 2
Example 5 5 5
Example 5.5.5
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of the potassium ion and the sulfate ion
Solution
Explanation Answer
Potassium ions have a charge of 1+, while sulfate ions have a charge
of 2−. We will need two potassium ions to balance the charge on the K2 S O4
sulfate ion, so the proper chemical formula is K2SO4.
Exercise 5.5.5
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed of each pair of ions.
a. the magnesium ion and the carbonate ion
b. the aluminum ion and the acetate ion
Answer a:
MgCO3
Answer b:
Al(CH3COO)3
Recognizing Ionic Compounds

There are two ways to recognize ionic compounds. First, compounds between metal and nonmetal elements are usually ionic.
For example, CaBr2 contains a metallic element (calcium, a group 2 (or 2A) metal) and a nonmetallic element (bromine, a
group 17 (or 7A) nonmetal). Therefore, it is most likely an ionic compound. (In fact, it is ionic.) In contrast, the compound
NO2 contains two elements that are both nonmetals (nitrogen, from group 15 (or 5A), and oxygen, from group 16 (or 6A). It is
not an ionic compound; it belongs to the category of covalent compounds discussed elsewhere. Also note that this combination
of nitrogen and oxygen has no electric charge specified, so it is not the nitrite ion.
Second, if you recognize the formula of a polyatomic ion in a compound, the compound is ionic. For example, if you see the
formula Ba(NO3)2, you may recognize the “NO3” part as the nitrate ion, NO3−. (Remember that the convention for writing
formulas for ionic compounds is not to include the ionic charge.) This is a clue that the other part of the formula, Ba, is
actually the Ba2+ ion, with the 2+ charge balancing the overall 2− charge from the two nitrate ions. Thus, this compound is
also ionic.
Example 5.5.6
Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.
a. Na2O
b. PCl3
c. NH4Cl
d. OF2
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
a. Sodium is a metal, and oxygen is a nonmetal. Therefore, Na2O is

N a2 O , ionic
expected to be ionic.
b. Both phosphorus and chlorine are nonmetals. Therefore, PCl3 is
P Cl3 , not ionic
not ionic.
c. The NH4 in the formula represents the ammonium ion, NH4+,
N H4 Cl , ionic
which indicates that this compound is ionic.

Explanation Answer
d. Both oxygen and fluorine are nonmetals. Therefore, OF2 is not

OF2 , ionic
ionic.
Exercise 5.5.6
Identify each compound as ionic or not ionic.
a. N2O
b. FeCl3
c. (NH4)3PO4
d. SOCl2
Answer a:
not ionic
Answer b:
ionic
Answer c:
ionic
Answer d:
not ionic
Summary
Formulas for ionic compounds contain the symbols and number of each atom present in a compound in the lowest whole
number ratio.


5.6: Nomenclature- Naming Compounds
Nomenclature is the process of naming chemical compounds with different names so that they can be easily identified as
separate chemicals. The primary function of chemical nomenclature is to ensure that a spoken or written chemical name leaves
no ambiguity concerning which chemical compound the name refers to: each chemical name should refer to a single
substance. A less important aim is to ensure that each substance has a single name, although a limited number of alternative
names is acceptable in some cases. Preferably, the name also conveys some information about the structure or chemistry of a
compound. A common name will often suffice to identify a chemical compound in a particular set of circumstances. To be
more generally applicable, the name should indicate at least the chemical formula. To be more specific still, the three-
dimensional arrangement of the atoms may need to be specified.

Wikipedia (CC-BY-SA-3.0)

5.7: Naming Ionic Compounds
Learning Objectives
To use the rules for naming ionic compounds.
After learning a few more details about the names of individual ions, you will be a step away from knowing how to name ionic
compounds. This section begins the formal study of nomenclature, the systematic naming of chemical compounds.
Naming Ions
The name of a monatomic cation is simply the name of the element followed by the word ion. Thus, Na+ is the sodium ion,
Al3+ is the aluminum ion, Ca2+ is the calcium ion, and so forth.
We have seen that some elements lose different numbers of electrons, producing ions of different charges (Figure 3.3). Iron,
for example, can form two cations, each of which, when combined with the same anion, makes a different compound with
unique physical and chemical properties. Thus, we need a different name for each iron ion to distinguish Fe2+ from Fe3+. The
same issue arises for other ions with more than one possible charge.
There are two ways to make this distinction. In the simpler, more modern approach, called the Stock system, an ion’s positive
charge is indicated by a roman numeral in parentheses after the element name, followed by the word ion. Thus, Fe2+ is called
the iron(II) ion, while Fe3+ is called the iron(III) ion. This system is used only for elements that form more than one common
positive ion. We do not call the Na+ ion the sodium(I) ion because (I) is unnecessary. Sodium forms only a 1+ ion, so there is
no ambiguity about the name sodium ion.
Table 5.7.1 : The Modern and Common System of Cation Names
Element Stem Charge Modern Name Common Name
2+ iron(II) ion ferrous ion

iron ferr-
3+ iron(III) ion ferric ion
1+ copper(I) ion cuprous ion
copper cupr-
2+ copper(II) ion cupric ion
2+ tin(II) ion stannous ion
tin stann-
4+ tin(IV) ion stannic ion
2+ lead(II) ion plumbous ion
lead plumb-
4+ lead(IV) ion plumbic ion
2+ chromium(II) ion chromous ion
chromium chrom-
3+ chromium(III) ion chromic ion
1+ gold(I) ion aurous ion
gold aur-
3+ gold(III) ion auric ion
The second system, called the common system, is not conventional but is still prevalent and used in the health sciences. This
system recognizes that many metals have two common cations. The common system uses two suffixes (-ic and -ous) that are
appended to the stem of the element name. The -ic suffix represents the greater of the two cation charges, and the -ous suffix
represents the lower one. In many cases, the stem of the element name comes from the Latin name of the element. Table 5.7.1
lists the elements that use the common system, along with their respective cation names.
Table 5.7.2 : Some Monatomic Anions
Ion Name
− fluoride ion
F
−
Cl chloride ion
−
Br bromide ion

Ion Name
I− iodide ion
2−
O oxide ion
S2− sulfide ion
P3− phosphide ion
3−
N nitride ion
The name of a monatomic anion consists of the stem of the element name, the suffix -ide, and then the word ion. Thus, as we
have already seen, Cl− is “chlor-” + “-ide ion,” or the chloride ion. Similarly, O2− is the oxide ion, Se2− is the selenide ion, and
so forth. Table 5.7.2 lists the names of some common monatomic ions. The polyatomic ions have their own characteristic
names, as discussed earlier.
Example 5.7.1
Name each ion.
a. Ca2+
b. S2−
c. SO32−
d. NH4+
e. Cu+
SOLUTION
a. the calcium ion
b. the sulfide ion
c. the sulfite ion
d. the ammonium ion
e. the copper(I) ion or the cuprous ion
Exercise 5.7.1
Name each ion.
a. Fe2+
b. Fe3+
c. SO42−
d. Ba2+
e. HCO3−
Answer a:
iron(II) ion
Answer b:
iron(III) ion
Answer c:
sulfate ion
Answer d:
barium ion
Answer e:
hydrogen carbonate ion or bicarbonate ion

Example 5.7.2
Write the formula for each ion.
a. the bromide ion
b. the phosphate ion
c. the cupric ion
d. the magnesium ion
SOLUTION
a. Br−
b. PO43−
c. Cu2+
d. Mg2+
Exercise 5.7.2
Write the formula for each ion.
a. the fluoride ion
b. the carbonate ion
c. the stannous ion
d. the potassium ion
Answer a:
F-
Answer b:
CO32-
Answer c:
Sn 2+
Answer d:
K+
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal that Forms Only One Type of Cation
Now that we know how to name ions, we are ready to name ionic compounds. A binary ionic compound is a compound
composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion. The metal cation is named first, followed by the
nonmetal anion as illustrated in Figure 5.7.1 for the compound BaCl2. The word ion is dropped from both parts.

Figure 5.7.1 : Naming BaC l
2
Subscripts in the formula do not affect the name.
Example 5.7.3 : Naming Ionic Compounds

Name each ionic compound.
a. CaCl2
b. AlF3
c. KCl
SOLUTION
a. Using the names of the ions, this ionic compound is named calcium chloride.
b. The name of this ionic compound is aluminum fluoride.
c. The name of this ionic compound is potassium chloride
Exercise 5.7.3
a. AgI
b. MgO
c. Ca3P2
Answer a:
silver iodide
Answer b:
magnesium oxide
Answer c:
calcium phosphide
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation
If you are given a formula for an ionic compound whose cation can have more than one possible charge, you must first
determine the charge on the cation before identifying its correct name. For example, consider FeCl2 and FeCl3 . In the first
compound, the iron ion has a 2+ charge because there are two Cl− ions in the formula (1− charge on each chloride ion). In the
second compound, the iron ion has a 3+ charge, as indicated by the three Cl− ions in the formula. These are two different

compounds that need two different names. By the Stock system, the names are iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride (Figure
5.7.2).
Table 5.7.3: Naming the F eC l and F eC l Compounds in the Modern/Stock System.

2 3
Name of cation (metal) + (Roman Numeral in parenthesis) + Base name of

anion (nonmetal) and -ide
If we were to use the stems and suffixes of the common system, the names would be ferrous chloride and ferric chloride,
respectively (Figure 5.7.3) .
Table 5.7.4: Naming the F eC l and F eC l Compounds in the Old/Common System.
2 3
"Old" base name of cation (metal) and -ic or -ous + Base name of anion
(nonmetal) and -ide
-ous (for ions with lower charge) -ic (for ions with higher charge)
Example 5.7.4 :

a. Co2O3
b. FeCl2
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
We know that cobalt can have more than one

possible charge; we just need to determine
what it is.
Oxide always has a 2− charge, so with
three oxide ions, we have a total negative
a charge of 6−. cobalt(III) oxide
This means that the two cobalt ions have
to contribute 6+, which for two cobalt
ions means that each one is 3+.
Therefore, the proper name for this ionic
compound is cobalt(III) oxide.
Iron can also have more than one possible

charge.
Chloriide always has a 1− charge, so with
two chloride ions, we have a total
b negative charge of 2−. iron(II) chloride
This means that the one iron ion must
have a 2+charge.
Therefore, the proper name for this ionic
compound is iron(II) chloride.
Exercise 5.7.4
a. AuCl3
b. PbO2
c. CuO
Answer a:
gold(III) chloride
Answer b:
lead(IV) oxide
Answer c:
copper(II) oxide
Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

The process of naming ionic compounds with polyatomic ions is the same as naming binary ionic compounds. The cation is
named first, followed by the anion. One example is the ammonium Sulfate compound in Figure 5.7.6.

Figure 5.7.2 : Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Example 5.7.5 : Naming Ionic Compounds
Write the proper name for each ionic compound.
a. (NH4)2S
b. AlPO4,
c. Fe3(PO4)2
SOLUTION
Explanation Answer
a. The ammonium ion has a 1+ charge and the sulfide ion has a 2−
charge.
Two ammonium ions need to balance the charge on a single sulfide ammonium sulfide
ion.
The compound’s name is ammonium sulfide.
b. The ions have the same magnitude of charge, one of each (ion) is
needed to balance the charges. aluminum phosphate
The name of the compound is aluminum phosphate.
c. Neither charge is an exact multiple of the other, so we have to go
to the least common multiple of 6.
To get 6+, three iron(II) ions are needed, and to get 6−, two iron(II) phosphate
phosphate ions are needed .
The compound’s name is iron(II) phosphate.
Exercise 5.7.5A
Write the proper name for each ionic compound.
a. (NH4)3PO4
b. Co(NO2)3
Answer a:
ammonium phosphate
Answer b:
cobalt(III) nitrite
Figure 5.7.1 is a synopsis of how to name simple ionic compounds.

Figure 5.7.3 : A Guide to Naming Simple Ionic Compounds.
Exercise 5.7.5B
a. ZnBr2
b. Al2O3
c. (NH4)3PO4
d. AuF3
e. AgF
Answer a:
zinc bromide
Answer b:
aluminum oxide
Answer c:
ammonium phosphate
Answer d:
gold(III) fluoride or auric fluoride
Answer e:
silver fluoride
Summary
Ionic compounds are named by stating the cation first, followed by the anion.
Positive and negative charges must balance.
Some anions have multiple forms and are named accordingly with the use of roman numerals in parenthes.
Ternary compounds are composed of three or more elements.



5.8: Naming Molecular Compounds
Learning Objectives
Determine the name of a simple molecular compound from its chemical formula.
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules. Examples include such familiar
substances as water (H O) and carbon dioxide (CO ). These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like
2 2
sodium chloride (NaCl). Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal
atoms. The resulting cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other.
So what holds the atoms of a molecule together? Rather than forming ions, the atoms of a molecule share their electrons in
such a way that a bond forms between pairs of atoms. In a carbon dioxide molecule, there are two of these bonds, each
occurring between the carbon atom and one of the two oxygen atoms.
Figure 5.8.1 : Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms.
Larger molecules can have many, many bonds that serve to keep the molecule together. In a large sample of a given molecular
compound, all of the individual molecules are identical.
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

Recall that a molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each element that a molecule contains. A molecule of water
contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so its formula is H O . A molecule of octane, which is a component of
2
gasoline, contains 8 atoms of carbon and 18 atoms of hydrogen. The molecular formula of octane is C H . 8 18
Figure 5.8.2 : Nitrogen dioxide ( NO )

2
is a reddish-brown toxic gas that is a prominent air pollutant produced by internal
combustion engines.
Naming binary (two-element) molecular compounds is similar to naming simple ionic compounds. The first element in the
formula is simply listed using the name of the element. The second element is named by taking the stem of the element name
and adding the suffix -ide. A system of numerical prefixes is used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule. Table 5.8.1
lists these numerical prefixes.
Table 5.8.1 : Numerical Prefixes for Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element
1 mono-*
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-

Number of Atoms in Compound Prefix on the Name of the Element
7 hepta-
8 octa-
9 nona-
10 deca-
*This prefix is not used for the first element’s name.
Note
Generally, the less-electronegative element is written first in the formula, though there are a few exceptions. Carbon is
always first in a formula and hydrogen is after nitrogen in a formula such as NH . The order of common nonmetals in
3
binary compound formulas is C, P, N , H , S, I , Br , Cl, O, F .

The a or o at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element begins with a vowel.
As an example, four oxygen atoms, is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.
The prefix is "mono"is not added to the first element’s name if there is only one atom of the first element in a
molecule.
Some examples of molecular compounds are listed in Table 5.8.2.

Table 5.8.2
Formula Name
NO nitrogen monoxide
N O
2
dinitrogen monoxide
S Cl
2 2
disulfur dichloride
Cl O
2 7
dichlorine heptoxide
Notice that the mono- prefix is not used with the nitrogen in the first compound, but is used with the oxygen in both of the first
two examples. The S Cl emphasizes that the formulas for molecular compounds are not reduced to their lowest ratios. The o
2 2
of the mono- and the a of hepta- are dropped from the name when paired with oxide.
Exercise 5.8.1
Write the name for each compound.
a. CF4
b. SeCl2
c. SO3
Answer a:
carbon tetrafluoride

Answer b:
selenium dichloride
Answer c:
sulfur trioxide
Simple molecular compounds with common names

For some simple covalent compounds, we use common names rather than systematic names. We have already encountered
these compounds, but we list them here explicitly:
H2O: water
NH3: ammonia
CH4: methane
H2O2: hydrogen peroxide
Methane is the simplest organic compound. Organic compounds are compounds with carbon atoms and are named by a
separate nomenclature system..
Some Compounds Have Both Covalent and Ionic Bonds

If you recall the introduction of polyatomic ions, you will remember that the bonds that hold the polyatomic ions together are
covalent bonds. Once the polyatomic ion is constructed with covalent bonds, it reacts with other substances as an ion. The
bond between a polyatomic ion and another ion will be ionic. An example of this type of situation is in the compound sodium
nitrate. Sodium nitrate is composed of a sodium ion and a nitrate ion. The nitrate ion is held together by covalent bonds and
the nitrate ion is attached to the sodium ion by an ionic bond.
Summary
A molecular compound is usually composed of two or more nonmetal elements.
Molecular compounds are named with the first element first and then the second element by using the stem of the element
name plus the suffix -ide. Numerical prefixes are used to specify the number of atoms in a molecule.


5.9: Naming Acids
A spot test for gold has been in use for decades. The sample is first treated with nitric acid. Other metals may react or dissolve
in this acid, but gold will not. Then the sample is added to a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold will only
dissolve in this mixture. The term "acid test" arose from the California gold rush in the late 1840's when this combination was
used to test for the presence of real gold. It has since come to mean, "tested and approved" in a number of fields.
Acids
An acid can be defined in several ways. The most straightforward definition is that an acid is a molecular compound that
contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H ) when dissolved in water.
+
Figure 5.9.1 : (A) Vinegar comes in a variety of types, but all contain acetic acid. (B) Citrus fruits like grapefruit contain citric
and ascorbic acids.
This is a different type of compound than the others we have seen so far. Acids are molecular, which means that in their pure
state they are individual molecules and do not adopt the extended three-dimensional structures of ionic compounds like NaCl.
However, when these molecules are dissolved in water, the chemical bond between the hydrogen atom and the rest of the
molecule breaks, leaving a positively-charged hydrogen ion and an anion. This can be symbolized in a chemical equation:
+ −
HCl → H + Cl (5.9.1)
Since acids produce H , cations upon dissolving in water, the H of an acid is written first in the formula of an inorganic acid.
+
The remainder of the acid (other than the H ) is the anion after the acid dissolves. Organic acids are also an important class of
compounds, but will not be discussed here.
Naming Acids
Since all acids contain hydrogen, the name of an acid is based on the anion that goes with it. These anions can either be
monatomic or polyatomic.
Naming Binary acids (in aqueous form)
A binary acid is an acid that consists of hydrogen and one other element. The most common binary acids contain a halogen.
The acid name begins with the prefix hydro-. followed by the base name of the anion, followed by the suffix -ic.

Naming Oxyacids
An oxyacid is an acid that consists of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element. The third element is usually a nonmetal.
a. Oxyanions with -ite ending.
The name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix -ous. There is no prefix.
b. Oxyanions with -ate ending.

The name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix -ic. There is no prefix.
Note
The base name for sulfur containing oxyacid is sulfur- instead of just sulf-. The same is true for a phosphorus containing
oxyacid. The base name is phosphor- instead of simply phosph-.
Writing Formulas for Acids

Like other compounds that we have studied, acids are electrically neutral. Therefore, the charge of the anion part of the
formula must be exactly balanced out by the H ions. Another way to think about writing the correct formula is to utilize the
+
crisscross method, shown below for sulfuric acid.
Formula: H2SO4
Figure 5.9.2 : Crisscross approach to writing formula for sulfuric acid.
Summary
Acids are molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions.
A binary acid consists of hydrogen and one other element.
Oxyacids contain hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element.
The name of the acid is based on the anion attached to the hydrogen.


5.10: Nomenclature Summary


5.11: Formula Mass- The Mass of a Molecule or Formula Unit
Learning Objectives
To determine the formula mass of an ionic or molecular compound.
One skill needed in future chapters is the ability to determine the mass of the formula of an ionic compound. This quantity is
called the formula mass. The formula mass is obtained by adding the masses of each individual atom in the formula of the
compound. Because a proper formula is electrically neutral (with no net electrons gained or lost), the ions can be considered
atoms for the purpose of calculating the formula mass.
Let us start by calculating the formula mass of sodium chloride (NaCl). This formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of
one sodium atom and one chlorine atom, which we find from the periodic table; here, we use the masses to two decimal
places:
Na: 22.99 amu
Cl: +35.34 amu
Total: 58.44 amu
To two decimal places, the formula mass of NaCl is 58.44 amu.
When an ionic compound has more than one anion or cation, you must remember to use the proper multiple of the atomic
mass for the element in question. For the formula mass of calcium fluoride (CaF2), we must multiply the mass of the fluorine
atom by 2 to account for the two fluorine atoms in the chemical formula:
Ca: 1 x 40.08 = 40.08 amu
F: 2 x 19.00 = +38.00 amu
Total = 78.08 amu
The formula mass of CaF2 is 78.08 amu.
For ionic compounds with polyatomic ions, the sum must include the number and mass of each atom in the formula for the
polyatomic ion. For example, potassium nitrate (KNO3) has one potassium atom, one nitrogen atom, and three oxygen atoms:
K: 1 x 39.10 = 39.10 amu
N: 1 x 14.00 = +14.00 amu
O: 3 x 16.00 = +48.00 amu
Total = 101.10 amu
The formula mass of KNO3 is 101.10 amu.
Potassium nitrate is a key ingredient in gunpowder and has been used clinically as a diuretic.
When a formula contains more than one polyatomic unit in the chemical formula, as in Ca(NO3)2, do not forget to multiply the
atomic mass of every atom inside the parentheses by the subscript outside the parentheses. This is necessary because the
subscript refers to the entire polyatomic ion. Thus, for Ca(NO3)2, the subscript 2 implies two complete nitrate ions, so we must
sum the masses of two (1 × 2) nitrogen atoms and six (3 × 2) oxygen atoms, along with the mass of a single calcium atom:
Ca: 1 x 40.08 = 40.08 amu
N: 2 x 14.00 = +28.00 amu
O: 6 x 16.00 = +96.00 amu
Total = 164.08 amu

The key to calculating the formula mass of an ionic compound is to correctly count each atom in the formula and multiply the
atomic masses of its atoms accordingly.
Example 5.11.1
Use the atomic masses (rounded to two decimal places) to determine the formula mass for each ionic compound.
a. FeCl3
b. (NH4)3PO4
SOLUTION
a.
Fe: 1 x 55.85 = 55.85 amu
Cl: 1 x 35.45 = +106.35 amu
________________________
Total = 162.20 amu
The formula mass of FeCl3 is 162.2 amu.
b. When we distribute the subscript 3 through the parentheses containing the formula for the ammonium ion, we see that
we have 3 nitrogen atoms and 12 hydrogen atoms. Thus, we set up the sum as follows:
N: 3 x 14.00 = 42.00 amu
H: 12 x 1.00 = +12.00 amu
P: 1 x 30.97 = +30.97 amu
O: 4 x 16.00 = +64.00 amu
Total = 148.97 amu
The formula mass for (NH4)3PO4 is 149.0 amu.
Exercise 5.11.1
Use the atomic masses (rounded to two decimal places) to determine the formula mass for each ionic compound.
a. TiO2
b. AgBr
c. Au(NO3)3
d. Fe3(PO4)2
Answer
a. 79.87 amu
b. 187.77 amu
c. 383.0 amu
To Your Health: Hydrates

Some ionic compounds have water (H2O) incorporated within their formula unit. These compounds, called hydrates, have
a characteristic number of water units associated with each formula unit of the compound. Hydrates are solids, not liquids
or solutions, despite the water they contain.
To write the chemical formula of a hydrate, write the number of water units per formula unit of compound after its
chemical formula. The two chemical formulas are separated by a vertically centered dot. The hydrate of copper(II) sulfate
has five water units associated with each formula unit, so it is written as CuSO4•5H2O. The name of this compound is

copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, with the penta- prefix indicating the presence of five water units per formula unit of
copper(II) sulfate.
Figure used with permisison from Wikipedia

Hydrates have various uses in the health industry. Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4•½H2O), known as plaster of
Paris, is used to make casts for broken bones. Epsom salt (MgSO4•7H2O) is used as a bathing salt and a laxative.
Aluminum chloride hexahydrate is an active ingredient in antiperspirants. The accompanying table lists some useful
hydrates.
Table 5.11.1 : Names and Formulas of Some Widely Used Hydrates
Formula Name Uses
AlCl3•6H2O aluminum chloride hexahydrate antiperspirant
calcium sulfate hemihydrate (plaster of

CaSO4•½H2O casts (for broken bones and castings)
Paris)
CaSO4•2H2O calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) drywall component
CoCl2•6H2O cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate drying agent, humidity indicator
CuSO4•5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate fungicide, algicide, herbicide
magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom

MgSO4•7H2O laxative, bathing salt
salts)
sodium carbonate decahydrate (washing

Na2CO3•10H2O laundry additive/cleane
soda)
KEY TAKEAWAY
Formula masses of ionic compounds can be determined from the masses of the atoms in their formulas.
Contributors
Anonymous

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
6: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Chemical composition refers to the arrangement, type, and ratio of atoms in molecules of chemical
substances. Chemical composition varies when chemicals are added or subtracted from a substance,
when the ratio of substances changes, or when other chemical changes occur in chemicals.
6.1: HOW MUCH SODIUM?

6.2: COUNTING NAILS BY THE POUND
The size of molecule is so small that it is physically difficult if not impossible to directly count out
molecules. However, we can count them indirectly by using a common trick of "counting by
weighing".
6.3: COUNTING ATOMS BY THE GRAM

In chemistry, it is impossible to deal with a single atom or molecule because we can't see them or count them or weigh them. Chemists
have selected a number of particles with which to work that is convenient. Since molecules are extremely small, you may suspect this
number is going to be very large and you are right. The number of particles in this group is Avagadro's number and the name of this
group is the mole.
6.4: COUNTING MOLECULES BY THE GRAM

The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the average masses of the atoms in one molecule of a substance. Calculations for
formula mass and molecular mass are described. Calculations involving conversions between moles of a material and the mass of that
material are described. Calculations are illustrated for conversions between mass and number of particles.
6.5: CHEMICAL FORMULAS AS CONVERSION FACTORS

Using formulas to indicate how many atoms of each element we have in a substance, we can relate the number of moles of molecules
to the number of moles of atoms. In any given formula the ratio of the number of moles of molecules (or formula units) to the number
of moles of atoms can be used as a conversion factor.
6.6: MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

Chemists often need to know what elements are present in a compound and in what percentage. The percent composition is the
percent by mass of each element in a compound.
6.7: MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION FROM A CHEMICAL FORMULA

he percent composition of a compound can also be determined from the formula of the compound. The subscripts in the formula are
first used to calculate the mass of each element in one mole of the compound. That is divided by the molar mass of the compound and
multiplied by 100%.
6.8: CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS

An empirical formula tells us the relative ratios of different atoms in a compound. The ratios hold true on the molar level as well. A
process is described for the calculation of the empirical formula for a compound based on the percent composition of that compound.
6.9: CALCULATING MOLECULAR FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS

A procedure is described that allows the calculation of the exact molecular formula for a compound.
1 6/21/2020
6.1: How Much Sodium?
Why is knowledge of composition important? everything in nature is either chemically or physically combined with other
substances to know the amount of a material in a sample, you need to know what fraction of the sample it is Some
Applications: the amount of sodium in sodium chloride for diet the amount of iron in iron ore for steel production the amount
of hydrogen in water for hydrogen fuel the amount of chlorine in freon to estimate ozone depletion.
How much salt is in this salt packet? (CC-BY-SA; 3.0; Swilliams).


6.2: Counting Nails by the Pound
Counting by Weighing and Avogadro's number
The size of molecule is so small that it is physically difficult if not impossible to directly count out molecules (Figure 6.2.1).
However, we can count them indirectly by using a common trick of "counting by weighing".
Figure 6.2.1 : A comparison of the scales of various biological and technological objects. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Wikipedia)
Consider the example of counting nails in a big box at a hardware store. You need to estimate the number of nails in a box.
The weight of an empty box is 213 g and the weight of the box plus a bunch of big nails is 1340 g. Let's assume we know that
the weight of one big nail is 0.450 g. I hope you aren't going to tear open the package and count the nails. We agree that
mass of big nails = 1340 g − 213 g = 1227 g (6.2.1)
Therefore
1227 g
Number of big nails in box = = 2, 726.6 big nails = 2, 730 big nails. (6.2.2)
0.450 g/big nail
You have just counted the number of big nails in the box by weighing them (rather than counting them individually).
Figure 6.2.2 : Galvanized nails. Individually counting nails in a box would would require significant effort. Alternatively, we
can count them by weighing. (Public Domain; Wikipedia).
Now consider if the box of nails weighed the same, but box were filled with small nails with an individual mass of
0.23 g/small nail instead? You would do the same math, but use a different denominator in Equation 6.2.2:
1227 g
Number of small nails in box = = 5, 334.7 small nails = 5, 335 small nails. (6.2.3)
0.230 g/small nail
The individual mass is the conversion factor used the calculation and changes based on the nature of the nail (big or small).
Let's ask ask a different question? How many dozens of nails are their in that same box of small nails described above.

If we knew the information from in Equation 6.2.3, we can just use the conversion of how many nails is in a dozen
5, 335 small nails
= 444.6 dozen small nails (6.2.4)
12small nails/dozen
If we wanted to get this value from weighing we use the "dozen mass" instead of individual mass of
12 × 0.23g = 2.76 g/dozen small nails. (6.2.5)
So following Equation 6.2.3 we get

1227 g
Number of dozens of small nails = = 444.6 dozen small nails (6.2.6)
2.76 g/dozen small nails
and this is the same result as from Equation 6.2.4. These calculations demonstrate the difference between individual mass (i.e.,
per individual) and collective mass (e.g., per dozen or per gross). The collective mass of most importance to chemistry is
molar mass (i.e., mass per mole or mass per 6.022 × 10 ). 23
Avogadro's Number
Avogadro's number is an accident of nature. It is the number of particles that delivers a mole of a substance. Avogadro's
number = 6.022 × 10 . The reason why the value is an accident of nature is that the mole is tied to the gram mass unit.
23
The gram is a convenient mass unit because it matches human sizes. If we were a thousand times greater in size ( like
Paul Bunyan) we would find it handy to use kilogram amounts. This means the kilogram mole would be convenient. The
number of particles handled in a kilogram mole is 1000 times greater. The kilo Avogadro number for the count of
particles in a kilomole is 6.022 × 10 .26
If humans were tiny creatures (like Lilliputians) only 1/1000 our present size, milligrams would be more convenient. This
means the milligram mole would be more useful. The number of particles handled in a milligram mole (millimole) would
be 1/1000 times smaller. The milli Avogadro number for the count of particles in a millimole is 6.022 × 10 . 20
What do you think would happen to Avogadro's number if the American system was used and amounts were measured in
pound moles? Remember 1 pound = 454 grams. Avogadro's number would be larger by a factor of 454. A pound mole of
hydrogen would weigh 1 pound which would be 454 grams. A gram mole of hydrogen weighs 1 gram and contains
6.022 × 10 H atoms.
23
Molar Mass for Elements

You are able to read the periodic table and determine the average atomic mass for an element like carbon. The average mass is
12.01 amu. This mass is a ridiculously tiny number of grams. It is too small to handle normally. The molar mass of carbon is
defined as the mass in grams that is numerically equal to the average atomic weight. This means
1g/molecarbon = 12.01 g carbon (6.2.7)
this is commonly written
1 mol carbon = 12.01 grams carbon. (6.2.8)
This is the mass of carbon that contains 6.022 × 10 23

carbon atoms.
Avogadro's number is 6.022 × 10 23
particles.
This same process gives us the molar mass of any element. For example
1 mol neon = 20.18 g neon N e
1 mol sodium = 22.99 g sodium N a
Molar Mass for Compounds

Example 6.2.1 : molar mass of Water
The formulas for compounds are familiar to you. You know the formula for water is H O . It should be reasonable that the
2
weight of a formula unit can be calculated by adding up the weights for the atoms in the formula.

Solution
The formula weight for water
weight from hydrogen + weight from oxygen
The formula weight for water
2 H atoms x 1.008 amu + 1 O atom x 16.00 amu = 18.016 amu
The molar mass for water
18.016 grams water or 18 grams to the nearest gram
Example 6.2.2 : molar mass of Methane

The formula for methane the major component in natural gas is CH . 4
Solution
The formula weight for methane
weight from hydrogen + weight from carbon
The formula weight for methane
4 H atoms x 1.008 amu + 1 C atom x 12.01 amu = 16.04 amu
The molar mass for methane
16.04 grams per mole of methane
Example 6.2.3 : Molar Mass of Ethyl Chloride

What is its molar mass for ethyl chloride CH 3
CH Cl
2
?
Solution
The formula weight
weight from hydrogen + weight from carbon + weight from chlorine
The formula weight
5 H atoms x 1.008 amu + 2 C atom x 12.01 amu + 35.5 amu = 64.5 amu
The molar mass for ethyl chloride
64.5 grams per mole of ethyl chloride
Example 6.2.4 : Sulfur Dioxide

What is the molar mass for sulfur dioxide, SO 2
, a gas using in bleaching and disinfection processes?
(g)
Solution
Look up the atomic weight for each of the elements in the formula.
1 sulfur atom = 32. 07 amu
1 oxygen atom = 16.00 amu
Count the atoms of each element in the formula unit. .
one sulfur atom
two oxygen atoms
The formula weight
weight from sulfur + weight from oxygen

The formula weight
1 sulfur atom x (32. 07 amu ) + 2 oxygen atoms x (16.00 amu)
The formula weight
SO
2
= 32. 07 amu + 32.00 amu = 64.07 amu = 64 amu SO 2
The molar mass for SO is 2
64.07 grams of SO ; 1 mol SO = 64 grams per mole of SO

2 2 2
Exercise 6.2.1
What is the formula weight and molar mass for alum, KAl(SO 4
)
2
∙ 12 H O
2
?
Answer
1. Check the periodic table for the atomic masses for each atom in the formula
2. Count the number of each type of atom in formula.
3. Multiply the number of atoms by the atomic mass for each element.
4. Add up the masses for all of the elements.
Table 6.2.1: Masses of each element in alum, KAl(SO 4
)
2
∙ 12 H O
2
rounded to nearest one unit

element average atomic mass number of atoms in formula
for simplicity
potassium k 39.1 amu 1 39. amu
aluminum 26.98 amu 1 27. amu

sulfur 32.07 amu 2 64. amu
oxygen 16.00 amu 8 + 12 = 20 320. amu
hydrogen 1.008 amu 2 x 12 = 24 24. amu
Molar mass is 474 grams (add up the amu of each element to find the total of 474 amu). This is a mass in grams that is
numerically (474) the same as the formula weight.
1 mole alum KAl(SO 4
)
2
∙ 12 H O
2
= 474 grams alum KAl(SO 4
)
2
∙ 12 H O
2

6.3: Counting Atoms by the Gram
Learning Objectives
Use Avogadro's number to convert to moles and vice versa given the number of particles of an element.
Use the molar mass to convert to grams and vice versa given the number of moles of an element.
When objects are very small, it is often inconvenient or inefficient, or even impossible to deal with the objects one at a time. For these
reasons, we often deal with very small objects in groups, and have even invented names for various numbers of objects. The most
common of these is "dozen" which refers to 12 objects. We frequently buy objects in groups of 12, like doughnuts or pencils. Even
smaller objects such as straight pins or staples are usually sold in boxes of 144, or a dozen dozen. A group of 144 is called a "gross".
This problem of dealing with things that are too small to operate with as single items also occurs in chemistry. Atoms and molecules are
too small to see, let alone to count or measure. Chemists needed to select a group of atoms or molecules that would be convenient to
operate with.
Avogadro's Number and Mole

In chemistry, it is impossible to deal with a single atom or molecule because we can't see them or count them or weigh them. Chemists
have selected a number of particles with which to work that is convenient. Since molecules are extremely small, you may suspect this
number is going to be very large and you are right. The number of particles in this group is 6.02 × 10 particles and the name of this
23
group is the mole (the abbreviation for mole is mol). One mole of any object is 6.02 × 10 of those objects. There is a very particular
23
reason that this number was chosen and we hope to make that reason clear to you.
When chemists are carrying out chemical reactions, it is important that the relationship between the numbers of particles of each reactant
is known. Any readily measurable mass of an element or compound contains an extraordinarily large number of atoms, molecules, or
ions, so an extremely large numerical unit is needed to count them. The mole is used for this purpose.
The mole (symbol: mol) is the base unit of amount of substance ("number of substance") in the International System of Units or System
International (SI), defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 particles, e.g., atoms, molecules, ions or electrons. The current definition was
adopted in November 2018, revising its old definition based on the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12 (12C) (the isotope of
carbon with relative atomic mass 12 Daltons by definition). For most purposes 6.022 × 1023 provides an adequate number of significant
figures. Just as 1 mole of atoms contains 6.022 × 1023 atoms, 1 mole of eggs contains 6.022 × 1023 eggs. This number is called
Avogadro’s number, after the 19th-century Italian scientist who first proposed a relationship between the volumes of gases and the
numbers of particles they contain.
It is not obvious why eggs come in dozens rather than 10s or 14s, or why a ream of paper contains 500 sheets rather than 400 or 600.
The definition of a mole—that is, the decision to base it on 12 g of carbon-12—is also arbitrary. The important point is that 1 mole of
carbon—or of anything else, whether atoms, compact discs, or houses—always has the same number of objects: 6.022 × 1023.
Converting Between Number of Atoms to Moles and Vice Versa

We can use Avogadro's number as a conversion factor, or ratio, in dimensional analysis problems. If we are given the number of atoms
of an element X, we can convert it into moles by using the relationship
23
1 mol X = 6.022 × 10 X atoms. (6.3.1)
Example 6.3.1 : Moles of Carbon

The element carbon exists in two primary forms: graphite and diamond. How many moles of carbon atoms is 4.72 × 10 24
atoms of
carbon?
Solution
The element carbon exists in two primary forms: graphite and

Steps for Problem Solving diamond. How many moles of carbon atoms is 4.72 × 10 atoms of
24
carbon?
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to Given: 4.72 × 10 C atoms
24
"find." Find: mol C
List other known quantities 1 mol = 6.022 × 10

23
C atoms

The element carbon exists in two primary forms: graphite and
Steps for Problem Solving diamond. How many moles of carbon atoms is 4.72 × 10 atoms of 24
carbon?
Prepare a concept map and use the proper conversion factor.
1 mol C
24
Cancel units and calculate. 4.72 × 10 C atoms ×
23
= 7.84 mol C
6.02 × 10 C atoms
The given number of carbon atoms was greater than Avogadro's number,so
the number of moles of C atoms is greater than 1 mole. Since Avogadro's
number is a measured quantity with three significant figures, the result of
the calculation is rounded to three significant figures
Molar Mass
Molar mass is defined as the mass of one mole of representative particles of a substance. By looking at a periodic table, we can
conclude that the molar mass of the element lithium is 6.94g, the molar mass of zinc is 65.38g, and the molar mass of gold is 196.97g.
Each of these quantities contains 6.022 × 10 atoms of that particular element. The units for molar mass are grams per mole or
23
g/molg/mol. 1.00 mol of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of 12.0 g and contains 6.022 × 10 atoms. 1.00 mole of any element has a mass
23
numerically equal to its atomic mass in grams and contains 6.022 × 10 particles. The mass, in grams, of 1 mole of particles of a
23
substance is now called the molar mass (mass of 1.00 mole).
Converting Grams to Moles of an Element and Vice Versa

We can also convert back and forth between grams of an element and moles. The conversion factor for this is the molar mass of the
substance. The molar mass is the ratio giving the number of grams for each one mole of the substance. This ratio is easily found by
referring to the atomic mass of the element using the periodic table. This ratio has units of grams per mole or g/mol.
Conversions like this are possible for any substance, as long as the proper atomic mass, formula mass, or molar mass is known (or can
be determined) and expressed in grams per mole. Figure 6.4.1 illustrates what conversion factor is needed and two examples are given
below.
Figure 6.3.1 : A Simple Flowchart for Converting Between Mass and Moles of an Element.
Example 6.3.2 : Chromium
Chromium metal is used for decorative electroplating of car bumpers and other surfaces. Find the mass of 0.560 moles of
chromium.
Solution
Chromium metal is used for decorative electroplating of car bumpers
and other surfaces. Find the mass of 0.560 moles of chromium.
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to Given: 0.560 mol Cr
"find." Find: g Cr
List other known quantities 1 mol Cr = 52.00g Cr

Chromium metal is used for decorative electroplating of car bumpers
and other surfaces. Find the mass of 0.560 moles of chromium.
52.00 g Cr
Cancel units and calculate. 0.560 mol Cr × = 29.1 g Cr
1 mol Cr
Since the desired amount was slightly more than one half of a mole, the
Think about your result. mass should be slightly more than one half of the molar mass. The answer
has three significant figures because of the 0.560 mol
Example 6.3.3 : Silicon

How many moles are in 107.6g of Si.
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving How many moles are in 107.6g of Si.
Identify the "given"information and what the Given: 107.6g Si

problem is asking you to "find." Find: mol Si
List other known quantities 1 mol Si = 28.09g Si
Prepare a concept map and use the proper conversion

factor.
1 mol Si
107.6 g Si × = 3.83 mol Si (6.
Cancel units and calculate.
28.09 g Si
Since 1 mol of Si is 28.09g, 107.6 should be about 4

moles.
Exercise 6.3.1
a. How many moles are present in 100.0 g of Al?
b. What is the mass of 0.552 mol of Ag metal?
Answer a:
3.706 mol Al
Answer b:
59.5 g Ag

Summary
A mole is defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 particles, e.g., atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
There are 6.02214076 × 10 particles in 1.00 mole. This number is called Avogadro's number.
23
The molar mass of an element can be found by referring to the atomic mass on a periodic table with units of g/mol.
Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to convert between grams, moles, and the number of atoms or molecules.
Further Reading/Supplemental Links

http://learner.org/resources/series61.html The learner.org website allows user to view streaming videos of the Annenberg series of
chemistry videos. You are required to register before you can watch the videos but there is no charge. The website has one video that
relates to this lesson called The Mole.
Using Avogadro's law, the mass of a substance can be related to the number of particles contained in that mass. The Mole:
(http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=803)
Vision Learning tutorial: The Mole http://visionlearning.com/library/mo...p?mid-53&1=&c3=

Wikipedia

6.4: Counting Molecules by the Gram
Learning Objectives
Define molecular mass and formula mass.
Perform conversions between mass and moles of a compound.
Perform conversions between mass and number of particles.
Molecular and Formula Masses

The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the average masses of the atoms in one molecule of a substance. It is calculated by adding together the atomic masses of the
elements in the substance, each multiplied by its subscript (written or implied) in the molecular formula. Because the units of atomic mass are atomic mass units, the units of
molecular mass are also atomic mass units. The procedure for calculating molecular masses is illustrated in Example 6.4.1.
Example 6.4.1 : Ethanol

Calculate the molecular mass of ethanol, whose condensed structural formula is CH 3
CH OH
2
. Among its many uses, ethanol is a fuel for internal combustion engines
Solution
Calculate the molecular mass of ethanol, whose condensed structural formula is
CH CH OH
3 2
Given: Ethanol molecule (CH3CH2OH)

Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to "find."
Find: molecular mass
The molecular formula of ethanol may be written in three different ways:
CH3CH2OH (which illustrates the presence of an ethyl group
Determine the number of atoms of each element in the molecule. CH3CH2−, and an −OH group)
C2H5OH, and C2H6O;
All show that ethanol has two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom.
1 C atom = 12.011 amu
Obtain the atomic masses of each element from the periodic table and multiply the atomic mass
1 H atom = 1.0079 amu
of each element by the number of atoms of that element.
1 O atom = 15.9994 amu
2C: (2atoms)(12.011amu/atom) = 24.022 amu
6H: (6atoms)(1.0079amu/atom) = 6.0474amu
Add together the masses to give the molecular mass.
+1O: (1atoms)(15.9994amu/atom) =15.9994amu
C2H6O : molecular mass of ethanol = 46.069amu
Exercise 6.4.1 : Freon

Calculate the molecular mass of trichlorofluoromethane, also known as Freon-11, whose condensed structural formula is CCl F
3
. Until recently, it was used as a
refrigerant. The structure of a molecule of Freon-11 is as follows:
Figure 6.4.1 : Molecular structure of freon-11, CCl 3

F .
Answer
137.37 amu
Unlike molecules, which form covalent bonds, ionic compounds do not have a readily identifiable molecular unit. Therefore, for ionic compounds, the formula mass (also
called the empirical formula mass) of the compound is used instead of the molecular mass. The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all the elements in the
empirical formula, each multiplied by its subscript (written or implied). It is directly analogous to the molecular mass of a covalent compound. The units are atomic mass
units.
Atomic mass, molecular mass, and formula mass all have the same units: atomic mass units.
Example 6.4.2 : Calcium Phosphate
Calculate the formula mass of Ca 3
(PO )
4 2
, commonly called calcium phosphate. This compound is the principal source of calcium found in bovine milk.
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving Calculate the formula mass of Ca 3
(PO )
4 2
, commonly called calcium phosphate.
Given: Calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] formula unit

Find: formula mass

Steps for Problem Solving Calculate the formula mass of Ca 3
(PO )
4 2
, commonly called calcium phosphate.
The empirical formula—Ca3(PO4)2—indicates that the simplest electrically neutral unit of

calcium phosphate contains three Ca2+ ions and two PO43− ions.
Determine the number of atoms of each element in the molecule.
The formula mass of this molecular unit is calculated by adding together the atomic masses
of three calcium atoms, two phosphorus atoms, and eight oxygen atoms.
1 Ca atom = 40.078 amu

Obtain the atomic masses of each element from the periodic table and multiply the atomic mass
1 P atom = 30.973761 amu
of each element by the number of atoms of that element.
1 O atom = 15.9994 amu
3Ca: (3 atoms) (40.078 amu/atom)=120.234amu
2P: (2 atoms) (30.973761amu/atom)=61.947522amu
Add together the masses to give the formula mass.
+ 8O: (8 atoms)(15.9994amu/atom)=127.9952amu
Formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2=310.177amu
Exercise 6.4.2 : Silicon Nitride

Calculate the formula mass of Si 3
N
4
, commonly called silicon nitride. It is an extremely hard and inert material that is used to make cutting tools for machining hard
metal alloys.
Figure 6.4.2 : Si 3
N
4
bearing parts. (Public Domain; David W. Richerson and Douglas W. Freitag; Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
Answer
140.29 amu
Molar Mass
The molar mass of a substance is defined as the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance. One mole of isotopically pure carbon-12 has a mass of 12 g. For an element, the
molar mass is the mass of 1 mol of atoms of that element; for a covalent molecular compound, it is the mass of 1 mol of molecules of that compound; for an ionic
compound, it is the mass of 1 mol of formula units. That is, the molar mass of a substance is the mass (in grams per mole) of 6.022 × 1023 atoms, molecules, or formula units
of that substance. In each case, the number of grams in 1 mol is the same as the number of atomic mass units that describe the atomic mass, the molecular mass, or the
formula mass, respectively.
The molar mass of any substance is its atomic mass, molecular mass, or formula mass in grams per mole.
The periodic table lists the atomic mass of carbon as 12.011 amu; the average molar mass of carbon—the mass of 6.022 × 1023 carbon atoms—is therefore 12.011 g/mol:
Table 6.4.1 : Molar Mass of Select Substances
Substance (formula) Basic Unit Atomic, Molecular, or Formula Mass (amu) Molar Mass (g/mol)
carbon (C) atom 12.011 (atomic mass) 12.011
ethanol (C2H5OH) molecule 46.069 (molecular mass) 46.069

calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] formula unit 310.177 (formula mass) 310.177
Converting Between Grams and Moles of a Compound

The molar mass of any substance is the mass in grams of one mole of representative particles of that substance. The representative particles can be atoms, molecules, or
formula units of ionic compounds. This relationship is frequently used in the laboratory. Suppose that for a certain experiment you need 3.00 moles of calcium chloride
(CaCl ) . Since calcium chloride is a solid, it would be convenient to use a balance to measure the mass that is needed. Dimensional analysis will allow you to calculate the
2
mass of CaCl that you should measure as shown in Example 6.4.3.

2
Example 6.4.3 : Calcium Chloride

Calculate the mass of 3.00 moles of calcium chloride (CaCl2).
Figure 6.4.3 : Calcium chloride is used as a drying agent and as a road deicer.
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving Calculate the mass of 3.00 moles of calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Steps for Problem Solving Calculate the mass of 3.00 moles of calcium chloride (CaCl2).
Given: 3.00 moles of CaCl2

Find: g CaCl2
List other known quantities 1 mol CaCl2 = 110.98 g CaCl2
110.98 g CaCl
2
Cancel units and calculate. 3.00 mol CaCl

2
× = 333 g CaCl
2
1 mol CaCl
2
Exercise 6.4.3 : Calcium Oxide

What is the mass of 7.50 mol of (calcium oxide) CaO?
Answer
420.60 g
Example 6.4.4 : Water

How many moles are present in 108 grams of water?
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving How many moles are present in 108 grams of water?
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: 108 g H2O
to "find." Find: mol H2O
List other known quantities 1 mol H O = 18.02 g

2
H2O
1 mol H O
2
Cancel units and calculate. 108 g H O ×

2
= 5.99 mol H O
2
18.02 g H O
2
Exercise 6.4.4 : Nitrogen Gas

What is the mass of 7.50 mol of Nitrogen gas N ? 2
Answer
210 g
Conversions Between Mass and Number of Particles

In "Conversions Between Moles and Mass", you learned how to convert back and forth between moles and the number of representative particles. Now you have seen how
to convert back and forth between moles and mass of a substance in grams. We can combine the two types of problems into one. Mass and number of particles are both
related to moles. To convert from mass to number of particles or vice-versa, it will first require a conversion to moles as shown in Figure 6.4.1 and Example 6.4.5.

Figure 6.4.4 : Conversion from number of particles to mass or from mass to number of particles requires two steps.
Example 6.4.5 : Chlorine
How many molecules is 20.0 g of chlorine gas, Cl ? 2
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving How many molecules is 20.0 g of chlorine gas, Cl ? 2
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: 20.0 g Cl2
to "find." Find: # Cl2 molecules
List other known quantities 1 mol Cl2 = 70.90 g Cl2, 1mol Cl2 = 6.022 x 1023 Cl2 molecules
1 mol Cl 23
2 6.02 × 10 molecules Cl
2
Cancel units and calculate. 20.0 g Cl
2
× × = 1.70 × 1
70.90 g Cl 1 mol Cl
2 2
Since the given mass is less than half of the molar mass of chlorine,
Think about your result. the resulting number of molecules is less than half of Avogadro's
number.
Exercise 6.4.5 : Calcium Chloride

How many formula units are in 25.0 g of CaCl2 ?
Answer
1.36 x 1023 CaCl2 formula units
Summary
Calculations for formula mass and molecular mass are described.
Calculations involving conversions between moles of a material and the mass of that material are described.
Calculations are illustrated for conversions between mass and number of particles.

This page was constructed from content via the following contributor(s) and edited (topically or extensively) by the LibreTexts development team to meet platform style,
presentation, and quality:

6.5: Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors
Learning Objectives
Use chemical formulas as conversion factors.
Figure 6.5.1 shows that we need two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom to make 1 water molecule. If we want to make two water
molecules, we will need four hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. If we want to make five molecules of water, we need 10 hydrogen
atoms and 5 oxygen atoms. The ratio of atoms we will need to make any number of water molecules is the same: 2 hydrogen atoms to 1
oxygen atom.
Figure 6.5.1 Water Molecules. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms used to make water molecules is always 2:1, no matter
how many water molecules are being made.
Using formulas to indicate how many atoms of each element we have in a substance, we can relate the number of moles of molecules to
the number of moles of atoms. For example, in 1 mol of water (H2O) we can construct the relationships given in (Table 6.5.1).
Table 6.5.1 : Molecular Relationships for Water
1 Molecule of H 2O Has 1 Mol of H 2O Has Molecular Relationships
2 mol H atoms
or
2 H atoms 2 mol of H atoms 1 mol H2 O molecules
1 mol H2 O molecules
2 mol H atoms
1 mol O atoms
or
1 O atom 1 mol of O atoms 1 mol H2 O molecules
1 mol H2 O molecules
1 mol O atoms
The MOle is big

A mole represents a very large number! The number 602,214,129,000,000,000,000,000 looks about twice as long as a trillion,
which means it’s about a trillion trillion.
(CC BY-SA NC; https://what-if.xkcd.com/4/).

A trillion trillion kilograms is how much a planet weighs. If 1 mol of quarters were stacked in a column, it could stretch back and
forth between Earth and the sun 6.8 billion times.
Table 6.5.2 : Molecular and Mass Relationships for Ethanol

1 Molecule of C
2 H6 O Has 1 Mol of C 2 H6 O Has Molecular and Mass Relationships
2 mol C atoms
or
2 C atoms 2 mol of C atoms 1 mol C2 H6 O molecules
1 mol C2 H6 O molecules
2 mol C atoms
6 mol H atoms
or
6 H atoms 6 mol of H atoms
6 mol H atoms

1 Molecule of C2 H6 O Has 1 Mol of C
2 H6 O Has Molecular and Mass Relationships
1 mol O atoms
or
1 O atom 1 mol of O atoms 1 mol C2 H6 O molecules
1 mol O atoms
24.02 g C
2 (12.01 amu) C 2 (12.01 g) C or
24.02 amu C 24.02 g C
24.02 g C
6.048 g H
6 (1.008 amu) H 6 (1.008 g) H or
6.048 amu H 6.048 g H
6.048 g H
16.00 g O
1 (16.00 amu) O 1 (16.00 g) O or
16.00 amu O 16.00 g O
16.00 g O
The following example illustrates how we can use the relationships in Table 6.5.2 as conversion factors.
Example 6.5.1 : Ethanol

If a sample consists of 2.5 mol of ethanol (C2H6O), how many moles of carbon atoms does it have?
Solution
If a sample consists of 2.5 mol of ethanol (C2H6O), how many moles of

carbon atoms does it have?
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to Given: 2.5 mol C2H6O
"find." Find: mol C atoms
List other known quantities 1 mol C2H6O = 2 mol C
Note how the unit mol C2H6O molecules cancels algebraically.

Cancel units and calculate. 2 mol C atoms
2.5 mol C2 H6 O molecules × = 5.0 mol C atom
There are twice as many C atoms in one C2H6O molecule, so the final
amount should be double.
Exercise 6.5.1
If a sample contains 6.75 mol of Na2SO4, how many moles of sodium atoms, sulfur atoms, and oxygen atoms does it have?
Answer
13.5 mol Na atoms, 6.75 mol S atoms, and 27.0 mol O atoms
The fact that 1 mol equals 6.022 × 1023 items can also be used as a conversion factor.
Example 6.5.2 : Oxygen Mass

Determine the mass of Oxygen in 75.0g of C2H6O.
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving Determine the mass of Oxygen in 75.0g of C2H6O

Steps for Problem Solving Determine the mass of Oxygen in 75.0g of C2H6O
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to Given: 75.0g C2H6O
"find." Find: g O
1 mol O = 16.0g O
List other known quantities 1 mol C2H6O = 1 mol O
1 mol C2H6O = 46.07g C2H6O
1 mol C2 H6 O 1 mol O 16.00 g O

Cancel units and calculate. 75.0 g C2 H6 O × × × = 26.0
46.07 g C2 H6 O 1 mol C2 H6 O 1 mol O
Exercise 6.5.2
a. How many molecules are present in 16.02 mol of C4H10? How many C atoms are in 16.02 mol?
b. How many moles of each type of atom are in 2.58 mol of Na2SO4?
Answer a:
9.647 x 1024 C4H10 molecules and 3.859 x 1025 C atoms
Answer b:
5.16 mol Na atoms, 2.58 mol S atoms, and 10.3 mol O atoms
Summary
In any given formula the ratio of the number of moles of molecules (or formula units) to the number of moles of atoms can be used as a
conversion factor.

6.6: Mass Percent Composition of Compounds
Learning Objectives
Determine percent composition of each element in a compound based on mass.
Packaged foods that you eat typically have nutritional information provided on the label. The label on a jar of peanut butter
reveals that one serving size is considered to be 32 g. The label also gives the masses of various types of compounds that are
present in each serving. One serving contains 7 g of protein, 15 g of fat, and 3 g of sugar. By calculating the fraction of
protein, fat, or sugar in one serving size of peanut butter and converting to percent values, we can determine the composition
of peanut butter on a percent by mass basis.
Percent Composition
Chemists often need to know what elements are present in a compound and in what percentage. The percent composition is
the percent by mass of each element in a compound. It is calculated in a similar way that we just indicated for the peanut
butter.
mass of element
% by mass = × 100% (6.6.1)
mass of compound
The sample problem below shows the calculation of the percent composition of a compound based on mass data.
Example 6.6.1 : Percent Composition from Mass Data

A certain newly synthesized compound is known to contain the elements zinc and oxygen. When a 20.00 g sample of the
compound is decomposed, 16.07 g of zinc remains. Determine the percent composition of the compound.
SOLUTION
When a 20.00 g sample of the zinc-and-oxygen compound is

Steps for Problem Solving decomposed, 16.07 g of zinc remains. Determine the percent
composition of the compound.
Given : Mass of compound = 20.00 g

Identify the "given" information and what the problem is asking you
Mass of Zn = 16.07 g
to "find."
Find: % Composition (% Zn and %O)
Subtract to find the mass of oxygen in the compound. Divide each
element's mass by the mass of the compound to find the percent by
List other known quantities mass.
Mass of oxygen = 20.00 g - 16.07 g = 3.93 g O
16.07 g Zn
% Zn = × 100% = 80.35% Zn
20.00 g
3.93 g O
%O = × 100% = 19.65% O
Cancel units and calculate. 20.00 g
Calculate the percent by mass of each element by dividing the mass

of that element by the mass of the compound and multiplying by
100%.
The calculations make sense because the sum of the two percentages
adds up to 100%. By mass, the compound is mostly zinc.
Exercise 6.6.1
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 is a very useful chemical in industrial processes. If 196.0 g of sulfuric acid contained 64.0g oxygen
and 4.0 g of hydrogen, what is the percent composition of the compound?

Answer
2.04% H, 32.65% S, and 65.3% O
Summary
Processes are described for calculating the percent composition of a compound based on mass.


6.7: Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula
Learning Objectives
Determine the percent composition of each element in a compound from the chemical formula.
The percent composition of a compound can also be determined from the formula of the compound. The subscripts in the
formula are first used to calculate the mass of each element in one mole of the compound. That is divided by the molar mass of
the compound and multiplied by 100%.
mass of element in 1 mol
% by mass = × 100% (6.7.1)
molar mass of compound
The percent composition of a given compound is always the same as long as the compound is pure.
Example 6.7.1
Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl O ) is a highly reactive compound used in some organic synthesis reactions. Calculate the
2 7
percent composition of dichlorine heptoxide.

SOLUTION
Calculate the percent composition of dichlorine heptoxide

(Cl O ) .
2 7
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given : Cl2O7
to "find." Find: % Composition (% Cl and %O)
Mass of Cl in 1 mol Cl2O7 , 2 Cl : 2 x 35.45 g = 70.90 g
List other known quantities Mass of O in 1 mol Cl2O7 , 7 O: 7 x 16.00 g = 112.00 g
Molar mass of Cl2O7 = 182.90 g/mol
70.90 g Cl
%Cl = × 100% = 38.76% Cl
182.90 g
112.00 g O
%O = × 100% = 61.24% O
Cancel units and calculate. 182.90 g
Calculate the percent by mass of each element by dividing the mass

of that element in 1 mole of the compound by the molar mass of the
compound and multiplying by 100%.
Think about your result. The percentages add up to 100%.
Percent composition can also be used to determine the mass of a certain element that is contained in any mass of a compound.
In the previous sample problem, it was found that the percent composition of dichlorine heptoxide is 38.76% Cl and
61.24% O. Suppose that you needed to know the masses of chlorine and oxygen present in a 12.50 g sample of dichlorine
heptoxide. You can set up a conversion factor based on the percent by mass of each element.
38.76 g Cl
12.50 g Cl O × = 4.845 g Cl (6.7.2)
2 7
100 g Cl O
2 7
61.24 g O
12.50 g Cl O × = 7.655 g O (6.7.3)
2 7
100 g Cl O
2 7
The sum of the two masses is 12.50 g, the mass of the sample size.
Exercise 6.7.1
Barium fluoride is a transparent crystal that can be found in nature as the mineral frankdicksonite. Determine the percent
composition of barium fluoride.

Answer a:
78.32% Ba and 21.67% F
Summary
Processes are described for calculating the percent composition of a compound based on the chemical formula.


6.8: Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds
Learning Objectives
Define empirical formula.
Determine empirical formula from percent composition of a compound.
In the early days of chemistry, there were few tools for the detailed study of compounds. Much of the information regarding
the composition of compounds came from the elemental analysis of inorganic materials. The "new" field of organic chemistry
(the study of carbon compounds) faced the challenge of not being able to characterize a compound completely. The relative
amounts of elements could be determined, but so many of these materials had carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and possibly nitrogen
in simple ratios. We did not know exactly how many of these atoms were actually in a specific molecule.
Determining Empirical Formulas

An empirical formula tells us the relative ratios of different atoms in a compound. The ratios hold true on the molar level as
well. Thus, H2O is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. Likewise, 1.0 mole of H2O is composed of 2.0
moles of hydrogen and 1.0 mole of oxygen. We can also work backwards from molar ratios since if we know the molar
amounts of each element in a compound we can determine the empirical formula.
In a procedure called elemental analysis, an unknown compound can be analyzed in

the laboratory in order to determine the percentages of each element contained
within it. These percentages can be transformed into the mole ratio of the elements,
which leads to the empirical formula.
Note
Steps to determine empirical formula.
1. Assume a 100 g sample of the compound so that the given percentages can be directly converted into grams.
2. Use each element's molar mass to convert the grams of each element to moles.
3. In order to find a whole-number ratio, divide the moles of each element by whichever of the moles from step 2 is the
smallest.
4. If all the moles at this point are whole numbers (or very close), the empirical formula can be written with the moles as
the subscript of each element.
5. In some cases, one or more of the moles calculated in step 3 will not be whole numbers. Multiply each of the moles by
the smallest whole number that will convert each into a whole number. Write the empirical formula.
Example 6.8.1
A compound of iron and oxygen is analyzed and found to contain 69.94% iron and 30.06% oxygen. Find the empirical
formula of the compound.
SOLUTION
Find the empirical formula of a compound of 69.94% iron and
30.06% oxygen.
Given:
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you % of Fe = 69.94%
to "find." % of O = 30.06%
Find: Empirical formula = Fe ? O?
Calculate

Find the empirical formula of a compound of 69.94% iron and
30.06% oxygen.
69.94 g Fe
a. Assume a 100 g sample, convert the same % values to grams.
30.06 g O
1 mol Fe
69.94 g Fe × = 1.252 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe
b. Convert to moles.
1 mol O
30.06 g O × = 1.879 mol O
16.00 g O
1.252 mol
Fe :
1.252
1.879 mol
c. Divide both moles by the smallest of the results. O :
1.252
The "non- whole number" empirical formula of the compound is

Fe O1.5
1
Fe:O = 2 (1:1.5) = 2:3

Multiply each of the moles by the smallest whole number that will
convert each into a whole number. Since the moles of O is still not a whole number, both moles can be
multiplied by 2, while rounding to a whole number.
Write the empirical formula. The empirical formula of the compound is Fe 2
O
3
.
The subscripts are whole numbers and represent the mole ratio of the
Think about your result. elements in the compound. The compound is the ionic compound
iron (III) oxide.
Exercise 6.8.1
Mercury forms a compound with chlorine that is 73.9% mercury and 26.1% chlorine by mass. What is the empirical
formula?
Answer
HgCl2
Summary
A process is described for the calculation of the empirical formula for a compound based on the percent composition of
that compound.


6.9: Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds
Learning Objectives
To understand the difference between empirical formulas and molecular formulas
To determine molecular formula from percent composition and molar mass of a compound.
Below, we see two carbohydrates: glucose and sucrose. Sucrose is almost exactly twice the size of glucose, although their
empirical formulas are very similar. Some people could distinguish them on the basis of taste, but it's not a good idea to go
around tasting chemicals. The best way is to determine the molar masses - this approach allows you to easily tell which
compound is which.
Figure 6.9.1 : (A) the molecular structure of glucose and (B) the molecular structure of sucrose.
Molecular Formulas
Molecular formulas give the kind and number of atoms of each element present in the molecular compound. In many cases,
the molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula. The chemical formula will always be some integer multiple (n ) of
the empirical formula (i.e. integer multiples of the subscripts of the empirical formula).
Molecular Formula = n(Empirical formula) (6.9.1)
therefore
Molecular Formula
n = (6.9.2)
Empirical Formula
The integer multiple, n can also be obtained by dividing the molar mass, MM , of the compound by the empirical formula
mass, EF M (the molar mass represented by the empirical formula).
M M (molarmass)
n = (6.9.3)
EF M (empiricalf ormulamolarmass)
Table 6.9.1 shows the comparison between the empirical and molecular formula of methane, acetic acid, and glucose and the
different values of n. The molecular formula of methane is CH and because it contains only one carbon atom, that is also its
4
empirical formula. Sometimes, however, the molecular formula is a simple whole-number multiple of the empirical formula.
Acetic acid is an organic acid that is the main component of vinegar. Its molecular formula is C H O . Glucose is a simple
2 4 2
sugar that cells use as a primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C H O . The structures of both molecules are
6 12 6
shown in Figure 6.9.2. They are very different compounds, yet both have the same empirical formula of CH O. 2
Table 6.9.1 : Molecular Formula and Empirical Formula of Various Compounds.

Name of Compound Molecular Formula Empirical Formula n
Methane CH
4
CH
4
1
Acetic acid C H O
2 4 2
CH O
2
2
Glucose C H
6 12
O
6
CH O
2
6

Figure 6.9.2 : Acetic acid (left) has a molecular formula of C H O
2 4 2
, while glucose (right) has a molecular formula of
C H
6 12
O
6
. Both have the empirical formula CH O .
2
Empirical formulas can be determined from the percent composition of a compound as discussed in section 6.8. In order to
determine its molecular formula, it is necessary to know the molar mass of the compound. Chemists use an instrument called a
mass spectrometer to determine the molar mass of compounds. In order to go from the empirical formula to the molecular
formula, follow these steps:
1. Calculate the empirical formula molar mass (EFM).
2. Divide the molar mass of the compound by the empirical formula molar mass. The result should be a whole number or very
close to a whole number.
3. Multiply all the subscripts in the empirical formula by the whole number found in step 2. The result is the molecular
formula.
Example 6.9.1
The empirical formula of a compound of boron and hydrogen is BH
3
. Its molar mass is 27.7 g/mol . Determine the
molecular formula of the compound.
SOLUTION
Steps for Problem Solving Determine the molecular formula of BH . 3
Given:
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Empirical formula = BH 3
to "find." Molar mass = 27.7 g/mol

Find: Molecular formula =?
Calculate the empirical formula mass (EFM). Empirical formula molar mass (EFM) = 13.84 g/mol
Divide the molar mass of the compound by the empirical formula

mass. The result should be a whole number or very close to a whole molar mass 27.7g/mol
= = 2
number. EFM 13.84g/mol
Multiply all the subscripts in the empirical formula by the whole

BH ×2 = B H
number found in step 2. The result is the molecular formula. 3 2 6
Write the molecular formula. The molecular formula of the compound is B 2

H
6
.
The molar mass of the molecular formula matches the molar mass of
the compound.
Exercise 6.9.1
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92 % C, 4.58 % H, and 54.50 % O, by mass. The experimentally determined
molecular mass is 176 amu. What is the empirical and chemical formula for ascorbic acid?
Answer Empirical Formula

C3H4O3
Answer Molecular Formula
C6H8O6

Summary
A procedure is described that allows the calculation of the exact molecular formula for a compound.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
7: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to
another. Chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the
forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to
the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation.
7.1: GRADE SCHOOL VOLCANOES, AUTOMOBILES, AND LAUNDRY DETERGENTS

7.2: EVIDENCE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
In a chemical change, new substances are formed. In order for this to occur, the chemical bonds of
the substances break, and the atoms that compose them separate and rearrange themselves into
new substances with new chemical bonds. When this process occurs, we call it a chemical
reaction. A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances.
7.3: THE CHEMICAL EQUATION

A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances. Chemical reactions
are represented by chemical equations. Chemical equations have reactants on the left, an arrow that is read as "yields", and the
products on the right.
7.4: HOW TO WRITE BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

In chemical reactions, atoms are never created or destroyed. The same atoms that were present in the reactants are present in the
products - they are merely reorganized into different arrangements. In a complete chemical equation, the two sides of the equation
must be present on the reactant and the product sides of the equation.
7.5: AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY- COMPOUNDS DISSOLVED IN WATER

When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions in the solid separate and disperse uniformly throughout the solution because water
molecules surround and solvate the ions, reducing the strong electrostatic forces between them. This process represents a physical
change known as dissociation. Under most conditions, ionic compounds will dissociate nearly completely when dissolved, and so they
are classified as strong electrolytes.
7.6: PRECIPITATION REACTIONS- REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION THAT FORM A SOLID

A precipitation reaction is a reaction that yields an insoluble product—a precipitate—when two solutions are mixed. Thus
precipitation reactions are a subclass of exchange reactions that occur between ionic compounds when one of the products is
insoluble. Because both components of each compound change partners, such reactions are sometimes called double-displacement
reactions.
7.7: WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR REACTIONS IN SOLUTION- MOLECULAR, COMPLETE IONIC, AND
NET IONIC EQUATIONS
Precipitation is a process in which a solute separates from a supersaturated solution. In a chemical laboratory it usually refers to a
solid crystallizing from a liquid solution, but in weather reports it applies to liquid or solid water separating from supersaturated air.
7.8: ACID–BASE AND GAS EVOLUTION REACTIONS

The Arrhenius definition of an acid is a substance that increases the amount of H+ in an aqueous solution. The Arrhenius definition of
a base is a substance that increases the amount of OH− in an aqueous solution. Neutralization is the reaction of an acid and a base,
which forms water and a salt. Net ionic equations for neutralization reactions may include solid acids, solid bases, solid salts, and
water.
7.9: OXIDATION–REDUCTION REACTIONS

An oxidation-reduction reaction is a reaction that involves the full or partial transfer of electrons from one reactant to another.
Oxidation is the full or partial loss of electrons or the gain of oxygen. Reduction is the full or partial gain of electrons or the loss of
oxygen. A redox reaction is another term for an oxidation-reduction reaction.
7.10: CLASSIFYING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Chemical reactions are classified into types to help us analyze them and also to help us predict what the products of the reaction will
be. The five major types of chemical reactions are synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, and combustion.
1 6/21/2020
7.11: THE ACTIVITY SERIES
Metals and halogens are ranked according to their ability to displace other metals or halogens below them in the series. The activity
series is a list of elements in decreasing order of their reactivity. Since metals replace other metals, while nonmetals replace other
nonmetals, they each have a separate activity series.
2 6/21/2020
7.1: Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles, and Laundry Detergents

7.2: Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
Learning Objectives
Identify the evidence for chemical reactions
In a chemical change, new substances are formed. In order for this to occur, the chemical bonds of the substances break, and
the atoms that compose them separate and rearrange themselves into new substances with new chemical bonds. When this
process occurs, we call it a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are
changed into one or more new substances.
Figure 7.2.1 : (a) Copper and nitric acid undergo a chemical change to form copper nitrate and brown, gaseous nitrogen
dioxide. (b) During the combustion of a match, cellulose in the match and oxygen from the air undergo a chemical change to
form carbon dioxide and water vapor. (c) Cooking red meat causes a number of chemical changes, including the oxidation of
iron in myoglobin that results in the familiar red-to-brown color change. (d) A banana turning brown is a chemical change as
new, darker (and less tasty) substances form. (credit b: modification of work by Jeff Turner; credit c: modification of work by
Gloria Cabada-Leman; credit d: modification of work by Roberto Verzo)
To identify a chemical reaction, we look for a chemical change. A chemical change always produces one or more types of
matter that differ from the matter present before the change. The formation of rust is a chemical change because rust is a
different kind of matter than the iron, oxygen, and water present before the rust formed. The explosion of nitroglycerin is a
chemical change because the gases produced are very different kinds of matter from the original substance. Other examples of
chemical changes include reactions that are performed in a lab (such as copper reacting with nitric acid), all forms of
combustion (burning), and food being cooked, digested, or rotting (Figure 7.2.1).

Video7.2.1 : Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
Example 7.2.1 : Evidence of a Chemical Reaction

Which of the following is a chemical reaction?
a. Freezing liquid Mercury
b. Adding yellow to blue to make green
c. Cutting a piece of paper into two pieces
d. Dropping a sliced orange into a vat of sodium dydroxide
e. Filling a balloon with natural air
SOLUTION
a,b,c, & e involve only physical changes. A sliced orange has acid (citric acid) that can react with sodium hydroxide, so
the answer is d
Exercise 7.2.1
Which of the following is a chemical reaction?
a. Painting a wall blue
b. A bicycle rusting
c. Ice cream melting
d. Scratching a key across a desk
e. Making a sand castle
Answer
b
Example 7.2.2 : Evidence of a Chemical Reaction

Which of the following is not a chemical reaction?
a. Shattering Glass with a baseball
b. Corroding Metal
c. Fireworks Exploding
d. Lighting a match
e. Baking a cake
SOLUTION
Shattering glass with a baseball results in glass broken into many pieces but no chemical change happens, so the answer
is a.
Exercise 7.2.2
Which of the following is NOT a chemical reaction?
a. Frying an egg
b. Slicing carrots
c. A Macbook falling out of a window
d. Creating ATP in the human body
e. Dropping a fizzy tablet into a glass of water
Answer
b and c

Summary
Chemical reactions can be identified via a range of different observables including change in color, energy change
(temperature change or light produced), gas production, formation of precipitate and change in properties among others.

Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley
(Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at
http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]).

7.3: The Chemical Equation
Learning Objectives
Identify the reactants and products in any chemical reaction.
Convert word equations into chemical equations.
Use the common symbols, (s) , (l), (g) , (aq) , and → appropriately when writing a chemical reaction.
In a chemical change, new substances are formed. In order for this to occur, the chemical bonds of the substances break, and
the atoms that compose them separate and rearrange themselves into new substances with new chemical bonds. When this
process occurs, we call it a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are
changed into one or more new substances.
Reactants and Products

To describe a chemical reaction, we need to indicate what substances are present at the beginning and what substances are
present at the end. The substances that are present at the beginning are called reactants and the substances present at the end
are called products.
Sometimes when reactants are put into a reaction vessel, a reaction will take place to produce products. Reactants are the
starting materials, that is, whatever we have as our initial ingredients. The products are just that, wheat is produced or the
result of what happens to the reactants when we put them together in the reaction vessel. If we think about baking chocolate
chip cookies, our reactants would be flour, butter, sugar, vanilla, some baking soda, salt, egg, and chocolate chips. What would
be the products? Cookies! The reaction vessel would be our mixing bowl.
Flour + Butter + Sugar + Vanilla + Baking Soda + Eggs + Chocolate Chips → Cookies
 
Ingredients = Reactants Product
Writing Chemical Equations

When sulfur dioxide is added to oxygen, sulfur trioxide is produced. Sulfur dioxide and oxygen, SO 2
+O
2
, are reactants and
sulfur trioxide, SO , is the product.
3
2 SO (g) + O (g) → 2 SO (g)

2 2 3
 
Reactants Products
In chemical reactions, the reactants are found before the symbol "→" and the products are found after the symbol "→". The
general equation for a reaction is:
Reactants → Products
There are a few special symbols that we need to know in order to "talk" in chemical shorthand. In the table below is the
summary of the major symbols used in chemical equations. You will find there are others but these are the main ones that we
need to know. Table 7.3.1 shows a listing of symbols used in chemical equations.
Table 7.3.1 : Symbols Used in Chemical Equations
Symbol Description Symbol Description
used to separate multiple reactants reactant or product in the solid

+ (s)
or products state
yield sign; separates reactants (l) reactant or product in the liquid
→
from products state
replaces the yield sign for
⇌ reversible reactions that reach (g) reactant or product in the gas state
equilibrium
Pt formula written above the arrow is reactant or product in an aqueous

(aq)
→
used as a catalyst in the reaction solution (dissolved in water)

Symbol Description Symbol Description
Δ triangle indicates that the reaction

→
is being heated
Chemists have a choice of methods for describing a chemical reaction.

1. They could draw a picture of the chemical reaction.
2. They could write a word equation for the chemical reaction:

"Two molecules of hydrogen gas react with one molecule of oxygen gas to produce two molecules of water vapor."
3. They could write the equation in chemical shorthand.
2H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O (g) (7.3.1)
2 2 2
In the symbolic equation, chemical formulas are used instead of chemical names for reactants and products and symbols are
used to indicate the phase of each substance. It should be apparent that the chemical shorthand method is the quickest and
clearest method for writing chemical equations.
We could write that an aqueous solution of calcium nitrate is added to an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to produce
solid calcium hydroxide and an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate. Or in shorthand we could write:
Ca (NO ) (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Ca (OH) (s) + 2 NaNO (aq) (7.3.2)
3 2 2 3
How much easier is that to read? Let's try it in reverse? Look at the following reaction in shorthand and write the word
equation for the reaction:
Cu (s) + AgNO (aq) → Cu(NO ) (aq) + Ag (s) (7.3.3)
3 3 2
The word equation for this reaction might read something like "solid copper reacts with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate to
produce a solution of copper (II) nitrate with solid silver."
To turn word equations into symbolic equations, we need to follow the given steps:
1. Identify the reactants and products. This will help you know what symbols go on each side of the arrow and where the +
signs go.
2. Write the correct formulas for all compounds. You will need to use the rules you learned in Chapter 5 (including making all
ionic compounds charge balanced).
3. Write the correct formulas for all elements. Usually this is given straight off of the periodic table. However, there are seven
elements that are considered diatomic, meaning they are always found in pairs in nature. They include those elements listed
in the table.
Table 7.3.1 : Diatomic Elements
Element Name Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Formula H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
Example 7.3.1
Transfer the following symbolic equations into word equations or word equations into symbolic equations.
a. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H O (l) 2
b. Gaseous propane, C H , burns in oxygen gas to produce gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water.
3 8
c. Hydrogen fluoride gas reacts with an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate to produce an aqueous solution of
potassium fluoride, liquid water, and gaseous carbon dioxide.

SOLUTION
a. An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide to produce an aqueous
solution of sodium chloride and liquid water.
b. Reactants: propane (C 3
H
8
) and oxygen (O ) 2
Product: carbon dioxide (CO ) and water (H

2 2
O )
C H (g) + O (g) → CO (g) + H O (l)

3 8 2 2 2
c. Reactants: hydrogen fluoride and potassium carbonate

Products: potassium fluoride, water, and carbon dioxide
HF (g) + K CO (aq) → KF (aq) + H O (l) + CO (g)
2 3 2 2
Exercise 7.3.1
Transfer the following symbolic equations into word equations or word equations into symbolic equations.
a. hydrogen gas reacts with nitrogen gas to produce gaseous ammonia
b. HCl (aq) + LiOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H O (l) 2
c. copper metal is heated with oxygen gas to produce solid copper(II) oxide.
Answer a
H2 (g) + N2 (g) → N H3 (g)
Answer b
An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid reacts with an aqueous solution of lithium hydroxide to produce an aqueous
solution of lithium chloride and liquid water.
Answer c
C u(s) + O2 (g) → C uO(s)
Summary
A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances.
Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.
Chemical equations have reactants on the left, an arrow that is read as "yields", and the products on the right.


7.4: How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations
Learning Objectives
Explain the roles of subscripts and coefficients in chemical equations.
Balance a chemical equation when given the unbalance equation.
Explain the role of the Law of Conservation of Mass in a chemical reaction.
Even though chemical compounds are broken up and new compounds are formed during a chemical reaction, atoms in the
reactants do not disappear nor do new atoms appear to form the products. In chemical reactions, atoms are never created or
destroyed. The same atoms that were present in the reactants are present in the products - they are merely reorganized into
different arrangements. In a complete chemical equation, the two sides of the equation must be present on the reactant and the
product sides of the equation.
Coefficients and Subscripts

There are two types of numbers that appear in chemical equations. There are subscripts, which are part of the chemical
formulas of the reactants and products and there are coefficients that are placed in front of the formulas to indicate how many
molecules of that substance is used or produced.
Figure 7.4.1 : Balancing Equations. You cannot change subscripts in a chemical formula to balance a chemical equation; you
can change only the coefficients. Changing subscripts changes the ratios of atoms in the molecule and the resulting chemical
properties. For example, water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are chemically distinct substances. H2O2 decomposes to
H2O and O2 gas when it comes in contact with the metal platinum, whereas no such reaction occurs between water and
platinum.
The subscripts are part of the formulas and once the formulas for the reactants and products are determined, the subscripts
may not be changed. The coefficients indicate the number of each substance involved in the reaction and may be changed in
order to balance the equation. The equation above indicates that one mole of solid copper is reacting with two moles of
aqueous silver nitrate to produce one mole of aqueous copper (II) nitrate and two atoms of solid silver.
Balancing a Chemical Equation

Because the identities of the reactants and products are fixed, the equation cannot be balanced by changing the subscripts of
the reactants or the products. To do so would change the chemical identity of the species being described, as illustrated in
Figure 7.4.1.
The simplest and most generally useful method for balancing chemical equations is “inspection,” better known as trial and
error. The following is an efficient approach to balancing a chemical equation using this method.
Steps in Balancing a Chemical Equation

1. Identify the most complex substance.
2. Beginning with that substance, choose an element(s) that appears in only one reactant and one product, if possible.
Adjust the coefficients to obtain the same number of atoms of this element(s) on both sides.
3. Balance polyatomic ions (if present on both sides of the chemical equation) as a unit.
4. Balance the remaining atoms, usually ending with the least complex substance and using fractional coefficients if
necessary. If a fractional coefficient has been used, multiply both sides of the equation by the denominator to obtain
whole numbers for the coefficients.
5. Count the numbers of atoms of each kind on both sides of the equation to be sure that the chemical equation is
balanced.
Example 7.4.1 : Combustion of Heptane

Balancing the chemical Equation for the combustion of Heptane (C 7
H
16
)
C H (l) + O (g) → CO (g) + H O(g)

7 16 2 2 2
SOLUTION
Steps Example
The most complex substance is the one with the largest number of
different atoms, which is C H . We will assume initially that the
7 16
final balanced chemical equation contains 1 molecule or formula
unit of this substance.
a. Because one molecule of n-heptane contains 7 carbon atoms, we
need 7 CO2 molecules, each of which contains 1 carbon atom, on the
right side:
C H (l) + O (g) → 7CO (g) + H O(g)

7 16 2 – 2 2
7 carbon atoms on both reactant and product sides

2. Adjust the coefficients.
b. Because one molecule of n-heptane contains 16 hydrogen atoms,
we need 8 H2O molecules, each of which contains 2 hydrogen
atoms, on the right side:
C H (l) + O (g) → 7 CO (g) + 8H O(g)

7 16 2 2 – 2
16 hydrogen atoms on both reactant and product sides
3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit. There are no polyatomic ions to be considered in this reaction.
The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now balanced, but we have 22
oxygen atoms on the right side and only 2 oxygen atoms on the left.
We can balance the oxygen atoms by adjusting the coefficient in
4. Balance the remaining atoms. front of the least complex substance, O2, on the reactant side:
C H (l) + 11O (g) → 7 CO (g) + 8 H O(g)

7 16 ––
– 2 2 2
22 oxygen atoms on both reactant and product sides
The equation is now balanced, and there are no fractional

coefficients: there are 7 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 22
5. Check your work.
oxygen atoms on each side. Always check to be sure that a chemical
equation is balanced.
Example 7.4.2 : Combustion of Isooctane

Combustion of Isooctane (C 8
H
18
)
C H (l) + O (g) ⟶ CO (g) + H O(g)

8 18 2 2 2

SOLUTION
The assumption that the final balanced chemical equation contains only one molecule or formula unit of the most
complex substance is not always valid, but it is a good place to start. The combustion of any hydrocarbon with oxygen
produces carbon dioxide and water.
Steps Example
The most complex substance is the one with the largest number of
different atoms, which is C H . We will assume initially that the
1. Identify the most complex substance. 8 18
final balanced chemical equation contains 1 molecule or formula

unit of this substance.
a. The first element that appears only once in the reactants is carbon:
8 carbon atoms in isooctane means that there must be 8 CO2
molecules in the products:
C H (l) + O (g) ⟶ 8CO (g) + H O(g)

8 18 2 – 2 2
8 carbon atoms on both reactant and product sides

2. Adjust the coefficients.
b. Eighteen hydrogen atoms in isooctane means that there must be 9
H2O molecules in the products:
C H (l) + O (g) ⟶ 8 CO (g) + 9H O(g)

8 18 2 2 – 2
18 hydrogen atoms on both reactant and product sides
3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit. There are no polyatomic ions to be considered in this reaction.
The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now balanced, but we have 25
oxygen atoms on the right side and only 2 oxygen atoms on the left.
We can balance the least complex substance, O2, but because there
are 2 oxygen atoms per O2 molecule, we must use a fractional
25
coefficient ( ) to balance the oxygen atoms:
2
25
C H (l) + O (g) → 8 CO (g) + 9 H O(g)
8 18 2 2 2
2
4. Balance the remaining atoms. –––
25 oxygen atoms on both reactant and product sides

The equation is now balanced, but we usually write equations with
whole-number coefficients. We can eliminate the fractional
coefficient by multiplying all coefficients on both sides of the
chemical equation by 2:
2C H (l) + 25O (g) ⟶ 16CO (g) + 18H O(g)

– 8 18 ––
– 2 ––
– 2 ––
– 2
The balanced chemical equation has 16 carbon atoms, 36 hydrogen

atoms, and 50 oxygen atoms on each side.
Balancing equations requires some practice on your part as well as
5. Check your work. some common sense. If you find yourself using very large
coefficients or if you have spent several minutes without success, go
back and make sure that you have written the formulas of the
reactants and products correctly.
Example 7.4.3 : Precipitation of Lead (II) Chloride

Aqueous solutions of lead (II) nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed. The products of the reaction are an aqueous solution
of sodium nitrate and a solid precipitate of lead (II) chloride. Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
SOLUTION
Steps Example

Steps Example
The most complex substance is lead (II) chloride.

Pb(NO ) (aq) + NaCl(aq) → NaNO (aq) + PbCl (s)
3 2 3 2
There are twice as many chloride ions in the reactants than in the
products. Place a 2 in front of the NaCl in order to balance the
chloride ions.
2. Adjust the coefficients. Pb(NO ) (aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → NaNO (aq) + PbCl (s)
3 2 – 3 2
1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides

2 Na atoms on reactant side, 1 Na atom on product side
2 Cl atoms on both reactant and product sides
The nitrate ions are still unbalanced. Place a 2 in front of the NaNO3.
The result is:
Pb(NO ) (aq) + 2 NaCl(aq) → 2NaNO (aq) + PbCl (s)

3 2 – 3 2
3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit.

2 Na atoms on both reactant and product sides
2 NO3- atoms on both reactant and product sides
There is no need to balance the remaining atoms because they are

4. Balance the remaining atoms.
already balanced.
Pb(NO ) (aq) + 2 NaCl(aq) → 2 NaNO (aq) + PbCl (s)

3 2 3 2

5. Check your work.
2 Na atoms on both reactant and product sides
2 NO3- atoms on both reactant and product sides
Exercise 7.4.1
Is each chemical equation balanced?
a. 2 Hg (ℓ)
+
O (g) → Hg O (s)
2 2 2
b. C H (g) + 2 O (g) → 2 CO (g) + 2 H O(g)

2 4 2 2 2
+
c. Mg (NO ) (s) + 2 Li(s) → Mg (s)
3 2
2 LiNO (s)
3
Answer a
yes
Answer b
no
Answer c
yes
Exercise 7.4.2
Balance the following chemical equations.
a. N (g) + O (g) → NO (g)
2 2 2
b. Pb(NO ) (aq) + FeCl (aq) → Fe(NO ) (aq) + PbCl (s)

3 2 3 3 3 2
c. C H
6 14
(l) + O (g) → CO (g) + H O(g)
2 2 2

Answer a
N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
Answer b
3Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2FeCl3(aq) → 2Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3PbCl2(s)
Answer c
2C6H14(l) + 19O2(g)→ 12CO2(g) + 14H2O(g)
Summary
To be useful, chemical equations must always be balanced. Balanced chemical equations have the same number and type of
each atom on both sides of the equation.
The coefficients in a balanced equation must be the simplest whole number ratio. Mass is always conserved in chemical
reactions.
Vocabulary
Chemical reaction: The process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances.
Reactants: The starting materials in a reaction.
Products: Materials present at the end of a reaction.
Balanced chemical equation: A chemical equation in which the number of each type of atom is equal on the two sides of
the equation.
Subscripts: Part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products that indicate the number of atoms of the preceding
element.
Coefficient: A small whole number that appears in front of a formula in a balanced chemical equation.


7.5: Aqueous Solutions and Solubility- Compounds Dissolved in Water
Learning Objectives
Define and give examples of electrolytes
When some substances are dissolved in water, they undergo either a physical or a chemical change that yields ions in solution.
These substances constitute an important class of compounds called electrolytes. Substances that do not yield ions when
dissolved are called nonelectrolytes. If the physical or chemical process that generates the ions is essentially 100% efficient
(all of the dissolved compound yields ions), then the substance is known as a strong electrolyte. If only a relatively small
fraction of the dissolved substance undergoes the ion-producing process, it is called a weak electrolyte.
Substances may be identified as strong, weak, or nonelectrolytes by measuring the electrical conductance of an aqueous
solution containing the substance. To conduct electricity, a substance must contain freely mobile, charged species. Most
familiar is the conduction of electricity through metallic wires, in which case the mobile, charged entities are electrons.
Solutions may also conduct electricity if they contain dissolved ions, with conductivity increasing as ion concentration
increases. Applying a voltage to electrodes immersed in a solution permits assessment of the relative concentration of
dissolved ions, either quantitatively, by measuring the electrical current flow, or qualitatively, by observing the brightness of a
light bulb included in the circuit (Figure 7.5.1).
Figure 7.5.1 : Solutions of nonelectrolytes such as ethanol do not contain dissolved ions and cannot conduct electricity.
Solutions of electrolytes contain ions that permit the passage of electricity. The conductivity of an electrolyte solution is
related to the strength of the electrolyte.
Ionic Electrolytes
Water and other polar molecules are attracted to ions, as shown in Figure 7.5.2. The electrostatic attraction between an ion and
a molecule with a dipole is called an ion-dipole attraction. These attractions play an important role in the dissolution of ionic
compounds in water.
Figure 7.5.2 : As potassium chloride (KCl) dissolves in water, the ions are hydrated. The polar water molecules are attracted
by the charges on the K+ and Cl− ions. Water molecules in front of and behind the ions are not shown.

When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions in the solid separate and disperse uniformly throughout the solution because
water molecules surround and solvate the ions, reducing the strong electrostatic forces between them. This process represents a
physical change known as dissociation. Under most conditions, ionic compounds will dissociate nearly completely when
dissolved, and so they are classified as strong electrolytes.
Let us consider what happens at the microscopic level when we add solid KCl to water. Ion-dipole forces attract the positive
(hydrogen) end of the polar water molecules to the negative chloride ions at the surface of the solid, and they attract the
negative (oxygen) ends to the positive potassium ions. The water molecules penetrate between individual K+ and Cl− ions and
surround them, reducing the strong interionic forces that bind the ions together and letting them move off into solution as
solvated ions, as Figure 7.5.2 shows. The reduction of the electrostatic attraction permits the independent motion of each
hydrated ion in a dilute solution, resulting in an increase in the disorder of the system as the ions change from their fixed and
ordered positions in the crystal to mobile and much more disordered states in solution. This increased disorder is responsible
for the dissolution of many ionic compounds, including KCl, which dissolve with absorption of heat.
In other cases, the electrostatic attractions between the ions in a crystal are so large, or the ion-dipole attractive forces between
the ions and water molecules are so weak, that the increase in disorder cannot compensate for the energy required to separate
the ions, and the crystal is insoluble. Such is the case for compounds such as calcium carbonate (limestone), calcium
phosphate (the inorganic component of bone), and iron oxide (rust).
Solubility Rules
Some combinations of aqueous reactants result in the formation of a solid precipitate as a product. However, some
combinations will not produce such a product. If solutions of sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride are mixed, no reaction
occurs. One could write a molecular equation showing a double-replacement reaction, but both products, sodium chloride and
ammonium nitrate, are soluble and would remain in the solution as ions. Every ion is a spectator ion and there is no net ionic
equation at all. It is useful to be able to predict when a precipitate will occur in a reaction. To do so, you can use a set of
guidelines called the solubility rules (Tables 7.5.1 and 7.5.2).
Table 7.5.1 : Solubility rules for soluble substances
Soluble in Water Important Exceptions (insoluble)
All Group IA and NH4+ salts none
All nitrates, chlorates, perchlorates and acetates none

All sulfates CaSO4, BaSO4, SrSO4, PbSO4
All chlorides, bromides, and iodides AgX, Hg2X2, PbX2 (X= Cl, Br, or I)
Table 7.5.2 : Solubility rules for sparingly soluble substances

Sparingly Soluble in Water Important Exceptions (soluble)
All carbonates and phosphates Group IA and NH4+ salts
All hydroxides Group IA and NH4+ salts; Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+ sparingly soluble
All sulfides Group IA, IIA and NH4+ salts; MgS, CaS, BaS sparingly soluble
All oxalates Group IA and NH4+ salts
Special note: The following electrolytes are of only moderate solubility in water: CH3COOAg, Ag2SO4, KClO4. They will precipitate only if
rather concentrated solutions are used.
As an example on how to use the solubility rules, predict if a precipitate will form when solutions of cesium bromide and lead
(II) nitrate are mixed.
+ − 2 + −
Cs (aq) + Br (aq) + Pb (aq) + 2 NO (aq) →?
3
The potential precipitates from a double-replacement reaction are cesium nitrate and lead (II) bromide. According to the
solubility rules table, cesium nitrate is soluble because all compounds containing the nitrate ion, as well as all compounds
containing the alkali metal ions, are soluble. Most compounds containing the bromide ion are soluble, but lead (II) is an

exception. Therefore, the cesium and nitrate ions are spectator ions and the lead (II) bromide is a precipitate. The balanced net
ionic reaction is:
2 + −
Pb (aq) + 2 Br (aq) → PbBr (s)
2
Example 7.5.1 : Solubility

Classify each compound as soluble or insoluble
a. Zn(NO3)2
b. PbBr2
c. Sr3(PO4)2
SOLUTION
a. All nitrates are soluble in water so Zn(NO3)2 is soluble.
b. All bromides are soluble in water, except those combined with Pb2+ so PbBr2 is insoluble.
c. All phosphates are insoluble, so Sr3(PO4)2 is insoluble
Exercise 7.5.1 : Solubility

Classify each compound as soluble or insoluble.
a. Mg(OH)2
b. KBr
c. Pb(NO3)2
Answer a
insoluble
Answer b
soluble
Answer c
soluble
Summary
Substances that dissolve in water to yield ions are called electrolytes. Nonelectrolytes are substances that do not produce ions
when dissolved in water. Solubility rules allow prediction of what products will be insoluble in water.


7.6: Precipitation Reactions- Reactions in Aqueous Solution That Form a
Solid
A typical precipitation reaction occurs when an aqueous solution of barium chloride is mixed with one containing sodium
sulfate. The complete chemical equation can be written to describe what happens, and such an equation is useful in making
chemical calculations.
BaCl (aq) + Na SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) + 2 NaCl(aq) (7.6.1)
2 2 4 4

Complete Chemical Equation
However, Equation 7.6.1 does not really represent the microscopic particles (that is, the ions) present in the solution. Thus we
might write below the complete ionic equation
spectator spectator spectator spectator
   
2 + − + 2 − + −
Ba (aq) + 2 Cl (aq) + 2 Na (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) + 2 Na (aq) + Cl (aq) (7.6.2)
4 4

Complete Ionic Equation
Equation 7.6.2 is rather cumbersome and includes so many different ions that it may be confusing. In any case, we are often
interested in the independent behavior of ions, not the specific compound from which they came. A precipitate of BaSO (s) 4
will form when any solution containing Ba (aq) is mixed with any solution containing SO (aq) (provided concentrations
2 + 2 –
are not extremely small). This happens independently of the Cl (aq) and Na (aq) ions in Equation 7.6.2. These ions are
– +
called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction. When we want to emphasize the independent behavior of
ions, a net ionic equation is written, omitting the spectator ions. For precipitation of BaSO the net ionic equation is 4
2 + 2 −
Ba (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) (7.6.3)
4 4

Net Ionic Equation
Example 7.6.1
a. When a solution of AgNO is added to a solution of CaCl , insoluble AgCl precipitates. Write three equations
3 2
(complete chemical equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation) that describe this process.
b. Write balanced net ionic equation to describe any reaction which occur when the solutions of Na SO and NH I are 2 4 4
mixed.
Solution
Equation type Example 7.6.1a Example 7.6.1b
2 AgNO (aq) + CaCl (aq) ⟶

3 2
Na SO (aq) + NH I (aq) ⟶
2 4 4 2
2 AgCl(s) + Ca (NO ) (aq)
3 2
2 NaI(aq) + (NH ) SO (aq)
4 2 4
Complete Chemical Equation The proper states and formulas of all
Both products are aqueous so there is no net
products are written and the chemical
ionic equation that can be written.
+ − 2 + −
2 Ag (aq) + 2 NO (aq) + Ca (aq) + Cl (aq) ⟶
3
2 + −
2 AgCl(s) + Ca (aq) + 2 NO (aq)
Complete Ionic Equation 3
AgCl is a solid so it does not break up into

ions in solution.
Ag
+
(aq) + Cl
−
(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s) NaI and (NH 4
) SO
2 4
are both soluble.
Net Ionic Equation
All spectator ions are removed. No net ionic equation
The occurrence or nonoccurrence of precipitates can be used to detect the presence or absence of various species in solution. A
BaCl solution, for instance, is often used as a test for the presence of SO (aq) ions. There are several insoluble salts of Ba ,
2 –
2 4
but they all dissolve in dilute acid except for BaSO . Thus, if BaCl solution is added to an unknown solution which has
4 2
previously been acidified, the occurrence of a white precipitate is proof of the presence of the SO ion. 2 –
4

Figure 7.6.1 : The three common silver halide precipitates: AgI, AgBr and AgCl (left to right). The silver halides precipitate
out of solution, but often form suspensions before settling. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Cychr).
AgNO
3
solutions are often used in a similar way to test for halide ions. If AgNO solution is added to an acidified unknown
3
solution, a white precipitate indicates the presence of Cl ions, a cream-colored precipitate indicates the presence of Br ions,
– –
and a yellow precipitate indicates the presence of I ions (Figure 7.6.1). Further tests can then be made to see whether perhaps
–
a mixture of these ions is present. When AgNO is added to tap water, a white precipitate is almost always formed. The Cl
3
–
ions in tap water usually come from the Cl which is added to municipal water supplies to kill microorganisms.
2
Exercise 7.6.1
Write balanced net ionic equations to describe any reaction which occur when the following solutions below are mixed.
a. K CO
2 3
+ SrCl
2
b. FeSO
4
+ Ba (NO )
3 2
Answer a
2 + 2 −
Sr (aq) + CO (aq) ⟶ SrCO (s)
3 3
Answer b
2 + 2 −
Ba (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ Ba(SO )(s)
4 4
Precipitates are also used for quantitative analysis of solutions, that is, to determine the amount of solute or the mass of solute
in a given solution. For this purpose it is often convenient to use the first of the three types of equations described above. Then
the rules of stoichiometry may be applied.

Ed Vitz (Kutztown University), John W. Moore (UW-Madison), Justin Shorb (Hope College), Xavier Prat-Resina
(University of Minnesota Rochester), Tim Wendorff, and Adam Hahn.

7.7: Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions in Solution- Molecular,
Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations
A typical precipitation reaction occurs when an aqueous solution of barium chloride is mixed with one containing sodium
sulfate. The complete chemical equation can be written to describe what happens, and such an equation is useful in making
chemical calculations.
BaCl (aq) + Na SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) + 2 NaCl(aq) (7.7.1)
2 2 4 4

Complete Chemical Equation
However, Equation 7.7.1 does not really represent the microscopic particles (that is, the ions) present in the solution. Thus we
might write below the complete ionic equation
spectator spectator spectator spectator
   
2 + − + 2 − + −
Ba (aq) + 2 Cl (aq) + 2 Na (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) + 2 Na (aq) + Cl (aq) (7.7.2)
4 4

Complete Ionic Equation
Equation 7.7.2 is rather cumbersome and includes so many different ions that it may be confusing. In any case, we are often
interested in the independent behavior of ions, not the specific compound from which they came. A precipitate of BaSO (s) 4
will form when any solution containing Ba (aq) is mixed with any solution containing SO (aq) (provided concentrations
2 + 2 –
are not extremely small). This happens independently of the Cl (aq) and Na (aq) ions in Equation 7.7.2. These ions are
– +
called spectator ions because they do not participate in the reaction. When we want to emphasize the independent behavior of
ions, a net ionic equation is written, omitting the spectator ions. For precipitation of BaSO the net ionic equation is 4
2 + 2 −
Ba (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) (7.7.3)
4 4

Net Ionic Equation
Example 7.7.1
a. When a solution of AgNO is added to a solution of CaCl , insoluble AgCl precipitates. Write three equations
3 2
(complete chemical equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation) that describe this process.
b. Write balanced net ionic equation to describe any reaction which occur when the solutions of Na SO and NH I are 2 4 4
mixed.
Solution
Equation type Example 7.7.1a Example 7.7.1b
2 AgNO (aq) + CaCl (aq) ⟶

3 2
Na SO (aq) + NH I (aq) ⟶
2 4 4 2
2 AgCl(s) + Ca (NO ) (aq)
3 2
2 NaI(aq) + (NH ) SO (aq)
4 2 4
Complete Chemical Equation The proper states and formulas of all
Both products are aqueous so there is no net
products are written and the chemical
ionic equation that can be written.
+ − 2 + −
2 Ag (aq) + 2 NO (aq) + Ca (aq) + Cl (aq) ⟶
3
2 + −
2 AgCl(s) + Ca (aq) + 2 NO (aq)
Complete Ionic Equation 3
AgCl is a solid so it does not break up into

ions in solution.
Ag
+
(aq) + Cl
−
(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s) NaI and (NH 4
) SO
2 4
are both soluble.
Net Ionic Equation
All spectator ions are removed. No net ionic equation
The occurrence or nonoccurrence of precipitates can be used to detect the presence or absence of various species in solution. A
BaCl solution, for instance, is often used as a test for the presence of SO (aq) ions. There are several insoluble salts of Ba ,
2 –
2 4
but they all dissolve in dilute acid except for BaSO . Thus, if BaCl solution is added to an unknown solution which has
4 2
previously been acidified, the occurrence of a white precipitate is proof of the presence of the SO ion. 2 –
4

Figure 7.7.1 : The three common silver halide precipitates: AgI, AgBr and AgCl (left to right). The silver halides precipitate
out of solution, but often form suspensions before settling. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Cychr).
AgNO
3
solutions are often used in a similar way to test for halide ions. If AgNO solution is added to an acidified unknown
3
solution, a white precipitate indicates the presence of Cl ions, a cream-colored precipitate indicates the presence of Br ions,
– –
and a yellow precipitate indicates the presence of I ions (Figure 7.7.1). Further tests can then be made to see whether perhaps
–
a mixture of these ions is present. When AgNO is added to tap water, a white precipitate is almost always formed. The Cl
3
–
ions in tap water usually come from the Cl which is added to municipal water supplies to kill microorganisms.
2
Exercise 7.7.1
Write balanced net ionic equations to describe any reaction which occur when the following solutions below are mixed.
a. K CO
2 3
+ SrCl
2
b. FeSO
4
+ Ba (NO )
3 2
Answer a
2 + 2 −
Sr (aq) + CO (aq) ⟶ SrCO (s)
3 3
Answer b
2 + 2 −
Ba (aq) + SO (aq) ⟶ Ba(SO )(s)
4 4
Precipitates are also used for quantitative analysis of solutions, that is, to determine the amount of solute or the mass of solute
in a given solution. For this purpose it is often convenient to use the first of the three types of equations described above. Then
the rules of stoichiometry may be applied.


7.8: Acid–Base and Gas Evolution Reactions
Learning Objectives
Identify when a reaction will evolve a gas.
Neutralization Reactions
Acids and bases react chemically with each other to form salts. A salt is a general chemical term for any ionic compound formed from
an acid and a base. In reactions where the acid is a hydrogen ion containing compound and the base is a hydroxide ion containing
compound, water is also a product. The general reaction is as follows:
acid + base→ water + salt (7.8.1)
The reaction of acid and base to make water and a salt is called neutralization. Like any chemical equation, a neutralization chemical
equation must be properly balanced. For example, the neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid is as
follows:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H O(ℓ) (7.8.2)
2
with coefficients all understood to be one. The neutralization reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid is as follows:
2 NaOH(aq) + H SO (aq) → Na SO (aq) + 2 H O(ℓ) (7.8.3)
2 4 2 4 2
Example 7.8.1 : Neutralizing Nitric Acid

Nitric acid (HNO3(aq)) can be neutralized by calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2(aq)). Write a balanced chemical equation for the
reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces.
Solution
Steps Explanation Equation
This is a double displacement reaction, so the Ca(OH)2(aq) + HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) +

Write the unbalanced equation.
cations and anions swap to create new products. H2O(ℓ)
Because there are two OH− ions in the formula
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) +
Balance the equation. for Ca(OH)2, we need two moles of HNO3 to
2H2O(ℓ)
provide H+ ions
Additional step: Identify the salt The salt formed is calcium nitrate.
Exercise 7.8.1
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN(aq)) can be neutralized by potassium hydroxide (KOH(aq) ). Write a balanced chemical equation for
the reaction between these two compounds and identify the salt it produces.
Answer
KOH(aq) + HCN(aq) → KCN(aq) + H O(ℓ)
2
Gas Evolving Reactions

A gas evolution reaction is a chemical process that produces a gas, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. In the following examples, an
acid reacts with a carbonate, producing salt, carbon dioxide, and water, respectively. For example, nitric acid reacts with sodium
carbonate to form sodium nitrate, carbon dioxide, and water (Table 7.8.1):
+ + +
2 HNO (aq) Na CO (aq) → 2 NaNO (aq) CO (g) H O(l) (7.8.4)
3 2 3 3 2 2
Sulfuric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form calcium sulfate, carbon dioxide, and water:
+
H SO (aq) + CaCO (aq) → CaSO (aq) + CO (g) H O(l) (7.8.5)
2 4 3 4 2 2
Hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form calcium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water:
2 HCl(aq) + CaCO (aq) → CaCl (aq) + CO (g) + H O(l) (7.8.6)
3 2 2 2

Figure 7.8.1 demonstrates this type of reaction:
Figure 7.8.1 : Reaction of acids with carbonates. In this reaction setup, lime water is poured into one of the test tubes and sealed with
a stopper. A small amount of hydrochloric acid is carefully poured into the remaining test tube. A small amount of sodium carbonate
is added to the acid, and the tube is sealed with a rubber stopper. The two tubes are connected. As a result of the acid-carbonate
reaction, carbon dioxide is produced and the lime water turns milky.
In this reaction setup, lime water is poured into one of the test tubes and sealed with a stopper. A small amount of hydrochloric acid is
carefully poured into the remaining test tube. A small amount of sodium carbonate is added to the acid, and the tube is sealed with a
rubber stopper. The two tubes are connected. As a result of the acid-carbonate reaction, carbon dioxide is produced and the lime water
turns milky.
Table 7.8.1 : Types of Compounds That Undergo Gas-Evolution Reactions
R
e
a
c
t
a
Intermediate Product Gas Evolved Example
n
t
T
y
p
e
s
u
l
f none H S
2
2 HCl(aq) + K S → H S(g) + 2 KCl(aq)
2 2
i
d
e

R
e
a
c
t
a
n
t
T
y
p
e
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
e
s
a
n
d H CO
2 3
CO
2
2 HCl(aq) + K CO
2 2
→ H O(l) + CO (g) + 2 KCl
2 2
b
i
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
e
s
s
u
l
f
i
t
e
s
a
n
d H SO
2 3
SO
2
2 HCl(aq) + K SO
2 2
→ H O(l) + SO (g) + 2 KCl(
2 2
b
i
s
u
l
f
i
t
e
s

R
e
a
c
t
a
n
t
T
y
p
e
a
m
m
o NH OH
4
NH
3
NH Cl(aq) + KOH → H O(l) + NH (g) + 2 KCl(
4 2 3
n
i
a
The test tube on the right contains limewater (a solution of calcium hydroxide, C a(OH ) ). On the left, a solution of hydrochloric
2
acid has been added to a solution of sodium carbonate to generate C O (g) . The test tubes are sealed with rubber stoppers and
2
connected with a delivery tube. As the reaction proceeds, the limewater on the right turns from clear to milky; this is due to the
C O (g) reacting with the aqueous calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate, which is only slightly soluble in water. The entire
2
experiment is illustrated in the following video:
Video 7.8.1 : Carbon Dioxide (C O ) & Limewater (Chemical Reaction). Carbon dioxide (formed from bicarbonate) and an acid
2
react with limewater, turning it from clear to milky.

When this experiment is repeated with nitric or sulfuric acid instead of H C l, it yields the same results: the clear limewater turns
milky, indicating the production of carbon dioxide. Another method to chemically generate gas is the oxidation of metals in acidic
solutions. This reaction will yield a metal salt and hydrogen gas.
2 HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl (aq) + H (g) (7.8.7)
2 2
Here, hydrochloric acid oxidizes zinc to produce an aqueous metal salt and hydrogen gas bubbles. Recall that oxidation refers to a
loss of electrons, and reduction refers to the gain of electrons. In the above redox reaction, neutral zinc is oxidized to Zn , and the
2+
acid, H , is reduced to H (g) . The oxidation of metals by strong acids is another common example of a gas evolution reaction.
+
2
Contributors & Affiliations

Boundless (www.boundless.com)
Wikipedia (CC-BY-SA-3.0)

Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen
F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/85abf193-
[email protected]).

7.9: Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Learning Objectives
Define oxidation and reduction.
Assign oxidation numbers to atoms in simple compounds.
Recognize a reaction as an oxidation-reduction reaction.
In the course of a chemical reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the
nonmetal atoms. For example, when zinc metal is mixed with sulfur and heated, the compound zinc sulfide is produced. Two
valence electrons from each zinc atom are transferred to each sulfur atom.
Figure 7.9.1 : Reaction between zinc and sulfur.

Since the zinc is losing electrons in the reaction, it is being oxidized. The sulfur is gaining electrons and is thus being reduced.
An oxidation-reduction reaction is a reaction that involves the full or partial transfer of electrons from one reactant to
another. Oxidation is the full or partial loss of electrons or the gain of oxygen. Reduction is the full or partial gain of
electrons or the loss of oxygen. A redox reaction is another term for an oxidation-reduction reaction.
Each of these processes can be shown in a separate equation called a half-reaction. A half-reaction is an equation that shows
either the oxidation or the reduction reaction that occurs during a redox reaction.
2 ++ −
Zn → Zn e (7.9.1)
2

Oxidation
+ − 2 −
S 2e → S (7.9.2)

Reduction
It is important to remember that the two half-reactions occur simultaneously. The resulting ions that are formed are then
attracted to one another in an ionic bond.
Another example of an oxidation-reduction reaction involving electron transfer is the well-known combination of metallic
sodium and chlorine gas to form sodium chloride:
+
2 Na Cl → 2 NaCl (7.9.3)
2
The half reactions are as follows:

+ −
2 Na → 2 Na +2 e (7.9.4)

Oxidation
− −
Cl +2 e → 2 Cl (7.9.5)
2

Reduction
We will concern ourselves with the balancing of these equations at another time.
Oxidation Numbers
Redox reactions require that we keep track of the electrons assigned to each atom in a chemical reaction. How do we do that?
We use oxidation numbers to keep track of electrons in atoms. Oxidation numbers are assigned to atoms based on four rules.
Oxidation numbers are not necessarily equal to the charge on the atom (although sometimes they can be); we must keep the
concepts of charge and oxidation numbers separate.
Assigning Oxidation Numbers

The rules for assigning oxidation numbers to atoms are as follows:
1. Atoms in their elemental state are assigned an oxidation number of 0.

In H2, both H atoms have an oxidation number of 0
2. Atoms in monatomic (i.e., one-atom) ions are assigned an oxidation number equal to their charge. Oxidation
numbers are usually written with the sign first, then the magnitude, to differentiate them from charges.
In MgCl2, magnesium has an oxidation number of +2, while chlorine has an oxidation number of −1
3. In compounds, fluorine is assigned a −1 oxidation number; oxygen is usually assigned a −2 oxidation number
[except in peroxide compounds (where it is −1) and in binary compounds with fluorine (where it is positive)]; and
hydrogen is usually assigned a +1 oxidation number [except when it exists as the hydride ion (H−), in which case
rule 2 prevails].
In H2O, the H atoms each have an oxidation number of +1, while the O atom has an oxidation number of −2, even
though hydrogen and oxygen do not exist as ions in this compound (rule 3). By contrast, by rule 3, each H atom in
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has an oxidation number of +1, while each O atom has an oxidation number of −1.
4. In compounds, all other atoms are assigned an oxidation number so that the sum of the oxidation numbers on
all the atoms in the species equals the charge on the species (which is zero if the species is neutral).
In SO2, each O atom has an oxidation number of −2; for the sum of the oxidation numbers to equal the charge on
the species (which is zero), the S atom is assigned an oxidation number of +4. Does this mean that the sulfur atom
has a 4+ charge on it? No, it means only that the S atom is assigned a +4 oxidation number by our rules of
apportioning electrons among the atoms in a compound.
Example 7.9.1 : Assigning Oxidation States

Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in each substance.
a. Cl2
b. GeO2
c. Ca(NO3)2
SOLUTION
a. Cl2 is the elemental form of chlorine. Rule 1 states each atom has an oxidation number of 0.
b. By rule 3, oxygen is normally assigned an oxidation number of −2. For the sum of the oxidation numbers to equal the
charge on the species (zero), the Ge atom is assigned an oxidation number of +4.
c. Ca(NO3)2 can be separated into two parts: the Ca2+ ion and the NO3− ion. Considering these separately, the Ca2+
ion has an oxidation number of +2 by rule 2. Now consider the NO3− ion. Oxygen is assigned an oxidation number of
−2, and there are three of them. According to rule 4, the sum of the oxidation numbers on all atoms must equal the
charge on the species, so we have the simple algebraic equation
x + 3(−2) = −1
where x is the oxidation number of the N atom and the −1 represents the charge on the species. Evaluating for x,
x + (−6) = −1x = +5
Thus the oxidation number on the N atom in the NO3− ion is +5.
Exercise 7.9.1 : Assigning Oxidation States

Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in the following
a. H3PO4
b. MgO
Answer a
H: +1; O: −2; P: +5

Answer b
Mg: +2, O: −2
All redox reactions occur with a simultaneous change in the oxidation numbers of some atoms. At least two elements must
change their oxidation numbers. When an oxidation number of an atom is increased in the course of a redox reaction, that
atom is being oxidized. When an oxidation number of an atom is decreased in the course of a redox reaction, that atom is being
reduced. Thus oxidation and reduction can also be defined in terms of increasing or decreasing oxidation numbers,
respectively.
Example 7.9.2 : Formation of Sodium Bromide

Identify what is being oxidized and reduced in this redox reaction.
2 Na + Br → 2 NaBr
2
SOLUTION
Both reactants are the elemental forms of their atoms, so the Na and Br atoms have oxidation numbers of 0. In the ionic
product, the Na+ ions have an oxidation number of +1, while the Br− ions have an oxidation number of −1.
2 N a + Br2 → 2 N aBr
0 0 +1−1
Sodium is increasing its oxidation number from 0 to +1, so it is being oxidized; bromine is decreasing its oxidation
number from 0 to −1, so it is being reduced:
Because oxidation numbers are changing, this is a redox reaction. The total number of electrons being lost by sodium
(two, one lost from each Na atom) is gained by bromine (two, one gained for each Br atom).
Exercise 7.9.2 : Oxidation of Carbon

Identify what is being oxidized and reduced in this redox reaction.
C + O2 → C O2
Answer
C is being oxidized from 0 to +4; O is being reduced from 0 to −2
Oxidation reactions can become quite complex, as attested by the following redox reaction:
+ − 2+
6H (aq) + 2 M nO (aq) + 5 H2 O2 (l) → 2 M n (aq) + 5 O2 (g) + 8 H2 O(l) (7.9.6)
4
−1 +2 0
+7
To demonstrate that this is a redox reaction, the oxidation numbers of the species being oxidized and reduced are listed; can
you determine what is being oxidized and what is being reduced? This is also an example of a net ionic reaction; spectator ions
that do not change oxidation numbers are not displayed in the equation. Eventually, we will need to learn techniques for
writing correct (i.e., balanced) redox reactions.
Combustion Reactions
A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light and
heat. Combustion reactions must involve O as one reactant. The combustion of hydrogen gas produces water vapor.
2
2H (g) + O (g) → 2 H O (g) (7.9.7)

2 2 2

Notice that this reaction also qualifies as a combination reaction.
Figure 7.9.2 : Explosion of the Hindenberg.

The Hindenberg was a hydrogen-filled airship that suffered an accident upon its attempted landing in New Jersey in 1937. The
hydrogen immediately combusted in a huge fireball, destroying the airship and killing 36 people. The chemical reaction was a
simple one: hydrogen combining with oxygen to produce water (Equation 7.9.7).
Many combustion reactions occur with a hydrocarbon, a compound made up solely of carbon and hydrogen. The products of
the combustion of hydrocarbons are carbon dioxide and water. Many hydrocarbons are used as fuel because their combustion
releases very large amounts of heat energy. propane (C H ) is a gaseous hydrocarbon that is commonly used as the fuel
3 8
source in gas grills.

C H (g) + 5 O (g) → 3 CO (g) + 4 H O (g) (7.9.8)
3 8 2 2 2
Example 7.9.3 : Combustion of Ethanol

Ethanol can be used as a fuel source in an alcohol lamp. The formula for ethanol is C H OH
2 5
. Write the balanced
equation for the combustion of ethanol.
SOLUTION
Steps Example Solution
C H OH (l) + O (g) → CO (g) + H O (g)

2 5 2 2 2
Write the unbalanced reaction. Ethanol and atmospheric oxygen are the reactants. As with a
hydrocarbon, the products of the combustion of an alcohol are
carbon dioxide and water.
Balance the equation. C H OH (l) + 3 O
2 5 2
(g) → 2 CO
2
(g) + 3 H O (g)
2
Combustion reactions must have oxygen as a reactant. Note that the

Think about your result water is produced is in the gas rather than the liquid state because of
the high temperatures that accompany a combustion reaction.
Exercise 7.9.3 : Combustion of Hexane

Write the balanced equation for the combustion of hexane, C6H14
Answer
2C H (ℓ) + 19 O (g) → 12 CO (g) + 14 H O(ℓ)
6 14 2 2 2

Contributors & Affiliations

7.10: Classifying Chemical Reactions
Learning Objectives
Classify a chemical reaction as a synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, or a combustion
reaction.
Predict the products of simple reactions.
The chemical reactions we have described are only a tiny sampling of the infinite number of chemical reactions possible. How
do chemists cope with this overwhelming diversity? How do they predict which compounds will react with one another and
what products will be formed? The key to success is to find useful ways to categorize reactions. Familiarity with a few basic
types of reactions will help you to predict the products that form when certain kinds of compounds or elements come in contact.
Most chemical reactions can be classified into one or more of five basic types: acid–base reactions, exchange reactions,
condensation reactions (and the reverse, cleavage reactions), and oxidation–reduction reactions. The general forms of these five
kinds of reactions are summarized in Table 7.10.1, along with examples of each. It is important to note, however, that many
reactions can be assigned to more than one classification, as you will see in our discussion.
Table 7.10.1: Basic Types of Chemical Reactions
Name of Reaction General Form Examples
oxidant + reductant → reduced oxidant +

Oxidation–Reduction (redox) C7H16(l) + 11O2(g) → 7CO2(g) + 8H2O(g)
oxidized reductant
Acid–Base acid + base → salt NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) +H2O(l)
Exchange: Single Replacement AB + C → AC + B ZnCl2(aq)+ Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq)+ Zn(s)
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) +
Exchange: Double Replacement AB + CD → AD + CB
2NaCl(aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
Combination (Synthesis) A + B → AB
N2(g) + 2O2(g)→ 2NO2(g)
Decomposition AB → A + B CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The classification scheme is only for convenience; the same reaction can be classified in different ways, depending on which of
its characteristics is most important. Oxidation–reduction reactions, in which there is a net transfer of electrons from one atom
to another, and condensation reactions are discussed in this section. Acid–base reactions and one kind of exchange reaction—
the formation of an insoluble salt such as barium sulfate when solutions of two soluble salts are mixed together.
Combination Reactions
A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance. Combination
reactions can also be called synthesis reactions. The general form of a combination reaction is:
A + B → AB (7.10.1)
One combination reaction is two elements combining to form a compound. Solid sodium metal reacts with chlorine gas to
produce solid sodium chloride.
2Na (s) + Cl (g) → 2NaCl (s)

2
Notice that in order to write and balance the equation correctly, it is important to remember the seven elements that exist in
nature as diatomic molecules (H , N , O , F , Cl , Br , and I ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
One sort of combination reaction that occurs frequently is the reaction of an element with oxygen to form an oxide. Metals and
nonmetals both react readily with oxygen under most conditions. Magnesium reacts rapidly and dramatically when ignited,
combining with oxygen from the air to produce a fine powder of magnesium oxide.
2Mg (s) + O (g) → 2MgO (s)

2
Sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.

S (s) + O (g) → SO (g)
2 2
When nonmetals react with one another, the product is a molecular compound. Often, the nonmetal reactants can combine in
different ratios and produce different products. Sulfur can also combine with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide.
2S (s) + 3 O (g) → 2 SO (g)

2 3
Transition metals are capable of adopting multiple positive charges within their ionic compounds. Therefore, most transition
metals are capable of forming different products in a combination reaction. Iron reacts with oxygen to form both iron (II) oxide
and iron (III) oxide.
2Fe (s) + O (g) → 2FeO (s)

2
4Fe (s) + 3 O (g) → 2 Fe O (s)

2 2 3
Example 7.10.1 : Combustion of Solid Potassium

Potassium is a very reactive alkali metal that must be stored under oil in order to prevent it from reacting with air. Write the
balanced chemical equation for the combination reaction of potassium with oxygen.
SOLUTION
Make sure formulas of all reactants and products are correct before
balancing the equation. Oxygen gas is a diatomic molecule.
Plan the problem. Potassium oxide is an ionic compound and so its formula is
constructed by the crisscross method. Potassium as an ion becomes
K , while the oxide ion is O .
+ 2 −
The skeleton (unbalanced) equation:
K (s) + O (g) → K O (s)

2 2
Solve.
The equation is then easily balanced with coefficients.
4K (s) + O (g) → 2 K O (s)

2 2
Formulas are correct and the resulting combination reaction is

balanced.
Combination reactions can also take place when an element reacts with a compound to form a new compound composed of a
larger number of atoms. Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide according to the equation:
2CO (g) + O (g) → 2 CO (g) (7.10.2)
2 2
Two compounds may also react to form a more complex compound. A very common example is the reactions of oxides with
water. Calcium oxide reacts readily with water to produce an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide.
CaO (s) + H O (l) → Ca (OH) (aq) (7.10.3)
2 2
Sulfur trioxide gas reacts with water to form sulfuric acid. This is an unfortunately common reaction that occurs in the
atmosphere in some places where oxides of sulfur are present as pollutants. The acid formed in the reaction falls to the ground
as acid rain.
SO (g) + H O (l) → H SO (aq) (7.10.4)
3 2 2 4

Figure 7.10.1 : Acid rain has severe consequences on both natural and manmade objects. Acid rain degrades marble statues like
the one on the left (A). The trees in the forest on the right (B) have been killed by acid rain.
Exercise 7.10.1
a. Write the chemical equation for the synthesis of silver bromide, AgBr.
b. Predict the products for the following reaction: CO (g) + H O (l)
2 2
Answer a:
2Ag + Br → 2AgBr
2
Answer b:
CO (g) + H O (l) → H CO
2 2 2 3
Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances. The general
form of a decomposition reaction is:
AB → A + B (7.10.5)
Most decomposition reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
Binary compounds are compounds composed of just two elements. The simplest kind of decomposition reaction is when a
binary compound decomposes into its elements. Mercury (II) oxide, a red solid, decomposes when heated to produce mercury
and oxygen gas.
2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O (g) (7.10.6)
2
Video 7.10.2 : Mercury (II) oxide is a red solid. When it is heated, it decomposes into mercury metal and oxygen gas.
A reaction is also considered to be a decomposition reaction even when one or more of the produces are still compounds. A
metal carbonate decomposes into a metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas. For example, calcium carbonate decomposes into
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO (s) → CaO (s) + CO (g) (7.10.7)
3 2
Metal hydroxides decompose on heating to yield metal oxides and water. Sodium hydroxide decomposes to produce sodium
oxide and water.

2NaOH (s) → Na O (s) + H O (g) (7.10.8)
2 2
Some unstable acids decompose to produce nonmetal oxides and water. Carbonic acid decomposes easily at room temperature
into carbon dioxide and water.
H CO (aq) → CO (g) + H O (l) (7.10.9)
2 3 2 2
Example 7.10.2 : Electrolysis of Water

When an electric current is passed through pure water, it decomposes into its elements. Write a balanced equation for the
decomposition of water.
SOLUTION
Water is a binary compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen. The

Plan the problem. hydrogen and oxygen gases produced in the reaction are both
diatomic molecules.
The skeleton (unbalanced) equation:
e le c
H O (l) → H (g) + O (g)
2 2 2
Solve. Note the abbreviation "elec " above the arrow to indicate the passage
of an electric current to initiate the reaction. Balance the equation.
e le c
2 H O (l) → 2 H (g) + O (g)
2 2 2
Think about your result. The products are elements and the equation is balanced.
Exercise 7.10.2
Write the chemical equation for the decomposition of:
a. Al O
2 3
b. Ag S
2
Answer a
2 Al O → 4Al + 3 O
2 3 2
Answer b
Ag S → 2Ag + S
2
Single Replacement Reactions

A third type of reaction is the single replacement reaction in which one element replaces a similar element in a compound. The
general form of a single-replacement (also called single-displacement) reaction is:
A + BC → AC + B (7.10.10)
In this general reaction, element A is a metal and replaces element B , also a metal, in the compound. When the element that is
doing the replacing is a nonmetal, it must replace another nonmetal in a compound, and the general equation becomes:
Y + XZ → XY + Z (7.10.11)
where Y is a nonmetal and replaces the nonmetal Z in the compound with X .
Metal Replacement
Magnesium is a more reactive metal than copper. When a strip of magnesium metal is placed in an aqueous solution of copper
(II) nitrate, it replaces the copper. The products of the reaction are aqueous magnesium nitrate and solid copper metal.
Mg (s) + Cu(NO ) (aq) → Mg (NO ) (aq) + Cu (s) (7.10.12)

3 2 3 2

This subcategory of single-replacement reactions is called a metal replacement reaction because it is a metal that is being
replaced (copper).
Hydrogen Replacement
Many metals react easily with acids and when they do so, one of the products of the reaction is hydrogen gas. Zinc reacts with
hydrochloric acid to produce aqueous zinc chloride and hydrogen (figure below).
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl (aq) + H (g) (7.10.13)
2 2
In a hydrogen replacement reaction, the hydrogen in the acid is replaced by an active metal. Some metals are so reactive that
they are capable of replacing the hydrogen in water. The products of such a reaction are the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
All Group 1 metals undergo this type of reaction. Sodium reacts vigorously with water to produce aqueous sodium hydroxide
and hydrogen (see figure below).
2Na (s) + 2 H O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H (g) (7.10.14)
2 2
Figure 7.10.2 : (First image) Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to give off hydrogen gas in a single-displacement
reaction. (Second image) Sodium metal reacts vigorously with water, giving off hydrogen gas. A large piece of sodium will
often generate so much heat that the hydrogen will ignite.
Halogen Replacement
The element chlorine reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium bromide to produce aqueous sodium chloride and elemental
bromine.
Cl (g) + 2NaBr (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br (l) (7.10.15)
2 2
The reactivity of the halogen group (group 17) decreases from top to bottom within the group. Fluorine is the most reactive
halogen, while iodine is the least. Since chlorine is above bromine, it is more reactive than bromine and can replace it in a
halogen replacement reaction.
Example 7.10.3
What would be the products of the reaction between solid aluminum (Al) and iron (III) oxide (Fe 2
O
3
)?
SOLUTION
To predict the products, we need to know that aluminum will replace

iron and form aluminum oxide (the metal will replace the metal ion in
the compound). Aluminum has a charge of +3 and oxygen has a
Plan the problem
charge of −2. The compound formed between aluminum and oxygen,
therefore, will be Al O . Since iron is replaced in the compound by
2 3
aluminum, the iron will now be the single element in the products.
The unbalanced equation will be:
Al + Fe O → Al O + Fe
2 3 2 3
Solve
and the balanced equation will be:
2Al + Fe O → Al O + 2Fe
2 3 2 3

This is a single replacement reaction, and when balanced the

Think about your result coefficients accurately reflect that the iron and aluminum have the
same charge in this reaction.
Exercise 7.10.3
a. Write the chemical equation for the single replacement reaction between zinc solid and lead (II) nitrate solution to
produce zinc nitrate solution and solid lead. (*Note: zinc forms ions with a +2 charge)
b. Predict the products for the following reaction: Fe + CuSO (in this reaction, assume iron forms ions with a +2
4
charge)
Answer a
Zn + Pb(NO ) → Pb + Zn(NO )
3 2 3 2
Answer b
Fe + CuSO → Cu + FeSO
4 4
Double Replacement Reactions

A double-replacement reaction is a reaction in which the positive and negative ions of two ionic compounds exchange places
to form two new compounds. The general form of a double-replacement (also called double-displacement) reaction is:
AB + CD → AD + BC (7.10.16)
In this reaction, A and C are positively-charged cations, while B and D are negatively-charged anions. Double-replacement
reactions generally occur between substances in aqueous solution. In order for a reaction to occur, one of the products is usually
a solid precipitate, a gas, or a molecular compound such as water.
Formation of a Precipitate
A precipitate forms in a double-replacement reaction when the cations from one of the reactants combine with the anions from
the other reactant to form an insoluble ionic compound. When aqueous solutions of potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate are
mixed, the following reaction occurs.
2KI (aq) + Pb(NO ) (aq) → 2 KNO (aq) + PbI (s) (7.10.17)

3 2 3 2
There are very strong attractive forces that occur between Pb and I ions and the result is a brilliant yellow precipitate
2 + −
(Figure 7.10.3). The other product of the reaction, potassium nitrate, remains soluble.
Figure 7.10.3 : Lead (II) iodide precipitates when potassium iodide is mixed with lead (II) nitrate (Equation 7.10.17). (CC BY-
SA 3.0; PRHaney).
Formation of a Gas
Some double-replacement reactions produce a gaseous product which then bubbles out of the solution and escapes into the air.
When solutions of sodium sulfide and hydrochloric acid are mixed, the products of the reaction are aqueous sodium chloride
and hydrogen sulfide gas.
Na S (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H S (g) (7.10.18)

2 2

Formation of a Molecular Compound
Another kind of double-replacement reaction is one that produces a molecular compound as one of its products. Many examples
in this category are reactions that produce water. When aqueous hydrochloric acid is reacted with aqueous sodium hydroxide,
the products are aqueous sodium chloride and water.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H O (l) (7.10.19)

2
Example 7.10.4
Write a complete and balanced chemical equation for the double-replacement reaction NaCN (aq) + HBr (aq) →
(hydrogen cyanide gas is formed)

SOLUTION
Plan the problem The production of a gas drives the reaction
The cations of both reactants are +1 charged ions, while the anions
are −1 charged ions. After exchanging partners, the balanced
Solve equation is:
NaCN (aq) + HBr(aq) → NaBr(aq) + HCN (g) (7.10.20)
This is a double replacement reaction. All formulas are correct and

Think about your result
the equation is balanced.
Exercise 7.10.4
Write a complete and balanced chemical equation for the double-replacement reaction
(NH ) SO
4 2 4
(aq) + Ba (NO )
3 2
(aq) → (a precipitate of barium sulfate forms)
Answer a:
(NH ) SO (aq) + Ba (NO ) (aq) → 2 NH NO (aq) + BaSO (s) (7.10.21)
4 2 4 3 2 4 3 4
Occasionally, a reaction will produce both a gas and a molecular compound. The reaction of a sodium carbonate
solution with hydrochloric acid produces aqueous sodium chloride, carbon dioxide gas, and water.
Na CO (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + CO (g) + H O (l)

2 3 2 2


7.11: The Activity Series
Learning Objectives
Use the activity series to predict if a reaction will occur.
We see below two metals that can be exposed to water. The picture on the left is of sodium, which gives a violent reaction
when it comes in contact with water. The picture on the right is of silver, a metal so unreactive with water that it can be made
into drinking vessels. Both metals have a single s electron in their outer shell, so you would predict similar reactivities.
However, we have a better tool that allows us to make better prediction about what will react with what.
Figure 7.11.1 : On the left, sodium reacts with water. On the right, silver in the form of cups does not react with water.
The Activity Series

Single-replacement reactions only occur when the element that is doing the replacing is more reactive than the element that is
being replaced. Therefore, it is useful to have a list of elements in order of their relative reactivities. The activity series is a list
of elements in decreasing order of their reactivity. Since metals replace other metals, while nonmetals replace other nonmetals,
they each have a separate activity series. The table 7.11.1 below is an activity series of most common metals, and the table
7.11.2 is an activity series of the halogens.
Table 7.11.1 : Activity Series of Metal Elements

Elements, from most to least reactive Reaction Occurring
Li
Ba
React with cold water, replacing hydrogen.
Sr
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Zn
React with steam, but not cold water, replacing hydrogen.
Cr
Fe
Cd
Co
Ni
Do not react with water. React with acids, replacing hydrogen.
Sn
Pb
H
2

Elements, from most to least reactive Reaction Occurring
Cu
Hg
Ag Unreactive with water or acids.

Pt
Au
Table 7.11.2 : Activity Series of Nonmetal elements

Elements, from most to least reactive
F
2
Cl
2
Br
2
I
2
For a single-replacement reaction, a given element is capable of replacing an element that is below it in the activity series. This
can be used to predict if a reaction will occur. Suppose that small pieces of the metal nickel were placed into two separate
aqueous solutions: one of iron (III) nitrate and one of lead (II) nitrate. Looking at the activity series, we see that nickel is
below iron, but above lead. Therefore, the nickel metal will be capable of replacing the lead in a reaction, but will not be
capable of replacing iron.
Ni (s) + Pb(NO ) (aq) → Ni (NO ) (aq) + Pb (s) (7.11.1)
3 2 3 2
Ni (s) + Fe(NO ) (aq) → NR (no reaction) (7.11.2)

3 3
In the descriptions that accompany the activity series of metals, a given metal is also capable of undergoing the reactions
described below that section. For example, lithium will react with cold water, replacing hydrogen. It will also react with steam
and with acids, since that requires a lower degree of reactivity.
Examples 7.11.1
Use the activity series to predict if the following reactions will occur. If not, write NR . If the reaction does occur, write
the products of the reaction and balance the equation.
a. Al (s) + Zn(NO )
3 2
(aq) →
b. Ag (s) + HCl (aq) →
Solution
Example 7.11.1A Example 7.11.1B

Steps
Al (s) + Zn(NO ) (aq) → Ag (s) + HCl (aq) →
3 2
Compare the placements of aluminum and Compare the placements of silver and
Plan the problem.
zinc on the activity series (Table 7.11.1) hydrogen (Table 7.11.1)
Since aluminum is above zinc, it is capable
of replacing it and a reaction will occur. The
products of the reaction will be aqueous
aluminum nitrate and solid zinc. Take care to Since silver is below hydrogen, it is not
write the correct formulas for the products capable of replacing hydrogen in a reaction
Solve. before balancing the equation. Aluminum with an acid.
adopts a +3 charge in an ionic compound, so Ag (s) + HCl (aq) → NR
the formula for aluminum nitrate is
Al(NO ) . The balanced equation is:
3 3
2Al (s) + 3Zn(NO ) (aq) → 2Al(NO ) (aq) + 3Zn (s)

3 2 3 3
i
Exercise 7.11.1
Use the activity series to predict the products, if any, of each equation.
a. FeCl
2
+ Zn →
b. HNO
3
+ Au →
Answer a
The products are ZnCl2 + Fe
Answer b
No reaction
Summary
Metals and halogens are ranked according to their ability to displace other metals or halogens below them in the series.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
8: QUANTITIES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
So far, we have talked about chemical reactions in terms of individual atoms and molecules.
Although this works, most of the reactions occurring around us involve much larger amounts of
chemicals. Even a tiny sample of a substance will contain millions, billions, or a hundred billion
billions of atoms and molecules. How do we compare amounts of substances to each other in
chemical terms when it is so difficult to count to a hundred billion billion? Actually, there are ways
to do this, which we will explore in this chapter. In doing so, we will increase our understanding of
stoichiometry, which is the study of the numerical relationships between the reactants and the
products in a balanced chemical reaction.
8.1: CLIMATE CHANGE- TOO MUCH CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is an important heat-trapping (greenhouse) gas, which is released through human activities such as deforestation and
burning fossil fuels, as well as natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions.
8.2: STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical equations also provide us with the relative number of particles and moles that react to form products. In this section you
will explore the quantitative relationships that exist between the quantities of reactants and products in a balanced equation. This is
known as stoichiometry. Stoichiometry, by definition, is the calculation of the quantities of reactants or products in a chemical
reaction using the relationships found in the balanced chemical equation.
8.3: MAKING MOLECULES- MOLE-TO-MOLE CONVERSIONS

Previously, you learned to balance chemical equations by comparing the numbers of each type of atom in the reactants and products.
The coefficients in front of the chemical formulas represent the numbers of molecules or formula units (depending on the type of
substance). Here, we will extend the meaning of the coefficients in a chemical equation.
8.4: MAKING MOLECULES- MASS-TO-MASS CONVERSIONS

We have used balanced equations to set up ratios, now in terms of moles of materials, that we can use as conversion factors to answer
stoichiometric questions, such as how many moles of substance A react with so many moles of reactant B. We can extend this
technique even further. Recall that we can relate a molar amount to a mass amount using molar mass. We can use that ability to
answer stoichiometry questions in terms of the masses of a particular substance, in addition to moles.
8.5: LIMITING REACTANT, THEORETICAL YIELD, AND PERCENT YIELD

In all the examples discussed thus far, the reactants were assumed to be present in stoichiometric quantities with none of the reactants
was left over at the end of the reaction. Often reactants are present in mole ratios that are not the same as the ratio of the coefficients
in the balanced chemical equation. As a result, one or more of them will not be used up completely but will be left over when the
reaction is completed.
8.6: LIMITING REACTANT, THEORETICAL YIELD, AND PERCENT YIELD FROM INITIAL MASSES OF REACTANTS
Chemists need a measurement that indicates how successful a reaction has been. This measurement is called the percent yield. The
limiting reagent is that reactant that produces the least amount of product. Mass-mass calculations can determine how much product is
produced and how much of the other reactants remain.
8.7: ENTHALPY- A MEASURE OF THE HEAT EVOLVED OR ABSORBED IN A REACTION

A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings. In the course of an
endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases. The quantity
of heat for a process is represented by the letter q . The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because the system is gaining
heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system.
1 6/21/2020
8.1: Climate Change- Too Much Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important heat-trapping (greenhouse) gas, which is released through human activities such as
deforestation and burning fossil fuels, as well as natural processes such as respiration and volcanic eruptions. Figure 8.1.1
shows CO2 levels during the last three glacial cycles, as reconstructed from ice cores.
Figure 8.1.1 : PROXY (INDIRECT) MEASUREMENTS. Data source: Reconstruction from ice cores. Credit: NOAA
Carbon Dixode
Carbon dioxide (CO ) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2015, CO accounted for about
2 2
82.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as
part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals).
Human activities are altering the carbon cycle–both by adding more CO to the atmosphere and by influencing the ability of
2
natural sinks, like forests, to remove CO from the atmosphere. While CO emissions come from a variety of natural sources,
2 2
human-related emissions are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution.
The main human activity that emits CO is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and
2
transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also emit CO . An example of how CO can be
2 2
generate consider the combustion of octane, a component of gasoline
2C H (l) + 25 O (g) → 16 CO (g) + 18 H O(g) (8.1.1)

8 10 2 2 2
The balanced reaction in Equation 8.1.1 argues that for every two molecules of octane that are burned, 16 molecules of CO 2
are generated.

Earth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
EPA

8.2: Stoichiometry
Learning Objectives
Explain the meaning of the term "stoichiometry".
Determine the relative amounts of each substance in chemical equations.
You have learned that chemical equations provide us with information about the types of particles that react to form products.
Chemical equations also provide us with the relative number of particles and moles that react to form products. In this section
you will explore the quantitative relationships that exist between the quantities of reactants and products in a balanced
equation. This is known as stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry, by definition, is the calculation of the quantities of reactants or products in a chemical reaction using the
relationships found in the balanced chemical equation. The word stoichiometry is actually Greek from two words: στ οικηιον,
which means "element", and \(\mu \epsilon \tau \rho \omicron \nu), which means "measure".
Interpreting Chemical Equations

The mole, as you remember, is a quantitative measure that is equivalent to Avogadro's number of particles. So how does this
relate to the chemical equation? Look at the chemical equation below.
Chemical equation: \[2 \ce{CuSO_4} + 4 \ce{KI} \rightarrow 2 \ce{CuI} + 2 \ce{K_2SO_4} + \ce{I_2}]

The coefficients used, as we have learned, tell us the relative amounts of each substance in the equation. So for every 2 units of
copper (II) sulfate (CuSO ) we have, we need to have 4 units of potassium iodide (KI ). For every two dozen copper (II)
4
sulfates, we need 4 dozen potassium iodides. Because the unit "mole" is also a counting unit, we can interpret this equation in
terms of moles, as well: For every two moles of copper (II) sulfate, we need 4 moles potassium iodide.
The production of ammonia (NH ) from nitrogen and hydrogen gases is an important industrial reaction called the Haber
3
process, after German chemist Fritz Haber.
N (g) + 3 H (g) → 2 NH (g) (8.2.1)

2 2 3
The balanced equation can be analyzed in several ways, as shown in the figure below.
Figure 8.2.1 : This representation of the production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen show several ways to interpret
the quantitative information of a chemical reaction.
We see that 1 molecule of nitrogen reacts with 3 molecules of hydrogen to form 2 molecules of ammonia. This is the smallest
possible relative amounts of the reactants and products. To consider larger relative amounts, each coefficient can be multiplied
by the same number. For example, 10 molecules of nitrogen would react with 30 molecules of hydrogen to produce 20
molecules of ammonia.
The most useful quantity for counting particles is the mole. So if each coefficient is multiplied by a mole, the balanced
chemical equation tells us that 1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen to produce 2 moles of ammonia. This is the
conventional way to interpret any balanced chemical equation.

Finally, if each mole quantity is converted to grams by using the molar mass, we can see that the law of conservation of mass
is followed. 1 mol of nitrogen has a mass of 28.02 g, while 3 mol of hydrogen has a mass of 6.06 g, and 2 mol of ammonia
has a mass of 34.08 g.
28.02 g N + 6.06 g H → 34.08 g NH (8.2.2)
2 2 3
Mass and the number of atoms must be conserved in any chemical reaction. The number of molecules is not necessarily
conserved.
Example 8.2.1
For the combustion of ethane (\ce{C_2H_6}\)) equation
2C H + 7O → 4 CO + 6H O
2 6 2 2 2
a. Indicate the number of formula units or molecules in the balanced equation.

b. Indicate the number of moles present in the balanced equation.
SOLUTION
a. Two molecules of C H plus seven molecules of O yields four molecules of CO plus six molecules of H
2 6 2 2 2
O .
b. Two moles of C H plus seven moles of O yields four moles of CO plus six moles of H O .
2 6 2 2 2
Exercise 8.2.1
For the following equation below, indicate the number of formula units or molecules, and the number of moles present in
the balanced equation.
KBrO + 6KI + 6HBr → 7KBr + 3 H O

3 2
Answer:
One molecules of KBrO plus six molecules of KI plus six molecules of HBr yields seven molecules of KBr plus
3
three molecules of I and three molecules of H O . One mole of KBrO plus six moles of KI plus six moles of HBr
2 2 3
yields seven moles of KBr plus three moles of I plus three moles of H O .
2 2
Summary
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of reactants or products in a chemical reaction using the relationships
found in the balanced chemical equation.
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation represent the reacting ratios of the substances in the reaction.
The coefficients of the balanced equation can be used to determine the ratio of moles of all substances in a reaction.
Vocabulary
Stoichiometry: The calculation of quantitative relationships of the reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation.
Formula unit: The empirical formula of an ionic compound.
Mole ratio: The ratio of the moles of one reactant or product to the moles of another reactant or product according to the
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.


8.3: Making Molecules- Mole-to-Mole Conversions
Learning Objectives
Use a balanced chemical equation to determine molar relationships between substances.
Previously, you learned to balance chemical equations by comparing the numbers of each type of atom in the reactants and
products. The coefficients in front of the chemical formulas represent the numbers of molecules or formula units (depending
on the type of substance). Here, we will extend the meaning of the coefficients in a chemical equation.
Consider the simple chemical equation
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O (8.3.1)
The convention for writing balanced chemical equations is to use the lowest whole-number ratio for the coefficients. However,
the equation is balanced as long as the coefficients are in a 2:1:2 ratio. For example, this equation is also balanced if we write
it as
4 H2 + 2 O2 → 4 H2 O (8.3.2)
The ratio of the coefficients is 4:2:4, which reduces to 2:1:2. The equation is also balanced if we were to write it as
22 H2 + 11 O2 → 22 H2 O (8.3.3)
because 22:11:22 also reduces to 2:1:2.

Suppose we want to use larger numbers. Consider the following coefficients:
23 23 23
12.044 × 10 H2 + 6.022 × 10 O2 → 12.044 × 10 H2 O (8.3.4)
These coefficients also have the ratio 2:1:2 (check it and see), so this equation is balanced. But 6.022 × 1023 is 1 mol, while
12.044 × 1023 is 2 mol (and the number is written that way to make this more obvious), so we can simplify this version of the
equation by writing it as
2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2 → 2 mol H2 O (8.3.5)
We can leave out the word mol and not write the 1 coefficient (as is our habit), so the final form of the equation, still balanced,
is
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O (8.3.6)
Now we interpret the coefficients as referring to molar amounts, not individual molecules. The lesson? Balanced chemical
equations are balanced not only at the molecular level but also in terms of molar amounts of reactants and products. Thus, we
can read this reaction as “two moles of hydrogen react with one mole of oxygen to produce two moles of water.”
By the same token, the ratios we constructed to describe molecules reaction can also be constructed in terms of moles rather
than molecules. For the reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen combine to make water, for example, we can construct the
following ratios:
2 mol H2 1 mol O2
or (8.3.7)
1 mol O2 2 mol H2
2 mol H2 O 1 mol O2
or (8.3.8)
1 mol O2 2 mol H2 O
2 mol H2 2 mol H2 O
or (8.3.9)
2 mol H2 O 2 mol H2
We can use these ratios to determine what amount of a substance, in moles, will react with or produce a given number of moles
of a different substance. The study of the numerical relationships between the reactants and the products in balanced chemical
reactions is called stoichiometry.
Example 8.3.1

How many moles of oxygen react with hydrogen to produce 27.6 mol of H2O?
Solution
How many moles of oxygen react with hydrogen to produce 27.6

mol of H2O?
Unbalanced: H2 + O2 → H2O
Find a balanced equation that describes the reaction
Balanced: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you
Given: moles H2O Find: moles oxygen
to "find."
List other known quantities 1 mol O2 = 2 mol H2O
1 mol O2
27.6 mol H2 O × = 13.8 mol O2
Cancel units and calculate. 2 mol H2 O
To produce 27.6 mol of H2O, 13.8 mol of O2 react.

Since each mole of oxygen produces twice as many moles of water,
Think about your result. it makes sense that the produced amount is greater than the reactant
amount
Example 8.3.2
How many moles of ammonia are produced if 4.20 moles of hydrogen are reacted with an excess of nitrogen?
Solution
How many moles of ammonia are produced if 4.20 moles of
hydrogen are reacted with an excess of nitrogen
Unbalanced: N2 + H2 → NH3
Find a balanced equation that describes the reaction
Balanced: N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: H 2
= 4.20 mol
to "find." Find: mol of NH 3
List other known quantities 3 mol H2 = 2 mol NH3
2 mol N H3
4.20 mol H2 × = 2.80 mol N H3
3 mol H2
The reaction of 4.20 mol of hydrogen with excess nitrogen produces
2.80 mol of ammonia
The result corresponds to the 3:2 ratio of hydrogen to ammonia from

the balanced equation.

Exercise 8.3.1
a. Given the following balanced chemical equation,
C H +8 O → 5 CO +6 H O (8.3.10)
5 12 2 2 2
how many moles of H2O can be formed if 0.0652 mol of C5H12 were to react?
b. Balance the following unbalanced equation and determine how many moles of H2O are produced when 1.65 mol of
NH3 react.
NH +O → N +H O
3 2 2 2
Answer a:
3.14 mol H2O
Answer b:
4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O; 2.48 mol H2O
Summary
The balanced chemical reaction can be used to determine molar relationships between substances.


8.4: Making Molecules- Mass-to-Mass Conversions
Learning Objectives
Convert from mass or moles of one substance to mass or moles of another substance in a chemical reaction.
Mole to Mass Conversions

We have established that a balanced chemical equation is balanced in terms of moles as well as atoms or molecules. We have used balanced
equations to set up ratios, now in terms of moles of materials, that we can use as conversion factors to answer stoichiometric questions, such as
how many moles of substance A react with so many moles of reactant B. We can extend this technique even further. Recall that we can relate a
molar amount to a mass amount using molar mass. We can use that ability to answer stoichiometry questions in terms of the masses of a
particular substance, in addition to moles. We do this using the following sequence:
Collectively, these conversions are called mole-mass calculations.

As an example, consider the balanced chemical equation
F e2 O3 + 3S O3 → F e2 (S O4 )3 (8.4.1)
If we have 3.59 mol of Fe2O3, how many grams of SO3 can react with it? Using the mole-mass calculation sequence, we can determine the
required mass of SO3 in two steps. First, we construct the appropriate molar ratio, determined from the balanced chemical equation, to
calculate the number of moles of SO3 needed. Then using the molar mass of SO3 as a conversion factor, we determine the mass that this
number of moles of SO3 has.
As usual, we start with the quantity we were given:
3 mol SO3
3.59 mol Fe2 O3 × ( ) = 10.77 mol SO3 (8.4.2)
1 mol Fe2 O3
The mol Fe2O3 units cancel, leaving mol SO3 unit. Now, we take this answer and convert it to grams of SO3, using the molar mass of SO3 as
the conversion factor:
80.06 g SO3
10.77 mol SO3 × ( ) = 862 g SO3 (8.4.3)
1 mol SO3
Our final answer is expressed to three significant figures. Thus, in a two-step process, we find that 862 g of SO3 will react with 3.59 mol of
Fe2O3. Many problems of this type can be answered in this manner.
The same two-step problem can also be worked out in a single line, rather than as two separate steps, as follows:
3 mol SO3 80.06 g SO3

3.59 mol F e2 O3 × ( )× ( ) = 862 g S O3 (8.4.4)
1 mol F e2 O3 1 mol SO3
 
converts to moles of SO3 converts to grams of SO
3
We get exactly the same answer when combining all the math steps together as we do when we calculate one step at a time.

Example 8.4.1 : Generation of Aluminum Oxide
How many moles of HCl will be produced when 249 g of AlCl3 are reacted according to this chemical equation?
2AlC l3 + 3 H2 O(ℓ) → Al2 O3 + 6H C l(g)
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving Example 8.4.1
Given: 249 g AlCl3

Find: moles HCl
1 mol AlCl3 = 133.33 g/mol
List other known quantities
6 mol of HCl to 2 mol AlCl3
1 mol AlCl3
6 mol HCl
Cancel units and calculate. 249 g AlCl3 × × = 5.60 mol HCl
133.33 g AlCl3 2 mol AlCl3
Since 249 g of AlCl3 is less than 266.66 g, the mass for 2 moles of AlCl3 and
Think about your result. the relationship is 6 mol of HCl to 2 mol AlCl3 , the answer should be less than
6 moles of HCl.
Exercise 8.4.1 : Generation of Aluminum Oxide

How many moles of Al2O3 will be produced when 23.9 g of H2O are reacted according to this chemical equation?
2AlC l3 + 3 H2 O(ℓ) → Al2 O3 + 6H C l(g)
Answer
0.442 mol Al2O3
Mass to Mass Conversions

It is a small step from mole-mass calculations to mass-mass calculations. If we start with a known mass of one substance in a chemical
reaction (instead of a known number of moles), we can calculate the corresponding masses of other substances in the reaction. The first step in
this case is to convert the known mass into moles, using the substance’s molar mass as the conversion factor. Then—and only then—we use
the balanced chemical equation to construct a conversion factor to convert that quantity to moles of another substance, which in turn can be
converted to a corresponding mass. Sequentially, the process is as follows:

This three-part process can be carried out in three discrete steps or combined into a single calculation that contains three conversion factors.
The following example illustrates both techniques.
Example 8.4.2 : Decomposition of Ammonium Nitrate

Ammonium nitrate decomposes to dinitrogen monoxide and water according to the following equation.
NH NO (s) → N O (g) + 2 H O (l)

4 3 2 2
In a certain experiment, 45.7 g of ammonium nitrate is decomposed. Find the mass of each of the products formed.
Given: 45.7 g NH 4
NO
3
Find:
Mass N 2
O =? g
Mass H 2
O =? g
1 mol NH 4
NO
3
= 80.06 g/mol
1 mol N 2
O = 44.02 g/mol
1 mol H 2
O = 18.02 g/mol
1 mol NH4NO3 to 1 mol N2O to 2 mol H2O
Prepare two concept maps and use the proper conversion factor.
1 mol NH NO 1 mol N O 44.02 g N O

4 3 2 2
45.7 g NH NO × × × = 25.1
4 3
80.06 g NH NO 1 mol NH NO 1 mol N O
4 3 4 3 2
1 mol NH NO 2 H O 18.02 g H O
4 3 2 2
45.7 g NH NO × × × = 20.6
4 3
80.06 g NH NO 1 mol NH NO 1 mol H O
4 3 4 3 2
The total mass of the two products is equal to the mass of ammonium nitrate
Think about your result. which decomposed, demonstrating the law of conservation of mass. Each
answer has three significant figures.
Exercise 8.4.2 : Carbon Tetrachloride

Methane can react with elemental chlorine to make carbon tetrachloride (CCl ). The balanced chemical equation is as follows.
4
CH (g) + 4 Cl (g) → CCl (l) + 4 HCl(l) (8.4.5)

4 2 2
How many grams of HCl are produced by the reaction of 100.0g of CH ? 4
Answer
908.7g HCl
Summary
Calculations involving conversions between moles of a substance and the mass of that substance are described.
The balanced chemical reaction can be used to determine molar and mass relationships between substances.

This page was constructed from content via the following contributor(s) and edited (topically or extensively) by the LibreTexts development
team to meet platform style, presentation, and quality:

8.5: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
Learning Objectives
Identify the limiting reactant (limiting reagent) in a given chemical reaction.
Calculate how much product will be produced from the limiting reagent.
Calculate how much reactant(s) remains when the reaction is complete.
In all the examples discussed thus far, the reactants were assumed to be present in stoichiometric quantities. Consequently, none of the
reactants was left over at the end of the reaction. This is often desirable, as in the case of a space shuttle, where excess oxygen or hydrogen
was not only extra freight to be hauled into orbit but also an explosion hazard. More often, however, reactants are present in mole ratios that
are not the same as the ratio of the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation. As a result, one or more of them will not be used up
completely but will be left over when the reaction is completed. In this situation, the amount of product that can be obtained is limited by the
amount of only one of the reactants. The reactant that restricts the amount of product obtained is called the limiting reactant. The reactant that
remains after a reaction has gone to completion is in excess.
Consider a nonchemical example. Assume you have invited some friends for dinner and want to bake brownies for dessert. You find two
boxes of brownie mix in your pantry and see that each package requires two eggs. The balanced equation for brownie preparation is thus
1 box mix + 2 eggs → 1 batch brownies (8.5.1)
If you have a dozen eggs, which ingredient will determine the number of batches of brownies that you can prepare? Because each box of
brownie mix requires two eggs and you have two boxes, you need four eggs. Twelve eggs is eight more eggs than you need. Although the
ratio of eggs to boxes in is 2:1, the ratio in your possession is 6:1. Hence the eggs are the ingredient (reactant) present in excess, and the
brownie mix is the limiting reactant. Even if you had a refrigerator full of eggs, you could make only two batches of brownies.
Figure 8.5.1 : The Concept of a Limiting Reactant in the Preparation of Brownies. For a chemist, the balanced chemical equation is the
recipe that must be followed.
Phet: Reactants, products and leftovers
View this interactive simulation illustrating the concepts of limiting and excess reactants.
Consider this concept now with regard to a chemical process, the reaction of hydrogen with chlorine to yield hydrogen chloride:
H + Cl (g) → 2 HCl(g) (8.5.2)

2 2
The balanced equation shows the hydrogen and chlorine react in a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio. If these reactants are provided in any other
amounts, one of the reactants will nearly always be entirely consumed, thus limiting the amount of product that may be generated. This
substance is the limiting reactant, and the other substance is the excess reactant. Identifying the limiting and excess reactants for a given
situation requires computing the molar amounts of each reactant provided and comparing them to the stoichiometric amounts represented in
the balanced chemical equation. For example, imagine combining 3 moles of H2 and 2 moles of Cl2. This represents a 3:2 (or 1.5:1) ratio of
hydrogen to chlorine present for reaction, which is greater than the stoichiometric ratio of 1:1. Hydrogen, therefore, is present in excess, and
chlorine is the limiting reactant. Reaction of all the provided chlorine (2 mol) will consume 2 mol of the 3 mol of hydrogen provided, leaving
1 mol of hydrogen nonreacted.
An alternative approach to identifying the limiting reactant involves comparing the amount of product expected for the complete reaction of
each reactant. Each reactant amount is used to separately calculate the amount of product that would be formed per the reaction’s
stoichiometry. The reactant yielding the lesser amount of product is the limiting reactant. For the example in the previous paragraph, complete
reaction of the hydrogen would yield

2 mol HCl
mol HCl produced = 3 mol H2 × = 6 mol HCl (8.5.3)
1 mol H2
Complete reaction of the provided chlorine would produce

2 mol HCl
mol HCl produced = 2 mol C l2 × = 4 mol HCl (8.5.4)
1 mol Cl2
The chlorine will be completely consumed once 4 moles of HCl have been produced. Since enough hydrogen was provided to yield 6 moles
of HCl, there will be non-reacted hydrogen remaining once this reaction is complete. Chlorine, therefore, is the limiting reactant and hydrogen
is the excess reactant (Figure 8.5.2).
Figure 8.5.2 : When H2 and Cl2 are combined in nonstoichiometric amounts, one of these reactants will limit the amount of HCl that can be
produced. This illustration shows a reaction in which hydrogen is present in excess and chlorine is the limiting reactant.
A similar situation exists for many chemical reactions: you usually run out of one reactant before all of the other reactant has reacted. The
reactant you run out of is called the limiting reactant; the other reactant or reactants are considered to be in excess. A crucial skill in evaluating
the conditions of a chemical process is to determine which reactant is the limiting reactant and which is in excess.
How to Identify the Limiting Reactant (Limiting Reagent)

There are two ways to determine the limiting reagent. One method is to find and compare the mole ratio of the reactants used in the
reaction (Approach 1). Another way is to calculate the grams of products produced from the given quantities of reactants; the reactant
that produces the smallest amount of product is the limiting reagent (Approach 2). This section will focus more on the second method.
Approach 1 (The "Reactant Mole Ratio Method"): Find the limiting reagent by looking at the number of moles of each reactant.
1. Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of molar mass as a conversion factor).
3. Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product produced.
5. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting reactant.
Approach 2 (The "The Product Method"): Find the limiting reagent by calculating and comparing the amount of product each reactant
will produce.
1. Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Convert the given information into moles.
3. Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product produced.
4. The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reactant.
5. The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reactant.
6. To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of excess reactant consumed from the total mass of excess reagent
given.
The key to recognizing which reactant is the limiting reagent is based on a mole-mass or mass-mass calculation: whichever reactant gives the
lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent. What we need to do is determine an amount of one product (either moles or mass) assuming
all of each reactant reacts. Whichever reactant gives the least amount of that particular product is the limiting reagent. It does not matter which
product we use, as long as we use the same one each time. It does not matter whether we determine the number of moles or grams of that
product; however, we will see shortly that knowing the final mass of product can be useful.
Example 8.5.1 : Identifying the Limiting Reactant

As an example consider the balanced equation
4 C H Br + 11 O → 8 CO + 6 H O + 6 Br
2 3 3 2 2 2 2
What is the limiting reactant if 76.4 grams of C 2

H Br
3 3
reacted with 49.1 grams of O ? 2

Solution
Using Approach 1:
Step 1: Balance the chemical equation
The equation is already balanced with the relationship
4 mol C 2
H Br
3 3
to 11 mol O to 6 mol H
2 2
O to 6 mol Br
Step 2: Convert all given information into moles.
1 mol C2 H3 Br3
76.4 g C2 H3 Br3 × = 0.286 mol C2 H3 Br3
266.72 g C2 H3 B3
1 mol O2
49.1 g O2 × = 1.53 mol O2
32.00 g O2
Step 3: Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
Assuming that all of the oxygen is used up,
4 mol C2 H3 Br3
1.53 molO2 × = 0.556 mol C2H3Br3 are required.
11 molO2
Because 0.556 moles of C2H3Br3 required > 0.286 moles of C2H3Br3 available, C2H3Br3 is the limiting reactant.
Using Approach 2:
The equation is already balanced with the relationship
4 mol C2H3Br3 to 11 mol O2 to 6 mol H2O to 6 mol Br
Step 2 and Step 3: Converting mass to moles and stoichiometry
1 mol C2 H3 Br3 8 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2

76.4 g C2 H3 Br3 × × × = 25.2 g C O2
266.72 g C2 H3 Br3 4 mol C2 H3 Br3 1 mol CO2
1 mol O2 8 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2

49.1 g O2 × × × = 49.1 g C O2
32.00 g O2 11 mol O2 1 mol CO2
Step 4: The reactant that produces a smaller amount of product is the limiting reactant
Therefore, by either method, C 2
H Br
3 3
is the limiting reactant.
Example 8.5.2 : Identifying the Limiting Reactant and the Mass of Excess Reactant
For example, in the reaction of magnesium metal and oxygen, calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be produced if 2.40 g M g
reacts with 10.0 g O . Also determine the amount of excess reactant. MgO is the only product in the reaction.
2
Solution
Following Approach 1:
2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)
The balanced equation provides the relationship of 2 mol Mg to 1 mol O2 to 2 mol MgO
Step 2 and Step 3: Converting mass to moles and stoichiometry
1 mol Mg 2 mol MgO

40.31 g MgO
2.40 g Mg × × × = 3.98 g MgO
24.31 g Mg 2 mol Mg 1 mol MgO
1 mol O2 2 mol MgO

40.31 g MgO
10.0 g O2 × × × = 25.2 g MgO
32.00 g O2 1 mol O2 1 mol MgO
Step 4: The reactant that produces a smaller amount of product is the limiting reactant

Mg produces less MgO than does O2 (3.98 g MgO vs. 25.2 g MgO), therefore Mg is the limiting reactant in this reaction.
Step 5: The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reactant
O2 produces more amount of MgO than Mg (25.2g MgO vs. 3.98 MgO), therefore O2 is the excess reagent in this reaction.
Step 6: Find the amount of remaining excess reactant by subtracting the mass of the excess reactant consumed from the total mass of
excess reactant given.
Mass of excess reagent calculated using the limiting reactant:
1 mol Mg 1 mol O2 32.00 g O2

2.40 g Mg × × × = 1.58 g O2
24.31 g Mg 2 mol Mg 1 mol O2
OR
Mass of excess reactant calculated using the mass of the product:
1 mol MgO 1 mol O2 32.0 g O2

3.98 g MgO × × × = 1.58 g O2
40.31 g MgO 2 mol MgO 1 mol O2
Mass of total excess reactant given – mass of excess reactant consumed in the reaction
10.0g O2 - (available) 1.58g O2 (used) = 8.42g O2 (excess)
Therefore, O2 is in excess.
Example 8.5.3 : Limiting Reactant

What is the limiting reactant if 78.0 grams of Na2O2 were reacted with 29.4 grams of H2O? The unbalanced chemical equation is
Na O (s) + H O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H O (l)

2 2 2 2 2
Solution
Steps for Problem Solving-The Product Method Example 8.5.1
Given: 78.0 grams of Na2O2

Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to "find." 29.4 g H2O
Find: limiting reactant
1 mol Na2O2= 77.96 g/mol

1 mol H2O = 18.02 g/mol
Since the amount of product in grams is not required, only the molar mass of
the reactants is needed.
Na2O2 (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2O2 (l)
Balance the equation The balanced equation provides the relationship of 1 mol Na2O2 to 2 mol H2O
2mol NaOH to 1 mol H2O2
Prepare a concept map and use the proper conversion factor
Because the question only asks for the limiting reactant, we can perform two
mass-mole calculations and determine which amount is less.

1 mol Na2 O2 2 mol NaOH 40 g NaOH

78.0 g N a2 O2 × × × = 2.00 mol N
77.96 g Na2 O2 1 mol Na2 O2 1 mol NaOH
Cancel units and calculate. 1 mol H2 O 2 mol NaOH 40 g NaOH

29.4 g H2 O × × × = 1.63 mol NaO
18.02 g H2 O 2 mol Na2 O2 1 mol NaOH
Therefore, H2O is the limiting reactant.
Example 8.5.4 : Limiting Reactant and Mass of Excess Reactant

A 5.00 g quantity of Rb are combined with 3.44 g of MgCl according to this chemical reaction:
2
2Rb(s) + M gC l2 (s) → M g(s) + 2RbC l(s)
What mass of Mg is formed, and what mass of what reactant is left over?
A 5.00 g quantity of Rb is combined with 3.44 g of MgCl2 according to this

chemical reaction:
2Rb(s) + M gC l2 (s) → M g(s) + 2RbCl(s)
What mass of Mg is formed, and what mass of what reactant is left over?
Given: 5.00g Rb, 2.44g MgCl2
Find: mass of Mg formed, mass of remaining reactant
molar mass: Rb = 85.47 g/mol

List other known quantities molar mass: MgCl2 = 95.21 g/mol
molar mass: Mg = 24.31 g/mol
Find mass Mg formed based on mass of Rb
Find mass of Mg formed based on mass of MgCl2
Prepare concept maps and use the proper conversion factor.
Use limiting reactant to determine amount of excess reactant consumed

Because the question asks what mass of magnesium is formed, we can

perform two mass-mass calculations and determine which amount is less.
1 mol M g
1 mol Rb 24.31 g M g
5.00 g Rb × × × = 0.711 g M g
85.47 g Rb 2 mol Rb 1 mol M g
1 mol M gCl2 1 mol M g

24.31 g M g
3.44 g M gCl2 × × × = 0.878 g M
95.21 g M gCl2 1 mol M gCl2 1 mol M g
The 0.711 g of Mg is the lesser quantity, so the associated reactant—5.00 g of

Rb—is the limiting reactant. To determine how much of the other reactant is
left, we have to do one more mass-mass calculation to determine what mass of
MgCl2 reacted with the 5.00 g of Rb and then subtract the amount reacted
from the original amount.
1 mol Rb 1 mol M gCl2

95.21 g M gCl2
5.00 g Rb × × × = 2.78 g M gC l2
85.47 g Rb 2 mol Rb 1 mol M gCl2
Because we started with 3.44 g of MgCl2, we have

3.44 g MgCl2 − 2.78 g MgCl2 reacted = 0.66 g MgCl2 left
It usually is not possible to determine the limiting reagent using just the initial
masses, as the reagents have different molar masses and coefficients.
Exercise 8.5.1
Given the initial amounts listed, what is the limiting reagent, and what is the mass of the leftover reagent?
22.7 g + 17.9 g → M gS(s) + H2 O(l)

 
MgO(s) H2 S
Answer
H2S is the limiting reagent; 1.5 g of MgO are left over.

Sarick Shah (UCD)

8.6: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Masses of
Reactants
Learning Objectives
Calculate percentage or actual yields from known amounts of reactants
The world of pharmaceutical production is an expensive one. Many drugs have several steps in their synthesis and use costly chemicals. A
great deal of research takes place to develop better ways to make drugs faster and more efficiently. Studying how much of a compound is
produced in any given reaction is an important part of cost control.
Percent Yield
Chemical reactions in the real world don't always go exactly as planned on paper. In the course of an experiment, many things will contribute
to the formation of less product than would be predicted. Besides spills and other experimental errors, there are usually losses due to an
incomplete reaction, undesirable side reactions, etc. Chemists need a measurement that indicates how successful a reaction has been. This
measurement is called the percent yield.
To compute the percent yield, it is first necessary to determine how much of the product should be formed based on stoichiometry. This is
called the theoretical yield, the maximum amount of product that could be formed from the given amounts of reactants. The actual yield is
the amount of product that is actually formed when the reaction is carried out in the laboratory. The percent yield is the ratio of the actual
yield to the theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage.
Actual Yield
Percent Yield = × 100% (8.6.1)
Theoretical Yield
Percent yield is very important in the manufacture of products. Much time and money is spent improving the percent yield for chemical
production. When complex chemicals are synthesized by many different reactions, one step with a low percent yield can quickly cause a large
waste of reactants and unnecessary expense.
Typically, percent yields are understandably less than 100% because of the reasons indicated earlier. However, percent yields greater than
100% are possible if the measured product of the reaction contains impurities that cause its mass to be greater than it actually would be if the
product was pure. When a chemist synthesizes a desired chemical, he or she is always careful to purify the products of the reaction. Example
8.6.1 illustrates the steps for determining percent yield.
Example 8.6.1 : Decomposition of Potassium chlorate

Potassium chlorate decomposes upon slight heating in the presence of a catalyst according to the reaction below:
2 KClO (s) → 2KCl (s) + 3 O (g)

3 2
In a certain experiment, 40.0 g KClO is heated until it completely decomposes. The experiment is performed and the oxygen gas is
3
collected and its mass is found to be 14.9 g.

a. What is the theoretical yield of oxygen gas?
b. What is the percent yield for the reaction?
Solution
a. Calculation of theoretical yield
First, we will calculate the theoretical yield based on the stoichiometry.
Step 1: Identify the "given" information and what the problem is asking you to "find".
Given: Mass of KClO 3
= 40.0 g
Mass of O2 collected = 14.9g

Find: Theoretical yield, g O2
Step 2: List other known quantities and plan the problem.
1 mol KClO3 = 122.55 g/mol
1 mol O2 - 32.00 g/mol
Step 3: Apply stoichiometry to convert from the mass of a reactant to the mass of a product:

Step 4: Solve.
1 mol KClO 3 mol O 32.00 g O

3 2
2
40.0 g KClO × × × = 15.7 g O
3 2
122.55 g KClO 2 mol KClO 1 mol O
3 3 2
The theoretical yield of O is 15.7 g, 15.67 g unrounded.

2

The mass of oxygen gas must be less than the 40.0 g of potassium chlorate that was decomposed.
b. Calculation of percent yield
Now we will use the actual yield and the theoretical yield to calculate the percent yield.
Step 1: Identify the "given" information and what the problem is asking you to "find".
Given: Theoretical yield =15.67 g, use the unrounded number for the calculation.
Actual yield = 14.9g
Find: Percent yield, % Yield
Step 2: List other known quantities and plan the problem.
No other quantities needed
Step 3: Use the percent yield equation below
Actual Yield
Percent Yield = × 100%
Theoretical Yield
Step 4: Solve.
14.9 g
Percent Yield = × 100% = 94.9%
15. 67 g
–

Since the actual yield is slightly less than the theoretical yield, the percent yield is just under 100%.
Example 8.6.2 : Oxidation of Zinc

Upon reaction of 1.274 g of copper sulfate with excess zinc metal, 0.392 g copper metal was obtained according to the equation:
CuSO (aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + ZnSO (aq)
4 4
What is the percent yield?

Solution
Given: 1.274 g CuSO4

Actual yield = 0.392 g Cu
Find: Percent yield

1 mol CuSO4= 159.62 g/mol
1 mol Cu = 63.55 g/mol
Since the amount of product in grams is not required, only the molar mass of
the reactants is needed.
The chemical equation is already balanced.
Balance the equation The balanced equation provides the relationship of 1 mol CuSO4 to 1 mol Zn
to 1 mol Cu to 1 mol ZnSO4

The provided information identifies copper sulfate as the limiting reactant,

and so the theoretical yield (g Cu) is found by performing mass-mass
calculation based on the initial amount of CuSO4.
1 mol CuSO4 1 mol Cu 63.55 g Cu

1.274 g CuS O4 × × × = 0.50
159.62 g CuSO4 1 mol CuSO4 1 mol Cu
Using this theoretical yield and the provided value for actual yield, the
percent yield is calculated to be
actual yield
percent yield = ( ) × 100 (8.6.2)
theoretical yield
0.392 g Cu
percent yield = ( ) × 100 (8.6.3)
0.5072 g Cu
= 77.3% (8.6.4)
Since the actual yield is slightly less than the theoretical yield, the percent
yield is just under 100%.
Exercise 8.6.1
What is the percent yield of a reaction that produces 12.5 g of the Freon CF2Cl2 from 32.9 g of CCl4 and excess HF?
CCl + 2 HF → CF Cl + 2 HCl
4 2 2
Answer
48.3%
Summary
Theoretical yield is calculated based on the stoichiometry of the chemical equation. The actual yield is experimentally determined. The
percent yield is determined by calculating the ratio of actual yield/theoretical yield.


8.7: Enthalpy- A Measure of the Heat Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction
When physical or chemical changes occur, they are generally accompanied by a transfer of energy. The law of conservation of
energy states that in any physical or chemical process, energy is neither created nor destroyed. In other words, the entire
energy in the universe is conserved. In order to better understand the energy changes taking place during a reaction, we need to
define two parts of the universe, called the system and the surroundings. The system is the specific portion of matter in a given
space that is being studied during an experiment or an observation. The surroundings is everything in the universe that is not
part of the system. In practical terms for a laboratory chemist, the system is the particular chemicals being reacted, while the
surroundings is the immediate vicinity within the room. During most processes, energy is exchanged between the system and
the surroundings. If the system loses a certain amount of energy, that same amount of energy is gained by the surroundings. If
the system gains a certain amount of energy, that energy is supplied by the surroundings.
A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings. In the course
of an endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
The quantity of heat for a process is represented by the letter q. The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because
the system is gaining heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the system into the
surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the temperature of the surroundings increases. The
sign of q for an exothermic process is negative because the system is losing heat.
Figure 8.7.1 : (A) Endothermic reaction. (B) Exothermic reaction.
Enthalpy
Heat changes in chemical reactions are often measured in the laboratory under conditions in which the reacting system is open
to the atmosphere. In that case, the system is at a constant pressure. Enthalpy (H) is the heat content of a system at constant
pressure. Chemists routinely measure changes in enthalpy of chemical systems as reactants are converted into products. The
heat that is absorbed or released by a reaction at constant pressure is the same as the enthalpy change, and is given the symbol
ΔH . Unless otherwise specified, all reactions in this material are assumed to take place at constant pressure.
The change in enthalpy of a reaction is a measure of the differences in enthalpy of the reactants and products. The enthalpy of
a system is determined by the energies needed to break chemical bonds and the energies needed to form chemical bonds.
Energy needs to be put into the system in order to break chemical bonds - they do not come apart spontaneously in most cases.
Bond formation to produce products will involve release of energy. The change in enthalpy shows the trade-offs made in these
two processes. Does it take more energy to break bonds than that needed to form bonds? If so, the reaction is endothermic and
the enthalpy change is positive. If more energy is produced in bond formation than that needed for bond breaking, the reaction
is exothermic and the enthalpy is negative.
Several factors influence the enthalpy of a system. Enthalpy is an extensive property, determined in part by the amount of
material we work with. The state of reactants and products (solid, liquid, or gas) influences the enthalpy value for a system.
The direction of the reaction affects the enthalpy value. A reaction that takes place in the opposite direction has the same
numerical enthalpy value, but the opposite sign.
Thermochemical Equation
When methane gas is combusted, heat is released, making the reaction exothermic. Specifically, the combustion of 1 mol of
methane releases 890.4 kilojoules of heat energy. This information can be shown as part of the balanced equation.

CH (g) + 2 O (g) → CO (g) + 2 H O (l) + 890.4 kJ
4 2 2 2
The equation tells us that 1 mol of methane combines with 2 mol of oxygen to produce 1 mol of carbon dioxide and 2 mol of
water. In the process, 890.4 kJ is released and so it is written as a product of the reaction. A thermochemical equation is a
chemical equation that includes the enthalpy change of the reaction. The process in the above thermochemical equation can be
shown visually in Figure 8.7.2.
Figure 8.7.2 : (A) As reactants are converted to products in an exothermic reaction, enthalpy is released into the surroundings.
The enthalpy change of the reaction is negative. (B) As reactants are converted to products in an endothermic reaction,
enthalpy is absorbed from the surroundings. The enthalpy change of the reaction is positive.
In the combustion of methane example, the enthalpy change is negative because heat is being released by the system.
Therefore, the overall enthalpy of the system decreases. The heat of reaction is the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction.
In the case above, the heat of reaction is −890.4 kJ. The thermochemical reaction can also be written in this way:
CH (g) + 2 O (g) → CO (g) + 2 H O (l) ΔH = −890.4 kJ

4 2 2 2
Heats of reaction are typically measured in kilojoules. It is important to include the physical states of the reactants and
products in a thermochemical equation as the value of the ΔH depends on those states.
Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings as the reaction occurs. When 1 mol of calcium carbonate
decomposes into 1 mol of calcium oxide and 1 mol of carbon dioxide, 177.8 kJ of heat is absorbed. The process is shown
visually in Figure 8.7.2B. The thermochemical reaction is shown below.
CaCO (s) + 177.8 kJ → CaO (s) + CO (g)

3 2
Because the heat is absorbed by the system, the 177.8 kJ is written as a reactant. The heat of reaction is positive for an
endothermic reaction.
CaCO (s) → CaO (s) + CO (g) ΔH = 177.8 kJ

3 2
The way in which a reaction is written influences the value of the enthalpy change for the reaction. Many reactions are
reversible, meaning that the product(s) of the reaction are capable of combining and reforming the reactant(s). If a reaction is
written in the reverse direction, the sign of the ΔH changes. For example, we can write an equation for the reaction of calcium
oxide with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate.
CaO (s) + CO (g) → CaCO (s) + 177.8 kJ

2 3
The reaction is exothermic and thus the sign of the enthalpy change is negative.
CaO (s) + CO (g) → CaCO (s) ΔH = −177.8 kJ

2 3
Stoichiometric Calculations and Enthalpy Changes

Chemistry problems that involve enthalpy changes can be solved by techniques similar to stoichiometry problems. Refer again
to the combustion reaction of methane. Since the reaction of 1 mol of methane released 890.4 kJ, the reaction of 2 mol of
890,4 kJ
methane would release 2 × 890.4 kJ = 1781 kJ. The reaction of 0.5 mol of methane would release 2
= 445.2 kJ . As
with other stoichiometry problems, the moles of a reactant or product can be linked to mass or volume.
Example 8.7.1
Sulfur dioxide gas reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide in an exothermic reaction according to the following
thermochemical equation.

2 SO (g) + O (g) → 2 SO (g) + 198 kJ
2 2 3
Calculate the enthalpy change that occurs when 58.0 g of sulfur dioxide is reacted with excess oxygen.
Solution
Mass SO = 58.0 g
2
Molar mass SO = 64.07 g/mol

2
ΔH = −198 kJ for the reaction of 2 mol SO

2
Unknown
ΔH =? kJ
The calculation requires two steps. The mass of SO is converted to moles. Then the moles of
2
SO
2
is multiplied by the
conversion factor of ( −198 kJ
2 mol SO
) .
2
Step 2: Solve.
1 mol SO −198 kJ
2
ΔH = 58.0 g SO × × = 89.6 kJ
2
64.07 g SO 2 mol SO
2 2

The mass of sulfur dioxide is slightly less than 1 mol. Since 198 kJ is released for every 2 mol of SO that reacts, the 2
heat released when about 1 mol reacts is one half of 198. The 89.6 kJ is slightly less than half of 198. The sign of ΔH is
negative because the reaction is exothermic.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
9: ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
Atoms act the way they do because of their structure. We already know that atoms are composed of
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, and electrons orbit
around the nucleus. But we need to know the structural details to understand why atoms react the
way they do. Virtually everything we know about atoms ultimately comes from light. Before we can
understand the composition of atoms (especially electrons), we need to understand the properties of
light.
9.1: BLIMPS, BALLOONS, AND MODELS OF THE ATOM

9.2: LIGHT- ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Light acts like a wave, with a frequency and a wavelength. The frequency and wavelength of light
are related by the speed of light, a constant. Light acts like a particle of energy, whose value is related to the frequency of light.
9.3: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Electromagnetic waves have an extremely wide range of wavelengths, frequencies, and energies. The highest energy form of
electromagnetic waves are gamma (γ) rays and the lowest energy form are radio waves.
9.4: THE BOHR MODEL- ATOMS WITH ORBITS

Electrons in atoms have quantized energies. The state of electrons in atoms is described by four quantum numbers.
9.5: THE QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL- ATOMS WITH ORBITALS

Quantum mechanics involves the study of material at the atomic level. This field deals with probabilities since we cannot definitely
locate a particle. Orbitals are mathematically derived regions of space with different probabilities of having an electron.
9.6: QUANTUM-MECHANICAL ORBITALS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

We look at the four quantum numbers for a given electron. Electron configuration notation simplifies the indication of where electrons
are located in a specific atom. The Aufbau principle gives the order of electron filling in an atom. Hund's rule specifies the order of
electron filling within a set of orbitals. Orbital filling diagrams are a way of indicating electron locations in orbitals.
9.7: ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

The arrangement of electrons in atoms is responsible for the shape of the periodic table. Electron configurations can be predicted by
the position of an atom on the periodic table.
9.8: THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF THE QUANTUM-MECHANICAL MODEL

The chemical properties of elements is determined primarily by the number and distribution of valence electrons.
9.9: PERIODIC TRENDS- ATOMIC SIZE, IONIZATION ENERGY, AND METALLIC CHARACTER
Certain properties—notably atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and metallic character—can be qualitatively understood
by the positions of the elements on the periodic table.
1 6/21/2020
9.1: Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom

9.2: Light- Electromagnetic Radiation
Learning Objectives
Define the terms wavelength and frequency with respect to wave-form energy.
State the relationship between wavelength and frequency with respect to electromagnetic radiation.
During the summer, almost everyone enjoys going to the beach. They can swim, have picnics, and work on their tans. But if
you get too much sun, you can burn. A particular set of solar wavelengths are especially harmful to the skin. This portion of
the solar spectrum is known as UV B, with wavelengths of 280-320 nm. Sunscreens are effective in protecting skin against
both the immediate skin damage and the long-term possibility of skin cancer.
Waves
Waves are characterized by their repetitive motion. Imagine a toy boat riding the waves in a wave pool. As the water wave
passes under the boat, it moves up and down in a regular and repeated fashion. While the wave travels horizontally, the boat
only travels vertically up and down. The figure below shows two examples of waves.
Figure 9.2.1 : (A) A wave consists of alternation crests and troughs. The wavelength (λ) is defined as the distance between
any two consecutive identical points on the waveform. The amplitude is the height of the wave. (B) A wave with a short
wavelength (top) has a high frequency because more waves pass a given point in a certain amount of time. A wave with a
longer wavelength (bottom) has a lower frequency.
A wave cycle consists of one complete wave - starting at the zero point, going up to a wave crest, going back down to a wave
trough, and back to the zero point again. The wavelength of a wave is the distance between any two corresponding points on
adjacent waves. It is easiest to visualize the wavelength of a wave as the distance from one wave crest to the next. In an
equation, wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Depending on the type of wave, wavelength can be
measured in meters, centimeters, or nanometers (1 m = 10 nm) . The frequency, represented by the Greek letter nu (ν ), is
9
the number of waves that pass a certain point in a specified amount of time. Typically, frequency is measured in units of cycles
per second or waves per second. One wave per second is also called a Hertz (Hz) and in SI units is a reciprocal second (s ). −1
Figure B above shows an important relationship between the wavelength and frequency of a wave. The top wave clearly has a
shorter wavelength than the second wave. However, if you picture yourself at a stationary point watching these waves pass by,
more waves of the first kind would pass by in a given amount of time. Thus the frequency of the first wave is greater than that
of the second wave. Wavelength and frequency are therefore inversely related. As the wavelength of a wave increases, its
frequency decreases. The equation that relates the two is:
c = λν (9.2.1)
The variable c is the speed of light. For the relationship to hold mathematically, if the speed of light is used in m/s , the
wavelength must be in meters and the frequency in Hertz.
Example 9.2.1 : Orange Light

The color orange within the visible light spectrum has a wavelength of about 620 nm . What is the frequency of orange
light?
Solution

Given :
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Wavelength (λ) = 620 nm
to "find." Speed of light (c) = 3.00 × 10 8
m/s
Find: Frequency (Hz)

List other known quantities 1 m = 10
9
nm
1.Convert the wavelength to m .

2. Apply the equation c = λν and solve for frequency. Dividing both
Identify steps to get the final answer
sides of the equation by λ yields:
c
ν =
λ
1 m −7
620 nm × ( ) = 6.20 × 10 m
9
10 nm
Cancel units and calculate. 8
c 3.0×10 m/s 14
ν = = −7
= 4.8 × 10 Hz
λ 6.20×10
Think about your result. The value for the frequency falls within the range for visible light.
Exercise 9.2.1
What is the wavelength of light if its frequency is 1.55 × 1010 s−1?
Answer
0.0194 m, or 19.4 mm
Summary
All waves can be defined in terms of their frequency and intensity. c = λν expresses the relationship between wavelength and
frequency.


9.3: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Learning Objectives
Know the properties of different types of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic waves have an extremely wide range of wavelengths, frequencies, and energies. The highest energy form of
electromagnetic waves are gamma (γ) rays and the lowest energy form are radio waves.
The figure below shows the electromagnetic spectrum, which is all forms of electromagnetic radiation. On the far left of
Figure 9.3.1 are the highest energy electromagnetic waves. These are called gamma rays and can be quite dangerous, in large
numbers, to living systems. The next lower energy form of electromagnetic waves are called x-rays. Most of you are familiar
with the penetration abilities of these waves. They can also be dangerous to living systems. Humans are advised to limit as
much as possible the number of medical x-rays they have per year. Next lower, in energy, are ultraviolet rays. These rays are
part of sunlight and the upper end of the ultraviolet range can cause sunburn and perhaps skin cancer. The tiny section next in
the spectrum is the visible range of light … this section has been greatly expanded in the bottom half of the figure so it can be
discussed in more detail. The visible range of electromagnetic radiation are the frequencies to which the human eye responds.
Lower in the spectrum are infrared rays and radio waves.
Figure 9.3.1 : The electromagnetic spectrum, with its various regions labeled. The borders of each region are approximate.
(CC BY-NC-SA; anonymous by request).
The light energies that are in the visible range are electromagnetic waves that cause the human eye to respond when those
frequencies enter the eye. The eye sends a signal to the brain and the individual "sees" various colors. The highest energy
waves in the visible region cause the brain to see violet and as the energy decreases, the colors change to blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red. When the energy of the wave is above or below the visible range, the eye does not respond to them. When the
eye receives several different frequencies at the same time, the colors are blended by the brain. If all frequencies of light strike
the eye together, the brain sees white and if there are no visible frequencies striking the eye, the brain sees black. The objects
that you see around you are light absorbers - that is, the chemicals on the surface of the object will absorb certain frequencies
and not others. Your eyes detect the frequencies that strike your eye. Therefore, if your friend is wearing a red shirt, it means
the dye in that shirt absorbs every frequency except red and the red frequencies are reflected. If your only light source was one
exact frequency of blue light and you shined it on a shirt that was red in sunlight, the shirt would appear black because no light
would be reflected. The light from fluorescent types of lights do not contain all the frequencies of sunlight and so clothes
inside a store may appear to be a slightly different color than when you get them home.

Summary
Electromagnetic radiation has a wide spectrum, including gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays, visible light, IR radiation,
microwaves, and radio waves.
The different colors of light differ in their frequencies (or wavelengths).


9.4: The Bohr Model- Atoms with Orbits
Learning Objectives
Define an energy level in terms of the Bohr model.
Discuss how the Bohr model can be used to explain atomic spectra.
Electric light bulbs contain a very thin wire in them that emits light when heated. The wire is called a filament. The particular
wire used in light bulbs is made of tungsten. A wire made of any metal would emit light under these circumstances but
tungsten was chosen because the light it emits contains virtually every frequency and therefore, the light emitted by tungsten
appears white. A wire made of some other element would emit light of some color that was not convenient for our uses. Every
element emits light when energized by heating or passing electric current through it. Elements in solid form begin to glow
when they are heated sufficiently and elements in gaseous form emit light when electricity passes through them. This is the
source of light emitted by neon signs and is also the source of light in a fire.
Figure 9.4.1 : Human/Need/Desire. Neon sculpture by Bruce Nauman (1983), who has been characterized as a conceptual
artist.
Each Element Has a Unique Spectrum

The light frequencies emitted by atoms are mixed together by our eyes so that we see a blended color. Several physicists,
including Angstrom in 1868 and Balmer in 1875, passed the light from energized atoms through glass prisms in such a way
that the light was spread out so they could see the individual frequencies that made up the light. The emission spectrum (or
atomic spectrum) of a chemical element is the unique pattern of light obtained when the element is subjected to heat or
electricity.
Figure 9.4.2 : Atomic Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen.

When hydrogen gas is placed into a tube and electric current passed through it, the color of emitted light is pink. But when the
color is spread out, we see that the hydrogen spectrum is composed of four individual frequencies. The pink color of the tube
is the result of our eyes blending the four colors. Every atom has its own characteristic spectrum; no two atomic spectra are
alike. The image below shows the emission spectrum of iron. Because each element has a unique emission spectrum, elements
can be defined using them.
Figure 9.4.3 : Atomic Emission Spectrum of Iron.

You may have heard or read about scientists discussing what elements are present in the sun or some more distant star, and
after hearing that, wondered how scientists could know what elements were present in a place no one has ever been. Scientists
determine what elements are present in distant stars by analyzing the light that comes from stars and finding the atomic

spectrum of elements in that light. If the exact four lines that compose hydrogen's atomic spectrum are present in the light
emitted from the star, that element contains hydrogen.
Bohr's Model of the Atom

By 1913, the evolution of our concept of the atom had proceeded from Dalton's indivisible spheres idea to J. J. Thomson's
plum pudding model and then to Rutherford's nuclear atom theory. Rutherford, in addition to carrying out the brilliant
experiment that demonstrated the presence of the atomic nucleus, also proposed that the electrons circled the nucleus in a
planetary type motion. The solar system or planetary model of the atom was attractive to scientists because it was similar to
something with which they were already familiar, namely the solar system.
Figure 9.4.3 : Niels Bohr with Albert Einstein at Paul Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925).
Unfortunately, there was a serious flaw in the planetary model. It was already known that when a charged particle (such as an
electron) moves in a curved path, it gives off some form of light and loses energy in doing so. This is, after all, how we
produce TV signals. If the electron circling the nucleus in an atom loses energy, it would necessarily have to move closer to
the nucleus as it loses energy and would eventually crash into the nucleus. Furthermore, Rutherford's model was unable to
describe how electrons give off light forming each element's unique atomic spectrum. These difficulties cast a shadow on the
planetary model and indicated that, eventually, it would have to be replaced.
In 1913, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model of the electron cloud of an atom in which electrons orbit the
nucleus and were able to produce atomic spectra. Understanding Bohr's model requires some knowledge of electromagnetic
radiation (or light).
Energy Levels
Bohr's key idea in his model of the atom is that electrons occupy definite orbitals that require the electron to have a specific
amount of energy. In order for an electron to be in the electron cloud of an atom, it must be in one of the allowable orbitals and
it must have the precise energy required for that orbit. Orbits closer to the nucleus would require smaller amounts of energy for
an electron and orbits farther from the nucleus would require the electrons to have a greater amount of energy. The possible
orbits are known as energy levels. One of the weaknesses of Bohr's model was that he could not offer a reason why only
certain energy levels or orbits were allowed.

Figure 9.4.4 : The energy levels of the electrons can be views a rungs on a ladder.
Bohr hypothesized that the only way electrons could gain or lose energy would be to move from one energy level to another,
thus gaining or losing precise amounts of energy. The energy levels are quantized, meaning that only specific amounts are
possible. It would be like a ladder that had rungs only at certain heights. The only way you can be on that ladder is to be on
one of the rungs and the only way you could move up or down would be to move to one of the other rungs. Suppose we had
such a ladder with 10 rungs. Other rules for the ladder are that only one person can be on a rung in normal state and the ladder
occupants must be on the lowest rung available. If the ladder had five people on it, they would be on the lowest five rungs. In
this situation, no person could move down because all the lower rungs are full. Bohr worked out rules for the maximum
number of electrons that could be in each energy level in his model and required that an atom in its normal state (ground state)
had all electrons in the lowest energy levels available. Under these circumstances, no electron could lose energy because no
electron could move down to a lower energy level. In this way, Bohr's model explained why electrons circling the nucleus did
not emit energy and spiral into the nucleus.
Figure 9.4.5 : In Bohr's Model of the atom, electrons absorb energy to move to a higher level and release energy to move to
lower levels. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Kurzon).
Bohr's Model and Atomic Spectra

The evidence used to support Bohr's model came from the atomic spectra. He suggested that an atomic spectrum is made by
the electrons in an atom moving energy levels. The electrons typically have the lowest energy possible, called the ground
state. If the electrons are given energy (through heat, electricity, light, etc.) the electrons in an atom could absorb energy by
jumping to a higher energy level, or excited state. The electrons then give off the energy in the form of a piece of light, called
a photon, they had absorbed to fall back to a lower energy level. The energy emitted by electrons dropping back to lower

energy levels would always be precise amounts of energy because the differences in energy levels were precise. This explains
why you see specific lines of light when looking at an atomic spectrum - each line of light matches a specific "step down" that
an electron can take in that atom. This also explains why each element produces a different atomic spectrum. Because each
element has different acceptable energy levels for their electrons, the possible steps each element's electrons can take differ
from all other elements.
Summary
Bohr's model suggests each atom has a set of unchangeable energy levels and electrons in the electron cloud of that atom
must be in one of those energy levels.
Bohr's model suggests that the atomic spectra of atoms is produced by electrons gaining energy from some source, jumping
up to a higher energy level, then immediately dropping back to a lower energy level and emitting the energy different
between the two energy levels.
The existence of the atomic spectra is support for Bohr's model of the atom.
Bohr's model was only successful in calculating energy levels for the hydrogen atom.
Vocabulary
Emission spectrum (or atomic spectrum): The unique pattern of light given off by an element when it is given energy.
Energy levels: Possible orbits that an electron can have in the electron cloud of an atom.
Ground state: to be in the lowest energy level possible.
Excited state: to be in a higher energy level.
Photon: a piece of electromagnetic radiation, or light, with a specific amount of energy.
Quantized: having specific amounts


9.5: The Quantum-Mechanical Model- Atoms with Orbitals
Learning Objectives
Define quantum mechanics
Differentiate between an orbit and an orbital.
How do you study something that seemingly makes no sense? We talk about electrons being in orbits and it sounds like we can
tell where that electron is at any moment. We can draw pictures of electrons in orbit, but the reality is that we just don't know
exactly where they are. We are going to take a quick look at an area of science that even leaves scientists puzzled. When asked
about quantum mechanics, Niels Bohr (who proposed the Bohr model of the atom) said: "Anyone who is not shocked by
quantum theory has not understood it". Richard Feynman (one of the founders of modern quantum theory) stated: "I think I
can safely say that nobody understands quantum theory". So, let's take a short trip into a land that challenges our everyday
world.
Quantum Mechanics
The study of motion of large objects such as baseballs is called mechanics, or more specifically classical mechanics. Because
the quantum nature of the electron and other tiny particles moving at high speeds, classical mechanics is inadequate to
accurately describe their motion. Quantum mechanics is the study of the motion of objects that are atomic or subatomic in
size and thus demonstrate wave-particle duality. In classical mechanics, the size and mass of the objects involved effectively
obscures any quantum effects so that such objects appear to gain or lose energies in any amounts. Particles whose motion is
described by quantum mechanics gain or lose energy in the small pieces called quanta.
One of the fundamental (and hardest to understand) principles of quantum mechanics is that the electron is both a particles and
a wave. In the everyday macroscopic world of things we can see, something cannot be both. But this duality can exist in the
quantum world of the submicroscopic at the atomic scale.
At the heart of quantum mechanics is the idea that we cannot specify accurately the location of an electron. All we can say is
that there is a probability that it exists within this certain volume of space. The scientist Erwin Schrödinger developed an
equation that deals with these calculations, which we will not pursue at this time.
Erwin Schrödinger.
Recall that in the Bohr model, the exact path of the electron was restricted to very well-defined circular orbits around the
nucleus. An orbital is the quantum mechanical refinement of Bohr’s orbit. In contrast to his concept of a simple circular orbit
with a fixed radius, orbitals are mathematically derived regions of space with different probabilities of having an electron.
Summary
Quantum mechanics involves the study of material at the atomic level. This field deals with probabilities since we cannot
definitely locate a particle. Orbitals are mathematically derived regions of space with different probabilities of having an
electron.



9.6: Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations
Learning Objectives
Represent the organization of electrons by an electron configuration and orbital diagram.
The flight path of a commercial airliner is carefully regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration. Each airplane must
maintain a distance of five miles from another plane flying at the same altitude and 2,000 feet above and below another aircraft
(1,000 feet if the altitude is less than 29,000 feet). So, each aircraft only has certain positions it is allowed to maintain while it
flies. As we explore quantum mechanics, we see that electrons have similar restrictions on their locations.
Orbitals
We can apply our knowledge of quantum numbers to describe the arrangement of electrons for a given atom. We do this with
something called electron configurations. They are effectively a map of the electrons for a given atom. We look at the four
quantum numbers for a given electron and then assign that electron to a specific orbitals below.
s Orbitals
For any value of n , a value of l = 0 places that electron in an s orbital. This orbital is spherical in shape:
Figure 9.6.1 : s orbitals have no orientational preference and resemble spheres.
p Orbitals
For the table below, we see that we can have three possible orbitals when l = 1 . These are designated as p orbitals and have
dumbbell shapes. Each of the p orbitals has a different orientation in three-dimensional space.
Figure 9.6.2 : p orbitals have an orientational preference and resemble dumbells.
d Orbitals
When l = 2 , m values can be −2, −1,
l 0, +1, +2 for a total of five d orbitals. Note that all five of the orbitals have
specific three-dimensional orientations.
Figure 9.6.3 : d orbitals have an orientational preference and exhibit complex structures.
f Orbitals
The most complex set of orbitals are the f orbitals. When l = 3 , m values can be −3, −2, −1,
l 0, +1, +2, +3 for a total
of seven different orbital shapes. Again, note the specific orientations of the different f orbitals.

Figure 9.6.4 : f orbitals have an orientational preference and exhibit quite complex structures.
Orbitals that have the same value of the principal quantum number form a shell. Orbitals within a shell are divided into
subshells that have the same value of the angular quantum number. Some of the allowed combinations of quantum numbers
are compared in Table 9.6.1.
Table 9.6.1 : Electron Arrangement Within Energy Levels
Number of Orbitals Number of Electrons
Principal Quantum Number of Orbitals Number of Electrons
Allowable Sublevels per Principal Energy per Principal Energy
Number (n) per Sublevel per Sublevel
Level Level
1 s 1 1 2 2
s 1 2
2 4 8
p 3 6
s 1 2
3 p 3 9 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 16 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
Electron Configurations
Can you name one thing that easily distinguishes you from the rest of the world? And we're not talking about DNA - that's a
little expensive to sequence. For many people, it is their email address. My email address allows people all over the world to
contact me. It does not belong to anyone else, but serves to identify me. Electrons also have a unique set of identifiers in the
quantum numbers that describe their location and spin. Chemists use an electronic configuration to represent the organization
of electrons in shells and subshells in an atom. An electron configuration simply lists the shell and subshell labels, with a right
superscript giving the number of electrons in that subshell. The shells and subshells are listed in the order of filling. Electrons
are typically organized around an atom by starting at the lowest possible quantum numbers first, which are the shells-subshells
with lower energies.
For example, an H atom has a single electron in the 1s subshell. Its electron configuration is
1
H : 1s
He has two electrons in the 1s subshell. Its electron configuration is

2
He : 1s
The three electrons for Li are arranged in the 1s subshell (two electrons) and the 2s subshell (one electron). The electron
configuration of Li is
2 1
Li : 1 s 2 s
Be has four electrons, two in the 1s subshell and two in the 2s subshell. Its electron configuration is
2 2
Be : 1 s 2 s

Now that the 2s subshell is filled, electrons in larger atoms must go into the 2p subshell, which can hold a maximum of six
electrons. The next six elements progressively fill up the 2p subshell:
B: 1s22s22p1
C: 1s22s22p2
N: 1s22s22p3
O: 1s22s22p4
F: 1s22s22p5
Ne: 1s22s22p6
Now that the 2p subshell is filled (all possible subshells in the n = 2 shell), the next electron for the next-larger atom must go
into the n = 3 shell, s subshell.
Second Period Elements
Periods refer to the horizontal rows of the periodic table. Looking at a periodic table you will see that the first period contains
only the elements hydrogen and helium. This is because the first principal energy level consists of only the s sublevel and so
only two electrons are required in order to fill the entire principal energy level. Each time a new principal energy level begins,
as with the third element lithium, a new period is started on the periodic table. As one moves across the second period,
electrons are successively added. With beryllium (Z = 4) , the 2s sublevel is complete and the 2p sublevel begins with boron
(Z = 5) . Since there are three 2p orbitals and each orbital holds two electrons, the 2p sublevel is filled after six elements.
Table 9.6.1 shows the electron configurations of the elements in the second period.
Table 9.6.2 : Electron Configurations of Second-Period Elements
Element Name Symbol Atomic Number Electron Configuration
Lithium Li 3 1s 2s
2 1
Beryllium Be 4 1s 2s
2 2
Boron B 5 2
1s 2s 2p
2 1
Carbon C 6 2
1s 2s 2p
2 2
Nitrogen N 7 2
1s 2s 2p
2 3
Oxygen O 8 2
1s 2s 2p
2 4
Fluorine F 9 2
1s 2s 2p
2 5
Neon Ne 10 2
1s 2s 2p
2 6
Aufbau Principle
Construction of a building begins at the bottom. The foundation is laid and the building goes up step by step. You obviously
cannot start with the roof since there is no place to hang it. The building goes from the lowest level to the highest level in a
systematic way. In order to create ground state electron configurations for any element, it is necessary to know the way in
which the atomic sublevels are organized in order of increasing energy. Figure 9.6.5 shows the order of increasing energy of
the sublevels.
The lowest energy sublevel is always the 1s sublevel, which consists of one orbital. The single electron of the hydrogen atom
will occupy the 1s orbital when the atom is in its ground state. As we proceed with atoms with multiple electrons, those
electrons are added to the next lowest sublevel: 2s, 2p, 3s, and so on. The Aufbau principle states that an electron occupies
orbitals in order from lowest energy to highest. The Aufbau (German: "building up, construction") principle is sometimes
referred to as the "building up" principle. It is worth noting that in reality atoms are not built by adding protons and electrons
one at a time and that this method is merely an aid for us to understand the end result.

Figure 9.6.5 : Electrons are added to atomic orbitals in order from low energy (bottom of the graph) to high (top of the graph)
according to the Aufbau principle. Principle energy levels are color coded, while sublevels are grouped together and each
circle represents an orbital capable of holding two electrons.
As seen in the figure above, the energies of the sublevels in different principal energy levels eventually begin to overlap. After
the 3p sublevel, it would seem logical that the 3d sublevel should be the next lowest in energy. However, the 4s sublevel is
slightly lower in energy than the 3d sublevel and thus fills first. Following the filling of the 3d sublevel is the 4p, then the 5s
and the 4d. Note that the 4f sublevel does not fill until just after the 6s sublevel. Figure 9.6.6 is a useful and simple aid for
keeping track of the order of fill of the atomic sublevels.
Figure 9.6.6 : The arrow leads through each subshell in the appropriate filling order for electron configurations. This chart is
straightforward to construct. Simply make a column for all the s orbitals with each n shell on a separate row. Repeat for p, d,
and f. Be sure to only include orbitals allowed by the quantum numbers (no 1p or 2d, and so forth). Finally, draw diagonal
lines from top to bottom as shown.

Video 9.6.1 : Energy levels, sublevels and orbitals.
Example 9.6.1 : Nitrogen Atoms
Nitrogen has 7 electrons. Write the electron configuration for nitrogen.
Solution:
Take a close look at Figure 9.6.5, and use it to figure out how many electrons go into each sublevel, and also the order in
which the different sublevels get filled.
1. Begin by filling up the 1s sublevel. This gives 1s2. Now all of the orbitals in the red n = 1 block are filled.
Since we used 2 electrons, there are 7 − 2 = 5 electrons left
2. Next, fill the 2s sublevel. This gives 1s22s2. Now all of the orbitals in the s sublevel of the orange n = 2 block are filled.
Since we used another 2 electrons, there are 5 − 2 = 3 electrons left
3. Notice that we haven't filled the entire n = 2 block yet… there are still the p orbitals!
The final 3 electrons go into the 2p sublevel. This gives 1s22s22p3
The overall electron configuration is: 1s22s22p3.
Example 9.6.2 : Potassium Atoms

Potassium has 19 electrons. Write the electron configuration code for potassium.
Solution
This time, take a close look at Figure 9.6.5.
1. Begin by filling up the 1s sublevel. This gives 1s2. Now the n = 1 level is filled.
Since we used 2 electrons, there are 19 − 2 = 17 electrons left
2. Next, fill the 2s sublevel. This gives 1s22s2
3. Next, fill the 2p sublevel. This gives 1s22s22p6. Now the n = 2 level is filled.
4. Next, fill the 3s sublevel. This gives 1s22s22p63s2

5. Next, fill the 3p sublevel. This gives 1s22s22p63s23p6
Since we used another 6 electrons, there are 7 − 6 = 1 electron left
Here's where we have to be careful – right after 3p6!!
Remember, 4s comes before 3d!
6. The final electron goes into the 4s sublevel. This gives 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
The overall electron configuration is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1.
Exercise 9.6.1 : Magnesium and Sodium Atoms

What is the electron configuration for Mg and Na?
Answer Mg
Mg: 1s22s22p63s2
Answer Na
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
Pauli Exclusion Principle

When we look at the orbital possibilities for a given atom, we see that there are different arrangements of electrons for each
different type of atom. Since each electron must maintain its unique identity, we intuitively sense that the four quantum
numbers for any given electron must not match up exactly with the four quantum numbers for any other electron in that atom.
For the hydrogen atom, there is no problem since there is only one electron in the H atom. However, when we get to helium
we see that the first three quantum numbers for the two electrons are the same: same energy level, same spherical shape. What
differentiates the two helium electrons is their spin. One of the electrons has a + spin while the other electron has a − spin.
1
2
1
So the two electrons in the 1s orbital are each unique and distinct from one another because their spins are different. This
observation leads to the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. The energy of the electron is specified by the principal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum
numbers. If those three numbers are identical for two electrons, the spin numbers must be different in order for the two
electrons to be differentiated from one another. The two values of the spin quantum number allow each orbital to hold two
electrons. Figure 9.6.7 shows how the electrons are indicated in a diagram.
Figure 9.6.7 : In an orbital filling diagram, a square represents an orbital, while arrows represent electrons. An arrow pointing
upward represents one spin direction, while an arrow pointing downward represents the other spin direction.
Hund's Rule
The last of the three rules for constructing electron arrangements requires electrons to be placed one at a time in a set of
orbitals within the same sublevel. This minimizes the natural repulsive forces that one electron has for another. Hund's rule
states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron and
that each of the single electrons must have the same spin. The figure below shows how a set of three p orbitals is filled with
one, two, three, and four electrons.

Figure 9.6.8 : The 2p sublevel, for the elements boron (Z = 5), carbon (Z = 6), nitrogen (Z = 7), and oxygen (Z = 8).
According to Hund's rule, as electrons are added to a set of orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital before
any orbital receives a second electron.
Orbital Filling Diagrams
An orbital filling diagram is the more visual way to represent the arrangement of all the electrons in a particular atom. In an
orbital filling diagram, the individual orbitals are shown as circles (or squares) and orbitals within a sublevel are drawn next to
each other horizontally. Each sublevel is labeled by its principal energy level and sublevel. Electrons are indicated by arrows
inside the circles. An arrow pointing upwards indicates one spin direction, while a downward pointing arrow indicates the
other direction. The orbital filling diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and lithium are shown in the figure below.
Figure 9.6.9 : Orbital filling diagrams for hydrogen, helium, and lithium.
According to the Aufbau process, sublevels and orbitals are filled with electrons in order of increasing energy. Since the s
sublevel consists of just one orbital, the second electron simply pairs up with the first electron as in helium. The next element
is lithium and necessitates the use of the next available sublevel, the 2s.
The filling diagram for carbon is shown in Figure 9.6.10. There are two 2p electrons for carbon and each occupies its own 2p
orbital.
Figure 9.6.10 : Orbital filling diagram for carbon.

Oxygen has four 2p electrons. After each 2p orbital has one electron in it, the fourth electron can be placed in the first 2p
orbital with a spin opposite that of the other electron in that orbital.
Figure 9.6.11 : Orbital filling diagram for oxygen.

If you keep your papers in manila folders, you can pick up a folder and see how much it weighs. If you want to know how
many different papers (articles, bank records, or whatever else you keep in a folder), you have to take everything out and
count. A computer directory, on the other hand, tells you exactly how much you have in each file. We can get the same
information on atoms. If we use an orbital filling diagram, we have to count arrows. When we look at electron configuration
data, we simply add up the numbers.
Example 9.6.3 : Carbon Atoms

Draw the orbital filling diagram for carbon and write its electron configuration.
SOLUTION
Known
Atomic number of carbon, Z=6
Use the order of fill diagram to draw an orbital filling diagram with a total of six electrons. Follow Hund's rule.
Write the electron configuration.
Step 2: Construct Diagram
Orbital filling diagram for carbon.

Electron configuration 1s22s22p2
Following the 2s sublevel is the 2p, and pp sublevels always consist of three orbitals. All three orbitals need to be
drawn even if one or more is unoccupied. According to Hund's rule, the sixth electron enters the second of those pp
orbitals and with the same spin as the fifth electron.
Exercise 9.6.2 : Electronic Configurations

Write the electron configurations and orbital diagrams for
a. Potassium atom: K
b. Arsenic atoms: As
c. Phosphorus atom: P
Answer a:
a) Potassium: 1s 2 2 6
2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
2 6 1
Answer b:
Arsenic: 1s 2 2 6
2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
2 6 2 10 3
4p
Answer c:
Phosphorus 1s 2 2
2s 2p 3s 3p
6 2 3

The Atom Neighborhood
Figure 9.6.12 : The atom neighborhood. Source: Dr. Binh Dao, Sacramento City College.
Summary
There are four different classes of electron orbitals. These orbitals are determined by the value of the angular momentum
quantum number ℓ. An orbital is a wave function for an electron defined by the three quantum numbers, n, ℓ and m ℓ . Orbitals
define regions in space where you are likely to find electrons. s orbitals (ℓ = 0) are spherical shaped. p orbitals (ℓ = 1) are
dumb-bell shaped. The three possible p orbitals are always perpendicular to each other.
Electron configuration notation simplifies the indication of where electrons are located in a specific atom. Superscripts are
used to indicate the number of electrons in a given sublevel. The Aufbau principle gives the order of electron filling in an
atom. It can be used to describe the locations and energy levels of every electrons in a given atom. Hund's rule specifies the
order of electron filling within a set of orbitals. Orbital filling diagrams are a way of indicating electron locations in orbitals.
The Pauli exclusion principle specifies limits on how identical quantum numbers can be for two electrons in the same atom.
Vocabulary
principal quantum number (n)
Defines the energy level of the wave function for an electron, the size of the electron's standing wave, and the number of
nodes in that wave.
quantum numbers
Integer numbers assigned to certain quantities in the electron wave function. Because electron standing waves must be
continuous and must not "double over" on themselves, quantum numbers are restricted to integer values.



9.7: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Relate the electron configurations of the elements to the shape of the periodic table.
Determine the expected electron configuration of an element by its place on the periodic table.
Previously, we introduced the periodic table as a tool for organizing the known chemical elements. A periodic table is shown
in Figure 9.7.1. The elements are listed by atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), and elements with similar
chemical properties are grouped together in columns.
Figure 9.7.1 : The Periodic Table

Why does the periodic table have the structure it does? The answer is rather simple, if you understand electron configurations:
the shape of the periodic table mimics the filling of the subshells with electrons.
The shape of the periodic table mimics the filling of the subshells with electrons.
Let us start with H and He. Their electron configurations are 1s1 and 1s2, respectively; with He, the n = 1 shell is filled. These
two elements make up the first row of the periodic table (Figure 9.7.2)
Figure 9.7.2 : The 1s Subshell. H and He represent the filling of the 1s subshell.
The next two electrons, for Li and Be, would go into the 2s subshell. Figure 9.7.3 shows that these two elements are adjacent
on the periodic table.

Figure 9.7.3 : The 2s Subshell. In Li and Be, the 2s subshell is being filled.
For the next six elements, the 2p subshell is being occupied with electrons. On the right side of the periodic table, these six
elements (B through Ne) are grouped together (Figure 9.7.4).
Figure 9.7.4 : The 2p Subshell. For B through Ne, the 2p subshell is being occupied.
The next subshell to be filled is the 3s subshell. The elements when this subshell is being filled, Na and Mg, are back on the
left side of the periodic table (Figure 9.7.5).
Figure 9.7.5 : The 3s Subshell. Now the 3s subshell is being occupied.

Next, the 3p subshell is filled with the next six elements (Figure 9.7.6).

Figure 9.7.6 : The 3p Subshell. Next, the 3p subshell is filled with electrons.
Instead of filling the 3d subshell next, electrons go into the 4s subshell (Figure 9.7.7).
Figure 9.7.7 : The 4s Subshell. The 4s subshell is filled before the 3d subshell. This is reflected in the structure of the periodic
table.
After the 4s subshell is filled, the 3d subshell is filled with up to 10 electrons. This explains the section of 10 elements in the
middle of the periodic table (Figure 9.7.8).
Figure 9.7.8 : The 3d Subshell. The 3d subshell is filled in the middle section of the periodic table.
And so forth. As we go across the rows of the periodic table, the overall shape of the table outlines how the electrons are
occupying the shells and subshells.
The first two columns on the left side of the periodic table are where the s subshells are being occupied. Because of this, the
first two rows of the periodic table are labeled the s block. Similarly, the p block are the right-most six columns of the
periodic table, the d block is the middle 10 columns of the periodic table, while the f block is the 14-column section that is
normally depicted as detached from the main body of the periodic table. It could be part of the main body, but then the periodic
table would be rather long and cumbersome. Figure 9.7.9 shows the blocks of the periodic table.

Figure 9.7.9 : Blocks on the Periodic Table. The periodic table is separated into blocks depending on which subshell is being
filled for the atoms that belong in that section.
The electrons in the highest-numbered shell, plus any electrons in the last unfilled subshell, are called valence electrons; the
highest-numbered shell is called the valence shell. (The inner electrons are called core electrons.) The valence electrons
largely control the chemistry of an atom. If we look at just the valence shell’s electron configuration, we find that in each
column, the valence shell’s electron configuration is the same. For example, take the elements in the first column of the
periodic table: H, Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs. Their electron configurations (abbreviated for the larger atoms) are as follows, with
the valence shell electron configuration highlighted:
H: 1s1
Li: 1s22s1
Na: [Ne]3s1
K: [Ar]4s1
Rb: [Kr]5s1
Cs: [Xe]6s1
They all have a similar electron configuration in their valence shells: a single s electron. Because much of the chemistry of an
element is influenced by valence electrons, we would expect that these elements would have similar chemistry—and they do.
The organization of electrons in atoms explains not only the shape of the periodic table but also the fact that elements in the
same column of the periodic table have similar chemistry.
The same concept applies to the other columns of the periodic table. Elements in each column have the same valence shell
electron configurations, and the elements have some similar chemical properties. This is strictly true for all elements in the s
and p blocks. In the d and f blocks, because there are exceptions to the order of filling of subshells with electrons, similar
valence shells are not absolute in these blocks. However, many similarities do exist in these blocks, so a similarity in chemical
properties is expected.
Similarity of valence shell electron configuration implies that we can determine the electron configuration of an atom solely by
its position on the periodic table. Consider Se, as shown in Figure 9.7.10. It is in the fourth column of the p block. This means
that its electron configuration should end in a p4 electron configuration. Indeed, the electron configuration of Se is
[Ar]4s23d104p4, as expected.

Figure 9.7.10 : Selenium on the Periodic Table
Example 9.7.1 : Predicting Electron Configurations
From the element’s position on the periodic table, predict the valence shell electron configuration for each atom (Figure
9.7.11).
Figure 9.7.11 : Various Elements on the Periodic Table

a. Ca
b. Sn
Solution
a. Ca is located in the second column of the s block. We would expect that its electron configuration should end with s2.
Calcium’s electron configuration is [Ar]4s2.
b. Sn is located in the second column of the p block, so we expect that its electron configuration would end in p2. Tin’s
electron configuration is [Kr]5s24d105p2.
Exercise 9.7.1
From the element’s position on the periodic table, predict the valence shell electron configuration for each atom. Figure
9.7.11.
a. Ti
b. Cl
Answer a
[Ar]4s23d2
Answer b
[Ne]3s23p5

Summary
The arrangement of electrons in atoms is responsible for the shape of the periodic table. Electron configurations can be
predicted by the position of an atom on the periodic table.


9.8: The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model

9.9: Periodic Trends- Atomic Size, Ionization Energy, and Metallic Character
Learning Objectives
Be able to state how certain properties of atoms vary based on their relative position on the periodic table.
One of the reasons the periodic table is so useful is because its structure allows us to qualitatively determine how some
properties of the elements vary versus their position on the periodic table. The variation of properties versus position on the
periodic table is called periodic trends. There is no other tool in science that allows us to judge relative properties of a class of
objects like this, which makes the periodic table a very useful tool. Many periodic trends are general. There may be a few
points where an opposite trend is seen, but there is an overall trend when considered across a whole row or down a whole
column of the periodic table.
The first periodic trend we will consider atomic radius. The atomic radius is an indication of the size of an atom. Although
the concept of a definite radius of an atom is a bit fuzzy, atoms behave as if they have a certain radius. Such radii can be
estimated from various experimental techniques, such as the x-ray crystallography of crystals.
As you go down a column of the periodic table, the atomic radii increase. This is because the valence electron shell is getting a
larger and there is a larger principal quantum number, so the valence shell lies physically farther away from the nucleus. This
trend can be summarized as follows:
as ↓ P T , atomic radius ↑ (9.9.1)
where PT stands for periodic table. Going across a row on the periodic table, left to right, the trend is different. This is because
although the valence shell maintains the same principal quantum number, the number of protons—and hence the nuclear
charge—is increasing as you go across the row. The increasing positive charge casts a tighter grip on the valence electrons, so
as you go across the periodic table, the atomic radii decrease. Again, we can summarize this trend as follows:
as → P T , atomic radius ↓ (9.9.2)
Figure 9.9.1 shows spheres representing the atoms of the s and p blocks from the periodic table to scale, showing the two
trends for the atomic radius.
Figure 9.9.1 : Atomic Radii Trends on the Periodic Table. Although there are some reversals in the trend (e.g., see Po in the
bottom row), atoms generally get smaller as you go across the periodic table and larger as you go down any one column.
Numbers are the radii in pm.
Example 9.9.1 : Atomic Radii

Referring only to a periodic table and not to Figure 9.9.1, which atom is larger in each pair?
a. Si or S
b. S or Te
Solution
a. Si is to the left of S on the periodic table, so it is larger because as you go across the row, the atoms get smaller.
b. S is above Te on the periodic table, so Te is larger because as you go down the column, the atoms get larger.
Exercise 9.9.1 : Atomic Radii

Referring only to a periodic table and not to Figure 9.9.1, which atom is smaller, Ca or Br?
Answer:
Br
Ionization energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase:
+ −
A(g) → A (g) + e ΔH ≡ I E (9.9.3)
IE is usually expressed in kJ/mol of atoms. It is always positive because the removal of an electron always requires that energy
be put in (i.e., it is endothermic). IE also shows periodic trends. As you go down the periodic table, it becomes easier to
remove an electron from an atom (i.e., IE decreases) because the valence electron is farther away from the nucleus. Thus,
as ↓ P T , I E ↓ (9.9.4)
However, as you go across the periodic table and the electrons get drawn closer in, it takes more energy to remove an electron;
as a result, IE increases:
as → P T , I E ↑ (9.9.5)
Figure 9.9.2 shows values of IE versus position on the periodic table. Again, the trend isn’t absolute, but the general trends
going across and down the periodic table should be obvious.
Figure 9.9.2 : Ionization Energy on the Periodic Table. Values are in kJ/mol.
IE also shows an interesting trend within a given atom. This is because more than one IE can be defined by removing
successive electrons (if the atom has them to begin with):

First Ionization Energy (IE1):
+ −
A(g) → A (g) + e (9.9.6)
Second Ionization Energy (IE2):

+ 2+ −
A (g) → A (g) + e (9.9.7)
Third Ionization Energy (IE3):

2+ 3+ −
A (g) → A (g) + e (9.9.8)
and so forth.
Each successive IE is larger than the previous because an electron is being removed from an atom with a progressively larger
positive charge. However, IE takes a large jump when a successive ionization goes down into a new shell. For example, the
following are the first three IEs for Mg, whose electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s2:
First Ionization Energy (IE1) = 738 kJ/mol:
+ −
M g(g) → M g (g) + e (9.9.9)
Second Ionization Energy (IE2) = 1,450 kJ/mol:

+ 2+ −
Mg (g) → M g (g) + e (9.9.10)
Third Ionization Energy (IE3) = 7,734 kJ/mol:

2+ 3+ −
Mg (g) → M g (g) + e (9.9.11)
The second IE is twice the first, which is not a surprise: the first IE involves removing an electron from a neutral atom, while
the second one involves removing an electron from a positive ion. The third IE, however, is over five times the previous one.
Why is it so much larger? Because the first two electrons are removed from the 3s subshell, but the third electron has to be
removed from the n = 2 shell (specifically, the 2p subshell, which is lower in energy than the n = 3 shell). Thus, it takes much
more energy than just overcoming a larger ionic charge would suggest. It is trends like this that demonstrate that electrons are
organized in atoms in groups.
Example 9.9.2 : Ionization Energies

Which atom in each pair has the larger first ionization energy?
a. Ca or Sr
b. K or K+
Solution
a. Because Sr is below Ca on the periodic table, it is easier to remove an electron from it; thus, Ca has the higher IE.
b. Because K+ has a positive charge, it will be harder to remove another electron from it, so its IE is larger than that of
K. Indeed, it will be significantly larger because the next electron in K+ to be removed comes from another shell.
Exercise 9.9.2 : Ionization Energies

Which atom has the lower ionization energy, C or F?
Answer:
C
The opposite of IE is described by electron affinity (EA), which is the energy change when a gas-phase atom accepts an
electron:
− −
A(g) + e → A (g) ΔH ≡ EA (9.9.12)

EA is also usually expressed in kJ/mol. EA also demonstrates some periodic trends, although they are less obvious than the
other periodic trends discussed previously. Generally, as you go across the periodic table, EA increases its magnitude:
as → P T , EA ↑ (9.9.13)
There is not a definitive trend as you go down the periodic table; sometimes EA increases, sometimes it decreases. Figure
9.9.3 shows EA values versus position on the periodic table for the s- and p-block elements. The trend isn’t absolute,
especially considering the large positive EA values for the second column. However, the general trend going across the
periodic table should be obvious.
Figure 9.9.3 : Electron Affinity on the Periodic Table. Values are in kJ/mol.
Example 9.9.3 : Electron Affinities
Predict which atom in each pair will have the highest magnitude of Electron Affinity.
a. C or F
b. Na or S
Solution
a. C and F are in the same row on the periodic table, but F is farther to the right. Therefore, F should have the larger
magnitude of EA.
b. Na and S are in the same row on the periodic table, but S is farther to the right. Therefore, S should have the larger
magnitude of EA.
Exercise 9.9.3 : Electron Affinities

Predict which atom will have the highest magnitude of Electron Affinity: As or Br.
Answer:
Br

Metallic Character
The metallic character is used to define the chemical properties that metallic elements present. Generally, metals tend to lose
electrons to form cations. Nonmetals tend to gain electrons to form anions. They also have a high oxidation potential therefore
they are easily oxidized and are strong reducing agents. Metals also form basic oxides; the more basic the oxide, the higher the
metallic character.
Figure 9.9.4 : Courtesy of Jessica Thornton (UCD)

As you move across the table from left to right, the metallic character decreases, because the elements easily accept electrons
to fill their valance shells. Therefore, these elements take on the nonmetallic character of forming anions. As you move up the
table, the metallic character decreases, due to the greater pull that the nucleus has on the outer electrons. This greater pull
makes it harder for the atoms to lose electrons and form cations.
Uses in knowing the Periodic Properties of Elements

1. Predicting greater or smaller atomic size and radial distribution in neutral atoms and ions
2. Measuring and comparing ionization energies
3. Comparing electron affinities and electronegativities
Predicting redox potential
Comparing metallic character with other elements; its ability to form cations
Predicting what reaction may or may not occur due to the trends
Determining greater cell potential (sum of oxidation and reduction potential) between reactions
Completing chemical reactions according to trends
Summary
Certain properties—notably atomic radius, ionization energies, and electron affinities - can be qualitatively understood by
the positions of the elements on the periodic table. The major trends are summarized in the figure below

Credit: Wikimedia Commons, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.
There are three factors that help in the prediction of the trends in the Periodic Table: number of protons in the nucleus,
number of shells, and shielding effect.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
10: CHEMICAL BONDING
How do atoms make compounds? Typically they join together in such a way that they lose their
identities as elements and adopt a new identity as a compound. These joins are called chemical
bonds. But how do atoms join together? Ultimately, it all comes down to electrons. Before we
discuss how electrons interact, we need to introduce a tool to simply illustrate electrons in an atom.
10.1: BONDING MODELS AND AIDS DRUGS

10.2: REPRESENTING VALENCE ELECTRONS WITH DOTS
The Lewis Structure of a molecule shows how the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms
of the molecule. Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons around an
atomic symbol. Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions have less (for cations) or more (for anions)
dots than the corresponding atom. From experiment, chemists have learned that when a stable compound forms, the atoms usually
have a noble gas electron configuration or eight valence electrons.
10.3: LEWIS STRUCTURES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS- ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED

The tendency to form species that have eight electrons in the valence shell is called the octet rule. The attraction of oppositely charged
ions caused by electron transfer is called an ionic bond. The strength of ionic bonding depends on the magnitude of the charges and
the sizes of the ions.
10.4: COVALENT LEWIS STRUCTURES- ELECTRONS SHARED

Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. Lewis electron dot diagrams can be drawn to illustrate covalent bond
formation. Double bonds or triple bonds between atoms may be necessary to properly illustrate the bonding in some molecules.
10.5: WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Lewis dot symbols provide a simple rationalization of why elements form compounds with the observed stoichiometries. A plot of the
overall energy of a covalent bond as a function of internuclear distance is identical to a plot of an ionic pair because both result from
attractive and repulsive forces between charged entities. In Lewis electron structures, we encounter bonding pairs, which are shared
by two atoms, and lone pairs, which are not shared between atoms.
10.6: RESONANCE- EQUIVALENT LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR THE SAME MOLECULE

Resonance structures are averages of different Lewis structure possibilities. Bond lengths are intermediate between covalent bonds
and covalent double bonds.
10.7: PREDICTING THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES

The approximate shape of a molecule can be predicted from the number of electron groups and the number of surrounding atoms.
10.8: ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND POLARITY - WHY OIL AND WATER DON’T MIX
Covalent bonds can be nonpolar or polar, depending on the electronegativities of the atoms involved. Covalent bonds can be broken if
energy is added to a molecule. The formation of covalent bonds is accompanied by energy given off. Covalent bond energies can be
used to estimate the enthalpy changes of chemical reactions.
1 6/21/2020
10.1: Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs

10.2: Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
Learning Objective
Draw a Lewis electron dot diagram for an atom or a monatomic ion.
In almost all cases, chemical bonds are formed by interactions of valence electrons in atoms. To facilitate our understanding of
how valence electrons interact, a simple way of representing those valence electrons would be useful.
A Lewis electron dot diagram (or electron dot diagram or a Lewis diagram or a Lewis structure) is a representation of the
valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element. The number of dots equals the number of
valence electrons in the atom. These dots are arranged to the right and left and above and below the symbol, with no more than
two dots on a side. (It does not matter what order the positions are used.) For example, the Lewis electron dot diagram for
hydrogen is simply
H⋅ (10.2.1)
Because the side is not important, the Lewis electron dot diagram could also be drawn as follows:
Ḣ or ⋅H or H (10.2.2)
.
The electron dot diagram for helium, with two valence electrons, is as follows:
He: (10.2.3)
By putting the two electrons together on the same side, we emphasize the fact that these two electrons are both in the 1s
subshell; this is the common convention we will adopt, although there will be exceptions later. The next atom, lithium, has an
electron configuration of 1s22s1, so it has only one electron in its valence shell. Its electron dot diagram resembles that of
hydrogen, except the symbol for lithium is used:
Li⋅ (10.2.4)
Beryllium has two valence electrons in its 2s shell, so its electron dot diagram is like that of helium:
Be: (10.2.5)
The next atom is boron. Its valence electron shell is 2s22p1, so it has three valence electrons. The third electron will go on
another side of the symbol:
˙
B: (10.2.6)
Again, it does not matter on which sides of the symbol the electron dots are positioned.
For carbon, there are four valence electrons, two in the 2s subshell and two in the 2p subshell. As usual, we will draw two dots
together on one side, to represent the 2s electrons. However, conventionally, we draw the dots for the two p electrons on
different sides. As such, the electron dot diagram for carbon is as follows:
˙
⋅ C: (10.2.7)
With N, which has three p electrons, we put a single dot on each of the three remaining sides:
˙
⋅ N: (10.2.8)
.
For oxygen, which has four p electrons, we now have to start doubling up on the dots on one other side of the symbol. When
doubling up electrons, make sure that a side has no more than two electrons.
¨
⋅ O: (10.2.9)
.
Fluorine and neon have seven and eight dots, respectively:

¨
:F: (10.2.10)
.

¨
:Ne: (10.2.11)
. .
With the next element, sodium, the process starts over with a single electron because sodium has a single electron in its
highest-numbered shell, the n = 3 shell. By going through the periodic table, we see that the Lewis electron dot diagrams of
atoms will never have more than eight dots around the atomic symbol.
Example 10.2.1 : Lewis Dot Diagrams

What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element?
a. aluminum
b. selenium
SOLUTION
a. The valence electron configuration for aluminum is 3s23p1. So it would have three dots around the symbol for
aluminum, two of them paired to represent the 3s electrons:
˙
Al :
2. The valence electron configuration for selenium is 4s24p4. In the highest-numbered shell, the n = 4 shell, there are six
electrons. Its electron dot diagram is as follows:
˙
⋅ S e:
. .
Exercise 10.2.1
What is the Lewis electron dot diagram for each element?
a. phosphorus
b. argon
Answer a
˙
⋅ P:
.
Answer b
¨
:Ar:
. .
Summary
Lewis electron dot diagrams use dots to represent valence electrons around an atomic symbol.
Lewis electron dot diagrams for ions have less (for cations) or more (for anions) dots than the corresponding atom.


10.3: Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds- Electrons Transferred
Learning Objectives
State the octet rule.
Define ionic bond.
Draw Lewis structures for ionic compounds.
In Section 4.7 we saw how ions are formed by losing electrons to make cations or by gaining electrons to form anions. The
astute reader may have noticed something: Many of the ions that form have eight electrons in their valence shell. Either atoms
gain enough electrons to have eight electrons in the valence shell and become the appropriately charged anion, or they lose the
electrons in their original valence shell; the lower shell, now the valence shell, has eight electrons in it, so the atom becomes
positively charged. For whatever reason, having eight electrons in a valence shell is a particularly energetically stable
arrangement of electrons. The trend that atoms like to have eight electrons in their valence shell is called the octet rule. When
atoms form compounds, the octet rule is not always satisfied for all atoms at all times, but it is a very good rule of thumb for
understanding the kinds of bonding arrangements that atoms can make.
It is not impossible to violate the octet rule. Consider sodium: in its elemental form, it has one valence electron and is stable. It
is rather reactive, however, and does not require a lot of energy to remove that electron to make the Na+ ion. We could remove
another electron by adding even more energy to the ion, to make the Na2+ ion. However, that requires much more energy than
is normally available in chemical reactions, so sodium stops at a 1+ charge after losing a single electron. It turns out that the
Na+ ion has a complete octet in its new valence shell, the n = 2 shell, which satisfies the octet rule. The octet rule is a result of
trends in energies and is useful in explaining why atoms form the ions that they do.
Now consider an Na atom in the presence of a Cl atom. The two atoms have these Lewis electron dot diagrams and electron
configurations:
¨
Na ⋅ ⋅ Cl : (10.3.1)
. .
1 2 5
[N e] 3 s [N e] 3 s 3 p (10.3.2)
For the Na atom to obtain an octet, it must lose an electron; for the Cl atom to gain an octet, it must gain an electron. An
electron transfers from the Na atom to the Cl atom:
¨
Na ⋅ ↷ ⋅ Cl : (10.3.3)
. .
resulting in two ions—the Na+ ion and the Cl− ion:

+ ¨ −
Na :Cl : (10.3.4)
. .
2 6
[N e] [N e] 3 s 3 p (10.3.5)
Both species now have complete octets, and the electron shells are energetically stable. From basic physics, we know that
opposite charges attract. This is what happens to the Na+ and Cl− ions:
+ ¨ − + −
Na + :Cl : → N a Cl or N aC l (10.3.6)
. .
where we have written the final formula (the formula for sodium chloride) as per the convention for ionic compounds, without
listing the charges explicitly. The attraction between oppositely charged ions is called an ionic bond, and it is one of the main
types of chemical bonds in chemistry. Ionic bonds are caused by electrons transferring from one atom to another.
In electron transfer, the number of electrons lost must equal the number of electrons gained. We saw this in the formation of
NaCl. A similar process occurs between Mg atoms and O atoms, except in this case two electrons are transferred:

The two ions each have octets as their valence shell, and the two oppositely charged particles attract, making an ionic bond:
2−
2+ ¨ 2+ 2−
Mg + [:O :] Mg O or M gO (10.3.7)
. .
Remember, in the final formula for the ionic compound, we do not write the charges on the ions.
What about when an Na atom interacts with an O atom? The O atom needs two electrons to complete its valence octet, but the
Na atom supplies only one electron:
¨
Na ⋅ ↷ ⋅ O : (10.3.8)
.
The O atom still does not have an octet of electrons. What we need is a second Na atom to donate a second electron to the O
atom:
These three ions attract each other to give an overall neutral-charged ionic compound, which we write as Na2O. The need for
the number of electrons lost being equal to the number of electrons gained explains why ionic compounds have the ratio of
cations to anions that they do. This is required by the law of conservation of matter as well.
Example 10.3.1 : Synthesis of calcium chloride from Elements

With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form calcium chloride from C a atoms and C l atoms.
SOLUTION
A C a atom has two valence electrons, while a C l atom has seven electrons. A C l atom needs only one more to complete
its octet, while C a atoms have two electrons to lose. Thus we need two Cl atoms to accept the two electrons from one C a
atom. The transfer process looks as follows:
The oppositely charged ions attract each other to make CaCl2.
Exercise 10.3.1
With arrows, illustrate the transfer of electrons to form potassium sulfide from K atoms and S atoms.
Answer
Summary
The tendency to form species that have eight electrons in the valence shell is called the octet rule.
The attraction of oppositely charged ions caused by electron transfer is called an ionic bond.
The strength of ionic bonding depends on the magnitude of the charges and the sizes of the ions.


10.4: Covalent Lewis Structures- Electrons Shared
Learning Objectives
Define covalent bond.
Illustrate covalent bond formation with Lewis electron dot diagrams.
Ionic bonding typically occurs when it is easy for one atom to lose one or more electrons and another atom to gain one or more
electrons. However, some atoms won’t give up or gain electrons easily. Yet they still participate in compound formation. How?
There is another mechanism for obtaining a complete valence shell: sharing electrons. When electrons are shared between two
atoms, they make a bond called a covalent bond.
Let us illustrate a covalent bond by using H atoms, with the understanding that H atoms need only two electrons to fill the 1s
subshell. Each H atom starts with a single electron in its valence shell:
H⋅ ⋅ H (10.4.1)
The two H atoms can share their electrons:

H : H (10.4.2)
We can use circles to show that each H atom has two electrons around the nucleus, completely filling each atom’s valence
shell:
Because each H atom has a filled valence shell, this bond is stable, and we have made a diatomic hydrogen molecule. (This
explains why hydrogen is one of the diatomic elements.) For simplicity’s sake, it is not unusual to represent the covalent bond
with a dash, instead of with two dots:
H–H
Because two atoms are sharing one pair of electrons, this covalent bond is called a single bond. As another example, consider
fluorine. F atoms have seven electrons in their valence shell:
These two atoms can do the same thing that the H atoms did; they share their unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond.
Note that each F atom has a complete octet around it now:
We can also write this using a dash to represent the shared electron pair:
There are two different types of electrons in the fluorine diatomic molecule. The bonding electron pair makes the covalent
bond. Each F atom has three other pairs of electrons that do not participate in the bonding; they are called lone pair electrons.

Each F atom has one bonding pair and three lone pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonds can be made between different elements as well. One example is HF. Each atom starts out with an odd number
of electrons in its valence shell:
The two atoms can share their unpaired electrons to make a covalent bond:
We note that the H atom has a full valence shell with two electrons, while the F atom has a complete octet of electrons.
Example 10.4.1 :
Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in HBr.
SOLUTION
HBr is very similar to HF, except that it has Br instead of F. The atoms are as follows:
The two atoms can share their unpaired electron:
Exercise 10.4.1
Use Lewis electron dot diagrams to illustrate the covalent bond formation in Cl2.
Answer
When working with covalent structures, it sometimes looks like you have leftover electrons. You apply the rules you learned
so far and there are still some electrons hanging out there unattached. You can't just leave them there. So where do you put
them?
Multiple Covalent Bonds

Some molecules are not able to satisfy the octet rule by making only single covalent bonds between the atoms. Consider the
compound ethene, which has a molecular formula of C H . The carbon atoms are bonded together, with each carbon also
2 4
being bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

two C atoms = 2 × 4 = 8 valence electrons
four H atoms = 4 × 1 = 4 valence electrons
total of 12 valence electrons in the molecule
If the Lewis electron dot structure was drawn with a single bond between the carbon atoms and with the octet rule followed, it
would look like this:

Figure 10.4.1 : Incorrect dot structure of ethene.
This Lewis structure is incorrect because it contains a total of 14 electrons. However, the Lewis structure can be changed by
eliminating the lone pairs on the carbon atoms and having to share two pairs instead of only one pair.
Figure 10.4.2 : Correct dot structure for ethene.

A double covalent bond is a covalent bond formed by atoms that share two pairs of electrons. The double covalent bond that
occurs between the two carbon atoms in ethane can also be represented by a structural formula and with a molecular model as
shown in the figure below.
Figure 10.4.3 : (A) The structural model for C H consists of a double covalent bond between the two carbon atoms and
2 4
single bonds to the hydrogen atoms. (B) Molecular model of C H .

2 4
A triple covalent bond is a covalent bond formed by atoms that share three pairs of electrons. The element nitrogen is a gas
that composes the majority of Earth's atmosphere. A nitrogen atom has five valence electrons, which can be shown as one pair
and three single electrons. When combining with another nitrogen atom to form a diatomic molecule, the three single electrons
on each atom combine to form three shared pairs of electrons.
Figure 10.4.4 : Triple bond in N .

2
Each nitrogen atom follows the octet rule with one lone pair of electrons and six electrons that are shared between the atoms.
Summary
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons.
Lewis electron dot diagrams can be drawn to illustrate covalent bond formation.
Double bonds or triple bonds between atoms may be necessary to properly illustrate the bonding in some molecules.

Anonymous by request

10.5: Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds
Learning Objectives
Draw Lewis structures for covalent compounds.
The following procedure can be used to construct Lewis electron structures for more complex molecules and ions:
How-to: Constructing Lewis electron structures

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion.
Add together the valence electrons from each atom. (Recall that the number of valence electrons is indicated by the
position of the element in the periodic table.)
If the species is a polyatomic ion, remember to add or subtract the number of electrons necessary to give the total
charge on the ion.
For CO32−, for example, we add two electrons to the total because of the −2 charge.
2. Arrange the atoms to show specific connections.
When there is a central atom, it is usually the least electronegative element in the compound. Chemists usually list this
central atom first in the chemical formula (as in CCl4 and CO32−, which both have C as the central atom), which is
another clue to the compound’s structure.
Hydrogen and the halogens are almost always connected to only one other atom, so they are usually terminal rather
than central.
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent atoms to give a single bond.
In H2O, for example, there is a bonding pair of electrons between oxygen and each hydrogen.
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electrons to each atom to give each atom an octet (two for
hydrogen).
These electrons will usually be lone pairs.
5. If any electrons are left over, place them on the central atom.
We will explain later that some atoms are able to accommodate more than eight electrons.
6. If the central atom has fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs from terminal atoms to form multiple
(double or triple) bonds to the central atom to achieve an octet.
This will not change the number of electrons on the terminal atoms.
7. Final check
Always make sure all valence electrons are accounted for and each atom has an octet of electrons except for hydrogen
(with two electrons).
The central atom is usually the least electronegative element in the molecule or ion; hydrogen and the halogens are
usually terminal.
Now let’s apply this procedure to some particular compounds, beginning with one we have already discussed.
Example 10.5.1 : Water

Write the Lewis Structure for H2O.
SOLUTION

Steps for Writing Lewis Structures Example 10.5.1
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule Each H atom (group 1) has 1 valence electron, and the O atom
or ion. (group 16) has 6 valence electrons, for a total of 8 valence electrons.
HOH
Because H atoms are almost always terminal, the arrangement within
the molecule must be HOH.
Placing one bonding pair of electrons between the O atom and each
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent H atom gives
atoms to give a single bond.
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electrons to each
H -O- H
atom to give each atom an octet (two for hydrogen). with 4 electrons left over.
Each H atom has a full valence shell of 2 electrons.
Adding the remaining 4 electrons to the oxygen (as two lone pairs)
gives the following structure:
6. If the central atom has fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs
from terminal atoms to form multiple (double or triple) bonds to the Not necessary
central atom to achieve an octet.
The Lewis structure gives oxygen an octet and each hydrogen two
7. Final check
electrons,
Example 10.5.2
Write the Lewis structure for the C H 2O molecule
Solution
Each hydrogen atom (group 1) has one valence electron, carbon

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule (group 14) has 4 valence electrons, and oxygen (group 16) has 6
or ion. valence electrons, for a total of [(2)(1) + 4 + 6] = 12 valence
electrons.
Because carbon is less electronegative than oxygen and hydrogen is

normally terminal, C must be the central atom.
Placing a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of bonded
atoms gives the following:
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent

atoms to give a single bond.
Six electrons are used, and 6 are left over.

Adding all 6 remaining electrons to oxygen (as three lone pairs)

gives the following:
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electrons to each

atom to give each atom an octet (two for hydrogen).
Although oxygen now has an octet and each hydrogen has 2

electrons, carbon has only 6 electrons.
Not necessary
There are no electrons left to place on the central atom.
To give carbon an octet of electrons, we use one of the lone pairs of
6. If the central atom has fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs electrons on oxygen to form a carbon–oxygen double bond:
from terminal atoms to form multiple (double or triple) bonds to the
central atom to achieve an octet.
Both the oxygen and the carbon now have an octet of electrons, so
this is an acceptable Lewis electron structure. The O has two
7. Final check
bonding pairs and two lone pairs, and C has four bonding pairs. This
is the structure of formaldehyde, which is used in embalming fluid.
Exercise 10.5.1
Write Lewis electron structures for CO2 and SCl2, a vile-smelling, unstable red liquid that is used in the manufacture of
rubber.
Answer CO2
Answer SCl2
The United States Supreme Court has the unenviable task of deciding what the law is. This responsibility can be a major
challenge when there is no clear principle involved or where there is a new situation not encountered before. Chemistry faces
the same challenge in extending basic concepts to fit a new situation. Drawing of Lewis structures for polyatomic ions uses the
same approach, but tweaks the process a little to fit a somewhat different set of circumstances.
Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
Recall that a polyatomic ion is a group of atoms that are covalently bonded together and which carry an overall electrical
charge. The ammonium ion, NH , is formed when a hydrogen ion (H ) attaches to the lone pair of an ammonia (NH )
+
4
+
molecule in a coordinate covalent bond.

Figure 10.5.3 : The ammonium ion.
When drawing the Lewis structure of a polyatomic ion, the charge of the ion is reflected in the number of total valence
electrons in the structure. In the case of the ammonium ion:
1 N atom = 5 valence electrons
4 H atoms = 4 × 1 = 4 valence electrons
subtract 1 electron for the 1+charge of the ion
total of 8 valence electrons in the ion
It is customary to put the Lewis structure of a polyatomic ion into a large set of brackets, with the charge of the ion as a
superscript outside the brackets.
Exercise 10.5.2
Draw the Lewis electron dot structure for the sulfate ion.
Answer
Exceptions to the Octet Rule

As important and useful as the octet rule is in chemical bonding, there are some well-known violations. This does not mean
that the octet rule is useless—quite the contrary. As with many rules, there are exceptions, or violations.
There are three violations to the octet rule. Odd-electron molecules represent the first violation to the octet rule. Although they
are few, some stable compounds have an odd number of electrons in their valence shells. With an odd number of electrons, at
least one atom in the molecule will have to violate the octet rule. Examples of stable odd-electron molecules are NO, NO2, and
ClO2. The Lewis electron dot diagram for NO is as follows:
Although the O atom has an octet of electrons, the N atom has only seven electrons in its valence shell. Although NO is a
stable compound, it is very chemically reactive, as are most other odd-electron compounds.
Electron-deficient molecules represent the second violation to the octet rule. These stable compounds have less than eight
electrons around an atom in the molecule. The most common examples are the covalent compounds of beryllium and boron.
For example, beryllium can form two covalent bonds, resulting in only four electrons in its valence shell:
Boron commonly makes only three covalent bonds, resulting in only six valence electrons around the B atom. A well-known
example is BF3:

The third violation to the octet rule is found in those compounds with more than eight electrons assigned to their valence shell.
These are called expanded valence shell molecules. Such compounds are formed only by central atoms in the third row of the
periodic table or beyond that have empty d orbitals in their valence shells that can participate in covalent bonding. One such
compound is PF5. The only reasonable Lewis electron dot diagram for this compound has the P atom making five covalent
bonds:
Formally, the P atom has 10 electrons in its valence shell.
Example 10.5.3 : Octet Violations

Identify each violation to the octet rule by drawing a Lewis electron dot diagram.
a. ClO
b. SF6
Solution
a. With one Cl atom and one O atom, this molecule has 6 + 7 = 13 valence electrons, so it is an odd-electron molecule. A
Lewis electron dot diagram for this molecule is as follows:
b. In SF6, the central S atom makes six covalent bonds to the six surrounding F atoms, so it is an expanded valence shell
molecule. Its Lewis electron dot diagram is as follows:
Exercise 10.5.3 : Xenon Difluoride

Identify the violation to the octet rule in XeF2 by drawing a Lewis electron dot diagram.
Answer
The Xe atom has an expanded valence shell with more than eight electrons around it.

Summary
Lewis dot symbols provide a simple rationalization of why elements form compounds with the observed stoichiometries. A
plot of the overall energy of a covalent bond as a function of internuclear distance is identical to a plot of an ionic pair because
both result from attractive and repulsive forces between charged entities. In Lewis electron structures, we encounter bonding
pairs, which are shared by two atoms, and lone pairs, which are not shared between atoms. Lewis structures for polyatomic
ions follow the same rules as those for other covalent compounds. There are three violations to the octet rule: odd-electron
molecules, electron-deficient molecules, and expanded valence shell molecules

Modified by Joshua Halpern (Howard University)

10.6: Resonance- Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule
Learning Objectives
Explain the following laws within the Ideal Gas Law
Resonance
There are some cases in which more than one viable Lewis structure can be drawn for a molecule. An example is the ozone
(O ) molecule in Figure 10.6.1. There are a total of 18 electrons in the structure and so the following two structures are
3
possible.
Figure 10.6.1 : Resonance forms of ozone. Note the use of the double-headed arrow.
The structure on the left (10.6.1) can be converted to the structure on the right by a shifting of electrons without altering the
positions of the atoms.
It was once thought that the structure of a molecule such as O consisted of one single bond and one double bond which then
3
shifted back and forth as shown above. However, further studies showed that the two bonds are identical. Any double covalent
bond between two given atoms is typically shorter than a single covalent bond. Studies of the O and other similar molecules
3
showed that the bonds were identical in length. Interestingly, the length of the bond is in between the lengths expected for an
O−O single bond and a double bond.
Resonance is the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent the covalent bonding in a molecule. One of the valid
structures is referred to as a resonance structure. It is now understood that the true structure of a molecule which displays
resonance is that of an average or a hybrid of all the resonance structures. In the case of the O molecule, each of the covalent
3
bonds between O atoms is best thought of as being "one and a half" bonds, as opposed to either a pure single bond or a pure
double bond. This "half-bond" can be shown as a dotted line in both the Lewis structure and the molecular model (Figure
10.6.2).
Figure 10.6.2 : "Half-bond" model of ozone molecule. This is a better description of the electornic structure of ozone than
either of the resonance structures in Figure 10.6.1 .
Many polyatomic ions also display resonance. In some cases, the true structure may be an average of three valid resonance
structures, as in the case of the nitrate ion, NO in Figure 10.6.3 .
−
3
Figure 10.6.3 : Resonance structure of nitrate anion.

The bond lengths between the central N atom and each O atom are identical and the bonds can be approximated as being
equal to one and one-third bonds.
Summary
Resonance structures are averages of different Lewis structure possibilities.
Bond lengths are intermediate between covalent bonds and covalent double bonds.



10.7: Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
Learning Objective
Determine the shape of simple molecules.
Molecules have shapes. There is an abundance of experimental evidence to that effect—from their physical properties to their
chemical reactivity. Small molecules—molecules with a single central atom—have shapes that can be easily predicted. The
basic idea in molecular shapes is called valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR). It basically says that electron pairs,
being composed of negatively charged particles, repel each other to get as far away from each other as possible. VSEPR makes
a distinction between electron group geometry, which expresses how electron groups (bonds and nonbonding electron pairs)
are arranged, and molecular geometry, which expresses how the atoms in a molecule are arranged. However, the two
geometries are related.
There are two types of electron groups: any type of bond—single, double, or triple—and lone electron pairs. When applying
VSEPR to simple molecules, the first thing to do is to count the number of electron groups around the central atom. Remember
that a multiple bond counts as only one electron group.
Any molecule with only two atoms is linear. A molecule whose central atom contains only two electron groups orients those
two groups as far apart from each other as possible—180° apart. When the two electron groups are 180° apart, the atoms
attached to those electron groups are also 180° apart, so the overall molecular shape is linear. Examples include BeH2 and
CO2:
Figure 10.7.1 : Beryllium hydride and carbon dioxide bonding.

The two molecules, shown in the figure below in a "ball and stick" model.
Figure 10.7.2 : Beryllium hydride and carbon dioxide models.

A molecule with three electron groups orients the three groups as far apart as possible. They adopt the positions of an
equilateral triangle—120° apart and in a plane. The shape of such molecules is trigonal planar. An example is BF3:
Figure 10.7.3 : Boron trifluoride bonding.

Some substances have a trigonal planar electron group distribution but have atoms bonded to only two of the three electron
groups. An example is GeF2:
Figure 10.7.4 : Germanium difluoride bonding.

From an electron group geometry perspective, GeF2 has a trigonal planar shape, but its real shape is dictated by the positions
of the atoms. This shape is called bent or angular.

A molecule with four electron groups about the central atom orients the four groups in the direction of a tetrahedron, as shown
in Figure 10.7.1 Tetrahedral Geometry. If there are four atoms attached to these electron groups, then the molecular shape is
also tetrahedral. Methane (CH4) is an example.
Figure 10.7.5 : Tetrahedral structure of methane.

This diagram of CH4 illustrates the standard convention of displaying a three-dimensional molecule on a two-dimensional
surface. The straight lines are in the plane of the page, the solid wedged line is coming out of the plane toward the reader, and
the dashed wedged line is going out of the plane away from the reader.
Figure 10.7.6 : Methane bonding.

NH3 is an example of a molecule whose central atom has four electron groups but only three of them are bonded to
surrounding atoms.
Figure 10.7.7 : Ammonia bonding.

Although the electron groups are oriented in the shape of a tetrahedron, from a molecular geometry perspective, the shape of
NH3 is trigonal pyramidal.
H2O is an example of a molecule whose central atom has four electron groups but only two of them are bonded to surrounding
atoms.
Figure 10.7.8 : Water bonding.

Although the electron groups are oriented in the shape of a tetrahedron, the shape of the molecule is bent or angular. A
molecule with four electron groups about the central atom but only one electron group bonded to another atom is linear
because there are only two atoms in the molecule.
Double or triple bonds count as a single electron group. The Lewis electron dot diagram of formaldehyde (CH2O) is shown in
Figure 10.7.9.
Figure 10.7.9 : Lewis Electron Dot Dagram of Formaldehyde.

The central C atom has three electron groups around it because the double bond counts as one electron group. The three
electron groups repel each other to adopt a trigonal planar shape.
Figure 10.7.10: Formaldehyde bonding.

(The lone electron pairs on the O atom are omitted for clarity.) The molecule will not be a perfect equilateral triangle because
the C–O double bond is different from the two C–H bonds, but both planar and triangular describe the appropriate approximate

shape of this molecule.
Table 10.7.1 summarizes the shapes of molecules based on their number of electron groups and surrounding atoms.
Table 10.7.1 : Summary of Molecular Shapes
Number of Electron Number of Bonding
Number of Lone Pairs Electron Geometry Molecular Shape
Groups on Central Atom Groups
2 2 0 linear linear
3 3 0 trigonal planar trigonal planar

3 2 1 trigonal planar bent
4 4 0 tetrahedral tetrahedral
4 3 1 tetrahedral trigonal pyramidal
4 2 2 tetrahedral bent
Example 10.7.1
What is the approximate shape of each molecule?
a. PCl3
b. NOF
SOLUTION
The first step is to draw the Lewis structure of the molecule.
1. For PCl3, the electron dot diagram is as follows:
The lone electron pairs on the Cl atoms are omitted for clarity. The P atom has four electron groups with three of them
bonded to surrounding atoms, so the molecular shape is trigonal pyramidal.
2. The electron dot diagram for NOF is as follows:
The N atom has three electron groups on it, two of which are bonded to other atoms. The molecular shape is bent.
Exercise 10.7.1
What is the approximate molecular shape of CH2Cl2?
Answer
Tetrahedral
Exercise 10.7.2
Ethylene (C2H4) has two central atoms. Determine the geometry around each central atom and the shape of the overall
molecule. Hint, hydrogen is a terminal atom.
Answer
Trigonal planar about both central C atoms

Summary
The approximate shape of a molecule can be predicted from the number of electron groups and the number of surrounding
atoms.
Contributors and Attributions


10.8: Electronegativity and Polarity - Why Oil and Water Don’t Mix
Learning Objectives
Explain how polar compounds differ from nonpolar compounds.
Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar.
Given a pair of compounds, predict which would have a higher melting or boiling point.
Bond Polarity
The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons is called electronegativity. When two atoms combine, the
difference between their electronegativities is an indication of the type of bond that will form. If the difference between the
electronegativities of the two atoms is small, neither atom can take the shared electrons completely away from the other atom
and the bond will be covalent. If the difference between the electronegativities is large, the more electronegative atom will take
the bonding electrons completely away from the other atom (electron transfer will occur) and the bond will be ionic. This is
why metals (low electronegativities) bonded with nonmetals (high electronegativities) typically produce ionic compounds.
A bond may be so polar that an electron actually transfers from one atom to another, forming a true ionic bond. How do we
judge the degree of polarity? Scientists have devised a scale called electronegativity, a scale for judging how much atoms of
any element attract electrons. Electronegativity is a unitless number; the higher the number, the more an atom attracts
electrons. A common scale for electronegativity is shown in Figure 10.8.1.
Figure 10.8.1: Electronegativities of the Elements. Electronegativities are used to determine the polarity of covalent bonds.
The polarity of a covalent bond can be judged by determining the difference of the electronegativities of the two atoms
involved in the covalent bond, as summarized in the following table:
Electronegativity Difference Bond Type
0 nonpolar covalent
0–0.4 slightly polar covalent

0.5–2.0 definitely polar covalent
>2.0 likely ionic
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A bond in which the electronegativity difference is less than 1.9 is considered to be mostly covalent in character. However, at
this point we need to distinguish between two general types of covalent bonds. A nonpolar covalent bond is a covalent bond
in which the bonding electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. In a nonpolar covalent bond, the distribution of
electrical charge is balanced between the two atoms.

Figure 10.8.2 : A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the distribution of electron density between the two atoms is equal.
The two chlorine atoms share the pair of electrons in the single covalent bond equally, and the electron density surrounding the
Cl molecule is symmetrical. Also note that molecules in which the electronegativity difference is very small (<0.5) are also
2
considered nonpolar covalent. An example would be a bond between chlorine and bromine (ΔEN = 3.0 − 2.8 = 0.2 ).
Polar Covalent Bonds

A bond in which the electronegativity difference between the atoms is between 0.5 and 2.0 is called a polar covalent bond. A
polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the atoms have an unequal attraction for electrons and so the sharing is
unequal. In a polar covalent bond, sometimes simply called a polar bond, the distribution of electrons around the molecule is
no longer symmetrical.
Figure 10.8.3 : In the polar covalent bond of HF, the electron density is unevenly distributed. There is a higher density (red)
near the fluorine atom, and a lower density (blue) near the hydrogen atom.
An easy way to illustrate the uneven electron distribution in a polar covalent bond is to use the Greek letter delta (δ).
Figure 10.8.4 : Use of δ to indicate partial charge.

The atom with the greater electronegativity acquires a partial negative charge, while the atom with the lesser electronegativity
acquires a partial positive charge. The delta symbol is used to indicate that the quantity of charge is less than one. A crossed
arrow can also be used to indicate the direction of greater electron density.
Figure 10.8.5 : Use of crossed arrow to indicate polarity

Electronegativity differences in bonding using Pauling scale. Using differences in electronegativity to classify bonds as
covalent, polar covalent, or ionic.
Example 10.8.1 : Bond Polarity

What is the polarity of each bond?
a. C–H
b. O–H
Solution
Using Figure 10.8.1, we can calculate the difference of the electronegativities of the atoms involved in the bond.
a. For the C–H bond, the difference in the electronegativities is 2.5 − 2.1 = 0.4. Thus we predict that this bond will be
non polar covalent.
b. For the O–H bond, the difference in electronegativities is 3.5 − 2.1 = 1.4, so we predict that this bond will be
definitely polar covalent.
Exercise 10.8.1
What is the polarity of each bond?
a. Rb–F
b. P–Cl
Answer a
likely ionic
Answer b
polar covalent
Molecular Polarity
To determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar, it is frequently useful to look at Lewis structures. Nonpolar compounds will
be symmetric, meaning all of the sides around the central atom are identical - bonded to the same element with no unshared
pairs of electrons. Polar molecules are asymmetric, either containing lone pairs of electrons on a central atom or having atoms
with different electronegativities bonded. This works pretty well - as long as you can visualize the molecular geometry. That's
the hard part. To know how the bonds are oriented in space, you have to have a strong grasp of Lewis structures and VSEPR
theory. Assuming you do, you can look at the structure of each one and decide if it is polar or not - whether or not you know
the individual atom electronegativity. This is because you know that all bonds between dissimilar elements are polar, and in
these particular examples, it doesn't matter which direction the dipole moment vectors are pointing (out or in).

A polar molecule is a molecule in which one end of the molecule is slightly positive, while the other end is slightly negative.
A diatomic molecule that consists of a polar covalent bond, such as HF, is a polar molecule. The two electrically charged
regions on either end of the molecule are called poles, similar to a magnet having a north and a south pole. A molecule with
two poles is called a dipole (see figure below). Hydrogen fluoride is a dipole.
Figure 10.8.6 : A dipole is any molecule with a positive end and a negative end, resulting from unequal distribution of
electron density throughout the molecule.
For molecules with more than two atoms, the molecular geometry must also be taken into account when determining if the
molecule is polar or nonpolar. The figure below shows a comparison between carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide
(CO ) is a linear molecule. The oxygen atoms are more electronegative than the carbon atom, so there are two individual
2
dipoles pointing outward from the C atom to each O atom. However, since the dipoles are of equal strength and are oriented
this way, they cancel out and the overall molecular polarity of CO is zero.
2
Water is a bent molecule because of the two lone pairs on the central oxygen atom. The individual dipoles point from the H
atoms toward the O atom. Because of the shape, the dipoles do not cancel each other out and the water molecule is polar. In
the figure below, the net dipole is shown in blue and points upward.
Figure 10.8.7 : The molecular geometry of a molecule affects its polarity. Each CO bond has a dipole moment, but they point
in opposite directions so that the net CO2 molecule is nonpolar. In contrast, water is polar because the OH bond moments do
not cancel out.
Some other molecules are shown in the figure below. Notice that a tetrahedral molecule such as CH is nonpolar. However, if
4
one of the peripheral H atoms is replaced with another atom that has a different electronegativity, the molecule becomes polar.
A trigonal planar molecule (BF ) may be nonpolar if all three peripheral atoms are the same, but a trigonal pyramidal
3
molecule (NH ) is polar.

3
Figure 10.8.8 : Some examples of polar and nonpolar molecules based on molecular geometry.
To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:
1. Contain at least one polar covalent bond.
2. Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment does not cancel.
Steps to Identify Polar Molecules

1. Draw the Lewis structure
2. Figure out the geometry (using VSEPR theory)

3. Visualize or draw the geometry
4. Find the net dipole moment (you don't have to actually do calculations if you can visualize it)
5. If the net dipole moment is zero, it is non-polar. Otherwise, it is polar.
Properties of Polar Molecules

Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the
negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (Figure 10.8.14). We can use an electrically charged object to
attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances,
and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.
Figure 10.8.9 : (a) Molecules are always randomly distributed in the liquid state in the absence of an electric field. (b) When
an electric field is applied, polar molecules like HF will align to the dipoles with the field direction. (OpenStax CC-BY-SA);
While molecules can be described as "polar covalent" or "ionic", it must be noted that this is often a relative term, with one
molecule simply being more polar or less polar than another. However, the following properties are typical of such molecules.
Polar molecules tend to:
have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules
have higher boiling points than nonpolar molecules
be more soluble in water (dissolve better) than nonpolar molecules
have lower vapor pressures than nonpolar molecules
Example 10.8.2 :
Label each of the following as polar or nonpolar.
a. Water, H2O:
b. Methanol, CH3OH:
c. Hydrogen Cyanide, HCN:
d. Oxygen, O2:
e. Propane, C3H8:
Solution
a. Water is polar. Any molecule with lone pairs of electrons around the central atom is polar.
b. Methanol is polar. This is not a symmetric molecule. The −OH side is different from the other 3 −H sides.

c. Hydrogen cyanide is polar. The molecule is not symmetric. The nitrogen and hydrogen have different
electronegativities, creating an uneven pull on the electrons.
d. Oxygen is nonpolar. The molecule is symmetric. The two oxygen atoms pull on the electrons by exactly the same
amount.
e. Propane is nonpolar, because it is symmetric, with H atoms bonded to every side around the central atoms and no
unshared pairs of electrons.
Exercise 10.8.2
Label each of the following as polar or nonpolar.
a. SO3
b. NH3
Answer a
non polar
Answer b
polar

StackExchange (thomij).

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11: GASES
Gases have no definite shape or volume; they tend to fill whatever container they are in. They can
compress and expand, sometimes to a great extent. Gases have extremely low densities, one-
thousandth or less the density of a liquid or solid. Combinations of gases tend to mix together
spontaneously; that is, they form solutions. Air, for example, is a solution of mostly nitrogen and
oxygen. Any understanding of the properties of gases must be able to explain these characteristics.
11.1: EXTRA-LONG STRAWS

A drinking straw is a tube for transferring a beverage from its container to the mouth of the
drinker. A thin tube of plastic (such as polypropylene and polystyrene) or other material, straight
or with an angle-adjustable bellows segment, it is used by being held with one end in the mouth
and another end in the drink. Muscular action reduces air pressure in the mouth and above the liquid in the straw, whereupon
atmospheric pressure forces the beverage through the straw.
11.2: KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY- A MODEL FOR GASES

The physical behavior of gases is explained by the kinetic theory of gases. An ideal gas adheres exactly to the kinetic theory of gases.
11.3: PRESSURE- THE RESULT OF CONSTANT MOLECULAR COLLISIONS

Pressure is a force exerted over an area. Pressure has several common units that can be converted.
11.4: BOYLE’S LAW- PRESSURE AND VOLUME

Boyle’s law relates a gas’s pressure and volume at constant temperature and amount.
11.5: CHARLES’S LAW- VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE

Charles’s law relates a gas’s volume and temperature at constant pressure and amount. In gas laws, temperatures must always be
expressed in kelvins.
11.6: GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW- TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

Gay-Lussac's Law states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when the
volume is kept constant. Gay-Lussac's Law is very similar to Charles's Law, with the only difference being the type of container.
Whereas the container in a Charles's Law experiment is flexible, it is rigid in a Gay-Lussac's Law experiment.
11.7: THE COMBINED GAS LAW- PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND TEMPERATURE

One thing we notice about all the gas laws is that, collectively, volume and pressure are always in the numerator, and temperature is
always in the denominator. This suggests that we can propose a gas law that combines pressure, volume, and temperature. This gas
law is known as the combined gas law. This allows us to follow changes in all three major properties of a gas.
11.8: AVOGADRO’S LAW- VOLUME AND MOLES

The original statement of Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of particles of gas. Because the number of particles is related to the number of moles, Avogadro’s law essentially states
that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same amount (moles, particles) of gas.
11.9: THE IDEAL GAS LAW- PRESSURE, VOLUME, TEMPERATURE, AND MOLES
The ideal gas law relates the four independent physical properties of a gas at any time. The ideal gas law can be used in stoichiometry
problems whose chemical reactions involve gases. Standard temperature and pressure (STP) are a useful set of benchmark conditions
to compare other properties of gases. At STP, gases have a volume of 22.4 L per mole. The ideal gas law can be used to determine
densities of gases.
11.10: MIXTURES OF GASES- WHY DEEP-SEA DIVERS BREATHE A MIXTURE OF HELIUM AND OXYGEN
The pressure of a gas in a gas mixture is termed the partial pressure. Dalton’s law of partial pressure says that the total pressure in a
gas mixture is the sum of the individual partial pressures. Collecting gases over water requires that we take the vapor pressure of
water into account. Mole fraction is another way to express the amounts of components in a mixture.
11.11: GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1 6/21/2020
11.1: Extra-Long Straws
A drinking straw is a tube for transferring a beverage from its container to the mouth of the drinker. A thin tube of plastic
(such as polypropylene and polystyrene) or other material, straight or with an angle-adjustable bellows segment, it is used by
being held with one end in the mouth and another end in the drink. Muscular action (a combination of the muscles of the
tongue and cheeks) reduces air pressure in the mouth and above the liquid in the straw, whereupon atmospheric pressure forces
the beverage through the straw.
Eight long drinking straws made from plastic and having flexible heads positioned next to each other in order to look like the
color gradation of the rainbow. The are standing against a white background. (CC BY 2.0; Horia Varlan).
How Straws Work

With the straw just sitting in the glass, the pressure on the surface of the tea is the same all over, including on the little bit of
surface inside the straw. When you suck the air out of the straw, you decrease the pressure inside the straw, allowing the higher
pressure on the rest of the surface to push the tea up the straw and into your mouth. Because it is really the atmosphere that is
doing the pushing, the atmospheric pressure limits how high water will go up a straw. At sea level, the air pressure is enough
to support a column of water about thirty feet high.
Many people believe that when they drink a liquid they are sucking the liquid up, however the liquid is really being pushed up.
A straw works because when you suck the air out of the straw it creates a vacuum. The atmospheric pressure outside the straw
is greater then in the inside pressure, therefore the liquid is pushed up into your mouth
DRINKING STRAW: A drinking straw is used by creating a suction with your mouth. Actually this causes a decrease in air
pressure on the inside of the straw. Since the atmospheric pressure is greater on the outside of the straw, liquid is forced into
and up the straw.
SIPHON: With a siphon water can be made to flow "uphill". A siphon can be started by filling the tube with water (perhaps
by suction). Once started, atmospheric pressure upon the surface of the upper container forces water up the short tube to
replace water flowing out of the long tube.
A common misconception seems to be coming from the idea of a vacuum and a straw. The vacuum itself is not what causes
the sucking. It is the atmospheric pressure that causes sucking.
How long of a Straw is Possible?

Straws work because sucking creates a pressure difference between the inside of the straw and the outside. If you formed
a perfect vacuum within the straw, the pressure outside of the straw at sea level would be enough to push the orange soda
(which is mostly water) to a total height of about 10.3 m. • A 10.3-m column of water exerts the same pressure— 101,325
N/m2 or 14.7 lb/in2 (psi)—as do the gas molecules in our atmosphere. At sea level, the air pressure is enough to support a
column of water about thirty feet high. This means that even if you could suck all the air out of a forty-foot straw, the
water wouldn’t rise more than thirty feet.

Wikipedia
Lisa Peck's Conceptual Physics Class

11.2: Kinetic Molecular Theory- A Model for Gases
Learning Objectives
State the major concepts behind the kinetic theory of gases.
Relate the general properties of gases to the kinetic theory.
Gases were among the first substances studied in terms of the modern scientific method, which was developed in the 1600s. It
did not take long to recognize that gases all shared certain physical behaviors, suggesting that all gases could be described by
one all-encompassing theory. Today, that theory is the kinetic theory of gases. It is based on the following statements:
1. Gases consist of tiny particles of matter that are in constant motion.
2. Gas particles are constantly colliding with each other and the walls of a container. These collisions are elastic; that is, there
is no net loss of energy from the collisions.
3. Gas particles are separated by large distances, with the size of a gas particle tiny compared to the distances that separate
them.
4. There are no interactive forces (i.e., attraction or repulsion) between the particles of a gas.
5. The average speed of gas particles is dependent on the temperature of the gas.
Figure 11.2.1 shows a representation of how we mentally picture the gas phase.
Figure 11.2.1 : The Kinetic Theory of Gases. The kinetic theory of gases describes this state of matter as composed of tiny
particles in constant motion with a lot of distance between the particles.
This model of gases explains some of the physical properties of gases. Because most of a gas is empty space, a gas has a low
density and can expand or contract under the appropriate influence. The fact that gas particles are in constant motion means
that two or more gases will always mix, as the particles from the individual gases move and collide with each other.
An ideal gas is a gas that exactly follows the statements of the kinetic theory. Unfortunately, real gases are not ideal. Many
gases deviate slightly from agreeing perfectly with the kinetic theory of gases. However, most gases adhere to the statements
so well that the kinetic theory of gases is well accepted by the scientific community.
The physical behavior of gases is explained by the kinetic theory of gases.
An ideal gas adheres exactly to the kinetic theory of gases.


11.3: Pressure- The Result of Constant Molecular Collisions
Learning Objectives
Define pressure.
Learn the units of pressure and how to convert between them.
The kinetic theory of gases indicates that gas particles are always in motion and are colliding with other particles and the walls
of the container holding them. Although collisions with container walls are elastic (i.e., there is no net energy gain or loss
because of the collision), a gas particle does exert a force on the wall during the collision. The accumulation of all these forces
distributed over the area of the walls of the container causes something we call pressure. Pressure (P) is defined as the force of
all the gas particle/wall collisions divided by the area of the wall:
f orce
pressure = (11.3.1)
area
All gases exert pressure; it is one of the fundamental measurable quantities of this phase of matter. Even our atmosphere exerts
pressure—in this case, the gas is being “held in” by the earth’s gravity, rather than the gas being in a container. The pressure of
the atmosphere is about 14.7 pounds of force for every square inch of surface area: 14.7 lb/in2.
Pressure has a variety of units. The formal, SI-approved unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is defined as 1 N/m2 (one
newton of force over an area of one square meter). However, this is usually too small in magnitude to be useful. A common
unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm), which was originally defined as the average atmospheric pressure at sea level.
However, “average atmospheric pressure at sea level” is difficult to pinpoint because of atmospheric pressure variations. A
more reliable and common unit is millimeters of mercury (mmHg), which is the amount of pressure exerted by a column of
mercury exactly 1 mm high. An equivalent unit is the torr, which equals 1 mmHg. (The torr is named after Evangelista
Torricelli, a seventeenth-century Italian scientist who invented the mercury barometer.) With these definitions of pressure, the
atmosphere unit is redefined: 1 atm is defined as exactly 760 mmHg, or 760 torr. We thus have the following equivalences:
1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr
We can use these equivalences as with any equivalences—to perform conversions from one unit to another. Relating these to
the formal SI unit of pressure, 1 atm = 101,325 Pa.
Example 11.3.1 : Pressure Conversion

Example 11.3.1
How many atmospheres are there in 595 torr
Identify the "given” information and what the problem is asking you Given: 595 torr
to "find." Find: ?atm
List other known quantities. 1 atm = 760 torr
Prepare a concept map.
1 atm
Cancel units and calculate. 595 torr ×
760 torr
= 0.783 atm
595 torr is less than 760 torr so the final answer should be less than 1
atm
Exercise 11.3.1
How many atmospheres are there in 1,022 torr?

Answer
1.345 atm
Example 11.3.2 : Mars

Example 11.3.2
The atmosphere on Mars is largely CO2 at a pressure of 6.01 mmHg.
What is this pressure in atmospheres?
Identify the "given” information and what the problem is asking you Given: 6.01mmHg
to "find." Find: ?atm
List other known quantities. 1 atm = 760 mmHg
Prepare a concept map.
1 atm −3
Cancel units and calculate. 6.01 mmHg ×
760 mmH g
= 0.00791 atm = 7.91 × 10 atm
6.01 is a very small number relative to 760 mmHg just like the value
in atmospheres.
Exercise 11.3.2
Atmospheric pressure is low in the eye of a hurricane. In a 1979 hurricane in the Pacific Ocean, a pressure of 0.859 atm
was reported inside the eye. What is this pressure in torr?
Answer
652 torr
Summary
Pressure is a force exerted over an area.
Pressure has several common units that can be converted.


11.4: Boyle’s Law- Pressure and Volume
Learning Objectives
Learn what is meant by the term gas laws.
Learn and apply Boyle’s law.
When seventeenth-century scientists began studying the physical properties of gases, they noticed some simple relationships
between some of the measurable properties of the gas. Take pressure (P) and volume (V), for example. Scientists noted that for
a given amount of a gas (usually expressed in units of moles [n]), if the temperature (T) of the gas was kept constant, pressure
and volume were related: As one increases, the other decreases. As one decreases, the other increases. We say that pressure
and volume are inversely related.
There is more to it, however: pressure and volume of a given amount of gas at constant temperature are numerically related. If
you take the pressure value and multiply it by the volume value, the product is a constant for a given amount of gas at a
constant temperature:
P × V = constant at constant n and T (11.4.1)
If either volume or pressure changes while amount and temperature stay the same, then the other property must change so that
the product of the two properties still equals that same constant. That is, if the original conditions are labeled P and V and1 1
the new conditions are labeled P and V , we have

2 2
P1 V1 = constant = P2 V2 (11.4.2)
where the properties are assumed to be multiplied together. Leaving out the middle part, we have simply
P1 V1 = P2 V2 at constant n and T (11.4.3)
This equation is an example of a gas law. A gas law is a simple mathematical formula that allows you to model, or predict, the
behavior of a gas. This particular gas law ia called Boyle's law, after the English scientist Robert Boyle, who first announced it
in 1662. Figure 11.4.1 shows two representations of how Boyle’s law works.
Figure 11.4.1 : Boyle’s Law. A piston having a certain pressure and volume (left piston) will have half the volume when its
pressure is twice as much (right piston). One can also plot P versus V for a given amount of gas at a certain temperature; such
a plot will look like the graph on the right.
Boyle’s law is an example of a second type of mathematical problem we see in chemistry—one based on a mathematical
formula. Tactics for working with mathematical formulas are different from tactics for working with conversion factors. First,
most of the questions you will have to answer using formulas are word-type questions, so the first step is to identify what
quantities are known and assign them to variables. Second, in most formulas, some mathematical rearrangements (i.e., algebra)
must be performed to solve for an unknown variable. The rule is that to find the value of the unknown variable, you must
mathematically isolate the unknown variable by itself and in the numerator of one side of the equation. Finally, units must be
consistent. For example, in Boyle’s law there are two pressure variables; they must have the same unit. There are also two
volume variables; they also must have the same unit. In most cases, it won’t matter what the unit is, but the unit must be the
same on both sides of the equation.
Example 11.4.1
A sample of gas has an initial pressure of 2.44 atm and an initial volume of 4.01 L. Its pressure changes to 1.93 atm.
What is the new volume if temperature and amount are kept constant?
SOLUTION
Given: P1 = 2.44 atm and V1 = 4.01 L

P2 = 1.93 atm
to "find."
Find: V2 = ? L
List other known quantities. none
First, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V .
2
Plan the problem. P1 × V1

V2 = (11.4.4)
P2
Now substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.
Cancel units and calculate. 2.44 atm × 4.01 L

V2 = = 5.07 L (11.4.5)
1.93 atm
We know that pressure and volume are inversely related; as one

decreases, the other increases. Pressure is decreasing (from 2.44 atm
Think about your result. to 1.93 atm), so volume should be increasing to compensate, and it is
(from 4.01 L to 5.07 L). So the answer makes sense based on Boyle’s
law.
Exercise 11.4.1
If P1 = 334 torr, V1 = 37.8 mL, and P2 = 102 torr, what is V2?
Answer
124 mL
As mentioned, you can use any units for pressure or volume, but both pressures must be expressed in the same units, and both
volumes must be expressed in the same units.
Example 11.4.2 :
A sample of gas has an initial pressure of 722 torr and an initial volume of 88.8 mL. Its volume changes to 0.663 L. What
is the new pressure?
SOLUTION
Given: P1 = 722 torr and V1 = 88.8 mL

V2 = 0.633 L
to "find."
Find: P2 = ? torr
List other known quantities. 1 L = 1000 mL to have the same units for volume.

1. Perform the conversion of the second volume unit from L to mL.

2. Rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for P .
2
Plan the problem.

P1 × V1
P2 = (11.4.6)
V2
1.
1000 ml
0.663 L × = 663 ml (11.4.7)
1 L
Cancel units and calculate. 2. Substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.
722 torr × 88.8 mL

P2 = = 96.7 torr (11.4.8)
663 mL
When the volume increased, the pressure decreased, which is as

expected for Boyle’s law.
Exercise 11.4.2
If V1 = 456 mL, P1 = 308 torr, and P2 = 1.55 atm, what is V2?
Answer
119 mL
Summary
The behavior of gases can be modeled with gas laws.
Boyle’s law relates a gas’s pressure and volume at constant temperature and amount.


11.5: Charles’s Law- Volume and Temperature
Learning Objectives
Learn and apply Charles's Law
Everybody enjoys the smell and taste of freshly-baked bread. It is light and fluffy as a result of the action of yeast on sugar.
The yeast converts the sugar to carbon dioxide, which at high temperatures causes the dough to expand. The end-result is an
enjoyable treat, especially when covered with melted butter.
Charles's Law
French physicist Jacques Charles (1746 - 1823) studied the effect of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure.
Charles's Law states that the volume of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas when
pressure is kept constant. The absolute temperature is temperature measured with the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin scale must be
used because zero on the Kelvin scale corresponds to a complete stoppage of molecular motion.
Figure 11.5.1 : As a container of confined gas is heated, its molecules increase in kinetic energy and push the movable piston
outward, resulting in an increase in volume.
Mathematically, the direct relationship of Charles's Law can be represented by the following equation:
V
=k (11.5.1)
T
As with Boyle's Law, k is constant only for a given gas sample. The table below shows temperature and volume data for a set
amount of gas at a constant pressure. The third column is the constant for this particular data set and is always equal to the
volume divided by the Kelvin temperature.
Table 11.5.1 : Temperature-Volume Data
Temperature (K) Volume (mL) V
T
= k (
mL
K
)
50 20 0.40
100 40 0.40
150 60 0.40
200 80 0.40
300 120 0.40
500 200 0.40
1000 400 0.40
When this data is graphed, the result is a straight line, indicative of a direct relationship, shown in the figure below.

Figure 11.5.2 :The volume of a gas increases as the Kelvin temperature increases.
Notice that the line goes exactly toward the origin, meaning that as the absolute temperature of the gas approaches zero, its
volume approaches zero. However, when a gas is brought to extremely cold temperatures, its molecules would eventually
condense into the liquid state before reaching absolute zero. The temperature at which this change into the liquid state occurs
varies for different gases.
Charles's Law can also be used to compare changing conditions for a gas. Now we use V and T to stand for the initial
1 1
volume and temperature of a gas, while V and T stand for the final volume and temperature. The mathematical relationship
2 2
of Charles's Law becomes:

V1 V2
= (11.5.2)
T1 T2
This equation can be used to calculate any one of the four quantities if the other three are known. The direct relationship will
only hold if the temperatures are expressed in Kelvin. Temperatures in Celsius will not work. Recall the relationship that
C + 273 .
o
K=
Example 11.5.1 :
A balloon is filled to a volume of 2.20 L at a temperature of 22 o
C . The balloon is then heated to a temperature of 71 o
C .
Find the new volume of the balloon.
SOLUTION
Given:
V1 = 2.20 L and
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you o
T1 = 22 C = 295 K
to "find."
o
T2 = 71 C = 344 K
Find: V2 = ? L
List other known quantities. The temperatures have first been converted to Kelvin.
First, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V . 2
Plan the problem. V1 × T2

V2 = (11.5.3)
T1
Cancel units and calculate. 2.20 L × 344 K

V2 = = 2.57 L (11.5.4)
295 K
The volume increases as the temperature increases. The result has


Exercise 11.5.1
If V1 = 3.77 L and T1 = 255 K, what is V2 if T2 = 123 K?
Answer
1.82 L
Example 11.5.2 :
A sample of a gas has an initial volume of 34.8 L and an initial temperature of −67°C. What must be the temperature of
the gas for its volume to be 25.0 L?
SOLUTION
Given:
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given:T1 = -27oC and V1 = 34.8 L
to "find." V2 = 25.0 L
Find: T2 = ? K
List other known quantities. K = -27oC + 273
1. Convert the initial temperature to Kelvin
2. Rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for T .2
Plan the problem.

V2 × T1
T2 = (11.5.5)
V1
1. −67°C + 273 = 206 K

2. Substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.
25.0 L × 206 K
T2 = = 148 K (11.5.6)
34.8 L
This is also equal to −125°C. As temperature decreases, volume

decreases, which it does in this example.
Exercise 11.5.2
If V1 = 623 mL, T1 = 255°C, and V2 = 277 mL, what is T2?
Answer
235 K, or −38°C
Summary
Charles’s law relates a gas’s volume and temperature at constant pressure and amount.



11.6: Gay-Lussac's Law- Temperature and Pressure
Learning Objectives
Propane tanks are widely used with barbeque grills. But it's not fun to find out half-way through your grilling that you've run
out of gas. You can buy gauges that measure the pressure inside the tank to see how much is left. The gauge measures pressure
and will register a higher pressure on a hot day than it will on a cold day. So you need to take the air temperature into account
when you decide whether or not to refill the tank before your next cook-out.
Gay-Lussac's Law
When the temperature of a sample of gas in a rigid container is increased, the pressure of the gas increases as well. The
increase in kinetic energy results in the molecules of gas striking the walls of the container with more force, resulting in a
greater pressure. The French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778 - 1850) discovered the relationship between the pressure of a
gas and its absolute temperature. Gay-Lussac's Law states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the
absolute temperature of the gas, when the volume is kept constant. Gay-Lussac's Law is very similar to Charles's Law, with the
only difference being the type of container. Whereas the container in a Charles's Law experiment is flexible, it is rigid in a
Gay-Lussac's Law experiment.
Figure 11.6.1 : Joseph Gay-Lussac.

The mathematical expressions for Gay-Lussac's Law are likewise similar to those of Charles's Law:
P P1 P2
and = (11.6.1)
T T1 T2
A graph of pressure vs. temperature also illustrates a direct relationship. As a gas is cooled at constant volume its pressure
continually decreases until the gas condenses to a liquid.
Example 11.6.1
The gas in an aerosol can is under a pressure of 3.00 atm at a temperature of 25 C. It is dangerous to dispose of an
o
aerosol can by incineration. What would the pressure in the aerosol can be at a temperature of 845 C? o
SOLUTION
Given:
P1 = 3.00 atm
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you o

T1 = 25 C = 298 K
to "find."
o
T2 = 845 C = 1118 K
Find: P 2 =? atm
List other known quantities The temperatures have first been converted to Kelvin.

First, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for P .

2
Plan the problem P1 × T2

P2 = (11.6.2)
T1
Calculate 3.00 atm × 1118 K

P2 = = 11.3 atm (11.6.3)
298 K
The pressure increases dramatically due to large increase in

temperature.
Summary
Pressure and temperature at constant volume are directly proportional.


11.7: The Combined Gas Law- Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
Learning Objectives
Learn and apply the combined gas law.
One thing we notice about all the gas laws is that, collectively, volume and pressure are always in the numerator, and
temperature is always in the denominator. This suggests that we can propose a gas law that combines pressure, volume, and
temperature. This gas law is known as the combined gas law, and its mathematical form is
P1 V1 P2 V2
= at constant n (11.7.1)
T1 T2
This allows us to follow changes in all three major properties of a gas. Again, the usual warnings apply about how to solve for
an unknown algebraically (isolate it on one side of the equation in the numerator), units (they must be the same for the two
similar variables of each type), and units of temperature must be in Kelvin.
Example 11.7.1 :
A sample of gas at an initial volume of 8.33 L, an initial pressure of 1.82 atm, and an initial temperature of 286 K
simultaneously changes its temperature to 355 K and its volume to 5.72 L. What is the final pressure of the gas?
SOLUTION
Given:
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you V1 = 8.33 L, P1 = 1.82 atm, and T1 = 286 K
to "find." V2 = 5.72 L and T2 = 355 K
Find: P2 = ? atm
List other known quantities none
2
Plan the problem P1 V1 T2

P2 =
T1 V2
Calculate (1.82 atm)(8.33 L )(355 K )

P2 = = 3.22atm (11.7.2)
(286 K )(5.72 L )
Ultimately, the pressure increased, which would have been difficult

to predict because two properties of the gas were changing.
Exercise 11.7.1
If P1 = 662 torr, V1 = 46.7 mL, T1 = 266 K, P2 = 409 torr, and T2 = 371 K, what is V2?
Answer
105 mL
As with other gas laws, if you need to determine the value of a variable in the denominator of the combined gas law, you can
either cross-multiply all the terms or just take the reciprocal of the combined gas law. Remember, the variable you are solving
for must be in the numerator and all by itself on one side of the equation.
The combined gas law relates pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas.


11.8: Avogadro’s Law- Volume and Moles
A flat tire is not very useful. It does not cushion the rim of the wheel and creates a very uncomfortable ride. When air is added
to the tire, the pressure increases as more molecules of gas are forced into the rigid tire. How much air should be put into a tire
depends on the pressure rating for that tire. Too little pressure and the tire will not hold its shape. Too much pressure and the
tire could burst.
Avogadro's Law
You have learned about Avogadro's hypothesis: equal volumes of any gas at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules. It follows that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present in
the sample. Avogadro's Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles (or number of
particles) of gas when the temperature and pressure are held constant. The mathematical expression of Avogadro's Law is:
V = k×n (11.8.1)
or
V1 V2
= (11.8.2)
n1 n2
where n is the number of moles of gas and k is a constant. Avogadro's Law is in evidence whenever you blow up a balloon.
The volume of the balloon increases as you add moles of gas to the balloon by blowing it up.
If the container holding the gas is rigid rather than flexible, pressure can be substituted for volume in Avogadro's Law. Adding
gas to a rigid container makes the pressure increase.
Example 11.8.1
A balloon has been filled to a volume of 1.90 L with 0.0920 mol of helium gas. If 0.0210 mol of additional helium is
added to the balloon while the temperature and pressure are held constant, what is the new volume of the balloon?
SOLUTION
Given:
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you V1 = 1.90 L
to "find." n1 = 0.0920 mol
Find: V 2 =? L
Note that the final number of moles has to be calculated by adding

List other known quantities the original number of moles to the moles of added helium.
n2 = 0.0920 + 0.0210 = 0.1130 mol
First, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V .2
Plan the problem V1 × n2

V2 = (11.8.3)
n1
Calculate 1.90 L × 0.1130 mol

V2 = = 2.33 L (11.8.4)
0.0920 mol
Since a relatively small amount of additional helium was added to

the balloon, its volume increases slightly.

Exercise 11.8.1
A 12.8 L volume of gas contains .000498 moles of oxygen gas. At constant temperature and pressure, what volume does
.0000136 moles of the gas fill?
Answer
0.350 L
Summary
Calculations are shown for relationships between volume and number of moles of a gas.


11.9: The Ideal Gas Law- Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Moles
Learning Objectives
Explain the Ideal Gas Law
There are a number of chemical reactions that require ammonia. In order to carry out the reaction efficiently, we need to know
how much ammonia we have for stoichiometric purposes. Using gas laws, we can determine the number of moles present in the
tank if we know the volume, temperature, and pressure of the system.
Ideal Gas Law

The combined gas law shows that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to volume and directly proportional to
temperature. Avogadro's Law shows that volume or pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas. putting these
together leaves us with the following equation:
P1 × V1 P2 × V2
= (11.9.1)
T1 × n1 T2 × n2
(P ×V )
As with the other gas laws, we can also say that (T ×n)
is equal to a constant. The constant can be evaluated provided that the gas
being described is considered to be ideal.
The ideal gas law is a single equation which relates the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of an ideal gas. If
we substitute in the variable R for the constant, the equation becomes:
P ×V
=R (11.9.2)
T ×n
The ideal gas law is conveniently rearranged to look this way, with the multiplication sings omitted:
P V = nRT (11.9.3)
The variable R in the equation is called the ideal gas constant.
Evaluating the Ideal Gas Constant

The value of R , the ideal gas constant, depends on the units chosen for pressure, temperature, and volume in the ideal gas
equation. It is necessary to use Kelvin for the temperature and it is conventional to use the SI unit of liters for the volume.
However, pressure is commonly measured in one of three units: kPa , atm, or mm Hg. Therefore, R can have three different
values.
We will demonstrate how R is calculated when the pressure is measured in kPa . The volume of 1.00 mol of any gas at STP
(Standard temperature, 273.15 K and pressure, 1 atm)is measured to be 22.414 L. We can substitute 101.325 kPa for pressure,
22.414 L for volume, and 273.15 K for temperature into the ideal gas equation and solve for R .
PV
R =
nT
101.325 kPa × 22.414 L

=
1.000 mol × 273.15 K
= 8.314 kPa ⋅ L/K ⋅ mol
This is the value of R that is to be used in the ideal gas equation when the pressure is given in kPa . The table below shows a
summary of this and the other possible values of R . It is important to choose the correct value of R to use for a given problem.
Table 11.9.1 : Values of the Ideal Gas Constant
Unit of P Unit of V Unit of n Unit of T Value and Unit of R
kPa L mol K 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol
atm L mol K 0.08206 L ⋅ atm/K ⋅ mol
mm Hg L mol K 62.36 L ⋅ mm Hg/K ⋅ mol

Notice that the unit for R when the pressure is in kPa has been changed to J/K ⋅ mol. A kilopascal multiplied by a liter is equal
to the SI unit for energy, a joule (J).
Example 11.9.1 Oxygen Gas

What volume is occupied by 3.76 g of oxygen gas at a pressure of 88.4 kPa and a temperature of o
19 C ? Assume the
oxygen is ideal.
SOLUTION
Given:
P = 88.4 kPa
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to o
T = 19 C = 292 K
"find."
Mass O 2
= 3.76 g
Find: V = ? L
O = 32.00 g/mol
2
R = 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol
1. First, determine the number of moles of O2 from the given mass

and the molar mass.
Plan the problem 2. Then, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V
nRT
V =
P
1.
1 mol O
2
3.76 g × = 0.1175 mol O
2
32.00 g O
2
Calculate 2. Now substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.
0.1175 mol × 8.314 J/K ⋅ mol × 292 K

nRT
V = = = 3.23 L O
P
88.4 kPa
The number of moles of oxygen is far less than one mole, so the
volume should be fairly small compared to molar volume
(22.4 L/mol) since the pressure and temperature are reasonably close
to standard. The result has three significant figures because of the
values for T and P . Since a joule (J) = kPa ⋅ L, the units cancel out
correctly, leaving a volume in liters.
Example 11.9.2 : Argon Gas

A 4.22 mol sample of Ar has a pressure of 1.21 atm and a temperature of 34°C. What is its volume?
SOLUTION
Given:
n = 4.22 mol
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to
P = 1.21 atm
"find."
T = 34°C
Find: V = ? L

1. The first step is to convert temperature to kelvin.

2. Then, rearrange the equation algebraically to solve for V
Plan the problem
nRT
V =
P
1. 34 + 273 = 307 K
2. Now substitute the known quantities into the equation and solve.
Calculate
\[ \begin{align*} V=\frac{(4.22\, \cancel{mol})
(0.08205\frac{L.\cancel{atm}}{\cancel{mol.K}})(307\, \cancel{K)}}
{1.21\cancel{atm}} \\[4pt] &= 87.9 \,L \end{align*}\]
The number of moles of Ar is large so the expected volume should
also be large.
Exercise 11.9.1
A 0.0997 mol sample of O2 has a pressure of 0.692 atm and a temperature of 333 K. What is its volume?
Answer
3.94 L
Exercise 11.9.2
For a 0.00554 mol sample of H2, P = 23.44 torr and T = 557 K. What is its volume?
Answer
8.21 L
Summary
The ideal gas constant is calculated.
An example of calculations using the ideal gas law is shown.


11.10: Mixtures of Gases- Why Deep-Sea Divers Breathe a Mixture of
Helium and Oxygen
Learning Objectives
The atmosphere of Venus is markedly different from that of Earth. The gases in the Venusian atmosphere are 96.5% carbon
dioxide and 3% nitrogen. The atmospheric pressure on Venus is roughly 92 times that of Earth, so the amount of nitrogen on
Venus would contribute a pressure well over 2700 mm Hg. And there is no oxygen present, so we couldn't breathe there. Not
that would want to go to Venus - the surface temperature is usually over 460 C. o
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

Gas pressure results from collisions between gas particles and the inside walls of their container. If more gas is added to a rigid
container, the gas pressure increases. The identities of the two gases do not matter. John Dalton, the English chemist who
proposed the atomic theory, also studied mixtures of gases. He found that each gas in a mixture exerts a pressure
independently of every other gas in the mixture. For example, our atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen and 21%
oxygen, with smaller amounts of several other gases making up the rest. Since nitrogen makes up 78% of the gas particles in a
given sample of air, it exerts 78% of the pressure. If the overall atmospheric pressure is 1.00 atm, then the pressure of just the
nitrogen in the air is 0.78 atm. The pressure of the oxygen in the air is 0.21 atm.
The partial pressure of a gas is the contribution that gas makes to the total pressure when the gas is part of a mixture. The
partial pressure of nitrogen is represented by P . Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture
N2
of gases is equal to the sum of all of the partial pressures of the component gases. Dalton's law can be expressed with the
following equation:
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ⋯ (11.10.1)
The figure below shows two gases that are in separate, equal-sized containers at the same temperature and pressure. Each
exerts a different pressure, P and P , reflective of the number of particles in the container. On the right, the two gases are
1 2
combined into the same container, with no volume change. The total pressure of the gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
individual pressures. If P = 300 mm Hg and P = 500 mm Hg , then P
1 2 = 800 mm Hg.
total
Figure 11.10.1: Dalton's law says that the pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the partial pressures of the combining gases.
Collecting Gases over Water

You need to do a lab experiment where hydrogen gas is generated. In order to calculate the yield of gas, you have to know the
pressure inside the tube where the gas is collected. But how can you get a barometer in there? Very simple: you don't. All you

need is the atmospheric pressure in the room. As the gas pushes out the water, it is pushing against the atmosphere, so the
pressure inside is equal to the pressure outside.
Gas Collection by Water Displacement

Gases that are produced in laboratory experiments are often collected by a technique called water displacement (Figure
11.10.2). A bottle is filled with water and placed upside-down in a pan of water. The reaction flask is fitted with rubber tubing
which is then fed under the bottle of water. As the gas is produced in the reaction flask, it exits through the rubber tubing and
displaces the water in the bottle. When the bottle is full of the bas, it can be sealed with a lid.
Figure 11.10.2: A gas produced in a chemical reaction can be collected by water displacement.
Because the gas is collected over water, it is not pure but is mixed with vapor from the evaporation of the water. Dalton's law
can be used to calculate the amount of the desired gas by subtracting the contribution of the water vapor.
PTotal = Pg + PH O Pg is the pressure of the desired gas
2
(11.10.2)
Pg = PT otal − PH O
2
In order to solve a problem, it is necessary to know the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the reaction (see table
below). The sample problem illustrates the use of Dalton's law when a gas is collected over water.
Table 11.10.1: Vapor Pressure of Water (mm Hg) at Selected Temperatures ( o
C)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
4.58 6.54 9.21 12.79 17.54 23.76 31.82 42.18 55.32 71.88 92.51 118.04 149.38
Example 14.14.1
A certain experiment generates 2.58 L of hydrogen gas, which is collected over water. The temperature is 20 C
o
and the
atmospheric pressure is 98.60 kPa. Find the volume that the dry hydrogen would occupy at STP.
Solution
Known
VTotal = 2.58 L
o
T = 20 C = 293 K
PTotal = 98.60 kPa = 739.7 mm Hg
Unknown
VH2 at STP =? L
The atmospheric pressure is converted from kPa to mm Hg in order to match units with the table. The sum of the
pressures of the hydrogen and the water vapor is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The pressure of the hydrogen is found
by subtraction. Then, the volume of the gas at STP can be calculated by using the combined gas law.
Step 2: Solve.
PH2 = PTotal − PH2 O = 739, 7 mm Hg − 17.54 mm Hg = 722.2 mm Hg
Now the combined gas law is used, solving for V , the volume of hydrogen at STP.
2
P1 × V1 × T2 722.2 mm Hg × 2.58 L × 273 K

V2 = = = 2.28 L H
2
P2 × T1 760 mm Hg × 293 K

If the hydrogen gas were to be collected at STP and without the presence of the water vapor, its volume would be 2.28 L.
This is less than the actual collected volume because some of that is water vapor. The conversion using STP is useful for
stoichiometry purposes.
Summary
The total pressure in a system is equal to the sums of the partial pressures of the gases present.
The vapor pressure due to water in a sample can be corrected for in order to get the true value for the pressure of the gas.


11.11: Gases in Chemical Reactions

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
12: LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
In Chapter 6, we discussed the properties of gases. Here, we consider some properties of liquids and
solids. As a review, the Table below lists some general properties of the three phases of matter.
12.1: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MOLECULES

All substances experience dispersion forces between their particles. Substances that are polar
experience dipole-dipole interactions. Substances with covalent bonds between an H atom and N,
O, or F atoms experience hydrogen bonding. The preferred phase of a substance depends on the
strength of the intermolecular force and the energy of the particles.
12.2: PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

All liquids evaporate. If volume is limited, evaporation eventually reaches a dynamic equilibrium,
and a constant vapor pressure is maintained. All liquids experience surface tension, an imbalance of forces at the surface of the liquid.
All liquids experience capillary action, demonstrating either capillary rise or capillary depression in the presence of other substances.
Solids can be divided into amorphous solids and crystalline solids.
12.3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN ACTION- SURFACE TENSION AND VISCOSITY

The surface tension of a liquid is a measure of the elastic force in the liquid's surface. Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have
higher surface tensions than liquids with weaker forces.
12.4: EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to its vapor below the boiling temperature of the liquid. Condensation is the change of state
from a gas to a liquid. As the temperature increases, the rate of evaporation increases.
12.5: MELTING, FREEZING, AND SUBLIMATION

Phase changes can occur between any two phases of matter. All phase changes occur with a simultaneous change in energy. All phase
changes are isothermal.
12.6: TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES- DISPERSION, DIPOLE–DIPOLE, HYDROGEN BONDING, AND ION-
DIPOLE
Covalent bonds between atoms that are not identical will produce polar bonds. Molecules with polar bonds and non-symmetrical
shapes will have a dipole. Hydrogen bonding is a special interaction felt between molecules, which is a stronger interaction than
polar-polar attraction. Hydrogen bonding occurs between molecules in which a hydrogen atom is bonded to a very electronegative
fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom.
12.7: TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS- MOLECULAR, IONIC, AND ATOMIC

Crystalline substances can be described by the types of particles in them and the types of chemical bonding that takes place between
the particles. There are four types of crystals: (1) ionic, (2) metallic, (3) covalent network, and (4) molecular.
12.8: WATER- A REMARKABLE MOLECULE

Water has several properties that make it a unique substance among substances. It is an excellent solvent; it dissolves many other
substances and allows those substances to react when in solution. In fact, water is sometimes called the universal solvent because of
this ability. Water has unusually high melting and boiling points. Unlike most substances, the solid form of water is less dense than its
liquid form, which allows ice to float on water.
1 6/21/2020
12.1: Interactions between Molecules
In the winter, many people find the snow and ice beautiful. They enjoy getting out to ski or ice-skate. Others don't find that
time of year to be so much fun. When the snow melts, the roads get very sloppy and messy. Those people look forward to
spring when all the ice and snow are gone and the weather is warmer.
Melting Point
Solids are similar to liquids in that both are condensed states, with particles that are far closer together than those of a gas.
However, while liquids are fluid, solids are not. The particles of most solids are packed tightly together in an orderly
arrangement. The motion of individual atoms, ions, or molecules in a solid is restricted to vibrational motion about a fixed
point. Solids are almost completely incompressible and are the densest of the three states of matter.
As a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more rapidly as the solid absorbs kinetic energy. Eventually, the organization of the
particles within the solid structure begins to break down and the solid starts to melt. The melting point is the temperature at
which a solid changes into a liquid. At its melting point, the disruptive vibrations of the particles of the solid overcome the
attractive forces operating within the solid. As with boiling points, the melting point of a solid is dependent on the strength of
those attractive forces. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an ionic compound that consists of a multitude of strong ionic bonds.
Sodium chloride melts at 801 C. Ice (solid H O ) is a molecular compound whose molecules are held together by hydrogen
o
2
bonds. Though hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the intermolecular forces, the strength of hydrogen bonds is much less than
that of ionic bonds. The melting point of ice is 0 °C.
Figure 12.1.1 : Melting ice cubes illustrate the process of this phase transition. (Public Domain; Moussa).
The melting point of a solid is the same as the freezing point of the liquid. At that temperature, the solid and liquid states of the
substance are in equilibrium. For water, this equilibrium occurs at 0 C. o
H O (s) ⇌ H O (l) (12.1.1)

2 2
We tend to think of solids as those materials that are solid at room temperature. However, all materials have melting points of
some sort. Gases become solids at extremely low temperatures, and liquids will also become solid if the temperature is low
enough. The table below gives the melting points of some common materials.
Table 12.1.1 : Melting Points of Common Materials
Materials Melting Point (°C)
Hydrogen -259
Oxygen -219
Diethyl ether -116
Ethanol -114
Water 0
Pure silver 961

Materials Melting Point (°C)
Pure gold 1063

Iron 1538
Summary
The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid. Intermolecular forces have a strong influence on
melting point.


12.2: Properties of Liquids and Solids
Learning Objectives
To describe the solid and liquid phases.
Solids and liquids are collectively called condensed phases because their particles are in virtual contact. The two states share
little else, however.
Solids
In the solid state, the individual particles of a substance are in fixed positions with respect to each other because there is not
enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the particles. As a result, solids have a definite
shape and volume. Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be
quite brittle.
Figure 12.2.1 : Crystalline Arrangement of Quartz crystal cluster. Some large crystals look the way they do because of the
regular arrangement of atoms (ions) in their crystal structure. from Wikipedia.
Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and
negative ions called a crystal. The effect of this regular arrangement of particles is sometimes visible macroscopically, as
shown in Figure 12.2.1. Some solids, especially those composed of large molecules, cannot easily organize their particles in
such regular crystals and exist as amorphous (literally, “without form”) solids. Glass is one example of an amorphous solid.
Liquids
If the particles of a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can
move about each other while remaining in contact. This describes the liquid state. In a liquid, the particles are still in close
contact, so liquids have a definite volume. However, because the particles can move about each other rather freely, a liquid has
no definite shape and takes a shape dictated by its container.
Figure 12.2.2 : The formation of a spherical droplet of liquid water minimizes the surface area, which is the natural result of
surface tension in liquids. from Wikipedia.
Gases
If the particles of a substance have enough energy to completely overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can
separate from each other and move about randomly in space. Like liquids, gases have no definite shape, but unlike solids and
liquids, gases have no definite volume either.

Figure 12.2.3 : A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States. A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a
definite volume but no definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
The change from solid to liquid usually does not significantly change the volume of a substance. However, the change from a
liquid to a gas significantly increases the volume of a substance, by a factor of 1,000 or more. Figure 12.2.3 shows the
differences among solids, liquids, and gases at the molecular level, while Table 12.2.1 lists the different characteristics of these
states.
Table 12.2.1 : Characteristics of the Three States of Matter
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas
shape definite indefinite indefinite
volume definite definite indefinite
relative intermolecular interaction

strong moderate weak
strength
relative particle positions in contact and fixed in place in contact but not fixed not in contact, random positions
Example 12.2.1
What state or states of matter does each statement, describe?
a. This state has a definite volume.
b. This state has no definite shape.
c. This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact.
SOLUTION
a. This statement describes either the liquid state or the solid state.
b. This statement describes either the liquid state or the gas state.
c. This statement describes the liquid state.
Exercise 12.2.1
What state or states of matter does each statement describe?
a. This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other.
b. This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space.
c. This state has indefinite shape.
Answer a
solid
Answer b
gas
Answer c
liquid or gas

Looking Closer: Water, the Most Important Liquid
Earth is the only known body in our solar system that has liquid water existing freely on its surface. That is a good thing
because life on Earth would not be possible without the presence of liquid water.
Water has several properties that make it a unique substance among substances. It is an excellent solvent; it dissolves many
other substances and allows those substances to react when in solution. In fact, water is sometimes called the universal solvent
because of this ability. Water has unusually high melting and boiling points (0°C and 100°C, respectively) for such a small
molecule. The boiling points for similar-sized molecules, such as methane (BP = −162°C) and ammonia (BP = −33°C), are
more than 100° lower. Though a liquid at normal temperatures, water molecules experience a relatively strong intermolecular
interaction that allows them to maintain the liquid phase at higher temperatures than expected.
Unlike most substances, the solid form of water is less dense than its liquid form, which allows ice to float on water. In colder
weather, lakes and rivers freeze from the top, allowing animals and plants to continue to live underneath. Water also requires
an unusually large amount of energy to change temperature. While 100 J of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of Fe by
230°C, this same amount of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of H2O by only 100°C. Thus, water changes its
temperature slowly as heat is added or removed. This has a major impact on weather, as storm systems like hurricanes can be
impacted by the amount of heat that ocean water can store.
Water’s influence on the world around us is affected by these properties. Isn’t it fascinating that such a small molecule can
have such a big impact?
Key Takeaway
Solids and liquids are phases that have their own unique properties.


12.3: Intermolecular Forces in Action- Surface Tension and Viscosity
Learning Objectives
The next time you are by a still body of water, take a close look at what is scooting along on the surface. You may see insects
seemingly floating on top of the water. These creatures are known by a variety of names including water skaters, water
striders, pond skaters, and other equally descriptive names. They take advantage of a property called surface tension to stay
above the water and not sink. The force they exert downward is less than the forces exerted among the water molecules on the
surface of the pond, so the insect does not penetrate beneath the surface of the water.
Surface Tension
Molecules within a liquid are pulled equally in all directions by intermolecular forces. However, molecules at the surface are
pulled downwards and sideways by other liquid molecules, but not upwards away from the surface. The overall effect is that
the surface molecules are pulled into the liquid, creating a surface that is tightened like a film (Figure 12.3.1A). The surface
tension of a liquid is a measure of the elastic force in the liquid's surface. Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces, like
the hydrogen bonding in water, exhibit the greatest surface tension. Surface tension allows objects that are denser than water,
such as the paper clip shown in B in the figure below, to nonetheless float on its surface. It is also responsible for the beading
up of water droplets on a freshly waxed car because there are no attractions between the polar water molecules and the
nonpolar wax.
Figure 12.3.1 : (A) Molecules at the surface of a liquid are pulled downwards into the liquid, creating a tightened surface. (B)
Surface tension allows a paper clip to float on water's surface.
Other liquids, such as diethyl ether, do not demonstrate strong surface tension interactions. The intermolecular forces for the
ether are the relatively weak dipole-dipole interactions that do not draw the molecules together as tightly as hydrogen bonds
would.
Summary
The surface tension of a liquid is a measure of the elastic force in the liquid's surface.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have higher surface tensions than liquids with weaker forces.


12.4: Evaporation and Condensation
Learning Objectives
On the roof of the house in the picture below is a device known as a "swamp cooler". This piece of equipment traces its origin
back to the ancient Egyptians who hung wet blankets across the doors of their homes. As the warm air passed through the
blankets, water would evaporate and cool the air. The royalty went one step further and had servants fan wet cloths over jugs
of water to get more evaporation and cooling.
Figure 12.4.1 : A home with a swamp cooler attached to the roof.

The origin of the term "swamp cooler" is not known - they certainly don't work in a swamp. Best conditions for cooling
include a high temperature (over 80 F) and a low humidity (preferably less than 30%). These coolers work well in desert
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areas, but don't provide any cooling in the humid areas of the country.
Evaporation
A puddle of water left undisturbed eventually disappears. The liquid molecules escape into the gas phase, becoming water
vapor. Vaporization is the process in which a liquid is converted to a gas. Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to its
vapor below the boiling temperature of the liquid. If the water is instead kept in a closed container, the water vapor molecules
do not have a chance to escape into the surroundings and so the water level does not change. As some water molecules become
vapor, an equal number of water vapor molecules condense back into the liquid state. Condensation is the change of state
from a gas to a liquid.
Figure 12.4.2 : Evaporation (A) and condensation (B).

In order for a liquid molecule to escape into the gas state, the molecule must have enough kinetic energy to overcome the
intermolecular attractive forces in the liquid. Recall that a given liquid sample will have molecules with a wide range of
kinetic energies. Liquid molecules that have this certain threshold kinetic energy escape the surface and become vapor. As a
result, the liquid molecules that remain now have lower kinetic energy. As evaporation occurs, the temperature of the
remaining liquid decreases. You have observed the effects of evaporative cooling. On a hot day, the water molecules in your
perspiration absorb body heat and evaporate from the surface of your skin. The evaporating process leaves the remaining
perspiration cooler, which in turn absorbs more heat from your body.
A given liquid will evaporate more quickly when it is heated. This is because the heating process results in a greater fraction of
the liquid's molecules having the necessary kinetic energy to escape the surface of the liquid. The figure below shows the

kinetic energy distribution of liquid molecules at two temperatures. The numbers of molecules that have the required kinetic
energy to evaporate are shown in the shaded area under the curve at the right. The higher temperature liquid (T ) has more 2
molecules that are capable of escaping into the vapor phase than the lower temperature liquid (T ) . 1
Figure 12.4.3 : Kinetic energy distribution curves for a liquid at two temperatures T1 and T2 . The shaded area is the
molecules with enough kinetic energy to escape the liquid and become vapor.
At 29,029 feet (8848 m), Mount Everest in the Himalayan range on the border between China and Nepal is the highest point
on the earth. Its altitude presents many practical problems to climbers. The oxygen content of the air is much lower than at sea
level, making it necessary to bring oxygen tanks along (although a few climbers have reached the peak without oxygen). One
other problem is that of boiling water for cooking food. Although water boils at 100 C at sea level, the boiling point on top of
o
Mount Everest is only about 70 C. This difference makes it very difficult to get a decent cup of tea (which definitely
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frustrated some of the British climbers).
Boiling
As a liquid is heated, the average kinetic energy of its particles increases. The rate of evaporation increases as more and more
molecules are able to escape the liquid's surface into the vapor phase. Eventually a point is reached when the molecules all
throughout the liquid have enough kinetic energy to vaporize. At this point the liquid begins to boil. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure. The figure below illustrates the boiling of
liquid.
Figure 12.4.4 : Comparison between evaporation and boiling.

In the picture on the left, the liquid is below its boiling point, yet some of the liquid evaporates. On the right, the temperature
has been increased until bubbles begin to form in the body of the liquid. When the vapor pressure inside the bubble is equal to
the external atmospheric pressure, the bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid and burst. The temperature at which this process
occurs is the boiling point of the liquid.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to standard pressure. Because
atmospheric pressure can change based on location, the boiling point of a liquid changes with the external pressure. The
normal boiling point is a constant because it is defined relative to the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg (or 1 atm
or 101.3 kPa).

Figure 12.4.5 : Influence of altitude on the boiling point of water.
Summary
The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
As the altitude increases, the boiling point decreases.
Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to its vapor below the boiling temperature of the liquid.
Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
As the temperature increases, the rate of evaporation increases.


12.5: Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation
Learning Objectives
Define Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation
Depending on the surrounding conditions, normal matter usually exists as one of three phases: solid, liquid, or gas.
A phase change is a physical process in which a substance goes from one phase to another. Usually the change occurs when adding or
removing heat at a particular temperature, known as the melting point or the boiling point of the substance. The melting point is the
temperature at which the substance goes from a solid to a liquid (or from a liquid to a solid). The boiling point is the temperature at which
a substance goes from a liquid to a gas (or from a gas to a liquid). The nature of the phase change depends on the direction of the heat
transfer. Heat going into a substance changes it from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas. Removing heat from a substance changes a gas
to a liquid or a liquid to a solid.
Two key points are worth emphasizing. First, at a substance’s melting point or boiling point, two phases can exist simultaneously. Take
water (H2O) as an example. On the Celsius scale, H2O has a melting point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C. At 0°C, both the solid and
liquid phases of H2O can coexist. However, if heat is added, some of the solid H2O will melt and turn into liquid H2O. If heat is removed,
the opposite happens: some of the liquid H2O turns into solid H2O. A similar process can occur at 100°C: adding heat increases the amount
of gaseous H2O, while removing heat increases the amount of liquid H2O (Figure 12.5.1).
Figure 12.5.1 : The Boiling Point of Water. Nucleate boiling of water over a kitchen stove burner. from Wikipedia.
Water is a good substance to use as an example because many people are already familiar with it. Other substances have melting
points and boiling points as well.
Second, the temperature of a substance does not change as the substance goes from one phase to another. In other words, phase changes are
isothermal (isothermal means “constant temperature”). Again, consider H2O as an example. Solid water (ice) can exist at 0°C. If heat is
added to ice at 0°C, some of the solid changes phase to make liquid, which is also at 0°C. Remember, the solid and liquid phases of H2O
can coexist at 0°C. Only after all of the solid has melted into liquid does the addition of heat change the temperature of the substance.
For each phase change of a substance, there is a characteristic quantity of heat needed to perform the phase change per gram (or per mole)
of material. The heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the amount of heat per gram (or per mole) required for a phase change that occurs at the melting
point. The heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the amount of heat per gram (or per mole) required for a phase change that occurs at the boiling
point. If you know the total number of grams or moles of material, you can use the ΔHfus or the ΔHvap to determine the total heat being
transferred for melting or solidification using these expressions:
heat = n × ΔHf us (12.5.1)
where n is the number of moles and ΔH f us is expressed in energy/mole or

heat = m × ΔHf us (12.5.2)
where m is the mass in grams and ΔH f us is expressed in energy/gram.

For the boiling or condensation, use these expressions:
heat = n × ΔHvap (12.5.3)
where n is the number of moles) and ΔH vap is expressed in energy/mole or

heat = m × ΔHvap (12.5.4)
where m is the mass in grams and ΔH vap is expressed in energy/gram.

Remember that a phase change depends on the direction of the heat transfer. If heat transfers in, solids become liquids, and liquids become
solids at the melting and boiling points, respectively. If heat transfers out, liquids solidify, and gases condense into liquids.
Example 12.5.1
How much heat is necessary to melt 55.8 g of ice (solid H2O) at 0°C? The heat of fusion of H2O is 79.9 cal/g.
SOLUTION
We can use the relationship between heat and the heat of fusion (Eq. 12.5.1b) to determine how many joules of heat are needed to melt
this ice:
\begin{align*} \text{heat} &= m \times ΔH_{fus} \\[4pt] & = (55.8\: \cancel{g})\left(\dfrac{79.9\: cal}{\cancel{g}}\right)=4,460\: cal} \end{align*}
Exercise 12.5.1
How much heat is necessary to vaporize 685 g of H2O at 100°C? The heat of vaporization of H2O is 540 cal/g.
Table 12.5.1 lists the heats of fusion and vaporization for some common substances. Note the units on these quantities; when you use these
values in problem solving, make sure that the other variables in your calculation are expressed in units consistent with the units in the
specific heats or the heats of fusion and vaporization.
Table 12.5.1 : Heats of Fusion and Vaporization for Selected Substances
Substance ΔHfus (cal/g) ΔHvap (cal/g)
aluminum (Al) 94.0 2,602
gold (Au) 15.3 409
iron (Fe) 63.2 1,504
water (H2O) 79.9 540
sodium chloride (NaCl) 123.5 691
ethanol (C2H5OH) 45.2 200.3
benzene (C6H6) 30.4 94.1
Looking Closer: Sublimation

There is also a phase change where a solid goes directly to a gas:
solid→ gas (12.5.5)
This phase change is called sublimation. Each substance has a characteristic heat of sublimation associated with this process. For example,
the heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) of H2O is 620 cal/g.
We encounter sublimation in several ways. You may already be familiar with dry ice, which is simply solid carbon dioxide (CO2). At
−78.5°C (−109°F), solid carbon dioxide sublimes, changing directly from the solid phase to the gas phase:
∘
−78.5 C
C O2 (s) −−−−−→ C O2 (g) (12.5.6)
Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice because it does not pass through the liquid phase. Instead, it does directly to the gas phase. (Carbon
dioxide can exist as liquid but only under high pressure.) Dry ice has many practical uses, including the long-term preservation of medical
samples.
Even at temperatures below 0°C, solid H2O will slowly sublime. For example, a thin layer of snow or frost on the ground may slowly
disappear as the solid H2O sublimes, even though the outside temperature may be below the freezing point of water. Similarly, ice cubes in
a freezer may get smaller over time. Although frozen, the solid water slowly sublimes, redepositing on the colder cooling elements of the
freezer, which necessitates periodic defrosting (frost-free freezers minimize this redeposition). Lowering the temperature in a freezer will
reduce the need to defrost as often.
Under similar circumstances, water will also sublime from frozen foods (e.g., meats or vegetables), giving them an unattractive, mottled
appearance called freezer burn. It is not really a “burn,” and the food has not necessarily gone bad, although it looks unappetizing. Freezer

burn can be minimized by lowering a freezer’s temperature and by wrapping foods tightly so water does not have any space to sublime
into.
Melting Point
Solids are similar to liquids in that both are condensed states, with particles that are far closer together than those of a gas. However, while
liquids are fluid, solids are not. The particles of most solids are packed tightly together in an orderly arrangement. The motion of individual
atoms, ions, or molecules in a solid is restricted to vibrational motion about a fixed point. Solids are almost completely incompressible
and are the densest of the three states of matter.
As a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more rapidly as the solid absorbs kinetic energy. Eventually, the organization of the particles
within the solid structure begins to break down and the solid starts to melt. The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes
into a liquid. At its melting point, the disruptive vibrations of the particles of the solid overcome the attractive forces operating within the
solid. As with boiling points, the melting point of a solid is dependent on the strength of those attractive forces. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is
an ionic compound that consists of a multitude of strong ionic bonds. Sodium chloride melts at 801 C. Ice (solid H O ) is a molecular
o
compound whose molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. Though hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the intermolecular forces,
the strength of hydrogen bonds is much less than that of ionic bonds. The melting point of ice is 0 C.
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The melting point of a solid is the same as the freezing point of the liquid. At that temperature, the solid and liquid states of the substance
are in equilibrium. For water, this equilibrium occurs at 0 C.
o
H O (s) ⇌ H O (l) (12.5.7)

2 2
We tend to think of solids as those materials that are solid at room temperature. However, all materials have melting points of some sort.
Gases become solids at extremely low temperatures, and liquids will also become solid if the temperature is low enough. The table below
gives the melting points of some common materials.
Table 12.5.2: Melting Points of Common Materials
Materials Melting Point (ºC)
Hydrogen -259
Oxygen -219
Diethyl ether -116
Ethanol -114
Water 0
Pure silver 961
Pure gold 1063
Iron 1538
Exercise 12.5.2
a. Explain what happens when heat flows into or out of a substance at its melting point or boiling point.
b. How does the amount of heat required for a phase change relate to the mass of the substance?
Answer a
The energy goes into changing the phase, not the temperature.
Answer b
The amount of heat is a constant per gram of substance.
Key Takeaway
There is an energy change associated with any phase change.

Summary
Sublimation is the change of state from a solid to a gas without passing through the liquid state.
Deposition is the change of state from a gas to a solid.
Carbon dioxide is an example of a material that easily undergoes sublimation.
The melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid.
Intermolecular forces have a strong influence on melting point.


12.6: Types of Intermolecular Forces- Dispersion, Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen
Bonding, and Ion-Dipole
Learning Objectives
To describe the intermolecular forces in liquids.
The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids, but are more similar to solids. In contrast to
intramolecular forces, such as the covalent bonds that hold atoms together in molecules and polyatomic ions, intermolecular
forces hold molecules together in a liquid or solid. Intermolecular forces are generally much weaker than covalent bonds. For
example, it requires 927 kJ to overcome the intramolecular forces and break both O–H bonds in 1 mol of water, but it takes
only about 41 kJ to overcome the intermolecular attractions and convert 1 mol of liquid water to water vapor at 100°C.
(Despite this seemingly low value, the intermolecular forces in liquid water are among the strongest such forces known!)
Given the large difference in the strengths of intra- and intermolecular forces, changes between the solid, liquid, and gaseous
states almost invariably occur for molecular substances without breaking covalent bonds.
The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids but are
more similar to solids.
Intermolecular forces determine bulk properties such as the melting points of solids and the boiling points of liquids. Liquids
boil when the molecules have enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular attractive forces that hold them together,
thereby forming bubbles of vapor within the liquid. Similarly, solids melt when the molecules acquire enough thermal energy
to overcome the intermolecular forces that lock them into place in the solid.
Intermolecular forces are electrostatic in nature; that is, they arise from the interaction between positively and negatively
charged species. Like covalent and ionic bonds, intermolecular interactions are the sum of both attractive and repulsive
components. Because electrostatic interactions fall off rapidly with increasing distance between molecules, intermolecular
interactions are most important for solids and liquids, where the molecules are close together. These interactions become
important for gases only at very high pressures, where they are responsible for the observed deviations from the ideal gas law
at high pressures. (For more information on the behavior of real gases and deviations from the ideal gas law,.)
In this section, we explicitly consider three kinds of intermolecular interactions: There are two additional types of electrostatic
interaction that you are already familiar with: the ion–ion interactions that are responsible for ionic bonding and the ion–dipole
interactions that occur when ionic substances dissolve in a polar substance such as water. The first two are often described
collectively as van der Waals forces.
Dipole–Dipole Interactions
Polar covalent bonds behave as if the bonded atoms have localized fractional charges that are equal but opposite (i.e., the two
bonded atoms generate a dipole). If the structure of a molecule is such that the individual bond dipoles do not cancel one
another, then the molecule has a net dipole moment. Molecules with net dipole moments tend to align themselves so that the
positive end of one dipole is near the negative end of another and vice versa, as shown in Figure 12.6.1a.

Figure 12.6.1 : Attractive and Repulsive Dipole–Dipole Interactions. (a and b) Molecular orientations in which the positive
end of one dipole (δ+) is near the negative end of another (δ−) (and vice versa) produce attractive interactions. (c and d)
Molecular orientations that juxtapose the positive or negative ends of the dipoles on adjacent molecules produce repulsive
interactions.
These arrangements are more stable than arrangements in which two positive or two negative ends are adjacent (Figure
12.6.1c). Hence dipole–dipole interactions, such as those in Figure 12.6.1b, are attractive intermolecular interactions,
whereas those in Figure 12.6.1d are repulsive intermolecular interactions. Because molecules in a liquid move freely and
continuously, molecules always experience both attractive and repulsive dipole–dipole interactions simultaneously, as shown
in Figure 12.6.2. On average, however, the attractive interactions dominate.
Figure 12.6.2 : Both Attractive and Repulsive Dipole–Dipole Interactions Occur in a Liquid Sample with Many Molecules
Because each end of a dipole possesses only a fraction of the charge of an electron, dipole–dipole interactions are substantially
weaker than the interactions between two ions, each of which has a charge of at least ±1, or between a dipole and an ion, in
which one of the species has at least a full positive or negative charge. In addition, the attractive interaction between dipoles
falls off much more rapidly with increasing distance than do the ion–ion interactions. Recall that the attractive energy between
two ions is proportional to 1/r, where r is the distance between the ions. Doubling the distance (r → 2r) decreases the
attractive energy by one-half. In contrast, the energy of the interaction of two dipoles is proportional to 1/r3, so doubling the
distance between the dipoles decreases the strength of the interaction by 23, or 8-fold. Thus a substance such as HCl, which is
partially held together by dipole–dipole interactions, is a gas at room temperature and 1 atm pressure, whereas NaCl, which is
held together by interionic interactions, is a high-melting-point solid. Within a series of compounds of similar molar mass, the
strength of the intermolecular interactions increases as the dipole moment of the molecules increases, as shown in Table
12.6.1.
Table 12.6.1 : Relationships between the Dipole Moment and the Boiling Point for Organic Compounds of Similar Molar Mass
Compound Molar Mass (g/mol) Dipole Moment (D) Boiling Point (K)

Compound Molar Mass (g/mol) Dipole Moment (D) Boiling Point (K)
C3H6 (cyclopropane) 42 0 240
CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) 46 1.30 248

CH3CN (acetonitrile) 41 3.9 355
The attractive energy between two ions is proportional to 1/r, whereas the attractive
energy between two dipoles is proportional to 1/r6.
Example 12.6.1
Arrange ethyl methyl ether (CH3OCH2CH3), 2-methylpropane [isobutane, (CH3)2CHCH3], and acetone (CH3COCH3) in
order of increasing boiling points. Their structures are as follows:
Given: compounds
Asked for: order of increasing boiling points
Strategy:
Compare the molar masses and the polarities of the compounds. Compounds with higher molar masses and that are polar
will have the highest boiling points.
Solution:
The three compounds have essentially the same molar mass (58–60 g/mol), so we must look at differences in polarity to
predict the strength of the intermolecular dipole–dipole interactions and thus the boiling points of the compounds.
The first compound, 2-methylpropane, contains only C–H bonds, which are not very polar because C and H have similar
electronegativities. It should therefore have a very small (but nonzero) dipole moment and a very low boiling point.
Ethyl methyl ether has a structure similar to H2O; it contains two polar C–O single bonds oriented at about a 109° angle to
each other, in addition to relatively nonpolar C–H bonds. As a result, the C–O bond dipoles partially reinforce one another
and generate a significant dipole moment that should give a moderately high boiling point.
Acetone contains a polar C=O double bond oriented at about 120° to two methyl groups with nonpolar C–H bonds. The
C–O bond dipole therefore corresponds to the molecular dipole, which should result in both a rather large dipole moment
and a high boiling point.
Thus we predict the following order of boiling points:
2-methylpropane < ethyl methyl ether < acetone.
This result is in good agreement with the actual data: 2-methylpropane, boiling point = −11.7°C, and the dipole moment
(μ) = 0.13 D; methyl ethyl ether, boiling point = 7.4°C and μ = 1.17 D; acetone, boiling point = 56.1°C and μ = 2.88 D.
Exercise 12.6.1

Arrange carbon tetrafluoride (CF4), ethyl methyl sulfide (CH3SC2H5), dimethyl sulfoxide [(CH3)2S=O], and 2-
methylbutane [isopentane, (CH3)2CHCH2CH3] in order of decreasing boiling points.
Answer
dimethyl sulfoxide (boiling point = 189.9°C) > ethyl methyl sulfide (boiling point = 67°C) > 2-methylbutane (boiling
point = 27.8°C) > carbon tetrafluoride (boiling point = −128°C)
London Dispersion Forces

Thus far we have considered only interactions between polar molecules, but other factors must be considered to explain why
many nonpolar molecules, such as bromine, benzene, and hexane, are liquids at room temperature, and others, such as iodine
and naphthalene, are solids. Even the noble gases can be liquefied or solidified at low temperatures, high pressures, or both
(Table 12.6.2).
What kind of attractive forces can exist between nonpolar molecules or atoms? This question was answered by Fritz London
(1900–1954), a German physicist who later worked in the United States. In 1930, London proposed that temporary
fluctuations in the electron distributions within atoms and nonpolar molecules could result in the formation of short-lived
instantaneous dipole moments, which produce attractive forces called London dispersion forces between otherwise nonpolar
substances.
Table 12.6.2 : Normal Melting and Boiling Points of Some Elements and Nonpolar Compounds
Substance Molar Mass (g/mol) Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
Ar 40 −189.4 −185.9
Xe 131 −111.8 −108.1

N2 28 −210 −195.8
O2 32 −218.8 −183.0
F2 38 −219.7 −188.1
I2 254 113.7 184.4
CH4 16 −182.5 −161.5
Consider a pair of adjacent He atoms, for example. On average, the two electrons in each He atom are uniformly distributed
around the nucleus. Because the electrons are in constant motion, however, their distribution in one atom is likely to be
asymmetrical at any given instant, resulting in an instantaneous dipole moment. As shown in part (a) in Figure 12.6.3, the
instantaneous dipole moment on one atom can interact with the electrons in an adjacent atom, pulling them toward the positive
end of the instantaneous dipole or repelling them from the negative end. The net effect is that the first atom causes the
temporary formation of a dipole, called an induced dipole, in the second. Interactions between these temporary dipoles cause
atoms to be attracted to one another. These attractive interactions are weak and fall off rapidly with increasing distance.
London was able to show with quantum mechanics that the attractive energy between molecules due to temporary dipole–
induced dipole interactions falls off as 1/r6. Doubling the distance therefore decreases the attractive energy by 26, or 64-fold.

Figure 12.6.3 : Instantaneous Dipole Moments. The formation of an instantaneous dipole moment on one He atom (a) or an
H2 molecule (b) results in the formation of an induced dipole on an adjacent atom or molecule.
Instantaneous dipole–induced dipole interactions between nonpolar molecules can produce intermolecular attractions just as
they produce interatomic attractions in monatomic substances like Xe. This effect, illustrated for two H2 molecules in part (b)
in Figure 12.6.3, tends to become more pronounced as atomic and molecular masses increase (Table 12.6.2). For example, Xe
boils at −108.1°C, whereas He boils at −269°C. The reason for this trend is that the strength of London dispersion forces is
related to the ease with which the electron distribution in a given atom can be perturbed. In small atoms such as He, the two 1s
electrons are held close to the nucleus in a very small volume, and electron–electron repulsions are strong enough to prevent
significant asymmetry in their distribution. In larger atoms such as Xe, however, the outer electrons are much less strongly
attracted to the nucleus because of filled intervening shells. As a result, it is relatively easy to temporarily deform the electron
distribution to generate an instantaneous or induced dipole. The ease of deformation of the electron distribution in an atom or
molecule is called its polarizability. Because the electron distribution is more easily perturbed in large, heavy species than in
small, light species, we say that heavier substances tend to be much more polarizable than lighter ones.
For similar substances, London dispersion forces get stronger with increasing
molecular size.
The polarizability of a substance also determines how it interacts with ions and species that possess permanent dipoles. Thus
London dispersion forces are responsible for the general trend toward higher boiling points with increased molecular mass and
greater surface area in a homologous series of compounds, such as the alkanes (part (a) in Figure 12.6.4). The strengths of
London dispersion forces also depend significantly on molecular shape because shape determines how much of one molecule
can interact with its neighboring molecules at any given time. For example, part (b) in Figure 12.6.4 shows 2,2-
dimethylpropane (neopentane) and n-pentane, both of which have the empirical formula C5H12. Neopentane is almost
spherical, with a small surface area for intermolecular interactions, whereas n-pentane has an extended conformation that
enables it to come into close contact with other n-pentane molecules. As a result, the boiling point of neopentane (9.5°C) is
more than 25°C lower than the boiling point of n-pentane (36.1°C).

Figure 12.6.4 : Mass and Surface Area Affect the Strength of London Dispersion Forces. (a) In this series of four simple
alkanes, larger molecules have stronger London forces between them than smaller molecules and consequently higher boiling
points. (b) Linear n-pentane molecules have a larger surface area and stronger intermolecular forces than spherical
neopentane molecules. As a result, neopentane is a gas at room temperature, whereas n-pentane is a volatile liquid.
All molecules, whether polar or nonpolar, are attracted to one another by London dispersion forces in addition to any other
attractive forces that may be present. In general, however, dipole–dipole interactions in small polar molecules are significantly
stronger than London dispersion forces, so the former predominate.
Example 12.6.2
Arrange n-butane, propane, 2-methylpropane [isobutene, (CH3)2CHCH3], and n-pentane in order of increasing boiling
points.
Given: compounds
Strategy:
Determine the intermolecular forces in the compounds and then arrange the compounds according to the strength of those
forces. The substance with the weakest forces will have the lowest boiling point.
Solution:
The four compounds are alkanes and nonpolar, so London dispersion forces are the only important intermolecular forces.
These forces are generally stronger with increasing molecular mass, so propane should have the lowest boiling point and
n-pentane should have the highest, with the two butane isomers falling in between. Of the two butane isomers, 2-
methylpropane is more compact, and n-butane has the more extended shape. Consequently, we expect intermolecular
interactions for n-butane to be stronger due to its larger surface area, resulting in a higher boiling point. The overall order
is thus as follows, with actual boiling points in parentheses: propane (−42.1°C) < 2-methylpropane (−11.7°C) < n-butane
(−0.5°C) < n-pentane (36.1°C).
Exercise 12.6.2
Arrange GeH4, SiCl4, SiH4, CH4, and GeCl4 in order of decreasing boiling points.
Answer
GeCl4 (87°C) > SiCl4 (57.6°C) > GeH4 (−88.5°C) > SiH4 (−111.8°C) > CH4 (−161°C)
Hydrogen Bonds
Molecules with hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms such as O, N, and F (and to a much lesser extent Cl and S)
tend to exhibit unusually strong intermolecular interactions. These result in much higher boiling points than are observed for

substances in which London dispersion forces dominate, as illustrated for the covalent hydrides of elements of groups 14–17
in Figure 12.6.5. Methane and its heavier congeners in group 14 form a series whose boiling points increase smoothly with
increasing molar mass. This is the expected trend in nonpolar molecules, for which London dispersion forces are the exclusive
intermolecular forces. In contrast, the hydrides of the lightest members of groups 15–17 have boiling points that are more than
100°C greater than predicted on the basis of their molar masses. The effect is most dramatic for water: if we extend the straight
line connecting the points for H2Te and H2Se to the line for period 2, we obtain an estimated boiling point of −130°C for
water! Imagine the implications for life on Earth if water boiled at −130°C rather than 100°C.
Figure 12.6.5 : The Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Boiling Points. These plots of the boiling points of the covalent hydrides
of the elements of groups 14–17 show that the boiling points of the lightest members of each series for which hydrogen
bonding is possible (HF, NH3, and H2O) are anomalously high for compounds with such low molecular masses.
Why do strong intermolecular forces produce such anomalously high boiling points and other unusual properties, such as high
enthalpies of vaporization and high melting points? The answer lies in the highly polar nature of the bonds between hydrogen
and very electronegative elements such as O, N, and F. The large difference in electronegativity results in a large partial
positive charge on hydrogen and a correspondingly large partial negative charge on the O, N, or F atom. Consequently, H–O,
H–N, and H–F bonds have very large bond dipoles that can interact strongly with one another. Because a hydrogen atom is so
small, these dipoles can also approach one another more closely than most other dipoles. The combination of large bond
dipoles and short dipole–dipole distances results in very strong dipole–dipole interactions called hydrogen bonds, as shown for
ice in Figure 12.6.6. A hydrogen bond is usually indicated by a dotted line between the hydrogen atom attached to O, N, or F
(the hydrogen bond donor) and the atom that has the lone pair of electrons (the hydrogen bond acceptor). Because each water
molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs, a tetrahedral arrangement maximizes the number of hydrogen
bonds that can be formed. In the structure of ice, each oxygen atom is surrounded by a distorted tetrahedron of hydrogen atoms
that form bridges to the oxygen atoms of adjacent water molecules. The bridging hydrogen atoms are not equidistant from the
two oxygen atoms they connect, however. Instead, each hydrogen atom is 101 pm from one oxygen and 174 pm from the
other. In contrast, each oxygen atom is bonded to two H atoms at the shorter distance and two at the longer distance,
corresponding to two O–H covalent bonds and two O⋅⋅⋅H hydrogen bonds from adjacent water molecules, respectively. The
resulting open, cagelike structure of ice means that the solid is actually slightly less dense than the liquid, which explains why
ice floats on water rather than sinks.

Figure 12.6.6 : The Hydrogen-Bonded Structure of Ice.
Each water molecule accepts two hydrogen bonds from two other water molecules and donates two hydrogen atoms to form
hydrogen bonds with two more water molecules, producing an open, cagelike structure. The structure of liquid water is very
similar, but in the liquid, the hydrogen bonds are continually broken and formed because of rapid molecular motion.
Hydrogen bond formation requires both a hydrogen bond donor and a hydrogen
bond acceptor.
Because ice is less dense than liquid water, rivers, lakes, and oceans freeze from the top down. In fact, the ice forms a
protective surface layer that insulates the rest of the water, allowing fish and other organisms to survive in the lower levels of a
frozen lake or sea. If ice were denser than the liquid, the ice formed at the surface in cold weather would sink as fast as it
formed. Bodies of water would freeze from the bottom up, which would be lethal for most aquatic creatures. The expansion of
water when freezing also explains why automobile or boat engines must be protected by “antifreeze” and why unprotected
pipes in houses break if they are allowed to freeze.
Example 12.6.3
Considering CH3OH, C2H6, Xe, and (CH3)3N, which can form hydrogen bonds with themselves? Draw the hydrogen-
bonded structures.
Given: compounds
Asked for: formation of hydrogen bonds and structure
Strategy:
A. Identify the compounds with a hydrogen atom attached to O, N, or F. These are likely to be able to act as hydrogen
bond donors.
B. Of the compounds that can act as hydrogen bond donors, identify those that also contain lone pairs of electrons, which
allow them to be hydrogen bond acceptors. If a substance is both a hydrogen donor and a hydrogen bond acceptor,
draw a structure showing the hydrogen bonding.
Solution:
A Of the species listed, xenon (Xe), ethane (C2H6), and trimethylamine [(CH3)3N] do not contain a hydrogen atom
attached to O, N, or F; hence they cannot act as hydrogen bond donors.
B The one compound that can act as a hydrogen bond donor, methanol (CH3OH), contains both a hydrogen atom attached
to O (making it a hydrogen bond donor) and two lone pairs of electrons on O (making it a hydrogen bond acceptor);
methanol can thus form hydrogen bonds by acting as either a hydrogen bond donor or a hydrogen bond acceptor. The
hydrogen-bonded structure of methanol is as follows:

Exercise 12.6.3
Considering CH3CO2H, (CH3)3N, NH3, and CH3F, which can form hydrogen bonds with themselves? Draw the hydrogen-
bonded structures.
Answer
CH3CO2H and NH3;
Although hydrogen bonds are significantly weaker than covalent bonds, with typical dissociation energies of only 15–25
kJ/mol, they have a significant influence on the physical properties of a compound. Compounds such as HF can form only two
hydrogen bonds at a time as can, on average, pure liquid NH3. Consequently, even though their molecular masses are similar
to that of water, their boiling points are significantly lower than the boiling point of water, which forms four hydrogen bonds at
a time.
Example 12.6.4 : Buckyballs

Arrange C60 (buckminsterfullerene, which has a cage structure), NaCl, He, Ar, and N2O in order of increasing boiling
points.
Given: compounds
Strategy:
Identify the intermolecular forces in each compound and then arrange the compounds according to the strength of those
forces. The substance with the weakest forces will have the lowest boiling point.
Solution:

Electrostatic interactions are strongest for an ionic compound, so we expect NaCl to have the highest boiling point. To
predict the relative boiling points of the other compounds, we must consider their polarity (for dipole–dipole interactions),
their ability to form hydrogen bonds, and their molar mass (for London dispersion forces). Helium is nonpolar and by far
the lightest, so it should have the lowest boiling point. Argon and N2O have very similar molar masses (40 and 44 g/mol,
respectively), but N2O is polar while Ar is not. Consequently, N2O should have a higher boiling point. A C60 molecule is
nonpolar, but its molar mass is 720 g/mol, much greater than that of Ar or N2O. Because the boiling points of nonpolar
substances increase rapidly with molecular mass, C60 should boil at a higher temperature than the other nonionic
substances. The predicted order is thus as follows, with actual boiling points in parentheses:
He (−269°C) < Ar (−185.7°C) < N2O (−88.5°C) < C60 (>280°C) < NaCl (1465°C).
Exercise 12.6.4
Arrange 2,4-dimethylheptane, Ne, CS2, Cl2, and KBr in order of decreasing boiling points.
Answer
KBr (1435°C) > 2,4-dimethylheptane (132.9°C) > CS2 (46.6°C) > Cl2 (−34.6°C) > Ne (−246°C)
Example 12.6.5 :
Identify the most significant intermolecular force in each substance.
a. C3H8
b. CH3OH
c. H2S
Solution
a. Although C–H bonds are polar, they are only minimally polar. The most significant intermolecular force for this
substance would be dispersion forces.
b. This molecule has an H atom bonded to an O atom, so it will experience hydrogen bonding.
c. Although this molecule does not experience hydrogen bonding, the Lewis electron dot diagram and VSEPR indicate
that it is bent, so it has a permanent dipole. The most significant force in this substance is dipole-dipole interaction.
Exercise 12.6.6
Identify the most significant intermolecular force in each substance.
a. HF
b. HCl
Answer a
hydrogen bonding
Answer b
dipole-dipole interactions
Summary
Intermolecular forces are electrostatic in nature and include van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds. Molecules in liquids are
held to other molecules by intermolecular interactions, which are weaker than the intramolecular interactions that hold the
atoms together within molecules and polyatomic ions. Transitions between the solid and liquid or the liquid and gas phases are

due to changes in intermolecular interactions but do not affect intramolecular interactions. The three major types of
intermolecular interactions are dipole–dipole interactions, London dispersion forces (these two are often referred to
collectively as van der Waals forces), and hydrogen bonds. Dipole–dipole interactions arise from the electrostatic
interactions of the positive and negative ends of molecules with permanent dipole moments; their strength is proportional to
the magnitude of the dipole moment and to 1/r3, where r is the distance between dipoles. London dispersion forces are due to
the formation of instantaneous dipole moments in polar or nonpolar molecules as a result of short-lived fluctuations of
electron charge distribution, which in turn cause the temporary formation of an induced dipole in adjacent molecules. their
energy falls off as 1/r6. Larger atoms tend to be more polarizable than smaller ones because their outer electrons are less
tightly bound and are therefore more easily perturbed. Hydrogen bonds are especially strong dipole–dipole interactions
between molecules that have hydrogen bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as O, N, or F. The resulting partially
positively charged H atom on one molecule (the hydrogen bond donor) can interact strongly with a lone pair of electrons of a
partially negatively charged O, N, or F atom on adjacent molecules (the hydrogen bond acceptor). Because of strong O⋅⋅⋅H
hydrogen bonding between water molecules, water has an unusually high boiling point, and ice has an open, cagelike structure
that is less dense than liquid water.

12.7: Types of Crystalline Solids- Molecular, Ionic, and Atomic
Learning Objectives
We often take a lot of things for granted. We just assume that we will get electric power when we connect a plug to an
electrical outlet. The wire that comprises that outlet is almost always copper, a material that conducts electricity well. The
unique properties of the solid copper allow electrons to flow freely through the wire and into whatever device we connect it to.
Then we can enjoy music, television, work on the computer, or whatever other activity we want to undertake.
Classes of Crystalline Solids

Crystalline substances can be described by the types of particles in them and the types of chemical bonding that takes place
between the particles. There are four types of crystals: (1) ionic, (2) metallic, (3) covalent network, and (4) molecular.
Properties and several examples of each type are listed in the following table and are described in the table below.
Table 12.7.1 : Crystalline Solids - Melting and Boiling Points
Type of Crystalline Solid Examples (formulas) Melting Point (°C) Normal Boiling Point (°C)
NaCl 801 1413

Ionic
CaF
2
1418 1533
Hg -39 630
Na 371 883
Metallic
Au 1064 2856
W 3410 5660
B 2076 3927
Covalent Network C (diamond) 3500 3930
SiO
2
1600 2230
H
2
-259 -253
I
2
114 184
Molecular
NH
3
-78 -33
H O
2
0 100
Ionic crystals -- The ionic crystal structure consists of alternating positively-charged cations and negatively-charged anions
(see figure below). The ions may either be monatomic or polyatomic. Generally, ionic crystals form from a combination of
Group 1 or 2 metals and Group 16 or 17 nonmetals or nonmetallic polyatomic ions. Ionic crystals are hard and brittle and have
high melting points. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as solids, but do conduct when molten or in aqueous solution.
Figure 12.7.1 : NaCl crystal.

Metallic crystal -- Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a "sea" of mobile valence electrons (see figure
below). These electrons, also referred to as delocalized electrons, do not belong to any one atom, but are capable of moving
through the entire crystal. As a result, metals are good conductors of electricity. As seen in the table above, the melting points
of metallic crystals span a wide range.

Figure 12.7.2 : Metallic crystal lattice with free electrons able to move among positive metal atoms.
Covalent network crystals -- A covalent network crystal consists of atoms at the lattice points of the crystal, with each atom
being covalently bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms (see figure below). The covalently bonded network is three-dimensional
and contains a very large number of atoms. Network solids include diamond, quartz, many metalloids, and oxides of transition
metals and metalloids. Network solids are hard and brittle, with extremely high melting and boiling points. Being composed of
atoms rather than ions, they do not conduct electricity in any state.
Figure 12.7.3 : Diamond is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently bonded to one another in a repeating
three-dimensional pattern. Each carbon atom makes for single covalent bonds in a tetrahedral geometry.
Molecular crystals -- Molecular crystals typically consist of molecules at the lattice points of the crystal, held together by
relatively weak intermolecular forces (see figure below). The intermolecular forces may be dispersion forces in the case of
nonpolar crystals, or dipole-dipole forces in the case of polar crystals. Some molecular crystals, such as ice, have molecules
held together by hydrogen bonds. When one of the noble gases is cooled and solidified, the lattice points are individual atoms
rather than molecules. In all cases, the intermolecular forces holding the particles together are far weaker than either ionic or
covalent bonds. As a result, the melting and boiling points of molecular crystals are much lower. Lacking ions or free
electrons, molecular crystals are poor electrical conductors.
Figure 12.7.4 : Ice crystal structure.

Some general properties of the four major classes of solids are summarized in Table 12.7.2.
Table 12.7.2 : Properties of the Major Classes of Solids
Ionic Solids Molecular Solids Covalent Solids Metallic Solids
poor conductors of heat and poor conductors of heat and poor conductors of heat and good conductors of heat and
electricity electricity electricity* electricity
melting points depend strongly on

relatively high melting point low melting point high melting point
electron configuration
hard but brittle; shatter under easily deformed under stress;
soft very hard and brittle
stress ductile and malleable
relatively dense low density low density usually high density
*Many exceptions exist. For example, graphite has a relatively high electrical conductivity within the carbon planes, and diamond has the highest
thermal conductivity of any known substance.

Ionic Solids Molecular Solids Covalent Solids Metallic Solids
dull surface dull surface dull surface lustrous

*Many exceptions exist. For example, graphite has a relatively high electrical conductivity within the carbon planes, and diamond has the highest
thermal conductivity of any known substance.
Example 12.7.1
Classify Ge, RbI, C (CH 6 3
)
6
, and Zn as ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic solids and arrange them in order of
increasing melting points.
Given: compounds
Asked for: classification and order of melting points
Strategy:
A. Locate the component element(s) in the periodic table. Based on their positions, predict whether each solid is ionic,
molecular, covalent, or metallic.
B. Arrange the solids in order of increasing melting points based on your classification, beginning with molecular solids.
Solution:
A Germanium lies in the p block just under Si, along the diagonal line of semimetallic elements, which suggests that
elemental Ge is likely to have the same structure as Si (the diamond structure). Thus Ge is probably a covalent solid.
RbI contains a metal from group 1 and a nonmetal from group 17, so it is an ionic solid containing Rb+ and I− ions.
The compound C (CH ) is a hydrocarbon (hexamethylbenzene), which consists of isolated molecules that stack to form
6 3 6
a molecular solid with no covalent bonds between them.

Zn is a d-block element, so it is a metallic solid.
B Arranging these substances in order of increasing melting points is straightforward, with one exception. We expect
C6(CH3)6 to have the lowest melting point and Ge to have the highest melting point, with RbI somewhere in between.
The melting points of metals, however, are difficult to predict based on the models presented thus far. Because Zn has a
filled valence shell, it should not have a particularly high melting point, so a reasonable guess is
C6(CH3)6 < Zn ~ RbI < Ge.

The actual melting points are C6(CH3)6, 166°C; Zn, 419°C; RbI, 642°C; and Ge, 938°C. This agrees with our prediction.
Exercise 12.7.1
Classify CO2, BaBr2, GaAs, and AgZn as ionic, covalent, molecular, or metallic solids and then arrange them in order of
increasing melting points.
Answer
CO2 (molecular) < AgZn (metallic) ~ BaBr2 (ionic) < GaAs (covalent).
The actual melting points are CO2, about -15.6°C; AgZn, about 700°C; BaBr2, 856°C; and GaAs, 1238°C.
Summary
Ionic crystals are composed of alternating positive and negative ions. Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by
a "sea" of mobile valence electrons. Covalent crystals are composed of atoms which are covalently bonded to one another.
Molecular crystals are held together by weak intermolecular forces.


12.8: Water- A Remarkable Molecule
Learning Objectives
Interpret the unique properties of water in terms of a phase diagram
Earth is the only known body in our solar system that has liquid water existing freely on its surface. That is a good thing
because life on Earth would not be possible without the presence of liquid water. Water has several properties that make it a
unique substance among substances. It is an excellent solvent; it dissolves many other substances and allows those substances
to react when in solution. In fact, water is sometimes called the universal solvent because of this ability. Water has unusually
high melting and boiling points (0°C and 100°C, respectively) for such a small molecule. The boiling points for similar-sized
molecules, such as methane (BP = −162°C) and ammonia (BP = −33°C), are more than 100° lower. Though a liquid at normal
temperatures, water molecules experience a relatively strong intermolecular interaction that allows them to maintain the liquid
phase at higher temperatures than expected.
Unlike most substances, the solid form of water is less dense than its liquid form, which allows ice to float on water. In colder
weather, lakes and rivers freeze from the top, allowing animals and plants to continue to live underneath. Water also requires
an unusually large amount of energy to change temperature. While 100 J of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of Fe by
230°C, this same amount of energy will change the temperature of 1 g of H2O by only 100°C. Thus, water changes its
temperature slowly as heat is added or removed. This has a major impact on weather, as storm systems like hurricanes can be
impacted by the amount of heat that ocean water can store. Water’s influence on the world around us is affected by these
properties. Isn’t it fascinating that such a small molecule can have such a big impact?
Phase Diagram for Water

Water is a unique substance in many ways. One of these special properties is the fact that solid water (ice) is less dense than
liquid water just above the freezing point. The phase diagram for water is shown in the figure below.
Figure 12.8.1 : Phase diagram for water.

Notice one key difference between the general phase diagram and the phase diagram for water. In water's diagram, the slope of
the line between the solid and liquid states is negative rather than positive. The reason is that water is an unusual substance in
that its solid state is less dense than the liquid state. Ice floats in liquid water. Therefore, a pressure change has the opposite
effect on those two phases. If ice is relatively near its melting point, it can be changed into liquid water by the application of
pressure. The water molecules are actually closer together in the liquid phase than they are in the solid phase.
Refer again to water's phase diagram (figure above). Notice point E , labeled the critical point. What does that mean? At
373.99 C, particles of water in the gas phase are moving very, very rapidly. At any temperature higher than than, the gas
o
phase cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how much pressure is applied to the gas. The critical pressure (P ) is the pressure
C
that must be applied to the gas at the critical temperature in order to turn it into a liquid. For water, the critical pressure is very
high, 217.75 atm. The critical point is the intersection point of the critical temperature and the critical pressure.

Summary
Solid water is less dense than liquid water just above the freezing point.
The critical temperature (T ) of a substance is the highest temperature at which the substance can possibly exist as a
C
liquid.
The critical pressure (P ) is the pressure that must be applied to the gas at the critical temperature in order to tun it into a
C
liquid.
The critical point is the intersection point of the critical temperature and the critical pressure.


CHAPTER OVERVIEW
13: SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture—a mixture of two or more substances that are so intimately
mixed that the mixture behaves in many ways like a single substance. Many chemical reactions
occur when the reactants are dissolved in solution. In this chapter, we will introduce concepts that
are applicable to solutions and the chemical reactions that occur in them.
13.1: PRELUDE - TRAGEDY IN CAMEROON

Lake Nyos is a crater lake in the Northwest Region of Cameroon, and is a deep lake high on the
flank of an inactive volcano in the Oku volcanic plain along the Cameroon line of volcanic
activity. A volcanic dam impounds the lake waters. A pocket of magma lies beneath the lake and
leaks carbon dioxide into the water, changing it into carbonic acid. Nyos is one of only three
known exploding lakes to be saturated with carbon dioxide in this way.
13.2: SOLUTIONS- HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES

The major component of a solution is called the solvent. The minor component of a solution is called the solute. By major and minor
we mean whichever component has the greater presence by mass or by moles. Sometimes this becomes confusing, especially with
substances with very different molar masses. However, here we will confine the discussion to solutions for which the major
component and the minor component are obvious.
13.3: SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS DISSOLVED IN WATER- HOW TO MAKE ROCK CANDY

Whether or not solutions are formed depends on the similarity of polarity or the "like dissolves like" rule. Polar molecules dissolve in
polar solvents, nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents, especially water. This
occurs when the positive cation from the ionic solid is attracted to the negative end of the water molecule (oxygen) and the negative
anion of the ionic solid is attracted to the positive end of the water molecule (hydrogen).
13.4: SOLUTIONS OF GASES IN WATER- HOW SODA POP GETS ITS FIZZ
The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When the pressure is reduced, the
carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common
example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water.
13.5: SOLUTION CONCENTRATION- MASS PERCENT

To define a solution precisely, we need to state its concentration: how much solute is dissolved in a certain amount of solvent. Words
such as dilute or concentrated are used to describe solutions that have a little or a lot of dissolved solute, respectively, but these are
relative terms whose meanings depend on various factors. The mass/mass percent (% m/m) is defined as the mass of a solute divided
by the mass of a solution times 100:
13.6: SOLUTION CONCENTRATION- MOLARITY

Another way of expressing concentration is to give the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution. Of all the quantitative
measures of concentration, molarity is the one used most frequently by chemists. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute
per liter of solution. The symbol for molarity is MM or moles/liter. Chemists also use square brackets to indicate a reference to the
molarity of a substance.
13.7: SOLUTION DILUTION

We are often concerned with how much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solution. We will begin our discussion of solution
concentration with two related and relative terms - dilute and concentrated.
13.8: SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

For ionic solutes, the calculation of colligative properties must include the fact that the solutes separate into multiple particles when
they dissolve. The equations for calculating colligative properties of solutions of ionic solvents include the van’t Hoff factor, i.
13.9: FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION AND BOILING POINT ELEVATION- MAKING WATER FREEZE COLDER AND
BOIL HOTTER
Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles (that is, the concentration), not their identity. Raoult’s law is
concerned with the vapor pressure depression of solutions. The boiling points of solutions are always higher, and the freezing points
of solutions are always lower, than those of the pure solvent.
1 6/21/2020
13.10: OSMOSIS- WHY DRINKING SALT WATER CAUSES DEHYDRATION
In osmosis, the solute remains in its original side of the system; only solvent molecules move through the semipermeable membrane.
In the end, the two sides of the system will have different volumes. Because a column of liquid exerts a pressure, there is a pressure
difference Π on the two sides of the system that is proportional to the height of the taller column. This pressure difference is called the
osmotic pressure, which is a colligative property.
2 6/21/2020
13.1: Prelude - Tragedy in Cameroon
Lake Nyos is a crater lake in the Northwest Region of Cameroon, and is a deep lake high on the flank of an inactive volcano in
the Oku volcanic plain along the Cameroon line of volcanic activity. A volcanic dam impounds the lake waters. A pocket of
magma lies beneath the lake and leaks carbon dioxide (C O ) into the water, changing it into carbonic acid. Nyos is one of
2
only three known exploding lakes to be saturated with carbon dioxide in this way.
In 1986, more than 1700 people in Cameroon were killed when a cloud of gas, almost certainly carbon dioxide, bubbled from
Lake Nyos (Figure 13.1.1), a deep lake in a volcanic crater. It is believed that the lake underwent a turnover due to gradual
heating from below the lake, and the warmer, less-dense water saturated with carbon dioxide reached the surface.
Consequently, tremendous quantities of dissolved CO2 were released, and the colorless gas, which is denser than air, flowed
down the valley below the lake and suffocated humans and animals living in the valley.
Figure 13.1.1: (a) It is believed that the 1986 disaster that killed more than 1700 people near Lake Nyos in Cameroon resulted
when a large volume of carbon dioxide gas was released from the lake. (b) A CO2 vent has since been installed to help outgas
the lake in a slow, controlled fashion and prevent a similar catastrophe from happening in the future. (credit a: modification of
work by Jack Lockwood; credit b: modification of work by Bill Evans)
Following the Lake Nyos tragedy, scientists investigated other African lakes to see if a similar phenomenon could happen
elsewhere. Lake Kivu in Democratic Republic of Congo, 2,000 times larger than Lake Nyos, was also found to be
supersaturated, and geologists found evidence for outgassing events around the lake about every thousand years.

Wikipedia

13.2: Solutions- Homogeneous Mixtures
skills to develop
Learn some terminology involving solutions.
Explain the significance of the statement "like dissolves like".
Explain why certain substances dissolve in other substances.
The major component of a solution is called the solvent. The minor component of a solution is called the solute. By major and
minor we mean whichever component has the greater presence by mass or by moles. Sometimes this becomes confusing,
especially with substances with very different molar masses. However, here we will confine the discussion to solutions for
which the major component and the minor component are obvious.
Solutions exist for every possible phase of the solute and the solvent. Salt water, for example, is a solution of solid NaCl in
liquid water, while air is a solution of a gaseous solute (O2) in a gaseous solvent (N2). In all cases, however, the overall phase
of the solution is the same phase as the solvent. Table 13.2.1 lists some common types of solutions, with examples of each.
Table 13.2.1 : Types of Solutions
Solvent Phase Solute Phase Example
gas gas air
liquid gas carbonated beverages
ethanol (C2H5OH) in H2O (alcoholic

liquid liquid
beverages)
liquid solid salt water
solid gas H2 gas absorbed by Pd metal
solid liquid Hg(ℓ) in dental fillings
solid solid steel alloys
Figure 13.2.1 : Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water. The salt is the solute and the water the
solvent. (CC-BY-SA 3.0; Chris 73).
Example 13.2.1 : Sugar and Water
A solution is made by dissolving 1.00 g of sucrose (C 12
H
22
O
11
) in 100.0 g of liquid water. Identify the solvent and
solute in the resulting solution.
Solution
Either by mass or by moles, the obvious minor component is sucrose, so it is the solute. Water—the majority component
—is the solvent. The fact that the resulting solution is the same phase as water also suggests that water is the solvent.
Exercise 13.2.1

A solution is made by dissolving 3.33 g of HCl(g) in 40.0 g of liquid methyl alcohol (CH 3
OH ). Identify the solvent and
solute in the resulting solution.
Answer
solute: HCl(g); solvent: CH3OH
Like Dissolves Like

A simple way to predict which compounds will dissolve in other compounds is the phrase "like dissolves like". What this
means is that polar compounds dissolve polar compounds, nonpolar compounds dissolve nonpolar compounds, but polar and
nonpolar do not dissolve in each other.
Even some nonpolar substances dissolve in water but only to a limited degree. Have you ever wondered why fish are able to
breathe? Oxygen gas, an nonpolar molecules, does dissolve in water and it is this oxygen that the fish take in through their
gills. Or, one more example of a nonpolar compound that dissolves in water is the reason we can enjoy carbonated sodas.
Pepsi-cola and all the other sodas have carbon dioxide gas, CO , a nonpolar compound, dissolved in a sugar-water solution. In
2
this case, to keep as much gas in solution as possible, the sodas are kept under pressure.
This general trend of "like dissolves like" is summarized in the following table:
Table 13.2.1 : Summary of Solubilities
Solute Solvent Is Solution Formed?
Polar Covalent Polar yes
Non-polar Covalent Non-polar yes

Polar Covalent Non-polar no
Non-polar Covalent Polar no
Ionic Polar yes
Ionic Non-polar no
Note that every time charged particles (ionic compounds or polar substances) are mixed, a solution is formed. When particles
with no charges (nonpolar compounds) are mixed, they will form a solution. However, if substances with charges are mixed
with other substances without charges a solution does not form.
When an ionic compound is considered "insoluble", it doesn't necessarily mean the compound is completely
untouched by water. All ionic compounds dissolve to some extent. An insoluble compound just doesn't dissolve in
any noticeable or appreciable amount.
What is it that makes a solute soluble in some solvents but not others?
The answer is intermolecular interactions. The intermolecular interactions include London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
interactions, and hydrogen bonding (as described in Chapter 10). From experimental studies, it has been determined that if
molecules of a solute experience the same intermolecular forces that the solvent does, the solute will likely dissolve in that
solvent. So, NaCl—a very polar substance because it is composed of ions—dissolves in water, which is very polar, but not in
oil, which is generally nonpolar. Nonpolar wax dissolves in nonpolar hexane, but not in polar water.

Figure 13.2.2 : Water (clear liquid) and oil (yellow) do not form liquid solutions. (CC BY-SA 1.0 Generic; Victor Blacus)
Example 13.2.2 : Polar and Nonpolar Solvents
Would I2 be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.
Solution
I2 is nonpolar. Of the two solvents, CCl4 is nonpolar and H2O is polar, so I2 would be expected to be more soluble in
CCl4.
Exercise 13.2.2
Would C3H7OH be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.
Answer
H2O because both experience hydrogen bonding
Example 13.2.3
Water is considered a polar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in water?
a. methanol (CH3OH)
b. sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
c. octane (C8H18)
SOLUTION
Because water is polar, substances that are polar or ionic will dissolve in it.
a. Because of the OH group in methanol, we expect its molecules to be polar. Thus, we expect it to be soluble in water.
As both water and methanol are liquids, the word miscible can be used in place of soluble.
b. Sodium sulfate is an ionic compound, so we expect it to be soluble in water.
c. Like other hydrocarbons, octane is nonpolar, so we expect that it would not be soluble in water.
Exercise 13.2.3
Toluene (C6H5CH3) is widely used in industry as a nonpolar solvent. Which substances should dissolve in toluene?
a. water (H2O)
b. sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
c. octane (C8H18)
Answer
octane (C8H18) will dissolve. It is also non-polar.

Summary
Solutions are composed of a solvent (major component) and a solute (minor component).
“Like dissolves like” is a useful rule for deciding if a solute will be soluble in a solvent.


13.3: Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water- How to Make Rock Candy
Learning Objectives
Define electrolytes and non electrolytes
Explain why solutions form.
Discuss the idea of water as the "universal solvent".
Explain how water molecules attract ionic solids when they dissolve in water.
We have learned that solutions can be formed in a variety of combinations using solids, liquids, and gases. We also know that
solutions have constant composition and we can also vary this composition up to a point to maintain the homogeneous nature
of the solution. But how exactly do solutions form? Why is it that oil and water will not form a solution and yet vinegar and
water will? Why could we dissolve table salt in water but not in vegetable oil? The reasons why solutions will form will be
explored in this section, along with a discussion of why water is used most frequently to dissolve substances of various types.
Solubility and Saturation

Table salt (NaCl) readily dissolves in water. In most cases, only a certain maximum amount of solute can be dissolved in a
given amount of solvent. This maximum amount is called the solubility of the solute. It is usually expressed in terms of the
amount of solute that can dissolve in 100 g of the solvent at a given temperature. Table 13.3.1 lists the solubilities of some
simple ionic compounds. These solubilities vary widely: NaCl can dissolve up to 31.6 g per 100 g of H2O, while AgCl can
dissolve only 0.00019 g per 100 g of H2O.
Table 13.3.1 : Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds
Solute Solubility (g per 100 g of H2O at 25°C)
AgCl 0.00019
CaCO3 0.0006
KBr 70.7
NaCl 36.1
NaNO3 94.6
When the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved in a given amount of solvent, we say that the solution is saturated
with solute. When less than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given amount of solute, the solution is
unsaturated. These terms are also qualitative terms because each solute has its own solubility. A solution of 0.00019 g of
AgCl per 100 g of H2O may be saturated, but with so little solute dissolved, it is also rather dilute. A solution of 36.1 g of
NaCl in 100 g of H2O is also saturated but rather concentrated. In some circumstances, it is possible to dissolve more than the
maximum amount of a solute in a solution. Usually, this happens by heating the solvent, dissolving more solute than would
normally dissolve at regular temperatures, and letting the solution cool down slowly and carefully. Such solutions are called
supersaturated solutions and are not stable; given an opportunity (such as dropping a crystal of solute in the solution), the
excess solute will precipitate from the solution.The figure below illustrates the above process and shows the distinction
between unsaturated and saturated.

Figure 13.3.1 : When 30.0 g of NaCl is added to 100 mL, it all dissolves, forming an unsaturated solution. When 40.0 g is
added, 36.0 g dissolves and 4.0 g remains undissolved, forming a saturated solution.
How can you tell if a solution is saturated or unsaturated? If more solute is added and it does not dissolve, then the original
solution was saturated. If the added solute dissolves, then the original solution was unsaturated. A solution that has been
allowed to reach equilibrium but which has extra undissolved solute at the bottom of the container must be saturated.
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved Ionic Solids

When some substances are dissolved in water, they undergo either a physical or a chemical change that yields ions in solution.
These substances constitute an important class of compounds called electrolytes. Substances that do not yield ions when
dissolved are called nonelectrolytes. If the physical or chemical process that generates the ions is essentially 100% efficient
(all of the dissolved compound yields ions), then the substance is known as a strong electrolyte (good conductor). If only a
relatively small fraction of the dissolved substance undergoes the ion-producing process, it is called a weak electrolyte (do not
conduct electricity as well).
Substances may be identified as strong, weak, or nonelectrolytes by measuring the electrical conductance of an aqueous
solution containing the substance. To conduct electricity, a substance must contain freely mobile, charged species. Most
familiar is the conduction of electricity through metallic wires, in which case the mobile, charged entities are electrons.
Solutions may also conduct electricity if they contain dissolved ions, with conductivity increasing as ion concentration
increases. Applying a voltage to electrodes immersed in a solution permits assessment of the relative concentration of
dissolved ions, either quantitatively, by measuring the electrical current flow, or qualitatively, by observing the brightness of a
light bulb included in the circuit (Figure 13.3.1).

Figure 13.3.1 : Solutions of nonelectrolytes such as ethanol do not contain dissolved ions and cannot conduct electricity.
Solutions of electrolytes contain ions that permit the passage of electricity. The conductivity of an electrolyte solution is
related to the strength of the electrolyte.
Water and other polar molecules are attracted to ions, as shown in Figure 13.3.2. The electrostatic attraction between an ion
and a molecule with a dipole is called an ion-dipole attraction. These attractions play an important role in the dissolution of
ionic compounds in water.
Figure 13.3.2 : As potassium chloride (KCl) dissolves in water, the ions are hydrated. The polar water molecules are attracted
by the charges on the K+ and Cl− ions. Water molecules in front of and behind the ions are not shown.
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions in the solid separate and disperse uniformly throughout the solution because
water molecules surround and solvate the ions, reducing the strong electrostatic forces between them. This process represents a
physical change known as dissociation. Under most conditions, ionic compounds will dissociate nearly completely when
dissolved, and so they are classified as strong electrolytes.
Example 13.3.1 : Identifying IOnic Compounds

Which compound(s) will dissolve in solution to separate into ions?
a. LiF
b. P F
2 5
c. C H OH
2 5
Solution
LiF will separate into ions when dissolved in solution, because it is an ionic compound. P F
2 5
and C H OH
2 5
are both
covalent and will stay as molecules in a solution.
Exercise 13.3.1
Which compounds will dissolve in solution to separate into ions?
a. C6H12O11, glucose
b. CCl4

c. CaCl2
d. AgNO3
Answer
c&d
How Temperature Influences Solubility

The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that is required to form a saturated solution in a given amount of
solvent at a specified temperature. Solubility is often measured as the grams of solute per 100 g of solvent. The solubility of
sodium chloride in water is 36.0 g per 100 g water at 20 C. The temperature must be specified because solubility varies with
o
temperature. For gases, the pressure must also be specified. Solubility is specific for a particular solvent. We will consider
solubility of material in water as solvent.
The solubility of the majority of solid substances increases as the temperature increases. However, the effect is difficult to
predict and varies widely from one solute to another. The temperature dependence of solubility can be visualized with the help
of a solubility curve, a graph of the solubility vs. temperature (Figure 13.3.4).
Figure 13.3.4 : Solubility curves for several compounds.

Notice how the temperature dependence of NaCl is fairly flat, meaning that an increase in temperature has relatively little
effect on the solubility of NaCl. The curve for KNO , on the other hand, is very steep and so an increase in temperature
3
dramatically increases the solubility of KNO . 3
Several substances - HCl, NH , and SO - have solubility that decreases as temperature increases. They are all gases at
3 2
standard pressure. When a solvent with a gas dissolved in it is heated, the kinetic energy of both the solvent and solute
increase. As the kinetic energy of the gaseous solute increases, its molecules have a greater tendency to escape the attraction of
the solvent molecules and return to the gas phase. Therefore, the solubility of a gas decreases as the temperature increases.
Solubility curves can be used to determine if a given solution is saturated or unsaturated. Suppose that 80 g of KNO is added 3
to 100 g of water at 30 C. According to the solubility curve, approximately 48 g of KNO will dissolve at 30 C. This means
o
3
o
that the solution will be saturated since 48 g is less than 80 g. We can also determine that there will be 80 − 48 = 32 g of
undissolved KNO remaining at the bottom of the container. Now suppose that this saturated solution is heated to 60 C.
3
o
According to the curve, the solubility of KNO at 60 C is about 107 g. Now the solution is unsaturated since it contains only
3
o
the original 80 g of dissolved solute. Now suppose the solution is cooled all the way down to 0 C. The solubility at 0 C is
o o
about 14 g, meaning that 80 − 14 = 66 g of the KNO will recrystallize.

3

Summary
Solubility is a specific amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent.
Saturated and unsaturated solutions are defined.
Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents, especially water. This occurs when the positive cation from the ionic solid is
attracted to the negative end of the water molecule (oxygen) and the negative anion of the ionic solid is attracted to the
positive end of the water molecule (hydrogen).
Water is considered as the the universal solvent since it can dissolve both ionic and polar solutes, as well as some nonpolar
solutes (in very limited amounts).
The solubility of a solid in water increases with an increase in temperature.
Vocabulary
Miscible: Liquids that have the ability to dissolve in each other.
Immiscible: Liquids that do not have the ability to dissolve in each other.
Electrostatic attraction: The attraction of oppositely charged particles.


13.4: Solutions of Gases in Water- How Soda Pop Gets Its Fizz
Learning Objectives
In an earlier module of this chapter, the effect of intermolecular attractive forces on solution formation was discussed. The
chemical structures of the solute and solvent dictate the types of forces possible and, consequently, are important factors in
determining solubility. For example, under similar conditions, the water solubility of oxygen is approximately three times
greater than that of helium, but 100 times less than the solubility of chloromethane, CHCl3. Considering the role of the
solvent’s chemical structure, note that the solubility of oxygen in the liquid hydrocarbon hexane, C6H14, is approximately 20
times greater than it is in water.
Other factors also affect the solubility of a given substance in a given solvent. Temperature is one such factor, with gas
solubility typically decreasing as temperature increases (Figure 13.4.1). This is one of the major impacts resulting from the
thermal pollution of natural bodies of water.
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Figure 13.4.1 : The solubilities of these gases in water decrease as the temperature increases. All solubilities were measured
with a constant pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atm) of gas above the solutions.
When the temperature of a river, lake, or stream is raised abnormally high, usually due to the discharge of hot water from some
industrial process, the solubility of oxygen in the water is decreased. Decreased levels of dissolved oxygen may have serious
consequences for the health of the water’s ecosystems and, in severe cases, can result in large-scale fish kills (Figure 13.4.2).
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Figure 13.4.2 : (a) The small bubbles of air in this glass of chilled water formed when the water warmed to room temperature
and the solubility of its dissolved air decreased. (b) The decreased solubility of oxygen in natural waters subjected to thermal
pollution can result in large-scale fish kills. (credit a: modification of work by Liz West; credit b: modification of work by
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
The solubility of a gaseous solute is also affected by the partial pressure of solute in the gas to which the solution is exposed.
Gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases. Carbonated beverages provide a nice illustration of this
relationship. The carbonation process involves exposing the beverage to a relatively high pressure of carbon dioxide gas and
then sealing the beverage container, thus saturating the beverage with CO2 at this pressure. When the beverage container is
opened, a familiar hiss is heard as the carbon dioxide gas pressure is released, and some of the dissolved carbon dioxide is
typically seen leaving solution in the form of small bubbles (Figure 13.4.3). At this point, the beverage is supersaturated with
carbon dioxide and, with time, the dissolved carbon dioxide concentration will decrease to its equilibrium value and the
beverage will become “flat.”
Figure 113.4.3 : Opening the bottle of carbonated beverage reduces the pressure of the gaseous carbon dioxide above the
beverage. The solubility of CO2 is thus lowered, and some dissolved carbon dioxide may be seen leaving the solution as small
gas bubbles. (credit: modification of work by Derrick Coetzee)

"Fizz"
The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When the pressure is
reduced, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become
effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water.
Carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released. This process is
generally represented by the following reaction, where a pressurized dilute solution of carbonic acid in water releases
gaseous carbon dioxide at decompression:
H2 C O3(aq) → H2 O(l) + C O2(g) (13.4.1)
In simple terms, it is the result of the chemical reaction occurring in the liquid which produces a gaseous product.
For many gaseous solutes, the relation between solubility, Cg, and partial pressure, Pg, is a proportional one:
Cg = kPg (13.4.2)
where k is a proportionality constant that depends on the identities of the gaseous solute and solvent, and on the solution
temperature. This is a mathematical statement of Henry’s law: The quantity of an ideal gas that dissolves in a definite volume
of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.
Example 13.4.1 : Application of Henry’s Law

At 20 °C, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water exposed to gaseous oxygen at a partial pressure of 101.3 kPa
(760 torr) is 1.38 × 10−3 mol L−1. Use Henry’s law to determine the solubility of oxygen when its partial pressure is 20.7
kPa (155 torr), the approximate pressure of oxygen in earth’s atmosphere.
Solution
According to Henry’s law, for an ideal solution the solubility, Cg, of a gas (1.38 × 10−3 mol L−1, in this case) is directly
proportional to the pressure, Pg, of the undissolved gas above the solution (101.3 kPa, or 760 torr, in this case). Because
we know both Cg and Pg, we can rearrange this expression to solve for k.
Cg = kPg (13.4.3)
Cg
k = (13.4.4)
Pg
−3 −1
1.38 × 10 mol L
= (13.4.5)
101.3 kPa
−5 −1 −1
= 1.36 × 10 mol L kPa (13.4.6)
−6 −1 −1
(1.82 × 10 mol L torr ) (13.4.7)
Now we can use k to find the solubility at the lower pressure.
Cg = kPg (13.4.8)
−5 −1 −1
1.36 × 10 mol L kPa × 20.7 kPa
−6 −1 −1
(or 1.82 × 10 mol L torr × 155 torr)
−4 −1
= 2.82 × 10 mol L
Note that various units may be used to express the quantities involved in these sorts of computations. Any combination of
units that yield to the constraints of dimensional analysis are acceptable.
Exercise 13.4.1
A 100.0 mL sample of water at 0 °C to an atmosphere containing a gaseous solute at 20.26 kPa (152 torr) resulted in the
dissolution of 1.45 × 10−3 g of the solute. Use Henry’s law to determine the solubility of this gaseous solute when its
pressure is 101.3 kPa (760 torr).

Answer
7.25 × 10−3 g
Case Study: Decompression Sickness (“The Bends”)

Decompression sickness (DCS), or “the bends,” is an effect of the increased pressure of the air inhaled by scuba divers when
swimming underwater at considerable depths. In addition to the pressure exerted by the atmosphere, divers are subjected to
additional pressure due to the water above them, experiencing an increase of approximately 1 atm for each 10 m of depth.
Therefore, the air inhaled by a diver while submerged contains gases at the corresponding higher ambient pressure, and the
concentrations of the gases dissolved in the diver’s blood are proportionally higher per Henry’s law.
As the diver ascends to the surface of the water, the ambient pressure decreases and the dissolved gases becomes less soluble.
If the ascent is too rapid, the gases escaping from the diver’s blood may form bubbles that can cause a variety of symptoms
ranging from rashes and joint pain to paralysis and death. To avoid DCS, divers must ascend from depths at relatively slow
speeds (10 or 20 m/min) or otherwise make several decompression stops, pausing for several minutes at given depths during
the ascent. When these preventive measures are unsuccessful, divers with DCS are often provided hyperbaric oxygen therapy
in pressurized vessels called decompression (or recompression) chambers (Figure 13.4.4).
Figure 13.4.4 : (a) US Navy divers undergo training in a recompression chamber. (b) Divers receive hyperbaric oxygen
therapy.
Deviations from Henry’s law are observed when a chemical reaction takes place between the gaseous solute and the solvent.
Thus, for example, the solubility of ammonia in water does not increase as rapidly with increasing pressure as predicted by the
law because ammonia, being a base, reacts to some extent with water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions.
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Gases can form supersaturated solutions. If a solution of a gas in a liquid is prepared either at low temperature or under
pressure (or both), then as the solution warms or as the gas pressure is reduced, the solution may become supersaturated.

Wikipedia


13.5: Solution Concentration- Mass Percent
Learning Objectives
Express the amount of solute in a solution in various concentration units.
To define a solution precisely, we need to state its concentration: how much solute is dissolved in a certain amount of solvent.
Words such as dilute or concentrated are used to describe solutions that have a little or a lot of dissolved solute, respectively,
but these are relative terms whose meanings depend on various factors.
Introduction
Concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance is mixed with another substance. Solutions can be said to be
dilute or concentrated. When we say that vinegar is 5% acetic acid in water, we are giving the concentration. If we said the
mixture was 10% acetic acid, this would be more concentrated than the vinegar solution.
Figure 13.5.1 : The solution on the left is more concentrated than the solution on the right because there is a greater ratio of
solute (red balls) to solvent (blue balls) particles. The solution particles are closer together. The solution on the right is more
dilute (less concentrated). (CC-SA-BY-3.0 Tracy Poulsen).
A concentrated solution is one in which there is a large amount of solute in a given amount of solvent. A dilute solution is
one in which there is a small amount of solute in a given amount of solvent. A dilute solution is a concentrated solution that
has been, in essence, watered down. Think of the frozen juice containers you buy in the grocery store. What you have to do is
take the frozen juice from inside these containers and usually empty it into 3 or 4 times the container size full of water to mix
with the juice concentrate and make your container of juice. Therefore, you are diluting the concentrated juice. When we talk
about solute and solvent, the concentrated solution has a lot of solute versus the dilute solution that would have a smaller
amount of solute.
The terms "concentrated" and "dilute" provide qualitative methods of describing concentration. Although qualitative
observations are necessary and have their place in every part of science, including chemistry, we have seen throughout our
study of science that there is a definite need for quantitative measurements in science. This is particularly true in solution
chemistry. In this section, we will explore some quantitative methods of expressing solution concentration.
Mass Percent
There are several ways of expressing the concentration of a solution by using a percentage. The mass/mass percent (% m/m) is
defined as the mass of a solute divided by the mass of a solution times 100:
mass of solute
% m/m = × 100% (13.5.1)
mass of solution
mass of solution = mass of solute + mass solvent

If you can measure the masses of the solute and the solution, determining the mass/mass percent is easy. Each mass must be
expressed in the same units to determine the proper concentration.
Suppose that a solution was prepared by dissolving 25.0 g of sugar into 100.0 g of water.
The mass of the solution is
mass of solution = 25.0g sugar + 100.0g water = 125.0 g
The percent by mass would be calculated by:
25.0 g sugar
Percent by mass = × 100% = 20.0% sugar (13.5.2)
125.0 g solution
Example 13 5 1
Example 13.5.1
A saline solution with a mass of 355 g has 36.5 g of NaCl dissolved in it. What is the mass/mass percent concentration of
the solution?
SOLUTION
We can substitute the quantities given in the equation for mass/mass percent:
36.5 g
% m/m = × 100% = 10.3%
355 g
Exercise 13.5.1
A dextrose (also called D-glucose, C6H12O6) solution with a mass of 2.00 × 102 g has 15.8 g of dextrose dissolved in it.
What is the mass/mass percent concentration of the solution?
Answer
7.90 %
Using Mass Percent in Calculations

Sometimes you may want to make up a particular mass of solution of a given percent by mass and need to calculate what mass
of the solute to use. Using mass percent as a conversion can be useful in this type of problem. The mass percent can be
g solute 100 gsolution
expressed as a conversion factor in the form 100 gsolution
or g solute
For example, if you need to make 3000.0 g of a 5.00% solution of sodium chloride, the mass of solute needs to be determined.
SOLUTION
Given: 3000.0 g NaCl solution
5.00% NaCl solution
Find: mass of solute = ? g NaCl
Other known quantities: 5.00 g NaCl is to 100 g solution
The appropriate conversion factor (based on the given mass percent ) can be used follows:
To solve for the mass of NaCl, the given mass of solution is multiplied by the conversion factor.
5.00 g N aC l
gN aC l = 3, 000.0 g N aC l solution × = 150.0g N aC l (13.5.3)
100 g N aC l solution
You would need to weigh out 150 g of NaCl and add it to 2850 g of water. Notice that it was necessary to subtract the mass of
the NaCl (150 g) from the mass of solution (3000 g) to calculate the mass of the water that would need to be added.
Exercise 13.5.1
What is the amount (in g) of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) needed to make a 6.00 kg , 3.00 % (by mass) H2O2 solution?
Answer
180. g H2O2

Contributors

13.6: Solution Concentration- Molarity
Learning Objectives
Use molarity to determine quantities in chemical reactions.
Use Molarity as a conversion factor in calculations.
Another way of expressing concentration is to give the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution. Of all the quantitative measures of concentration,
molarity is the one used most frequently by chemists. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
number of moles of solute
molarity = (13.6.1)
number of liters of solution
The symbol for molarity is M or moles/liter. Chemists also use square brackets to indicate a reference to the molarity of a substance. For example, the
expression [ Ag ] refers to the molarity of the silver ion in solution. Solution concentrations expressed in molarity are the easiest to calculate with but the most
+
difficult to make in the lab. Such concentration units are useful for discussing chemical reactions in which a solute is a product or a reactant. Molar mass can
then be used as a conversion factor to convert amounts in moles to amounts in grams.
It is important to remember that “mol” in this expression refers to moles of solute and that “L” refers to liters of solution. For example, if you have 1.5 mol of
NaCl dissolved in 0.500 L of solution, its molarity is therefore
1.5 mol NaCl
= 3.0 M NaCl (13.6.2)
0.500 L solution
Sometimes (aq) is added when the solvent is water, as in “3.0 M NaCl (aq).” You would read as "a 3.00 molar sodium chloride solution," meaning that there are
3.00 moles of NaOH dissolved per one liter of solution.
Be sure to note that molarity is calculated as the total volume of the entire solution, not just volume of solvent!
The solute contributes to total volume.
If the quantity of the solute is given in mass units, you must convert mass units to mole units before using the definition of molarity to calculate concentration.
For example, what is the molar concentration of a solution of 22.4 g of HCl dissolved in 1.56 L?
First, convert the mass of solute to moles using the molar mass of HCl (36.5 g/mol):
1 mol H C l
22.4 gH C l × = 0.614 mol H C l (13.6.3)
36.5 gH C l
Now we can use the definition of molarity to determine a concentration:

0.614 mol H C l
M = = 0.394 M H C l (13.6.4)
1.56L solution
Before a molarity concentration can be calculated, the amount of the solute must be expressed in moles, and the volume of the solution must be
expressed in liters, as demonstrated in the following example.
Example 13.6.1
A solution is prepared by dissolving 42.23 g of NH 4
Cl into enough water to make 500.0 mL of solution. Calculate its molarity.
SOLUTION
Given:
Mass = 42.23 g NH 4
Cl
Volume solution = 500.0 mL = 0.5000 L
Find: Molarity = ? M
List other known quantities. Molar mass NH 4

Cl = 53.50 g/mol
1. The mass of the ammonium chloride is first converted to moles.
Plan the problem.
2. Then the molarity is calculated by dividing by liters. Note the given volume has been
converted to liters.
mol NH4 Cl
M =
L solution

1 mol NH Cl
4
Cancel units and calculate. 42.23 g NH Cl ×

4
= 0.7893 mol NH Cl
4
(13.6.5)
53.50 g NH Cl
4
0.7893 mol NH Cl
4
= 1.579 M (13.6.6)
0.5000 L solution
The molarity is 1.579 M, meaning that a liter of the solution would contain
1.579 mol NH Cl. Four significant figures are appropriate.
4
Exercise 13.6.1
What is the molarity of a solution made when 66.2 g of C6H12O6 are dissolved to make 235 mL of solution?
Answer
1.57 M C6H12O6
Exercise 13.6.2
What is the concentration, in mol/L, where 137 g of NaCl has been dissolved in enough water to make 500 mL of solution?
Answer
4.69 M NaCl
Using Molarity in Calculations

Concentration can be a conversion factor between the amount of solute and the amount of solution or solvent (depending on the definition of the concentration
unit). As such, concentrations can be useful in a variety of stoichiometry problems. In many cases, it is best to use the original definition of the concentration
unit; it is that definition that provides the conversion factor.
A simple example of using a concentration unit as a conversion factor is one in which we use the definition of the concentration unit and rearrange; we can do
the calculation again as a unit conversion, rather than as a definition.
Determining moles of solute given the concentration and volume of a solution

For example, suppose we ask how many moles of solute are present in 0.108 L of a 0.887 M NaCl solution. Because 0.887 M means 0.887 mol/L, we can use
this second expression for the concentration as a conversion factor:
SOLUTION
0.887 mol N aC l
0.108 L N aC l × = 0.0958 mol N aC l (13.6.7)
1L solution
If we used the definition approach, we get the same answer, but now we are using conversion factor skills. Like any other conversion factor that relates two
different types of units, the reciprocal of the concentration can be also used as a conversion factor.
Determining volume of a solution given the concentration and moles of solute
Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters of 2.35 M CuSO4 are needed to obtain 4.88 mol of CuSO4?
SOLUTION
This is a one-step conversion, but the concentration must be written as the reciprocal for the units to work out:

1 L solution
4.88 mol C uSO4 × = 2.08 L of solution (13.6.8)
2.35 mol C uSO4
In a laboratory situation, a chemist must frequently prepare a given volume of solutions of a known molarity. The task is to calculate the mass of the solute that
is necessary. The molarity equation can be rearranged to solve for moles, which can then be converted to grams. The following example illustrates this.
Example 13.6.2
A chemist needs to prepare 3.00 L of a 0.250 M solution of potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
. What mass of
) KMnO
4
does she need to make the
solution?
SOLUTION
Given:
Molarity = 0.250 M
Volume = 3.00 L
Find: Mass KMnO 4
=? g
Molar mass KMnO 4

= 158.04 g/mol
List other known quantities.
0.250 mol KMnO4 to 1 L of KMnO4 solution
Plan the problem.
mol KMnO = 0.250 M KMnO × 3.00 L = 0.750 mol K
4 4

0.250 mol KMnO
4 158.04 g KMnO
4
3.00 L solution × × = 119 g KMnO
1 L solution 1 mol KMnO
4
When 119 g of potassium permanganate is dissolved into water to make 3.00 L of

solution, the molarity is 0.250 M.
Exercise 13.6.3
Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters of 0.0444 M CH2O are needed to obtain 0.0773 mol of CH2O?
Answer
1.74 L
Exercise 13.6.4
Answer the problems below using concentration as a conversion factor.
a. What mass of solute is present in 1.08 L of 0.0578 M H2SO4?
b. What volume of 1.50 M HCl solution contains 10.0 g of hydrogen chloride?
Answer a
6.12 g
Answer b
183 mL or 0.183L
How to indicate contentrations

square brackets are often used to represent concentration, e.g., [NaOH] = 0.50 M.

use the capital letter M for molarity, not a lower case m (this is a different concentration unit called molality).
Watch as the Flinn Scientific Tech Staff demonstrates "How To Prepare Solutions."
An important note - there are many different ways you can set up and solve your chemistry equations. Some students prefer to answer multi-step calculations in
one long step; others prefer to work out each step individually. Neither method is necessarily better or worse than the other method - whatever makes most sense
to you is the one you should use. We will typically use unit analysis (also called dimension analysis or factor analysis).
Contributors
Peggy Lawson (Oxbow Prairie Heights School). Funded by Saskatchewan Educational Technology Consortium.

13.7: Solution Dilution
Learning Objectives
Explain how concentrations can be changed in the lab
Understand how stock solutions are used in the laboratory
We are often concerned with how much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solution. We will begin our discussion of
solution concentration with two related and relative terms - dilute and concentrated.
A dilute solution is one in which there is a relatively small amount of solute dissolved in the solution.
A concentrated solution contains a relatively large amount of solute.
These two terms do not provide any quantitative information (actual numbers) - but they are often useful in comparing
solutions in a more general sense. These terms also do not tell us whether or not the solution is saturated or unsaturated, or
whether the solution is "strong" or "weak". These last two terms will have special meanings when we discuss acids and bases,
so be careful not to confuse these terms.
Stock Solutions
It is often necessary to have a solution whose concentration is very precisely known. Solutions containing a precise mass of
solute in a precise volume of solution are called stock (or standard) solutions. To prepare a standard solution a piece of lab
equipment called a volumetric flask should be used. These flasks range in size from 10 mL to 2000 mL are are carefully
calibrated to a single volume. On the narrow stem is a calibration mark. The precise mass of solute is dissolved in a bit of the
solvent and this is added to the flask. Then enough solvent is added to the flask until the level reaches the calibration mark.
Often it is convenient to prepare a series of solutions of known concentrations by first preparing a single stock solution as
described in the previous section. Aliquots (carefully measured volumes) of the stock solution can then be diluted to any
desired volume. In other cases it may be inconvenient to weigh accurately a small enough mass of sample to prepare a small
volume of a dilute solution. Each of these situations requires that a solution be diluted to obtain the desired concentration.
Dilutions of Stock (or Standard) Solutions

Imagine we have a salt water solution with a certain concentration. That means we have a certain amount of salt (a certain
mass or a certain number of moles) dissolved in a certain volume of solution. Next we willl dilute this solution - we do that by
adding more water, not more salt:
Before Dilution After Dilution

The molarity of solution 1 is
moles1
M1 = (13.7.1)
liter1
and the molarity of solution 2 is

moles2
M2 = (13.7.2)
liter2
rearrange the equations to find moles:

moles1 = M1 liter1 (13.7.3)
and
moles2 = M2 liter2 (13.7.4)

What stayed the same and what changed between the two solutions? By adding more water, we changed the volume of the
solution. Doing so also changed it's concentration. However, the number of moles of solute did not change. So,
moles1 = moles2 (13.7.5)
Therefore
M1 V1 = M2 V2 (13.7.6)
where
M1 and M are the concentrations of the original and diluted solutions and
2
V1 and V are the volumes of the two solutions

2
Preparing dilutions is a common activity in the chemistry lab and elsewhere. Once you understand the above relationship, the
calculations are easy to do.
Suppose that you have 100. mL of a 2.0 M solution of HCl. You dilute the solution by adding enough water to make the
solution volume 500. mL. The new molarity can easily be calculated by using the above equation and solving for M . 2
M1 × V1 2.0 M × 100. mL
M2 = = = 0.40 M HCl (13.7.7)
V2 500. mL
The solution has been diluted by one-fifth since the new volume is five times as great as the original volume. Consequently,
the molarity is one-fifth of its original value.
Another common dilution problem involves deciding how much of a highly concentrated solution is required to make a
desired quantity of solution of lesser concentration. The highly concentrated solution is typically referred to as the stock
solution.
Example 13.7.1 : Diluting NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid (HNO ) is a powerful and corrosive acid. When ordered from a chemical supply company, its molarity is
3
16 M. How much of the stock solution of nitric acid needs to be used to make 8.00 L of a 0.50 M solution?
SOLUTION
Given:
M1, Stock HNO 3
= 16 M

V2 = 8.00 L
to "find."
M2 = 0.50 M
Find: Volume stock HNO 3

(V1 ) =? L

1
Plan the problem M2 × V2

V1 = (13.7.8)
M1
Calculate and cancel units 0.50 M × 8.00 L
V1 = = 0.25 L = 250 mL (13.7.9)
16 M
250 mL of the stock HNO needs to be diluted with water to a final

3
Think about your result. volume of 8.00 L. The dilution is by a factor of 32 to go from 16 M
to 0.5 M.

Exercise 13.7.1
A 0.885 M solution of KBr whose initial volume is 76.5 mL has more water added until its concentration is 0.500 M.
What is the new volume of the solution?
Answer
135.4 mL
Diluting and Mixing Solutions
How to Dilute a Solution by CarolinaBiological
Note
The calculated volume will have the same dimensions as the input volume, and dimensional analysis tells us that in this
case we don't need to convert to liters, since L cancels when we divide M (mol/L) by M (mol/L).


13.8: Solution Stoichiometry
Learning Objectives
Determine amounts of reactants or products in aqueous solutions.
As we learned previously, double replacement reactions involve the reaction between ionic compounds in solution and, in the course of the reaction, the ions in the two reacting compounds are
“switched” (they replace each other). Because these reactions occur in aqueous solution, we can use the concept of molarity to directly calculate the number of moles of reactants or products
that will be formed, and hence their amounts (i.e. volume of solutions or mass of precipitates).
As an example, lead(II) nitrate and sodium chloride react to form sodium nitrate and the insoluble compound, lead(II) chloride.
Pb(NO ) (aq) + 2 NaCl(aq) → PbCl (s) + 2 NaNO (aq) (13.8.1)

3 2 2 3
In the reaction shown above, if we mixed 0.123 L of a 1.00 M solution of NaCl with 1.50 M solution of Pb(NO )
3 2
, we could calculate the volume of Pb(NO )
3 2
solution needed to
completely precipitate the Pb ions.
2 +
The molar concentration can also be expressed as the following:

1.00 mol NaCl
1.00 M NaCl =
1 L NaCl solution
and
1.50 mol Pb(NO )
3 2
1.50 M Pb(NO ) =
3 2
1 L Pb(NO ) solution
3 2
First, we must examine the reaction stoichiometry in the balanced reaction (Equation 13.8.1 ). In this reaction, one mole of Pb(NO )
3 2
reacts with two moles of NaCl to give one mole of
PbCl precipitate. Thus, the concept map utilizing the stoichiometric ratios is:
2
so the volume of lead (II) nitrate that reacted is calculated as:
1.00 mol NaCl 1 mol Pb(NO ) 1 L Pb(NO ) solution

3 2 3 2
0.123 L NaCl solution × × × = 0.041 Pb(NO ) (13.8.2)
3 2
1 L NaCl solution 2 mol NaCl 1.5 mol Pb(NO )
3 2
L solution
This volume make intuitive sense for two reasons: (1) the number of moles of Pb(NO ) required is half of the number of moles of NaCl based off of the stoichiometry in the balanced
3 2
reaction (Equation 13.8.1) and (2) the concentration of Pb(NO ) solution is 50% greater than the NaCl solution, so less volume is needed.
3 2
Example 13.8.1
What volume (in L) of 0.500 M sodium sulfate will react with 275 mL of 0.250 M barium chloride to completely precipitate all Ba 2 +
in the solution?
Solution
Given: 275 mL BaCl2

0.250 molBaCl2
0.250 M BaCl or 2
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you to 1 L BaC l2 solution
"find." 0.500 molN a2 S O4

0.500 M Na 2
SO
4
or
1 L N a2 S O4 solution
Find: Volume Na 2
SO
4
solution.
Na SO (aq) + BaCl (aq) ⟶ BaSO (s) + 2NaCl(aq)
2 2
4 4 –
Set-up and balance the chemical equation
An insoluble product is formed after the reaction.
1 mol of Na2SO4 to 1 mol BaCl2
1000 mL = 1 L
1 L 0.250 mol BaCl2 1 mol N a

275 mL BaC l2 solution × × ×
Cancel units and calculate. 1000 mL 1 L BaC l2 solution 1 mol B
= 0.1375 L sodium sulfate

The lesser amount (almost half) of sodium sulfate is to be expected as it is

more concentrated than barium chloride. Also, the unit is correct.
Exercise 13.8.1
What volume of 0.250 M lithium hydroxide will completely react with 0.500 L of 0.250 M of sulfuric acid solution?
Answer
0.250 L LiOH solution

This page was constructed from content via the following contributor(s) and edited (topically or extensively) by the LibreTexts development team to meet platform style, presentation, and
quality:
Paul R. Young, Professor of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Wiki: AskTheNerd; PRY askthenerd.com - pyoung uic.edu; ChemistryOnline.com

13.9: Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation- Making Water
Freeze Colder and Boil Hotter
Learning Objectives
Explain what the term "colligative" means, and list the colligative properties.
Indicate what happens to the boiling point and the freezing point of a solvent when a solute is added to it.
Calculate boiling point elevations and freezing point depressions for a solution.
People who live in colder climates have seen the trucks put salt on the roads when snow or ice is forecast. Why do they do
that? As a result of the information you will explore in this section you will understand why these events occur. You will also
learn to calculate exactly how much of an effect a specific solute can have on the boiling point or freezing point of a solution.
The example given in the introduction is an example of a colligative property. Colligative properties are properties that differ
based on the concentration of solute in a solvent, but not on the type of solute. What this means for the example above is that
people in colder climates don't necessarily need salt to get the same effect on the roads - any solute will work. However, the
higher the concentration of solute, the more these properties will change.
Boiling Point Elevation
Water boils at 100 C at 1 atm of pressure, but a solution of salt water does not . When table salt is added to water the
o
resulting solution has a higher boiling point than the water did by itself. The ions form an attraction with the solvent particles
that then prevent the water molecules from going into the gas phase. Therefore, the salt-water solution will not boil at 100 C. o
In order to cause the salt-water solution to boil, the temperature must be raised about 100 C. This is true for any solute added
o
to a solvent; the boiling point will be higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent (without the solute). In other words,
when anything is dissolved in water the solution will boil at a higher temperature than pure water would.
The boiling point elevation due to the presence of a solute is also a colligative property. That is, the amount of change in the
boiling point is related to the number of particles of solute in a solution and is not related to chemical composition of the
solute. A 0.20 m solution of table salt and a 0.20 m solution of hydrochloric acid would have the same effect on the boiling
point.
Freezing Point Depression

The effect of adding a solute to a solvent has the opposite effect on the freezing point of a solution as it does on the boiling
point. A solution will have a lower freezing point than a pure solvent. The freezing point is the temperature at which the
liquid changes to a solid. At a given temperature, if a substance is added to a solvent (such as water), the solute-solvent
interactions prevent the solvent from going into the solid phase. The solute-solvent interactions require the temperature to
decrease further in order to solidify the solution. A common example is found when salt is used on icy roadways. Here the salt
is put on the roads so that the water on the roads will not freeze at the normal 0 C but at a lower temperature, as low as −9 C.
o o
The de-icing of planes is another common example of freezing point depression in action. A number of solutions are used but
commonly a solution such as ethylene glycol, or a less toxic monopropylene glycol, is used to de-ice an aircraft. The aircrafts
are sprayed with the solution when the temperature is predicted to drop below the freezing point. The freezing point
depression is the difference in the freezing points of the solution from the pure solvent. This is true for any solute added to a
solvent; the freezing point of the solution will be lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent (without the solute).
Note
When anything is dissolved in water, the solution will freeze at a lower temperature than pure water would.
The freezing point depression due to the presence of a solute is also a colligative property. That is, the amount of change in the
freezing point is related to the number of particles of solute in a solution and is not related to the chemical composition of the
solute. A 0.20 m solution of table salt and a 0.20 m solution of hydrochloric acid would have the same effect on the freezing
point.

Figure 13.9.1 : Comparison of boiling and freezing points of a pure liquid (right side) with a solution (left side).
Comparing the Freezing and Boiling Point of Solutions

Recall that covalent and ionic compounds do not dissolve in the same way. Ionic compounds break up into cations and anions
when they dissolve. Covalent compounds typically do not break up. For example a sugar/water solution stay as sugar + water
with the sugar molecules staying as molecules. Remember that colligative properties are due to the number of solute particles
in the solution. Adding 10 molecules of sugar to a solvent will produce 10 solute particles in the solution. When the solute is
ionic, such as NaCl however, adding 10 formulas of solute to the solution will produce 20 ions (solute particles) in the
solution. Therefore, adding enough NaCl solute to a solvent to produce a 0.20 m solution will have twice the effect of adding
enough sugar to a solvent to produce a 0.20 m solution. Colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in the
solution.
"i" is the number of particles that the solute will dissociate into upon mixing with the solvent. For example, sodium chloride,
NaCl, will dissociate into two ions so for NaCl, i = 2 ; for lithium nitrate, LiNO , i = 2 ; and for calcium chloride, CaCl ,
3 2
i = 3 . For covalent compounds, i is always equal to 1.
By knowing the molality of a solution and the number of particles a compound will dissolve to form, it is possible to predict
which solution in a group will have the lowest freezing point. To compare the boiling or freezing points of solutions, follow
these general steps:
1. Label each solute as ionic or covalent.
2. If the solute is ionic, determine the number of ions in the formula. Be careful to look for polyatomic ions.
3. Multiply the original molality (m) of the solution by the number of particles formed when the solution dissolves. This will
give you the total concentration of particles dissolved.
4. Compare these values. The higher total concentration will result in a higher boiling point and a lower freezing point.
Example 13.9.1
Rank the following solutions in water in order of increasing (lowest to highest) freezing point:
0.1 m NaCl
0.1 m C H O
6 12 6
0.1 m CaI
2
Solution
To compare freezing points, we need to know the total concentration of all particles when the solute has been dissolved.
0.1 m NaCl : This compound is ionic (metal with nonmetal), and will dissolve into 2 parts. The total final
concentration is: (0.1 m) (2) = 0.2 m
0.1 m C H O : This compound is covalent (nonmetal with nonmetal), and will stay as 1 part. The total final
6 12 6

0.1 m CaI : This compound is ionic (metal with nonmetal), and will dissolve into 3 parts. The total final
2

Remember, the greater the concentration of particles, the lower the freezing point will be. 0.1 m CaI will have the 2
lowest freezing point, followed by 0.1 m NaCl, and the highest of the three solutions will be 0.1 m C H O , but all 6 12 6
three of them will have a lower freezing point than pure water.

The boiling pint of a solution is higher than the boiling point of a pure solvent and the freezing point of a solution is lower than
the freezing point of a pure solvent. However, the amount to which the boiling point increases or the freezing point decreases
depends on the amount of solute that is added to the solvent. A mathematical equation is used to calculate the boiling point
elevation or the freezing point depression.
The boiling point elevation is the amount the boiling point temperature increases compared to the original solvent. For
example, the boiling point of pure water at 1.0 atm is 100 C while the boiling point of a 2% salt-water solution is about
o
102 C. Therefore, the boiling point elevation would be 2 C. The freezing point depression is the amount the freezing
o o
temperature decreases.
Both the boiling point elevation and the freezing point depression are related to the molality of the solution. Looking at the
formula for the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, we can see similarities between the two. The equation
used to calculate the increase in the boiling point is:
ΔTb = kb ⋅ m ⋅ i (13.9.1)
Where:
ΔTb = the amount the boiling point increases
kb = the boiling point elevation constant which depends on the solvent (for water, this number is 0.515 C/m)o
m = the molality of the solution
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves (for covalent compounds, this number is always 1)
The following equation is used to calculate the decrease in the freezing point:
ΔTf = kf ⋅ m ⋅ i (13.9.2)
Where:
ΔTf = the amount the freezing temperature decreases
kf = the freezing point depression constant which depends on the solvent (for water, this number is 1.86 C/m) o
m = the molality of the solution
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves (for covalent compounds, this number is always 1)
Example 13.9.2 : Adding Antifreeze to Protein Engines

Antifreeze is used in automobile radiators to keep the coolant from freezing. In geographical areas where winter
temperatures go below the freezing point of water, using pure water as the coolant could allow the water to freeze. Since
water expands when it freezes, freezing coolant could crack engine blocks, radiators, and coolant lines. The main
component in antifreeze is ethylene glycol, C H (OH) . What is the concentration of ethylene glycol in a solution of
2 4 2
water, in molality, if the freezing point dropped by 2.64 C? The freezing point constant, k , for water is 1.86 C/m.
o
f
o
Solution
Use the equation for freezing point depression of solution (Equation 13.9.2):
ΔTf = kf ⋅ m ⋅ i (13.9.3)
Substituting in the appropriate values we get:

o o
2.64 C = (1.86 C/m) (m) (1) (13.9.4)
Solve for m by dividing both sides by 1.86 o

C/m .
m = 1.42 (13.9.5)
Example 13.9.3 : Adding Salt to Elevate Boiling Temperature

A solution of 10.0 g of sodium chloride is added to 100.0 g of water in an attempt to elevate the boiling point. What is the
boiling point of the solution? k for water is 0.52 C/m.
b
o
Solution

Use the equation for boiling point elevation of solution (Equation 13.9.1):
ΔTb = kb ⋅ m ⋅ i (13.9.6)
We need to be able to substitute each variable into this equation.

o
kb = 0.52 C/m
m: We must solve for this using stoichiometry. Given: 10.0 g NaCl and 100.0 g H O
2
Find: mol NaCl/kg H O
2
.
Ratios: molar mass of NaCl, 1000 g = 1 kg
10.0 g NaCl 1000 g H O

1 mol NaCl 2
⋅ ⋅ = 1.71 m (13.9.7)
1 kg H O
100.0 g H O 58.45 g NaCl 2
2
For NaCl, i = 2
Substitute these values into the equation ΔT b = kb ⋅ m ⋅ i . We get:
o
C o
ΔTb = (0.52 ) (1.71 m ) (2) = 1.78 C (13.9.8)
m
Water normally boils at o

100 C , but our calculation shows that the boiling point increased by 1.78 C
o
. Our new boiling
point is 101.78 C.o
Note: Since sea water contains roughly 28.0 g of NaCl per liter, this salt water solution is approximately four times more
concentrated than sea water (all for a 2° C rise of boiling temperature).
Summary
Colligative properties are properties that are due only to the number of particles in solution and not related to the chemical
properties of the solute.
Boiling points of solutions are higher than the boiling points of the pure solvents.
Freezing points of solutions are lower than the freezing points of the pure solvents.
Ionic compounds split into ions when they dissolve, forming more particles. Covalent compounds stay as complete
molecules when they dissolve.
Vocabulary
Colligative property: A property that is due only to the number of particles in solution and not the type of the solute.
Boiling point elevation: The amount the boiling point of a solution increases from the boiling point of the pure solvent.
Freezing point depression: The amount the freezing point of a solution decreases from the freezing point of the pure
solvent.


13.10: Osmosis- Why Drinking Salt Water Causes Dehydration
Learning Objectives
Before we introduce the final colligative property, we need to present a new concept. A semipermeable membrane is a thin
membrane that will pass certain small molecules but not others. A thin sheet of cellophane, for example, acts as a
semipermeable membrane. Consider the system in Figure 13.10.1.
Figure 13.10.1: Osmosis. (a) Two solutions of differing concentrations are placed on either side of a semipermeable
membrane. (b) When osmosis occurs, solvent molecules selectively pass through the membrane from the dilute solution to
the concentrated solution, diluting it until the two concentrations are the same. The pressure exerted by the different height of
the solution on the right is called the osmotic pressure.
a. A semipermeable membrane separates two solutions having the different concentrations marked. Curiously, this situation is
not stable; there is a tendency for water molecules to move from the dilute side (on the left) to the concentrated side (on the
right) until the concentrations are equalized, as in Figure 13.10.1b.
b. This tendency is called osmosis. In osmosis, the solute remains in its original side of the system; only solvent molecules
move through the semipermeable membrane. In the end, the two sides of the system will have different volumes. Because a
column of liquid exerts a pressure, there is a pressure difference Π on the two sides of the system that is proportional to the
height of the taller column. This pressure difference is called the osmotic pressure, which is a colligative property.
The osmotic pressure of a solution is easy to calculate:
Π = M RT (13.10.1)
where Π is the osmotic pressure of a solution, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the ideal gas law constant, and T is the
absolute temperature. This equation is reminiscent of the ideal gas law we considered in Chapter 6.
Example 13.10.5 : Osmotic Pressure

What is the osmotic pressure of a 0.333 M solution of C6H12O6 at 25°C?
Solution
First we need to convert our temperature to kelvins:
T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Now we can substitute into the equation for osmotic pressure, recalling the value for R:
\[Π =(0.333M)\left (0.08205\frac{L.atm}{mol.K} \right )(298K)\]
The units may not make sense until we realize that molarity is defined as moles per liter:
\[Π =\left ( 0.333\frac{mol}{L} \right )\left (0.08205\frac{L.atm}{mol.K} \right )(298K)\]
Now we see that the moles, liters, and kelvins cancel, leaving atmospheres, which is a unit of pressure. Solving,
Π = 8.14 atm (13.10.2)

This is a substantial pressure! It is the equivalent of a column of water 84 m tall.
Exercise 13.10.5
What is the osmotic pressure of a 0.0522 M solution of C12H22O11 at 55°C?
Answer
1.40 atm
Osmotic pressure is important in biological systems because cell walls are semipermeable membranes. In particular, when a
person is receiving intravenous (IV) fluids, the osmotic pressure of the fluid needs to be approximately the same as blood
serum; otherwise bad things can happen. Figure 13.10.3 shows three red blood cells:
a healthy red blood cell
a red blood cell that has been exposed to a lower concentration than normal blood serum (a so-called hypotonic solution);
the cell has plumped up as solvent moves into the cell to dilute the solutes inside.
a red blood cell exposed to a higher concentration than normal blood serum (hypertonic); water leaves the red blood cell,
so it collapses onto itself. Only when the solutions inside and outside the cell are the same (isotonic) will the red blood cell
be able to do its job.
Figure 13.10.3: Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells. (a) This is what a normal red blood cell looks like. (b) When a red
blood cell is exposed to a hypotonic solution, solvent goes through the cell membrane and dilutes the inside of the cell. (c)
When a red blood cell is exposed to a hypertonic solution, solvent goes from the cell to the surrounding solution, diluting the
hypertonic solution and collapsing the cell. Neither of these last two cases is desirable, so IV solutions must be isotonic with
blood serum to not cause deleterious effects.
Osmotic pressure is also the reason you should not drink seawater if you’re stranded in a lifeboat on an ocean; seawater has a
higher osmotic pressure than most of the fluids in your body. You can drink the water, but ingesting it will pull water out of
your cells as osmosis works to dilute the seawater. Ironically, your cells will die of thirst, and you will also die. (It is OK to
drink the water if you are stranded on a body of freshwater, at least from an osmotic pressure perspective.) Osmotic pressure is
also thought to be important—in addition to capillary action—in getting water to the tops of tall trees.
Summary
Osmotic pressure is caused by concentration differences between solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane and is
an important biological issue.



CHAPTER OVERVIEW
14: ACIDS AND BASES
Acids and bases are important classes of chemical compounds. They are part of the foods and
beverages we ingest, they are present in medicines and other consumer products, and they are
prevalent in the world around us. In this chapter, we will focus on acids and bases and their
chemistry.
14.1: SOUR PATCH KIDS AND INTERNATIONAL SPY MOVIES

Sour Patch Kids are a soft candy with a coating of invert sugar and sour sugar (a combination of
citric acid, tartaric acid and sugar). Its slogan, "Sour. Sweet. Gone.", refers to the sour-to-sweet
taste of the candy.
14.2: ACIDS- PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES

Acids are very common in some of the foods that we eat. Citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain citric acid and ascorbic
acid, which is better known as vitamin C. Carbonated sodas contain phosphoric acid. Vinegar contains acetic acid. Your own stomach
utilizes hydrochloric acid to digest food. Acids are a distinct class of compounds because of the properties of their aqueous solutions.
14.3: BASES- PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES

A base is thought of as a substance which can accept protons or any chemical compound that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution.
It is also commonly referred to as any substance that can react with an acid to decrease or neutralize its acidic properties, change the
color of indicators (e.g. turn red litmus paper blue), feel slippery to the touch when in solution, taste bitter, react with acids to form
salts, and promote certain chemical reactions (e.g. base catalysis).
14.4: MOLECULAR DEFINITIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES

Although the properties of acids and bases had been recognized for a long time, it was Svante Arrhenius in the 1880's who determined
that: the properties of acids were due to the presence of hydrogen ions, and the properties of bases were due to the presence of
hydroxide ions.
14.5: REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES

When an acid and a base are combined, water and a salt are the products. Salts are ionic compounds containing a positive ion other
than H+ and a negative ion other than the hydroxide ion, OH-. Double displacement reactions of this type are called neutralization
reactions. Salt solutions do not always have a pH of 7, however. Through a process known as hydrolysis, the ions produced when an
acid and base combine may react with the water to produce slightly acidic or basic solutions.
14.6: ACID–BASE TITRATION- A WAY TO QUANTIFY THE AMOUNT OF ACID OR BASE IN A SOLUTION
Acid-base titrations are lab procedures used to determine the concentration of a solution. One of the standard laboratory exercises in
General Chemistry is an acid-base titration. During an acid-base titration, an acid with a known concentration (a standard solution) is
slowly added to a base with an unknown concentration (or vice versa). A few drops of indicator solution are added to the base. The
indicator will signal, by color change, when the base has been neutralized (when [H+] = [OH-]).
14.7: STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

Acids are classified as either strong or weak, based on their ionization in water. A strong acid is an acid which is completely ionized
in an aqueous solution. A weak acid is an acid that ionizes only slightly in an aqueous solution. Acetic acid (found in vinegar) is a
very common weak acid.
14.8: WATER- ACID AND BASE IN ONE

Water is an interesting compound in many respects. Here, we will consider its ability to behave as an acid or a base. In some
circumstances, a water molecule will accept a proton and thus act as a Brønsted-Lowry base.
14.9: THE PH AND POH SCALES- WAYS TO EXPRESS ACIDITY AND BASICITY
pH and pOH are defined as the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration and hydroxide concentration, respectively. Knowledge of
ether can be used to calculate either [H+] of [OH-]. pOH is related to pH and can be easily calculated from pH.
14.10: BUFFERS- SOLUTIONS THAT RESIST PH CHANGE

A buffer is a solution that resists dramatic changes in pH. Buffers do so by being composed of certain pairs of solutes: either a weak
acid plus a salt derived from that weak acid or a weak base plus a salt of that weak base.
1 6/21/2020
14.1: Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies
Sour Patch Kids are a soft candy with a coating of invert sugar and sour sugar (a combination of citric acid, tartaric acid and
sugar). Its slogan, "Sour. Sweet. Gone.", refers to the sour-to-sweet taste of the candy.
Figure 14.1.1 : Sour Patch Kids candies. Image courtesy of Evan-Amos (public domain).
Sour sugar is a food ingredient that is used to impart a sour flavor, made from citric or tartaric acid and sugar. It is used to coat
sour candies like Sour Patch Kids. Eating large amounts of sour sugar can cause irritation of the tongue because of the acid. It
can also cause irreversible dental erosion.

Wikipedia

14.2: Acids- Properties and Examples
Learning Objectives
Examine properties of acids.
Many people enjoy drinking coffee. A cup first thing in the morning helps start the day. But keeping the coffee maker clean
can be a problem. Lime deposits build up after a while and slow down the brewing process. The best cure for this is to put
vinegar (dilute acetic acid) in the pot and run it through the brewing cycle. The vinegar dissolves the deposits and cleans the
maker, which will speed up the brewing process back to its original rate. Just be sure to run water through the brewing process
after the vinegar, or you will get some really horrible coffee.
Acids
Acids are very common in some of the foods that we eat. Citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain citric acid and
ascorbic acid, which is better known as vitamin C. Carbonated sodas contain phosphoric acid. Vinegar contains acetic acid.
Your own stomach utilizes hydrochloric acid to digest food. Acids are a distinct class of compounds because of the properties
of their aqueous solutions as outlined below:
1. Aqueous solutions of acids are electrolytes, meaning that they conduct electrical current. Some acids are strong electrolytes
because they ionize completely in water, yielding a great many ions. Other acids are weak electrolytes that exist primarily
in a non-ionized form when dissolved in water.
2. Acids have a sour taste. Lemons, vinegar, and sour candies all contain acids.
3. Acids change the color of certain acid-base indicates. Two common indicators are litmus and phenolphthalein. Blue litmus
turns red in the presence of an acid, while phenolphthalein turns colorless.
4. Acids react with active metals to yield hydrogen gas. Recall that an activity series is a list of metals in descending order of
reactivity. Metals that are above hydrogen in the activity series will replace the hydrogen from an acid in a single-
replacement reaction, as shown below:
Zn (s) + H SO (aq) → ZnSO (aq) + H (g) (14.2.1)
2 4 4 2
5. Acids react with bases to produce a salt compound and water. When equal moles of an acid and a base are combined, the
acid is neutralized by the base. The products of this reaction are an ionic compound, which is labeled as a salt, and water.
It should not be hard for you to name several common acids, but you might find that listing bases is just a little more difficult.
Here's a partial list of some common acids, along with some chemical formulas:
Table 14.2.1 : Common Acids and Their Uses
Chemist Name Common Name Uses
Used in cleaning (refining) metals, in

muriatic acid (used in pools) and stomach acid
hydrochloric acid, HCl maintenance of swimming pools, and for
is HCl)
household cleaning.
Used in car batteries, and in the manufacture of
sulfuric acid, H2SO4
fertilizers.
Used in the manufacture of fertilizers,
nitric acid, HNO3
explosives and in extraction of gold.
acetic acid, HC2H3O2 vinegar Main ingredient in vinegar.
carbonic acid, H2CO3 responsible for the "fiz" in carbonated drinks As an ingredient in carbonated drinks.
Used in food and dietary supplements. Also
citric acid, C6H8O7 added as an acidulant in creams, gels, liquids,
and lotions.
acetylsalicylic acid, C6H4(OCOCH3)CO2H aspirin The active ingredient in aspirin.

In the next section we will begin to examine what, exactly makes an acid an acid, and what makes a base act as a base. Take a
look at the formulas given in the first table and take a guess.
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid is a corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. A colorless, highly pungent solution of
hydrogen chloride (HCl) in water. Hydrochloric acid is usually prepared by treating HCl with water.
+ −
HCl(g) + H O(l) ⟶ H O (aq) + Cl (aq) (14.2.2)
2 3
Hydrochloric acid can therefore be used to prepare chloride salts. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, since it is completely
dissociated in water. Hydrochloric acid is the preferred acid in titration for determining the amount of bases.
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H SO . Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid and
2 4
has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners,[as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in
various cleaning agents. It is also a central substance in the chemical industry.
Figure 14.2.1 : Drops of concentrated sulfuric acid rapidly decompose a piece of cotton towel by dehydration. (CC BY-SA
3.0; Toxic Walker).
Because the hydration of sulfuric acid is thermodynamically favorable (and is highly exothermic) and the affinity of it for
water is sufficiently strong, sulfuric acid is an excellent dehydrating agent. Concentrated sulfuric acid has a very powerful
dehydrating property, removing water (H O ) from other compounds including sugar and other carbohydrates and producing
2
carbon, heat, steam. Sulfuric acid behaves as a typical acid in its reaction with most metals by generating hydrogen gas
(Equation 14.2.3).
M + H SO → M(SO ) + H (14.2.3)
2 4 4 2
Nitric Acid
Nitric acid (HNO ) is a highly corrosive mineral acid and is also commonly used as a strong oxidizing agent. Nitric acid is
3
normally considered to be a strong acid at ambient temperatures. Nitric acid can be made by reacting nitrogen dioxide (
NO (g)) with water.
2
3 NO (g) + H O(l) → 2 HNO (ag) + NO(g) (14.2.4)

2 2 3
Nitric acid reacts with most metals, but the details depend on the concentration of the acid and the nature of the metal. Dilute
nitric acid behaves as a typical acid in its reaction with most metals (e.g., nitric acid with magnesium, manganese or zinc will
liberate H gas):
2
Mg + 2 HNO → Mg (NO ) +H (14.2.5)

3 3 2 2
Mn + 2 HNO → Mn(NO ) +H (14.2.6)

3 3 2 2
Zn + 2 HNO → Zn(NO ) +H (14.2.7)

3 3 2 2

Nitric acid is a corrosive acid and a powerful oxidizing agent. The major hazard posed by it is chemical burns as it carries out
acid hydrolysis with proteins (amide) and fats (ester) which consequently decomposes living tissue (Figure 14.2.2).
Concentrated nitric acid stains human skin yellow due to its reaction with the keratin
Figure 14.2.2 : Second degree burn caused by nitric acid. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Alcamán).
Carbonic Acid
Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H CO and is also a name sometimes given to solutions of
2 3
carbon dioxide in water (carbonated water), because such solutions contain small amounts of H CO (aq). Carbonic acid,
2 3
which is a weak acid, forms two kinds of salts, the carbonates and the bicarbonates. In geology, carbonic acid causes limestone
to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites.
Carbonic acid is a polyprotic acid — specifically it is diprotic meaning it has two protons which may dissociate from the
parent molecule.
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it exists in chemical equilibrium (discussed in Chapter 15) producing carbonic acid:
CO +H O −
↽⇀
− H CO (14.2.8)
2 2 2 3
The reaction can be pushed to favor the reactants to generate CO 2

(g) from solution, which is key to the bubbles observed in
carbonated beverages (Figure 14.2.3).
Figure 14.2.3 : A glass of sparkling water. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Nevit Dilmen).
Formic Acid
Formic acid (HCO H ) is the simplest carboxylic acid and is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs
2
naturally, most notably in some ants. The word "formic" comes from the Latin word for ant, formica, referring to its early
isolation by the distillation of ant bodies. Formic acid occurs widely in nature as its conjugate base formate.
Citric Acid
Citric acid (C H O ) is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid that occurs naturally in citrus fruits. The citrate ion is an
6 8 7
intermediate in the TCA cycle (Krebs cycle), a central metabolic pathway for animals, plants and bacteria. Because it is one of
the stronger edible acids, the dominant use of citric acid is used as a flavoring and preservative in food and beverages,
especially soft drinks.

Figure 14.2.4 : Lemons, oranges, limes, and other citrus fruits possess high concentrations of citric acid (CC BY-SA 2.5;
André Karwath).
Acetylsalicylic Acid
Acetylsalicylic acid (also known as aspirin) is a medication used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation. Aspirin, in the form of
leaves from the willow tree, has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years.
Figure 14.2.5 : Ball-and-stick model of the aspirin molecule. (Public Domain; Ben Mills).
Aspirin is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance.
Summary
A brief summary of key aspects of several key acids commonly encountered by students was given. Acids are a distinct class
of compounds because of the properties of their aqueous solutions.


14.3: Bases- Properties and Examples
Learning Objectives
Examine properties of bases.
Perhaps you have eaten too much pizza and felt very uncomfortable hours later. This feeling is due to excess stomach acid
being produced. The discomfort can be dealt with by taking an antacid. The base in the antacid will react with the HCl in the
stomach and neutralize it, taking care of that unpleasant feeling.
Bases
Bases have properties that mostly contrast with those of acids.
1. Aqueous solutions of bases are also electrolytes. Bases can be either strong or weak, just as acids can.
2. Bases often have a bitter taste and are found in foods less frequently than acids. Many bases, like soaps, are slippery to the
touch.
3. Bases also change the color of indicators. Litmus turns blue in the presence of a base while phenolphthalein turns pink.
4. Bases do not react with metals in the way that acids do.
5. Bases react with acids to produce a salt and water.
Figure 14.3.1 : Phenolphthalein indicator in presence of base.

Warning
Tasting chemicals and touching them are NOT good lab practices and should be avoided - in other words, don't do this at
home.
Bases are less common as foods, but they are nonetheless present in many household products. Many cleaners contain
ammonia, a base. Sodium hydroxide is found in drain cleaner. Antacids, which combat excess stomach acid, are comprised of
bases such as magnesium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen carbonate. Various common bases and its uses are given in Table
14.3.2.
Table 14.3.1 : Common Bases and Its Uses

Some Common Bases Uses
sodium hydroxide, NaOH Used in the manufacture of soaps and detergents and as the main
(lye or caustic soda) ingredient in oven and drain cleaners.
potassium hydroxide, KOH Used in the production of liquid soaps and soft soaps. Used in alkaline
(lye or caustic potash) batteries.
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 Used as an ingredient in laxatives, antacids, and deodorants. Also used
(milk of magnesia) in the neutralization of acidic wastewater.
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Used in the manufacture of cement and lime water. Also, added to
(slaked lime) neutralize acidic soil.
aluminum hydroxide Used in water purification and as an ingredient in antacids.
Used as a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical
ammonia, NH3 products and in many commercial cleaning products. Used in the
manufacture of fertilizers.

Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound with formula NaOH . It is a white solid
ionic compound consisting of sodium cations Na and hydroxide anions OH .
+ −
Figure 14.3.1 : Sample of sodium hydroxide as pellets in a watchglass. (Public Domain; Walkerma).
Dissolution of solid sodium hydroxide in water is a highly exothermic reaction
+ −
NaOH(s) → Na (aq) + OH (aq) (14.3.1)
The resulting solution is usually colorless and odorless and feels slippery when it comes in contact with skin.
Potassium Hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH , and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), this colorless solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications,
most of which exploit its corrosive nature and its reactivity toward acids. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic.
+ −
KOH(s) → K (aq) + OH (aq) (14.3.2)
Concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes.
Magnesium Hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH) . Magnesium hydroxide is a common
2
component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia, as well as laxatives.
Figure 14.3.1 : Bottle of Antacid tablets. (CC BY 2.,5; Midnightcomm).

It is a white solid with low solubility in water. Combining a solution of many magnesium salts with basic water induces
precipitation of solid Mg(OH) . Although a weak concentration of dissociated ions can be found in solution:
2
2 + −
Mg (OH) (s) −
↽⇀
− Mg (aq) + 2 OH (aq) (14.3.3)
2
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide (traditionally called slaked lime) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH) . It is a 2
colorless crystal or white powder. It has many names including hydrated lime, caustic lime, builders' lime, slaked lime, cal, or

pickling lime. Calcium hydroxide is used in many applications, including food preparation. Limewater is the common name
for a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide.
Calcium hydroxide is relatively insoluble in water, but is large enough that its solutions are basic according to the following
reaction:
2 + −
Ca (OH) (s) −
↽⇀
− Ca (aq) + 2 OH (aq) (14.3.4)
2
Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH and is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent
3
smell. It is the active product of “smelling salts,” and can quickly revive the faint of heart and light of head. Although common
in nature and in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its concentrated form
Figure 14.3.1 : Ball-and-stick model of the ammonia molecule. (Public Domain; Ben Mills).
In aqueous solution, ammonia acts as a base, acquiring hydrogen ions from H 2
O to yield ammonium and hydroxide ions
+ −
NH (g) + H O(l) −
↽⇀
− NH (aq) + OH (aq) (14.3.5)
3 2 4
Ammonia is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning
products.
Summary
A brief summary of properties of bases are given.
Properties bases mostly contrast acids.
Bases have many and varied uses.


14.4: Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases
Learning Objectives
Identify an Arrhenius acid and an Arrhenius base.
Identify a Brønsted-Lowry acid and a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Identify conjugate acid-base pairs in an acid-base reaction.
There are three major classifications of substances known as acids or bases. The Arrhenius definition states that an acid
produces H+ in solution and a base produces OH-. This theory was developed by Svante Arrhenius in 1883. Later, two more
sophisticated and general theories were proposed. These are the Brønsted-Lowry and the Lewis definitions of acids and bases.
The Lewis theory is discussed elsewhere.
The Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases

In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of compounds, termed acids and bases.
When dissolved in an aqueous solution, certain ions were released into the solution. An Arrhenius acid is a compound that
increases the concentration of H ions that are present when added to water. These H+ ions form the hydronium ion (H3O+)
+
when they combine with water molecules. This process is represented in a chemical equation by adding H2O to the reactants
side.
+ −
HCl(aq) → H (aq) + Cl (aq) (14.4.1)
In this reaction, hydrochloric acid (H C l) dissociates completely into hydrogen (H+) and chlorine (Cl-) ions when dissolved in
water, thereby releasing H+ ions into solution. Formation of the hydronium ion equation:
+ −
HCl(aq) + H O(l) → H O (aq) + Cl (aq) (14.4.2)
2 3
An Arrhenius base is a compound that increases the concentration of OH −

ions that are present when added to water. The
dissociation is represented by the following equation:
+ −
NaOH (aq) → Na (aq) + OH (aq) (14.4.3)
In this reaction, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) disassociates into sodium (N a ) and hydroxide (OH ) ions when dissolved in
+ −
water, thereby releasing OH- ions into solution.
Arrhenius acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions in solution and
Arrhenius bases are substances which produce hydroxide ions in solution.
Limitations to the Arrhenius Theory
The Arrhenius theory has many more limitations than the other two theories. The theory does not explain the weak base
ammonia (NH3), which in the presence of water, releases hydroxide ions into solution, but does not contain OH- itself.
Also, the Arrhenius definition of acid and base is limited to aqueous (i.e., water) solutions.
The Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases

In 1923, Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and English chemist Thomas Lowry independently proposed new definitions for
acids and bases, ones that focus on proton transfer. A Brønsted-Lowry acid is any species that can donate a proton (H+) to
another molecule. A Brønsted-Lowry base is any species that can accept a proton from another molecule. In short, a
Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor (PD), while a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor (PA).
A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor, while a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton

acceptor.
Let us use the reaction of ammonia in water to demonstrate the Brønsted-Lowry definitions of an acid and a base. Ammonia
and water molecules are reactants, while the ammonium ion and the hydroxide ion are products:

+ −
NH (aq) + H O(ℓ) −
↽⇀
− NH (aq) + OH (aq) (14.4.4)
3 2 4
What has happened in this reaction is that the original water molecule has donated a hydrogen ion to the original ammonia
molecule, which in turn has accepted the hydrogen ion. We can illustrate this as follows:
Because the water molecule donates a hydrogen ion to the ammonia, it is the Brønsted-Lowry acid, while the ammonia
molecule—which accepts the hydrogen ion—is the Brønsted-Lowry base. Thus, ammonia acts as a base in both the Arrhenius
sense and the Brønsted-Lowry sense.
Is an Arrhenius acid like hydrochloric acid still an acid in the Brønsted-Lowry sense? Yes, but it requires us to understand
what really happens when HCl is dissolved in water. Recall that the hydrogen atom is a single proton surrounded by a single
electron. To make the hydrogen ion, we remove the electron, leaving a bare proton. Do we really have bare protons floating
around in aqueous solution? No, we do not. What really happens is that the H+ ion attaches itself to H2O to make H3O+, which
is called the hydronium ion. For most purposes, H+ and H3O+ represent the same species, but writing H3O+ instead of H+
shows that we understand that there are no bare protons floating around in solution. Rather, these protons are actually attached
to solvent molecules.
The Hydronium IOn

A proton in aqueous solution may be surrounded by more than one water molecule, leading to formulas like H O2
5
+
or
H O
9
+
4
rather than H O . It is simpler, however, to use H O to represent the hydronium ion.
3
+
3
+
With this in mind, how do we define HCl as an acid in the Brønsted-Lowry sense? Consider what happens when HCl is
dissolved in H2O:
+ −
HCl(g) + H O(ℓ) → H O (aq) + Cl (aq) (14.4.5)
2 3
We can depict this process using Lewis electron dot diagrams:
Now we see that a hydrogen ion is transferred from the HCl molecule to the H2O molecule to make chloride ions and
hydronium ions. As the hydrogen ion donor, HCl acts as a Brønsted-Lowry acid; as a hydrogen ion acceptor, H2O is a
Brønsted-Lowry base. So HCl is an acid not just in the Arrhenius sense but also in the Brønsted-Lowry sense. Moreover, by
the Brønsted-Lowry definitions, H2O is a base in the formation of aqueous HCl. So the Brønsted-Lowry definitions of an acid
and a base classify the dissolving of HCl in water as a reaction between an acid and a base—although the Arrhenius definition
would not have labeled H2O a base in this circumstance.

A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton (hydrogen ion) donor.
A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton (hydrogen ion) acceptor.
All Arrhenius acids and bases are Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases as well. However, not all Brønsted-Lowry
acids and bases are Arrhenius acids and bases.
Example 14.4.1
Aniline (C6H5NH2) is slightly soluble in water. It has a nitrogen atom that can accept a hydrogen ion from a water
molecule just like the nitrogen atom in ammonia does. Write the chemical equation for this reaction and identify the
Brønsted-Lowry acid and base.
SOLUTION
C6H5NH2 and H2O are the reactants. When C6H5NH2 accepts a proton from H2O, it gains an extra H and a positive
charge and leaves an OH− ion behind. The reaction is as follows:
+ −
C H NH (aq) + H O(ℓ) −
↽⇀
− C H NH (aq) + OH (aq)
6 5 2 2 6 5 3
Because C6H5NH2 accepts a proton, it is the Brønsted-Lowry base. The H2O molecule, because it donates a proton, is the
Brønsted-Lowry acid.
Exercise 14.4.1
Identify the Brønsted-Lowry acid and the Brønsted-Lowry base in this chemical equation.
− 2 − +
H PO +H O −
↽⇀
− HPO +H O (14.4.6)
2 4 2 4 3
Answer
Brønsted-Lowry acid: H2PO4-; Brønsted-Lowry base: H2O
Exercise 14.4.2
Which of the following compounds is a Bronsted-Lowry base?
a. HCl
b. HPO42-
c. H3PO4
d. NH4+
e. CH3NH3+
Answer
A Brønsted-Lowry Base is a proton acceptor, which means it will take in an H+. This eliminates HCl, H PO , NH 3 4
+
4
and CH NH because they are Bronsted-Lowry acids. They all give away protons. In the case of HPO , consider
3
+
3
2 −
4
the following equation:

2 − 3 − +
HPO (aq) + H O(l) → PO (aq) + H O (aq)
4 2 4 3
Here, it is clear that HPO42- is the acid since it donates a proton to water to make H3O+ and PO43-. Now consider the
following equation:
2 − − −
HPO (aq) + H O(l) → H PO + OH (aq)
4 2 2 4
In this case, HPO42- is the base since it accepts a proton from water to form H2PO4- and OH-. Thus, HPO42- is an acid
and base together, making it amphoteric.
Since HPO42- is the only compound from the options that can act as a base, the answer is (b) HPO42-.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pair
In reality, all acid-base reactions involve the transfer of protons between acids and bases. For example, consider the acid-base
reaction that takes place when ammonia is dissolved in water. A water molecule (functioning as an acid) transfers a proton to
an ammonia molecule (functioning as a base), yielding the conjugate base of water, OH , and the conjugate acid of ammonia,
−
NH :
+
4
In the reaction of ammonia with water to give ammonium ions and hydroxide ions, ammonia acts as a base by accepting a
proton from a water molecule, which in this case means that water is acting as an acid. In the reverse reaction, an ammonium
ion acts as an acid by donating a proton to a hydroxide ion, and the hydroxide ion acts as a base. The conjugate acid–base pairs
for this reaction are N H /N H and H O/OH .
+
4 3 2
−
Figure 14.4.1 . The strongest acids are at the bottom left, and the strongest bases are at the top right. The conjugate base of a
strong acid is a very weak base, and, conversely, the conjugate acid of a strong base is a very weak acid.

Figure 14.4.1 : The Relative Strengths of Some Common Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
The strongest acids are at the bottom left, and the strongest bases are at the top right. The conjugate base of a strong acid is a
very weak base, and, conversely, the conjugate acid of a strong base is a very weak acid.
Example 14.4.2
Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in this equilibrium.
+ −
CH CO H + H O −
↽⇀
− H O + CH CO2
3 2 2 3 3
SOLUTION
Similarly, in the reaction of acetic acid with water, acetic acid donates a proton to water, which acts as the base. In the
reverse reaction, H O is the acid that donates a proton to the acetate ion, which acts as the base.
3
+
Once again, we have two conjugate acid–base pairs:

the parent acid and its conjugate base (C H C O H /C H
3 2 3 C O2
−
) and
the parent base and its conjugate acid (H O /H O).
3
+
2
Example 14.4.3

+ −
(C H3 )3 N + H2 O ⇌ (C H3 )3 N H + OH
SOLUTION
One pair is H2O and OH−, where H2O has one more H+ and is the conjugate acid, while OH− has one less H+ and is the
conjugate base.
The other pair consists of (CH3)3N and (CH3)3NH+, where (CH3)3NH+ is the conjugate acid (it has an additional
proton) and (CH3)3N is the conjugate base.
Exercise 14.4.3
− −
NH + H O ⇌ NH + OH
2 2 3
Answer
H2O (acid) and OH− (base); NH2− (base) and NH3 (acid)


14.5: Reactions of Acids and Bases
Learning Objectives
Write acid-base neutralization reactions
Write reactions of acids with metals
Write reactions of bases with metals
Neutralization Reactions
What happens when an acid such as HCl is mixed with a base such as NaOH:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H O(l)

2
When an acid and a base are combined, water and a salt are the products. Salts are ionic compounds containing a positive
ion other than H+ and a negative ion other than the hydroxide ion, OH . Double displacement reactions of this type are called
−
neutralization reactions. We can write an expanded version of this equation, with aqueous substances written in their longer
form:
+ − + − + −
H (aq) + Cl (aq) + Na (aq) + OH (aq) → Na (aq) + Cl (aq) + H O(l)
2
Removing the spectator ions we get the net ionic equation:

+ −
H (aq) + OH (aq) → H O(l)
2
When a strong acid and a strong base are combined in the proper amounts - when [H ] equals [OH ]\) - a neutral solution
+ −
results in which pH = 7. The acid and base have neutralized each other, and the acidic and basic properties are no longer
present.
Salt solutions do not always have a pH of 7, however. Through a process known as hydrolysis, the ions produced when an
acid and base combine may react with the water molecules to produce a solution that is slightly acidic or basic. We will not go
into details here, but generally if a strong acid is mixed with a weak base there the resulting solution will be slightly acidic; if a
strong base is mixed with a weak acid the solution will be slightly basic.
Video: Equimolar (~0.01 M) and equivolume solutions of HCl and NaOH are combined to make salt
water. https://youtu.be/TS-I9KrUjB0
Example 14.5.1 : propionic acid + calcium hydroxide
Calcium propionate is used to inhibit the growth of molds in foods, tobacco, and some medicines. Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction of aqueous propionic acid (CH3CH2CO2H) with aqueous calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2].
Solution
Steps Reaction

Steps Reaction
Write the unbalanced equation

This is a double displacement reaction, so the cations and anions CH3CH2CO2H(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)→(CH3CH2CO2)2Ca(aq) + H2O(l)
swap to create the water and the salt.
Balance the equation
Because there are two OH− ions in the formula for Ca(OH)2, we 2CH3CH2CO2H(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)→(CH3CH2CO2)2Ca(aq)
need two moles of propionic acid, CH3CH2CO2H to provide H+ +2H2O(l)
ions.
Exercise 14.5.1
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of solid barium hydroxide with dilute acetic acid.
Answer
Ba (OH) (s) + 2 CH CO H(aq) → Ba (CH CO ) (aq) + 2 H O(l)
2 3 2 3 2 2 2
Acids and Bases React with Metals

Acids react with most metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas. As discussed previously, metals that are more active than acids
can undergo a single displacement reaction. For example, zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid producing zinc chloride
and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → ZnCl (aq) + H (g)

2 2
Bases also react with certain metals like zinc or aluminum for example to produce hydrogen gas. For exanple, sodium
hydroxide reacts with zinc and water to form sodium zincate and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) + 2 H O(l) → Na Zn(OH) (aq) + H (g).

2 2 4 2


14.6: Acid–Base Titration- A Way to Quantify the Amount of Acid or Base in a
Solution
Learning Objectives
Understand the basics of acid-base titrations
Understand the use of indicators
Perform a titration calculation correctly.
The reaction of an acid with a base to make a salt and water is a common reaction in the laboratory, partly because so many
compounds can act as acids or bases. Another reason that acid-base reactions are so prevalent is because they are often used to
determine quantitative amounts of one or the other. Performing chemical reactions quantitatively to determine the exact
amount of a reagent is called a titration. A titration can be performed with almost any chemical reaction for which the
balanced chemical equation is known. Here, we will consider titrations that involve acid-base reactions.
During an acid-base titration, an acid with a known concentration (a standard solution) is slowly added to a base with an
unknown concentration (or vice versa). A few drops of indicator solution are added to the base. The indicator will signal, by
color change, when the base has been neutralized (when [H+] = [OH-]). At that point - called the equivalence point or end
point - the titration is stopped. By knowing the volumes of acid and base used, and the concentration of the standard solution,
calculations allow us to determine the concentration of the other solution.
It is important to accurately measure volumes when doing titrations. The instrument you would use is called a
burette (or buret).
Figure 14.6.1 : Equipment for Titrations. A burette is a type of liquid dispensing system that can accurately indicate the
volume of liquid dispensed
For example, suppose 25.66 mL (or 0.02566 L) of 0.1078 M HCl was used to titrate an unknown sample of NaOH. What mass
of NaOH was in the sample? We can calculate the number of moles of HCl reacted:
# mol HCl = (0.02566 L)(0.1078 M) = 0.002766 mol HCl
We also have the balanced chemical reaction between HCl and NaOH:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H O

2
So we can construct a conversion factor to convert to number of moles of NaOH reacted:

1 mol N aOH
0.002766 mol H C l × = 0.002766 mol N aOH
1 mol H C l
Then we convert this amount to mass, using the molar mass of NaOH (40.00 g/mol):
40.00 g N aOH
0.002766 mol H C l × = 0.1106 g N aOH
1 mol H C l
This is type of calculation is performed as part of a titration.
Example 14.6.1 : Equivalence Point

What mass of Ca(OH)2 is present in a sample if it is titrated to its equivalence point with 44.02 mL of 0.0885 M HNO3?
The balanced chemical equation is as follows:
2 HNO + Ca (OH) → Ca (NO ) +2 H O

3 2 3 2 2

Solution
In liters, the volume is 0.04402 L. We calculate the number of moles of titrant:
# moles HNO3 = (0.04402 L)(0.0885 M) = 0.00390 mol HNO3
Using the balanced chemical equation, we can determine the number of moles of Ca(OH)2 present in the analyte:
1 mol C a(OH )2
0.00390 mol H N O3 × = 0.00195 mol C a(OH )2
2 mol H N O3
Then we convert this to a mass using the molar mass of Ca(OH)2:

74.1 g C a(OH )2
0.00195 mol C a(OH )2 × = 0.144 g C a(OH )2
mol C a(OH )2
Exercise 14.6.1
What mass of H2C2O4 is present in a sample if it is titrated to its equivalence point with 18.09 mL of 0.2235 M NaOH?
The balanced chemical reaction is as follows:
H C O + 2 NaOH → Na C O +2 H O
2 2 4 2 2 4 2
Answer
0.182 g
Exercise 14.6.2
If 25.00 mL of HCl solution with a concentration of 0.1234 M is neutralized by 23.45 mL of NaOH, what is the
concentration of the base?
Answer
0.1316 M NaOH
Exercise 14.6.3
A 20.0 mL solution of strontium hydroxide, Sr(OH)2, is placed in a flask and a drop of indicator is added. The solution
turns color after 25.0 mL of a standard 0.0500 M HCl solution is added. What was the original concentration of the
Sr(OH)2 solution?
Answer
3.12 × 10
−2
M Sr(OH)2
Indicator Selection for Titrations

What indicator is used depends on what type of titration you are performing. An indicator should be chosen that will change
color when enough of one substance (acid or base) has been added to exactly use up the other substance. Only when a strong
acid and a strong base are produced will the resulting solution be neutral. The three main types of acid-base titrations, and
suggested indicators, are:
Titration between . . . Indicator Explanation
strong acid and strong base any
strong acid and weak base methyl orange changes color in the acidic range (3.2 - 4.4)
weak acid and strong base phenolphthalein changes color in the basic range (8.2 - 10.6)

Summary
A titration is the quantitative reaction of an acid and a base. Indicators are used to show that all the analyte has reacted with the
titrant.


14.7: Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define a strong and a weak acid and base.
Recognize an acid or a base as strong or weak.
Determine if a salt produces an acidic or a basic solution.
Strong and Weak Acids

Except for their names and formulas, so far we have treated all acids as equals, especially in a chemical reaction. However,
acids can be very different in a very important way. Consider HCl(aq). When HCl is dissolved in H2O, it completely
dissociates into H+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions; all the HCl molecules become ions:
100%
+ −
HC l → H (aq) + C l (aq) (14.7.1)
Any acid that dissociates 100% into ions is called a strong acid. If it does not dissociate 100%, it is a weak acid. HC2H3O2 is
an example of a weak acid:
∼5%
+ −
H C2 H3 O2 ⟶ H (aq) + C2 H3 O (aq) (14.7.2)
2
Because this reaction does not go 100% to completion, it is more appropriate to write it as a reversible reaction:
+ −
H C2 H3 O2 ⇌ H (aq) + C2 H3 O (aq) (14.7.3)
2
As it turns out, there are very few strong acids, which are given in Table 14.7.1. If an acid is not listed here, it is a weak acid.
It may be 1% ionized or 99% ionized, but it is still classified as a weak acid.
Any acid that dissociates 100% into ions is called a strong acid. If it does not
dissociate 100%, it is a weak acid.
Table 14.7.1 : Strong Acids and Bases
Acids Bases
HCl LiOH
HBr NaOH
HI KOH
HNO3 RbOH
H2SO4 CsOH
HClO3 Mg(OH)2
HClO4 Ca(OH)2
Sr(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
Strong and Weak Bases

The issue is similar with bases: a strong base is a base that is 100% ionized in solution. If it is less than 100% ionized in
solution, it is a weak base. There are very few strong bases (Table 14.7.1); any base not listed is a weak base. All strong bases
are OH– compounds. So a base based on some other mechanism, such as NH3 (which does not contain OH− ions as part of its
formula), will be a weak base.
Example 14.7.1 : Identifying Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

Identify each acid or base as strong or weak.
a. HCl

b. Mg(OH)2
c. C5H5N
Solution
a. Because HCl is listed in Table 14.7.1, it is a strong acid.
b. Because Mg(OH)2 is listed in Table 14.7.1, it is a strong base.
c. The nitrogen in C5H5N would act as a proton acceptor and therefore can be considered a base, but because it does not
contain an OH compound, it cannot be considered a strong base; it is a weak base.
Exercise 14.7.1
Identify each acid or base as strong or weak.
a. RbOH
b. HNO
2
Answer a
strong base
Answer b
weak acid
Example 14.7.2 : Characterizing Base IOnization

Write the balanced chemical equation for the dissociation of Ca(OH)2 and indicate whether it proceeds 100% to products
or not.
Solution
This is an ionic compound of Ca2+ ions and OH− ions. When an ionic compound dissolves, it separates into its
constituent ions:
2 + −
Ca (OH) → Ca (aq) + 2 OH (aq)
2
Because Ca(OH)2 is listed in Table 14.7.1, this reaction proceeds 100% to products.
Exercise 14.7.2
Write the balanced chemical equation for the dissociation of hydrazoic acid (HN3) and indicate whether it proceeds 100%
to products or not.
Answer a
The reaction is as follows:
+ −
HN → H (aq) + N (aq)
3 3
It does not proceed 100% to products because hydrazoic acid is not a strong acid.
Summary
Strong acids and bases are 100% ionized in aqueous solution.Weak acids and bases are less than 100% ionized in aqueous
solution.Salts of weak acids or bases can affect the acidity or basicity of their aqueous solutions.



14.8: Water- Acid and Base in One
Learning Objectives
Describe the autoionization of water.
Calculate the concentrations of H O and OH in aqueous solutions, knowing the other concentration.
3
+ −
We have already seen that H 2

O can act as an acid or a base:
+ −
NH +H O −
↽⇀
− NH + OH (14.8.1)
3 2 4
 
base acid
where H 2
O acts as an acid (in red).
+ −
HCl + H O ⟶ H O + Cl (14.8.2)
2 3


acid
base
where H 2
O acts as an base (in blue).
It may not surprise you to learn, then, that within any given sample of water, some H O
2
molecules are acting as acids, and
other H O molecules are acting as bases. The chemical equation is as follows:
2
+ −
H O+H O −
↽⇀
− H O + OH (14.8.3)
2 2 3
 
acid base
This occurs only to a very small degree: only about 6 in 108 H 2

O molecules are participating in this process, which is called
the autoionization of water.
Figure 14.8.1 : Autoionization of water, giving hydroxide and hydronium ions.

At this level, the concentration of both H O (aq) and OH (aq) in a sample of pure H O is about 1.0 × 10 M (at room
3
+ −
2
−7
temperature). If we use square brackets—[ ]—around a dissolved species to imply the molar concentration of that species, we
have
+ − −7
[H O ]=[ OH ] = 1.0 × 10 (14.8.4)
3
for any sample of pure water because H2O can act as both an acid and a base. The product of these two concentrations is
1.0 × 10 :−14
+ − −7 −7 −14
[H O ]×[ OH ] = (1.0 × 10 )(1.0 × 10 ) = 1.0 × 10 (14.8.5)
3
For acids, the concentration of H O (aq) (i.e., [H O ]) is greater than 1.0 × 10 M .

3
+
3
+ −7
For bases the concentration of OH (aq) (i.e., [OH ]) is greater than 1.0 × 10 M .
− − −7
However, the product of the two concentrations—[H 3

O
+
][ OH
−
—is always equal to
] 1.0 × 10
−14
, no matter whether the
aqueous solution is an acid, a base, or neutral:
+ − −14
[H O ][ OH ] = 1.0 × 10 (14.8.6)
3
This value of the product of concentrations is so important for aqueous solutions that it is called the autoionization constant
of water and is denoted K : w
+ − −14
Kw = [ H O ][ OH ] = 1.0 × 10 (14.8.7)
3
This means that if you know [H O ] for a solution, you can calculate what [OH ]) has to be for the product to equal
3
+ −
1.0 × 10 , or if you know [OH ]), you can calculate [H O ]. This also implies that as one concentration goes up, the other
−14 −
3
+
must go down to compensate so that their product always equals the value of K . w

Warning: Temperature Matters
The degree of autoionization of water (Equation 14.8.3) and hence the value of Kw changes with temperature, so
Equations 14.8.4 - 14.8.7 are accurate only at room temperature.
Example 14.8.1 : Hydroxide ConCentration

What is [OH ]) of an aqueous solution if [H
−
3
+
O ] is 1.0 × 10 −4
M ?
SOLUTION
Identify the "given" information and what the problem is asking you Given: [H O ] = 1.0 × 10
+ −4
M
3
to "find." Find: [OH−] = ? M

Using the expression for K , (Equation w 14.8.7 ), rearrange the
equation algebraically to solve for [OH−].
Plan the problem −14
1.0 × 10
−
[ OH ] =
+
[H3 O ]
−14
1.0 × 10
− −10
[ OH ] = = 1.0 × 10 M
Calculate 1.0 × 10
−4
It is assumed that the concentration unit is molarity, so [OH −

] is 1.0
× 10−10 M.
The concentration of the acid is high (> 1 x 10-7 M) so [OH −
]
should be low.
Exercise 14.8.1
What is [OH −
] in a 0.00032 M solution of H2SO4?
Hint
Assume both protons ionize from the molecule.. although this is not the case.
Answer
−11
3.1 × 10 M
When you have a solution of a particular acid or base, you need to look at the formula of the acid or base to determine the
number of H3O+ or OH− ions in the formula unit because [H O ] or [OH ]) may not be the same as the concentration of the
3
+ −
acid or base itself.
Example 14.8.2 : Hydronium Concentration

What is [H 3
O
+
] in a 0.0044 M solution of Ca(OH) ? 2
SOLUTION
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: [Ca(OH) 2
] = 0.0044 M
to "find." Find: [H O
+
] =?M
3

We begin by determining [OH ] . The concentration of the solute is

−
0.0044 M, but because Ca(OH) is a strong base, there are two

2
OH− ions in solution for every formula unit dissolved, so the actual
[OH ] is two times this,
−
−
[OH ]=2 × 0 ⋅ 0044 M=0 ⋅ 0088 M⋅
Use the expression for K (Equation 14.8.7 ) and rearrange the

w
equation algebraically to solve for [H O ]. 3

+
Plan the problem −14

1.0 × 10
+
[ H3 O ] =
−
[O H ]
−14
1.0 × 10
Calculate [ H3 O
+
] = = 1.1 × 10
−12
M
(0.0088)
[H O
3
+
] has decreased significantly in this basic solution.
The concentration of the base is high (> 1 x 10-7 M) so [H +

O ]
Think about your result. 3
should be low.
Exercise 14.8.2
What is [H 3
+
O ] of an aqueous solution if [OH −
] is 1.0 × 10 −9
M ?
Answer
1.0 × 10−5 M
In any aqueous solution, the product of [H 3

O
+
] and [OH −
] equals 1.0 × 10 −14
(at room temperature).


14.9: The pH and pOH Scales- Ways to Express Acidity and Basicity
Learning Objectives
Define pHand pOH
Determine the pH of acidic and basic solutions.
Determine the hydronium ion concentration and pOH from pH.
As we have seen, [H O ] and [OH ] values can be markedly different from one aqueous solution to another. So chemists
3
+ −
defined a new scale that succinctly indicates the concentrations of either of these two ions.
pH is a logarithmic function of [H3O
+
:
]
+
pH = − log[ H3 O ] (14.9.1)
pH is usually (but not always) between 0 and 14. Knowing the dependence of pH on [H 3O
+
, we can summarize as follows:
]
If pH < 7, then the solution is acidic.

If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
If pH > 7, then the solution is basic.
This is known as the pH scale. The range of values from 0 to 14 that describes the acidity or basicity of a solution. You can
use pH to make a quick determination whether a given aqueous solution is acidic, basic, or neutral. Figure 14.9.1 illustrates
this relationship, along with some examples of various solutions. Because hydrogen ion concentrations are generally less than
one (for example 1.3 × 10 M ), the log of the number will be a negative number. To make pH even easier to work with, pH
−3
is defined as the negative log of [H O ], which will give a positive value for pH.
3
+
Figure 14.9.1 : The pH values for several common materials.

Warning: The Ph scale has no limits
pH is usually (but not always) between 0 and 14. Knowing the dependence of pH on [ H3 O
+
, we can summarize as
]
follows:
If pH < 7, then the solution is acidic.
If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
If pH > 7, then the solution is basic.
This is known as the pH scale. The range of values from 0 to 14 that describes the acidity or basicity of a solution.. You
can use pH to make a quick determination whether a given aqueous solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.

Example 14.9.1
Label each solution as acidic, basic, or neutral based only on the stated pH.
a. milk of magnesia, pH = 10.5
b. pure water, pH = 7
c. wine, pH = 3.0
Answer
a. With a pH greater than 7, milk of magnesia is basic. (Milk of magnesia is largely Mg(OH)2.)
b. Pure water, with a pH of 7, is neutral.
c. With a pH of less than 7, wine is acidic.
Exercise 14.9.1
Identify each substance as acidic, basic, or neutral based only on the stated pH.
a. human blood with pH = 7.4
b. household ammonia with pH = 11.0
c. cherries with pH = 3.6
Answer a
basic
Answer b
basic
Answer c
acidic
Calculating pH from Hydronium Concentration

The pH of solutions can be determined by using logarithms as illustrated in the next example for stomach acid. Stomach acid
is a solution of H C l with a hydronium ion concentration of 1.2 × 10 M , what is the pH of the solution?
−3
+
pH = − log[ H3 O ]
−3
= − log(1.2 × 10 ) (14.9.2)
= −(−2.92) = 2.92
Logarithms
To get the log value on your calculator, enter the number (in this case, the hydronium ion concentration) first, then press
the LOG key.
If the number is 1.0 x 10-5 (for [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-5 M) you should get an answer of "-5"
If you get a different answer, or an error, try pressing the LOG key before you enter the number.
Example 14.9.2 : Converting Ph to Hydronium Concentration

Find the pH, given the [H 3O
+
] of the following:
-3
a. 1 ×10 M
b. 2.5 ×10-11 M
c. 4.7 ×10-9 M
SOLUTION

Given:
a. [H3O+] =1 × 10−3 M
b. [H3O+] =2.5 ×10-11 M
to "find."
c. [H3O+] = 4.7 ×10-9 M
Find: ? pH
Need to use the expression for pH (Equation 14.9.1 )

Plan the problem
pH = - log [H3O+]
Now substitute the known quantity into the equation and solve.
a. pH = - log [1 × 10−3 ] = 3.0 (1 decimal places since 1 has 1
significant figure)
b. pH = - log [2.5 ×10-11] = 10.60 (2 decimal places since 2.5 has 2
significant figures)
c. pH = - log [4.7 ×10-9] = 8.30 (2 decimal places since 4.7 has 2
significant figures)
Calculate
The other issue that concerns us here is significant figures. Because
the number(s) before the decimal point in a logarithm relate to the
power on 10, the number of digits after the decimal point is what
determines the number of significant figures in the final answer:
Exercise 14.9.2
Find the pH, given [H3O+] of the following:
a. 5.8 ×10-4 M
b. 1.0×10-7
Answer a
3.22
Answer b
7.00
Calculating Hydronium Concentration from pH

Sometimes you need to work "backwards" - you know the pH of a solution and need to find [H O ], or even the 3
+
concentration of the acid solution. How do you do that? To convert pH into [H O ] we solve Equation 14.9.1 for [H O ].
3
+
3
+
This involves taking the antilog (or inverse log) of the negative value of pH .
+
[H O ] = antilog(−pH ) (14.9.3)
3
or
+ −pH
[H O ] = 10 (14.9.4)
3
As mentioned above, different calculators work slightly differently - make sure you can do the following calculations using
your calculator.
Calculator Skills
We have a solution with a pH = 8.3. What is [H3O+] ?

With some calculators you will do things in the following order:
1. Enter 8.3 as a negative number (use the key with both the +/- signs, not the subtraction key)
2. Use your calculator's 2nd or Shift or INV (inverse) key to type in the symbol found above the LOG key. The shifted
function should be 10x.
3. You should get the answer 5.0 × 10-9
Other calculators require you to enter keys in the order they appear in the equation.
1. Use the Shift or second function to key in the 10x function.
2. Use the +/- key to type in a negative number, then type in 8.3
3. You should get the answer 5.0 × 10-9
If neither of these methods work, try rearranging the order in which you type in the keys. Don't give up - you must master
your calculator!
Example 14.9.3 : Calculating Hydronium Concentration from pH

Find the hydronium ion concentration in a solution with a pH of 12.6. Is this solution an acid or a base? How do you
know?
SOLUTION
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: pH = 12.6
to "find." Find: [H3O+] = ? M
Need to use the expression for [H3O+] (Equation 14.9.4 )
Plan the problem
[H3O+] = antilog (-pH) or [H3O+] = 10-pH
[H3O+] = antilog (12.60) = 2.5 x 10-13 M (2 significant figures since
4.7 has 12.60 2 decimal places)
or
[H3O+] = 10-12.60 = 2.5 x 10-13 M (2 significant figures since 4.7 has
12.60 2 decimal places)
Calculate The other issue that concerns us here is significant figures. Because
the number(s) before the decimal point in a logarithm relate to the
power on 10, the number of digits after the decimal point is what
determines the number of significant figures in the final answer:
Exercise 14.9.3
If moist soil has a pH of 7.84, what is [H3O+] of the soil solution?
Answer
1.5 x 10-8 M
The pOH scale

As with the hydrogen-ion concentration, the concentration of the hydroxide ion can be expressed logarithmically by the pOH.
The pOH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydroxide-ion concentration.

−
pOH = −log [ OH ] (14.9.5)
The relation between the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations expressed as p-functions is easily derived from the K w
expression:
+ −
Kw = [ H O ][ OH ] (14.9.6)
3
+ − + −
− log Kw = − log([ H3 O ][OH ]) = − log[ H3 O ] + − log[OH ] (14.9.7)
pKw = pH + pOH (14.9.8)
At 25 °C, the value of K is 1.0 × 10

w
−14
, and so:
14.00 = pH + pOH (14.9.9)
The hydronium ion molarity in pure water (or any neutral solution) is 1.0 × 10 −7
M at 25 °C. The pH and pOH of a neutral
solution at this temperature are therefore:
+ −7
pH = − log[ H3 O ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 7.00 (14.9.10)
− −7
pOH = − log[OH ] = − log(1.0 × 10 ) = 7.00 (14.9.11)
And so, at this temperature, acidic solutions are those with hydronium ion molarities greater than 1.0 × 10 M and −7
hydroxide ion molarities less than 1.0 × 10 M (corresponding to pH values less than 7.00 and pOH values greater than
−7
7.00). Basic solutions are those with hydronium ion molarities less than 1.0 × 10 M and hydroxide ion molarities greater
−7
than 1.0 × 10 M (corresponding to pH values greater than 7.00 and pOH values less than 7.00).
−7
Example 14.9.4 :
Find the pOH of a solution with a pH of 4.42.
SOLUTION
Identify the "given"information and what the problem is asking you Given: pH =4.42
to "find." Find: ? pOH
Need to use the expression

Plan the problem
pOH = 14 - pH
Calculate
pOH=14−4.42=9.58
The pH is that of an acidic solution, and the resulting pOH is the

Think about your result difference after subtracting from 14. The answer has two significant
figures because the given pH has two decimal places.
Exercise 14.9.4
The pH of a solution is 8.22. What is the pOH?
Answer
5.78
The diagram below shows all of the interrelationships between [H3O+][H3O+], [OH−][OH−], pH, and pOH.

Figure14.9.1 : Relationships between hydrogen ion concentration, hydroxide ion concentration, pH and pOH.

Template:OpenStax

14.10: Buffers- Solutions That Resist pH Change
Learning Objectives
To define buffer and describe how it reacts with an acid or a base.
Weak acids are relatively common, even in the foods we eat. But we occasionally come across a strong acid or base, such as
stomach acid, that has a strongly acidic pH of 1–2. By definition, strong acids and bases can produce a relatively large amount
of hydrogen or hydroxide ions and, as a consequence, have a marked chemical activity. In addition, very small amounts of
strong acids and bases can change the pH of a solution very quickly. If 1 mL of stomach acid [which we will approximate as
0.05 M HCl(aq)] is added to the bloodstream, and if no correcting mechanism is present, the pH of the blood would go from
about 7.4 to about 4.9—a pH that is not conducive to continued living. Fortunately, the body has a mechanism for minimizing
such dramatic pH changes.
The mechanism involves a buffer, a solution that resists dramatic changes in pH. Buffers do so by being composed of certain
pairs of solutes: either a weak acid plus a salt derived from that weak acid or a weak base plus a salt of that weak base. For
example, a buffer can be composed of dissolved acetic acid (HC2H3O2, a weak acid) and sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2, a salt
derived from that acid). Another example of a buffer is a solution containing ammonia (NH3, a weak base) and ammonium
chloride (NH4Cl, a salt derived from that base).
Let us use an acetic acid–sodium acetate buffer to demonstrate how buffers work. If a strong base—a source of OH−(aq) ions
—is added to the buffer solution, those hydroxide ions will react with the acetic acid in an acid-base reaction:
− −
H C2 H3 O2(aq) + OH → H2 O(ℓ) + C2 H3 O (14.10.1)
(aq) 2(aq)
Rather than changing the pH dramatically by making the solution basic, the added hydroxide ions react to make water, and the
pH does not change much.
Many people are aware of the concept of buffers from buffered aspirin, which is aspirin that also has magnesium
carbonate, calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide, or some other salt. The salt acts like a base, while aspirin is itself a
weak acid.
If a strong acid—a source of H+ ions—is added to the buffer solution, the H+ ions will react with the anion from the salt.
Because HC2H3O2 is a weak acid, it is not ionized much. This means that if lots of hydrogen ions and acetate ions (from
sodium acetate) are present in the same solution, they will come together to make acetic acid:
+ −
H + C2 H3 O → H C2 H3 O2(aq) (14.10.2)
(aq) 2(aq)
Rather than changing the pH dramatically and making the solution acidic, the added hydrogen ions react to make molecules of
a weak acid. Figure 14.10.1 illustrates both actions of a buffer.

Figure 14.10.1: The Action of Buffers. Buffers can react with both strong acids (top) and strong bases (bottom) to minimize
large changes in pH.
Buffers made from weak bases and salts of weak bases act similarly. For example, in a buffer containing NH3 and NH4Cl,
ammonia molecules can react with any excess hydrogen ions introduced by strong acids:
+ +
N H3(aq) + H → NH (14.10.3)
(aq) 4(aq)
while the ammonium ion [NH4+(aq)] can react with any hydroxide ions introduced by strong bases:
+ −
NH + OH → N H3(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) (14.10.4)
4(aq) (aq)
Example 14.10.1 : Making Buffer Solutions

Which solute combinations can make a buffer solution? Assume all are aqueous solutions.
a. HCHO2 and NaCHO2
b. HCl and NaCl
c. CH3NH2 and CH3NH3Cl
d. NH3 and NaOH
SOLUTION
a. Formic acid (HCHO2) is a weak acid, while NaCHO2 is the salt made from the anion of the weak acid—the formate
ion (CHO2−). The combination of these two solutes would make a buffer solution.
b. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid, not a weak acid, so the combination of these two solutes would not make a
buffer solution.
c. Methylamine (CH3NH2) is like ammonia with one of its hydrogen atoms substituted with a CH3 (methyl) group.
Because it is not on our list of strong bases, we can assume that it is a weak base. The compound CH3NH3Cl is a salt
made from that weak base, so the combination of these two solutes would make a buffer solution.
d. Ammonia (NH3) is a weak base, but NaOH is a strong base. The combination of these two solutes would not make a
buffer solution.
Exercise 14.10.1
Which solute combinations can make a buffer solution? Assume all are aqueous solutions.
a. NaHCO3 and NaCl
b. H3PO4 and NaH2PO4

c. NH3 and (NH4)3PO4
d. NaOH and NaCl
Answer a
Yes
Answer b
No. Need a weak acid or base and a salt of its conjugate base or acid
Answer c
Yes
Answer d
No. Need a weak base or acid
Buffers work well only for limited amounts of added strong acid or base. Once either solute is all reacted, the solution is no
longer a buffer, and rapid changes in pH may occur. We say that a buffer has a certain capacity. Buffers that have more solute
dissolved in them to start with have larger capacities, as might be expected.
Human blood has a buffering system to minimize extreme changes in pH. One buffer in blood is based on the presence of
HCO3− and H2CO3 [H2CO3 is another way to write CO2(aq)]. With this buffer present, even if some stomach acid were to find
its way directly into the bloodstream, the change in the pH of blood would be minimal. Inside many of the body’s cells, there
is a buffering system based on phosphate ions.
Career Focus: Blood Bank Technology Specialist

At this point in this text, you should have the idea that the chemistry of blood is fairly complex. Because of this, people
who work with blood must be specially trained to work with it properly.
A blood bank technology specialist is trained to perform routine and special tests on blood samples from blood banks or
transfusion centers. This specialist measures the pH of blood, types it (according to the blood’s ABO+/− type, Rh factors,
and other typing schemes), tests it for the presence or absence of various diseases, and uses the blood to determine if a
patient has any of several medical problems, such as anemia. A blood bank technology specialist may also interview and
prepare donors to give blood and may actually collect the blood donation.
Blood bank technology specialists are well trained. Typically, they require a college degree with at least a year of special
training in blood biology and chemistry. In the United States, training must conform to standards established by the
American Association of Blood Banks.
Key Takeaway
A buffer is a solution that resists sudden changes in pH.


Index
S
Significant figures

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What is the purpose of buffers?

What is the purpose of buffers?

What is an example of a buffer in the human body?

What is an example of a buffer in the human body?

CHEM 114:

This text was compiled on 06/21/2020

1: THE CHEMICAL WORLD

2: MEASUREMENT AND PROBLEM SOLVING

2.1: TAKING MEASUREMENTS

3: MATTER AND ENERGY

3.1: IN YOUR ROOM

4: ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

5: MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS

5.1: SUGAR AND SALT

7.1: GRADE SCHOOL VOLCANOES, AUTOMOBILES, AND LAUNDRY DETERGENTS

8: QUANTITIES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

9: ELECTRONS IN ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

9.1: BLIMPS, BALLOONS, AND MODELS OF THE ATOM

10: CHEMICAL BONDING

10.1: BONDING MODELS AND AIDS DRUGS

11.1: EXTRA-LONG STRAWS

12: LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

12.1: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MOLECULES

13.1: PRELUDE - TRAGEDY IN CAMEROON

14: ACIDS AND BASES

14.1: SOUR PATCH KIDS AND INTERNATIONAL SPY MOVIES

1.1: THE SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY

1.2: CHEMICALS COMPOSE ORDINARY THINGS

1.3: HYPOTHESIS, THEORIES, AND LAWS

1.4: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD- HOW CHEMISTS THINK

1.5: A BEGINNING CHEMIST- HOW TO SUCCEED

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Figure 1.1.3 : Robert Boyle.

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Figure 1.1.5 : Dynamite explosion in Panama, Central America (1908).

Contributions & Attributions

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A hypothesis is very tentative; it can be easily changed.

Theories aren't likely to change.

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Laws vs. Theories

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Figure 1.4.1 : The Steps in the Scientific Method.

Step 1: Make observations

Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis

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Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis

Step 5: Development into a law and/or theory

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