PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

Relativity 4
Disclaimer: These lecture notes are not meant to replace the course textbook. The
content may be incomplete. Some topics may be unclear. These notes are only meant to
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Relativistic Momentum
Newton’s 2nd Law can be written in the form
dp
F=
dt
dx
where the non-relativistic momentum of a body is p = mu where u = . However,
dt
dx
because of the Lorentz transformation equations, is measured differently in different
dt
inertial frames. Thus, Newton’s 2nd Law would not have the same form in different
frames. We need a new definition of momentum to retain the definition of force as a
change in momentum.

dx
Suppose p = m , where τ is the proper time in the object’s rest frame. Every observer
dτ
will agree on which frame is the rest frame. Also, since y ′ = y and z ′ = z , the transverse
momentum (py and pz) will be invariant for a Lorentz transformation along the x axis.
(This would not be the case if we did not use the proper time in the definition). We can
rewrite this momentum definition as follows:
dx dx dt Recall that momentum is a
p=m =m
dτ dt dτ vector quantity. Conservation of
dt momentum, which still applies
t =γτ ⇒ =γ From time dilation in Special Relativity, implies
dτ
that each component of
1 momentum is conserved.
p = γu m u γu =
1− u / c
2 2

Note that u is the velocity of the object in a reference frame, not the velocity of a
reference frame relative to another.

In this definition of momentum, the mass m=m0 is the “rest mass”. That is, it is the mass
of an object in its rest frame. Sometimes γ m is referred to as the “relativistic mass”,
such that we can retain the Newtonian definition of momentum as p = mu . In this sense,
the mass of an object grows as its velocity increases. But this convenient trick can be
problematic. As we shall see, the kinetic energy, for example, is not ½ mv2.

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PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

Relativistic Force
With the previous relativistic definition for momentum, we can retain the usual definition
for force:
dp d ⎛ dx ⎞ d dx 1
F= = ⎜ m ⎟ = ( γ u mu ) where u = and γ u =
dt dt ⎝ dτ ⎠ dt dt 1 − u 2 / c2

It is useful to consider how force transforms under a Lorentz Transformation:

y S y' S'
v u⊥′

x x'
z z'

According to the addition of velocity formulae, the transformation of the velocity

perpendicular to the direction of the Lorentz Transformation is:

u ⊥′ 1
u⊥ = where γ v =
(
γ v 1 + vu x′ / c 2 ) 1 − v2 / c2

So for the perpendicular force, which can be written as:

d dx d
F⊥ = m = m u⊥
dt dτ dτ

it transforms as:

d u ⊥′ 1 du ′
F⊥ = m = m ⊥
(
dτ γ 1 + vu ′ / c 2
v x ) (
γ v 1 + vu x′ / c 2 dτ
)
F⊥′
F⊥ =
(
γ v 1 + vu x′ / c 2 )
where we assume no acceleration in the direction parallel to the transformation

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PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

Relativistic Energy
Now work is defined as force applied over a distance. It corresponds to the expended
energy to accelerate a body. If the force and path are constant,

W = F⋅d

More generally, if the force and path vary, then a line integral must be performed from
initial position 1 to final position 2.

W12 = z 1
2
F ⋅ ds

The work applied to a body translates to a change in the kinetic energy since energy must
be conserved. If we assume that the body is initially at rest, then the final kinetic energy
is equal to the work expended:
2
W=K=
d
dt z a f
γ mu ⋅ u dt where we have used ds = u dt
ds

z
K = m dt
d
dt
γu ⋅ u a f 1
u

K=m z0
γU
u d aγ uf
Integrate by parts:
K = γ mU 2 − m γ u du z U

= γ mU 2 − m z
0
U u du
1 − u2 / c2
You can check this
integral by differentiation

= γ mU 2 + mc 2 1 − u 2 / c 2 U
0

= γ mU 2 + mc 2 1 − U 2 / c 2 − mc 2
c
= γ mU 2 + mc 2 1 − U 2 / c 2 − mc 2 h
Thus, we get for the relativistic kinetic energy:

K = γ mc 2 − mc 2 = γ − 1 mc 2 a f

This final expression for the kinetic energy looks like nothing like the non-relativistic
1
equation K = mu 2 . However, if we consider velocities much less than the speed of
2
light, we can see the correspondence:

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PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

c
γ = 1 − u2 / c2 h 1
− 1/ 2
≈ 1 + u 2 / c 2 +" using the binomial expansion
2

a f
2
1u 1
⇒ K = γ − 1 mc 2 ≈ 2
mc 2 = mu 2 for u << c
2c 2

So at low velocities there is no difference between the definition of kinetic energy in

Special Relativity from that in Newtonian Mechanics.

Now let’s consider the opposite limit when the velocity approaches the speed of light. In
that case, the kinetic energy becomes infinite as the relativistic factor γ goes to infinity.
This is another way of saying that objects cannot exceed the speed of light, because it
would take an infinite amount of energy.

Now let’s rewrite the equation involving the kinetic energy:

E ≡ γmc 2 = K + mc 2

This equation has the form of kinetic energy plus potential energy equals total energy.
What is the potential energy? It is the term:
E0 = mc 2

which we refer to as the rest energy. As you know, this is Einstein’s famous equation
that tells us that mass is another form of energy. Mass can be converted into energy and
vice versa. How much energy? Let’s see:

Example: Suppose that a 1 kg mass moves at a velocity u = 1 m/s. The kinetic energy is
½ m u2 = ½ J. (We can use the non-relativistic equation because the velocity is much
much smaller than the speed of light.) The rest mass energy is mc 2 = 9.0 × 1016 J. Clearly
there is a tremendous amount of energy in 1 kg of mass. That is why nuclear weapons
have the power that they do, because they convert a significant amount of mass into
energy.

Conservation of Energy:
We have learned in earlier physics courses that kinetic energy does not have to be
conserved in an inelastic collision. Likewise, mass does not have to be conserved since it
can be converted into energy. However, the total energy (kinetic, rest mass, and all other
potential energy forms) is always conserved in Special Relativity. Momentum and
energy are conserved for both elastic and inelastic collisions when the relativistic
definitions are used.

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Relationship between Energy and Momentum

Using the Newtonian definitions of energy and momentum,
1
E = mu 2 and p = mu , we can write:
2
p2
E=
2m

Now consider the relativistic definitions:

E = γmc 2
p = γmu
p2 = γ 2 m2u2

p2c2 = γ 2 m 2u2c 2 = γ 2 m 2c 4
u2 FG 1
= γ 2 m2c4 1 − 2
IJ
c 2
H γ K
p2c2 = γ 2 m2c 4 − m2c 4
But E = γmc 2
So p 2 c 2 = E 2 − m 2 c 4

Thus the equivalent relationship between energy and momentum in Relativity is:

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 or equivalently m2 c 4 = E 2 − p 2 c 2

This is another example of Lorentz Invariance. No matter what inertial frame is used to
compute the energy and momentum, E 2 − p 2 c 2 always given the rest energy of the
object. Energy and momentum take the role of time and space in the other Lorentz
invariant quantity ∆s . In fact, we refer to (t, x, y, z ) and ( E, px , py , pz ) as four-vectors,
and the “lengths” of these vectors are these Lorentz-invariant expressions we derived.

Particles without mass are a special case

⇒ E = pc
E and pc can also be written: E = γmc 2 and pc = γ muc .
The only way we can reconcile these last two definitions with E = pc is to set the
velocity to c. Massless particles must travel at the speed of light.
As we will learn, light itself is composed of particles (photons). To travel at the speed of
light, these particles must be massless.

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The Electron-Volt Energy Unit

a f
The Lorentz force law is F = q E + v × B , where E is the electric field and B is the
magnetic field. The work done to move a charged particle in an electric field only is:

2 2
W12 = ∫ F ⋅ ds = q ∫ E ⋅ ds
1 1

= q (V2 − V1 )

The electric potential is φ (such that the electric field E = −∇V ). We can summarize the
work done by;
W = q∆V ∆V = potential difference

Consider the work done to move an electron across a potential difference of 1 Volt?

c ha f
W = −1.6022 × 10 −19 C −1 V = 1.6022 × 10 −19 J
e-- q=-1.6022 x 10-19 C

This is a very small unit! We define it as a new unit 1V

of energy, the electron-volt:

1 eV = 1.6022 × 10 −19 J

Example: Express the electron rest mass energy in this new unit:

c hc
E0 = me c 2 = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg 3.0 × 10 8 m / s h 1.60221 eV
2

× 10
J -19

E0 = 511,000 eV (or 511 keV, 0.511 MeV, 0.000511 GeV)

We also can define new units for mass and momentum. For example, the mass of the
electron can be expressed me = 0.511 MeV / c 2 . In other words, if you multiply the mass
by c2, you get the rest energy in electron-volts.

Similarly, we know that pc has units of energy, so momentum can be expressed in units
like MeV / c. In other words, if you multiply by c, you get an energy in electron-volts.

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PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

Invariant Mass
We can now apply the relativistic definitions of energy and momentum to
calculations of particle collisions. In particular, we can compute the rest mass of a
particle formed when two particles annihilate into pure energy and then form a new
particle.

Example: An electron and a positron (an anti-electron) annihilate with equal and
opposite momentum: p = 155 . GeV / c . (Note the new momentum unit). The collision
produces a new particle called the J/ψ in the following reaction: e − + e + → J / ψ . What is
the mass of this new particle?

We need to compute the invariant mass of the electron-positron initial state to

determine the rest mass of the new particle:

Mc 2 = Etot
2
− ptot
2 2
c where Etot and ptot are the total energy and momentum
ptot = p1 + p2 = 155
. GeV / c − 155
. GeV / c = 0 by conservation of momentum
Etot = E1 + E2 by conservation of energy
E1 = p12 c 2 + m2 c 4 = b155
. GeVg + b0.000511 GeVg
2 2
≈ 155
. GeV
E1 = E2 because the magnitude of the momentum (and mass) is the same
⇒ Mc 2 = Etot = 155
. + 155
. GeV = 31
. GeV

The J/ψ particle has a mass of 3.1 GeV/c. Note that we have made extensive use of the
new Lorentz-invariant quantity involving energy and momentum

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PHY2061 Enriched Physics 2 Lecture Notes Relativity 4

Binding Energy
As we have learned, mass is a form of potential energy. It can be converted into
energy, or energy can be converted into mass. Because of this, mass does not have to be
conserved in reactions. If you throw two balls at each other and they stick together (an
inelastic collision), the resulting mass is not necessarily the sum of the individual masses
of the two balls.
This surprising result makes sense when we consider that mass is just another
form of potential energy. When two balls stick together, there must be some attractive
force holding the composite system together. In the case of the hydrogen atom, an
electron and proton are bound by an attractive electromagnetic force. To separate the
electron and proton (i.e. ionize hydrogen), one must overcome the attractive force, and
that takes energy. In other words, the particles have larger electromagnetic potential
energy when separated than together. This potential energy is:
−e2
V=
4πε 0r
which increases as the separation distance r increases.
Where does this increase in energy go, since we know the total energy must be
conserved? It goes into the rest mass energies of the electron and proton in the case of
hydrogen. Another way of putting it is that the hydrogen atom has a mass that is less
than the sum of the separate masses of the electron and proton. The difference in the rest
mass energies of the separate objects from the combined system is called the binding
energy:

m b g b
BE = M separate − M bound gr c 2

In the case of hydrogen, the binding energy is 13.6 eV; that is, hydrogen has a mass that
is 13.6 eV less than the sum of the masses of the electron and proton.
Let’s consider another example. The deuteron is a bound system of a neutron and
a proton. The binding energy is given by:

o b g b g c ht c
BE = M n + M p − M 2 H 2

BE = m939.57 MeV / c + 938.28 MeV / c

2 2
− 1875.63 MeV / c 2 r
BE = 2.22 MeV

Clearly nuclear binding energies are much larger than atomic binding energies! We will
explore this more when we study nuclear physics toward the end of this course.

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Reaction Energy
Closely related to binding energy is the concept of reaction energy. Not all
composite systems have a mass less than the sum of its constituent masses, and some
fundamental particles spontaneously decay into particles whose combined mass is less
than that of the parent. In these cases, energy is released in the decay or reaction because
of the difference in rest mass energies. We define this reaction energy as:

m b g b
Q = M initial products − M final products c2 gr
As you can see, it is just the negative of the binding energy. If Q is positive, we say that
the reaction or decay is exothermic; that is, it releases energy. If Q is negative, the
reaction or decay is endothermic; it takes energy to make it happen.

Example: Consider the spontaneous decay of a neutron: n → p + e − + ν e . We can

calculate the energy released in this decay by taking the difference in mass of the left-
hand side from the right-hand side. The neutrino ( ν e ) will be discussed later in the
nuclear and particle physics sections; what is relevant here is that its mass is essentially
zero.
o b g b g c ht
Q = M n − M p − M e − c2

Q = m939.57 MeV / c − 938.28 MeV / c

2 2
r
− 0.511 MeV / c 2 c 2
Q = 0.78 MeV

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