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CONTENTS
PART I All About the LSAT
CHAPTER 1 Introducing the LSAT

Test Dates and Registration Information
The Format of the LSAT
How the LSAT Is Scored
A Brief Introduction to the LSAT’s Four Sections
How to Approach Test Day
Obtaining or Cancelling Your Score
CHAPTER 2 LSAT Diagnostic Test

Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
LSAT Diagnostic Test Answer Key
Calculate Your Score
Your Approximate Scaled Score
LSAT Diagnostic Test Answers and Explanations
Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
CHAPTER 3 LSAT Logic Games

Case 1. One-Tiered Ordering Games: Emily Walks
the Dogs
Case 2. Working with Conditional Statements
Case 3. Grouping Games: Ralph Hosts a Dinner
Party
Case 4. Two-Tiered Ordering Games: Trudy Picks
Her Course Schedule
Case 5. “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” Games: A Bellman Carries
Bags
Case 6. Section-Wide Strategy
CHAPTER 4 LSAT Arguments

Case 1. What’s the Point? Identify the Conclusion
Case 2. What Do I Know for Sure? Make a Deduction
Case 3. From General to Specific One Step at a Time:
Apply a Principle
Case 4. Bridging the Gap: Identify an Assumption
Case 5. Causes, Explanations, and Predictions:
Strengthen the Argument
Case 6. Now, Why Would That Be? Resolve a
Paradox
Case 7. Reading with a Skeptic’s Eye: Weaken the
Argument
Case 8. Taking a Step Back: Describe the Reasoning
Case 9. Finding a Flaw: Criticize the Reasoning
Case 10. Mapping for Similarity: Parallel the
Reasoning
CHAPTER 5 LSAT Reading Comprehension

Case 1. Retrieval, Not Recall: How to Read on the
LSAT
Case 2. The Mechanics of Annotative Reading
Case 3. Main Idea Questions
Case 4. Line ID Questions
Case 5. Information Retrieval Questions
Case 6. Inference Questions
Case 7. Tone Questions
Case 8. Arguments-Style Questions
Case 9. The Comparative Reading Passage
CHAPTER 6 The LSAT Writing Sample

Case 1. The Five-Paragraph Model
Case 2. Eight Principles of Good Writing
CHAPTER 7 Law School

Should I Go to Law School?
I’ve Heard It’s a Bad Time to Apply to Law School
Where Should I Apply?
I Know I Want to Go to Law School, But I Don’t Know
if I Want to Be a Lawyer
Do I Need to Attend Law School in the State Where I
Plan to Practice?
What Else Do I Need to Do to Complete My Law
School Applications?
PART II LSAT Practice Tests
LSAT PRACTICE TEST 1

Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
LSAT Practice Test 1 Answer Key
LSAT Practice Test 1 Answers and Explanations
Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
LSAT PRACTICE TEST 2

Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
Section I
Section II
Section III
Section IV
Welcome to
McGraw-Hill Education
LSAT
ongratulations! You’ve chosen the LSAT guide from America’s leading
C

educational publisher. You probably know us from many of the textbooks
you used in school and college. Now we’re ready to help you take the
next step — and get into the law school of your choice.
This book gives you everything you need to succeed on the test. You’ll get in-
depth instruction and review of every topic tested, tips and strategies for every
question type, and plenty of practice exams to boost your test-taking confidence.
To get started, go to the following pages where you’ll find:
How to Use This Book: Step-by-step instructions to help you get the
most out of your test-prep program.
Your LSAT Action Plan: Use the interactive Test Planner app or the
book’s study plan to make the best use of your preparation time.
ABOUT McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION

This book has been created by McGraw-Hill Education. McGraw-Hill
Education is a leading global provider of instructional, assessment, and
reference materials in both print and digital form. McGraw-Hill
Education has offices in 33 countries and publishes in more than 65
languages. With a broad range of products and services — from
traditional textbooks to the latest in online and multimedia learning —
we engage, stimulate, and empower students and professionals of all
ages, helping them meet the increasing challenges of the 21st century
knowledge economy.
How to Use This Book
his book provides all the material you need to score well on the
T LSAT. It will teach you the knowledge that is required for this
difficult exam, including information about each type of question the
test includes. It also provides ample practice for you to refine the skills you
are learning and then test yourself with full-length practice tests. For best
results, follow these steps.
Learn about the LSAT
1 Chapter 1 will familiarize you with the format of the LSAT and briefly
introduce its four different sections. You will also find valuable tips on
how to approach test day and information about how the test is scored. The
Diagnostic Test in Chapter 2 will help you get a sense of your strengths and
weaknesses and how much you need to improve.
Prepare for the Logic Games section
2 LSAT Logic Games do not “come naturally” to most test takers. They
require a particular set of skills—classifying the games by type,
diagramming the games, symbolizing the clues, and making deductions—
that are unfamiliar to many people. Fortunately, these skills are readily
learnable and improvable. Chapter 3 introduces these skills with step-by-
step demonstrations. You can learn more about how to solve logic games
and other LSAT questions by viewing the videos on this book’s companion
website.
Prepare for the Arguments sections
3 Because there are two Arguments sections on each test, half of your
LSAT score will be derived from your performance on Arguments
questions. Chapter 4 introduces you to the ten different types of questions
you’ll encounter in the Arguments section. It also contains guidelines on
how to identify right answers and common types of wrong answers for each
of these question types.
Prepare for the Reading Comprehension section
4 Chapter 5 lays out annotative reading, the style of reading that is best-
suited to the requirements of the Reading Comprehension section of
the LSAT. Chapter 5 also provides techniques for tackling each of the six
different question types you will encounter in Reading Comprehension and
provides strategies for approaching the comparative reading passage.
Prepare for the Writing Sample section
5 Because the Writing Sample section is not scored, it is the least

important of the test’s four sections. Chapter 6 details a five-paragraph
format you can use to write a response to the Writing Sample that is sure to
be satisfactory in the event an admissions officer reads your essay.
Take the Practice Tests
6 Get ready for the actual exam by taking the practice tests. You have a
number of options on how to take them. You will find two practice
tests at the end of the book.
Your LSAT Action Plan

o make the best use of your LSAT preparation time, you’ll need a
T personalized action plan that’s based on your needs and the time you have
available.
Step 1: Identify Your Needs

The LSAT is a unique test. While parts of it are likely to be familiar, it also
contains some question types that you probably have never encountered before.
Thus, it’s important to begin your action plan by taking a diagnostic exam.
Doing so will help you both familiarize yourself with the LSAT and also
determine which areas of the test you’ll need to focus on during your
preparation.
Step 2: Build Your Skills
Each section of the LSAT tests a different skill set. The process of improving
your LSAT score starts with learning and refining the skills and techniques
you’ll use to approach each section of the test. The cases in chapters 3 through 6
introduce these techniques and help you build your skills in applying them.
Step 3: Practice under Test-Like Conditions

Improving your performance on the LSAT is like learning to ride a bike; the
only way to do it is with consistent, repeated practice. Once you’ve learned how
to approach each section of the LSAT, the final step is to practice applying your
new skills under test-like conditions. You can practice using the two sample tests
that appear at the back of this book or on the app or companion website. Four
more practice tests are available on the app and website.
Sample LSAT Action Plans

On the following pages are two sample action plans. The first is a plan you can
follow if you have two months to prepare; the second assumes you have one
month to prepare. In general, the more time you can spend studying and
practicing, the more likely you are to significantly improve your score. So if
you’re still trying to decide when you need to get started, remember: the earlier
the better. You can tweak these plans to suit your own individual needs, or you
can modify them to fit a two-week, six-week, or ten-week schedule.
Sample Action Plan 1 — If You Have Two

Months to Prepare
Two months is an adequate time for most people to prepare for the LSAT,
but the time you’ll need depends on how busy you are with school, work, or
personal commitments and on how much of an effort you’ll need to reach
your target score.
Week 1
• Take the LSAT Diagnostic Test in Chapter 2 of this book. It will help
you get a sense of your starting point in preparing for the test and which
problem-solving skills you need to work on.
• Using the LSAC’s online law-school database, review the admissions
criteria of the law schools you’re most interested in. Based on your
undergraduate GPA, calculate the LSAT score you need to get to make
yourself competitive for admission to these law schools. For more on
how to use this database, see Chapter 7.
• Visit LSAC.org’s “Shop for Prep Tools” page, which you can access at
https://os.lsac.org/Release/Shop/Publications.aspx, and order the
volume entitled, “10 New Actual LSAT PrepTests w/Comparative
Reading.” For $24, you’ll get 10 real LSATs you can use for practice.
What’s more, the exams you’ll get were administered very recently
(between September 2007 and October 2010), so they are likely to be
very similar to the exam you end up taking.
• Read the introduction and Cases 1 through 3 in Chapter 4, LSAT
Arguments.
• Work all of the Conclusion, Deduction, and Principle questions in the
Arguments sections in the Practice Tests at the back of this book. Work
them at your own pace, not under timed conditions. Focus on
implementing the techniques correctly. Study the answer explanations
to understand why you missed any questions you missed.
• Read the introduction, Case 1, and Case 2 in Chapter 5, LSAT Reading
Comprehension.
Week 2
• Read the introduction and Cases 1 through 3 in Chapter 3, LSAT Logic
Games.
• Work all of the one-tiered ordering games and all of the grouping
games in the Logic Games sections in the Practice Tests at the back of
this book. Work them at your own pace, not under timed conditions.
Focus on implementing the techniques correctly. Study the answer
explanations to understand why you missed any questions you missed.
• Read Cases 3 through 9 in Chapter 5, LSAT Reading Comprehension.
• Work the four passages in the Reading Comprehension section in
Practice Test 1 at the back of this book. Work them at your own pace,
not under timed conditions. Focus on implementing the techniques
correctly. Study the answer explanations to understand why you missed
any questions you missed.
Week 3
• Work the four passages in the Reading Comprehension section in
Practice Test 2 at the back of this book. Continue to work at your own
pace with a focus on correctly implementing the techniques and
studying the answer explanations.
• Read Case 4 in Chapter 3, LSAT Logic Games.
• Work all of the two-tiered ordering games in the Logic Games sections
in the Practice Tests at the back of this book. Continue to work at your
own pace with a focus on correctly implementing the techniques and
• Read Cases 4 through 7 in Chapter 4, LSAT Arguments.
• Work all of the Assumption, Strengthen, Paradox, and Weaken
questions in the Arguments sections in the Practice Tests at the back of
this book. Continue to work at your own pace with a focus on correctly
implementing the techniques and studying the answer explanations.
Week 4
• Read Case 5 in Chapter 3, LSAT Logic Games
• Work all of the “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games in the Logic Games sections in
the Practice Tests at the back of this book. Continue to work at your
• Read Cases 8 through 10 in Chapter 4, LSAT Arguments.
• Work all of the Describe and Flaw questions in the Arguments sections
in the Practice Tests at the back of this book. Continue to work at your
studying the answer explanations. Based on your score on the
diagnostic exam and the success you’ve had in working the practice
Arguments questions, make a preliminary decision about whether it
makes sense for you to attempt to work any Parallel questions. If it
does, work all of the Parallel questions from the sample tests in the
same manner.
Week 5
• Catch up on any work you’ve fallen behind on.
• Read Case 11 in Chapter 4, LSAT Arguments.
• Read Case 10 in Chapter 5, LSAT Reading Comprehension.
• Take Prep Test 58 as a timed, start-to-finish practice test.
• Work timed practice sections out of Prep Test 57.
• With both your practice test and your practice sections, analyze the
questions that you answered incorrectly. Try to identify what made you
select the answer you did and why you overlooked the correct answer.
If you find that you are consistently missing the same kinds of
questions, re-read the cases that address those questions.
Week 6
• Work timed practice sections out of Prep Test 56 and 55.
Week 7
• Work timed practice sections out of Prep Tests 54 and 53.
• Read Chapter 6, The LSAT Writing Sample.
• Write one or two practice Writing Sample essays.
Week 8
• Work timed practice sections out of Prep Test 52 and the June 2007 test
that is available online.
questions, re-read the case that addresses those questions.
Sample Action Plan 2 — If You Have One

Month to Prepare
If you plan to master the LSAT in only four weeks, you’ll have to
prioritize; focus on your weaknesses and take as many practice tests as
possible. The more time and energy you can carve out for preparation, the
better.
Week 1
• Take the LSAT Diagnostic Test in Chapter 2 of this book. It will help
you get a sense of your starting point in preparing for the test and which
problem-solving skills you need to work on.
• Using the LSAC’s online law-school database, review the admissions
criteria of the law schools you’re most interested in. Based on your
undergraduate GPA, calculate what LSAT score you need to obtain to
make yourself competitive for admission to these law schools. For more
on how to use this database, see Chapter 7.
• Read the introduction and Cases 1 through 5 in Chapter 3, LSAT Logic
Games.
• Work each of the games in the Logic Games section in Practice Test 1
at the back of this book. Classify each game by type before you work it.
Work the games at your own pace, not under timed conditions. Focus
on implementing the techniques correctly. Study the answer
explanations to understand why you missed any questions you missed.
Week 2
Arguments.
• Work all of the arguments in the two Arguments sections in Practice
Test 1 at the back of this book. Classify each argument by type before
you work it. Work the questions at your own pace, not under timed
conditions. Focus on implementing the techniques correctly. Study the
answer explanations to understand why you missed any questions you
missed.
Reading Comprehension.
• Work all of the passages in the Reading Comprehension section in
Practice Test 1 at the back of this book. Work the questions at your own
pace, not under timed conditions. Focus on implementing the
techniques correctly. Study the answer explanations to understand why
you missed any questions you missed.
Week 3
• Read Case 11 in Chapter 4, LSAT Arguments.
• Read Case 10 in Chapter 5, LSAT Reading Comprehension.
• Work each of the sections in Practice Test 2 at the back of this book as
timed practice sections. After you work each section, analyze the
• Read Chapter 6, The LSAT Writing Sample.
• Write one or two practice Writing Sample essays.
Week 4
• Work timed practice sections out of the June 2007 test that is available
online.
PART I
All About the LSAT
CHAPTER 1
Introducing the LSAT
In this chapter, you will learn:
Why you should use this book to prepare for the LSAT
How to register for the LSAT
The format of the LSAT and how it is scored
Basic information about each of the four sections on the LSAT
How to approach test day
W elcome to McGraw-Hill’s LSAT. If you’ve already purchased this

book, congratulations! You’ve made the right choice. Success on
the Law School Admission Test is a critical component of a
strong law school application. The LSAT is a prerequisite for
admission to all law schools that are accredited by the American Bar Association
and to many law schools that are not ABA-accredited but are accredited by a
state bar association (most notably the California Bar Association). The tools,
techniques, and strategies you’ll learn in this book will enable you to maximize
your LSAT score, including:
Proven tactics from veteran teachers. The authors have more than a decade
of combined LSAT experience as classroom teachers, private tutors,
curriculum developers, and prep-book authors. These techniques have been
honed through years of practice in the field.
A curriculum based on exhaustive research and analysis. Four different
LSATs are administered every year. Three of those four exams are released to
the public. As a result, more than 60 LSATs are now available to the general
public for practice and review. The content and techniques in this book were
developed based on a comprehensive review of thousands of the questions that
have appeared on these real tests.
Updated techniques to reflect a changing test. The LSAT is a dynamic test
that evolves over time. Each year, new question types crop up while old
question types fall by the wayside. The curriculum in this book has been
written with a particular emphasis on capturing the newly emergent trends in
the 15 publicly available tests that were administered between 2006 and 2010.
We’ve developed techniques that will help you stay ahead of the curve on
these new question types.
A unique, casebook-style instructional approach. Casebooks and the case-
based model of instruction are the backbone of the law school curriculum. This
book is the only LSAT-prep book on the market that is written as a casebook.
Major question types and key strategies and techniques are presented as
separate cases for study. This model will help you organize your studying and
make important material easier to digest and remember.
The best practice tests on the market. Practice—and then more practice—is
the key to success on the LSAT. But practice only helps if you’re practicing on
questions that are similar to the ones you’ll encounter on the day of the test.
The practice tests at the back of this book have been carefully designed to
simulate actual LSATs as closely as possible. In addition, each practice test
comes with a complete set of answer explanations that do more than simply
tell you what the correct answer is and why the other four answers are wrong.
They walk you through the process of arriving at the correct answer.
This chapter is dedicated to the nuts and bolts of the LSAT. It will explain
how to register for the test, introduce you to the structure and format of the test,
briefly preview the types of questions you’ll encounter on each of the four
sections, explain how you should approach test day, and help you develop a
study plan. Chapter 2 offers a diagnostic test to show you where you are now in
your preparation and help you determine which question types need the most
attention. Techniques for tackling each section of the test are covered in detail in
Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6, while chapter 7 provides an overview of the law school
application process, including a discussion of the factors you should consider
when deciding on where to apply and the logistics of submitting your
applications.
Test Dates and Registration Information

The LSAT is written and administered by the Law School Admission Council
(LSAC), a nonprofit corporation that provides a variety of admissions-related
services to its more than 200 members. In addition to overseeing the LSAT, the
LSAC also runs the Credential Assembly Service (CAS). The CAS is a
centralized law school admissions clearinghouse that allows you to apply to as
many law schools as you’d like simply by filling out a standardized package of
forms that are somewhat akin to the Common Application you may have filled
out when you were applying to college.
The LSAT is administered four times a year, in February, June, October, and
December. The June exam is administered at 12:30 p.m. on a Monday afternoon.
The February, October, and December exams are administered at 8:30 a.m. on
Saturday mornings. For test takers whose religious observances prevent them
from taking the exam on Saturdays, the LSAC offers a Saturday Sabbath
observers administration, which typically takes place on the Monday following
the Saturday administration. To be eligible for a Saturday Sabbath observers
administration, a test taker must submit a letter from his or her minister or rabbi
on official stationery.
The best way to register for the LSAT is online. Go to
http://www.lsac.org/jd/LSAT/about-the-LSAT.asp and click on the purple button
at the top of the page that says “Register Now.” To register online, you will have
to create an LSAC.org account. There is no charge to create an account, and it is
the same account you’ll use to register for the CAS and submit online
applications for admission. You can also register for the LSAT over the phone
by calling 215-968-1001 on weekdays during East Coast business hours. But
since you’ll inevitably need to create an LSAC account at some point during the
application process, it makes better sense to go ahead and get set up online now.
Once you know when you’d like to start law school, select a test date that’s
well in advance of your enrollment date. December is the last test administration
date that most law schools will look at for fall admissions. For example, if you
want to begin law school in the fall of 2014, the latest possible date you could
take the LSAT would be December 2013. But you’ll help your chances for
admission by taking the test earlier—preferably no later than June of 2013.
Chapter 7 will explain in greater detail why taking an earlier test will improve
your chances for admission.
Once you’ve selected a test date, register for it as early as possible. When you
register, you will have to pay a $165 fee and you’ll be asked to select a testing
site. The seats at each testing site are given on a first come, first served basis.
Wait too long and you run the risk of being forced to take the test at an
inconvenient location. Make sure you’ve thought over where you want to take
the test before you register. If you decide later that you want to take the test at a
different location, you’ll have to pay a $36 change fee.
The registration deadline is typically about five weeks before the day of the
test. The late-registration deadline is 7 to 10 days after the first deadline, and
you’ll have to pay an additional $70 fee. You can find more information about
the registration deadline for a particular test date by visiting
http://www.lsac.org/JD/LSAT/test-dates-deadlines.asp.
The Format of the LSAT

The LSAT is not a content-based test. Rather, it is a skills test made up of six 35-
minute sections. It is designed to measure your acquired abilities in the areas of
reading, verbal reasoning, and spatial reasoning. The score you receive on the
LSAT will be based entirely on your performance on the following four sections.
One section of analytical reasoning, more commonly known as the Logic

Games section
One section of Reading Comprehension
Two sections of logical reasoning, more commonly known as the Arguments
sections
These sections contain somewhere between 99 and 103 multiple-choice

questions, each of which includes five answer choices.
The fifth multiple-choice section you take will be an experimental section.
This section does not count toward your score; the LSAC uses these sections to
design future LSATs (that’s right, you get to pay for the privilege of being a
research guinea pig). Your experimental section could be Logic Games, Reading
Comprehension, or Arguments, and you won’t necessarily get the same
experimental section as the person sitting next to you. The LSAC uses multiple
experimental sections during each test administration. You won’t know which
particular section was experimental. If you have three Arguments sections, for
example, all you’ll know is that one of the three won’t count toward your score.
These five sections can be presented in any order. After you’ve taken the first
three sections, you’ll get a short break of about 10 or 15 minutes so that you can
go to the restroom, stretch your legs, or have a quick snack. After the break,
you’ll take the final two multiple-choice sections. The administrators will collect
your test booklet and your answer sheet. Then they will administer the sixth
section—the Writing Sample.
The Writing Sample section always comes last. It is the only section of the
LSAT that isn’t multiple choice. And like the experimental section, it also is not
scored. The LSAC simply scans your answer and sends a copy of it along with
the rest of your application materials to every law school you apply to.
Sample LSAT
How the LSAT Is Scored

The LSAT is scored on a 120-to-180 scale. Your scaled score is based on your
raw score. Your raw score is the number of multiple-choice questions you
answered correctly in the four scored sections. Each question counts for one
point, and there is no penalty for wrong answers. For each administration of the
LSAT, each raw score (ranging from 0 to 103) is assigned a particular scaled
score.
Your scaled score is essentially a percentile ranking. The LSAT is designed
Your scaled score is essentially a percentile ranking. The LSAT is designed
so that scaled scores mean the same thing from test to test. For example, no
matter what test you take, if you get a 158, you answered more questions
correctly than 75 percent of the people who took the same test you took, and you
answered fewer questions correctly than 25 percent of the people who took the
same test you took. The chart below summarizes the estimated percentile
rankings of various LSAT scores.
The raw score that is assigned to a particular scaled score varies from test to
test. For example, a 163 is the scaled score that puts you in the 90th percentile of
all test takers. On some tests you need a raw score of 83 to get a scaled score of
163. On other tests, it takes a raw score of just 77. These variations result from
the fact that some tests are harder than others, but since the LSAT is scored this
way, you don’t have to worry about that. You’re scored relative to the people
who took the same test as you.
Since no points are subtracted for wrong answers, you should not leave any
questions blank. If you have no idea what the answer is (or if you don’t have
time to attempt all of the questions in a section), bubble in a random letter; do
that five times and odds are you’ll get one question right. It doesn’t matter
whether you bubble in different letters or choose one letter and bubble it in every
time you guess. Just make sure you’ve bubbled something in for every question.
One final note about the scoring scale that’s important to keep in mind as you
study. As you can see from the chart above, a person who gets a 178 only did 0.9
percent better than a person who got a 173, but a person who gets a 158 did
nearly 20 percent better than a person who got a 153. Law schools care about
those percentile differences. So don’t get discouraged if, after a few weeks of
those percentile differences. So don’t get discouraged if, after a few weeks of
studying and working practice problems, your score has only gone up three or
four points. Every point makes a difference to your admissions prospects.
A Brief Introduction to the LSAT’s Four Sections

Below is a brief introduction to what you can expect from the Logic Games,
Arguments, Reading Comprehension, and Writing Sample sections, each of
which is covered in greater detail in a subsequent chapter.
Logic Games (Chapter 3)

Each Logic Games section contains four “games.” You will be asked to answer
between five and seven questions about each game. Most Logic Games sections
have 23 questions. Below are the actual directions that appear at the top of the
Logic Games section. These directions are the same on every test. Read and
learn them now so that you don’t have to spend any time reading them on the
day of your test.
Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of

conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may be useful to draw a
rough diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely
answers each question and blacken the corresponding space on your answer
sheet.
So what is a logic game? A logic game consists of two parts: the setup and
the clues. The setup is the fact pattern; it provides you with the basic information
that you’ll be working with as you work the game. That basic information
consists of a list of elements and a task to perform with those elements.
The clues are rules, conditions, and constraints that organize the elements and
define and limit the ways in which you can use the elements to perform the task
you’ve been assigned. The clues appear in a list underneath the setup.
There are only two basic tasks that you will have to perform on the Logic
Games section: ordering (putting the elements of the game in sequential or
chronological order) and grouping (assigning the elements of the game to one or
more groups or teams). That’s it. Some games will involve both ordering and
grouping, but those are the only two things you have to learn how to do to
successfully navigate the Logic Games section. The best way to perform these
tasks is to draw a simple diagram and use it to keep track of all the information
in the setup and the clues. Chapter 3 will teach you how to identify the task that
a particular game requires you to perform, create a diagram that keeps track of
the information, and systematically work your way through the questions.
For most test takers, the Logic Games section is both bad news and good
news. The bad news is that it’s probably the section of the LSAT that is the most
foreign to you. While we all have at least some experience with reading
academic essays and analyzing short arguments, the task you’re asked to
perform on the Logic Games section—understand and visually represent the
logical relationships between a set of variables—is likely an unfamiliar one. The
good news is that your inexperience and unfamiliarity won’t hurt you. Not only
are all of your fellow test takers in the same boat, but Logic Games is the most
teachable section of the LSAT. With a smart approach and consistent practice,
most LSAT students can dramatically improve their performance on this section
of the test.
Arguments (Chapter 4)
Half of your score on the LSAT will be determined by your performance on the
Arguments sections. You’ll have to work two Arguments sections, each of
which will contain between 24 and 26 questions. The questions are arranged
roughly in order of difficulty. Although there are some exceptions, the first 10
questions as a group will be easier than the last 10 questions. The official
directions for the Arguments section are as follows:
Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning

contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than
one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you
are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and
completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that
are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible
with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer, blacken the
corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Each argument is relatively short: three or four sentences or about 100 words.
You’ll be asked to answer one question about each of the arguments. Although
older LSATs sometimes asked two questions about a single argument, more
recent exams have consistently stuck with a one-to-one ratio. The arguments are
drawn from a variety of sources and address a wide range of topics. Typically
the content is academic in nature, with a heavy emphasis on the natural sciences,
psychology, economics, and ecology. No preexisting knowledge of these topics
is required to answer the questions. The questions pertain solely to the
information presented in the arguments.
The question types in the Arguments section test one or more of the following
three skills: (1) understanding the content of an argument; (2) identifying a gap
where information is missing from an argument; and (3) analyzing the reasoning
of an argument. In Chapter 4 you’ll learn how to identify each of the major
question types that you’ll encounter in the Arguments section. You’ll take a
slightly different approach to reading and analyzing the argument depending on
which skill the question is testing. The arguments themselves and the right and
wrong answers exhibit consistent, predictable patterns. Familiarizing yourself
with those patterns will help you answer the questions faster and with a higher
rate of accuracy.
Reading Comprehension (Chapter 5)

The Reading Comprehension section will probably be the section of the LSAT
that looks the most familiar to you. The format is virtually identical to the format
of the reading comprehension sections on other standardized tests. Each Reading
Comprehension section contains four passages. You will be asked to answer
between 5 and 8 questions about each passage for a total of about 27 questions.
These are the official directions for the Reading Comprehension section:
Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage

or pair of passages. The questions are to be answered on the basis of what
is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some of the
questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the
question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response
that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the
Every Reading Comprehension section contains one passage from each of the
Every Reading Comprehension section contains one passage from each of the
four following general topic areas: (1) law, (2) hard science, (3) fine arts, and (4)
social sciences or the humanities. The level of difficulty depends less on the
topic of the passage and more on the density of its language and the complexity
of its structure. Three passages will be a single piece of writing between 420 and
550 words long. The fourth passage will be a pair of shorter excerpts between
200 and 275 words each. This pair of shorter excerpts is known as the
comparative-reading passage.
The Reading Comprehension section is fundamentally a test of information
retrieval. It doesn’t require you to go beyond the text of the passage by thinking
critically about it, analyzing it, or pondering its broader implications. The
questions test your ability to understand what you’ve read. In Chapter 5 you’ll
learn that you should not rely on your memory or recall of the passage when
answering the questions. Instead, you should go back to the passage, reread the
relevant portion, and find the answer to the question in the passage’s text. With
practice, this simple but powerful technique will yield a dramatic improvement
in your performance on the Reading Comprehension section.
The Writing Sample (Chapter 6)

The final section of the LSAT is the writing sample. After you’ve finished all
five multiple-choice sections, you’ll have to write a two-page, handwritten essay
in response to a brief factual prompt. The prompt will describe a factual scenario
in which a person is presented with some kind of decisional problem. The
prompt will describe two goals that the person hopes to accomplish. The prompt
will also present two possible options for how the person might attempt to
accomplish those goals. Using the facts that are included in the prompt, your
task is to write an essay that selects and defends one of the options as a superior
choice in light of its ability to better accomplish the two enumerated goals.
The official directions are as follows:
Directions: The scenario presented below describes two choices, either one
of which can be supported on the basis of the information given. Your
essay should consider both choices and argue for one over the other, based
on the two specified criteria and the facts provided. There is no “right” or
“wrong” choice: a reasonable argument can be made for either.
Although the writing sample does not contribute to your LSAT score, it is
read by law school admissions officers. You don’t want an officer who is on the
fence about your application to read a poorly written essay. Start thinking about
the writing sample about a week or two before you take the LSAT. Chapter 6
introduces a five-paragraph structure you can use to write an effective essay.
How to Approach Test Day

As the date of your LSAT draws closer, there are a few practical things you
should do to prepare. First, visit the location where you’ll be taking the test.
Figure out how you’ll get there, how long it will take, and where you’ll park (or
which public transportation stop you’ll use). Having this all nailed down in
advance will reduce your stress level on the day of the main event.
Two nights before the test, be sure you get a good night’s sleep. You should
try to get a good night’s sleep the night before the test, too, but sometimes
nervous energy makes that impossible. That’s OK—you can overcome one bad
night of sleep and still be alert and focused. But if you’ve had two nights of bad
sleep in a row, your test-day performance will suffer. So make it a point to turn
in early on Thursday night (or Saturday night if you’re taking the test in June).
The night before the test, take it easy. Don’t stay up late working practice
tests, trying to learn new material, or intensively reviewing material you’ve
already learned. By this point, you know what you’re going to know. One last
cram session is more likely to make you feel tired and discouraged than help
your performance.
Take a moment the night before the test to assemble everything you’re going
to bring with you to the test. There are only three things that you absolutely have
to bring: (1) your admissions ticket; (2) a photo ID; and (3) number 2 pencils.
When you register for the LSAT, the LSAC will send you an admissions ticket.
It will be e-mailed to you if you register online and mailed to you if you register
by phone or mail. They won’t let you into the testing room if you don’t have this
admissions ticket. For the photo ID, a driver’s license or a passport will work.
And yes, you do have to use number 2 pencils; mechanical pencils are
prohibited. Bring a handful with you, and make sure they are sharpened.
There are a few additional things that, while not absolutely necessary, it
would be wise of you to bring. These include:
A small, nonelectric pencil sharpener.

A white eraser stick. White erasers work much better than the pink erasers that
are attached to the ends of number 2 pencils. If you need to change an answer
on your Scantron, clean and complete erasure will make sure that the scoring
machine reads your answer sheet correctly.
Pain relievers. Grab a few ibuprofen, aspirin, or acetaminophen, just in case.
A snack. You’ll want something to eat during the 10-to 15-minute break.
A bottle of water. You won’t be allowed to leave the test room to get a drink
while the test is being administered.
A jacket, sweater, or fleece. The test proctors typically will not be able to
control the temperature in the test room. Dress in layers so that you won’t be
hot if the room is a little stuffy or cold if the air-conditioning is cranked up too
high.
An analog wristwatch. Digital timers are prohibited. So are analog
stopwatches. If you want to keep track of time for yourself, you’ll have to use
an analog wristwatch. And it’s a good idea to plan to do this: you won’t
necessarily be able to see a clock in the testing room, and you’ll want to keep
an eye on your time as you’re working.
A large Ziploc bag to put all this stuff in. That’s the only kind of container
you’re allowed to bring into the testing center.
Finally, note that all of the following items are prohibited from the test room:
Backpacks, messenger bags, briefcases, handbags, and the like

Electronic timers of any kind, including digital watches
Any electronic equipment, including cell phones, tablets, and PDAs
Pens
Earplugs
Scratch paper
Books, notes, or other LSAT test-prep materials
For a complete list of items that are prohibited from the test room, visit
http://www.lsac.org/JD/LSAT/day-of-test.asp.
On the morning of your test, stick to your normal routine. Eat the same kind
of breakfast you normally eat, and drink the same amount of coffee or soda or
whatever it is that you normally drink. Studies show that test takers perform
better if they’ve had a healthy breakfast, but if you never, ever eat breakfast,
today’s not the day to start.
Before you go to the test center, take 10 or 15 minutes to review some test
materials. Look over one Logic Game, one Reading Comprehension passage,
materials. Look over one Logic Game, one Reading Comprehension passage,
and one two-page set of Arguments questions. Do not work new practice
problems. Instead, review problems that you’ve already worked (preferably ones
that you did well on). The purpose of this review is to get your brain awake and
warmed up. And reviewing problems that you answered correctly will help you
put yourself into a positive, confident state of mind.
Be on time. The start time will be printed on your admissions ticket. The test
proctors will close the doors precisely at that time. If you’re late, they won’t let
you in, and you’ll forfeit your opportunity to take the LSAT that day.
Obtaining or Cancelling Your Score

You can expect to receive your score by e-mail about three weeks after the test.
If you’ve registered with the LSAC, the score will be e-mailed to you free of
charge. If you don’t have an LSAC account, or if you would prefer to have a
hard copy mailed to you, you’ll have to pay a fee of $25. Hard-copy score
reports are usually mailed about a month after you take the test. For specific
information on the score release date for the test you’re taking, visit
http://www.lsac.org/JD/LSAT/test-dates-deadlines.asp and click on the link for
your test date.
If you feel that the test has gone poorly, you’ll have two opportunities to
cancel your score. First, you can cancel your score on the day you take the test.
Your LSAT answer sheet will contain a section allowing you to cancel your
score. Instructions on how to do so will be provided. Second, you can cancel
your score by mailing or faxing in a score-cancellation sheet within six days
after you take the test.
It never makes sense to cancel your score on the day of the test. Plenty of
people get freaked out and have a crisis of confidence while they’re taking the
LSAT (especially if they have the misfortune of drawing an experimental section
in which the LSAC is road-testing a batch of its most difficult questions). If you
finish your test and feel like it’s gone poorly, do not cancel your score that day.
Go home, blow off some steam, get a couple days’ distance from the test, and
then revisit the issue Monday morning (or Wednesday morning if you take the
test in June). Once you’ve gotten some perspective, you may remember other
sections of the test that you felt really good about. Or you may talk to a friend
who took the test the same day, hear that she didn’t have the same brutally hard
Games section that you had, and realize that the section you struggled with was
the unscored experimental section. By waiting to make the keep-or-cancel
decision, you’ll prevent yourself from doing anything rash.
And there’s no risk associated with waiting. All you have to do to cancel your
score after the fact is fill out a one-page form and either mail or fax it to the
LSAC. You have six days to do this. Since you can fax the form in, you can
guarantee that it arrives on time. If you do decide to cancel your score, more
information on how to go about doing so is available at
http://www.lsac.org/JD/LSAT/lsat-cancellation.asp.
If you get a score you’re unhappy with, you’re free to take the LSAT again
(up to a maximum of three times in any two-year period). If you take the LSAT
multiple times, the LSAC will report all of your scores to each law school you
apply to. The LSAC will also provide an average of all your scores. The decision
on which score to consider varies on a school-by-school basis. Some schools
will only consider your highest score; others consider the average of all your
scores.
If you’re thinking about taking the LSAT for a second time, it’s worth it to
call the admissions offices at the law schools you’re most interested in and ask
them what their policy is on reviewing applications with multiple LSAT scores.
You’ll get a lot more bang for your buck as a second-time taker if you’re
applying to schools that are willing to look only at your highest score. It’s much
harder to make a big upward jump at a school that averages scores.
CHAPTER 2
LSAT Diagnostic Test
T his diagnostic test is designed to closely resemble the real LSAT in

types and numbers of questions, in time limits, and in degree of
difficulty. Use it to assess your test readiness as you begin your LSAT
preparation.
For best results, try to simulate exam conditions as you take this test.
Complete the test in a single sitting and follow directions and time limits. At the
end of the test, you will find an Answer Key as well as answers and explanations
for every question. Score yourself using the Answer Key, then read the
explanations, paying particular attention to those for questions that you missed
or that were difficult for you to answer. Don’t skip the explanations for questions
you answered correctly; you may learn simpler or easier ways to reach the right
answer.
Your score on this test will indicate your current level of readiness to take the
LSAT. Use it as a starting point to help you plan your preparation program.
Which types of questions were easiest for you? Which ones were the most
difficult? Were there any that you found confusing or that you could not answer
at all? Instructional material on each LSAT question type is presented in the
following chapters. As you read through the chapters, focus on the question
types that you found most difficult. Pay careful attention to the examples and
solution strategies presented. Then sharpen your problem-solving skills by
tackling the practice tests at the end of this book. Additional LSAT practice is
available on the companion website at MHPracticePlus.com.
You can also take the diagnostic test on your tablet or smartphone as well
as your laptop or home computer. See page 7A of the Welcome insert for
as your laptop or home computer. See page 7A of the Welcome insert for
more information.

Answer Sheet
Directions: Before beginning the test, photocopy this answer sheet or

remove it from the book. Mark your answer to each question by filling in the
corresponding answer oval in the columns below. If a section has fewer
questions than answer spaces, leave the extra spaces blank.
Section I
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Section II
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Section III
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Section IV
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SECTION I
Time—35 minutes
26 Questions
Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in
brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices
could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the
question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards
implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have
chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
1. Since David Ellington became chief of police, several of the most decorated
officers have resigned, the number of recruits has decreased, the department
has instituted fewer community outreach programs, crime is on the rise, and
polls show our police force is less popular than ever before. It’s obvious the
city council appointed Ellington to undermine our civic order.
The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
(A) confuses quantitative results with qualitative results
(B) leaps to a general conclusion based on a few anomalous instances
(C) ignores that someone can be perceived as incompetent without actually
being incompetent
(D) assumes that because an action is followed by a result that the action
was taken to bring about that result
(E) restates something that has already been proven
2. An apartment complex is installing alarm systems in every apartment due to

an increase in crime in the area. The manager reasons that he does not need
to install an alarm system in apartment 3B because the tenant is a police
officer and can protect himself.
Which one of the following decisions is based on a flawed reasoning that is
most similar to the apartment manager’s reasoning?
(A) A deliveryman has limited time to deliver all his packages before
returning to his office. The deliveryman reasons that they should be
delivered in order of largest to smallest because there might not be
enough time to deliver all of them.
(B) A candidate for mayor must prioritize the areas of the city where she
must focus campaigning efforts. The candidate reasons that she spend all
her resources in these areas where voters are less likely to vote for her
because the other voters do not need to be convinced to vote for her.
(C) Members of a jury are given four hours to reach their verdict or the
judge will dismiss them and declare a mistrial. The jury reasons they
should have the foreman review the evidence and determine a verdict
because the foreman is a lawyer.
(D) The captain of a yacht requires that all his passengers go through a
safety training session. He reasons that one passenger did not have to
attend because he was a former US naval officer.
(E) A manager discovers an employee has stolen food from the break room.
He reasons that he should force all his employees to go through ethics
training to make sure the guilty party never steals food again.
3. Larry: Some laws passed by Congress are considered to be bad by our

nation’s citizens even though they deliver positive results. A law is good
only if it delivers positive results. So, some laws considered to be bad by
our nation’s citizens are actually good laws.
Carrie: Although I agree with your conclusion I disagree with your reasons
for it. Some good laws actually do not deliver positive results. But no
laws that are considered to be bad by our nation’s citizens deliver positive
results, so your conclusion, that some laws that are considered bad by our
nation’s citizens are actually good, still holds.
Which one of the following correctly describes an error in both Larry’s and
Carrie’s reasoning?
(A) Assuming that if a law’s having a certain quality is necessary for its
being a particular type of law, then having that quality is sufficient for
being that type of law.
(B) Assuming that if a particular quality is shared by two types of laws, then
that quality is the only quality distinguishing the two types of law from
laws of other types.
(C) Assuming that if most laws of a particular type share a particular quality,
then all laws share that quality.
(D) Assuming that if a particular quality is shared by laws of a particular
type among a particular nation, then that quality is shared by laws of that
type among all nations.
(E) Assuming that if a certain quality distinguishes one type of law from
another type of law, then that quality is one of many qualities
distinguishing the two types of laws.
4. Based on new evidence, anthropologists now believe that during the

Neolithic Age there was a “white revolution,” when Middle Eastern milk-
drinking farmers conquered the hunter-gatherer tribes of Europe, and set up
permanent settlements where the hunter-gatherer communities used to exist.
Previously, experts thought that representatives of the Middle Easterners
only traveled through Europe and brought their ideas like evangelists,
converting the indigenous people to a new way of life. This new evidence
finally proves that the transition of Europe to a farming and milk-drinking
society was much more violent and transformative than thought before.
Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?
(A) a discovery of several Middle Eastern villages in northern Europe with
tools that show its members ate only vegetables and fruits and never
raised cows
(B) evidence that several hunter-gatherer societies drank milk long before
the Middle Eastern farming communities migrated into the region
(C) the discovery of land scarred from battle of that period as well as mass
graves of the Middle Eastern farmers and hunter-gatherers
(D) evidence that villages of Middle Easterners were established near the
hunter-gatherer communities and trade existed between the two types of
communities
(E) the discovery of children with genetic markers from both hunter-gatherer
and farming peoples, proving that there was sexual intermingling
5. A rise in the number of young people entering the workforce in a small

country between 2000 and 2006 correlates with a rise in the percentage of
young people who graduate from high school in that country. Since young
people in that small country are generally either high school graduates or
high school dropouts, the correlation leads to the conclusion that the
country’s ability to employ young people in the workforce depends
substantially on the number of people it can graduate from high school.
Which of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument?
(A) The percentage of young people who had completed at least two years of
college was greater in 2006 than in 2000.
(B) Between 2000 and 2006 the percentage of high school dropouts hired
into the workforce rose sharply.
(C) Most of the available jobs require using technology and performing tasks
that are too complicated for high school dropouts.
(D) A larger number of high school dropouts in the small country were hired
into the workforce in 2006 than in 2000.
(E) All workers are strongly encouraged to finish at least their high school
education before applying for jobs.
6. Speaker: The government must recognize that contemporary business firms

are able to behave as irresponsibly as they want without fear of losing
power. In a modern society, Davis and Blomstrom’s Iron Law of
Responsibility, which says that “in the long run, those who do not use
power in a manner which society considers responsible will tend to lose
it,” no longer applies and never did. History shows that in the long run
firms are able to obscure their bad acts with effective public relations or
just wait out the short attention span of the public. Thus, a business that
wants to act irresponsibly can do so without fear of losing power in
society.
Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the speaker’s
argument?
(A) Some institutions reach a critical mass at which they are too big to fail
and will, in a sense, live forever.
(B) Some businesses that have used power in socially irresponsible ways
have remained powerful.
(C) The power of some institutions grows faster than the power of others,
whether they are socially irresponsible or not.
(D) Government institutions are as immune to the Iron Law of
Responsibility as business institutions.
(E) Public relations often are transparent and fail to mask a corporation’s
truly irresponsible actions.
Questions 7–8
A number of serious amateur photographers have tested the new Apheron digital
camera. With it, they observed that the camera took photographs with much finer
detail both in bright and low light situations than with the 10-megapixel
Norwich, even though the Norwich cameras offer a higher resolution at 10
megapixels than the 8-megapixel Apheron cameras. Given these amateur
photographers’ observational findings, any serious photographer ought to choose
the Apheron if she or he is buying a digital camera for both bright and low light
situations.
7. The argument proceeds by

(A) describing how a testing situation approximates the real-life conditions
of ordinary use
(B) using the claims of a subset of a group to make a recommendation to the
larger group
(C) evaluating the credibility of a recommendation made by a particular
group
(D) distinguishing between the actual reasons why a certain group did a
particular thing and the best reasons for doing that thing
(E) placing an experience in a wider context in order to explain it
8. Which of the following most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) The lens in the Apheron digital camera is made of a different substance
than that used in other digital cameras.
(B) With digital cameras, the size of the sensor is more important than the
number of pixels when it comes to taking photographs in bright or low
light.
(C) The quality of detail in photographs is only one of several factors that,
when taken together, should determine whether the camera is worth
purchasing.
(D) The amateur photographers made their observations and comparisons
during several different sessions and at different times of the day.
(E) Many serious amateur photographers have no intention of buying a
digital camera to take photographs under such extreme conditions.
9. Economist: The automobile industry seems to be on the way to recovery

from an earlier slump. Recent figures show that the auto companies are
purchasing more equipment and spending more on R&D than ever
before, indicating that they expect sales to increase in the near future.
That the auto companies are purchasing more equipment and spending more
on R&D than ever before figures in the economist’s argument in which one
of the following ways?
(A) It is an inference drawn from the premise that the auto companies expect
sales to increase in the near future.
(B) It is an inference drawn from the premise that the automotive industry is
recovering.
(C) It is the primary evidence from which the argument’s conclusion is
drawn.
(D) Its truth is required in order for the argument’s conclusion to be true.
(E) It is the phenomenon that the argument seeks to explain.
10. The amount of water consumed in Anderville on any given day in the
summer is directly proportional to the heat index on that day. Since the
average heat index this July was four points higher than the average heat
index last August, it follows that more water was consumed in Anderville
this July than last August.
Which one of the following arguments has a pattern of reasoning most

similar to the one in the argument above?
(A) The number of doctors working in the emergency room on any day is
directly proportional to the number of services delivered by the
emergency room that day and also directly proportional to the number of
patients that visit the emergency room. Thus, the number of services
offered by the emergency room on any given day is directly proportional
to the number of patients that visit the emergency room on that day.
(B) The number of doctors working in the emergency room on any given
day is directly proportional to the number of nurses working in the
emergency room on that day. But the emergency room employs the same
number of orderlies every day. Hence, there are usually more doctors
than orderlies working in the emergency room.
(C) The bill paid by a patient at the emergency room is directly proportional
to the number of medical professionals the patient sees during his or her
visit. Since the number of patients going through the emergency room is
increasing, it follows that the emergency room is collecting a greater
amount in fees paid by patients than it used to.
(D) The increase in patients at the emergency room is directly proportional
to the amount of advertising the hospital has done the previous year. The
hospital seeks to attract more patients to its emergency room by
increasing the amount the hospital spends on advertising.
(E) The amount of analgesics prescribed in an emergency room is directly
proportional to the number of patients that go through the emergency
room on a given day. Since the emergency room handled 15 percent
more patients in the last year than in the previous year, more analgesics
were prescribed in the emergency room last year than in the previous
year.
11. Jason: The solar cooker provides free energy for cooking, baking, and
cleaning water. People who use it avoid indoor smoke inhalation, fire
hazards, and injuries from gathering firewood. They also have
environmental benefits such as reducing deforestation, lowering energy
costs, and reducing CO2 emissions. The solar cooker is a simple solution
to a host of problems in the developing world.
Zola: While I agree with your arguments, I disagree with your conclusion.
Solar cookers have all of those benefits. Unfortunately, it takes a long
time for them to bring water to a boil—usually between two and three
hours—and they require ample sunlight, which is not always available in
the rainy season. In practice, they are not a perfect solution by far.
Zola responds to Jason’s argument using which one of the following

argumentative techniques?
(A) She argues that Jason’s conclusion is just a restatement of his fallacious
arguments.
(B) She argues that Jason’s conception of the ills of developing nations is
too limited in scope and thus his conclusion is insufficient.
(C) She questions the integrity of Jason’s research and whether his
conclusion is based on a faulty foundation.
(D) She gives an alternate interpretation of the assumptions that results in a
different conclusion altogether.
(E) She introduces caveats that weaken several of Jason’s assumptions.
12. Joe’s Lumber stocks only two types of 2 × 4 planks, pine and oak. Roberto
never uses pine to build his tables because he likes the heavier feel of oak
and believes it is more durable. When he built Marion a dining room table he
bought the wood from Joe’s Lumber, so the table must be made of oak.
The argument above is most similar in its logical structure to which one of
the following?
(A) Rocky wants to go with three friends to the amusement park. His father
owns both a sedan and a compact. The compact holds four people, but
even though the sedan’s engine has more horsepower, if Rocky borrows
a car from his father he will borrow the compact.
(B) The Roddick Corporation offers Pedzisai a choice between an
assignment in Sweden and an assignment in South Africa. Pedzisai
would never accept an assignment in his home country of South Africa if
it meant turning down an assignment in Europe, so if he chooses an
assignment it must be the assignment in Sweden.
(C) If Georgia wants to ride her bike from her apartment to work she must
either take a thoroughfare or go through a maze of neighborhoods. The
neighborhood streets are always full of potholes and the thoroughfare
has too much traffic, so she never rides her bike to work.
(D) Antonio can take a 15-minute break in the morning or an hour and a
quarter for lunch later. The haircut Antonio planned takes 30 minutes,
but his barber had only morning appointments available, so no matter
what Antonio will have to get his haircut another day.
(E) If the team owner does not fire his coach, his football team will rebel and
they will lose more games. Losing the coach will also mean losing more
games, so if no alternative solution presents itself, the team will lose
more games.
13. A building inspector has been accused of ignoring serious structural defects
on a building. Although the records have been lost and the building has since
been demolished, his inspections of more recent buildings have been
reviewed and found to be flawless. Therefore, the accusation should be
dismissed.
Which one of the following contains questionable reasoning that is similar to

that in the argument above?
(A) A computer scientist was accused of spreading a computer virus to
several large computers, but the charge should be dismissed since the
hard drives of those computers have been erased and no record of his
malfeasance exists. Also, since then, his work has been untainted by any
such actions.
(B) A teacher was accused of allowing several students to pass a course
when they actually failed. This accusation should be discussed at length
because even though those students went on to be successful in later
grades, the teacher may have passed other undeserving students.
(C) Politician A was accused of stealing parts of a speech given by Politician
B. This charge is without foundation and should be disregarded because
Politician A was not even born when Politician B gave that speech and
there exists no recording of the original speech.
(D) A restaurateur is accused of using ingredients past their expiration dates.
The accusation seems justified even though there is no evidence of it,
because several cases of food poisoning can be linked back to the
restaurateur’s place of business.
(E) A financial manager is accused of stealing funds from his clients. The
charges should be ignored because even though the records show there
has been some malfeasance, the identity of the accuser has not been
disclosed.
14. Every employee who takes public transportation to and from work eats lunch
in the company break room. It follows that some employees who have their
own office do not take public transportation to work.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which of the following is

assumed?
(A) Some employees who do not have offices eat lunch in the company
break room.
(B) Some employees who eat lunch in the company break room have an
office.
(C) Every employee who eats lunch in the break room has an office.
(D) Some employees who do not have an office do not eat lunch in the
company break room.
(E) Every employee who eats lunch in the company break room takes public
transportation to and from work.
15. Archaeologists have found underwater etchings near the jungle city of
Manaus, following a drought in the Brazilian Amazon. Previously,
archaeologists studying the Amazon believed that the rainforest was too
inhospitable to host a major civilization and that the only civilizations in the
area were nomadic. The new discovery proves this theory incorrect and that
thousands of years ago the Amazon was home to large civilizations.
Which of the following statements, if true, would most weaken the above
argument?
(A) Remnants of large established villages with well-trodden roads going by
or through them were unearthed near the location of the drawings.
(B) The etchings exhibited an unexpected sophistication for that period, yet
they still showed the telltale signs of being of that period.
(C) Archaeologists proved that a nomadic artist created the etchings and
very similar etchings almost 100 miles away.
(D) The drought that exposed the submerged etchings was the first in that
area in more than 2,000 years.
(E) The etchings included a representation of hunters walking across a plain
and people building small domiciles.
16. A new study observed people who watch television and their happiness
level. The study indicated that people who have more channels and thus
more choices of what to watch are not necessarily happier than those with
fewer choices of what to watch. Thus, people in highly industrialized nations
who have more choices in all aspects of their daily lives are not happier than
those in less developed nations with fewer choices in their daily lives.
The above argument depends on the presupposition that

(A) it is equally likely that people in less developed nations have as many
television channels as people in highly industrialized nations
(B) the inverse relationship between happiness and the number of television
channels is the same among other categories of goods and services
regardless of other factors related to where people live in the world
(C) people in less developed nations are unfamiliar with the number and
quality of choices available to those in highly industrialized nations
(D) people in highly industrialized nations have visited less developed
nations and determined that their choices are of lesser quality and less
likely to make them happier
(E) the relationship between the number of television channels and
happiness is directly related to the stage of a society’s industrialization
and thus an industrialized nation will feel the effects of such disparities
more significantly
17. A high school cheerleading squad held its annual bake sale on the first day
of school to raise money for the coming year. In order to increase sales this
year the squad decided to lower the prices on everything. Despite their
strategy, the cheerleaders had lower sales than in any previous year.
Each of the following, if true, contributes to reconciling the apparent

discrepancy indicated above EXCEPT:
(A) Student enrollment at the high school dropped significantly from the
previous year to this year.
(B) Other school groups planned their fund-raisers for the same day, which
had not been done in previous years.
(C) Because of the increase in prices for sugar and flour, the cost of making
the baked goods increased this year.
(D) The faculty handed out gift baskets on the first day of school that
included cupcakes and other sweet items.
(E) Due to construction on a new auditorium the cheerleading squad was not
able to locate their bake sale tables in the same well-known location as
in previous years.
18. The Redville Community Center, a nonprofit organization, was facing a

budgetary crisis due to rising utility costs and expensive building repairs that
were necessary to keep the center open. The board of directors decided to
raise the membership fees and assess a building fee to raise the necessary
funds. Toward the end of the year the board discovered that the costs were
less than they thought and the fee changes actually gave the center a budget
surplus. The board decided to use the surplus funds to buy a new van to
shuttle people from the nearby nursing home to the center even though the
old van was still serviceable. But before doing so, the board should obtain
permission from the members who paid the additional fees.
Which one of the following policies, if put into effect, would most justify the
position advocated above and yet place the least restriction on the use of
funds by community centers?
(A) Beneficiaries of a nonprofit organization with a vested fee-based interest
should be considered to be placing their trust in the directors of those
organizations to use the money wisely according to whatever
circumstance might arise.
(B) Beneficiaries of a nonprofit organization with a vested fee-based interest
cannot delegate to the directors of those organizations the responsibility
of allocating the funds received for various purposes consonant with the
purposes of the organization as the directors of the organization see fit.
(C) Directors of nonprofit organizations cannot allocate assessments to any
purposes for which the directors had not specifically earmarked the
funds in advance.
(D) Fees assessed by a nonprofit organization for a specific purpose should
only be used for that purpose, or if that is unable to happen then should
only be used according to the express wishes of those who pay the
assessments.
(E) Directors of nonprofit organizations who assess additional fees for
specific purposes must return funds received from such assessments if
more money is received than can practicably be used for the specified
purpose of the assessment.
19. Scientist: My peers have said that my theory regarding molecular cohesion
in glass is based on sheer conjecture and has no experimental basis. This
is simply not true. I’ve based my theory on several findings that have
been published recently by reputable research organizations. Even
though I have not reviewed every detail of their experiments, I am
confident in their work. Besides, you may recall that I was asked to
develop theories on molecular cohesion in wood fibers five years ago and
I used findings from the same labs then as well.
The scientist’s argument is LEAST vulnerable to which one of the following
criticisms?
criticisms?
(A) It bases a conclusion about the scientific findings of the research
organizations on uncertain recollections.
(B) It assumes that the experiments done by the research organizations are
unaffected by bias or human error.
(C) It assumes that the experiments done by the research organizations are
the only work necessary to develop a scientific theory.
(D) It hastily concludes that the experiments done by the research
organizations are accurate, without having studied them in detail.
(E) It assumes that having in the past used the experiments done by the
research organizations as a basis to develop a scientific theory justifies
using them to develop the current theory.
Questions 20–21
The city performed its annual testing of lead levels in the drinking water and
discovered that about 14 percent of the samples taken exceeded federal standards
for allowable lead levels. Regardless of these findings, the lead levels, even in
the ones that exceeded federal standards, were still too low to pose any
immediate health threat. So, it’s perfectly safe for the city’s residents to drink all
the tap water they want.
20. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument

depends?
(A) The city’s residents often disregard federal guidelines when it comes to
public health issues because the standards are overly stringent.
(B) The most dangerous contaminant in drinking water is lead.
(C) Statistical sampling is not the most accurate basis for determining health
threats even though the federal government and the city must depend on
them.
(D) Lead levels even slightly above federal standards do not have long-term
effects on people’s health.
(E) People feel safer when they heed warnings from the federal government
even if they are not entirely accurate.
21. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
(A) Most lead in city drinking water is absorbed by the lining of the pipes.
(B) Due to budgetary cuts the city had to test water sourced from one central
location instead of sampling randomly throughout the city as in past
years.
(C) Studies show that children who absorb levels of lead above federal
standards experience adverse long-term effects.
(D) The local hospital has had an increase in lead-poisoning cases among
people who drink large quantities of water on a regular basis.
(E) Several medical associations have lobbied for higher standards and
harsher punishments on cities that do not take actions to reduce lead
contamination in their drinking water.
Questions 22–23
Jaime: The life span for both African and Asian elephants is much shorter in
zoos than in the national reserve parks. Studies have proven this by
comparing the life spans of elephants in zoos to the life spans of elephants in
nature reserves in both Kenya and Myanmar. Thus, our government should
take a serious look at how zoos treat their elephants and possibly implement
a temporary ban on the acquisition of new elephants until this issue is
resolved.
Eleanor: But both the reserves you mention are protected areas where the
animals do not face the threat of poaching and other unnatural dangers. Also,
the data in those studies go back more than 40 years and do not take into
account more recent advances in captive animal care that will most definitely
extend the life spans of elephants currently in zoos.
22. Which one of the following is an assumption on which Eleanor’s argument

depends?
(A) There are genetic differences between African and Asian elephants that
effect variance of life spans between those particular species.
(B) Predators and diseases within the confines of a nature reserve affect the
life span of an elephant to a lesser extent than threats an elephant faces
outside the parks.
(C) The training of zookeepers and those who manage nature reserves is
exactly the same; thus, the care of the elephants should be exactly the
same.
(D) A zookeeper in 1970 was unable to help extend the lives of elephants in
captivity due to budgetary restraints that plagued zoos at that time.
(E) The professionals that manage nature reserves are more aware of the
threat of poachers than zookeepers; thus, they do a better job of
protecting their elephants from them.
23. Eleanor’s rejection of Jaime’s conclusion employs which one of the

following techniques of argumentation?
(A) Producing a single contradicting example that establishes that a stated

generalization is false
(B) Questioning the validity of a conclusion because the supporting
statements cannot be experimentally verified
(C) Pointing out that potentially more favorable evidence exists that has
been neglected
(D) Rejecting a problematic correlation and a potential variance shift with
relation to the supporting statements that underlie the conclusion
(E) Reanalyzing the underlying assumptions and pursuing a wider data
sampling that underlie the conclusion
24. A teacher decided to challenge 10 of her students to do their mathematics

work without a calculator or computer for three months, while the rest of her
class was able to use whatever tools they had at their disposal. She
discovered that the 10 students’ scores improved on their homework
assignments and their exams. On the basis of this experiment the teacher
determined that students perform better when forced to complete their work
manually rather than depending on machines.
Which of the following would, if valid, most weaken the reasoning above?
(A) The 10 students were performing poorly in the teacher’s course before
the experiment.
(B) The 10 students were being tutored by other students who did have the
advantage of a calculator or computer.
(C) The 10 students happened to be the best students at mathematics in the
class.
(D) During the three months of the experiment, the class studied
mathematics that only the 10 students had studied previously.
(E) The teacher coached the students on how to do their homework without
the help of a calculator or computer.
25. A recent survey showed that 60 percent of employers polled believe that an
employee should be fired from the job if the employee has been charged with
a crime, whereas 40 percent believe that an employee should be fired only if
the employee has been convicted of a crime. Therefore, more employers
believe that an employee should be fired if charged of a crime than believe
they should be fired if convicted.
The reasoning above is flawed because it

(A) uses a sample of the population to draw a conclusion about the general
population
(B) bases a conclusion on an ambiguous term in the supporting statements
(C) uses two different beliefs to draws a conclusion about a different belief
altogether
(D) is based on premises that cannot all be true
(E) confuses a sufficient condition with a required condition
26. Editorial: History has shown that even though politicians promise that the
profits from a lottery will be devoted to educational purposes, the funds
are inevitably redirected to other purposes that have nothing to do with
education. Therefore, our representatives in the state legislature should
not support the proposed lottery because they will inevitably break their
promise to use the profits to fund education and direct the funds
elsewhere.
The reasoning above is flawed because it
(A) draws a conclusion about a specific population based on a study of a
larger population
(B) uses historical data to draw incorrect conclusions about a similar
situation in the future
(C) presupposes that a pattern of behavior under one set of conditions will
recur under a completely different set of conditions
(D) rejects a proposed solution based on the track record of an altogether
different solution
(E) assails a proposed lottery by attacking those who support it rather than
the merits of the proposed lottery
STOP
IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME RUNS OUT, CHECK YOUR WORK ON
THIS
SECTION ONLY. DO NOT GO ON TO ANY OTHER TEST SECTION.

SECTION II
Time—35 minutes
24 Questions
1. Chancellor of Mayfield Academy: Mayfield Academy must grow if it is to

survive, so as we have agreed, efforts should be made to attract students
in all grades K–12. The best strategy for attracting students is to build
new facilities for athletics, computer science, and the arts, including a
new auditorium. Parents demand that their children receive the very
best facilities to explore their interests to the fullest. Also, as other
schools are investing in similar facilities, we must keep up with the
competition. Therefore, parents will move their kids to our school as
our facilities match or surpass other institutions.
The argument leads to the conclusion that
(A) the Mayfield Academy should attract more students
(B) parents who want the best facilities for their children’s interests should
choose Mayfield Academy
(C) parents should consider public as well as private institutions
(D) the Mayfield Academy should invest in new facilities
(E) parents who have children in public school should transfer them to
Mayfield Academy
2. Business executive: Attempting to create an ethical company by teaching
ethics to our employees is a waste of time and money because the
corporate structure at its foundation is inherently neither ethical nor
unethical. No matter what we do, people will inevitably act in an
unethical manner. All we can do is create monitoring systems to prevent
problems from occurring and to protect the company when they do.
Ethicist: To claim that we should not train employees in ethics because
they will inevitably act unethically makes about as much sense as arguing
that we should not spend money on driver’s education because all drivers
will inevitably cause an accident.
The method the ethicist uses to object to the business executive’s argument is
to
(A) argue that there are problems that time and money, no matter how
judiciously spent, cannot solve
(B) attack the character of the business executive rather than the position the
business executive is taking
(C) show that the executive’s line of reasoning would lead to an
unacceptable conclusion if applied to a different situation
(D) show that the executive must present more evidence to substantiate the
business executive’s position
(E) explicate a dilemma that is central to the business executive’s argument
3. Renfield should not be promoted to the management position. His

performance as a member of our staff, while exemplary, has shown little of
his management ability. Everything he has said and done up to this point has
been directed toward obtaining this promotion rather than showing us that he
has the ability to manage other people. Therefore, we cannot trust that he
will be an effective manager once in the position.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies?
(A) The duties of a staff member do not in and of themselves prove that the
person is capable of managing people.
(B) Renfield cannot be trusted even with his current duties as a member of
the staff.
(C) When Renfield obtains the promotion, he does not intend to act in the
best interest of the staff under his management.
(D) The staff will not follow Renfield’s lead as a manager once he receives
the promotion.
(E) Managers rarely are promoted from the staff because they are unable to
handle the higher level of responsibility.
4. Real progress in society is not something that can happen without significant
and transformative action. It only comes when those who are in power have
the courage to overcome significant opposition and overturn previously
accepted norms that are detrimental to society.
The reasoning in the argument is fallacious because the argument
(A) undermines its own premise that a particular attribute is present in all
instances of a particular phenomenon
(B) concludes that, because an influence is the paramount influence on a
particular phenomenon, that influence is the only influence on that
phenomenon
(C) denies that the observation that a particular pattern is common to
phenomena within society might contribute to observing a causal
explanation of the phenomenon
(D) concludes that the characteristic of a type of phenomena in society
occurring at one time is characteristic of similar phenomena at all times
(E) selects one influence on a particular phenomenon in society as indicating
that its influence outweighs any other influence on those phenomena
5. Educator: Scholars are concerned that the increasing popularity of online

universities and low-residency degree programs will render the
classroom experience obscure. They object to this trend, saying that
online courses do not offer the level of collaboration and support that
the traditional classroom does. At Plymouth Online, however, we offer
a fully interactive experience with web video, web-based collaboration
software, online chat, and video conferencing sessions. It is therefore
possible to join our online university and experience a very close
approximation of the in-classroom experience, and in some situations,
the experience is a richer and more satisfying one.
The educator’s argument proceeds by
(A) referring to a scholarly authority to challenge a widely held belief
(B) questioning the accuracy of evidence given in support of an opposing
position
(C) offering a counterexample to a prevalent belief among experts in the
field
(D) proposing an alternative sociological explanation for a pedagogical
practice
(E) making a distinction between instructional approaches
6. Until recently it was believed that weight training did not help children but in
fact did harm and possibly stunted their growth. A new study has determined
that weight training among children between ages 6 and 18 helped them
grow stronger even though they did not gain muscle mass like adults.
Therefore, our government should require weight training for all children in
public schools who are between the ages of 6 and 18.
Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the
argument?
(A) The school year is only nine months of the year, and with children,
weight training must be done on a consistent basis all year round. A
home-based program is required for success.
(B) Since the children do not gain muscle mass, measuring their progress
will be difficult without the specialized instruments used in the study.
(C) The study was performed with subjects from only one geographic
location where weight training is more culturally acceptable.
(D) The gain in strength over a nine-month school year will be minimal. It
takes at least a year for the children to show significant results from
weight training.
(E) Children do not respond positively to government requirements and low
morale may adversely affect results of any government-instituted weight
training requirements.
7. According to a study, an exercise program combining aerobics and weight

lifting can help people with type 2 diabetes lower their blood sugar. Such a
combined program offers greater benefits than doing either exercise type
alone. Therefore, all people with type 2 diabetes should undergo a physical
training program that includes both aerobics and weight lifting.
Which of the following statements would most weaken the argument?
(A) People with type 2 diabetes are less likely to be able to physically
manage both aerobics and weight lifting.
(B) Aerobics and weight lifting are mutually exclusive and thus impossible
to be done together.
(C) The physical demands of a combined program could have negative
physical effects that negate the benefits of lowering the person’s blood
sugar.
(D) Some individuals with type 2 diabetes, due to their particular physical
requirements, need only one of the exercise activities to obtain the
benefits to their blood sugar.
(E) The study took into account all important indicators, including blood
sugar, that may be affected by exercise.
8. During the first 140 million years of existence on earth, mammals were
relatively small, ranging from 2 to 22 pounds, but once the dinosaurs became
extinct, mammals grew in size up to 1,000 times bigger and as large as 17
tons. Once the herbivorous dinosaurs were gone the mammals no longer
needed to compete for space to roam and vegetation for food. They could eat
all the food they wanted, and the larger mammals were better able to fend off
predators. This is why we have our hippopotamuses and giraffes of today.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true
on the basis of them?
(A) If the dinosaurs had lived longer, mammals today would be much
smaller yet still herbivorous.
(B) If the hippopotamus we know today was a 1,000 times smaller, other
mammals would also be significantly smaller.
(C) If other larger nonmammals had survived the event that made the
dinosaurs extinct, modern mammals may have been much smaller due to
competition for resources.
(D) If mammals had been larger during the time of the dinosaurs, the
resulting competition would have made both extinct.
(E) If hippopotamuses and giraffes had evolved as carnivores and not
herbivores, large mammals most likely would not have competed with
the dinosaurs for space and food.
9. At an auction, nobody wants to buy the statue by Alberto Giacometti more

than Jody, but Jody will not be participating in the bidding, so no matter how
much the auctioneers lower the minimum bid not one person will bid on the
statue.
The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in
which of the following?
(A) The jockey who most wants to ride the horse Black Lightning in the next
race is Cornwall, but he suddenly told the owner he could not ride in the
next race. This means the other jockeys who had given up hope of riding
Black Lightning will double their efforts.
(B) Better than anyone, Larry can spot a forgery of a Renaissance painting,
but he has yet to find any flaws in Renny’s painting. So there must be a
forgery among the other paintings in his collection.
(C) If anyone can translate this ancient text it is Professor Ricardo, but he is
currently engaged in a project to translate a much more significant text
and will probably not be interested in doing this smaller project. So we
will have to hope that we can find someone of equal stature to take on
the translation.
(D) Even though Emilio is the most intent of anyone to obtain the sales
position, he is not applying for the position. It follows that nobody else
will apply for the sales position no matter how high a salary is being
offered.
(E) Sherry wanted to join an extra-credit group project for her science class,
but each time they called a meeting she was too busy with cheerleading
practice to join them. So, the closer she gets to becoming head
cheerleader, the less time she can devote to her studies.
10. If the conductor does not want to participate in the New York competition,
then we should consider other competitions. If the orchestra does not want to
participate in the New York competition, then we should skip the
competitions altogether. And, it is bound to be the case that either the
conductor or the orchestra does not want to participate in the New York
competition.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be
true?
(A) If the orchestra agrees to participate in the New York competition, then
we should skip the competitions altogether.
(B) We should consider other competitions only if it makes it more likely
that both the conductor and the orchestra will participate.
(C) We should attempt to convince both the conductor and the orchestra to
participate in the New York competition.
(D) If the conductor agrees to participate in the New York competition, then
we should skip the competitions altogether.
(E) We should consider other competitions only if the conductor is more
likely to participate.
11. It is ridiculous to claim that unless a newspaper covers an event it must not
be newsworthy, as one can see by rephrasing the statement to read: no event
is newsworthy unless it appears in a newspaper.
The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that
in the argument above?
(A) The claim that every politician who is elected to Congress will become
corrupt is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No politician is elected
to Congress without becoming corrupt.
(B) The claim that every politician who is elected to Congress will become
corrupt is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No politician who
failed to be elected to Congress will become corrupt.
(C) The claim that every politician who is elected to Congress will become
corrupt is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No politician can
become corrupt unless she is elected to Congress.
(D) It is ridiculous to claim that a student who has never been accused of
cheating has never cheated, as one can see by rewording it: Every
student who cheats gets accused of cheating.
(E) It is ridiculous to claim that a student who has never been accused of
cheating has never cheated, as one can see by rewording it: Every
student who is accused of cheating has cheated.
12. Philosopher: Pragmatism is the view that meaning or worth is determined

by practical consequences. If a course of action has the desired effect,
then it is good. So if a theory works in practice, it is right. If it does not
work, then it must be wrong. Pragmatism, however, is a dangerous
philosophy because it is impossible to develop a general truth that applies
to everyone or gives guidance for making moral or ethical decisions.
What is “good” for one person may not be for someone else.
The philosopher’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of
the following grounds?
the following grounds?
(A) Discrepancies between perceptions of the practical and good are a matter
of people joining together and deciding what actions and inactions are
practical and good at a societal level.
(B) The individual cannot always successfully determine what is practical
and good. Only through experience can one develop better judgment.
Thus experience is the great equalizer and resolves the discrepancies
between how a course of action is viewed.
(C) While it is true that one person may believe an action is practical and
good, the action may be in conflict with another person’s action only
because the other person has a poor sense of what is right and wrong.
(D) There is a possibility that a person’s action can be practical but wrong
when another person in proximity observes that the action is in conflict
with the values of society.
(E) Other philosophies have failed to adequately determine a general truth
for human action, so pragmatism is no different from other philosophies.
13. Press release: A committee of physicians analyzed nearly 1,000

publications and determined that the high level of vitamin D and calcium
recommended by physicians and testing labs to sustain bone health is
unnecessary. Food producers are adding vitamin D and calcium to foods
people eat every day, not to mention that people get vitamin D from
exposure to sunlight. Therefore, everyone should stop taking high levels
of vitamin D and calcium immediately.
Which one of the following points to a weakness in the reasoning in the press
release’s argument?
(A) Vitamin D and calcium work together rather than separately to sustain
bone health.
(B) The physicians analyzed other publications instead of developing their
own study and analyzing a direct study of patients.
(C) Physicians recommend high levels of vitamin D only to those who have
tested for poor bone health.
(D) High levels of vitamin D and calcium have benefits other than sustaining
bone health.
(E) Many of the foods with added vitamin D and calcium are breakfast foods
and people tend to skip breakfast on a regular basis.
Questions 14–15
The board of directors of Company X has decided to sell its underperforming
divisions that have been dragging down the stock price. To some analysts this
seems like a drastic move, but the president of Company X has long maintained
that among the troubled divisions are some with antiquated systems and low-
quality products. He has argued that it would be too costly to improve their
operations. Hence, the board’s action would not hurt but would actually help
Company X’s stock price.
14. The conclusion drawn depends on which one of the following assumptions?
(A) All the companies being considered for sale are 100 percent owned by
Company X.
(B) Only a very savvy buyer will be willing to buy such underperforming
divisions from Company X.
(C) Company X will be able to sell its underperforming units only after it
has improved their operations.
(D) All the companies the board decides to sell will include those
recommended by the president for sale.
(E) Buyers of companies are unable to recognize an underperforming
division.
15. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument?
(A) The stock price is determined not just by the company’s highest-
performing divisions but by the interaction among all its divisions.
(B) The better-performing divisions command a much higher price than the
underperforming units.
(C) The underperforming divisions have always been thought to be poor
investments by Company X.
(D) Buyers who buy underperforming divisions in order to sell them later at
a higher price care little about the resulting inflation in the marketplace,
but large companies like Company X are highly concerned about the
resulting inflation.
(E) The directors are currently conducting research to find a means other
than selling off its underperforming divisions that would improve the
company’s stock price.
16. A new restaurant that survives beyond six months is popular either among its
local patrons or among the food critics. Last year, all the new restaurants that
were popular with the food critics were also very popular with its local
patrons. Therefore, every new restaurant that survived beyond six months
last year was popular among the food critics.
The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most

similar to that in the argument above?
(A) All auto service garages in the Caedmon Township will do maintenance
on both foreign and domestic automobiles. Larry’s Auto Shop is an auto
service garage that will not perform maintenance on foreign
automobiles. Hence, Larry’s Auto Shop is not in the Caedmon
Township.
(B) In their second year, all apprentices at the Willow Construction
Company study dry wall or cabinetry. This year, all the apprentices who
are studying dry wall are also studying cabinetry. Therefore, every
apprentice at Willow is studying dry wall.
(C) Former members of Congress either go on to teach at their hometown
university or write a book about their years in politics. Mary Seldon is a
former congresswoman who is teaching at Riverside University in her
hometown of Riverside. Therefore, Seldon is not writing a book about
her years in politics.
(D) Every bestselling novel published last year is both well written and has a
suspenseful plot. The novel Jacob Rain published last year is well
written and has a suspenseful plot. Therefore, Jacob Rain’s novel is a
bestseller.
(E) In order to succeed, most new movies require either a big advertising
campaign or a cast with big stars. But most movies with a cast of big
stars automatically get a big advertising campaign. Hence, a movie that
has a cast of big stars is guaranteed to succeed.
17. It has been discovered that a rice plant has protein molecules that recognize
and bind to specific molecules on invading organisms, signaling the plant to
mount an immune response and fend off microbial infection and disease.
This immune response is not at all dissimilar to a human immune system’s
method of warding off diseases. It will not be long before we can discover
how plants fight off the common cold.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument

depends?
(A) The same diseases that attack humans also attack plants.
(B) The common cold is a disease that the human immune system fails to
ward off.
(C) Because the immune system of plants and humans is similar, diseases
attack both in the same manner.
(D) The immune system of a rice plant is the same as the immune system of
other plants.
(E) Protein molecules bind to the invading molecules in plants in the same
configuration that they do in humans.
18. Joseph: Evening customer service representatives at a computer company

handle complaints 20 percent faster than day customer service
representatives on average, yet they offer similar quality service when
handling complaints. So, the evening representatives work more
efficiently.
Davis: Your conclusion is unfair. Different times of the day bring different
demands on the customer service representatives. Since the evening calls
are more often about home computer problems, they are less complex
problems than those during the day when more business-oriented calls
come into the customer service center.
The issue in dispute between Joseph and Davis is
(A) why the evening customer service representatives are able to remain on
the late shift as opposed to the day shift
(B) the relationship between the time of day and the time it takes for a
customer service representative to handle a customer complaint
(C) how the company may decide to move customer service representatives
back and forth between the evening and day shift to increase efficiency
at handling complaints
(D) the accuracy of the figure of 20 percent with regard to the difference in
speed of handling complaints between evening and day customer
representatives
(E) the reason why evening customer service representatives are able to offer
equal quality service as day customer representatives while spending less
time with each customer on average
19. In a legislature much of the legislation is written by industry experts who
also serve as lobbyists on behalf of their respective industries that will
ultimately be affected by the legislation they draw up. Since these experts
know the industry much better than the legislators, they can better design
legislation that will do what the legislators require without harming the
companies or entities that must abide by the resulting regulations. But clearly
this strategy is based on poor reasoning. After all, as lobbyists, industry
experts are paid to represent the interests of their employer and any
legislation they write will most likely be weakened in the favor of their
employer’s self-interest and not in the best interest of the legislature’s
constituents.
The point made by the author is that the most common way of creating
legislation might not be in the best interest of the legislature’s constituents
because
(A) many industry experts might let their self-interest as industry lobbyists
affect their role, as writers of legislation, in acting on behalf of elected
officials
(B) most industry experts, thanks to outside lobbying contracts, are heavily
influenced financially to write unfair legislation
(C) most legislators would be less corrupt in writing legislation than industry
experts would be
(D) many industry experts create weakened legislation in order to obtain
lucrative jobs in their respective industries some day
(E) many industry experts are paid generously and want to keep the lobbying
jobs by creating weak legislation that favors their respective industries
20. All diamonds cut by Richman are over three carats, and all its rubies are less
than three carats. Most of the precious stones cut by Richman have a clarity
rating below SI2. All the diamonds and rubies cut by Allister have a clarity
rating above SI2 and are less than three carats. Ellington Jewelry, which only
buys its diamonds and rubies from these two companies, only purchases
stones that are less than 3 carats. Ellington is currently purchasing a large
diamond shipment.
If the statements above are true, which of the following must be true on the
basis of them?
(A) Ellington buys only diamonds.
(B) All the stones from Allister have a lower clarity than those from
Richman.
(C) The diamond shipment being purchased has a clarity rating above SI2.
(D) The diamond shipment being purchased belongs to Richman.
(E) Ellington does not purchase stones from Allister.
Questions 21–22
Coal plant manager: No matter what technical advances come over the next 30
years, coal will remain the most cost effective source of energy. Despite
what some people claim, the cost of alternative sources of power like solar
and wind technologies will never drop to a level that will compete with coal.
Coal is here to stay.
Environmentalist: I disagree. There have been significant improvements in solar
cells and wind turbine technologies over the last 10 years. They are more
efficient than ever. These new technologies continue to advance while the
coal industry has been slow to adopt the latest clean coal technologies.
Eventually, coal will face obsolescence.
21. The reasoning in the environmentalist’s argument is flawed because the

argument
(A) ignores the length of time that it will take for alternative sources of
energy to become competitive with coal
(B) fails to acknowledge the cost advantage of coal over alternative sources
of energy like solar and wind technologies
(C) mistakes the coal plant manager’s discussion of technical advances as a
statement that the coal industry intends to adopt clean coal technologies
(D) overlooks the possibility that coal and alternative technologies might
collaborate to create a cleaner energy future
(E) assumes that costs of alternatives to coal will drop with the introduction
of more efficient solar and wind technologies
22. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the
environmentalist’s counterargument?
(A) Engineers have discovered limitations to technological advancement in

the coal industry that do not exist in the solar and wind power industries.
(B) Thirty years is too small a time window to judge whether one energy
technology will win out over another.
(C) A direct relationship has been determined between technological
advancements in the energy sector and the cost-adoption factors.
(D) A coal company in one state is currently converting its facilities over to
clean coal technology.
(E) Improvements in solar and wind technologies have accelerated but costs
have only slightly improved over the last 10 years.
23. Randy’s boss asked him to write a management report concerning the
training of new financial advisors coming into the company, but because of
other projects assigned to him he put it off until the day before he is
supposed to make a presentation based on the report to his boss. Randy could
still complete the report by the deadline, but only if he works on it all
evening without interruption. However, one of his clients invited him to a
dinner party and requested that Randy remain afterward to discuss the
client’s portfolio in detail. Thus, Randy will be forced to choose between
satisfying his boss and his client obligations.
The argument proceeds by

(A) providing one version of events and an alternative version of events
where both exhibit an incompatibility among the factors involved
(B) explaining the inherent difficulties in a situation by using another
situation with equivalent difficulties
(C) showing how one set of responsibilities with its own conditions that
need satisfying is incompatible with another set of responsibilities and
creates for the individual a conundrum
(D) exhibiting the struggles involved as one set of events creates another set
of events that leaves the subject in a quandary
(E) delving into how one person’s failure to act in a situation leads to a
difficult conundrum and how the person’s choices in that situation can
lead to inevitable harm to the other parties involved
24. Bumblebees have been discovered to visit and pollinate red or striped
snapdragons more often than white or pink flowers. Bumblebees are the most
important pollinator of the snapdragon because the pollen carried by the
bumblebee is necessary for the flower to open its petals. Thus, in order to
increase the population of bumblebees, nurseries are being encouraged to
grow more of the striped and darkly pigmented varieties of snapdragons.
Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?

(A) The bumblebee population is in danger from a lack of striped or darkly
pigmented varieties of snapdragons.
(B) If there are not enough striped or darkly pigmented snapdragons, then all
snapdragons will fail to open their petals.
(C) If there are more striped and darkly pigmented snapdragons, then other
insects will be forced to open the petals of the white and pink varieties.
(D) The bumblebee population is smaller than desired, and more striped and
darkly pigmented snapdragons will help increase their numbers.
(E) The red and striped varieties of snapdragons are endangered, and more
bumblebees are needed to increase their numbers.
STOP
THIS

SECTION III
Time—35 minutes
26 Questions
conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may be useful to draw a rough
diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely answers each
question and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
Questions 1–6
A mechanic is considering using coils D, E, G, H, I, J, and K to replace old ones
in a machine. The mechanic has devised a test to determine their quality, but the
mechanic has only so much time to test the coils. Only those coils that are tested
can be used in the machine. The selection process must meet the following
requirements:
If G is tested, I is tested.
If E is tested, G is tested.
D is tested.
H is not used unless J is tested.
D is not used unless H is tested.
If J is used and I is tested, K is used.
1. Which of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the coils that
are tested?
(A) D, E, G
(B) D, E, I
(C) D, E
(D) D, I
(E) D, G
2. Which one of the following could be true?
(A) E and three other coils are the only coils tested.
(B) E and two other coils are the only coils tested.
(C) E and one other coil are the only coils tested.
(D) D, G, and H are the only coils tested.
(E) I and J are the only coils tested.
3. If J is not tested, which one of the following must be true?

(A) D is not used.
(B) H is not tested.
(C) D is tested but H is not used.
(D) D is used but H is not used.
(E) H is tested but not used.
4. If E and five other coils are the only coils tested, and if exactly three coils are
used in the machine, then which one of the following could be an accurate
list of the coils used?
(A) D, I, J
(B) D, H, J
(C) E, G, I
(D) H, I, K
(E) E, G, J
5. If every coil that is tested is used, and if I is used, then each of the following
coils must be tested EXCEPT:
(A) K
(B) H
(C) J
(D) D
(E) G
6. If K is not used, and if exactly four coils are used, then which one of the
following must be false?
(A) I is used.
(B) J is used.
(C) G is tested.
(D) H is tested.
(E) E is tested.
Questions 7–13
Exactly seven children—Barry, Ezra, Jaime, Karly, Pakhi, Sharon, and Usef—
go to a craft class at the same time. During class, they have a choice of three
activities: ceramics, drawing, and origami. Each child participates in exactly one
of the activities. The activities occur only once and one activity at a time. The
following restrictions must apply:
Exactly twice as many of the children choose drawing as choose ceramics.

Sharon and Usef participate in the same activity as each other.
Ezra and Karly do not participate in the same activity as each other.
Barry and Pakhi do not participate in the same activity as each other.
Barry participates in either ceramics or origami.
Jaime participates in drawing.
7. Which of the following could be a correct matching of children to activities?

(A) Karly-drawing; Pakhi-drawing; Usef-origami
(B) Karly-origami; Pakhi-origami; Sharon-origami
(C) Ezra-drawing; Pakhi-drawing; Sharon-ceramics
(D) Barry-origami; Ezra-ceramics; Sharon-ceramics
(E) Barry-drawing; Ezra-origami; Karly-drawing
8. Which one of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the
children who do not choose drawing?
(A) Barry, Ezra, Pakhi
(B) Barry, Sharon, Usef
(C) Barry, Karly, Usef
(D) Barry, Karly
(E) Barry, Pakhi
9. Each of the following must be false EXCEPT:

(A) Exactly two children choose origami.
(B) Usef is the only child to choose origami.
(C) Exactly three children choose drawing.
(D) Pakhi is the only child to choose drawing.
(E) Pakhi is the only child to choose ceramics.
10. If exactly one of the children chooses origami, then which one of the
following must be true?
(A) Karly chooses ceramics.

(B) Sharon chooses drawing.
(C) Barry chooses ceramics.
(D) Pakhi chooses drawing.
(E) Ezra chooses ceramics.
11. If Sharon chooses the same activity as Barry does, then which of the
following could be true?
(A) Ezra chooses drawing.

(B) Pakhi chooses origami.
(C) Barry chooses ceramics.
(D) Usef chooses ceramics.
(E) Sharon chooses drawing.
12. Each of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the children
who choose ceramics EXCEPT:
(A) Barry, Karly

(B) Karly, Pakhi
(C) Ezra, Pakhi
(D) Barry, Ezra
(E) Sharon, Usef
13. Which one of the following must be true?
(A) Ezra chooses a different activity than Sharon does.

(B) Ezra, Jaime, and Sharon do not all choose the same activity.
(C) Ezra chooses a different activity than Jaime does.
(D) Barry, Jaime, and Karly do not all choose the same activity.
(E) Barry chooses a different activity than Ezra does.
Questions 14–20
A scientist must create two test groups—group 1 and group 2—from six of
seven lab rats—three brown rats named Abby, Carl, and Dennis; and four white
rats named Elle, Fern, Horn, and Iris. Each group will have three rats. No rat can
be in more than one group. Each group must have a least one brown rat and one
white rat. The composition of the groups must conform to the following
conditions:
Neither group includes both Abby and Iris.

Neither group includes both Elle and Horn.
If a group includes Dennis, it includes neither Horn nor Iris.
If group 1 includes Carl, group 2 includes Horn.
14. Which of the following could be the makeup of the two groups?
(A) Group 1: Abby, Fern, Horn

Group 2: Carl, Elle, Iris
(B) Group 1: Carl, Dennis, Iris
Group 2: Abby, Elle, Fern
(C) Group 1: Carl, Dennis, Elle
Group 2: Fern, Horn, Iris
(D) Group 1: Abby, Elle, Iris
Group 2: Carl, Fern, Horn
(E) Group 1: Abby, Dennis, Fern
Group 2: Carl, Elle, Horn
15. If Carl is in group 1, which one of the following pairs must be in group 2
together?
(A) Fern and Iris

(B) Abby and Horn
(C) Horn and Iris
(D) Elle and Fern
(E) Dennis and Fern
16. If Elle is in group 1, which one of the following pair of rats could be in
group 1 together with Elle?
(A) Fern and Iris

(B) Carl and Fern
(C) Carl and Horn
(D) Abby and Carl
(E) Carl and Iris
17. If Abby is in the same group as Dennis, which one of the following could be
true?
(A) Both Elle and Fern are in group 2.

(B) Horn is in group 1.
(C) Carl is in group 1.
(D) Both Elle and Fern are in group 1.
(E) Iris is in group 2.
18. Each of the following pairs of rats could be in group 2 together EXCEPT:
(A) Carl and Horn

(B) Abby and Horn
(C) Abby and Carl
(D) Abby and Dennis
(E) Carl and Dennis
(A) Carl is in group 1 and Elle is in group 2.

(B) Abby is not in any group and Carl is in group 1.
(C) Abby is in group 1 and Elle is in group 2.
(D) Abby is in group 2 and Dennis is in group 2.
(E) Abby is in group 2 and Carl is not in any group.
20. If Dennis is in group 2, which one of the following must also be in group 2?
(A) Horn
(B) Fern
(C) Iris
(D) Carl
(E) Abby
Questions 21–26
Of eight cargoes—L, N, O, P, R, S, T, and W—only six can be loaded on the
three available trucks—Truck 1, Truck 2, and Truck 3. Each cargo must be
loaded into one of two holds—front and back. The loads must be loaded in
order, front first, then back, under the following conditions:
L can only go in Truck 2.

T and W cannot go in the back hold of a truck.
If S is loaded on a truck, then N and O go on the next truck, unless S is
loaded on Truck 3.
21. Which one of the following could be the loading register for the cargo?
(A) Truck 1: Front, S; Back, N

Truck 2: Front, W; Back, R
Truck 3: Front, T; Back, R
(B) Truck 1: Front, N; Back, W
Truck 2: Front, T; Back, O
Truck 3: Front, R; Back, P
(C) Truck 1: Front, T; Back, S
Truck 2: Front, O; Back, N
Truck 3: Front, P; Back, L
(D) Truck 1: Front, R; Back, N
Truck 2: Front, L; Back, P
Truck 3: Front, W; Back, O
(E) Truck 1: Front, O; Back, T
Truck 2: Front, N; Back, P
Truck 3: Front, S; Back, R
22. If P and R are not loaded, then the front sections of Truck 1, Truck 2, and
Truck 3 could carry the following cargo:
(A) T, W, and O
(B) O, W, and N
(C) W, L, and N
(D) N, L, and S
(E) S, N, and T
23. Which one of the following is a pair of cargoes, if loaded on the same truck,
that must go on Truck 3?
(A) O and W
(B) L and R
(C) N and S
(D) T and P
(E) P and S
24. If L, S, and W are loaded in different trucks from each other, which one of
the following could be true?
(A) T is on Truck 1.
(B) S is on Truck 2.
(C) N is on Truck 3.
(D) W is on Truck 3.
(E) S is on Truck 1.
25. If N, P, and R, not necessarily in that order, are loaded in the fronts of the
three trucks, which of the following must be true.
(A) P is on Truck 3.
(B) O is on Truck 3.
(C) P is on Truck 2.
(D) N is on Truck 1.
(E) O is on Truck 1.
26. If P is on the back of Truck 2, and N is on the back of Truck 3, which one of
the following could be the list of cargoes in the fronts of Truck 1, Truck 2,
and Truck 3, respectively?
(A) W, O, and R
(B) W, L, and O
(C) R, L, and O
(D) O, R, and S
(E) S, O, and R
STOP
THIS

SECTION IV
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be
answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of
the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the
question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that
most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to provide an answer to which one of
the following questions?
(A) How has the Supreme Court failed to protect the “one person, one vote”
precedent and how have voters taken action to correct its failure?
(B) What mistakes are states making by trying to solve a national problem
on a state level and how will their solutions hinder democracy and create
unfairness in congressional elections?
(C) What are California and Florida’s unique electoral redistricting problems
and what efforts have voters taken to solve them?
(D) What legislation have voters in two states approved as solutions to a
perceived political problem and what major opposing arguments might
be used in future such efforts as exemplified by a particular case?
(E) How have reform-minded citizens misinterpreted the legislative
apportionment problem and enacted costly and unwise solutions?
2. The passage implies that before 1964, which of the following may have been
true?
(A) Political parties had no say or control in legislative apportionment.
(B) Some citizens’ votes counted for less than a full vote.
(C) A district could be designed to contain more constituents than another.
(D) Gerrymandering was allowed for some states and not others.
(E) The Supreme Court could overrule any redistricting based on the “one
person, one vote” requirement.
3. The discussion of the Supreme Court Wesberry v. Sanders case in lines 18–
26 is intended primarily to
(A) show that the Supreme Court failed to solve the “one person, one vote”
problem that has plagued the electoral system since the early beginnings
of the nation
(B) explain the legal underpinnings of the proposed solutions to the
legislative apportionment issue
(C) explain that while one branch of the nation’s government was trying to
solve the problem another branch was undermining that effort
(D) give a historical perspective to a problem with democratic representation
that has yet to be resolved through legislative reapportionment
(E) establish that the Supreme Court is in fact the original cause of
gerrymandering and other interference by political parties in the electoral
mapping process
4. The discussion of Proposition 27 in lines 53–59 implies that which of the

following was true before the passage of Proposition 20?
(A) The Citizens Redistricting Commission, though a good idea, was an
impracticable institution and needed to be eliminated for redistricting to
work properly.
(B) The politicians wanted to create confusion by having both propositions
on the same ballot, hoping that voters would favor Proposition 27 over
Proposition 20.
(C) The Citizens Redistricting Commission existed before the election to
redistrict the state legislative map but lacked the authority on the
congressional map.
(D) Voters rejected Proposition 27 because it conflicted with Proposition 20
but would have approved it if a compromise had been struck.
(E) The Citizens Redistricting Commission was unconstitutional and if the
voters did not eliminate it the courts would have to do it.
5. Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the arguments for
California’s Proposition 20 discussed in the third paragraph?
(A) It is proven that a significant majority of voters reelect their
representatives because they are happy with their performance.
(B) Several bills were passed recently because both Republican and
Democratic congressmen were able to come together and achieve
compromises on the legislation.
(C) The proposition would deny the commission the right to use income,
race, or gender as factors in determining the shape and size of the
district.
(D) It is discovered that one of the members under consideration for the
commission is actually a member of a political party.
(E) Population movements among districts are so fluid from year to year that
it is almost impossible to predict voting patterns for a particular district
in any election.
6. Which of the following accurately expresses the meaning of the word

“entrenched” as it is used in line 38 of the passage?
(A) Unelectable
(B) Deep-seated
(C) Unshakeable
(D) Stubborn
(E) Inexorable
PASSAGE A
PASSAGE B
7. Which of the following best describes the relationship between passage A

and passage B?
(A) Passage A and passage B both present similar solutions to the same
problem.
(B) Passage A presents a problem and passage B presents a solution to that
problem.
(C) Passage B explicitly contradicts a set of implicit assumptions made by
the author of passage A.
(D) Passage A and passage B both describe similar movements arising from
the same circumstances.
(E) Passage B discusses a refinement of an idea that passage A presents as a
broad outline.
8. Which of the following can be inferred from passage A about theater in the
early twentieth century?
(A) The advent of agit-prop theatre was a wholly new concept of political
theatre intended to provoke its audience to take action.
(B) The political ideas advocated by plays such as the push for organized
labor was the result of people like Lee Strasburg importing ideas from
Russians like Stanislavski.
(C) Broadway was more likely to feature a musical or lighthearted comedy
in 1920 than a tragic play portraying a struggling family.
(D) Audiences lost interest in “serious drama” after the end of the
Depression.
(E) Playwrights and actors resented the political nature of the plays and,
when the Depression ended, forced the theater managers to go back to
the pre-Depression types of theater.
9. Each of the following is mentioned as being a point of difference between

the Group Theatre and the Shock Troupe EXCEPT
(A) the use of untrained actors
(B) the depiction of societal ills
(C) the physical location in which the play is staged
(D) the names of the characters in the plays
(E) the avocation of societal change
10. According to passage B, the Shock Troupe would least likely perform a play
that includes which the following:
(A) a staged argument between “Freed-Slave Man” and “White Slave

Owner” about the lingering effects of slavery and racism in America
(B) a public re-enactment of the workers walking off the production line at a
local car manufacturing plant in protest of poor working conditions
(C) a dramatic argument between Jack, an unemployed ironworker, and his
wife, Mary, about her long hours working as an assistant to a corporate
executive, who Jack believes has romantic intentions toward her
(D) an unemployed man sells his last belongings to a bartender in exchange
for a place to sleep in a storeroom and then giving a speech about how
the American free market system stripped him of his dignity
(E) an impromptu performance before a miners’ union meeting that through
dramatic effect calls on workers to rise up and speak out about low
wages and dangerous working conditions
11. Which of the following would the author of passage B most likely believe
about the Group Theatre as it is described in passage A?
(A) The Group Theatre’s use of trained professional actors allowed it to

better to connect with audiences.
(B) The Group Theatre was better known than the Shock Troupe with
theater audiences of the 1930s.
(C) Actors working with the Shock Troupe were less idealistic than the
actors associated with the Group Theatre.
(D) The Group Theatre’s production of Waiting for Lefty was ultimately
more popular with contemporary audiences than the Shock Troupe’s
production of Newsboy.
(E) “The Method,” as employed by actors in the Group Theatre, is the most
effective means of teaching acting.
12. Which of the following is the meaning of the term “agit-prop” as implied by
the context of both passages?
(A) Agriculture-Proposition
(B) Agitation-Proposal
(C) Agitation-Propaganda
(D) Agitation-Propagation
(E) Agitation-Proper
13. Which one of the following best states the main point of the passage?
(A) People are happier under a universal welfare state than under a partial
welfare state and thus the United States as a partial welfare state will
have difficulty making its people happy.
(B) People are happier under a universal welfare state but happiness is a
poor basis for judging a society and thus the recent studies on the
relationship between the welfare state and happiness are flawed.
(C) While the United States is engaged in a battle between those for or
against welfare programs, the rest of the world has forged ahead at
establishing welfare states that have achieved a high level of societal
happiness.
(D) While politicians, social scientists, and economists argue about the
welfare state using arguments unsupported by data, Rothstein, Pacek,
and Radcliff offer unique support for it through analysis of well-
researched data.
(E) Happiness as a basis for analyzing the success of a political state is valid
but the SWB measurement is flawed. Only through improved data
collection and a more accurate happiness index can study of the welfare
state be accepted by the thinkers of today.
14. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
(A) A social issue is discussed. An alternative method of viewing that issue

is discussed. The alternative method is assessed. The social issue is
discussed in relation to the alternative method.
(B) A social problem is presented. An approach to solving the problem is
discussed. The approach is evaluated. The approach is discussed in
relation to one specific nation that is experiencing the social problem.
(C) Alternative views of a social problem are presented. An approach to
resolving the problem is presented. A critique is presented that discredits
that approach. A particular case study is given to show that the approach
is not feasible.
(D) A social problem is analyzed. A solution to the problem is proposed.
The strengths and weaknesses of the solution are discussed. The
practical difficulties of delivering the solution are presented.
(E) A social problem is discussed. A unique approach to the problem is
discussed. The validity of the approach’s underlying assumption is
discussed. A particular case is discussed in relation to the approach.
15. The author of the passage refers to Rothstein’s bias in line 32 because
(A) Rothstein is a well-known and outspoken advocate for social welfare

programs
(B) Rothstein was an unnamed author of the study with Pacek and Radcliff
and thus has a vested interest in bringing attention to their ideas
(C) Rothstein lives in a northern European country that happens to be a long-
standing universal welfare state
(D) Rothstein invented the SWB measurement and wants it to be used in
future studies
(E) Rothstein is currently running for political office in his country and
retaining the welfare state is his central reason for running
16. Which of the following statements most undermines Rothstein’s argument

regarding the “arbiter” in lines 48 to 52?
(A) Political scientists and public policy experts experience happiness and
unhappiness due to social welfare programs just as much as anyone, so
their criteria are not much different from those of the widespread public.
(B) Happiness or unhappiness is influenced by factors outside the political
spectrum such as the availability of companionship, community support,
and social opportunities, while the experts filter out those issues and
focus on the specific problems.
(C) Political scientists and public policy experts tend to see problems from a
more theoretical perspective and don’t see the very basic elements that
might affect whether a social welfare state is successful or not.
(D) The widespread public tends to be swayed by waves of economic ups
and downs that affect happiness while the political scientists and public
policy experts are all wealthy individuals who are unaffected by
economic changes.
(E) The SWB measurement has been found to be very accurate in predicting
the success of welfare programs, while simulation models created by
political scientists and public policy experts have rarely been successful
at making such predictions.
17. Based on the first paragraph of the passage, which of the following, if true,
would support an argument made by advocates for a more universal welfare
program in the United States?
(A) The results of a study show that unemployment benefits reduce the
number of applicants for jobs.
(B) A survey of welfare recipients shows that a large majority save the
money and do not spend it.
(C) Research determines that the number of registered voters increased
significantly during the 10 years after certain welfare programs were
instituted.
(D) A survey of welfare program participants revealed that a large
percentage expressed substantial resentment toward the government.
(E) The results of a study show that a large portion of the population is
happier due to the existence of welfare programs.
18. Which of the following best describes the author’s attitude toward
Rothstein’s approach to happiness and the welfare state?
(A) cautious neutrality

(B) strong condemnation
(C) moderate advocacy
(D) moderate skepticism
(E) grudging acceptance
19. Which of these claims would Rothstein be least likely to accept?
(A) The ability of its people to retain family ties and establish new ones is a
factor that might cloud the relationship between SWB and the
establishment of a universal welfare state.
(B) The addition of a program to protect children from the effects of poverty
will make a nation’s people happier.
(C) Northern European states have a higher SWB than the United States and
other states with nonuniversal welfare programs.
(D) A long-standing program that all people of the nation have come to
depend on and know will be there when they need it will increase the
SWB for that nation.
(E) The discovery that a large portion of welfare program funds was
misappropriated to a politician’s pet project proves that the welfare state
is a failure.
20. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main idea of the
passage?
(A) Corporations have found a way to integrate philanthropy into their

operations and sales to avoid the stigma associated with cash donations,
which are seen as cheap marketing tactics. Why they participate in
philanthropy is a more complicated question.
(B) Corporations are increasingly integrating philanthropy into their
operations, but the financial effect on customers, shareholders, and
employees is no different from a corporation making a cash donation to
a charity. Why corporations do it is a more complicated question.
(C) Regardless of how corporations’ actions are perceived, as an integral
part of society corporations have a moral obligation to not only make
charitable donations but also to integrate philanthropic values into their
operations.
(D) Integrating philanthropic activities into the company’s operations is the
equivalent of extortion, forcing customers to participate in an unwanted
philanthropic effort. Companies would do better to just make a
charitable donation. Why they participate in philanthropy is a more
complicated question.
(E) Corporations are increasing their commitment to philanthropy. As a
result, they find themselves in more complicated relationships with their
customers, shareholders, and employees. Why corporations participate in
philanthropy in the first place is a more complicated question.
21. Which one of the following most accurately describes the author’s attitude
toward the corporate philanthropy model discussed in lines 8–13?
(A) confident that it offers corporations a new and better way to be

philanthropic without negatively affecting profits and shareholder value
(B) certain that it will give customers more power over their relationship to
the philanthropic transaction implied by the purchase of the company’s
products
(C) convinced that it offers little new in the way of a financial equation or
explanation for corporate philanthropic efforts
(D) satisfied that it comes up short at doing much better than individuals
could if they had control of the funds directed to philanthropic causes
(E) pleased that corporations have found a more creative way to commit
financial resources to philanthropic causes than just cutting a check
22. Which one of the following sentences would most logically begin a
paragraph immediately following the end of the passage?
(A) Logically, we must move on to discuss how a company that is

committed to philanthropy can truly know that its suppliers are abiding
by the fair trade rules and whether its production processes actually
create more waste rather than eliminate it.
(B) Thus, the question becomes, are the billions of dollars sent from
companies toward public good worth it, and if so, which philanthropic
model is more effective at allowing a company to maximize the benefit
from that contribution?
(C) It is impossible to know why a corporation engages in philanthropy
because corporations are more complex than individuals. Instead, the
question to ask is whether the government should stop corporations from
participating in this unprofitable activity and leave philanthropy to
individuals.
(D) Therefore, corporations should be limited to the philanthropic model that
involves donating cash and not the one that hides the donation within the
cost of goods sold and results in inflating the price the consumer pays.
(E) In an effort to understand why corporations engage in philanthropy, we
must survey the guidelines for morals and ethics established by
corporations as guiding principles for employees. After all, a corporation
is just the sum of its employees.
23. The relationship of the information contained in the two sentences at lines
35–42 to that in the sentence at lines 8–13 can most accurately be described
as
(A) no significant relationship because they represent two unrelated factual

statements
(B) the author’s opinion agreeing with another opinion reported by the
author in the earlier lines
(C) a hypothetical situation clarifying a statement reported by the author in
the earlier lines
(D) agreement in general with the earlier position but disagreement over the
particulars
(E) essentially equivalent assertions with the latter being an explicit
clarification of the earlier lines
24. It can be inferred from the passage that the author holds that a corporation
that engages in philanthropy should
(A) inform the customer that all funds are tax deductible
(B) allow customers to opt out of paying the portion of the price that goes
toward philanthropic causes
(C) inform its customers, employees, and shareholders that price, profit, and
shareholder value will be affected by its philanthropy
(D) educate the public on the corporate misuse of philanthropic funds
(E) establish a moral code and publish it for its customers, employees, and
shareholders to see
25. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) question the reasons for a corporate behavior, give countering reasons
for that behavior to cease, and synthesize the opposing views by posing
another question
(B) argue that a particular corporate behavior has no moral and ethical
justification within society and should be stopped
(C) discuss the nature of a corporate behavior and pose a moral reason that
undercuts its justification
(D) explain a trend in corporate behavior, compare it to previous similar
behavior, and pose a question directed at the foundation of that behavior
(E) reveal how corporations manipulate the relationship with their
customers, employees, and shareholders to justify an unethical behavior
STOP
THIS
SECTION ONLY. DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER TEST SECTION.
LSAT Diagnostic Test Answer Key
Section I
1. D
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. E
7. B
8. C
9. C
10. E
11. E
12. B
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. B
17. C
18. D
19. A
20. D
21. A
22. B
23. D
24. D
25. E
26. A
Section II
1. D
2. C
3. A
4. E
5. C
6. A
7. D
8. C
9. D
10. D
11. D
12. B
13. D
14. D
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. E
19. A
20. C
21. B
22. C
23. C
24. D
Section III
1. D
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. E
6. B
7. B
8. A
9. E
10. B
11. A
12. E
13. D
14. A
15. B
16. E
17. E
18. D
19. C
20. D
21. D
22. A
23. C
24. C
25. E
26. B
Section IV
1. D
2. C
3. D
4. C
5. E
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. B
10. C
11. A
12. C
13. B
14. E
15. C
16. B
17. C
18. D
19. E
20. B
21. C
22. B
23. E
24. C
25. D
Complete the following table.
Your Raw Score

It is impossible to say with complete precision what raw score will

translate to what scaled score on future LSATs, but here is a rough
estimation.
LSAT Diagnostic Test Answers and Explanations

SECTION I
1. Answer: D
STEP 1: Read the question and identify your task.
This is a Flaw question. You are looking for a flaw in the argument or
something illogical in the argument that calls into question its conclusion.
STEP 2: Read the argument with your task in mind.
The argument makes an unqualified leap in logic. Instead of attributing the
civic disorder to David Ellington, it says that the city council intended to
undermine civic order by hiring the incompetent Ellington.
STEP 3: Know what you’re looking for.
The correct answer will point out that flawed logic.
STEP 4: Read every word of every answer choice.
When you read each answer closely, certain words help you eliminate
answers. Answer A does not resemble what you are looking for at all. It
focuses on “quantitative” results versus “qualitative” results, but the
argument does not include any quantitative results, so it cannot be the correct
answer. Answer B also does not work. Yes, the conclusion is fairly general,
but the descriptor “anomalous” is inaccurate. Answer C describes Ellington’s
incompetence as “perceived,” but specific results are discussed, and it does
not address the argument’s conclusion. Answer D says the flaw is the
assumption that an action leads to a result (hiring of Ellington leads to civic
disorder), and that the action was taken to bring about that result (hiring
Ellington was intended to bring about the civic disorder). This fits your
understanding of the flaw perfectly and would seem to be the right answer.
Before you make a decision, you must finish reviewing all the answers.
Answer E says the flaw is a “restatement,” but no part of the argument serves
as a restatement, so this cannot be the correct answer. The correct choice is
answer D..
2. Answer: D
This is a Parallel question. The question asks that you match the reasoning in
the answer to the one in the statement, so you are looking for a similar
pattern of thinking between the two.
The argument tells of a maintenance man who makes an exception based on
a judgment that a police officer, due to his special skills, can protect himself.
The correct answer will include a judgment and an exception to that
judgment that matches the kind made in the argument.
In answer A the deliveryman makes a judgment to organize his deliveries,
but he makes no exceptions, so this does not resemble your pattern of
thinking and is not the correct answer. Answers B and C both fail your test
because both the candidate and jury make a judgment regarding certain areas
or one person to the exclusion of all others, not the other way around as your
maintenance man does. In answer D the captain of the yacht judges that the
US naval officer has special skills that enable him or her to handle an
emergency situation, so the captain excludes the officer from the training.
This resembles your required pattern of thinking and is most likely the
correct answer, but you must complete your review of the answers. Answer
E says the manager makes no exceptions at all, forcing everyone to
participate, and this does not fit your pattern, so the correct choice is
answer D.
3. Answer: A
This is a Describe question. It asks you to describe the error in both Larry
and Carrie’s reasoning.
Larry and Carrie discuss the relationship between positive results and how
this quality determines whether the law is bad or good. Larry and Carrie
incorrectly assume that because a law has positive results it is a good law,
and therefore, because a law shows positive results, such evidence is
sufficient to consider it a good law.
sufficient to consider it a good law.
The correct answer will identify the shared weakness in the exchange
between Larry and Carrie. Pay close attention to the words in the argument
—what is considered good or bad by the citizenry versus what is good or
bad. In order for both their arguments to hold up, they have to presuppose
that a law is good if it has positive results and vice versa.
Answer A describes Larry and Carrie’s assumption almost exactly, that a law
having a certain quality (positive results) is necessary for it to be a particular
type (good or bad) of law and that having that quality is sufficient for being
that type of law. But, let’s review the remainder of the answers to make sure,
paying close attention to specific words. The quality is a determinant of the
type of law, not a “shared” attribute and they never say the quality is the
“only” quality distinguishing between the two types of laws, so answer B is
incorrect. Their reasoning includes no extrapolation from “most” laws to
“all” laws, so answer C is incorrect. Answer D is incorrect because Larry and
Carrie make no comparison between a “particular nation” and “all nations.”
Finally, answer E is incorrect because they do not extrapolate one
distinguishing quality to mean anything with regard to other qualities of the
laws. The correct choice is answer A.
4. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. It tells you that you must pay close attention to
the bases for the argument and discover how a counterargument might
weaken it.
This is an anthropological argument saying that there is a new belief that the
“white revolution” occurred due to one society conquering another in a
“violent and transformative” manner, while it was previously thought to be a
more peaceful process.
A weakening statement would contradict or discredit this argument, proving
that in fact it was as previously thought, not violent but a peaceful transition
that in fact it was as previously thought, not violent but a peaceful transition
to a milk-based society.
Answer A talks specifically of northern Europe and not the wider continent.
Also, milk may have still been part of the Middle Eastern diet even if
someone else raised the cows. But more importantly, the transition in Europe
still could have been violent. For answer B, just because the Europeans drank
milk before the Middle Easterners arrived does not mean that their society
did not go through the later violent conversion mentioned in the argument, so
this answer fails to weaken the argument. Answer C actually strengthens the
argument, proving that violence occurred at the time, and you are looking for
a statement that weakens the argument. Answer D says that the Middle
Easterners had settlements next to the hunter-gatherers, and they engaged in
peaceful trade. Such coexistence and peaceful trade definitely weakens the
argument that the transition was violent and transformative. And finally, the
evidence of “sexual intermingling” mentioned in answer E does not rule out
the possibility that the hunter-gatherer society went through the cataclysmic
conversion, so the correct choice is answer D.
5. Answer: B
This is a Weaken question. You are looking for a statement that weakens the
argument, so you read the argument looking for critical facts or bases that
make the argument work.
The argument bases its conclusion on a trend over six years during which
there was a rise in young people entering the workforce at the same time
there was a rise in percentage of young people graduating from high school.
It uses this basis to state that increasing graduates will increase employment
of young people.
A weakening argument might show a caveat or alternate interpretation that
will alter that logical step. The correct answer will satisfy that caveat or
alternate interpretation.
Answer A discusses only completion of years in college, while the argument
discusses graduation and dropout rates. Since it is dealing with different
terms altogether, it cannot be the right answer. Answer B says there was also
a rise in percentage of high school dropouts hired between 2000 and 2006,
indicating that the rise in employment benefited all young people, graduates
and nongraduates. This weakens the correlation between graduation and
employment and thus weakens the reverse correlation between employment
and graduation. This would seem to weaken the argument considerably, but
let’s continue. Answer C speaks to the jobs and their difficulty, but says
nothing about the relationship between graduate or nongraduate status and
employment. Also, it is possible that the jobs are too complicated for
graduates as well. You would not know because the statement doesn’t say
anything about that. Answer D tries to confuse you by using the term
“number” versus “percentage,” and even though a larger number of dropouts
were hired, there might still be a larger percentage of graduates who were
hired, so this cannot be your weakening argument. The argument discusses
percentages in its premises, and the weakening statement must do so as well.
Answer E may be a common practice, but it has nothing to do with actual
results of who was hired or not. The correct choice is answer B.
6. Answer: E
This is a Weaken question. You need to find a statement that weakens the
speaker’s statement.
The speaker talks about how corporations can use public relations to gloss
over any malfeasance on their part and ultimately get away with anything as
long as they wait out the “short attention span of the public.”
You seek in your answer a statement that contradicts or undermines this idea.
Answer A may be interpreted as strengthening the argument, saying that a
company can become too big to fail despite any socially irresponsible
actions. Answer B essentially restates the argument in simpler terms, and it
speaks in past tense and does not address what the case might be in the
future. Answer C also restates the argument, but with the caveat of faster and
slower growth among the corporations. Answer D adds government
institutions to the argument, which does not weaken it. Answer E says that
public relations are often seen through by the public and fail to mask a
corporation’s irresponsible actions. While this may not address the short
attention span part of the argument, it does weaken the argument and
qualifies it much better than the other answers. The correct choice is
answer E.
7. Answer: B
This is a variation of a Describe question—a Describe How the Argument
Proceeds question. It asks you to find the answer that describes how the
argument “proceeds,” that is, how it comes to its conclusion.
Based on the experience of “a number” of amateur photographers with a
particular camera, the argument urges “any” ( = all) such photographers to
choose that camera.
The correct answer will describe how the argument applied the assertions of
a small group (the amateur photographers with the Apheron camera) to make
a suggestion to a larger group (all amateur photographers).
Answer A talks about testing conditions, while the argument makes no
mention of testing conditions, so it is off the mark. Answer B says that the
argument uses a subset to make a recommendation for a larger group, and
this meets your criteria. The amateur photographers are the subset and the
“any” photographers are your larger group. With answer C the credibility of
the amateur photographers is accepted as a given and is not part of the
argument. For answer D, the motivations for buying the camera are never
discussed in the argument. The experience of the smaller group of
photographers is not given any wider context. It is only used to recommend
the camera to a larger group, so answer E is incorrect. The correct choice is
answer B.
8. Answer: C
This is a Weaken question. It asks you to find an answer that weakens the
argument.
Look back at the basis for the camera recommendation, in this case that the
camera offers finer detail despite its having a lower resolution than the other
competing Norwich cameras.
The correct answer will cast doubt on the relationship between the premises
and the conclusion.
With answer A the makeup of the lens does not change the results discussed
in the argument, so this does not weaken the basis for the recommendation.
Answer B is not much different from answer A, except with regard to sensor
size instead of lens substance. For answer C, the criterion under which the
argument makes its recommendation is the finer detail the camera is able to
achieve in both bright and low light situations. If other criteria exist for
amateur photographers when considering a camera, then the argument is
most definitely weakened and this would seem to be your correct answer.
Answer D describes conditions under which the testing results seem more
credible rather than weaker. Answer E may weaken another argument, one
that argues against digital cameras, but it does not weaken the
recommendation that if photographers do consider a digital camera, they
should consider the Apheron over others. The correct choice is answer C.
9. Answer: C
This is a Describe question. It asks you to describe how a certain fact is
being used within the argument.
When you read through the argument, you pay close attention to this fact and
how it functions. In this case, that the auto companies are purchasing more
equipment and spending more on R&D seems to be a justification or
equipment and spending more on R&D seems to be a justification or
evidence supporting the conclusion of the argument. This argument actually
has the conclusion in the first sentence.
The correct answer discusses the fact as a justification or evidence.
Answer A states that the fact is an inference from a premise when, in fact, it
is the exact opposite. That companies expect sales to increase is the inference
from the fact under consideration. Answer B is incorrect for the same reason;
your fact is not an inference but a premise or basis for inference. Answer C
states that the fact is the primary evidence for the conclusion, and this seems
like your answer because the economist concludes that industry is on the way
to recovery based on the fact under consideration, as you formulated from
reading the question and the argument. Answer D states that the fact is
required for the conclusion to be true, but the conclusion may be true based
on other facts that you do not have on hand, so this is not the function of the
facts under consideration. Finally, the argument does not explain why the
companies are spending more. It merely makes a judgment based on that
fact, so answer E cannot be correct. The correct choice is answer C.
10. Answer: E
This is a Parallel question. It asks you to find an argument that follows the
same logical pattern.
The given argument says that because there is a directly proportional
relationship between a higher use of water and a higher heat index (increase
leads to increase), then because the average heat index is four points higher,
more water will be used.
You must look for a similar relationship in the answers.
Answer A creates two proportionalities (doctors to services, doctors to
patients) in relation to the first statement (doctors). Then it tries to create a
relationship between the two conditionals (services to patients). This is a
much more complicated relationship than you are looking for and thus not
your answer. Answer B starts out with the right kind of proportionality
between two terms (doctors and nurses), but then it adds an unrelated
statement about orderlies and draws an unsupportable relationship between
the doctors and orderlies, so it is also not your answer. Answer C starts out
well with a directly proportional relationship, higher bill to higher number of
medical professionals seen, but the conclusion is based on the number of
patients and not the number of medical professionals the patients see during
their visit, which is a break from the premise. Thus answer C cannot be your
answer. Answer D makes a recommendation based on the premise but does
not draw a conclusion. Answer E describes a directly proportional
relationship. More analgesics are prescribed when there are more patients,
and since the number of patients this year is up 15 percent, then the number
of analgesics must be up as well. Thus, the correct choice is answer E.
11. Answer: E
This is a Describe question. The question asks that you describe what
argumentative method Zola uses to respond to Jason.
Reading their arguments, you discover that Zola argues that the long cooking
time and the ample sunlight necessary to operate the solar cooker are
problems, meaning that the solar cooker is not such a perfect answer to “a
host of problems in developing nations.” She sees the arguments on which
the conclusion is based as sound and logical, but she feels the conclusion
doesn’t take other factors into account.
You will look for something similar in your answer options.
Zola actually agrees with Jason’s arguments and does not believe them to be
“fallacious,” so answer A cannot be correct. While Zola disagrees with
Jason’s conclusion, her problem is specific to the cooker, not his insufficient
definition of the problems in developing nations, so answer B cannot be
correct. Answer C has the same problem as answer A. She does not disagree
with his arguments or their basis. With answer D, Zola is not reinterpreting
anything, so this answer cannot be correct. Zola gives caveats that weaken
several of Jason’s assumptions, and this is what you find in answer E. Thus,
the correct choice is answer E.
12. Answer: B
This is a Parallel question. It asks you to look for a set of statements that
follow a similar logical pattern to the one given in the passage.
In this case, the argument states that a lumberyard sells only two types of
lumber, pine and oak, and Joe never uses pine to build tables. Thus, when he
builds a table for Marion, it must be made of oak. The key word never
restricts Joe’s choice.
You must look for a similar pattern in the answers.
In answer A there is no definitive “only” statement that restricts Rocky’s
choice and determines the conclusion. He just makes a judgment call as to
which car works for him. In answer B you see the right pattern. The Roddick
Corporation offers Pedzisai only two choices, Sweden and South Africa.
Pedzisai would never choose South Africa if given a choice between the two.
Thus, when choosing an assignment, he will choose Sweden. The word never
is used in almost exactly the same way, as a restricting factor and one that
determines the concluding statement. Answer C actually sets up conditions
under which Georgia will choose neither of the options at her disposal.
Answer D has a conclusion that has nothing to do with the choice between
the break and a longer lunch. Rather, it has to do with a third element,
whether to get a haircut or not. The pattern is not the same. In answer E, the
owner has equally bad choices and the conclusion gives no indication of
what choice is made. Rather, it just describes the conditions regardless of
what choice the owner makes, unless of course a third alternative presents
itself. The correct choice is answer B.
13. Answer: A
This is a Parallel question. This question is asking you to find the answer
whose logic most resembles the given statements. That the reasoning is
“questionable” is irrelevant to your task of just finding the answer that
follows the same logic.
In this case, a building inspector has been accused of a crime, the evidence
has been lost or wiped out by an action, and thus, the argument recommends
that the accusation be retracted.
Again, that the reasoning is “questionable” is irrelevant to your task of just
finding the answer that follows the same logic, questionable or not.
Answer A switches the statements around, giving the recommendation in the
second statement, but the logic is essentially the same. The computer
scientist has been accused of a crime and the accusation should be dismissed
because all evidence of his crime (hard drives, records) has been eliminated.
Answer B recommends that the teacher be further investigated and the
evidence is still available, so this situation is very different from your
inspector’s. Answer C is close but still not the best answer because the lack
of evidence described is insufficient. People still may have heard the speech
and be familiar with its content. Answer D argues to sustain the accusation
that is supportable by some evidence, which is a completely different
situation. Answer E argues that the accusation be retracted based on the lack
of identity of the accuser rather than any insufficiency of evidence against
the financial manager. The correct choice is answer A.
14. Answer: B
This is an Assumption question. The question asks which answer makes the
logic of the argument successful.
In the argument, despite the claim that the second statement “follows” from
the first, it does not actually do so.
Therefore, you must find the assumption that, when inserted between the
first and second statements, will make the conclusion work.
Answer A ignores the condition of having or not having an office and thus
does not help the conclusion. Answer B seems to meet your needs. Since
every employee who takes public transportation eats lunch in the company
break room, it follows that if some employees who eat in the company break
room have an office (as stated in answer B), then there are some employees
with an office who do not eat in the break room and thus do not take public
transportation. Answer C results in every employee with an office taking
public transportation, which contradicts the conclusion. Answer D does not
lead to any conclusion involving those who have an office or whether they
take or do not take public transportation. Answer E tells you something
about those who eat in the break room but nothing about those who have an
office or whether they might or might not take public transportation. Thus,
the correct choice is answer B.
15. Answer: C
This is a Weaken question. The question prompts you to find the statement
among the answers that most weakens the argument.
You need to read the argument and discover the central basis for its
conclusion, then formulate what kind of answer will weaken that basis. In
this case, the argument reveals a discovery that leads archaeologists to
believe that a larger, more permanent civilization existed in the Brazilian
Amazon.
A weakening statement may indicate that a smaller, less permanent
civilization was responsible for the etchings.
Answer A uses words like large and established to strengthen the conclusion
that there was a well-developed civilization in the Amazon, so this cannot be
the correct answer. Answer B offers irrelevant facts and no insight into the
nomadic or permanent nature of the civilization. It only relates to the
sophistication of either form. Answer C reveals a discovery of similar
etchings 100 miles away by a “nomadic” artist. You can infer that the artist
was a member of a nomadic civilization as was originally thought before the
discovery. This weakens the argument and would seem to be your answer.
Regarding answer D, the argument does not say the civilizations in question
did not exist before the 2,000-year flood window, and this answer also does
not address the nomadic or permanent nature of the civilization. Answer E is
interesting but does not weaken the argument as well as Answer C. While the
content of the etchings is relevant, they do not necessarily prove the nature of
the civilization since they could be depictions of previous civilizations or
other civilizations. The correct choice is answer C.
16. Answer: B
This is an Assumption question. It is asking you to find a statement upon
which the logic of the passage depends.
The conclusion is that people in industrialized nations with more choices “in
all aspects of their life” are not happier than people in less developed nations
with fewer choices.
The conclusion extrapolates from television to all aspects of people’s lives,
so you expect that the correct answer will support the conclusion and most
likely the extrapolation.
Answer A focuses only on the television aspect of daily life and not other
aspects of their lives. It also somewhat weakens the comparison of nations.
Answer B states an inverse relationship—that more channels equals less
happiness—also exists among “other categories.” If the same relationship
exists among other goods and services regardless of other factors related to
where people live in the world, then people in nations with more choices are
less happy than people in nations with fewer choices. Thus answer B would
seem to give strong support to the argument and to be your answer. For
answer C, the argument says nothing about awareness between nations, only
that the number of choices determines happiness. For answer D, how each
nation judges each other’s choices is irrelevant to their own experience. Like
answer A, answer E discusses only the television aspect of daily life. The
correct choice is answer B.
17. Answer: C
This is a Paradox question. Reading the question, you discover that it wants
you to find the one answer that does not explain the phenomenon described
in the argument.
In the argument you learn that the cheerleading squad experienced lower
sales than usual for its bake sale after it decided to lower prices.
Therefore, you must find the one answer that does nothing to explain the
lower sales.
For answer A, a lower population of potential buyers would very likely hurt
sales. For answer B, competing fund-raisers would most likely decrease
funds students have to spend on baked goods. In answer C, the cost of sugar
and flour may affect profitability but has nothing to do with sales. Since
answer C does not contribute to reconciling the apparent discrepancy, it
would seem to be your answer, but you should continue to review the rest of
your answers to make sure. For answer D, students probably would not buy
more baked goods if they already had free cupcakes from the teachers, so
that would definitely hurt sales. Finally, for answer E, location could very
likely affect sales, especially if students had come to expect their sale table to
be located in a traditional location. The correct choice is answer C.
18. Answer: D
This is a Strengthen question. It asks you to find the policy that fits the
situation.
In this case, you need a policy that allows the community center to use the
additional funds as it desires but also satisfies the interests of those who
donated the money.
Answer A gives the center complete freedom to do what it wants with all the
funds but ignores the interests of those who donated the money. Answer B
states that the center can do nothing with the money except what the donors
approve, which ties the hands of the center while giving too much power to
the donors. Answer C hamstrings the center by saying the directors must
approve the purpose for all spending in advance, but it does not address
funding overages and thus is not helpful in the situation described in the
argument. Answer D states that the center should use the money for the
intended purpose unless those funds cannot be used for that purpose, in
which case the donors should be consulted. This policy fits the situation
perfectly. It allows the center to use the money as it sees fit until the
allocations are fulfilled. Then, they must consult the donors. Answer E
requires that the center return the money, which is in complete contradiction
to the situation. Therefore, the correct choice is answer D.
19. Answer: A
This is a Strengthen question. It asks you to find the answer that weakens the
argument least, or in other words, most strengthens the argument.
The scientist argues that his peers’ statements that his theories are “based on
sheer conjecture and have no experimental basis” are wrong because his
theories are based on recent, reputable data. Although the scientist admits
that he hasn’t read “every detail” of the information, he trusts the sources.
The correct answer is a criticism that has little or no effect on discrediting the
argument. As you review your answer choices, a process of elimination
works best in this situation.
works best in this situation.
Answer A describes the basis of the conclusion as “uncertain recollections”
even though the recollection does not seem uncertain at all. He refers to a
specific study and use of the same research organizations. There is nothing
uncertain about those recollections. Answer A seems like a good option.
Considering answer B, if the experiments are affected by human error, then
such a criticism would definitely weaken the scientist’s argument that the
research supported the theory. Since the scientist argues that the experiments
done by the research organizations are all that are necessary to support his
theory, answer C would seriously weaken the argument by saying more
support is necessary. Answer D calls into question the quality of the
research, and since the scientist uses these studies as the sole support for the
theory, this criticism most definitely weakens the scientist’s argument.
Finally, if the logical pattern of using the lab’s results to support a theory
does not work for the current theory, then the scientist’s argument is again
weakened. Since answers B, C, D, and E all render the scientist’s argument
vulnerable to further scrutiny, they can be eliminated, which means answer
A is the correct choice.
20. Answer: D
This is an Assumption question. For this first question you must find the
assumption that the argument depends on in order to hold true.
The argument is about annual tests of the lead levels in drinking water. The
conclusion is that the water is safe to drink, even though some samples
exceeded federal standards, because the levels were still too low to pose any
risks.
The correct answer will address the relationship between the federal
standards and the amount of lead that causes health problems.
Answer A says the standards are too stringent, but the lead levels still may be
harmful to people’s health, and whether they disregard the guidelines or not,
they take a risk by drinking the water. Answer B seems to weaken rather
than support the argument, and that is not what the question is asking.
Answer C calls into question the method of testing and leaves open the
option that the situation might be worse than stated, possibly leading to the
opposite recommendation, that people should not drink the water. For answer
D, if lead levels slightly above federal standards are still not harmful to
people’s health, then it is valid to say that drinking the water is still safe for
the city’s residents. This very much supports the argument and is critical for
the argument’s conclusion. Answer E has nothing to do with the lead levels
or drinking the water. Rather, it gives an irrelevant observation about human
behavior. Therefore, answer D is the correct choice.
21. Answer: A
This is a Strengthen question. This question is asking you to find the answer
that actually bolsters the claim in the argument.
The argument is about annual tests of the lead levels in drinking water. The
conclusion is that the water is safe to drink, even though some samples
exceeded federal standards, because the levels were still too low to pose any
risks.
The correct answer will best support the conclusion that the water is safe to
drink.
Answer A says that most lead never makes it to the faucet as it is absorbed
by the lining of the pipes, thereby lowering the threat of people being
exposed to the lead and being harmed. This seems to give great strength to
the argument and is most likely the correct answer. Answer B creates doubts
about the testing methods, but it does not address the actual results. Answer
C says children exposed to lead levels above the federal standards will be
harmed, the opposite of what you are looking for. Answer D is anecdotal at
best since the hospital was dealing with people who happened to drink large
quantities of water, not the normal amount. Answer E does indicate a
problem with the current federal standards, but it does not say on what basis
the medical associations make their argument, and it is still not as strong an
answer as A. Answer A is the correct choice.
22. Answer: B
This is an Assumption question. The first question asks that you find the one
answer upon which Eleanor’s argument is based. The word depends requires
that the statement be central to holding up the argument to scrutiny.
The subject of this conversation between Jaime and Eleanor is the life span
of elephants in captivity. Jaime’s conclusion is based on studies that show
that elephants living in two protected reserve parks in Kenya and Myanmar
live longer than those that live in zoos. Eleanor’s argument is that zoos are
painted in a bad light because the elephants in parks don’t face the same
dangers as elephants in the wild and that the studies that Jaime cites on zoos
are outdated.
Eleanor assumes that poaching and unnatural dangers are the more dominant
threat to animals outside protected reserve parks. The correct answer will
address this issue.
Answer A may be true concerning the genetic differences between African
and Asian elephants, but says nothing about what happens when either type
is kept in a zoo versus an unprotected reserve. Answer B states that predators
and diseases affect the life span of an elephant to a lesser extent than other
threats beyond the protected parks. This would seem to be central to
Eleanor’s argument since she indicates that the threat of poaching and
unnatural dangers affect the life span of elephants much more than any other
threats inside protected parks. Answer C contradicts the second part of
Eleanor’s argument and is thus incorrect. Answer D says why an elephant’s
life span in a zoo was shortened in 1970 but nothing to support Eleanor’s
claim that care is better today. Also, it says that the poorer care then was due
to budgetary reasons. Eleanor indicates that the science of care advanced, not
funding. Answer E actually contradicts Eleanor’s argument by saying that
elephants are safer in reserves from poachers and unnatural threats. The
23. Answer: D
This is a Describe question. It asks you to find the answer that accurately
describes the argumentation technique that Eleanor uses to make her case.
The subject of this conversation between Jaime and Eleanor is the life span
of elephants in captivity. Jaime’s conclusion is based on studies that show
that elephants living in two protected reserve parks in Kenya and Myanmar
live longer than those that live in zoos. Eleanor’s argument is (1) that zoos
are painted in a bad light because the elephants in parks don’t face the same
dangers as elephants in the wild and (2) that the studies that Jaime cites on
zoos are outdated.
Eleanor discards the premises that Jaime uses to reach his conclusion—
namely, the link between living in a reserve park and a longer life, as well as
the studies he cites, which she says are obsolete.
Regarding answer A, Eleanor does not offer such an example, so it cannot be
your answer. For answer B, Eleanor does not question the conclusion, only
how Jaime reached it. Also, she does not question the verity of his data, only
his choice of data population. Answer C says that Eleanor is trying to bolster
Jaime’s argument, which is definitely not the case. Answer D states that
Eleanor rejects the correlation between the zoos and nature reserves that
Jaime chose to make his argument and that changing his data pool will affect
Jaime’s supporting statements that led to his conclusion. These both seem to
be exactly what Eleanor is doing with her argument. Answer E is partially
correct in that she is questioning his assumptions, but she is not pursuing a
wider data sampling but a different data sample altogether. Therefore,
answer D is the correct choice.
24. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. You need to find the answer that most weakens
This is a Weaken question. You need to find the answer that most weakens
the argument.
What is the basis on which the teacher makes the argument? In this case,
based on an experiment with 10 of her students, the teacher concludes that all
her students would be better off doing mathematics manually than with
machines.
Most likely, the weakening statement will undermine the experiment in some
fashion.
Answer A actually strengthens the teacher’s reasoning by making the
students’ achievement even more impressive, so this option does not qualify.
Answer B seems to indicate that the 10 students were receiving help that
might have improved their performance. This could weaken the argument,
but it does not indicate whether the other students were receiving help as
well, so this option may not be as strong as another answer. Answer C only
indicates how the 10 students compared to the other students but does not
affect the judgment that they showed improvement from their own past
performance. Thus, it does not weaken the argument. Answer D says that the
students undergoing the experiment had seen the material before while the
other students had not. This indicates that they had an advantage that
improved their performance, and the lack of a calculator may have had
nothing to do with it. This very much undermines the teacher’s reasoning
and may be your strongest candidate. Answer E indicates only that the
teacher gave them a methodology for working without a calculator, but this
does not mean that such training enhanced their performance and does not
necessarily affect the teacher’s reasoning. Answer D is the correct choice.
25. Answer: E
This is a Flaw question. The question is looking for a description of the
logical flaw, rather than the flaw itself.
The argument concludes that there are more employers who believe one idea
The argument concludes that there are more employers who believe one idea
(people charged with a crime should be fired) over another (only people
convicted of a crime should be fired), using the result of a recent survey.
The correct answer will describe why the statistics are misleading,
specifically why one or both of the survey statistics may be double counting
or undercounting the number who believe a person should be fired in either
case.
Answer A is a true description of what the statement does but does not
necessarily describe a flaw. Most polls extrapolate from a sample to draw a
conclusion about the general population. For answer B, there is no
ambiguous term used in the supporting statements, nor is any such term used
as a basis for the conclusion, so this one cannot be correct. Regarding answer
C, the conclusion compares the two beliefs mentioned in the supporting
statements and makes no mention of a third belief. For answer D, there is no
doubt that all the premises can be true. Finally, regarding answer E, in order
to be convicted, one must be charged, so it is very likely that more employers
believe that an employee should be fired if convicted of a crime than those
who believe the employee should be fired if just charged with a crime. A
sufficient condition is being confused with a required condition. Thus the
poll and the reasoning are flawed. The correct choice is answer E.
26. Answer: A
This is a Flaw question. It is asking for the flaw in a complete-the-sentence
form.
Find the logical flaw that leads the editorialist to believe that the politicians
will redirect the funds away from education.
The statement asserts that because politicians in general have betrayed the
purpose of the lottery that the current legislature will do the same. You will
look for something similar in your answer options.
Answer A states that the argument draws a conclusion about a specific
population (“our representatives in the state legislature”) based on a study of
a larger population (“politicians”). This would seem to describe the
editorialist’s mistake perfectly, but you should read through the rest of the
answers to make sure. Answer B might look good, but the statements do not
mention any historical data. It only makes general historical statements.
Answer A remains the stronger answer. Answer C is incorrect because you
do not know the conditions, historical or current, but even so, the current
option on the table, a public lottery to support education, is the same. Both
the historical politicians and the current legislature are considering the same
solution, so answer D cannot be correct. None of the statements attacks the
supporters or the merits of the lottery, only the resulting malfeasance once it
is approved, so answer E cannot be the correct choice. The correct choice is
answer A.

SECTION II
1. Answer: D
This is a Conclusion question. It is asking you to find among the answers a
logical conclusion that can be reached as a result of the chancellor’s
argument.
Thus, you read the chancellor’s statement with the expectation that it will
lead you to an inevitable conclusion or assumption. Put simply, the
chancellor argues that the school needs to invest in new facilities in order to
attract new students and beat out the competition.
The correct answer will sum up the argument. In this case, the chancellor
argues that Mayfield Academy must grow to survive, and building new
facilities is a way to generate that growth, so you must look for a conclusion
that the Mayfield Academy must invest in new facilities in order to grow.
Answer A seems like it might work, but it only mentions attracting more
students and not how that should be achieved. Answer B seems like
something parents might say when or if the school actually agrees and
executes the specifics of the chancellor’s recommendation, but this is not
exactly a conclusion you can take from the argument. Answer C discusses a
consideration of the parents and something unrelated to the school’s need to
attract more students. Answer D states that the academy should invest in new
facilities, a conclusion that the school might very well come to based on the
chancellor’s argument. This seems like your answer, but you should review
the final answer to be sure. Similar to answer A, answer E states what the
school would like to be the inevitable decision parents make, to move their
children to Mayfield, but it does not discuss how the Mayfield Academy can
achieve that result, which is the subject of the argument. The correct choice
is answer D.
2. Answer: C
This is a Describe question. The question asks you to describe the method
the ethicist uses to respond to the business executive’s argument
In essence, the business executive argues that teaching ethics to employees is
a waste of time because they will inevitably act unethically.
First you notice by the tone that the ethicist indicates disagreement with the
executive (“makes as much sense as … ”) and that the ethicist uses an
analogous situation (“spending money on driver’s education”) and that the
analogous situation has what the ethicist considers an absurd justification
(“all drivers will inevitably cause an accident”), indicating that such thinking
will have an equally bad result. You will look for something similar in your
answer options.
Answer A seems closer to a description of the business executive’s thinking
than the ethicist’s. Your question asks for the ethicist’s method, not the
executive’s. With answer B, the ethicist makes no attack on the executive’s
character, only on his argument, so this is not the correct answer. For answer
C, the ethicist does use another (analogous) situation to show the executive’s
reasoning is flawed and would lead to a bad result, so this answer seems like
your best option, but let’s continue to review the rest of the options. Answer
D does not seem right because the ethicist makes no demands for further
evidence. For answer E, the ethicist does not think there is any dilemma to
explicate. For the ethicist, there is no dilemma at all, as you see by his use of
an analogous situation that is fairly black-and-white. The correct choice is
answer C.
3. Answer: A
This is an Assumption question. You must describe the assumption upon
which the argument depends.
In this case, the argument makes a case that Renfield is not qualified for a
management position despite his qualifications and based on certain
disqualifications.
The correct answer will most likely discuss either the qualifications or
disqualifications, since they are the basis for the conclusion that Renfield
should be a manager.
Answer A describes the argument’s assumption with regard to Renfield’s
one qualification, that “his performance as a member of your staff, while
exemplary” does not in and of itself prove that the person can be a manager.
This is definitely an assumption upon which the arguer makes the case, and it
is very likely your answer, but you should read the rest of the answers to
make sure. Answer B says Renfield cannot be trusted even with his regular
duties, something the argument actually contradicts by saying that his
performance has been “exemplary.” With regard to answer C, nothing in the
statement is based on whose interest Renfield will represent once he is a
manager. Rather, it is based on his management abilities. Answer D deals
with the staff’s behavior and not Renfield’s, so this does not qualify for your
answer. Finally, answer E is a very general statement regarding the general
practices of the organization. It says nothing of the specifics of Renfield’s
case and thus cannot be your answer. The correct choice is answer A.
4. Answer: E
This is a Flaw question. You need to figure out why the argument is false,
but it structures the question in complete-the-sentence form, so the answer
will most likely be a description of the logical flaw rather than the flaw itself.
In this case, the statement makes a simple argument—overturning accepted
norms is the only way to make real progress.
The argument singles out one specific influence on the issue of real progress
—overturning accepted norms—and it doesn’t allow for the possibility that
—overturning accepted norms—and it doesn’t allow for the possibility that
another factor could have an impact. You will look for something similar in
your answer options.
Answer A seems to be describing another argument altogether since the
argument does not undermine its own premise and the term attribute seems
to be a fairly inaccurate description of what is discussed. Answer B might
seem like the correct answer to the question, but the problematic word is
because since there is no causal relationship being offered between the first
statement and the second statement. Answer C is problematic with the first
word, denies, because the argument is actually affirming such a contribution,
not denying it. Answer D does not work because the argument does not
isolate its observation to a particular time. It is more general than that.
Answer E is your last remaining possibility. The argument makes the
mistake of saying that one influence outweighs all other influences on
progress. The correct choice is answer E.
5. Answer: C
This is a variation of a Describe question—a Describe How the Argument
Proceeds question. The question is in complete-the-sentence form, and thus
the answer will be a description of how the argument is formed and not
necessarily anything specific within the argument.
The educator describes what the critics say about online universities and
low-residency degree programs and then discusses how Plymouth Online is
the exception to those objections.
Answer A is incorrect because the educator makes no reference to any
scholarly authority during the challenge. Answer B is incorrect because the
educator does not, in fact, question the validity of the objections the critics
make. The educator merely states how Plymouth Online overcomes those
issues. Answer C may be your answer because the educator does use
Plymouth Online as a counterexample to what the scholars say are the
prevalent beliefs about the distance programs. You must review the rest of
the answers to be sure whether you are finished. Answer D is off the mark
because the term sociological is an inaccurate description of the educator’s
discussion. The educator makes no sociological observations as to why
distance programs are used. Also, this answer fails to mention the educator’s
use of his or her own program as an example. Finally, answer E is not
accurate because the educator does not compare two approaches. Also, this
answer ignores the dynamic between the critical scholars and the educator’s
discussion of Plymouth Online. The correct choice is answer C.
6. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. You must find among the answers the statement
that “most seriously” weakens the argument.
The statement argues that the government should require weight training in
public schools for all children between ages 6 and 18 based on a new study.
You expect that the correct answer will be a statement that seriously
undermines some aspect of this recommendation to the government.
Answer A looks very likely to be your answer since it says that a school-
based program will be ineffective and that a home-based program is what is
required for real success. You need to read through the remainder of the
answers to be sure. Answer B puts a damper on the ability to measure
progress, but it does not undermine the benefits of the program or the
recommendation. Answer C adds facts about the study, but the particulars
are not the kind that would undermine the results of the study. Answer D
only speaks to the time it takes to notice measurable results, which does not
change the fact that such weight training is beneficial and thus does not
weaken the argument. Finally, answer E might give you pause. Yes, there
might be some health risks to weight training at such a young age and adding
those tests to the study might have been helpful, but the results might have
been positive as well. You do not have enough information to know and
thus, this answer does not weaken the argument more than answer A.
Answer A is the correct choice.
7. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. This question asks for a statement that weakens
the argument.
The statement is arguing that, based on a study, all people with type 2
diabetes should train in both aerobics and weight lifting. The key terms are
the health problem type 2 diabetes and the recommendation for both exercise
types.
and the conclusion.
Answer A looks good, but just because people with this condition are “less
likely” to manage it physically does not mean that ultimately they can’t
manage it or that it will not benefit them as the study indicates. Answer B is
an absurd statement because even if they cannot be done at the same time it
does not mean that a training program cannot be designed to alternate
between them. Also, the statement does not mention the condition type 2
diabetes. Answer C looks good, but pay close attention to the words that hurt
its chances. It says that the physical demands “could” have negative physical
effects. This is speculative and contradicts the study mentioned in the
argument. If the answer said another study indicated such a detriment, then
this answer might have qualified as your choice. Answer D is a strong
candidate because if some people with type 2 diabetes need only one of the
activities to get the same benefits, then the recommendation for both
activities is weakened. Finally, answer E does not cast doubt on the
relationship between the premises and the conclusion; in fact, it offers
support for the results of the study. The correct choice is answer D.
8. Answer: C
This is a Deduction question. It asks you to find a statement that must be true
on the basis of the given statements.
The argument gives you a paleontological discussion concerning the survival
of large mammals like the hippopotamuses and giraffes after the extinction
of the dinosaurs.
The correct answer will most likely be a conclusion you can come to based
on how such survival occurred, mainly the competition for living space and
food.
Answer A tries to relate a later timing of extinction to the smaller size of the
surviving mammals, but nothing in the argument leads you to believe there is
a relationship between the two, only that when it happened their size
changed. The only thing you can assume is that the increase in size would
have been delayed. With regard to answer B, the statements give no size
relationship between the large mammals like the hippopotamus and other
mammals. It tells only of large mammals and how they grew in size. Answer
C is a very good option for your question. The statements discuss how the
large mammals grew in size because they no longer had to compete for space
and food with dinosaurs. Thus, you can assume that if larger nonmammals
had survived the extinction event, they would have been competitors for
space and food and the larger mammals would have been smaller. Answer D
may be true, but nothing in the statements leads you to believe that the size
of the dinosaurs had anything to do with their extinction. Answer E states
something that cannot be verified by the statements. It is possible they would
have competed with carnivorous dinosaurs and the same evolutionary
process would have occurred. Answer C is the correct choice.
9. Answer: D
This is a Parallel question. It asks that you find among the answers a
situation that “parallels” the one given.
The given situation is that of an auction that Jody is not participating in;
because nobody wants to buy the Giacometti statue more than she does, then
“not one person” will bid on the statue no matter how low the bidding starts.
Most likely the correct answer will use similar extreme or all-or-nothing
terms like “most,” “nobody,” or “not one person” and will create an equally
absurd notion. The correct answer will have a similar flawed logic.
Answer A starts out well, saying that one jockey wants something the
“most,” but it breaks down later in the statement because it says the other
jockeys will just double their efforts. This is not the all-or-nothing statement
you need. Answer B starts off with Larry being the most qualified to spot a
forgery, but the rest of the statement is wrong because it says that since one
item has no flaws, others must be forgeries. This is not an all-or-nothing
result of the first statement. Answer C does not say Professor Ricardo is the
only one who can translate the text. It leaves open the possibility that there
are others, definitely not an all-or-nothing result. In answer D, Emilio is the
“most” intent to get the sales position, and because he is not applying,
nobody else will apply no matter how high the salary goes. You have your
extreme (“most”) and all-or-nothing result (“nobody else”) words and the
statement is equally flawed in logic. This would seem to be your answer, but
you must read your last option. In answer E, Sherry is not the most motivated
to join the group, and her timing conflicts result in only a gradually
worsening situation, not an all-or-nothing situation. The correct choice is
answer D.
10. Answer: D
This is a Deduction question. It asks you to find among the answers the one
statement that must be true assuming the statements in the passage are true.
The argument gives a set of conditionals, one for the conductor, one for the
orchestra, and one that binds them together. Use shorthand to note these
conditions: if C not NY, then other competitions. If O not NY, then no
competitions. Lastly, C or O not NY. You can infer from the last statement
competitions. Lastly, C or O not NY. You can infer from the last statement
that if C yes NY, then O not NY, or if O yes NY, then C not NY.
The correct answer will most likely test that you understand how these
conditionals work together. As you begin to read the answers, you notice that
they are a series of “if … then” statements. You should attempt the same
shorthand with each to evaluate them.
Answer A says O yes NY, then no competitions. This contradicts your
second conditional altogether, so this is not your answer. Answer B cannot
be done in shorthand because it discusses a probability (“more likely”), and
your given conditionals are not based on likelihoods. They are certainties, so
this cannot be your answer. Answer C also cannot be done in shorthand
because it is a recommendation, not a statement. The word should is key to
recognizing the problem with this option. Answer D says C yes NY, then no
competitions. You know that if C yes NY, then O not NY. Thus, if O not
NY, then no competitions. This would seem to be your answer. Answer E,
similar to answer B, deals in probabilities (“likely”) and disqualifies this
option. The correct choice is answer D.
11. Answer: D
This is a Parallel question. You must find the answer that follows the same
pattern of reasoning as the statement.
In this case, the statement puts you through some mental gymnastics over
newspaper coverage of an event, or lack thereof, and whether that determines
the event’s newsworthiness. Altogether, the argument says that whichever
way it’s worded it is a ridiculous statement. The statements use convoluted
language to somewhat confuse the issue but can be simplified to “if … then”
statements. The first statement is “if a newspaper does not cover an event,
then it is not newsworthy.” The second version is just a rephrasing, but it
could be reworded as “if an event is newsworthy, it does appear in a
newspaper.”
The key is to look for a similar pattern, including the use of logical words
(negative-negative, positive-positive) and the ordering of phrases
(newspaper-newsworthy, newsworthy-newspaper).
Answer A says “if a politician IS elected to Congress, then he or she WILL
BE corrupt.” You don’t have to go to the second sentence because the first
pattern does not match. The key words are in the positive and not the
negative. Answers B and C start the same as answer A, so you can quickly
eliminate them as well. Answer D states “every student who is NEVER
accused of cheating has NEVER cheated” and “every student who DOES
cheat IS accused of cheating.” This seems very close to your pattern. The
logical words follow the same pattern (negative-negative, positive-positive)
and the sentences do the same reversal of phrases (accused-cheated, cheated-
accused), but you should review the last option to be sure. Answer E starts
out the same as answer D, but the second statement does not reverse the
phrases. Instead it says, “every student who is accused of cheating has
cheated” (accused-cheated, accused-cheated). You are looking for the option
that most resembles the argument and in this case the correct choice is
answer D.
12. Answer: B
This is a Weaken question. You are to find a basis upon which the argument
loses its effectiveness.
The philosopher is arguing that pragmatism leads to relativism, which makes
it difficult to develop a general guidance for moral and ethical decisions.
This question requires you to look through the answers and make a judgment
as to which does the best job of weakening the argument, but most likely the
correct answer will eliminate the problem of relativism and create some basis
for general guidance for moral and ethical decisions.
Answer A goes beyond the scope of the argument and says that people
should get together and decide what is right for the entire society. This
cannot be your correct answer. Answer B argues that the individual’s
judgment is suspect and that experience in the world eliminates relativism
(“the great equalizer”) and resolves the discrepancies to develop better
judgment. This option seems very promising because it eliminates relativism
and creates a basis for general judgment of actions, but you should review
the remaining answers. Answer C actually strengthens the argument that
pragmatism results in no general truth and individuals who disagree on what
is practical and good, so C cannot be your answer. Answer D, much like
answer C, is making a case for supporting the philosopher’s statement.
Answer E is a “let’s just throw our hands up in the air and give up” statement
that has nothing to do with the specifics of the philosopher’s argument. The
13. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. You must find the answer that points to a
weakness in the argument.
The argument states that people should stop taking vitamin D and calcium
supplements because they get enough of the vitamins from their diet and
from sun exposure.
and the conclusion.
Answer A is an interesting fact about the interaction between vitamin D and
calcium, but it has nothing to do with people’s intake of the two nutrients.
Answer B may very well weaken the basis for the argument, but this
statement asks you to make an unfounded judgment that analyzing other
publications is not as valid as developing a study and performing a direct
study of patients. After all, 1,000 publications is still very impressive. You
continue to look for a stronger answer. Answer C gives an interesting fact
about a common practice of physicians, but this does not have any relevance
to the committee’s analysis. Answer D says that there might be other
benefits, beyond bone health, to taking the supplements, and this may very
well weaken the argument since the basis for the study was to assess whether
the supplements helped sustain bone health. This could be your answer.
Answer E is too minor an objection since you do not know whether the non-
breakfast foods with added vitamin D and calcium have enough of the
nutrients to make up for missing breakfast. Thus, the correct choice is
answer D.
14. Answer: D
This is an Assumption question. It asks you to find a statement upon which
the conclusion depends, so you are looking for something that must be true
for the conclusion to work.
In this case, the argument says that Company X is going to sell
underperforming divisions that are dragging down the stock price. The
analysts are concerned. As evidence that this is a good move, you are told
that the president has long recommended that some divisions are outdated
and are too expensive to bring up to date. The conclusion is that the board’s
move will help the stock price.
The correct answer will be something that allows you to believe that, given
the facts, the sale will actually benefit the stock price.
Answer A is an interesting fact but is not necessarily critical to the
conclusion. Answer B relates to the chances of success or failure of the sale
but not the conclusion that once they are sold, that will help the stock value.
Answer C may mean a delay in the sale, but whether the sale helps the stock
price does not depend on when the sale goes through, rather that it goes
through at all. Answer D seems rather important. The argument bases its
conclusion on the statement that the president has long maintained that
certain companies should be sold. Thus, those companies must be part of the
sale or the stock price improvement may not happen. This seems to be a
promising option. Answer E is about the buyers, and whether the buyers
recognize an underperforming division or not would seem irrelevant to the
sale and its effect on the stock price. The correct choice is answer D.
15. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. It asks that you find among the answers a
statement that weakens the argument.
In this case, the argument says that Company X is going to sell
underperforming divisions that are dragging down the stock price. The
analysts are concerned. As evidence that this is a good move, you are told
that the president has long recommended that some divisions are outdated
and are too expensive to bring up to date. The conclusion is that the board’s
move will help the stock price.
You are looking for an answer that undermines the recommendation to sell
the underperforming divisions.
Answer A suggests that all divisions are integral to maintaining the stock
price. If all divisions must stay together, then the sale of some of the
divisions might hurt the “interaction” between all of the divisions and,
therefore, the stock price. This is a strong candidate for your selection since
it indicates that selling some divisions might actually drag the stock price
down further rather than bolstering it. You must read through the other
answers to make sure it is the strongest among them. Answer B tells you an
interesting fact about selling different types of divisions, but since the
monies received for the underperforming divisions is of little consequence to
the conclusion, this cannot be your selection. Answer C tells you something
of the history of the company, but again, the past “thought” concerning the
divisions is of little consequence to the conclusion. Answer D is about
inflation, and inflation is not even discussed in the argument. Answer E says
the company is looking for alternative ways Company X can bolster its stock
price. Some alternate way may exist, but we don’t know if they work. And
either way, it does not say that the sale of the divisions is not still a good
option or even a preferable option. Thus, the best choice is answer A.
16. Answer: B
This is a Parallel question. It asks you to find among the answers a statement
that follows the same pattern of reasoning as the argument.
As you read the argument, pay close attention to the structure of the
argument. The argument structure can be simplified as follows: IF
restaurants over six months, THEN popular with patrons OR food critics.
Last year, IF restaurants popular with food critics, THEN popular with
patrons. THEREFORE, last year, IF a restaurant was over six months, THEN
it was popular with food critics.
This is a fairly complicated pattern of logic but it should be repeated in the
answer.
Answer A is IF garages are in Caedmon, THEN they do maintenance on both
foreign AND domestic automobiles. You can stop right there since the first
sentence does not include the “or” construction. This cannot be your
selection. Answer B is IF apprentices are at Willow, THEN apprentices
study dry wall OR cabinetry. This year, IF apprentices study dry wall, THEN
they study cabinetry. THEREFORE, this year, IF an apprentice is at Willow,
THEN the apprentice is studying dry wall. This is exactly the pattern and is
probably your answer. Check the rest of the answers to be sure. Answer C
starts out well with IF a congressperson is no longer in Congress, THEN the
congressperson teaches OR writes a book. This answer then gives a specific
example of Mary Seldon, and this is not in the pattern of your argument that
stays general in its terms. Thus this cannot be your selection. Answer D
makes the same mistake as answer C in that in the second part it goes into a
specific example. Answer E is problematic from the start because it speaks in
terms of “most” new movies when your argument talks in absolutes (“all” or
“every”). Thus, the correct choice is answer B.
17. Answer: A
This is an Assumption question. It asks you to find the assumption upon
This is an Assumption question. It asks you to find the assumption upon
which the argument depends.
In this case, the argument makes a claim that a plant’s immune system
behaves similarly to the human immune system and then makes an
outlandish claim that you can discover how plants fight off the common
cold.
You read through the answers for the one statement that seems to uphold this
comparison.
Answer A says the same diseases that attack humans also attack plants. This
is deceptively simple, and you might think it too simple to be the correct
answer. Nevertheless, this may be your best option, since the outlandish
conclusion is based on the very idea that the common cold attacks plants as
well as humans. You must review the rest of the options to be sure. Answer
B is definitely true, but it is not a claim upon which the comparison between
plants and humans depends. It also says nothing about plants at all. Answer
C is close to saying the same thing as answer A, but it creates a causal
relationship (“because”) that does not necessarily serve as a foundation to the
argument. It also creates unnecessary complications by discussing how the
disease attacks either one. Still, if answer A was not so effective, you might
consider this option. Answer D is definitely important to the conclusion of
the argument that makes the generalization about all plants based on the rice
plant, but this option says nothing about the common cold or disease and is
still not as strong as answer A. Answer E enhances the comparison between
the immune systems of plants and humans, but this does not support the
entire argument concerning the common cold and disease. Therefore, the
best choice is answer A.
18. Answer: E
This is a variation of a Describe question—an Identify a Point of
Disagreement question. You need to figure out the central disagreement
between two people.
Joseph makes a value judgment that the evening customer service
representatives are more efficient than the morning representatives based on
certain performance statistics. Davis disagrees, arguing that each shift has
different demands and the representatives face different kinds of problems.
You can expect that the issue in dispute will describe how Joseph and Davis
differ on their definition of efficiency.
Answer A says they disagree about why the evening shift is able to remain
on that shift and not on the day shift. This is totally unrelated to the
efficiency issue and cannot be the correct answer. Answer B says the
disagreement is about the relationship between the time of day and the
amount of time it takes to handle a complaint. This is close to being a good
description, but it seems somewhat inadequate. You should read the rest of
your answers to see if there is a better option. Answer C cannot be your
answer because neither of them discusses whether the company will move
representatives back and forth between shifts. Answer D is incorrect because
they do not disagree on the accuracy statistic itself. Rather, they disagree
about why the statistical discrepancy exists at all and whether that should be
used to judge their efficiency. Answer E says the disagreement is about why
the two shifts can offer quality service but one shift is faster than the other.
This seems to be a perfect description of the disagreement and much better
than answer B, your second best answer, which focuses only on one aspect,
how the time of day relates to the time it takes to handle a complaint. The
correct choice is answer E.
19. Answer: A
This is a Conclusion question. In essence, the question is asking you to
identify an answer that states the reason legislation is not working in the best
interest of constituents.
The first part of the argument is a description of the current way legislation is
drawn up. Starting with “But clearly this strategy …,” you learn what the
problem is, which is that the industry experts, as lobbyists, are paid by the
problem is, which is that the industry experts, as lobbyists, are paid by the
industry they represent and thus act in the industry’s interest, not the
constituents’.
You are looking for something similar among the answers.
Answer A says that the industry experts will let their self-interest as industry
lobbyists affect their writing of legislation. This is almost exactly your
expected answer, but you should read through the remaining options to be
sure. In answer B, several words work against it, especially “heavily
influenced financially” and “unfair.” The argument says they are paid, but
you have no idea how much their compensation influences them. Also, the
argument says only that the legislation is weakened, but there is no
indication of how unfair it is. These terms make it difficult to choose this
option. Answer C discusses the legislators being less corrupt in writing
legislation. Although this is a corollary of the argument, this is not the reason
the current method is not in the best interest of constituents. Answer D may
be true, but it is constructing new information and attributing a motive to the
industry experts that is not even mentioned in the argument. You have no
idea whether they expect to obtain lucrative jobs in their respective industries
at a later date. This cannot be your answer. Similar to answer B, answer E
contains words that disqualify it as your choice. The words “generously” and
“want to keep” give information not evident in the argument. There is no
mention of how much they are paid or that their jobs are at risk in this
relationship. Thus, the correct choice is answer A.
20. Answer: C
This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you find which answer
must be true based on the statements in the argument.
The argument gives a set of conditionals, so you can simplify them into basic
logical statements. The first sentence says Diamonds(R) > 3 carats and
Rubies(R) < 3 carats. The second sentence: Most Diamonds(R) and most
Rubies(R) < SI2. The third sentence: Diamonds(A) and Rubies(A) > SI2.
Also, Diamonds(A) and Rubies(A) < 3 carats. Because Ellington only buys
Also, Diamonds(A) and Rubies(A) < 3 carats. Because Ellington only buys
stones < 3 carats, you can figure out that E can buy Rubies(R), Rubies(A),
and Diamonds(A). In the final sentence you learn that Ellington is buying
only a diamond shipment. Thus, Diamonds(A) is the only option. Allister is
the only source for that shipment.
You read through the answers with this in mind.
Answer A is too absolute and cannot be true. Ellington may be buying only
diamonds currently, but there is nothing telling us that the company never
buys rubies and only buys diamonds. Answer B says the opposite of what is
given in the statements. In fact, Allister sells higher clarity stones than
Richman. Answer C says the diamond shipment has a clarity rating above
SI2. This works. Since Ellington must buy this shipment from Allister and
Allister only sells stones with a clarity rating above SI2, then the diamond
shipment must be rated above SI2. As for the other answers, answer D
cannot be true since Ellington only buys stones < 3 carats and you know that
Diamonds(R) > 3 carats. Answer E cannot be true because Allister is the
only source that Ellington can buy the diamond shipment from. The correct
choice is answer C.
21. Answer: B
This is a Flaw question. The first question asks that you find the flaw in the
environmentalist’s response to the coal plant manager.
The coal plant manager claims that because of its cost effectiveness, coal
will remain a dominant source of energy. The environmentalist argues that
technology will improve the efficiency of alternative energy sources and this
will enable them to beat out coal.
You can see that the environmentalist discusses technology and its efficiency
benefits, but does not address directly the manager’s discussion of the cost
benefits of coal over alternatives. You will look for something similar in
your answer options.
With answer A, the environmentalist does fail to address the length of time it
would take to become competitive, but time is not central to the discussion in
the first place and this is a weaker option. Answer B says the
environmentalist fails to acknowledge the cost advantage of coal over
alternatives. This matches what you noticed about the environmentalist’s
statement and is most likely your answer. You should review the remaining
options to be sure. Answer C is incorrect because the environmentalist makes
no such statement. In fact, the environmentalist says that the coal industry
has been slow to make such an adoption of clean coal. Answer D discusses a
scenario that neither the coal manager nor the environmentalist discusses and
thus cannot be your answer. You might be able to infer answer E from the
environmentalist’s statements, but because the environmentalist makes no
mention of an eventual cost advantage, you cannot choose this one. The
22. Answer: C
This is a Strengthen question. This question asks you to find among the
answers a statement that supports the environmentalist’s argument.
The environmentalist’s argument is based on technology and efficiency and
the coal industries’ slow adoption of new technologies
The correct answer will be along those terms, and you should expect that it
helps the environmentalist overcome the weakness discovered in the
previous question, addressing the cost effectiveness issue.
Answer A seems to contradict the environmentalist’s statement with regard
to clean coal, and it does not help the environmentalist overcome the cost
effectiveness issue. Answer B weakens the coal plant manager’s argument
but does not strengthen the environmentalist’s argument. Answer C says
there is a direct relationship between technological advancement and cost-
adoption factors. This matches your requirements by saying that the
environmentalist’s focus, technological advancement, affects cost
effectiveness. You should review the remainder of the answers. Answer D
discusses only one company, and the experience of one company does not
necessarily weaken or bolster either argument. Lastly, answer E actually
seems to weaken the environmentalist’s argument, saying that cost benefits
have been minimal despite technological advances. Therefore, the correct
choice is answer C.
23. Answer: C
This is a Describe question. The question is asking you to find the answer
that describes the method by which the argument is made.
In this case, the argument gives a scenario. In essence, Randy must work on
a report all evening for his boss, but a client has asked him to dinner and a
discussion afterward that same evening. The final statement says that he has
a difficult choice between satisfying his boss and satisfying his client, but he
cannot do both.
You must look for a similar pattern in the answers.
Answer A cannot be correct because the argument does not give alternative
versions of Randy’s evening. It speaks of choices. Answer B cannot be
correct because the argument does not give another situation for comparison.
There is just the one situation that Randy faces. Answer C looks like it is
your answer. The argument does talk about one set of responsibilities (the
boss) and shows how it is incompatible with another set of responsibilities
(the client), which results in a conundrum (cannot do both). This would seem
to be your answer, but you should read through the remaining options to be
sure. Answer D cannot be correct because the boss’s requirements do not
lead to the client’s requirements. They are concurrent circumstances. Answer
E starts off well. Randy did fail to work on the report in a timely manner,
which led to the conundrum, but nothing in the arguments indicates that
harm will inevitably come to any of the parties involved. The correct choice
is answer C.
24. Answer: D
This is a Deduction question. Reading the question, you learn that you must
choose an answer that can be inferred or derived from the content of the
argument.
The argument tells you that bumblebees prefer red or striped snapdragons.
Then, you are told that the bumblebee is critical to the survival of the
snapdragon. Lastly, the nursery grows more striped and darkly pigmented
snapdragons to encourage growth in the bumblebee population.
You expect your correct answer to discuss the relationship between
snapdragons and the bumblebee population.
Answer A cannot be inferred because nothing in the argument indicates that
the bumblebee population is in danger from a lack of a particular
snapdragon. The argument just suggests that growing the snapdragons will
help increase the population. Answer B cannot be inferred because the
argument says that the bumblebee visits the striped or darkly pigmented
snapdragons more often, but it does not say that without that type it will stop
pollinating snapdragons altogether. Answer C cannot be inferred because the
argument gives no relationship between the bumblebee’s behavior and that
of other insects. Answer D seems promising. It is evident from the argument
that the bumblebee population needs to grow, so it is not much of a reach to
infer that the population is smaller than desired. Also, you can infer that
more striped and darkly pigmented snapdragons will help increase their
numbers because the nurseries would not execute such a strategy if they did
not believe it would do so. Read the last option just to be sure it is not better.
Answer E says the opposite of what the argument is stating, that the
bumblebees are necessary to save the snapdragons, which is not the case.
Answer D is the correct choice.

SECTION III
Questions 1–6
As with all logic games you follow the six-step process.
STEP 1: Identify the Game Type.

The wording of this logic game is tricky. It asks that you maintain an order: a
coil cannot be used unless it is tested first. It also asks that you group the coils
into untested, tested, and used. The game also does not tell you how many of the
coils are in each group, and a coil can be in both the tested and used groups. This
is one of the rare hybrid games that cannot be easily classified. As part of your
test-taking strategy, you might choose to leave this game to last when taking the
exam. Proceed to step 2 under that assumption.
STEP 2: Begin Your Diagram.

You visualize a process of coils moving from left to right, from untested to
tested to unused to used. Here is your diagram.
STEP 3: Symbolize the Clues.

In symbolizing the clues, you will pair the coil with its status. Techniques for
symbolizing are explained in Chapter 3
The first clue says “If G is tested, I is tested.” This is a simple “if … then”
statement. You will use the equals sign to say that a coil is in a particular stage
of the process. This clue can be symbolized as follows:
G = T → I = T
G = T → I = T
The second clue is “If E is tested, G is tested,” which is another simple “if …
then” statement. You use the same format as the previous clue:
E = T → G = T
The third clue is a straight definition and can be symbolized simply as:
D = T
The next two clues are worded as complex conditional statements that need to
be translated into “if … then” language. They are:
H is not used (~H), unless J is tested (J)

D is not used (~D), unless H is tested (H)
You negate the first terms (~H and ~D) and put the later terms (J and H) after the
arrows. The end results are as follows:
Finally, you are given the clue “If J is used, and I is tested, K is used.” This is a
compound “if … then” statement that can be symbolized as follows:
This completes your symbolization, and you move on to step 4.
STEP 4: Double-check your symbolizations.

To double-check your symbolizations, translate your symbolized clues back into
normal English and see whether they match the original language of each clue.
Your page should look like the following:
STEP 5: Make deductions.
Finally, before you tackle the questions, see if you can make any deductions
based on the setup of the game and the clues. Go through each type of
deductions.
1. Can’t-be-first-or-last deductions
This is not an ordering game, but it has some ordering elements in it. Based
on what you know, you can make the following deductions:
If G is tested, then I is tested, so G can never be tested without I also being
tested.
If E is tested, then G is tested, so E can never be tested without G also being
tested.
If H is used, then J is tested, so H can never be used without J also being
tested (J will always precede H).
If D is used, then H is tested, so D can never be used without H also being
tested (H will always precede D).
If J is used and I is tested, then K is used, so you can deduce that when J is
used and I is tested then J and K will both be used together.
2. Repeated-element deductions
You see immediately that the first two “if … then” statements share the term
G = T (G is tested). You see that E = T → G = T and G = T → I = T. Thus,
using the reflexive law (if a = b and b = c, then a = c), you see that E = T → I
= T.
= T.
Thus, you deduce that if E is tested, then G and I are tested. You can also add
the “if … then” statement:
E = T → G = T & I = T
There are no other repeated elements that can be used to make further
deductions.
3. Down-to-two deductions
There are no limitations on the number that can be in each stage, and the
deductions do not put any limiting factors with words like “only” or “must
have.” Therefore, you have no down-to-two deductions.
4. Block-splitting deductions
Notice that a coil can appear in the tested and the used column.
STEP 6: Answer the questions in the smartest order.

On test day, answer the questions in this order:
1. Answer the Complete and Accurate List question.
2. Answer questions that give you more information to work with.
3. Answer the remaining questions.
In this example, questions 1 and 4 are Complete and Accurate List questions
and should be done first. Questions that give you more information include:
Question 3 (“J is not tested”)
Question 4 (“E and five other coils are the only coils tested, and if exactly
three coils are used in the machine … ”)
Question 5 (“Every coil that is tested is used, and if I is used … ”)
Question 6 (“K is not used, and if exactly four coils are used … ”)
Once you have answered these questions, that leaves just question 2 to answer.
THE ANSWERS
1. Answer: D
This question asks which of the answers could be a complete and accurate
list of the coils that are tested. You are concerned only with the tested coils.
Since you are dealing with only one group, you can solve this question
without your visual. It is best in this case to look through the answers one by
one and check whether they follow the rules. You know that D is tested.
Every answer includes D, so disqualification will have to come from the
other clues. In answer A, E is tested and you know that if E is tested, then G
must be tested. So far so good, since G is the next one listed. But, thanks to
your deductions, you also know that if E is tested, I must also be tested.
Since this answer does not include I in the list, it can be eliminated. Answer
B has a similar problem. It has D and E and I, but it excludes G. Answer C
is even worse. It includes E, but both G and I are missing. Answer D says
that the mechanic tests D and I. There is no clue that requires that D or I be
tested with any other coil, so this could very well be your complete and
accurate list. Answer E has D and G, but you know that if G is tested, I must
also be tested, and I is not listed in answer E, so you can eliminate it as your
choice. The correct choice is answer D.
2. Answer: A
This question is asking which statement could be true. The key is the word
could, which tells you that the answer must be “possible” given the game
setup and clues. The other answers will be impossible given the same facts.
The way to answer this question is to review the answers and test them
against your clues and deductions. Scanning all the answers, you can
quickly see that all the answers are about which coils are tested, so you are
not concerned about the ones that are used. You know that D is tested no
matter what, so this will figure into your considerations. Answer A says that
E and three other coils are used. You use the one certainty, that coil E is
tested, to figure out whether this answer could be true. You run through the
clues related to coil E. You know that if E is tested, then G is tested. That
leaves one last coil to figure out. Through your deduction you know that if E
is tested, I is also tested. That gives you three other coils (D, G, and I). This
scenario is not only possible but also necessary when given that E is tested.
You look through the other clues and see that none of them makes it
necessary that another coil be tested. You could stop right there, but let’s
review the other answer choices. Answer B is not possible because you have
already proved that with E there must be three other coils tested. Answer C
has the same problem; with E there must be three other coils tested, so it
cannot be possible that E and one other coil are tested. Answer D says that
D, G, and H are the only coils tested. The key word is only, which means
only these three coils are tested and no others. This cannot be true because
your rules say that if G is tested, then I must be tested. Since I is not in the
list, this answer can be eliminated. Finally, answer E says that I and J are the
only coils tested. Again the key word is only. This cannot be the case since
your rules say that D is tested and this answer does not include D in its list.
The correct choice is answer A.
3. Answer: C
This question gives you new information to work with. It says J is not
tested. The question asks you to figure out which answer must be true. The
key word is must, which means that because J is not tested, a certain
requirement is created for other coils. You look at your clues and deductions
and see what that condition might be. The J coil appears in the first clue as
follows:
H = U → J = T
Because your given fact is the negative of the term on the right side of the
arrow, it might be useful to develop the contrapositive of this clue. You flip
sides:
J = T → H = U
Then, you negate both sides:

J ≠ T → H ≠ U
And now you have a new version of your clue that fits this question. It says
that if J is not tested, then H is not used. You can add this to your list of
clues in case it helps you with later questions. The last clue also involves J
and can be symbolized this way:
J = U & I = T → K = U
This clue is based on J being used, but your question asks about J not being
tested, so this clue cannot help you.
With your new information you evaluate your options. Answer A says D
is not used. In your given situation, J not being tested only tells you about
other coils being tested or not being tested. It tells you nothing about what
coils are used. You cannot know whether D is used or not, so this cannot be
your answer. Answer B says H is not tested. The only thing you can derive
from your clues is that because J is not tested, H is not used. H may or may
not be tested. You cannot be sure given your clues, so answer B is not your
choice. Answer C says that D is tested, but H is not used. The first part is
given by your clues. D is tested regardless of the scenario. The second part
is confirmed by the second part of your contrapositive above. This appears
to be your answer, but you should go through the final two answers just to
be sure. Answer D states that D is used, but that does not have to be true,
and the question asks what must be true. Answer E says H is tested but not
used. The second part of this answer is confirmed by your contrapositive,
but the first part is not. You do not know whether H is tested or not, given
the clues. The correct choice is answer C.
4. Answer: C
The question tells you that coil E and five other coils are the only coils
tested and exactly three coils are used in the machine. The key words are
only and exactly. These words create a constraint that will most likely help
you determine your answer. Since this question requires an accounting of
both tested and used coils, you will use your visual tools to represent the
various scenarios. You also notice that it asks what “could be” an accurate
list. This means you need to determine only what is possible, not what must
be true. You know that D is tested, and you are given that E is tested by the
question. Put both in the tested column of your diagram. The question says
that there are five other coils that are tested in addition to E. D counts as
one, so you need to figure out four more.
Using the clues to the right of your diagram, you know that if E is tested,
then G is tested as well. You can also use your deduction to derive that if E
is tested, then I is tested. You add G and I to your tested column. As
represented below, this leaves H, J, and K as options to fill out the
remaining two tested slots. One of the three will remain untested and also
remain unused, since only those tested can be used.
There is nothing more you can do to fill out the grid, so you look at your
answers and see whether any of them work under the scenario you have
built. Answer A says D, I, and J are used. You test this scenario. If D is
used, then H is tested, which leaves you one more test slot for J or K. Then,
you have I and J to contend with. Coil I works since it’s already tested. J
must be tested in order for it to be used, so the last two test slots are taken
by H and J, leaving K untested and unused. You have a problem, though. If
J is used and I is tested, then your last clue tells you that K must be used. K
cannot be used because only three coils can be used, and including K would
cannot be used because only three coils can be used, and including K would
make it four. That is enough to disqualify this answer, but you can also say
that if K is used then it must be tested, and you have run out of test slots for
K, which is a double disqualification. This scenario is represented like this:
Answer B says that D, H, and J are the three coils used. As before, if D is
used, then H gets one of your two remaining test slots. Another clue says
that if H is used, then J is tested, so J takes the last remaining test slot.
Again, you have a problem, because if J is used and I is tested, then K is
used and K would make it four coils used, which is impossible under the
conditions of the question. Answer C says that E, G, and I are the three coils
used. You already know that E, G, and I are tested, so they can be used.
None of these triggers any conditions that break your limitations, so this is
very likely your answer. You will review the rest of the answers to be sure.
Answer D says that H, I, and K are the coils used. First, if H is used, then it
must have been tested, so it takes one of your two remaining available test
slots. From the clues, you know that if H is used, then J is tested and it takes
the last of your test slots. You have no more test slots available, which is a
problem. If K is used, it must be tested as well and there is no test slot
available for it. This cannot be your answer. Answer E says that E, G, and J
are the three coils used. You know that E and G are tested, so they can be
used. If J is used, then it triggers your last clue and K must be used, but that
is not possible because only three coils can be used, and once again, K
would make four. The correct choice is answer C.
5. Answer: E
This question says that every coil that is tested is used and coil I is used. It
also asks which coil does not have to be tested. In other words, four out of
the five options must be tested and one does not. You must find the one
the five options must be tested and one does not. You must find the one
exception. You use your visual again. Since every coil that is tested is used,
and you know that a coil must be tested in order to be used, both D and I
occupy your tested and used columns.
Based on what you know already, you review your clues to see whether
they tell you anything more. According to your fifth clue, if D is used, then
H must be tested. So, answer B is eliminated. Since H is tested, it will be
used because, according to the question, all coils tested are used. From clue
4, if H is used, then J must be tested. Thus, answer C is eliminated.
Accordingly, since J is tested, it will be used. From clue 6 you know that if J
is used and I is tested, then K is used and therefore must be tested. This
eliminates answer A. You are left with answers D and E. Thanks to your
clues you know that coil D must be tested, so answer D is eliminated. This
leaves answer E and it must be your answer. Of course, you can go through
the clues and see that G does not necessarily have to be tested or used. The
second clue is never invoked. E is never tested, so G does not need to be
tested. The correct choice is answer E.
6. Answer: B
This question tells you that K is not used and exactly four coils are used.
The word exactly is important for it will be a constraining factor that will
help you eliminate possibilities and determine the correct answer. Also, the
question asks you to find the answer that is false. You must eliminate the
true answers to find your choice. You use your visual to help you.
The term “K is not used” is the negative of the last term in the sixth clue, so
you should create the contrapositive of that statement to help you with this
question. First you flip sides:
K = U → J = U & I = T
Then you flip signs:

K ≠ U → J ≠ U & I ≠ T
Finally, you flip connectors:

K ≠ U → J ≠ U / I ≠ T
You add this new contrapositive to your list of clues alongside your visual.
Thanks to your new clue you know that because K is not used, either J is not
used or I is not tested. You evaluate your answers based on the given
situation. Answer A says I is used. If I is used, it must have been tested.
According to your new contrapositive clue either I is not tested or J is not
used. Therefore, if I is tested, then it must be the case that J is not used. That
leaves D, E, G, and H to fill the remaining three slots (I takes the first).
There is nothing in your clues that keeps you from using any of those coils
to fill the remaining three slots. Answer A is not false and cannot be your
selection. Answer B says J is used. According to your new contrapositive
clue, if J is used, then it must be the case that I is not tested. This is the
negative of a term in the first clue, and creating another contrapositive might
be helpful. We will not go through all the steps here, but this is the result:
I ≠ T → G ≠ T
This contrapositive leads to another contrapositive based on the second clue:

G ≠ T → E ≠ T
These tell you that if I is not tested, then G cannot be tested, and if G cannot
be tested, then E cannot be tested. This leads also to the conclusion that if I,
G, and E cannot be tested, they also cannot be used. That leaves only D and
H, only two coils, to fill the final three slots, and that is not enough. Answer
B has to be false and therefore is your answer to this question. The last three
answers are about certain coils being tested. With regard to testing, the only
coil affected by K not being used is I, which is not in answer C, D, or E.
Also, just because a coil is tested does not mean that coil is used and your
constraint exists only in the used column. Thus, none of these answers must
be false. The correct choice is answer B.
Questions 7–13
STEP 1: Identify the game type.

This is a grouping game. You know it is a grouping game because it is asking
you to sort the seven children into the three activities. It also says that a child can
participate in only one of the activities and the activities occur only once.
STEP 2: Begin your diagram.

Create a grid with three areas for each group—ceramics, drawing, and origami.
Then shorten the names of the children to their first initials (B, E, J, K, P, S, and
Then shorten the names of the children to their first initials (B, E, J, K, P, S, and
U) and put them in the upper right corner. The groups can also be shorthanded to
C, D, and O.
STEP 3: Symbolize the clues.

The game description does not give you any information to work on, except that
each child must participate in one of the activities and cannot participate in more
than one at a time. Also, it tells you that the activity occurs only once. You go
clue by clue.
Clue 1: Exactly twice as many children choose drawing as choose ceramics.
You can use the abbreviated letter for each activity to represent the number of
children in each group. Therefore, this clue can be represented as follows:
D = 2C
Clue 2: Sharon and Usef participate in the same activity as each other.
You use the children’s initials as symbols for the children. The words
“participate in the same activity” is in effect saying that if Sharon, then Usef and
if Usef, then Sharon, so you symbolize this clue with two representations as
follows:
S → U
U → S
Clue 3: Ezra and Karly do not participate in the same activity as each other.
The phrase “do not participate” is the same as “if Ezra then not Karly” and vice
The phrase “do not participate” is the same as “if Ezra then not Karly” and vice
versa.
E → ~K
K → ~E
Clue 4: Barry and Pakhi do not participate in the same activity as each other.
This is similar to the third clue and looks like this:
B → ~P
P → ~B
Clue 5: Barry participates in either ceramics or origami.
This clue can be represented directly in the diagram with B appearing above
ceramics and origami with a “/” after or before it to indicate that it can be in
either column.
Clue 6: Jaime participates in drawing.
You can represent this clue directly in the diagram and do not need to symbolize
it.

Here is your visual again, now with your symbolized clues alongside it:
based on the setup of the game and the clues. Go through each type of deduction.
This is not an ordering game, so you will not find this kind of deduction in
this game.
There are two clues affecting Barry. The only thing you can deduce from
these rules is that if Barry is in ceramics, then Pakhi will be in origami or
drawing, and if Barry is in origami, Pakhi will be in drawing or ceramics.
There are no other repeated elements that help you come to any deductions.
Since there is no constraint put on the size of each group, this sort of
deduction does not come into play. The first rule, D = 2C, may cause some
sort of constraint on the size of those two groups, but that constraint cannot
be calculated at this time.
Clues 2, 3, and 4 create situations where blocks might cause constraints, but
Clues 2, 3, and 4 create situations where blocks might cause constraints, but
since you do not know the size of the groups yet, you cannot deduce
anything yet. These constraints will become apparent as the questions add
information to the game.
In this case, your attempt at finding deductions has not resulted in any
additional clues, but you might come to further deductions as you work through
your questions. You move on to answering the questions.

Approach the questions in this order:
3. Answer the remaining questions

Questions 8 and 12 are Complete and Accurate List questions and should be
done first. The questions that offer more information are the following:
Question 10 (“exactly one of the children chooses origami”)

Question 11 (“Sharon chooses the same activity as Barry … ”)
The remaining questions are 7, 9, and 13 and can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
7. Answer: B
This question asks you to judge which answer could be a correct matching
of children to activities. The answers are about particular children and do
not ask you for a complete assignment of children to activities. So, you
should go through the answers and use your grid to test each one.
(A) Karly-drawing; Pakhi-drawing; Usef-origami
See the diagram that follows. Place each child in the appropriate group. You
are left with B and E to assign to an activity. You know that E cannot be in
the same group as K, and you know that B cannot be in the same group as P.
Thus, you are left with an uneven number of children in the drawing group.
This arrangement cannot be possible because of your first clue, D = 2C,
This arrangement cannot be possible because of your first clue, D = 2C,
which could be reformulated as C = 1/2D. The drawing group must be
divisible by 2. Thus, this answer cannot be correct and you can later add
your deduction to your list of clues.
(B) Karly-origami; Pakhi-origami; Sharon-origami
This scenario leaves B, E, and U to be assigned. Because B cannot be

assigned with P to origami, then B must be in ceramics. U is assigned to
origami because of clue 2. Therefore, E must be assigned to drawing. This
scenario is in accordance with your clues and the game, so it is a possible
matching of children to activities. This is your answer. You can stop here,
but let’s explore the other answers, for learning purposes.

This scenario leaves B and K to be assigned. Neither B nor K can be

assigned to drawing and you need one more in drawing for clue 1 to work,
so this cannot be your answer.
(D) Barry-origami; Ezra-ceramics; Sharon-ceramics
This scenario leaves K and P to be assigned. Your drawing group must

include at least six children to satisfy the first clue because you already have
three children in the ceramics group. Since you only have two children to
assign to the drawing group, you cannot reach that number and this cannot
be your answer.
(E) Barry-drawing; Ezra-origami; Karly-drawing
You do not need to use your diagram for this one, since Barry cannot be
assigned to the drawing group. According to clue 5 he must be assigned to
the ceramics or origami group. This cannot be your answer.
The correct choice is answer B.

8. Answer: A
This question is asking for a complete and accurate list of the children who
do not choose drawing. Again, look at each scenario. This means that all the
other children choose drawing, so you must find the answer that allows
everyone but those listed to take drawing together and still follow your
clues.
(A) Barry, Ezra, Pakhi
To test this scenario, use your diagram. You only need one scenario to
work, so for argument’s sake, you say that B chooses ceramics. P cannot be
in the same group but also cannot choose drawing, so she chooses origami.
E can go in either ceramics or origami, so you choose one, in this case
ceramics. You have S and U remaining and they can go into any group, but
they have to go together because according to your clues they choose the
same group. Since you need to make your first rule work, you put them in
drawing. This scenario works and this is your answer. Let’s explore the
other options for learning purposes.
(B) Barry, Sharon, Usef
This answer does not work because E and K cannot be in the drawing group
together.
(C) Barry, Karly, Usef
You do not even need your diagram for this one. Usef and Sharon must be
in the same group. Sharon cannot be in drawing and she is not included in
this answer, so this answer breaks the rule in the second clue.
(D) Barry, Karly
You do not need your diagram for this one either. Because only two choose
not to draw, five children are left to the drawing group. This means the ratio
of drawing to ceramics is 5 to 2 (assuming B and K both choose ceramics),
which is greater than 2 to 1 and breaks with your first clue.
(E) Barry, Pakhi
This one has the same problem as answer B. E and K are forced to take
drawing together and that breaks the rule in clue 3. Even if you were to
ignore that clue (which you can’t), it also breaks the ratio in clue 1. This
cannot be your answer.

9. Answer: E
The question asks you to find the one true statement among the answers.
You can evaluate these without the use of a diagram. Answer A cannot be
true because it leaves five children to choose between drawing and
ceramics. The ratio between these groups is 2 to 1, and there is no
configuration of five children that will give you an exact ratio of 2 to 1.
Answer B cannot be true because you know that S and U must be in the
same group. Usef cannot be the only child in any group. Answers C and D
cannot be true for the same reason as answer A: the number of children in
drawing must be an even number and able to give you a 2-to-1 ratio to those
in ceramics. By process of elimination, answer E becomes your choice, but
you can test it to be sure. See the diagram that follows. All the other
children can be arranged to match your clues and leave P in ceramics alone.
The correct choice is answer E.
10. Answer: B
This question tells you that exactly one child chooses origami and asks you
which among the answers must be true. You have already created a scenario
similar to this in an earlier question, and in a test situation you will want to
use that knowledge to quickly answer any later questions that create the
same scenarios. Of course, you know that with only one child in origami,
that leaves six children for the two remaining groups. To make clue 1 work
there must be two children in ceramics and four in drawing, which gives
you the 2-to-1 ratio you need. You must look at what groups of children,
going left to right, of 2-4-1 will work. The next diagram is the same as the
one you created in question 8. You can use this example as a guide. Look at
the possible answers and see which one must be true. Answer A says K
chooses ceramics. You see in the diagram that K could take drawing, but
you could also make K the child who is alone in origami and move P to
drawing without upsetting the game. Answer B says that S chooses drawing.
S and U must choose the same group, so S cannot be the lone origami child.
Also, you cannot switch S and U with B and E because E and K cannot be
in the same group. You can switch B, P, E, and K around in all kinds of
configurations, but it remains true that S must choose drawing. This is your
correct answer, but let’s review the remaining answers for learning
purposes. Answer C says that B chooses ceramics, but this cannot be your
answer because B could easily switch with P and be your lone origami
participant. Answer D says P chooses drawing, but P could easily switch
with B and take ceramics, so this cannot be your answer. Answer E says that
Ezra chooses ceramics. You see in the diagram that is possible, but it is also
possible to switch E with K in drawing, so this is not necessarily true.
11. Answer: A
This question tells you that S chooses the same activity as B. This fact leads
you to some new deductions that are pertinent to this question and only this
question. Your clues tell you that S and U choose the same activity.
Therefore, you know that B, S, and U all choose the same activity. You also
know that B, S, and U do not choose the same activity as P. In addition,
know that B, S, and U do not choose the same activity as P. In addition,
according to clue 5, S and U participate in either ceramics or origami.
Lastly, all three cannot choose ceramics because clue 1 would require that
six children choose drawing, but there are only four other children, so all
three must choose origami. This new deduction actually negates the
previous deduction. So you now have these added clues:
These rules apply only to this one question; keep your new clues separated
from your previous clues so that you do not accidentally use them for future
questions. The question asks you which among the answers could be true
(not must). Using your new information you look to your diagram to
evaluate the options. You see that there are only three children left to
allocate—E, K, and P. Clue 1 says the drawing group must be twice the size
of the ceramics group K or P, so the most you can add to the drawing group
is one. In fact, you can only allocate one to each group. Answer A says Ezra
chooses drawing, which could be true. Ezra could choose ceramics or
drawing, so this is your likely answer. You know that P cannot share the
same group with B, so P cannot be in origami. This eliminates answer B.
Answers C, D, and E cannot be true because your deductions made all three
impossible. The correct choice is answer A.
12. Answer: E
The question asks you to find among the answers the one that does not work
as a complete and accurate list of children in the ceramics group. Each
answer has two names, so according to clue 1 you need four children in the
drawing group. You already have J in the drawing group, so you need only
to ask yourself whether there are three children who can be together in the
drawing group with J and remain consistent with your clues. The one that
fails this test is your answer. You evaluate each answer choice.
(A) Barry, Karly
This leaves E, P, S, and U. You can group E, S, U and P, S, U together in

drawing. Therefore, this cannot be your answer.
(B) Karly, Pakhi
This leaves B, E, S, and U. You can group B, S, U and E, S, U together in

(C) Ezra, Pakhi
This leaves B, K, S, and U. You can group B, S, U and K, S, U together in

(D) Barry, Ezra

This leaves K, P, S, and U. You can group K, S, U and P, S, U together in
(E) Sharon, Usef
This leaves B, E, K, and P. There is no group of three that works, mainly

because B → ~P and E → ~K. There are too many conflicts. Besides, you
are out of options. This must be your answer.
13. Answer: D
Your last question in this game asks which among the answers must be true.
You do not need your diagram to solve this question. You just need to test
each statement against your clues, and you can also use your experience
with the previous questions. Of course, you could use your diagram to
devise situations that test each one.
(A) E chooses a different activity than S does.
There is nothing among the rules that indicates E and S have to choose a
different activity from each other. For example, the scenario below shows
them sharing origami, so this cannot be your answer.
(B) E, J, and S do not choose the same activity.
You can create the following scenario to disprove this one. Since E, J, and S
You can create the following scenario to disprove this one. Since E, J, and S
can choose the same activity, this cannot be your answer.
(C) E chooses a different activity than J.
The above scenario shows that E and J can choose the same activity, so this
(D) B, J, and K do not all choose the same activity.
This means that B and K must be with J in drawing because of clue 6. This
is impossible, because it conflicts with clue 5, which requires that B choose
ceramics or origami, so it must be true that B, J, and K cannot all choose the
same activity. This is your answer, but let’s review the last answer for
learning purposes.
(E) B chooses a different activity than E does.
You can create the following scenario to disprove this one. Since B and E
can share the same activity, this option does not have to be true.
The correct choice is answer D.
Questions 14–20

Several clues tell you that this is a grouping game. The most obvious is that the
game tells you that there are two test “groups.” Also, it tells you that no rat can
be in more than one group, and it tells you a condition under which the rats
should be divided (“at least one brown rat and one white rat”) into the two
groups.

Create a diagram that represents the two test groups. In this case, a grid with two
columns suits your purposes perfectly. Leave space to the right of your diagram
for the symbolization of your clues. Also, abbreviate your rats’ names and group
them according to color (B for brown and W for white).
Before you go through the clues, you must recognize what is said in the setup for
the game, that each group must have at least one brown rat and one white rat.
This cannot be easily symbolized, but you can represent it in your diagram by
creating slots for the required rats in each group. Now, you go clue by clue and
simplify them into easy-to-read equations.
Clue 1: Neither group includes both Abby and Iris.
This clue is worded in a way to confuse you, but it is basically saying that A and
I cannot be together in the same group. You can symbolize it as follows:
A → ~I
I → ~A
Clue 2: Neither group includes both Elle and Horn.
This is worded the same way as clue 1, so you can symbolize it in the same way:
E → ~H
H → ~E
Clue 3: If a group includes Dennis, it includes neither Horn nor Iris.

Again, the wording is meant to make it more difficult to understand what the
clue is really saying. In this case, it says that if a group includes D, then H and I
cannot be in that group. This can be symbolized as follows:
D → ~H & ~I
Due to the complexity of this one it might be useful to create the contrapositive
of this clue as well. That is symbolized as follows:
H/I → ~D
Clue 4: If group 1 includes Carl, group 2 includes Horn.
This is a simple “if … then” statement. If Carl is in group 1, then Horn is in

group 2. It can be symbolized as follows:
C = 1 → H = 2

When you are through, your page should look like this:
Before you tackle the questions, see if you can make any deductions based
on the setup of the game and the clues. Go through each type of deduction.
Because this is not an ordering game this deduction does not apply.
Because this is not an ordering game this deduction does not apply.
You see that H is repeated in several clues. Of particular interest is the
repetition between clue 4 and the contrapositive of clue 3. You can deduce
that if C is in group 1, then because H is in group 2, D cannot be in group 2.
This could be symbolized as follows:
C = 1 → D ≠ 2
There is a minimum of two rats to each group (one brown, one white). You
notice that D is a brown rat. Because of clue 3, if D is in a group, then the
only white rats it can be grouped with are E and F. You also notice that F is
the only rat that is a free agent. It has no limitations on where it can be
grouped and who it can be grouped with.
There are no deductions of this kind to be made.

Answer the questions in this order:
3. Answer the remaining questions

Though it is not worded as such, question 14 is a Complete and Accurate
List question and should be answered first. Questions that give more
information include the following:
Question 15 (“Carl is in group 1 … ”)
Question 16 (“Elle is in group 1 … ”)
Question 17 (“Abby is in the same group as Dennis … ”)
Question 17 (“Abby is in the same group as Dennis … ”)
Question 20 (“Dennis is in group 2 … ”)
That leaves questions 18 and 19, which can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
14. Answer: A
This question is asking for which answer gives a possible grouping of the
rats. The key word in the question is could, which means that four out of the
five answers are not possible. You must go through each answer and test it
against your diagram and the clues listed to the right.
(A) Group 1: Abby, Fern, Horn

Group 2: Carl, Elle, Iris
As you can see by the diagram, no clues are violated and each group has one
brown rat and one white rat. This is your answer and you could move on to
the next question, but let’s evaluate the other answers for learning purposes.
(B) Group 1: Carl, Fern, Horn

Group 2: Abby, Dennis, Elle
You can see the problem here without looking at your diagram. According
to the fourth clue, if C is in group 1, then H must be in group 2. Since H is
in group 1, this cannot be your answer.
(C) Group 1: Carl, Dennis, Elle
Group 2: Fern, Horn, Iris
This cannot be your answer because group 2 does not include a brown rat
and each group must have at least one brown rat and one white rat.
(D) Group 1: Abby, Elle, Iris

Group 2: Carl, Fern, Horn
Abby and Iris cannot be in the same group according to the first clue, so this
(E) Group 1: Abby, Dennis, Fern

Group 2: Carl, Elle, Horn
Elle and Horn cannot be in group 2 together according to the second clue.
This cannot be your answer.
15. Answer: B
This question gives you a fact, that C is in group 1. Based on that fact, you
must figure out which of the pairs listed in the answers must be in group 2
together. One deduction you can make before looking at the answers is that
since C is in group 1, then H must be in group 2 (clue 4). From your
contrapositive of clue 3, you know that D cannot be in the same group as H,
so it cannot be in group 2. This leaves rat A as the only available brown rat
for group 2. You look at your answers and see that B says A and H must be
in group 2 together. This is your answer. There is no need to review the
remaining options. The correct choice is answer B.
16. Answer: E
This question tells you that E is in group 1 and asks you to find the pair that
could be in group 1 along with E. This means that four out of the five pairs
cannot be in Elle’s group. You can see immediately that E is a white rat and
that one of the two rats must be brown or the conditions of the game will not
be met. You look through your answers and evaluate them one by one.
(A) Fern and Iris
Both are white rats, so this cannot be your answer.
(B) Carl and Fern

(B) Carl and Fern
If Carl is in group 1, then H is in group 2. Because H is in group 2, rat D

cannot also be in group 2, so the brown rat for group 2 will be A. This
leaves H and I to fill out the rest of group 2, but clue 1 says that A and I
cannot be in the same group, so this does not work. This cannot be your
answer.
(C) Carl and Horn
You know this cannot be your answer because clue 4 tells you if C is in
group 1, H must be in group 2.
(D) Abby and Carl
Since this scenario takes two brown rats, it leaves only D to be the brown rat
in group 2. Thanks to your deduction that if C is in group 1 then D cannot
be in group 2, you know that this cannot be true and this option cannot be
your answer.
(E) Carl and Iris
This scenario leaves A and D available to be the brown rat in group 2, but
you know that D cannot be in group 2 since C is in group 1. Therefore, A
automatically becomes the brown rat in group 2. You can easily put E and F
in group 2 and remain consistent with the game and clues. This is your
answer.
17. Answer: E
The question tells you that Abby is in the same group as Dennis and then
asks you to find the true statement among the options. This means that four
out of the five options are impossible given the game setup and clues. For
the purposes of this question, you now have the clue A → D and D → A.
This also tells you that C will be the brown rat for the group that A and D
are not in. This creates the following clues:
C → D & A and D/A → ~C
You must test each answer to see which could be true.
(A) Both Elle and Fern are in group 2
Elle and Fern are both white rats, so you need one brown rat to round out
the group. Since D and A must be together, it must be C. This scenario
leaves H or I to fill the last remaining slot in group 1, but D cannot be in the
same group with H, and A cannot be in the same group with I. Therefore,
this cannot work and this is not your choice.
(B) Horn is in group 1
According to the contrapositive of clue 3, if Horn is in group 1, then D and

A must be in group 2. This forces C to be the brown rat in group 1 and this
is impossible. According to clue 4, if C is in group 1, then H must be in
group 2. This cannot be your answer.
(C) Carl is in group 1
If C is in group 1, then H is in group 2 according to clue 4. D and A must be

in group 2 as well, but this conflicts with your contrapositive—D and H
cannot be in the same group—so this cannot be your answer.
(D) Both Elle and Fern are in group 1
Because each group must have three rats and this arrangement leaves only
one place in group 1, you can determine that D and A must be in group 2. C
must fill that spot in group 1 so that there is a brown rat. This scenario
leaves H or I to fill the last remaining spot in group 2, but clue 3 says that
neither H nor I can be in the same group as D, so this cannot be your
answer.
(E) Iris is in group 2
This is your last remaining option and must be the correct answer, but let’s
analyze it to make sure. With I in group 2, you know that D and A must be
analyze it to make sure. With I in group 2, you know that D and A must be
in group 1 and C must be in group 2. This scenario leaves E, F, and H to
assign to the remaining three open spots, and there are a number of
configurations that work. Below is one of them. This is your answer.
18. Answer: D
The question asks you to find among the answers the one pair that could not
be in group 2 together. You can use your experience from question 17 and
quickly choose D as your answer. Why? You discovered when working on
that question that when A and D are both in group 2, it forces C to be in
group 1, since it is your one last remaining brown rat. According to clue 4,
when C is in group 1, H must be in group 2 and D and H cannot be in group
2 together. There is no reason to check any other answers. The correct
choice is answer D.
19. Answer: C
The question asks that you find which of the answers could be true, so four
out of the five answers are impossible. Answering this question is a matter
of eliminating answers that are impossible to find the one that is possible.
(A) Carl is in group 1 and Elle is in group 2
This cannot be true because clue 4 tells you that if C is in group 1, then H is
This cannot be true because clue 4 tells you that if C is in group 1, then H is
in group 2. Clue 2 tells you that E and H cannot be in group 2 together, so
you can eliminate this choice.
(B) Abby is not in any group and Carl is in group 1.
If A is taken out altogether and C is in group 1, then D must be the brown

rat for group 2. Clue 4 tells you that if C is in group 1, then H is in group 2.
Clue 3 tells you that D and H cannot be in group 2 together, so this cannot
be your answer.
(C) Abby is in group 1 and Elle is in group 2.
You can see in the sample diagram that you can create every possible
scenario under this option’s conditions. Therefore, this is your answer. Let’s
review the rest of the options for learning purposes.
(D) Abby is in group 2 and Dennis is in group 2.
This option has the same problem that question 18 posed. If both A and D
are in group 2, then C must be the brown rat for group 1. If C is in group 1,
rat H must be in group 2. Rats D and H cannot be in group 2 together, so
this cannot be your answer.
(E) Abby is in group 2 and Carl is not in any group.
This option forces an untenable situation. With A in group 2 and thus D in

group 1, you must divide the remaining white rats among the two groups.
group 1, you must divide the remaining white rats among the two groups.
Unfortunately, clue 1 tells you that A and I cannot be in the same group
together and clue 3 tells you that D and I cannot be in the same group
together, so you are stuck with nowhere to put I. This cannot be your answer
choice.
The correct choice is answer C.
20. Answer: D
The question tells you that D is in group 2 and asks you to find among the
answers the one rat that, if assigned to a group, must also be in group 2. You
already know from your previous work that if Carl is in group 1 and D is in
group 2, the scenario cannot work. Carl in group 1 forces H to be in group 2,
and D and H cannot be in the same group. So, answer D must be correct. All
the other options can be easily assigned to group 1 and do not necessarily
have to be in group 2, and answers A and C are impossible because D cannot
be in the same group as H or I. The correct choice is answer D.
Questions 21–26

Paying close attention to the language of the game, you can see that this is a two-
tiered ordering game. It includes both grouping and ordering language. For
example, it requires that you group six of the eight cargoes into three trucks.
This is definitely a grouping requirement. Then, it says that the cargo must be
loaded in a particular order—front first, then back—and this is definitely
ordering language. Each truck has two elements—front and back—which is
another hallmark of the two-tiered ordering game. Lastly, the two slots in each
group are specified. The front and back of each truck are definitive and not
interchangeable. Therefore, you know you are facing a two-tiered ordering
game.

You can imagine a loading dock at the bottom of the diagram with the trucks
lined up from left to right. (This may seem confusing, but remember that dock
loaders must go through the back to load the front, thus the loading dock is at the
bottom.)
In this game there are only three clues. Go through them one at a time.
Clue 1: L can only go in Truck 2.
This can be represented in the diagram. The clue does not tell you whether L has
to be in the front hold or back hold, so you put the letter L above the column for
Truck 2.
Clue 2: T and W cannot go in the back hold of a truck.
This is really two different clues. You can represent both using the box method
of representation:
Clue 3: If S is loaded on a truck, then N and O go on the next truck, unless S is

loaded on Truck 3.
This clue is a complex conditional statement. In essence it says that if S is on

Truck 1, then N and O are loaded on Truck 2. Also, if S is loaded on Truck 2,
then N and O are loaded on Truck 3. But, if S is loaded on Truck 3, N and O can
be loaded on any truck. You can set this up as two separate conditionals to
represent the first part of the statement:
S1 → N2 & O2
S2 → N3 & O3
The contrapositives are as follows:
~N2/~O2 → ~S1
~N3/~O3 → ~S2
The last part of the statement is implied; if S is on Truck 3, no restriction has

been placed on N and O.

When you are through, your page should look like this:

At first you might think that your third clue gives you the opportunity to
make this deduction. After all, if N and O must be loaded on the next truck
after S, then S cannot be last, but this is not the case. The “unless” clause on
that clue takes this opportunity away. S can be loaded on Truck 3 because
the clue says that if it is, N and O can be loaded anywhere. Only if S is
loaded on Truck 1 or 2 do N and O have to be loaded on the next truck.
Therefore, you cannot make this sort of deduction for this game.
You do not have an opportunity to make this sort of deduction since there
You do not have an opportunity to make this sort of deduction since there
are no repeated elements among the clues.
You cannot definitively place any cargo in a particular hold. You need more
information to make this sort of deduction.
If S is located in either Truck 1 or Truck 2, then the next truck will become
fully loaded with N and O. This creates a block that cannot be split and will
most likely restrict the loading of cargo. Also, since T and W both cannot be
loaded in the back hold of a truck, they obviously cannot be loaded on the
same truck. You can add these clues to your list:
T → ~W
W → ~T
based on the setup of the game and the clues. Unfortunately, there are not
many clues in this particular two-tiered ordering game and none of the
clues, when taken together, lead to any further deductions.

Answer the questions in this order:
Question 21 is the Complete and Accurate List question for this game and
should be answered first. Questions with more information include the
following:
Question 22 (“P and R are not loaded … ”)

Question 24 (“L, S, and W are loaded in different trucks … ”)
Question 25 (“N, P, and R … loaded in the fronts … ”)
Question 25 (“N, P, and R … loaded in the fronts … ”)
Question 26 (“P is on the back of Truck 2, and N is on the back of
Truck 3 … ”)
That leaves question 23 to be answered last.
THE ANSWERS
21. Answer: D
The question is asking you to determine which answer gives a valid loading
register. You do not need your diagram to help you answer this one. You
can use your clues to test each answer. Thankfully, you only need the first
clue to find the correct answer on this question, as the only answer with L in
the second truck is D. You do not have to look further and there is no reason
to check the answer against the other clues. The correct choice is answer
D.
22. Answer: A
The question tells you that P and R are not loaded, then asks for a possible
listing of those cargoes that are loaded into the front holds of the three
trucks. The facts given tell us that L, N, O, S, T, and W are left as possible
cargoes, and you must have six filled holds. Thus, all these items must be
loaded. Clue 1 tells you that T and W must be loaded in the front, so the
only answer that will work will include T and W. Luckily, answer A is the
only option that includes both T and W. The correct choice is answer A.
23. Answer: C
This question asks that you determine which pair of cargoes, if loaded
together, must go on Truck 3. Notice that the question does not say the pairs
are in any particular order, front and back, so order is not the issue, only
pairing. This question also does not require your diagram. You know from
your third clue that if S is paired with either N or O, then they must be on
Truck 3. Answer C pairs S and N, and they can only be on Truck 3. Thus,
the correct choice must be answer C.
24. Answer: C
The question tells you that L, S, and W are each loaded on a different truck,
then asks you to choose which among the answers could be true. This means
that four out of the five answers have to be false. Use your diagram to check
each scenario. You know that L is on Truck 2, so S and W must be on
Trucks 1 and 2, but you don’t know which is on which truck. You must test
each answer and see what happens.
(A) T is on Truck 1
Clue 2 tells you that T must be loaded in the front of Truck 1. Therefore, W
cannot be on Truck 1. W cannot be on Truck 2 because according to clue 1,
L must be on that truck, so W must be on Truck 3. That leaves Truck 1 for
S. According to clue 3, N and O must be loaded on Truck 2, but there is not
enough room and you cannot split that block. Therefore, this cannot be your
answer.
(B) S is on Truck 2.
The question says that L, S, and W are loaded on different trucks, but clue 1
tells you that L must be loaded on Truck 2, so if S is on Truck 2 the
conditions given by the question cannot be met and this cannot be your
answer.
This situation does not trigger any conditions set out by your clues, and as
you can see in the diagram, you can create a viable loading scenario, so this
is your answer. But let’s go through the remainder of the answers for
learning purposes.
(D) W is on Truck 3.
Again, L must be on Truck 2 and S must be on Truck 1, which leaves no

room on Truck 2 for N and O. Since you cannot satisfy clue 3 this cannot be
your answer.
(E) S is on Truck 1.
As with the previous answers you know that L must be on Truck 2. If S is

on Truck 1, then N and O must be on Truck 2, but L makes it impossible for
N and O to be loaded together. This cannot be your answer.
25. Answer: E
This question tells you that N, P, and R are loaded into the fronts of the
three trucks, but the order is indeterminate. You must find the answer that
must be true no matter what order they are in. You know immediately that T
and W cannot be loaded since there are no more front holds available.
Therefore, only L, O, and S are left to load in the three remaining holds.
Clue 1 tells you that L must be in the back hold of Truck 2. You look at
your diagram to figure out which answer must be true under the conditions.
To test the answers, you put N, P, and R in no particular order to see what
might happen. You quickly see that S cannot be in Truck 1 because there is
no room for N and O together in Truck 2. There is no room for S in Truck 2
either, so it must be in Truck 3. Thus, O must be on Truck 1. You can
quickly see answer E must be the correct choice. You can rearrange N, P,
and R, but O must be on Truck 1 regardless of the order, because Truck 2
and Truck 3 become filled by L and S respectively. The correct choice is
answer E.
26. Answer: B
You are given that P is in the back hold of Truck 2 and N is in the back hold
of Truck 3. You are to choose the answer that includes a possible list of
cargoes in the fronts of Trucks 1, 2, and 3. This means that four out of the
five options are impossible given the conditions of the question. The list of
cargoes in each answer is in order (1, 2, 3). You look at your diagram and
test each scenario.
(A) W, O, and R
This scenario leaves L, S, and T to load and only one hold, the back of
Truck 1. None of these cargoes can go into that hold. Clue 1 says L must be
on Truck 2. Loading S requires that N and O be loaded together on Truck 2
and that is not possible. Finally, clue 2 tells you that T cannot be loaded in
the back of any truck.
(B) W, L, and O
This scenario works. All the cargoes in the front holds are consistent with
your clues and you are left with R, which can be loaded in the back of Truck
1 without conflicting with your clues. This is your answer, but let’s go
through the remaining answers for learning purposes.
(C) R, L, and O
This option leaves S, T, and W as possible cargoes to be loaded in the one
remaining hold on the back of Truck 1. All three fail your tests. S requires N
and O to be loaded on Truck 2, but there is no room for them. According to
clue 2, neither T nor W can be loaded in the back hold of any truck. Note
that just because N and O are together on Truck 3 does not necessarily mean
that S must be on Truck 2. The “if … then” conditional goes from left to
right but not the reverse. Either way, this cannot be your answer.
(D) O, R, and S
This scenario leaves L, T, and W as possible cargoes to be loaded in the one

remaining hold on the back of Truck 1. All three fail your tests. Clue 1 tells
you that L must be on Truck 2. Clue 2 tells you that both T and W cannot be
loaded on the back hold of any truck, so this cannot be your answer.
(E) S, O, and R
This is merely a reordering of answer D and the same conditions apply. This
is not your answer.

SECTION IV
PASSAGE 1
1. Answer: D

This is a variation of a Main Idea question—a Primary Purpose question.
You are required to select from among the choices the answer that best
describes what the passage is attempting to achieve.
STEP 2: Go back to the passage to find the answer.
Since this is a Main Idea question type, refer to your summary of the
passage. Then describe that content in slightly more general terms, and find
the answer choice that matches this description.
Answer A concentrates too much on the Supreme Court’s role. While the
passage discusses a Supreme Court decision, Wesberry v. Sanders, the
passage focuses much more on the propositions approved by the state
referendums. Answer B talks about mistakes, but the passage does not make
any judgments as to whether the states have made a mistake or not. LSAT
passages almost always avoid making such extreme judgments on any person
or subject. Answer C speaks of “unique” problems, but the passage makes it
clear that these states are addressing problems that exist across the nation and
are not unique at all. Answer D says that the passage is about the legislation
approved by voters to solve a problem, which is exactly what the passage
does in the first two paragraphs. The passage uses those paragraphs to
discuss the propositions to solve the problem of political gerrymandering.
The answer then says the passage discusses arguments brought by the
opposition that might be used in future such propositions raised in other
states, which is exactly what the second and third paragraphs discuss. This
must be your answer, but you must review the remaining choices to be sure.
Answer E has the same problem as answer B. It attributes a very biased
intent to the passage, saying that it judges the reform efforts to be “costly and
unwise.” The correct choice is answer D.
2. Answer: C

This is an Inference question. The question is asking about a specific part of
the passage and what is implied by the language.
In this case, the key word or term is the year “1964.” You must look back at
the passage and reread the sentences that discuss that year. You discover that
1964 was the year of the Supreme Court decision in Wesberry v. Sanders,
which said that all congressional districts must contain an equal number of
persons and established the “one person, one vote” requirement in
designating congressional districts. Your question asks what might have been
the situation before this case was decided by the Supreme Court. Most likely
it will indicate an imbalance in voting among districts.
Answer A says it is implied that political parties had no influence before
1964, but the opposite is actually implied by the passage. Political parties
had even more control before 1964, which is why the decision was necessary
in the first place. Answer B says that some citizens’ votes counted for less
than a full vote. The passage says nothing about the value of a vote being
less than full. Instead, it discusses districting and its effect on elections.
Answer C seems promising since it talks about the design of a district and
how it could create an imbalance in favor of a particular group. This could be
your answer, but you should assess the remaining choices. For answer D,
there is no indication that the Supreme Court case dealt with an incongruity
between states or that one state had an advantage over another in this regard.
Answer E has things reversed. It was after 1964 that the Supreme Court
gained the ability to overrule redistricting planes, not the other way around.
3. Answer: D

This is a Line ID question. The question is asking you to put a particular
section of the passage in context and find among the answers the best
description of how it fits into that context.
In this case, the section concerns one you investigated already in question 2,
the Wesberry v. Sanders decision. You can use your knowledge from
question 2 to answer this question. Go through each answer and assess its
potential.
Answer A cannot be your correct because “one person, one vote” was
created by the decision. It was not a problem that the decision intended to
solve. Answer B is tempting because the Supreme Court decision was an
early legal action that led to the recent propositions, but the direct connection
is tenuous. Still, you will keep this answer in mind as you review the
remaining options, and if a better answer does not come up then this may be
your selection. Answer C cannot be correct because there is no mention of
the Supreme Court decision in relation to any effort by the executive or
legislative branches of the United States government. Answer D is fairly
accurate. The section of the passage does give some historical perspective.
There are several key phrases that make this choice optimal, such as “Since
the early years,” “In 1964,” and “continued to influence.” These are
historical-sounding phrases. Answer E cannot be correct because the
Supreme Court was trying to solve gerrymandering, not create it. While
answer B seemed promising, answer D is much better, so the correct
answer is D.
4. Answer: C

This is a Line ID question. This question tells you to refer to specific lines
(53–59) in the passage and asks you to find among the answers an inference
you can derive from those lines in relation to Proposition 20.
You find the lines in the passage and discover that they discuss Proposition
27 and its attempt to eliminate the Citizens Redistricting Commission. With
this in mind you look at your choices.
Answer A gives what might have been the opinion of those supporters of
Proposition 27, but it has nothing to do with Proposition 20. Answer B
attributes a motive to the supporters of Proposition 27 that is not in evidence
in the lines. Answer C first says that the commission existed before the
election. Since Proposition 27, if approved, was to eliminate the commission
then it must have existed before the election. Also, Proposition 20 was
intended to make the commission able to draw districts for the congressional
map, so you can definitely infer that they did not have this authority before
the election. Since both elements of answer C are implied by the lines, this is
most likely your answer, but you should review the rest of the options to be
sure. Nothing in the lines implies in any way what the voters might have
done in any other scenario, so D cannot be correct. Finally, in answer E,
nothing in the lines implies the unconstitutionality of the commission or how
the courts would react if Proposition 27 was not approved. Also, this answer
has nothing to do with Proposition 20, which is what the question is asking
for. The correct choice is answer C.
5. Answer: E

This is a Weaken question. You must find among the answers the statement
that most undermines support for Proposition 20.
Refer to the passage and skim over the third paragraph and its arguments in
favor of Proposition 20. In this case, the paragraph discusses the fact that
without Proposition 20, politicians have secure incumbency due to
gerrymandering. The population of their district is narrowly defined, and
thus they have to satisfy only that specific constituency to be reelected. The
correct answer will state a fact proving that even with such gerrymandering
the politicians are still not secure in their incumbency.
Answer A is tempting. Why would people want to change the system if most
voters are happy with their representatives? But Proposition 20 is meant to
help the minority and underrepresented, not the majority. While this option
might be tempting, it is not the strongest. Regarding answer B, compromise
and cross-party-line success in a few cases does not make much of a case
against the proposition. Answer C actually seems to make a stronger case for
the proposition by saying that it will be income, race, and gender blind. For
answer D, this is a technical issue and even if every member of the
commission is a member of a political party, this does not mean that it
cannot be balanced to avoid one party having more influence over the other.
Finally, answer E indicates that population movements may make the
proposition impossible to execute. This would definitely undermine the
arguments for Proposition 20 because, if answer E is true, even if approved it
would not be effective. The correct choice is answer E.
6. Answer: B

This is a Line ID question. The question is asking you to find among the
options a synonym for the word entrenched that gives the meaning as it is
used in the passage.
Refer to the passage and read the sentence that includes the word entrenched
to determine how it is being used. In this case, you notice that entrenched
politicians do not have to compromise on policy since they are assured of
keeping their job. The correct answer will probably be a word similar to
having such a secure position.
Answer A could be seen as the opposite of what the word means since the
politicians are elected over and over to the same office. Answer B is
promising since the politicians are able to keep their position despite any
failures on their part. They are “deep-seated” in their position. You review
the rest of the answers to see if there is a better option. Answer C seems
more like an adjective for a person in a pressure situation. If the politicians
were more vulnerable but principled in their stances on issues, they might be
described as unshakeable, but this is not the case here. Answer D is similar to
answer C, but the politicians are not stubborn, nor do they face any
opposition. Answer E would mean that the politicians are taking action and
are unable to be persuaded to change their minds. This is also an inexact
match to your definition. The correct choice is answer B.
PASSAGE 2
7. Answer: D

This is a Main Idea question. However, in the case of paired passages, look
for answer choices that articulate the main ideas of both passages, as they
relate to each other.
Refer to your passage summary.
Answer A discusses solutions to problems, which is never addressed in either
passage. Although the two theater movements discussed here both arose in
response to societal ills, there is no sense from the passages that these were
“solutions” to the problem of the Great Depression. For similar reasons,
answer choice B can be eliminated. Passages A and B both deal with the
same circumstance: the Great Depression. And both discuss theater
movements arising from these social and economic circumstances. But
passage B is not a solution to a problem in passage A. There is also no
contradiction between the passages, so eliminate answer choice C. Answer
choice D, however, in its broad strokes, gets the relationship correct. The
passages are very similar, with both describing theater groups that came
about as a response to the circumstances of the Great Depression. This is
very likely the correct answer. Answer choice E cannot be correct. There is
no suggestion that the Shock Troupe is a refinement of Group Theatre. If
anything, passage B suggests that the opposite is true, due to the Shock
Troupe’s later adoption of some of the Group Theatre’s methods. The
correct answer must be D.
8. Answer: C

This is a Inference question. The question asks that you assess each answer
to see whether it can be inferred from the passage based on what you read.
You refer to the passage and look specifically where it discusses the new
theater groups. By understanding the new groups, you can make certain
assumptions about what came before, in the early twentieth century. Since
the new groups were more serious and more interested in social change, the
earlier groups must have been less serious and less interested in bringing
about social change.
Looking back at the passage you can see that Answer A cannot be correct
since it says that agit-prop theatre was an evolution from an earlier form of
theater. Thus agit-prop was not a wholly new concept. Answer B makes an
unwarranted connection between a political movement and Strasburg’s
efforts, which were artistically motivated, not politically motivated. Answer
C is an excellent candidate for your choice. Since the passage is almost
entirely how the Great Depression transformed Broadway into offering more
serious fare, it is likely that in 1920 you would more likely find a musical or
lighthearted show since this was before the Great Depression. This is most
likely your answer, but you should review the remaining options. Answers D
and E cannot be inferred from the passage. The correct answer is C.
9. Answer: B

This is a Line ID question. The answer choices will contain four points that
are explicitly mentioned as being points of difference in the passage. The
correct answer will not be mentioned at all or will be a point of similarity.
In this case, go back to passages A and B, and look for discussion about the
differences between these theater groups and others.
Passages A and B both explicitly mention that fact that the Group Theatre
used trained actors while the Shock Troupe did not, so eliminate answer
choice A. Answer choice B, however, immediately looks promising. Both
groups were concerned with presenting plays that depicted societal ills. This
will most likely be your correct answer. Answer choice C is another point of
difference between the two. The passages mention that the Group Theatre
used conventional theatrical staging, whereas the Shock Troupe sometimes
performed in the street. The names of the characters are another point of
difference, explicitly mentioned in both passages, so eliminate answer choice
D. Finally, answer E may be tempting, but passage B states that the Group
Theatre merely wanted to depict societal ills whereas the Shock Troupe
wanted to move further and actually advocate societal change. The correct
answer is B.
10. Answer: C
This is an Inference question. This question is asking you to use the
information about the Shock Troup as the basis for a judgment, mainly
which play the theater would least likely perform.
You go back to the part of passage B that describes the theatrical philosophy
of the Shock Troup.
The Shock Troup was a politically oriented theater group, so the answer that
is least political will be the correct choice. Answer A, B, D, and E are all
very politically or socially strident plays. The play described in answer C
seems rooted in the drama of everyday life. There is little social or political
content in it. The correct answer is C.
11. Answer: A
This is an Inference question. The correct answer will correctly identify the
attitude of the author of passage B toward the Group Theatre as that attitude
is presented in the passages.
Passage B only mentioned the Group Theatre in passing, noting at the
beginning of the passage that the Group Theater was concerned only with
societal ills whereas the Shock Troupe wanted to also advocate change. At
the end, the author also mentions that the Shock Troupe wanted to train its
actors using the Group Theatre’s method, that it might better connect with
audiences.
Answer A is promising right away. The Group Theatre was brought in to
train the Shock Troupe’s actors to allow those actors to better connect with
audiences. Answer choice A is most likely correct. Answer choice B
discusses which theater group was better known, which is never discussed.
Eliminate answer choice B. Answer choice C discusses comparative
idealism, which is not discussed here. Additionally, the information in the
passage would seem to support the opposite contention, since the Shock
Troupe thought theater could change society, not merely present the ills of
society. Much like answer choice B, you have no way of knowing which
play was more popular. Finally, although you know that the Shock Troupe
believed that “The Method” was an effective means of teaching acting, you
cannot know that they believed it to be the most effective means of teaching
acting. The correct answer must be A.
12. Answer: C
This is a Line ID question. This question takes a technical term and asks you
to choose the answer that most closely represents what it means.
You look back at the passage and derive that agit-prop theaters were
politically motivated, and that those theaters took extreme measures to put
their political ideas in front of the masses. Thus, the answer will be oriented
toward this sort of description. All the answers extend the shortened words
on each side of the hyphen so you must assess both words.
For answer A, both words are inadequate. Agit-prop theater was not
concerned with agriculture and it did not make propositions through its
performances. Answer B does well with the first part of the term. Agit-prop
theater definitely used its performances to agitate, especially when they
performed at picket lines or in front of workers as they went to work. But,
the second term, “proposal,” seems too weak a description of what they did.
Answer C is much better. The first term, as discussed, fits well. The second
term works as well, because they definitely used their performances to
spread propaganda or politically charged ideas. This is most likely your
answer, but you must assess the remaining choices as well. The second term
in answer D is problematic. Propagation is a term that could be used to
describe the dissemination of ideas, but it also has a more common meaning
related to breeding. Such ambiguity hurts this option’s chances. Answer E is
way off the mark since the word “proper” does not fit agit-prop theater at all.
They were not interested in being a proper theater, especially since they
performed their plays outside the theater. The correct answer is C.
PASSAGE 3
13. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question, which in essence is asking you to find among
the answers the one statement that sums up the author’s argument or thesis.
Answer A focuses on Bo Rothstein’s essay but ignores the rest of the
passage, which puts Rothstein’s claims in context of a wider discussion of
the merits of a welfare state. Answer B starts with Rothstein’s essay, then
adds the context, the evaluation of happiness as a measure of success and
perspective on whether the studies help you with the larger argument afoot.
Even though this answer is not perfect, it is your best candidate so far. You
must evaluate the remaining options. Answer C gives a good description of
the political part of the passage but ignores the essays and studies discussed,
so this is most likely not your choice. Answer D is problematic because the
passage does not say the politicians, social scientists, and economists are
unsupported by data, just that they are not focused on the happiness factor.
Most likely they do have their own data, just not Rothstein, Pacek, and
Radcliff’s data that takes happiness into account. Answer E starts out well.
The passage does note some flaws in the SWB measurement, but the passage
makes no claim that an improvement in the data fueling this measurement
would make it more acceptable to the “thinkers of today.” You are left with
the only answer that works, answer B, flawed though it may be. The correct
choice is answer B.
14. Answer: E
This is an Arguments-style question. It asks that you choose the answer that
This is an Arguments-style question. It asks that you choose the answer that
best describes the structure used in the passage’s argument.
To do this, you look back at the passage and read the first sentence or two of
each paragraph to get a sense of how the passage moves from one subject to
the next. You notice that the first paragraph starts with a very general
discussion of the current conflict over the welfare state. The second
paragraph moves to a discussion of measuring happiness. The third
paragraph goes deeper into the basis of Rothstein’s work on happiness.
Finally, the concluding paragraph brings the discussion back to the United
States. Now, you assess your choices.
Answer A is a very good description of the passage, and you might stop here,
but the description does not seem to do justice to paragraph three. Paragraph
three does not simply “assess” the happiness measurement. Still, you will
hold on to this option as a possibility and read through the remaining options
to see if there is a better one. In answer B the word “solution” in the second
sentence is inappropriate for this passage. The author of the passage offers
no solutions since the existence of the welfare state is not a social problem
(such as crime) that must be “solved.” Instead, the passage discusses the
merits of the universal welfare state and how to evaluate its success or
failure. Answer C is incorrect because its organization does not match the
passage. The third paragraph actually goes on to provide more information
on the basis of Rothstein’s work on happiness. It does not “discredit” that
work. Answer D also says that a solution to the problem is proposed and
there is no solution offered, so this cannot be your choice. Finally, answer E
offers answer A some competition. In this case, the answer seems more
descriptive, especially with regard to paragraph three, saying that it discusses
the validity of the happiness measurement, something answer A ignores.
Between answers A and E, answer E is the better description, so the correct
choice is answer E.
15. Answer: C
This is a Line ID question. This question asks that you look at a specific
sentence or comment within the passage and explain the author’s purpose for
using it.
Look back at the identified line and read the sentence and possibly its
context to understand the author’s reasons for including it. Your options will
most likely be related to how that comment fits within that context.
Answer A restates the author’s comment in more explicit terms, but it does
not explain why this comment appears where it does in the passage. Answer
B may be true, but this relates to the next paragraph about Pacek and
Radcliff and not to the paragraph in which the comment appears. Answer C
is very promising. The sentence before the bias comment discusses how
Rothstein focused his study on northern European countries, which you learn
have long-standing welfare states, and you have already learned that he is
Swedish, that is, from a northern European country. This explanation fits
within your context and explains the comment very well. You should
evaluate the remaining options just in case there is a better answer. Answer
D may be true, but this explanation refers to a very different bias from the
one the author is referring to in this context. Finally, answer E gives a totally
unrelated fact and again refers to a different type of bias that does not fit into
the context of where the comment appears in the passage. The correct
choice is answer C.
16. Answer: B
This is a Weaken question. This question is very similar to a question you
might find in the Arguments section of the LSAT. It asks which answer
would most undermine or weaken a particular argument Rothstein is
advancing.
Rothstein feels that the SWB measurement is a better measurement of
society because it is a “widespread” arbiter rather than an elitist one that the
experts create.
Answer A makes a case that the experts, due to their own biases, make
judgments that are not much different from the happiness measurement. This
weakens Rothstein’s statement somewhat, but it is not a very strong attempt.
You should expect that there might be a stronger effort in the other options.
Answer B actually makes a case that the experts are superior because they
filter out cultural factors that cloud one’s ability to focus on the political
problem at hand. This is stronger than answer A because it makes a case that
the experts are better, but you should continue to review the remaining
options. Answer C restates Rothstein’s argument to a certain extent and does
nothing to weaken it. Answer D may be true, but this also supports
Rothstein’s argument that his measurement is superior at assessing the
success of the welfare state. If the experts are, in fact, unaffected by
economic changes, they might remain an elitist arbiter and continue to make
poor assessments of political progress. Finally, answer E also supports rather
than weakens Rothstein’s argument. If the SWB measurement is truly more
accurate at making such predictions than the models created by the experts,
then it is also a better arbiter. The correct choice is answer B.
17. Answer: C
This is a Strengthen question. This question is very similar to one you might
find in the Arguments section of the LSAT.
You must find a statement that supports the arguments presented in the first
paragraph, advanced by those who support universal welfare programs in the
United States.
Answer A actually supports those in the opposing camp who believe that
social welfare is harmful to the nation, so this cannot be your answer.
Answer B also gives support to the opposition to welfare programs, saying
that welfare recipients do not use the funds the federal government gives
them. Answer C says that new welfare programs increase political
participation. This very much supports the argument advanced in the passage
that welfare programs are important to maintaining an active democracy.
Therefore, this is most likely the correct answer. You should review the
remaining answers to be sure. Answer D may be true, but whether recipients
like or dislike the government does not seem relevant to either the supporters
or the critics of social welfare programs. Answer E would definitely be
helpful to the supporters of welfare programs, but it discusses an argument
advanced by Rothstein later in the passage. The question asks that you base
the answer just on paragraph one. Since this is not really addressing the
specific arguments in the first paragraph, it is not as strong as answer C. The
correct choice is answer C.
18. Answer: D
This is a Tone question. For this question you are to use your own judgment
at assessing the author’s tone or attitude toward Rothstein’s approach.
Specific words in the passage give you clues to this attitude. For example,
the comment regarding Rothstein’s bias in the second paragraph indicates
that the author might have some doubts about Rothstein’s conclusions.
Consider the phrases “He even goes as far as to say” and “the SWB is the
most controversial basis of these studies.” These and other phrases, though
tepid, attest to the author’s doubts regarding Rothstein. You assess your
options with this in mind.
These observations regarding the author’s language make it impossible to
think “cautious neutrality” can be correct, so answer A cannot be your
choice. The author does not use strong enough language for you to consider
answer B. Regarding answer C, the author acknowledges that Rothstein’s
work might be helpful to the discourse regarding the welfare state, but
“moderate advocacy” would mean the author is recommending it and this is
not the case. Answer D is very likely your choice for the author does show a
fair amount of skepticism with regard to Rothstein’s work. Finally, in answer
E, nothing in the language shows a grudging acceptance of Rothstein’s ideas.
This would require the author to ultimately admit an error in judgment and
words of contrition as Rothstein’s ideas won over. You see none of that in
the passage. Thus, the correct choice is answer D.
19. Answer: E
This is an Information Retrieval question. You must find among the answers
the one statement Rothstein would disagree with.
You refer to the passage and read the sections that give Rothstein’s views.
Paragraphs two, three, and four all discuss his views. The one answer that is
not consistent with those views concerning social happiness will be the
correct answer.
In paragraph three you learn that Rothstein admits that cultural factors like
the one in answer A could affect happiness. Even though he dismisses such
concerns, he might agree that the abilities listed in answer A would cloud the
relationship between the SWB and the establishment of a universal welfare
state. For answer B, Rothstein would surely agree that a program protecting
children would increase national happiness. Answer C relates to Rothstein’s
bias, which you have already seen favors the northern European states, so he
would most likely agree with this statement. Next look at answer D. As the
passage states, Rothstein believes that people need a long-standing trust in
their institutions to achieve happiness, so he would definitely agree that such
a long-standing program will increase their SWB. Finally, in answer E,
Rothstein would never agree that a misappropriation proved the failure of a
welfare state in general. He would say only that the particular welfare state
had failed one of the key elements necessary to bring happiness to its
recipients. The correct choice is answer E.
PASSAGE 4
20. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question, which asks you to find among the answers the
one statement that encapsulates the passage.
Read through the answers paying close attention to the language. Answer A
attributes a motive to the corporations not supported by the passage. The
passage says nothing about a “stigma” associated with cash donations or that
they are seen as cheap marketing tactics. Actually, the passage states that
they are no different from each other. Answer B is promising. The passage
does argue that whether corporations integrate philanthropic activities into
their operations or they just cut a check, the effect to all parties is the same,
and the passage does explore the reasons for corporate philanthropy without
coming to any particular conclusion. This is most likely your answer, but you
need to review the remaining options to be sure. Answer C is too strong an
opinion to be summarizing the main idea of this passage, which retains a
certain amount of objectivity. The passage does not make such a strong
recommendation to do both or either one. For answer D, extortion is one idea
explored in the passage, but it is not the entire idea of the passage. This
answer makes it too central, and the passage definitely does not make an
outright recommendation that corporations just make a charitable donation.
Finally, answer E is not bad, but it is fairly general in its discussion. There is
no mention of the integration of philanthropy into operations and sales
versus just cutting a check, which is central to the passage’s argument. Thus,
the correct choice is answer B.
21. Answer: C
This is a Line ID question. You need to look at the lines specified in this
question and assess the author’s attitude or tone with regard to the
philanthropy model discussed.
In this case, the lines discuss the philanthropic model in which corporations
integrate philanthropy into their “supply, production, and sales operations
such that they become part and parcel with their corporate and product
identity.” Reading the lines you discover that the author feels that this model
is “no different than that of simple donations.”
With this in mind you read through your answers. You learn later in the
passage that answer A is not true, but you do not need the rest of the passage
to know that nothing in the lines specified indicates such a positive
perspective on the philanthropic mode. Answer B also discusses elements
later in the passage that are contradictory to what they say. Still, the lines
under consideration give no indication that the author views this model as
empowering to the customers. Answer C is most likely your answer. The
author definitely does not seem to believe that the new model is really
anything new at all and also offers no insights into why corporations engage
in philanthropy. You should review the remaining options to be sure. Answer
D ventures into areas that are explored later in the passage and are out of the
scope of this questions. And regarding answer E, the author does not seem
very pleased with the new way of being philanthropic since the language
indicates that the author does not see a difference between it and cutting a
check. Therefore, the correct choice is answer C.
22. Answer: B
This is an Inference question. This question is one of the rare ones that ask
you to imagine the passage continuing into another paragraph, and you must
select the answer that fills that role best. In essence, it is asking you to infer
what will come after the last paragraph.
Return to the passage and scan the last paragraph. The last few sentences
give you a clue as to where the author might continue with his or her
thoughts. The last paragraph discusses the justifications for corporate
philanthropy, and the last few sentences compare a corporation to an
individual in society and how that view affects the analysis.
Answer A might be a good paragraph to be inserted after the second
paragraph, which discusses integration of philanthropy into supply lines, but
not at the end of the passage, which has moved on to other considerations.
Answer B might very well be the next topic, moving on from corporate
philanthropy to address whether the dollars they devote to charity do any
good and which method works best. This is not a perfect option, but it might
work. You will need to read through the other options to see if there is a
better one. Answer C starts out well, but the second sentence veers off to
make an odd logical leap into government intervention. Nothing in the
passage mentions government involvement, so this is most likely not the
correct choice. If the passage had ended with paragraph three, answer D
might be correct, but the fourth paragraph makes this one impossible to
choose, since it has moved on to address the larger question of whether
corporations should be engaged in philanthropy at all. Finally, answer E is
tempting, but it actually belongs as another point within the last paragraph
rather than a new paragraph, which should move on to a new topic altogether
but one that follows the previous paragraph logically. Answer B is the
correct choice.
23. Answer: E
This is a Line ID question. You are asked to compare two different sections
of the passage and choose the answer that most accurately describes the
relationship between them.
You look at the specified sections of the passage and discover that the latter
passage is almost a restatement of the earlier passage, except that the later
passage seems more explicit and thus could be considered a clarification.
You can quickly eliminate answer A because you can see that both sections
discuss the lack of difference between the two options and they both discuss
the financial equation involved in the integration of philanthropy into
operations and sales. It cannot be true that there is no relationship. There is
no other opinion than what the author has revealed in either section, so
answer B can be eliminated. There also is no hypothetical situation offered in
either section. No particular examples are discussed at all, so answer C
cannot be the correct choice. Regarding answer D, there is agreement with
the position but no disagreement over particulars. You have eliminated all
the other answers, so answer E must be correct, but you must read it to be
sure. The sections are equivalent assertions that integration versus just
donating are not much different, and the latter section gives clarification to
the financial aspect of why they are not different, specifically how both
decrease profitability and shareholder value. The correct choice is answer
E.
24. Answer: C
This is an Inference question. This question asks that you make an inference
based on the author’s views on corporate philanthropy.
based on the author’s views on corporate philanthropy.
This question is asking for an inference based on your impression of the
content of the entire passage and the author’s opinion regarding corporate
philanthropy. You must have read the entire passage to answer this question,
but if you need to you can skim the passage for clues that might help you as
you review the answers.
Regarding answer A, informing the customer that the corporation is getting a
tax deduction is not exactly useful to the customer or the corporation. It is
unlikely the author would agree with such an idea. For answer B, such a
proposition might discourage the corporation from engaging in the
philanthropic activity altogether, and it is unlikely the author wants that to
happen since there are indications that the author supports corporate
philanthropy even if some practices are questionable. Answer C seems like a
valid idea that the author might agree with. The author implies that the
customer is not informed that the increase in purchase price is a result of
philanthropic efforts, so the author might support informing the customer
about the effects of integrating philanthropy into operations and sales. This is
probably your answer, but you should review the remaining options to be
sure. Answer D is a nice idea, but this seems out of the scope of the passage.
The author is not concerned about misuse of funds but in philanthropic
efforts in general. Answer E is an interesting possibility as well, but the
author is not really concerned about morality or ethics within corporations or
that customers know about the company’s morals. The correct choice is
answer C.
25. Answer: D
This is a variation of a Main Idea question—a Primary Purpose question,
which asks you to identify a more general description of what the passage is
doing logically.
Read the first sentence of each paragraph and possibly the final sentence to
understand any conclusion that is reached by the author. Then, evaluate the
options and look for the one that seems most accurate.
options and look for the one that seems most accurate.
Reading answer A, certain words become problematic. The author does not
question the reasons for integrating philanthropy into operations and sales.
The author only explores what effect such behavior has and assesses its
differences from simply donating money. Also, the question posed at the end
is asking why they participate in philanthropy in the first place, so this
answer has several clues that make it incorrect. You cannot recommend
answer B because the author never makes an argument that corporate
philanthropy should stop. In fact, the author supports the activity even if he
or she questions certain practical aspects of the behavior. The first part of
answer C seems right but the second part does not. The author does not raise
any moral reason against corporate philanthropy. The author questions the
basis for it but never comes to a definite conclusion or recommendation
against it. Regarding answer D, the author does explain a trend in corporate
behavior, namely integration of philanthropy into operations and sales, and
compares it to the previous behavior of just making a donation. Finally, the
author poses a question directed at the idea of corporate philanthropy in
general. This answer is right on the mark. Answer E proposes that the author
discusses an unethical behavior, but this is not the case. The author merely
says that the corporations are not giving full disclosure. The correct choice
is answer D.
CHAPTER 3
LSAT Logic Games
How to work each of the four types of games you might encounter on
the Logic Games section How to diagram and symbolize the
information presented to you in each game
How to draw deductions from the information presented to you in each
game
The best techniques and methods for working each kind of question
How to approach the Logic Games section as a whole
T his chapter focuses on the Logic Games section (formally known as the
Analytical Reasoning section). The cases in this chapter will teach you
a six-step approach you can use to work every game you encounter. The
Logic Games section can seem daunting at first, so we’ll break it down
into parts. As noted in Chapter 1, the Logic Games section requires you to
perform only two tasks: ordering and grouping. The test writers use some
combination of those two tasks to create four different types of games.
This chapter introduces you to each of the four major game types that appear
on the LSAT. You will learn the best way to: Determine what kind of game
you’re working based on the information in the setup and the clues Diagram
and symbolize the setup and the clues
Make deductions from that information

Answer each of the different kinds of questions you’ll come across
We’ll also discuss the best strategy for tackling the Logic Games section as a
whole.
Accordingly, this chapter contains six cases. Four of them—Case 1, Case 3,
Case 4, and Case 5—introduce a particular type of game. Those four cases
include a sample game and a detailed explanation of how to work the sample
game. Case 2 introduces you to conditional statements, which are a particularly
important type of clue and can appear on any type of game. Finally, Case 6
discusses section-wide strategy.
Two important notes before you turn to the first case:
As you’ll soon see firsthand, an effective Logic Games strategy involves a

good bit of writing: you’ll draw a diagram, symbolize clues, and map out your
answers to each question. Unfortunately, you’re not allowed to bring scratch
paper into the LSAT. You have to do all your work in the blank space in your
test booklet. As you practice, get in the habit of working in the small space
you’ll have available to you.
The sample games used in these cases are not representative of the average
difficulty of the games you’ll see on test day. The games are teaching tools;
they are designed to demonstrate the fundamentals of a sound approach to
working games. Each case concludes with setup drills that reflect the difficulty
of real games.
Practicing is the only way to truly get a sense of how hard logic games really
are. The Logic Games sections in the practice tests included at the back of this
book contain a mix of games that is representative of what you’re likely to
encounter on the actual LSAT.

Case 1
One-Tiered Ordering Games: Emily Walks the Dogs
This case serves two primary functions. First, it introduces the general approach
you should use to work every logic game. That approach involves the following
six steps: 1. Identify the game type
2. Begin your diagram

3. Symbolize the clues
4. Double-check your symbolizations
5. Make deductions
6. Answer the questions in the smartest order

Because you’ll use this same six-step approach on every game you encounter,
this case is the longest case of this chapter. As you work different kinds of
games and more difficult games, you’ll want to return to this case to review the
fundamentals.
Second, this case introduces you to a particular type of logic game: one-tiered
ordering games. One-tiered ordering games have been by far the most common
type of game on recent LSATs. As noted in Chapter 1, the LSAC has released to
the public 15 of the 20 LSATs that it administered between 2006 and 2010. Of
the 60 games that appear on those LSATs, 24—or 40 percent—were one-tiered
ordering games. That’s an average of just under two per test. Mastering one-
tiered ordering games is therefore an indispensable component of success on test
day.
We’ll introduce ordering games using a sample game, which we’ll walk
through together step by step. If you want to take a shot at working it on your
own beforehand, feel free. You might find the explanation of how to set up and
work the game easier to understand if you’ve spent some time trying to work it
yourself. But you don’t need to do so; after all, the purpose of this chapter is to
introduce you to a new, more effective method of solving logic games.
A dog walker named Emily has been hired to walk six dogs: a Labrador, a
A dog walker named Emily has been hired to walk six dogs: a Labrador, a
Mutt, a Poodle, a Retriever, a Schnauzer, and a Terrier. She walks each dog
exactly once, and she walks them one at a time. The order in which Emily
walks the dogs must be consistent with the following: She walks the
Labrador some time before the Terrier.
She walks the Poodle immediately after the Mutt.

She walks the Retriever either immediately before or immediately after the
Terrier.
She walks the Schnauzer fourth.
1. Which of the following could be the order, from first to last, in which Emily
walks the dogs?
(A) L, T, R, S, M, P
(B) M, L, P, S, T, R
(C) T, R, L, S, M, P
(D) L, M, P, R, T, S
(E) R, L, T, S, M, P
2. Which of the following must be false?

(A) Emily walks the Terrier second.
(B) Emily walks the Labrador third.
(C) Emily walks the Mutt third.
(D) Emily walks the Retriever sixth.
(E) Emily walks the Poodle sixth.
3. If Emily walks the Retriever third, which of the following must be true?
(A) Emily walks the Terrier fourth.
(B) Emily walks the Poodle sixth.
(C) Emily walks the Poodle fifth.
(D) Emily walks the Labrador second.
(E) Emily walks the Mutt first.

(A) Emily walks the Mutt first.
(B) Emily walks the Labrador second.
(C) Emily walks the Terrier fifth.
(D) Emily walks the Labrador first.
(E) Emily walks the Retriever third.
5. Which one of the following is a complete and accurate list of the positions in
which Emily could walk the Retriever?
(A) 5, 6
(B) 3, 5
(C) 3, 5, 6
(D) 2, 3, 5, 6
(E) 1, 2, 3, 5, 6
6. If Emily walks the Mutt second, which of the following could be false?
(A) She walks the Labrador before she walks the Mutt.
(B) She walks the Terrier after she walks the Schnauzer.
(C) She walks the Retriever after she walks the Terrier.
(D) She walks the Schnauzer before she walks the Retriever.
(E) She walks the Poodle after she walks the Labrador.
STEP 1: Identify the Game Type

To determine what kind of game you’re dealing with, look to language in the
setup and language in the clues. It’s important that you read both the setup and
the clues before you begin your diagram. Sometimes the information you need
appears in the clues and sometimes there are clues in the setup.
Because you’re being asked to arrange the elements (the dogs) in sequential
order (which one was walked first, second, etc., down to sixth), this is an
ordering game. Because you’re assigning exactly one element to each slot in the
game, this is a one-tiered ordering game (we’ll discuss a different kind of
ordering game—two-tiered ordering games—in Case 4).
What’s the language in the setup that marks this as an ordering game? Here,
the setup explicitly says “the order in which Emily walks the dogs.” The other
language in this setup that is the hallmark of an ordering game is, “She walks
each dog exactly once, and she walks them one at a time.” You’re putting things
in order, one at a time. Here are some other examples of language the LSAT
could use to set up an ordering game: Five basketball players are ranked by
height from tallest to shortest. There are no ties.
The new children’s book series has exactly eight chapters.

A real-estate agent must show seven houses. She does not show any of the
houses more than once, and no two houses are shown at the same time.
When you see “exactly once” and “one at a time” language in the setup and
comparative language in the clues, you’re dealing with an ordering game.
Similarly, comparative language in the clues is a strong indicator that this is

an ordering game: Emily walks some dogs “before” and “after” other dogs.
Clues that assign a particular element a numbered rank (“She walks the
Schnauzer fourth”) are also an ordering-game staple. Here is some other
language you might see in the clues of ordering games: Before and after
Earlier and later

Higher and lower
More expensive and less expensive
Taller and shorter
Younger (or newer) and older
Numbering language: “cannot be third,” “must be either first or last,” and so on
STEP 2: Begin Your Diagram

Once you’ve classified the game as a one-tiered ordering game, you can begin
drawing your diagram. Your goal is to draw a diagram that is a visually accurate
representation of the logical relationship between the elements. In other words,
when you’re trying to figure out what kind of diagram to draw, just ask yourself,
“What does this game look like?”
To determine what kind of diagram to use, ask yourself, “What does this
game look like?”
This game asks you to create a list numbered 1 through 6 of the order in
which Emily walks the dogs. So, your diagram will look like this:
Next, you’ll symbolize the game’s elements and each of the clues. First,
abbreviate each element using a letter. Then list the letters off to the side of the
diagram so you can keep track of them as you work.
STEP 3: Symbolize the Clues

Symbolize the clues in a vertical line off to the side of your diagram. Keep the
space underneath your diagram clear because you’ll need to expand the diagram
as you work the questions. The same principle that determined how you drew
your diagram will now dictate how you symbolize each clue: What does it look
like?
Clue 1: “She walks the Labrador some time before the Terrier.”
You don’t know exactly how far apart L and T have to be. It would be
consistent with this clue for Emily to walk L first and T sixth, or she could walk
L third and T fourth. All you know is that L will be somewhere to the left of T in
the diagram. So you’ll symbolize this clue accordingly: L — T
Then check off “L” and “T” on your list of elements. It’s important to get in the
habit of doing this as you work. Once you’ve symbolized all the clues, if one of
the elements is not checked off, you know it is a “free agent”; there are no
restrictions on where it can go. This can be a powerful aid in working a game.
Clue 2: “She walks the Poodle immediately after the Mutt.”

Here, you know exactly how far apart these two elements have to be:
wherever they are plugged into the diagram, M will immediately precede P.
What will that look like?
MP
Clue 3: “She walks the Retriever either immediately before or immediately after
the Terrier.”
Here again you know that wherever these two elements are plugged into the
diagram, they’ll be right next to each other. While these two elements have to be
adjacent, the order in which they must appear is not yet determined. In other
words, your diagram could look like this: RT
or it could look like this:
or it could look like this:
TR
and in either case the clue would be satisfied. Instead of using two separate
boxes, you’ll use one and make a notation that indicates that the elements in the
box can appear in either order.
R ↔ T
Clue 4: “She walks the Schnauzer fourth.”

The purpose of symbolizing clues is to help you figure out where to place the
elements in your diagram. This clue skips straight to the punch line and places
an element for you. Accordingly, you should symbolize this clue directly into
your diagram: Whenever possible, symbolize a clue directly into your
diagram.
STEP 4: Double-Check Your Symbolizations

The single most costly mistake you can make on the Logic Games section is to
incorrectly symbolize a clue. You can easily wind up working through most of
the questions before realizing your mistake. You can’t afford to lose that time. It
is absolutely vital that you double-check your symbolizations before proceeding
any further.
Double-check by translating your symbolizations, not by re-symbolizing the

clues.
The most effective way to double-check your symbolizations is to translate

them back into English. For example, you symbolized the first clue in this game
like this: L — T
Translated into English, that says, “Emily walks L before she walks T.” After
making that translation, compare it to the language of the clue. Since your
translation matches the language of the clue, you know you’ve symbolized that
clue correctly. You’ll repeat this process for every clue before beginning to
Make deductions.
It’s better to double-check this way than by re-symbolizing each clue. Why?
It’s better to double-check this way than by re-symbolizing each clue. Why?
If you misunderstood the clue the first time you read it, you’re likely to make the
same mistake the second time and you’ll end up with the wrong symbolization
again. Plus, when you translate your symbolization into English, the double-
checking process is as simple as comparing your translation to the clue. If the
two don’t match, you’ll spot it right away.
After double-checking your clues, you should have a diagram and clue list
that looks like this:
STEP 5: Make Deductions

The final step before you begin working the questions is to investigate the clues
to see if you can make any deductions about the placement of the elements in the
game. It can be tempting to skip this step and dive straight into the questions—
making deductions takes time, and time is of the essence. But these deductions
will drastically reduce the time it takes you to answer the questions.
Many LSAT students initially find the process of making deductions to be a
mysterious one. Fortunately, there are a few categories of deductions that show
up repeatedly on the Logic Games section. And there is a consistent set of steps
you can follow that will allow you to make those deductions.
Look for opportunities to make the following kinds of deductions:
The first deduction is relevant to those “before or after” clues. Think about it
this way. If someone must stand in line after you, you can’t be the last in line.
And if someone must come before you, you can’t be first.
For example, take the first clue in this game:
L — T
L — T
You can deduce from this clue that Emily cannot walk T first. If she did, it
would be impossible for her to satisfy the condition that she walk L before she
walks T. For similar reasons, you can deduce that she cannot walk L sixth.
If someone must come after you, you can’t be last. If someone must come
before you, you can’t be first.
The best way to symbolize that deduction is with a notation above your
diagram:
(Note: This book uses the “~” sign to mean “not.” Many test takers choose to
represent “not” with a strike-through, so that “not T” would be symbolized “T.”
Either method is fine; pick the one that you feel more comfortable with and use
it consistently.) The second clue (MP) is amenable to the same deduction: Emily
cannot walk M last, and she cannot walk P first:
There is another, similar deduction you can make from this clue. M cannot be
placed in any slot where it is impossible to place P in the slot immediately to the
right. Since S must be fourth, you know that M cannot be third:
The third clue will not support this kind of deduction, as Emily can walk R
and T in any order so long as she walks them consecutively.
Once you’ve completed the process of making can’t-be-first-or-last
deductions, turn next to repeated-element deductions. Use a two-step process to
make repeated-element deductions: 1. Identify any element that appears in more
than one clue.
2. See if you can combine those clues to produce new information.
Identify any element that appears in more than one clue and attempt to
combine those clues.
In this game, the only element that shows up in more than one clue is T,
which appears in both the first (L — T) and third clues. And it’s possible to
combine those clues to produce new information.
In plain English, the third clue tells you that R and T appear consecutively.
As a consequence, it’s impossible for L to appear in between R and T. Since R
and T are right next to each other and the first clue tells you that L must come
before T, it follows that L also must come before R.
Symbolically,
L — T
plus
R ↔ T
equals
L — R ↔ T
This deduction functions as a new clue, which means you can make deductions
based on it. This new clue will support two can’t-be-first-or-last deductions.
Take a moment to see if you can make them.
Deductions are like clues: you can make deductions based on your
deductions.
First, you now know that L must come before R, so it follows that R can’t
come first. Second, you now know that both R and T must come after L. So not
only can L not be sixth, but it also can’t be fifth. It needs at least two available
spaces after it to house both R and T. You can symbolize these new deductions
directly into your diagram:
Next up, look for what we’ll call down-to-two deductions. In the Logic
Games section, being able to limit a slot to only two elements is almost as
valuable as being able to definitively place one element in that slot. While it’s
rare to be able to definitively place an element, you’ll frequently be able to make
a down-to-two deduction that limits a slot to two possibilities.
The question to ask is, “Is there any slot in this game that is so restricted that
it can be occupied by only one of two elements?” Here, you know from your
prior deductions that neither R nor P nor T can occupy the first slot. And since S
must be fourth, you also know that S cannot occupy the first slot. Four of the six
elements are thus barred from being first: only L and M remain. You can note
that deduction directly into your diagram using a slash as an either/or symbol:
No other down-to-two deductions are available, so let’s turn to the final type
of deduction, which is to look for possibilities of block-splitting. Block-splitting
is one of the most commonly recurring concepts on the Logic Games section,
showing up in all four types of games. The test writers frequently use it to
generate correct and incorrect answers.
What is block-splitting? In this game, clues 2 and 3 require M and P and R
and T to always appear right next to each other. Those clues create two-element
“blocks.” The basic concept of block-splitting is that in a game that involves
blocks of elements, you can’t place the nonblocked, single elements in a way
that makes it impossible to place all of the blocks.
Here’s a simple example. Suppose Emily only had to walk three dogs—S, R,
and T—but she still had to walk R and T consecutively. If Emily walked S
second, there would be no way for her to legally walk all three dogs. Walking S
second would split the R—T block.
Making a block-splitting deduction is the process of taking a moment at the
Making a block-splitting deduction is the process of taking a moment at the
beginning of the game to think about where you can place any multi-element
blocks. Sometimes the need to preserve room to place the block will make it
impossible to place a single, unblocked element in a particular slot in the game.
To make a block-splitting deduction, follow these steps: 1. Identify all of the
blocked elements.
2. Determine the various places within the game where the block(s) can be
placed.
3. Look for any slots where placing a single, unblocked element would split the
block (i.e., make it impossible to place the blocked elements anywhere).
In this game, you have two two-element blocks: MP and RT, and your
diagram looks like this:
The blocks take up four slots, and there are only three slots to the left of S. So
you know that one of the blocks must be in 5 and 6, and the other block must be
somewhere in the first three slots.
That enables you to make the following deduction: if you place one of the
nonblocked elements in slot 2, you won’t have room to place both of the blocks.
L is the only nonblocked element that you haven’t placed yet, so you can deduce
that L can never go in slot 2:

If you found it difficult to follow the reasoning that led to that deduction,
don’t worry. Block-splitting deductions are the most difficult kind of deduction
to make. It also gets easier to make them the more you practice working games.
STEP 6: Answer the Questions in the Smartest Order
The order in which the questions associated with a game appear is not the order
in which you should work those questions. You want to work the questions in
the way that is most helpful to you. That means you want to work easier
questions before harder questions. You also want to work the questions in such a
way that you can use the work you do on the first few questions to help you
answer the last few questions. The most strategically advantageous order in
which to work the questions is as follows: 1. Answer the Complete and Accurate
List question.

Complete and Accurate List Questions. The first question associated with
your game about Emily walking the dogs is a Complete and Accurate List
question. Complete and Accurate List questions ask, “Which of the following
answer choices is an acceptable way to fill in every slot in this game?” These are
by far the easiest kind of question you’ll see on the Logic Games section. If a
game has one (and most games do), you should always work it first. How can
you identify a Complete and Accurate List question? It will ask you to pick an
arrangement that complies with all the clues, and it will always be the first
question associated with the game.
If a game has a Complete and Accurate List question, it will always be the
first question.
1. Which of the following could be the order, from first to last, in which Emily
walks the dogs?
(A) L, T, R, S, M, P
(B) M, L, P, S, T, R
(C) T, R, L, S, M, P
(D) L, M, P, R, T, S
(E) R, L, T, S, M, P
To answer a Complete and Accurate List question, take each clue and scan the
answer choices looking for one that violates the rule that clue establishes.
Your first clue tells you that L must come before T. Scanning the answer
choices, T is listed before L in answer choice C, so you can eliminate that
choices, T is listed before L in answer choice C, so you can eliminate that
choice. Answer B violates clue 2, answer E violates clue 3, and answer D
violates clue 4, so the correct choice for question 1 is answer A.
Questions That Give You More Information. Information is the coin of the
realm in the Logic Games section. The more you know about where the elements
must, can, or cannot go, the easier it is to work with the game. For that reason,
questions that contain new information are generally easier and less time-
consuming to work than questions that require you to work only with the
information given in the setup.
Questions that begin with if typically give you additional information to

work with.
In this game, questions 3 and 6 are examples of this kind of question: each of
them instructs you to assume an additional fact that further limits the ways in
which Emily can walk the dogs.
3. If Emily walks the Retriever third, which of the following must be true?
(A) Emily walks the Terrier fourth.
(B) Emily walks the Poodle sixth.
(C) Emily walks the Poodle fifth.
(D) Emily walks the Labrador second.
(E) Emily walks the Mutt first.
The first step in working this kind of question is to plug the new information

Next, you’ll combine that information with your clues and deductions. Start
with any clue that applies to the same element(s) about which the question has
given you new information. Here, the third clue tells you that T and R must
appear consecutively. Since S must appear right after R, you know that T must
appear right before R in slot 2:
Since Emily must walk T second, you’ll immediately look down to the
answer choices to see if that’s listed as one of the answer choices. As it turns out,
it’s not, but if it had been, you could have selected it and moved on without
doing any more work. Your goal on the Logic Games section is to do exactly as
much work as you have to to get the right answer, and no more. Each time you
place an element, check the answer choices to see if you’ve got the answer.
Your next step will be to combine the new information you have about T with
any clues you have about T. From the first clue, you know that L must come
before T. Since you know that T must be second, L must be first:
Once again, scan the answer choices to see if “L must be first” is among
them. It’s not, so you’ll keep going. Only two slots remain open, and from the
second clue you can determine that M and P must be fifth and sixth,
respectively:
Just by virtue of knowing that R comes third, you’re able to completely fill in
the game. As the diagram illustrates, the correct choice for question 3 is answer
B: Emily must walk the Poodle sixth.
6. If Emily walks the Mutt second, which of the following could be false?
(A) She walks the Labrador before she walks the Mutt.
(C) She walks the Retriever after she walks the Terrier.
(D) She walks the Schnauzer before she walks the Retriever.
(E) She walks the Poodle after she walks the Labrador.
Pay close attention to language. What exactly is the question asking you to
determine? Question 3 asks what must be true; question 6 asks what could be
false. Another question may ask you what must be false or what could be true. It
is crucial that you carefully note what the question is asking, and to keep it at the
forefront of your mind as you work.
Both must-be-true and could-be-false questions require you to determine

what must be true.
As it turns out, questions 3 and 6 are mirror images of each other: anything
that must be true cannot be false. On a must-be-true question, you diagram the
new information, definitively place as many other elements as possible, and pick
an answer choice that matches what you’ve diagrammed. On a could-be-false
question, the first two steps are the same, but instead of selecting the answer that
matches your diagram, you eliminate it as an incorrect choice. It cannot be false
(or in other words, it must be true).
Question 6 tells you that M comes second. First, you’ll plug that into the
diagram:
If M comes second, the second clue tells you P must come third:
Scanning the answer choices reveals that you can’t cross anything out yet.
Next, your down-to-two deduction tells you that if M is second, L must come
first:
That tells you that L must come before both P and S, so you can eliminate
answer choices A and E.
Finally, the third clue tells you that R and T must appear consecutively, so
they go in slots 5 and 6. You don’t know what order R and T appear in, so you’ll
place them using the “either/or” notation.
That tells you that S must come before both T and R, which eliminates
answers B and D. That leaves you with answer C: “Emily walks the Retriever
after she walks the Terrier.” Not necessarily! Emily could walk the Terrier after
the Retriever, as your diagram clearly shows. Therefore, answer C could be
false, so it is the right answer.
Again, carefully read the language of the question and always keep in mind
what the question is asking you to determine. For question 6, if you thought you
were looking for an answer that must be false instead of one that could be false,
you would definitely waste a lot of time on a wild goose chase.
Questions That Do Not Give You New Information. Having worked all of the
questions that give you new information, you’ll finally turn to the questions that
don’t. Use a three-step process to tackle such questions: 1. Can you answer this
question using the clues and your deductions?
2. Can you answer this question using work you did on previous questions?
3. Can you answer this question using the process of elimination?
Each of the three remaining questions illustrates one step in that process.

(A) Emily walks the Terrier second.
(B) Emily walks the Labrador third.
(C) Emily walks the Mutt third.
(D) Emily walks the Retriever sixth.
(E) Emily walks the Poodle sixth.
Question 2 simply asks you to pick an answer choice that must be false based
only on the information in the setup and the clues.
The first step on a question that does not give you any new information is to
look for the answer in your deductions.
The correct answer to a question like this one is never merely a restatement of
one of the clues. You might be able to use the clues to eliminate some incorrect
answer choices, but arriving at the correct answer will always require you to
make some kind of deduction.
The best place to start is with the deductions you already made. Here, that’s
all it takes. You already deduced that M can never be in slot 3. That deduction
makes answer C the correct choice.

(A) Emily walks the Mutt first.
(B) Emily walks the Labrador second.
(C) Emily walks the Terrier fifth.
(E) Emily walks the Retriever third.
Question 4 asks which of its answer choices must be false. On must-be-false
questions, you can eliminate any answer choice that could be true.
Therefore, your first step is to check to see if any of the answer choices match
up with any of your deductions to create a legal arrangement of the elements.
Once again, you’re in luck. Your block-splitting deduction tells you that L can’t
be second, so it must be false. Therefore, answer B is the correct choice.
But you noted above that block-splitting deductions are the most difficult
kind of deduction to make. What would you do if you hadn’t made the block-
splitting deduction? In that case, you would use the second tactic for
approaching questions that don’t give you any new information: rely on the work
you’ve done in answering previous questions.
The second step on a question that does not give you any new information is
to use your work on previous questions to select or eliminate answer
choices.
If you hadn’t made the block-splitting deduction, at this point your diagram
would look like this:
In the course of diagramming your answers to questions 3 and 6, you’ve

already generated several examples of ways in which all six of the elements in
the game could legally be placed. Accordingly, if your answers to those
questions demonstrate that one or more of the answer choices to question 4
could be true, you can eliminate those choices. Using this tactic, you can
eliminate answer choices D and E based on your answer to question 3 and
answer choice C based on your answer to question 6.
All that’s left is to pick between answer A and answer B. Your work on
previous questions does not enable you to eliminate either choice, so you’ll have
to turn to your third and final tactic for these kinds of questions: using the
process of elimination. There are only two choices left, so you can just pick one
process of elimination. There are only two choices left, so you can just pick one
and diagram it. If it must be false, you’ve got your answer.
Start with answer choice A. Could it be true that Emily walks M first? If you
plug M into slot 1, the second clue tells you that P must come second:
The third clue tells you that R and T must be in consecutive slots; the only
place to make that happen is in slots 5 and 6:

That forces L into slot 3:
Having L in slot 3 and T in slot 5 or slot 6 satisfies the first clue, so this is a
legal arrangement. Since it could be true that Emily walks M first, you can
eliminate answer choice A, leaving answer B as the correct answer to question 4.
Your work on question 4 highlights two things. On the one hand, it is
extremely helpful to take the time up front to Make deductions. On the other
hand, if you overlook a deduction, it’s not the end of the world. You can still
arrive at the correct answer to a question; it’s just going to take you longer.
Finally, turn to question 5.
5. Which one of the following is a complete and accurate list of the positions in
which Emily could walk the Retriever?
(A) 5, 6
(A) 5, 6
(B) 3, 5
(C) 3, 5, 6
(D) 2, 3, 5, 6
(E) 1, 2, 3, 5, 6
Don’t let the wording of the question confuse you; this is not the kind of
question you should always work first. Not only is it not the first question
associated with the game, but it asks you only about one element instead of
every element in the game.
Here, you’re looking for a list of the slots where R could appear that is both
accurate (no wrong answers included) and complete (no right answers excluded).
The steps to working this question are the same. First you turn to your
deductions. You know that R can’t go first, so you can eliminate choice E as
inaccurate.
Next, you’ll use your work on previous questions:
Your work on question 3 tells you that R can go third, so answer A is an

incomplete list. Your work on questions 4 and 6 tells you that R can go sixth, so
you can also eliminate answer B as incomplete.
The only choices left are answers C and D, and you can’t eliminate either one
based on your answers to other questions, so you’ll have to use the process of
elimination. Since the only difference between those two answers is whether R
can go second, you’ll plug that into your diagram and see if you can make it
work.
And you can: the third clue places T in slot 3; the second clue places M and P
in 5 and 6; and the first clue places L in slot 1.
Since R can appear in slot 2, answer C is an incomplete list. Accordingly,
choice D is the correct answer to question 5.
Clue Symbolization Drills

The game that you’ve just worked through is a relatively straightforward
example of a one-tiered ordering game. There are many different ways the test
writers can increase the difficulty level of one-tiered ordering games. By far the
most common technique they use is giving you clues that are difficult to
understand, difficult to symbolize, and difficult to work with. These
symbolization drills are designed to introduce some of those more difficult clue
types.
Instructions: Below are examples of clues applied to the setup of the sample
game that might appear in one-tiered ordering games. Use the “what does it look
like?” principle to symbolize each of these clues (remember you can input some
clues directly into your diagram). Also make a note of any can’t-be-first-or-last
deductions. Answers appear on the following page.
1. Emily cannot walk the Terrier second.

2. Emily must walk the Labrador before she walks both the Mutt and the
Retriever.
3. Emily must walk either the Schnauzer or the Poodle immediately before she
walks the Mutt.
4. Emily must walk the Labrador before she walks the Terrier but after she
walks the Poodle.
5. The Poodle must be one of the last three dogs Emily walks.
6. Emily must walk exactly two dogs in between the Mutt and the Retriever.
7. Emily must walk at least two dogs in between the Mutt and the Retriever.
8. Emily walks the Terrier either at some time before she walks the Labrador
or at some time after she walks the Poodle, but not both.
9. Either Emily walks the Poodle before both the Retriever and the Mutt, or she
walks both the Retriever and the Mutt before the Poodle.
10. Emily walks the Terrier before the Mutt, or else she walks the Terrier before
the Labrador, but not both.
Clue Symbolization Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. T — L/P — T
~(P — T — L)
Note that this clue does not support any can’t-be-first-or-last deductions.
9.
Note that this clue does not support any can’t-be-first-or-last deductions.
10.

Case 2
Working with Conditional Statements
As noted at the beginning of the chapter, there are only two tasks the Logic
Games section will ask you to perform: ordering and grouping. Case 1
introduced you to ordering games. Before you can turn to grouping games,
however, you need to take a moment to learn how to identify and work with a
particular type of clue.
The purpose of this case is to introduce you to conditional statements.
Working with conditional statements is essential to success on the Logic Games
section. It is guaranteed that on test day you will have to symbolize and work
with multiple clues that are conditional statements. In recent years, every single
grouping game on the LSAT has had at least one conditional-statement clue.
Many ordering games employ them as well.
This case will proceed in three parts. First, we’ll discuss what a conditional
statement is, how to symbolize a basic conditional statement, and how to make
the deduction that every conditional statement supports. Next, we’ll deal with
translating and symbolizing more complex conditional statements. Last, you’ll
have a chance to practice these skills with a series of drills.
Basic Conditional Statements

A conditional statement is an “if–then” statement. For example, “If something is
an apple, then it is a fruit” is a conditional statement. We’ll call the portion of the
statement that follows the “if” the condition, and the portion that follows the
“then” we’ll label the consequence.
A conditional statement is a statement that says, “If (condition), then

(consequence).”
Each time you see a conditional statement on the Logic Games section, you’ll
take the same three steps:
1. Abbreviate the elements that make up the statement.

1. Abbreviate the elements that make up the statement.
2. Symbolize the statement using an arrow.
3. Symbolize the statement’s contrapositive.
For step 1, abbreviate “apple” as “A” and “fruit” as “F.”

Next, symbolize the conditional statement using an arrow. The condition—
that’s the statement that follows “if”—goes in front of the arrow. The
consequence—the statement that follows “then”—goes behind the arrow. So, “If
something is an apple, then it is a fruit” becomes “A → F.”
Third, you’ll make the standard deduction that follows from every conditional
statement. That deduction is known as the contrapositive. If something is an
apple, then it must be a fruit. Therefore, if something is not a fruit, then it cannot
be an apple. A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically
equivalent to one another: when you know a conditional statement is true, you
can be certain that its contrapositive is also true.
Symbolically, to take the contrapositive of “A → F,” follow these two steps:
1. Flip sides. Take the element before the arrow and move it after the arrow.
Take the element after the arrow and move it before the arrow.
2. Flip signs. Take any element that is positive and negate it. Take any element
that is negative and make it positive.
Thus, the contrapositive of “A → F” is “F → A.”
Working with Conditional Statements

You now know that two things are true:
A → F
F → A
Based on those two conditional statements, what do you know if:
1. Something is an apple?
2. Something is not an apple?
3. Something is a fruit?
4. Something is not a fruit?
Again, start in plain English.
1. If something is an apple, then it must be a fruit.

1. If something is an apple, then it must be a fruit.
2. If something is not an apple, does it follow that it is not a fruit? No. The thing
could be an orange or a pear.
3. If you know that something is a fruit, does it follow that it must be an apple?
No. Again, it could be another type of fruit.
4. If something is not a fruit, you can be sure that it is not an apple.
Conditional statements are based on their conditions. The statement only tells
you something if the condition is satisfied. If the condition is not satisfied, the
statement tells you nothing.
Always follow the arrow when working with conditional statements.
Understanding this distinction is critical to success on the Logic Games

section. The first half of a conditional statement can be false, and the second half
can still be true. Here’s an easy way to remember this rule: Follow the arrow.
A → F
F → A
If you know A, the arrow points you to F. If you know ~F, the arrow points you
to A. But if you know F or A, the conditional statement tells you nothing; you’re
on the wrong side of the arrow. As long as you never go against the arrow, you
won’t misinterpret a conditional statement.
Complex Conditional Statements: Multiple Elements

Statements in the form of “If A, then B” are the simplest kind of conditional
statement. But the Logic Games section also employs conditional statements in
more complicated forms. Fortunately, you can use a standard set of steps to
symbolize these more complicated conditionals and accurately state their
contrapositives.
As an example, start with the statement, “If not A or B, then C and not D.”
You can symbolize that statement using your standard “~” as a negative and the
“&” and “/” signs for “and” and “or,” respectively: ~A / B → C & ~D
The tricky part is correctly writing out that statement’s contrapositive. To do
so, follow these three steps:
1. Flip sides. This is the same as before: take the elements before the arrow and
move them after the arrow, and vice versa.
2. Flip signs. This is also the same as before. Flip all negatives into positives,
and negate anything that is positive.
3. Flip connectors. “And” becomes “or,” and “or” becomes “and.” Take any
“&” and make it a “.” Take any “” and make it an “&.”
When symbolizing a contrapositive, everything flips: sides, signs, and

connectors.
Here’s what those steps look like when applied to a conditional statement in
the form of ~A / B → C & ~D:
1. C D → A B
2. ~C D → A ~B
3. ~C / D → A & ~B
That’s all there is to it. “If not C or D, then A and not B” is the contrapositive of
the statement “If not A or B, then C and not D.”
Complex Conditional Statements: Ordering Clues

One type of complex conditional statement is particularly relevant. To illustrate
it, return to the game you worked in Case 1. Suppose that game had included the
following clue: “If Emily walks the Retriever before she walks the Terrier, then
she must walk the Mutt before she walks the Schnauzer.”
You would symbolize such a clue like this:
R — T → M — S
Clues like this—conditional statements that dictate the order in which certain
elements appear—have been very common on recent LSATs. To take its
contrapositive, all you have to do is flip sides and flip signs: 1. M — S → R —
T
2. ~(M — S) → ~(R — T)
In the context of the sample game, there’s a more useful way to flip signs. Recall
that Emily must walk the dogs one at a time. If M is not before S, that means that
M is after S. Thus, when you’re flipping signs on a clue like this, “before”
becomes “after,” and “after” becomes “before.” That rule will allow you to
becomes “after,” and “after” becomes “before.” That rule will allow you to
diagram the contrapositive the same way you would diagram the other clues: S
— M → T — R
Complex Conditional Statements: Translating Phrases Other Than If–Then

The final skill you’ll need to work effectively with conditional statements is the
ability to translate and symbolize conditional statements that use nonstandard
language. For example, each of the following is a conditional statement: 1. B
only if A
2. Not B unless A
3. All A are B
4. No A are B
5. B if, but only if, A

The following list offers ways each of these statements can be symbolized
using the standard → sign for conditionals.
B only if A = B → A
Symbolizing “only if” statements can be tricky. In a standard “if–then”
statement, whatever comes after “if” is placed in front of the arrow. By contrast,
when the clue uses “only if” language, whatever comes after the “only if” is
placed behind the arrow.
“Not B unless A” = B → A
Translating an “unless” statement into a conditional involves two steps:
1. Take what follows “unless” and make it the back half of your symbolization.
2. Take what comes before the “unless,” negate it, and make it the front half of
your symbolization.
“All A are B” = A → B
“No A are B” = A → ~B
These two are fairly straightforward. The trick is recognizing that all-or-nothing
statements like these are actually conditional statements.
“B if, but only if, A” = A → B and B → A
This is probably the trickiest type of conditional statement you might run across
This is probably the trickiest type of conditional statement you might run across
on test day. The reason it’s tricky is that it’s actually two conditional statements
—(1) “B if A”; and (2) “B only if A”—disguised as one. That’s why it takes two
separate symbolizations to diagram it correctly.
Conditional Statement Drills

You’ll practice working with conditional statements in grouping games in the
next case. Below are examples of conditional-statement clues that might appear
in one-tiered ordering games. The clues refer back to the game you worked in
Case 1 in which Emily walked the dogs. For each of these questions, symbolize
the clue and symbolize the contrapositive. Answers follow.
QUESTIONS
1. Emily must walk the Mutt fifth if she does not walk the Terrier second.
2. Emily walks the Schnauzer second if, but only if, she walks the Retriever
sixth.
3. If Emily walks the Mutt before the Poodle, then she walks the Terrier after the
Labrador.
4. Emily walks the Retriever first, unless she walks the Schnauzer fifth.
5. Emily does not walk the Retriever first unless she walks the Schnauzer fifth.
6. If Emily walks the Mutt third, then she walks the Retriever immediately
before she walks the Schnauzer.
7. If Emily walks the Terrier third, then she walks the Terrier before both the
Labrador and the Schnauzer.
8. If Emily walks the Retriever before she walks the Mutt, then she walks the
Schnauzer before both the Terrier and the Labrador.
ANSWERS
1. ~T2 → M5
~M5 → T2
2. Emily walks the Schnauzer second if she walks the Retriever sixth.
R6 → S2
~S2 → ~R6
Emily walks the Schnauzer second only if she walks the Retriever sixth.
S2 → R6
~R6 → ~S2
3. M — P → L — T
T — L → P — M
4. ~R1 → S5
~S5 → R1
5. R1 → S5
~S5 → ~R1
6.
7.
8.

Case 3
Grouping Games: Ralph Hosts a Dinner Party
The purpose of this case is to introduce grouping games. Of the 60 games that
appeared on the 15 publicly available LSATs from 2006 to 2010, 16—about 27
percent—were grouping games. That means that, on average, one of the four
games in a Logic Games section is a grouping game.
Recall from Case 1 the six-step method that you learned for tackling one-
tiered ordering games:
1. Identify the game type

2. Begin your diagram
3. Symbolize the clues
4. Double-check your symbolizations
5. Make deductions
6. Answer the questions in the smartest order

This case will show you how to use this same method to work grouping
games. The primary difference will be in how the game is set up—and,
correspondingly, what your diagram looks like. Take a moment to attempt this
game before you turn to the discussion and explanation that follows.
Ralph is hosting a dinner party. Because his table has limited seating, he must
invite exactly four guests. He will select his guests from the following list of
eight of his friends: Angelica, Brunson, Cathy, Daisuka, Finley, Grant, Helen,
and Isaiah. Based on what he knows about his friends, Ralph will choose whom
to invite to the party consistent with the following: He does not invite both
Angelica and Brunson.
He does not invite Grant if he invites Finley.

If he invites Angelica, he does not invite Isaiah.
If he invites Daisuka, then he also invites Angelica.
He invites either Helen or Isaiah, but he does not invite them both.
He invites either Helen or Isaiah, but he does not invite them both.
If he does not invite Cathy, he invites Grant.
1. Which of the following could be the four guests whom Ralph invites to
dinner?
(A) Angelica, Brunson, Cathy, and Helen
(B) Angelica, Cathy, Daisuka, and Helen
(C) Angelica, Daisuka, Finley, and Helen
(D) Cathy, Finley, Grant, and Helen
(E) Cathy, Daisuka, Grant, and Helen
2. If Ralph invites Daisuka, then which of the following could be true?

(A) He also invites Brunson
(B) He does not invite Helen.
(C) He also invites Cathy.
(D) He does not invite Angelica.
(E) He also invites Finley.
3. If Ralph invites Brunson and Helen, then which of the following guests must
he also invite?
(A) Cathy
(B) Finley
(C) Isaiah
(D) Grant
(E) Daisuka
4. Ralph could invite either Angelica or Brunson if he also invites which of the
following pairs of guests?
(A) Cathy and Daisuka
(B) Cathy and Isaiah
(C) Grant and Isaiah
(D) Daisuka and Helen
(E) Grant and Helen
5. If Ralph invites Cathy, which of the following guests, if invited, would

result in the guest list for the party being completely determined?
(A) Isaiah
(A) Isaiah
(B) Finley
(C) Daisuka
(D) Brunson
(E) Grant

Again, to determine what type of game you’re dealing with, you look to the
language in the setup and the language in the clues. This game asks you to sort
the elements into two lists: those who are invited to the dinner party, and those
who are not. That makes this a grouping game.
The setup of a grouping game will contain language that instructs you to
“select,” “choose,” or “assign” certain elements “from” or “among” a list to a
particular group, bin, or team. The setup may introduce the clues with language
telling you that the clues limit the composition of each group, the formation of
each team, or the assignment or selection of the elements.
In the clues, look for language that keeps elements together or forces them
apart by assigning them to the same or a different group or team. Similarly, the
clue might tell you that a certain team or group cannot have a particular element,
must have a particular element, must have both of two elements, or must have
one or the other but not both of two elements. In addition, most grouping games
utilize conditional clues that tell you what happens if a certain element is
included, excluded, selected, omitted, on, off, in, or out.
Grouping games contain language in the setup telling you to select, choose,
or assign elements to teams, groups, or bins.
This game, with Ralph hosting a dinner party, is the most typical type of
LSAT grouping game in two respects. First, it has only two groups. You’ll also
encounter grouping games with more groups, but two-group games are much
more common.
Second, the “people who are not invited” is a second, equally important
group. That’s typical of two-group grouping games on the LSAT: the game tells
you only that certain elements must be invited, selected, chosen, assigned, or
taken. It’s left to you to create a second group.

Create a diagram that captures the logical relationship between the game’s
elements. What does this game look like?
elements. What does this game look like?
Imagine Ralph drawing up his guest list. On one side of the list are the people
he’s inviting, and on the other side are the folks who didn’t make the cut. As to
each element, the game asks, “Are you invited? Yes or no?” That points the way
to the beginning of a diagram:

This game provides one additional piece of information that is critical to a
proper diagram: “he must invite exactly four guests.” A more difficult grouping
game might leave the number of elements in each group undefined, limited only
by the information in the clues. But here, we know we have two groups of equal
size: four yeses, four nos; we’ll draw that fact directly into our diagram:

Recall the general principles of symbolization discussed in Case 1. You should
symbolize the clues so that they look on the page as they’ll look in the diagram.
And whenever possible, symbolize clues directly into the diagram.
Clue 1: “He does not invite both Angelica and Brunson.”

This clue tells you that A and B cannot both be in the “yes” group; that means
one slot in the “no” group will always be reserved for either A or B. You should
symbolize this clue directly into your diagram using a placeholder in the “no”
group:
That placeholder tells you that one slot in the “no” is always spoken for by either
A or B.
Two-group grouping games like this one are where you’ll really reap the
benefits of mastering Case 2’s discussion of conditional statements. This clue
also tells you that if Ralph invites Angelica, he cannot invite Brunson: A → ~B
and that if he invites Brunson, he cannot invite Angelica:
B → ~A
List those clues out to the side of your diagram.
Recall from Case 2 that there is a standard deduction that follows
automatically from every conditional statement: its contrapositive. Any time you
symbolize a conditional statement, you should immediately also symbolize its
contrapositive. It’s important to get in the habit of doing this automatically.
Here, that means you should also write the following out to the side of your
diagram: ~A → B
~B → A
Clue 2: “He does not invite Grant if he invites Finley.”

This is a common wrinkle: a conditional clue that lists the consequence before
the condition. As long as you remember that the condition is the statement that
follows “if,” you’ll diagram these clues correctly: F → ~G
G → ~F
Any time you symbolize a conditional clue, you should also immediately
symbolize its contrapositive.
Clue 3: “If he invites Angelica, he does not invite Isaiah.”
Clue 4: “If he invites Daisuka, then he also invites Angelica.”

These two clues are more of the same:
A → ~I, and its contrapositive:
I → ~A
D → A, and its contrapositive:
A → D
Clue 5: “He invites either Helen or Isaiah, but he does not invite them both.”
This is a very useful clue because it’s actually two clues. First, it tells you that
one spot in your “yes” group is always occupied by either H or I, as is one spot
in your “no” group. You can use placeholders to symbolize that information
Second, this clue tells you both that if Ralph invites H, he can’t invite I, and
also that if he doesn’t invite H, then he must invite I. You should also symbolize
each of those conditional statements along with its contrapositive.
H → ~I, and its contrapositive:
I → ~H
~H → I, and its contrapositive:
~I → H
Clue 6: “If he does not invite Cathy, he invites Grant.”

By now the proper symbolization of this clue should be familiar:
~C → G, and
~G → C

Translate your symbolizations into English, then verify what you come up with
against the language of the clue. Once you’ve done that, you should have a setup
and a list of clues that look like this:
Recall the three types of deductions you looked for in Case 1’s ordering game in
which Emily walked the dogs:
Since the elements don’t appear in any order, you won’t be able to make the first
type of deduction.
That takes you to repeated-element deductions. This game presents an
opportunity to make a particular kind of repeated-element deduction, which
we’ll call conditional-combination deductions.
To make a conditional-combination deduction:
1. Look for an element that appears in the front half of one conditional clue and
in the back half of another. In other words, the same element needs to be on
the left side of one arrow and the right side of a different arrow.
2. Combine the statements.
To make conditional-combination deductions, look for an element that is on

the left side of one arrow and the right side of another.
For example, your list of clues for this game looks like this (the clues are
numbered on this list for ease of reference): 1. A → ~B
B → ~A
2. F → ~G
G → ~F
3. A → ~I
I → ~A
4. D → A
A → D
5. H → ~I
I → ~H
~H → I
~I → H
6. ~C → G
~G → C
Look at clues 6 and 2. G appears on the right side of the arrow in clue 6 (~C
→ G), and it appears on the left side of the arrow in the contrapositive of clue 2
(G → F). Therefore, you can combine those two statements to make the
following deduction: C → G & ~F. You can add that deduction to the bottom of
your list of clues.
You can make a similar deduction by combining clues 1 and 4. Take a
moment to make it yourself.
The net result of B → ~A and A → D is B → A & D.
This game will support one final conditional-combination deduction, and it’s
a big one: four separate clues are involved. See if you can identify which ones
they are. Remember, find an element that appears on the right side of one arrow
and the left side of another. Continue to repeat the process until no more
combinations are available.
combinations are available.
Here, your big deduction starts with clue 4: D → A. Clue 1 gives you A → B,
clue 3 gives you A → I, and the last part of clue 5 gives you ~I → H. Put them
together and you’ve got: D → A, B, I, & H
In a two-group grouping game like this, this is an immensely valuable deduction.
If D is in the “yes” group, it dramatically constrains the game; you automatically
know what happens with five out of the eight elements.
At this point, the list of clues and deductions running down the side of your
diagram should look like this:
CLUES
A → ~B
B → ~A
F → ~G
G → ~F
A → ~I
I → ~A
D → A
A → D
H → ~I
I → ~H
~H → I
~I → H
~C → G
~G → C
DEDUCTIONS
C → G & F
B → A & D
D → A, B, I, & H
That’s a lot of information to keep track of; this is one of the ways the LSAT’s
writers can increase the difficulty level of a game.
No other conditional-combination deductions are available, so look now for
down-to-two deductions. Two-group grouping games like this one frequently
support a particular type of down-to-two deduction.
Recall clue 2: “He does not invite Grant if he invites Finley.” You
symbolized that clue as:
symbolized that clue as:
F → ~G
G → ~F
This is a one-or-the-other clue. If Ralph invites Finley, he can’t invite Grant. If
he invites Grant, he can’t invite Finley. There’s no scenario in which both F and
G are in your “yes” group. That means that at least one or the other of F and G
will always be in the “no” group. Make note of that fact using a placeholder:
Importantly, there’s no placeholder in the “yes” group. It would be perfectly

consistent with clue 2 for both F and G to be in the “no” group.
So how do you identify a one-or-the-other clue that will support this
particular kind of down-to-two deduction? To make down-to-two deductions in
two-group grouping games with conditional clues, look for clues that tell you
that one element must be a “yes” if the other is a “no.” In other order words, the
language of the clue will track the names of the groups. You have two groups in
this game: “yes” and “no.” And clue 2 tells you that if one element (F) is in
“yes,” then another element (G) must be in “no.”
There is one other clue in this game that will support the same kind of
deduction. Take a moment to see if you can identify it.
Clue 6 tells you that there is no scenario under which Ralph invites neither
Grant nor Cathy. If Grant is a “no,” Cathy is a “yes.” If Cathy is a “no,” Grant
must be a “yes.” One or the other of them must be in your “yes” group, so
represent that fact with a placeholder:
There are no other down-to-two deductions available, and there are no block
clues in this game, so you won’t be able to make any block-splitting deductions.
That means you’re ready to turn to the questions.

The way to approach the questions in a grouping game is the same as the way to
approach them in an ordering game:

The Complete-and-Accurate-List Question. Question 1 is a Complete and

Accurate List question, although it might not look like one at first.
1. Which of the following could be the four guests whom Ralph invites to
dinner?
(A) Angelica, Brunson, Cathy, and Helen
(B) Angelica, Cathy, Daisuka, and Helen
(C) Angelica, Daisuka, Finley, and Helen
(D) Cathy, Finley, Grant, and Helen
(E) Cathy, Daisuka, Grant, and Helen
Each answer choice is a complete list of the members of a “yes” group;

correspondingly, each “no” group is made up of the four elements not listed. To
answer this question, work with each of the clues one at a time. Pick a clue, then
scan the answers looking for a choice that violates the rule that clue establishes.
Repeat this process with all of the clues.
Here, answer A violates clue 1, answer D violates clue 2, none of the answers
violates clue 3, answer E violates clue 4, none of the answers violates clue 5, and
answer C violates clue 6. The down-to-two deduction you made based on clue 6
is helpful here; it makes it much easier to recognize that answer C must be
eliminated because it contains neither Grant nor Cathy. As a result, the correct
choice is answer B.
Questions That Give You More Information. Next up is question 2, which

instructs you to plug D into the “yes” group and asks what could be true a result.
2. If Ralph invites Daisuka, then which of the following could be true?

(A) He also invites Brunson.
(B) He does not invite Helen.
(C) He also invites Cathy.
(D) He does not invite Angelica.
(E) He also invites Finley.
Reviewing your list of clues and deductions, you see that putting D in the “yes”
group is the triggering condition for your biggest deduction: D → A, B, I, & H
A and H also go in “yes,” while B and I must go to “no”:
Just by plugging in that deduction, you learn that answer choices A, B, and D
can be eliminated; they all must be false.
You have only one spot open in the “yes” group, which clue 6 tells you must
be filled by either G or C. None of the rest of the clues requires that last spot to
be filled by G in particular or C in particular, so you know it can be either one.
With your “yes” group filled, you know that F must be a “no,” along with the
other of G or C:
Since F must be a “no,” answer E must be false. As the diagram illustrates, the
correct answer to question 2 is answer C: it could be true that Ralph invites
Cathy.
Question 3 asks who must also be invited if Brunson and Helen are invited.
3. If Ralph invites Brunson and Helen, then which of the following guests must
he also invite?
(A) Cathy
(B) Finley
(C) Isaiah
(D) Grant
(E) Daisuka
The question gives you concrete new information to work with: B and H are
both in the “yes” group. The first step is to plug that new information into the
diagram and then combine it with the clues and deductions that also give you
information about B and H. Here, clue 1 tells you that if B is a “yes,” A must be
a “no,” and clue 5 tells you that if H is a “yes,” then I must be a “no.”
Scanning the answer choices, you see that you can already eliminate answer
choice C. Because A is not invited, the fourth clue tells you that D must also be
in the “no,” group:

That allows you to eliminate answer choice E, but that’s as far as you can go,
and you don’t yet have enough information to answer the question. What next?
Unable to fill in the rest of your diagram, you have to turn to the process of
elimination. But that doesn’t mean you should just grab the first answer choice
you see and plug it into your diagram. That approach is time-consuming; you
could end up having to diagram three or four possibilities. There’s a smarter way
to eliminate answer choices. It’s based on the down-to-two concept you’re
familiar with from making deductions.
When you have to use the process of elimination, look for a slot in your
diagram that is restricted to two possibilities.
The down-to-two strategy for the process of elimination works like this: If
there’s any slot in your diagram that you know is restricted to two possibilities,
diagram both of them. Once you do, you’ll know you’ve exhausted all of the
game’s possible arrangements. That will allow you to determine what must be or
what could be true.
Here, you know that the last slot in the “no” group must be occupied by either
F or G. So you can draw two scenarios—one where F is a “no,” and one where
G is a “no”—and be certain you’ve covered the full universe of possibilities.
If F is a “no,” that forces both G and C into the “yes” group:
Scanning through your clues, you can verify that this arrangement doesn’t
violate any of the rules. Next, if G is a “no,” that forces F and C into the “yes”
group:
This arrangement, too, is consistent with all the clues. This allows you to
arrive at answer A as the correct answer to question 3: Ralph could invite either
Finley or Grant, but he only must invite Cathy.
The last question that gives you new information is question 5.
5. If Ralph invites Cathy, which of the following guests, if invited, would

result in the guest list for the party being completely determined?
(A) Isaiah
(B) Finley
(C) Daisuka
(D) Brunson
(E) Grant
This is one of the more difficult question types you’ll encounter on the Logic
Games section. You want to look for answer choices that contain elements that
are heavily restricted. The more information you have about an element, the
more likely it is that placing that element will completely determine the game.
On questions that ask which element must be placed to completely

determine the game, start with the elements about which you have the most
information.
In this game the choice is easy. The last conditional-combination deduction

you made showed you that if D is in the “yes” group, you automatically know
what happens with four other elements: D → A, B, I, & H.
In other words, if D is a “yes,” A and H must also be “yeses.” The question tells
you that C also must be a “yes”—that makes four elements in the “yes” group,
which completely determines the game. Consequently, the correct answer to
question 5 is answer C.
If you hadn’t been able to zero in on D based on your deductions, you would
have worked through the answer choices one at a time. If, after plugging in the
answer, any slot in the game is not definitively filled, you would eliminate that
answer, any slot in the game is not definitively filled, you would eliminate that
choice and move on. There’s no faster or smarter way to tackle these kinds of
questions.
The Remaining Questions. That brings you to question 4, the only question
associated with this game that does not give you any new information.
4. Ralph could invite either Angelica or Brunson if he also invites which of the
following pairs of guests?
(A) Cathy and Daisuka
(B) Cathy and Isaiah
(C) Grant and Isaiah
(D) Daisuka and Helen
(E) Grant and Helen
You’ll approach this question by applying the three techniques introduced in

Case 1 in sequential order:
1. Can you answer this question using the clues and your deductions?
2. Can you answer this question using work you did on previous questions?
3. Can you answer this question by plugging the answer choices into your
diagram?
Question 4 asks which two guests can be invited so that Ralph would still be
free to invite either Angelica or Brunson. In other words, what pair of invitees
makes A and B interchangeable?
First, work with the clues and your deductions. The correct answer will not
contain any element that, when placed in the “yes” group, requires either A or B
to be invited. Similarly, the correct answer will not contain any element that,
when placed in the “yes” group, prohibits either A or B from being invited.
1. Find either A, A, B, or B as a consequence, behind the arrow.

2. Eliminate the element that is the condition.
1. A → ~B
B → ~A
2. F → ~G
G → ~F
3. A → ~I
3. A → ~I
I → ~A
4. D → A
A → D
5. H → ~I
I → ~H
~H → I
~I → H
6. ~C → G
~G → C
Looking over your clues, you first come across the contrapositive of clue 3: I →
~A. If I is invited, Ralph is prohibited from inviting A. That allows you to
eliminate answer choices B and C. Next up is clue 4: D → A. Since inviting D
obligates Ralph to also invite A, you can eliminate answer choices A and D. By
the process of elimination, you know that the correct answer must be answer
choice E.
Grouping Game Setup Drills

The grouping game you just finished was not particularly easy. The fact that
every single clue was a conditional statement added a substantial measure of
difficulty. On the other hand, the fact that the game specified that each group had
exactly four members made working it a lot easier.
There are a variety of ways that grouping games can be made more difficult.
The following page contains two setup drills that are designed to introduce you
to some of the variants on grouping games you might encounter on test day.
Each drill contains the setup and the clues of a grouping game, but no questions.
For each drill, symbolize the clues, begin your diagram, and make deductions.
Answers and comments follow the games.
Drill 1
A doctor will make rounds on which she visits her patients three times today: in
the morning, afternoon, and evening. She visits exactly five patients: A, B, C, D,
and E. On each round she visits at least two patients, and she must visit each
patient at least once. The doctor visits her patients in accordance with the
following restrictions: On each round, she visits either C or D.
She visits both C and E on exactly one of her rounds.

She visits B on exactly two of her rounds.
She visits B on exactly two of her rounds.
She does not visit A on a round unless she is not visiting either E or D.
Drill 2
A car dealer has received 10 new cars: three sedans—A, B, and C—four trucks
—F, G, H, and I—and three economy models—X, Y, and Z. The dealer only has
room in his showroom to display six of the cars. He must display the cars
consistent with the following conditions: He must display at least one of X or Y.
He displays exactly two trucks.

He does not display B if he displays C.
If he displays I, he also displays G.
If he displays A, he also displays Z.
DRILL 1
Comments. Four aspects of this game add to its difficulty:

1. Identifying the game type. At first glance, you might mistakenly identify this
as an ordering game, since the doctor is visiting patients on three sequential
rounds. It’s not until you read the clues (which have no “before/after” or
“earlier/later” language) that it becomes clear this is a grouping game.
2. Repeated elements. Clue 3 specifies that B appears exactly twice, and the
setup and the other clues leave open the possibility that the other elements
also could appear two or maybe three times. That adds a degree of difficulty
to the game.
3. Variable number of elements per group. The setup tells you that each group
must have at least two elements, but it gives you no guidance on what the
upper limit to the groups’ size is. Based on clue 4, you know that no group
will have all five elements, but that’s all you know. The lack of a fixed
number of elements per group also makes this game more difficult.
4. Clues that are hard to symbolize. Clues 1 and 4 are pretty standard, but
clues 2 and 3 are not. You just have to find a way to notate the information
they present in a way that makes sense to you (here, “exactly” has been
abbreviated as “ex.”).
DRILL 2
Comments. Three features of this game add to its difficulty:

1. Multiple element types. This is a common way the LSAT makes grouping
games more difficult: creating multiple types, kinds, or categories of elements.
When the game does that, your symbolizations should visually distinguish
between the different kinds of elements: here, the diagram shows upper-case,
lower-case, and underlined letters to distinguish the three kinds of automobile.
2. Sheer size. Increasing the number of elements involved in the game makes
the game more difficult. It’s harder to keep track of 10 elements than it is to
keep track of 6.
3. Identical elements. Two elements in this game—f and h—are free agents.
Other than the fact that they are trucks, the game places no restrictions on
them. They are functionally identical to each other; anything one can do, the
other can do, and vice versa. That’s an easy thing to lose sight of while
working a game; here, those two elements are circled as a reminder.

Case 4
Two-Tiered Ordering Games: Trudy Picks Her
Course Schedule
This case introduces the third major game type you’ll encounter on the Logic
Games section. Games like these require you to group the elements into teams
that are composed of exactly two elements. They also usually ask you to put the
elements and teams in a particular order. In other words, they typically involve
both the ordering task and the grouping task.
We’ll refer to these games as two-tiered ordering games. Fourteen of the last
sixty published games—that’s 23 percent, almost one out of every four—have
been two-tiered ordering games. You’re almost as likely to see one of these on
test day as you are to see a grouping game.
As the name suggests, the best way to approach these games is to use a
diagram that is derived from and very similar to the one you used to approach a
one-tiered ordering game. This case introduces that setup and some of the
distinctive kinds of clues two-tiered ordering games frequently utilize.
A sample two-tiered ordering game appears follows. This game has an
abbreviated set of questions because you’ll use the same approach to working
questions on two-tiered ordering games that you use on other types of games.
The few included here are designed to help familiarize you with working with
this kind of diagram. Take a moment to try to work this game on your own using
the familiar six-step approach before you turn to the explanation.
Trudy is a college student who is planning her course schedule for the upcoming
semester. To satisfy the requirements for graduation, she must take the following
six classes: Linguistics, Macroeconomics, Oceanography, Philosophy, Rhetoric,
and Sociology. She takes classes only on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays.
She takes exactly two classes per day, one at 11:00 a.m. and one at 3:00 p.m.
Trudy must schedule her classes consistent with the following: She cannot take
Macroeconomics and Rhetoric on the same day.
She must take Macroeconomics and Sociology on consecutive days.

She must take Philosophy on a later day than Oceanography.
She must take Linguistics sometime after she takes Sociology.
She must take Linguistics sometime after she takes Sociology.
She must take Oceanography at 11:00 a.m.
1. If Trudy takes Sociology at 11:00 a.m. on Wednesday, which one of the

(A) She takes Macroeconomics at 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday.
(B) She takes Oceanography at 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday.
(C) She takes Philosophy at 3:00 p.m. on Tuesday.
(D) She takes Linguistics at 3:00 p.m. on Monday.
(E) She takes Rhetoric at 3:00 p.m. on Monday.
2. Which of the following cannot be the pair of classes Trudy takes at 11:00
a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Tuesday, respectively?
(A) Philosophy and Sociology
(B) Sociology and Rhetoric
(C) Rhetoric and Linguistics
(D) Linguistics and Macroeconomics
(E) Macroeconomics and Philosophy
3. If Trudy takes both Macroeconomics and Philosophy at 11:00 a.m., which of

the following must be true?
(A) She takes Philosophy on Tuesday.
(B) She takes Macroeconomics on Tuesday.
(C) She takes Linguistics on Wednesday.
(D) She takes Rhetoric on Monday.
(E) She takes Oceanography on Monday.

As always, you’ll identify what type of game you’re dealing with by looking to
the language in the setup and the language in the clues. Two-tiered ordering
games have three linguistic hallmarks: 1. The setup and the clues will use both
grouping language and ordering language.
2. The game will have you assign exactly two elements to each group.
3. The two slots in each group will be specified.
For example, the setup of this game has a clear ordering component. Trudy is
taking classes in sequential order: first Monday, then Tuesday, then Wednesday,
and each day her 11:00 a.m. class comes before her 3:00 p.m. class. And the
clues are rife with ordering language: some classes must be taken on a later day
than, consecutive days with, or sometime before other classes.
At the same time, the setup of this game tells you that you’re assigning
elements (from a list of classes) to a particular group (a day of the week). And
the first clue tells you that M and R can’t be assigned to the same day. Both of
those instructions utilize grouping language.
The second hallmark is also clearly present: Trudy “takes exactly two classes
per day.” That type of instruction is a strong indicator that this is a two-tiered
ordering game.
Finally, not only does each group (day of the week) have two members, but
the slots into which those members will be placed are specified: one slot is
“11:00 a.m.” and the other is “3:00 p.m.” And the slots are not interchangeable,
as the fifth clue makes abundantly clear. This feature of the game—two-member
groups in which each member is assigned a specified slot—is also a telltale sign
of a two-tiered ordering game.
Not all two-tiered ordering games will have all three of these hallmarks.
Whenever you see a game that has two of the three, you should use the two-
tiered ordering setup.
One final point about identifying two-tiered ordering games. Not all two-
tiered ordering games will exhibit all three of these telltale features. But as long
as a game exhibits two of these three features, you should still use the two-tiered
ordering setup.
For example, some games might have you assign elements into two-member
groups, but the slots in the group will be interchangeable. Others will have you
assign exactly two elements to each group, and the slots in the group will be
specified, but there will be no ordering component to the game. You should still
use the diagram introduced in this case to set up those kinds of games.
Yes, you read that right: there are situations in which you should use the two-
tiered ordering setup even when the game does not involve ordering. If the game
tells you that each group has two slots, and each slot is specified, the approach
you’re learning in this game is the best one to use.
What does it look like? Visualize Trudy’s calendar. The days of the week run
left to right. The hours in the day proceed from top to bottom. We’ll use that
image to guide the structure of our diagram:
As we’ll see when we turn to symbolizing the clues, this diagram allows you to
accurately capture several different kinds of logical relationships between the
elements.
Clue 1: “She cannot take Macroeconomics and Rhetoric on the same day.”
What would this clue look like? If Trudy took M and R on the same day, they
would appear on top of each other in the diagram. This clue tells you that can’t
happen, so you’ll add the “not” sign. And finally, you’ll use the switching arrow
to convey that the clue means M and R can’t be on the same day.
Note that this does not mean that M can’t be at 11:00 and R at 3:00 (or vice
versa) on any given day.
Clue 2: “She must take Macroeconomics and Sociology on consecutive days.”

You saw a clue very similar to this one in Case 1, where Emily walked the
Retriever either immediately before or immediately after the Terrier. Your first
inclination might be to symbolize this clue the same way: M ↔ S
But that symbolization could be misleading. It would be consistent with this clue
for Trudy to take Macroeconomics on Tuesday afternoon and Sociology on
Wednesday morning. In other words, this clue permits M and S to appear in
consecutive slots, but in different tiers within those slots. You should diagram it
accordingly:
Clue 3: “She must take Philosophy on a later day than Oceanography.”
This type of clue also should be familiar to you from Case 1. This time, you can
use the same symbolization here that you used there, because it is an accurate
representation of how this clue will look in the diagram.
O — P
Clue 4: “She must take Linguistics sometime after she takes Sociology.”
Careful—this clue is something of a trap. Take a moment to compare it to clue 3.
Clue 4 permits an arrangement between L and S that clue 3 forbids between P
and O. Do you see it? This clue would allow Trudy to take Sociology at 11:00
a.m. on Wednesday and Linguistics at 3:00 p.m. the same day. But clue 3 would
prohibit her from taking O and P in those same time slots.
This type of clue—one that tells you only that one element must come
“sometime” after the other, preserving the possibility that they could appear in
the same group—is a common feature of two-tiered ordering games. And it’s not
easy to diagram because there’s no single symbolization that accurately
represents all the possibilities this clue allows. Both S — L
and
are legitimate options. You can add those two options, separated by a slash (/) to
indicate that either is acceptable, to your list of clues:

What you know definitively is that clue 4 bars both of the following two
arrangements:
~(L — S)
and
You can add both of those to your list.
Clue 5: “She must take Oceanography at 11:00 a.m.”

This clue takes you back to first principles: whenever possible, symbolize a clue
This clue takes you back to first principles: whenever possible, symbolize a clue

This step is the same from game to game: translate your symbolizations into
English, then make sure that your translations match up with the language of
each clue. Do this fully and carefully; there is no more valuable investment of
time on the Logic Games section.

Two-tiered ordering games give you an opportunity to make each of the four
major types of deductions:
In the first category, clue 2 tells you that P must come on a later day than O.
That means that P can’t be on Monday, and O can’t be Wednesday:
Clue 4 tells you that S must come sometime earlier than L, so you know that
S can’t be Monday at 11, and L can’t be Wednesday at 3:
You don’t have any other before-and-after type clues, so turn to repeated-
element deductions. Both M and S appear in multiple clues. But there’s no way
to combine the clues. Why not? Because in each case one clue tells you what the
element must do, while the other tells you what the element must not do.
Next, look for down-to-two deductions. You know from clue 5 that O must be
in one of the 11:00 a.m. slots, and your deduction from clue 2 tells you that O
can’t be at 11:00 a.m. on Wednesday. You can combine those two clues to
determine that O must appear either at 11:00 a.m. Monday or at 11:00 a.m.
Tuesday:
Finally, look for any block-splitting deductions:
1. Identify the blocked elements.

2. Determine where the block(s) can be placed.
3. Look for any slots where placing a single, unblocked element would split the
block.
Your only block clue here is clue 3: M and S must appear on consecutive
days. How could you satisfy that clue? You could place one on Monday and one
on Tuesday, or one on Tuesday and one on Wednesday. And that points the way
on Tuesday, or one on Tuesday and one on Wednesday. And that points the way
to a block-splitting deduction: no matter what, one of either M or S must be on
Tuesday: if, for example, you put both O and R on Tuesday, there would no way
to fill in the rest of the game that was consistent with clue 3.
Note that fact above your diagram:
And now you’re ready to tackle the questions.

As noted above, this game has an abbreviated set of questions. Since there is no
Complete and Accurate List question, turn directly to the questions that give you
new information. We start with question 1.
1. If Trudy takes Sociology at 11:00 a.m. on Wednesday, which one of the

(A) She takes Macroeconomics at 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday.
(B) She takes Oceanography at 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday.
(C) She takes Philosophy at 3:00 p.m. on Tuesday.
(D) She takes Linguistics at 3:00 p.m. on Monday.
(E) She takes Rhetoric at 3:00 p.m. on Monday.
First you’ll utilize any clues that also give you information about S. Clue 4 tells
you that L must come after S; there’s only one slot in the game that satisfies that
requirement:
That allows you to eliminate answer choice D. Clue 3 tells you that if S is on
Wednesday, then M must be sometime on Tuesday:
Now that you know that M must be on Tuesday, clue 1 tells you that R must
be on Monday, as M and R can’t be on the same day:
A scan of the answers reveals that you can’t select or eliminate any more
choices, so you’ll keep working. All that’s left is to place P and O, and clues 2
and 5 make that relatively easy. From clue 2, you know that P must be on
Tuesday and O on Monday. Clue 5 tells you that O must be Monday at 11:00
a.m., which means R must be in the afternoon. You don’t have any further
information on M and P, however, so either of those elements could occupy
either Tuesday slot:

As the diagram illustrates, the correct answer to question 1 is answer E. Answers
B and D must be false, while answers A and C could be, but need not, be true.
Now we’ll look at question 3.
3. If Trudy takes both Macroeconomics and Philosophy at 11:00 a.m., which of

the following must be true?
(A) She takes Philosophy on Tuesday.
(B) She takes Macroeconomics on Tuesday.
(D) She takes Rhetoric on Monday.
(E) She takes Oceanography on Monday.
Clue 5 tells you that O also must be at 11:00 a.m., so you now know that M, P,
and O must occupy the three morning slots, while S, L, and R must be in the
afternoon. What next? Although this question gives you new information, it may
not be immediately apparent how to plug this new information into the diagram.
In this situation, turn to the down-to-two principle and look for an element or
slot in the diagram that has only two possibilities. Once you diagram them both,
you’ll know you’ve covered everything.
You know that O can go in only one of two slots, thanks to clue 2. That gives
you a good place to start on this question: if you plug O into Monday and
Tuesday at 11:00 a.m., you’ll have covered all your bases.
First, try O at 11:00 a.m. Tuesday. Clue 2 also tells you that P must be on
Wednesday, and the question narrows that down to Wednesday at 11:00 a.m.
Since the question also requires M to be in an 11:00 a.m. slot, M must be on
Monday:
Turning to the afternoon slots, since M and S must appear on consecutive
days, S must be on Tuesday afternoon. In turn, clue 4 tells you that L must be on
Wednesday, which forces R into the Monday at 3:00 p.m. slot:
Do you see the problem with this arrangement? Clue 1 prohibits M and R from
being on the same day. Therefore, O can’t be on Tuesday.
Ordinarily the next step would be to plug O into the Monday slot and
continue diagramming possibilities. Fortunately, however, placing O on Tuesday
allows you to identify answer choice E as the correct answer, so there’s no need
allows you to identify answer choice E as the correct answer, so there’s no need
to work any further. It must be true that O is in the 11:00 a.m. Monday slot.
One final note on this question: Since you’ll sometimes use prior work to
eliminate answer choices on questions that don’t give you any new information,
it’s important that you prominently note to yourself that this arrangement (with
O on Tuesday morning) is not valid. You don’t want to inadvertently look back
at it and use it to select a wrong answer on a later question. The best way to do
that is to lightly cross it out:

Now turn to question 2.
2. Which of the following cannot be the pair of classes Trudy takes at 11:00
a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Tuesday, respectively?
(A) Philosophy and Sociology
(B) Sociology and Rhetoric
(C) Rhetoric and Linguistics
(D) Linguistics and Macroeconomics
(E) Macroeconomics and Philosophy
On questions that give you no new information, your first step is to attempt to
use your clues and deductions to eliminate or select answer choices. Here, that’s
as far as you have to go. Your block-splitting deduction tells you that Trudy
must take either M or S on Tuesday. Answers A and B contain S, while answers
D and E contain M. Since putting both R and L on Tuesday would split the M–S
block, the correct answer to question 2 is choice C.
Two-Tiered Ordering Game Setup Drills

Recall from our discussion of step 1 that two-tiered ordering games have three
hallmarks, the presence of any two of which is enough to signal that you should
set up the game using the diagram you learned in this case. One of the main
challenges that two-tiered ordering games present is the fact that they can
sometimes be difficult to identify.
Following are two setup drills of games that are harder to identify as two-
tiered ordering games. Each drill contains the setup and the clues of a two-tiered
ordering game, but no questions. for each drill, symbolize the clues, begin your
diagram, and make deductions. Answers and comments appear after the games.
Pay close attention to the language in the setup and the clues; see if you can
pinpoint exactly what makes each game a two-tiered ordering game.
Drill 1
Six volleyball teammates—Maria, Nancy, Rebecca, Priscilla, Tanya, and
Yvonne—are to practice on three courts: court one, court two, and court three.
Each team member is assigned to a position as either a setter or a hitter. Exactly
two teammates—one setter and one hitter—practice on each court. They are
assigned to the courts consistent with the following: Yvonne is a hitter.
Priscilla does not practice on court three.

Tanya and Nancy play the same position.
Priscilla practices on the same court as either Maria or Rebecca.
Drill 2
A law firm’s file clerk is placing six case files in a file cabinet: B, D, G, H, J,
and K. The files will be placed in order from front to back. Each file is from a
case whose status is either active or closed. The clerk organizes the files in
accordance with these conditions: Each file from an active case has a file from a
closed case directly behind it.
B is an active case.
K is somewhere in front of H.
G is the fourth file in the cabinet.
The second file in the cabinet is from an active case
DRILL 1
Comment. This game has two of the three hallmarks of a two-tiered ordering
game—you are assigning exactly two elements to each group, and the slots in
the groups are specified—despite the fact that there is no ordering component to
this game. The benefit of using this setup for a game like this is that it allows
you to use blocks in diagramming both clues 3 and 4.
DRILL 2
Comments. Two points will help you solve this game.
1. Correctly identifying the game type: This is a fairly common type of two-
tiered ordering game: you’re assigning elements to slots, and each of those
elements has one of two particular characteristics. When you see a game like
this, this is the best setup: the element in the top tier, and the characteristic in
the bottom tier.
2. Making deductions based on clue 1: Two-tiered ordering games like this
one almost always have a clue similar clue 1, from which you can deduce a lot
of information about the second tier of the game. It’s important that you
identify that this kind of clue (1) should be diagrammed as a conditional
statement, and (2) will support an “if someone must be after you, you can’t be
last” deduction.

Case 5
“1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” Games: A Bellman Carries Bags
This case introduces the final type of game you could encounter in the Logic
Games section. Games like these are relatively rare: only 10 percent of the more
recently published games have been “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games. When they do
show up, they are usually one of the more difficult games in the section. In Case
6, which will discuss strategies for working the Logic Games section as a whole,
we’ll talk about ranking games by order of difficulty and working your way
through the section from easiest to hardest. One of the best reasons to learn
about these “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games is to learn how to identify them and
postpone working on them until you’ve already completed the easier games.
So what exactly is a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game? Like two-tiered ordering games,
these games are hybrid games that involve both the ordering task and the
grouping task. Unlike two-tiered ordering games, they do not assign a fixed
number of slots to each group. The defining feature of a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game
is that instead of dictating the number of elements assigned to each group in the
setup, it requires you to determine this as part of the game.
The bad news about these games is that the number of elements assigned to
each group can vary from question to question. That variability adds difficulty to
these games. The good news is that there is always a very small number of
possibilities for how many elements there might be in each group. Typically,
there are only two possible ways to distribute the elements among the groups.
Hence the name we’re using to describe these games. For example, a game
might list five elements, create three groups, and tell you nothing more than that
each group contains at least one element. In this hypothetical game, there are
only two ways to distribute the elements among the groups: 1, 2, and 2; or 1, 1,
and 3. Taking the time up front to identify the different possible distributions of
elements among the groups is the key to conquering these games.
A sample game of this type follows. Like the game in Case 4, this game
contains only a few sample questions. Try to work this game on your own before
you turn to the explanation. As you work it on your own, focus on trying to
identify how many ways the elements can be distributed among the groups.

A bellman at a hotel must deliver bags to six guests of the hotel. Each bag
belongs to exactly one guest: Anand, Blake, Carmina, Deanna, Eun, or
Francisco. The bellman makes exactly three trips to deliver the six bags. Each
bag is delivered in exactly one trip. The bellman delivers at least one and no
more than three bags per trip. The bellman delivers the bags in accordance with
the following conditions: He delivers Eun’s bag at the same time he delivers
either Anand’s bag or Blake’s bag, but not both.
He delivers Francisco’s bag before he delivers Eun’s bag.

He delivers Deanna’s bag before he delivers Blake’s bag.
He does not deliver Carmina’s bag before he delivers Eun’s bag.
1. If the bellman delivers Anand’s and Carmina’s bags and no others on his
third trip, then which of the following must be true?
(A) He delivers exactly one bag on his first trip.
(B) He delivers exactly one bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers exactly two bags on his second trip.
(D) He delivers exactly three bags on his first trip.
(E) He delivers exactly three bags on his second trip.
2. If the bellman delivers Anand’s bag on his first trip, which of the following
must be true?
(A) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his first trip.
(B) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers Carmina’s bag on his third trip.
(D) He delivers Eun’s bag on his third trip.
(E) He delivers Francisco’s bag on his second trip.
3. If Blake’s is the only bag the bellman delivers on one of his trips, which of
(A) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his third trip.
(B) He delivers Carmina’s bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers Blake’s bag on his first trip.
(D) He delivers Anand’s bag on his first trip.

Like a two-tiered ordering game, the setup and clues of a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game
will contain both ordering language and grouping language. The key difference
between the two is in the number of elements that are assigned to each group,
bin, or team. Instead of being fixed at exactly two, the number will vary from a
required minimum of one up to a maximum of three (or—on very rare occasions
—four). That combination—language that is a hybrid of ordering and grouping
plus a variable number of elements per group—is the hallmark of a “1-2-2 or 1-
1-3?” game.
The language the game uses to convey that combination will vary. In some
games—including this one—the setup will expressly instruct that “each [group]
must have at least one [element], and each [group] can hold up to three
[elements].” When you see that kind of language—each group contains a
minimum of one and a specified maximum of three or more—you know you’re
dealing with a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game.
Other times, however, these games are harder to identify. The setup might
only specify that each group contains at least one element, leaving the maximum
number of elements per group undefined. That, too, is a hallmark of a “1-2-2 or
1-1-3?” game, although it’s not always easy to spot. In fact, when a game
involves both ordering and grouping, it’s very easy to make the mistake of
assuming that it’s a two-tiered ordering game. Be mindful of this possibility.
In sum, once you recognize that a game involves both ordering and grouping,
your next step should be to look at the number of elements assigned to each
group. If it’s specified that each group must have exactly two elements, you’re
dealing with a two-tiered ordering game. If the number of elements in each
group can vary, you’re dealing with a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game. Sometimes you’ll
know the number of elements can vary because the game tells you that the
maximum per group is more than two. Other times the game will not specify any
maximum.
When a game has both ordering and grouping components and the setup
does not explicitly state that each group must have exactly two elements,
you’re dealing with a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game.
A “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game asks you to assign elements to groups, so you’ll use
the same basic diagram structure here that you used on grouping games. Here,
the bellman is making three trips, so your diagram will look like this:
This game also involves ordering, though, so you might be wondering why
you wouldn’t use a tiered ordering diagram similar to the one you used in Case 4
when Trudy picked her course schedule. The reason is that a tiered ordering
setup can quickly become unwieldy and difficult to work with on a “1-2-2 or 1-
1-3?” game. You don’t know how many tiers to put in each group, and not every
group will have the same number of tiers. The traditional grouping setup can
better accommodate the flexible, variable group size in “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games.
Clue 1: “He delivers Eun’s bag at the same time he delivers either Anand’s bag
or Blake’s bag, but not both.”
This clue is actually two clues wrapped into one. It tells you that E must be with
one of two other elements, and it also tells you that E cannot be with both of
those other two elements. Diagram each piece of information separately:
and also
Clue 2: “He delivers Francisco’s bag before he delivers Eun’s bag.”
Clue 3: “He delivers Deanna’s bag before he delivers Blake’s bag.”

These two clues should be familiar from your work with one-tiered and two-
tiered ordering games. Diagram them the same way here that you did in those
games: F — E
D — B
These clues tell you how the elements must be ordered between the groups, not
within the groups. Visually, the representation of the clue is accurate, but it is
slightly more susceptible to misinterpretation. Unfortunately, there’s no better
way to draw the diagram and/or symbolize the clue. This is another reason why
“1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games tend to be some of the hardest games you’ll encounter
in the Logic Games section.
Clue 4: “He does not deliver Carmina’s bag before he deliver’s Eun’s bag.”
This clue is similar to one you saw in Case 4 in that it tells you only that one
arrangement of the elements is impermissible: ~(C — E)
This clue creates two possibilities for how those elements can legally be
arranged: C and E can be delivered at the same time, or C can be delivered after
E. Again, you’ll note that using the either/or symbol:

This step should be very familiar by now: translate your symbolizations back
into English, then compare the language of your translation with the language of
each clue. The result should be that your page looks like this:

“1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games require you to make a new kind of deduction in
addition to the three standard deductions that you’ve already learned. On games
like these, one of your core tasks is to determine how many different ways there
are to distribute the elements among the groups. The first deduction you should
make on a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game—and these games will always support this
kind of deduction—is to list out the different possible group-size combinations.
You can call these group-size deductions.
Group-size deductions are a combination of the process of elimination and
Group-size deductions are a combination of the process of elimination and
counting. The most systematic way to make group-size deductions is to start
small and work your way up. Try to make as many groups as possible that have
only one element in them. Gradually work your way down so that only one
group has only one element. Then, try to have as many as you can with only two
elements in them, and then three.
For example, in this game, there are three groups and six elements. Each
group must contain at least one and at most three elements. So start by asking if
you could possibly have two groups with exactly one element. That would force
four elements into the third group, so the answer is no. What about one group
with exactly one element? If you put two elements in the second group and three
in the third, that works. So you know one possible arrangement: 1-2-3.
If the smallest group has two elements, the distribution is even: 2-2-2. Could
the smallest group have three elements? If so, two groups would each have three
elements, while the third group would have none. Since the setup tells you that
each group must have at least one element, there is no legal arrangement where
the smallest group has three elements.
That leaves only two possibilities for how the elements can be distributed
among the groups: 1-2-3, or 2-2-2. That’s typical: most games of this type only
allow two legal arrangements (on rare occasions there will be three possibilities).
Make sure you make a note of the possible arrangements somewhere on the
page. Limitations on how the elements can be distributed among the groups
invariably play a large role in determining the correct answers to questions on
“1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games.
Now let’s turn to the more familiar deductions.
Clues 2 and 3 both support can’t-be-first-or-last deductions:
Next, both B and E appear in multiple clues, so look for repeated-element

deductions. Clues 1 and 2 will support a very straightforward deduction:
Clues 2 and 4 can also be combined. Since F must come before E, and C
cannot come before E, it follows that C must come after F: F — C
and thus also that C cannot appear in group 1:
Finally, look for down-to-two deductions. With this game, this process is
quick. You can see that only three of the elements can ever end up in group 1,
but you can’t narrow it down any further, so turn to the questions.

This game also has an abbreviated set of questions that does not include a
Complete and Accurate List question, so turn directly to the questions that give
you new information.
1. If the bellman delivers Anand’s and Carmina’s bags and no others on his
third trip, then which of the following must be true?
(A) He delivers exactly one bag on his first trip.
(B) He delivers exactly one bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers exactly two bags on his second trip.
(D) He delivers exactly three bags on his first trip.
(E) He delivers exactly three bags on his second trip.
This question tells you that A and C (and no other bags) are delivered in group 3,
and asks you what must be true as a result. Plug that new information into the
diagram and then combine it with the clues that give you information about
those two elements:

Clue 1 tells you that either A or B must be with E. Since A and C are the only
elements in group 3, you know that B and E must be together in one of the first
two groups. Since C is in the last group, you know that clue 4 will be satisfied no
matter what you do with E.
Having exhausted the clues that give you information about the elements in
the question, turn next to the remaining clues. Clue 2 tells you that F must be in
an earlier group than E. Given that no additional elements can be placed in group
3, there’s only one way to satisfy clue 2:
The same logic applies to clue 3, which allows you to place D and B:
That definitively places all six elements; all six can only go in one particular
group. That allows you to identify choice C as the correct answer.
2. If the bellman delivers Anand’s bag on his first trip, which of the following
must be true?
(A) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his first trip.
(B) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers Carmina’s bag on his third trip.
(D) He delivers Eun’s bag on his third trip.
This question tells you that A is in group 1, and asks what must be true as a
result.
A appears in only one clue, clue 1: E has to be with either A or B. But you
know from clue 2 that E can’t be in group 1. Thus, you know that E and B have
to be together in one of the two later groups. Nothing in the question, the clues,
or your deductions tells you which group E and B will be in, but that’s okay.
You’ll use your down-to-two tactic and diagram both possibilities.
If E and B are in group 2, clues 2 and 3 require F and D to be in group 1:
Since each group must have at least one element, C is forced into group 3.
That’s consistent with clue 4, so this is a legal arrangement:
That allows you to eliminate choices B, D, and E.

If E and B are in group 3, clue 4 tells you that C must also be in group 3:
And that’s as far as you need to go to answer this question: under both
scenarios, C is in group 3, and that makes choice C the correct answer to
question 2.
Finally, turn to question 3.
3. If Blake’s is the only bag the bellman delivers on one of his trips, which of
(A) He delivers Deanna’s bag on his third trip.
(B) He delivers Carmina’s bag on his second trip.
(C) He delivers Blake’s bag on his first trip.
(D) He delivers Anand’s bag on his first trip.
This question tells you that B is alone in one of the groups and asks what could
be true as a result. If B is alone, clue 1 tells you that E and A must be together.
The question doesn’t specify which group B is alone in, but your deduction from
clue 3 tells you that B can never be in group 1. Not only does that allow you to
eliminate answer choice C, but you also once again find yourself down to two
possibilities, so you can start diagramming.
possibilities, so you can start diagramming.
Start by plugging B into group 2 (if you want to, you can draw a line through
the rest of the space in the group as a way to remind yourself that no other
elements can be there):

Clue 3 immediately tells you that D must be in group 1:
Clue 2 tells you that F must be in an earlier group than E. Since B is the only
element in group 2, there is only one way to satisfy clue 2: E must be in group 3,
and F must be in group 1 (your deductions above each group indicated this, too):
Since either A or B must be with E (clue 1), you know that A will also be in
group 3:
And since C cannot be delivered before E (clue 4), it too must go in group 3:
Unfortunately, this arrangement doesn’t get you a correct answer, so try the
second of your down-to-two possibilities:
Based on clue 2, you know that F must be in group 1 and E must be in group
2:
Clue 1 tells you that E and A must be together, and clue 4 tells you that C also
has to be in group 2:
Since group 2 now has the maximum number of elements, D must be in group
1, and that’s consistent with clue 3, which is the only restriction on D’s location:
This arrangement allows you to identify choice B as the correct answer.
Conclusion
Because “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games appear on the LSAT so infrequently, this case
does not include any setup drills with additional examples of these games. The
key things to remember are the following: 1. If you see a game that (1) involves
ordering and grouping, and (2) does not specify that there are two elements in
each group, you’re dealing with a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game.
2. Every “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” game will support a group-size deduction.

3. If you see one of these games, it’s likely to be one of the more difficult games
3. If you see one of these games, it’s likely to be one of the more difficult games
in the section.

Case 6
Section-Wide Strategy
You’re now familiar with all four types of games that you’re likely to encounter
in the Logic Games section. Below is a summary of the six-step approach you’ll
use to work those games: 1. Identify the game type.
Are you asked to put the elements in sequential order? (ordering game)
Are you asked to assign the elements to groups? (grouping game)
Are two of the following true: (1) You are asked to do both ordering and
grouping; (2) there are exactly two slots per group; (3) the slots in the group
are specified? (two-tiered ordering game) Are you being asked to do both
ordering and grouping, but the group size is not limited to two? (“1-2-2 or
1-1-3?” game) 2. Begin your diagram.
What does this game look like?
Have you listed out all the elements in the game?
3. Symbolize the clues.

Visually, what will this clue look like when it’s placed in the diagram?
4. Double-check your symbolizations.

When you translate your symbolization back into English, does it match the
language of the clue?
5. Make deductions.
Can you make a group-size deduction? (“1-2-2 or 1-1-3?” games only)
Can you make any can’t-be-first-or-last deductions? (not applicable in
grouping games)
Can you make any repeated-element deductions using elements that appear
in more than one clue? If there are multiple conditional clues, can you make
any conditional-combination deductions?
Can you make any down-to-two deductions? Are there any one-or-the-other
clues that will allow you to use placeholders?
Can you make any block-splitting deductions?
6. Answer the questions in the smartest order.
(A) Answer the Complete and Accurate List question.
Is this the first question associated with the game?
Which clue does each answer choice violate?
(B) Answer questions that give you more information.
How does this new information fit into your diagram?
(C) Answer the remaining questions.
Can you answer this question using the clues and your deductions?
Can you answer this question using work you did on previous
questions?
Can you answer this question using the process of elimination? Is there
a place in the game that is limited to two possibilities, so that if you
diagram them both you know you’ve covered all your bases?
Those six steps will enable you to work any game you encounter. The final
piece of the puzzle is a strategy for tackling the Logic Games section as a whole.
There are two components to an effective section-wide Logic Games
approach:
1. Work the games in the right order. You should work the easier games
before you work the harder games.
2. Work the games at the right speed. You should work at the pace that
maximizes your accuracy.
Accuracy Over Speed

Accuracy is more important than speed, even if being accurate means you don’t
have time to work all of the questions.
Put differently, your goal is not to answer every question. Your goal is to
answer as many questions correctly as you can. And the best strategy for
answering questions correctly is not to hurriedly work every single question on
all four games, racing to beat the 35-minute buzzer. On the contrary, most LSAT
takers are better served by slowing down and concentrating their effort on fewer
questions.
Consider: every Logic Games section contains four games and is 35 minutes
long; most have 23 questions. Let’s say you take 32 minutes to answer the 18
questions associated with the three easiest games. Because you’re able to work
carefully, you answer those questions at a 90 percent rate of accuracy. With the
remaining time, you work the complete-and-accurate-list question on the final
game (which, with practice, you’ll be able to answer correctly every time). You
guess on the other four questions; since each question has five choices, on each
question you have a 20 percent chance that your guess will be right.
On average, that strategy will net you 18 correct answers: (18 × 0.9) + 1 + (4
× 0.2) = 18. Eighteen out of twenty-three is 78 percent, which will earn you a
score of around 163. That’s high enough to make you competitive for admission
to virtually any law school in the country.
Work smarter, not faster. If you answer most of the questions you work
correctly, you’ll get a score you’ll be happy with. With that in mind, here is the
three-step approach you should use to tackle the Logic Games section as a
whole: 1. Rank the games by difficulty.
2. Work the easiest game first.

3. Work the easiest questions first.
Ranking Games by Difficulty

Your goal is to work the easier games before the harder games. So what is it
about a game that makes it easier or harder? As you’re scanning through the
games, you should pay attention to three things: 1. What type of game is it?
2. What do the clues and the setup look like?

3. What do the questions look like?
What Type of Game Is It? The first thing you have to figure out is what kind of
game you’re dealing with. As discussed in Case 5, if you see a “1-2-2 or 1-1-3?”
game, it’s almost certainly one of the harder games in the section. Leave it for
last.
As for the other games, keep in mind that everyone has individual strengths
and weaknesses. After you’ve practiced working Logic Games for a while, you
may find that grouping games give you more trouble than ordering games, or
that you tend to do well on two-tiered ordering games. Incorporate that kind of
personal knowledge into your decision about which games to work first.
What Do the Clues and the Setup Look Like? The test writers have a standard
set of tricks they use to make each type of game more or less difficult. As you’re
scanning the setup and the clues, keep an eye out for the following elements.
ONE-TIERED AND TWO-TIERED ORDERING GAMES

Are the clues hard to understand, symbolize, and work with? You saw
some examples of complex clues like these in the drills following Case 1 and
Case 2. This is by far the most important thing to focus on when you’re
assessing the difficulty of any kind of ordering game.
How does the number of elements compare to the number of slots? Ideally,
the numbers should be the same—that is, you’re putting six elements in order
from one to six. Therefore, the easiest ordering games will say that each
element is used “exactly once.” If the elements must be used “at least once”
(e.g., you have to use five elements to fill eight slots) that means you’re going
to be repeating elements, so the game will be a little bit trickier. If the game
doesn’t specify, some elements may not be used at all (e.g., you have to fill
seven slots from a group of ten elements).
GROUPING GAMES
Is the number of elements in each group variable or fixed? Games where
the number of elements within each group is fixed tend to be easier. Games
that say you can have “up to three” elements or “at least two” elements will be
harder.
Are there multiple types of elements, or are all the elements the same? It’s
typically easier to work games that involve only one kind of element. Games
where the elements are divided into subcategories are more difficult, such as
drill 2 of the grouping games, the one with the 10 cars that were divided into
three types (sedans, trucks, economy models), which then had to be grouped
into six slots.
How big is the game? It tends to be easier to sort 6 elements into groups than
it is to sort 12 elements into groups.
How many conditional clues are there? Having all conditional clues or
multiple conditional clues tends to make a game more difficult.
Do all of the elements have to be used? On this factor, grouping games and
ordering games are similar. The easiest grouping games use each element
exactly once. More difficult games allow elements to be repeated or don’t
require all the elements to be used.
What Do the Questions Look Like? There are three things to look for in the
questions that might influence your decision about which games to work first.
1. First, how many questions give you new information? Those questions tend to
be among the easiest to work. So, for example, a game with a Complete and
Accurate List question, three questions that give you new information, and
one other question is preferable to a game with a Complete and Accurate List
question, one question that gives you new information, and three other
question types, such as those that require you to rely solely on your deductions
and your answers to previous questions.
2. Are there any questions associated with the game that are notoriously difficult
or time-consuming? There are two question types in particular to look out for:
Which of the following, if substituted for clue 4, would have the same effect
on the composition of the game?
Which of the following, if known, allows the order of the elements (or the
composition of the groups) to be completely determined?
Each of these types of questions is difficult and time-consuming. However,
that doesn’t mean that you should skip the game entirely. If the game
otherwise looks good, you might work all the other questions, guess on this
question, and use the time you save to work the easier questions on another
game.
3. If all else fails and two games appear to be equally difficult, look to how many
questions there are associated with the game. Other things being equal, a game
with six questions is preferable to a game with only five.
All in all, the process of ranking the games in order of difficulty should only
take you 90 seconds to two minutes. That’s not a lot of time, so you’ll
necessarily be making some snap judgments. It doesn’t matter if you’re slightly
off and work the second easiest game before the easiest one. The most important
thing is to identify the game that is likely to give you the most trouble and work
it last (if at all).
CHAPTER 4
LSAT Arguments
A four-step approach you can use to work every question in the

Arguments section
How to identify and approach each of the 10 types of arguments you will
encounter
Tools and techniques that will enable you to identify the correct answer
to each type of Arguments question
The most common types of wrong answers and how to identify them
How to approach the Arguments section as a whole
T his chapter focuses on the Arguments section (officially known as the

Logical Reasoning section) with cases designed to familiarize you with
a four-step method you can use to answer every question. There are 11
cases in all. The first 10 introduce you to the 10 types of questions that
appear in the Arguments section. The final case discusses how you should
approach the section as a whole.
The Arguments section tests three basic skills:
1. Understanding the content of the argument. This skill turns your attention
to the information that’s already on the page. These are essentially reading-
comprehension questions:
Identify the conclusion (Conclusion questions)

Make a deduction (Deduction questions)
Apply a principle (Principle questions)
2. Figuring out what’s missing from the argument. This skill requires you to
read the argument with a critical eye, identifying gaps and potential weak
points in the argument’s reasoning that you’ll either fortify or exploit. These
questions ask you to find a new piece of information that interacts with the
argument in a designated way:
Identify an assumption (Assumption questions)

Strengthen the argument (Strengthen questions)
Resolve a paradox (Paradox questions)
Weaken the argument (Weaken questions)
3. Analyzing the reasoning of the argument. This skill shifts you away from
focusing on the substantive content of the argument and toward understanding
its argumentative strategy, method, pattern, and structure.
Describe the reasoning (Describe questions)

Criticize the reasoning (Flaw questions)
Parallel the reasoning (Parallel questions)
Variations in how you are asked to apply those skills produce a total of 10
different question types.
To every Arguments question you work you’ll apply the same four-step
method. The cases focus on how to adapt that method to each particular question
type. In general terms, the four steps of that method are:
1. Read the question and identify your task.

2. Read the argument with your task in mind.
3. Know what you’re looking for.
4. Read every word of every answer choice.
Two final notes: First, the Arguments section requires you to take a
comparative approach to the answer choices. In the Logic Games section, there
was one answer choice that was objectively, demonstrably right, and four
choices that were objectively, demonstrably wrong. You won’t have the same
luxury of certainty in the Arguments section. Here it’s all relative. Sometimes
the right answer will jump off the page. Other times you’ll read all five choices
and think that none can be the correct answer. Identifying the correct answer to
an Arguments question is a comparative process.
Second, the same advice that the introduction to the Logic Games chapter
concluded with—practice, practice, practice—is equally applicable here. The
best way to improve your performance on the Arguments section is to work a
large number of practice questions; the practice tests in the back of this book are
a good place to start.
The cases in this chapter are designed to equip you with a set of conceptual
categories you can use to describe and understand the ideas you’ll be working
with in the Arguments section. Those conceptual categories will become more
useful as you fill them in with examples that define the contours of their
meaning. To do that, you have to apply them repeatedly. In the absence of
practice, they’ll be little more than empty labels. Working practice questions will
help you develop a capacity for judgment that will serve you well on test day.

Case 1
What’s the Point? Identify the Conclusion
This case will teach you how to approach Arguments questions in which your
task is to identify the argument’s conclusion. Conclusion questions make up just
6 percent of the test on average. That means you’re only likely to see about three
of these questions on your two Arguments sections.
Even so, mastering Conclusion questions is a critical component of your
Arguments-section strategy. Why? For one, these questions tend to be some of
the easiest in the Arguments sections. With a sound approach, you should be
able to answer almost all of them correctly. More important, your approach to
almost every other question on the Arguments section will begin with your
identifying the premises and conclusion of the argument. The tools and
techniques you’ll learn in this case are the fundamental building blocks of a
successful approach to the entire Arguments section.
Background: The Parts of an Argument

An argument is an attempt to convince the reader of the correctness of an
opinion by presenting facts and evidence in support of that opinion. Every
argument is made up of two basic types of statements: premises and a
conclusion.
A premise is a reason, fact, or piece of evidence offered to support the truth of
the conclusion. The conclusion is the main point. It is the opinion, point of view,
or explanation that the argument is trying to convince you is true. For example,
below is a very well known argument:
All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In this argument, the first two statements are the premises, and the last statement
is the conclusion.
This is not to say that every single statement you encounter on the Arguments
section will be either a premise or a conclusion. Some arguments will include
section will be either a premise or a conclusion. Some arguments will include
general background information to help you better understand the content of the
argument. But the work of every argument is done by its premises and
conclusion.
STEP 1: Read the Question and Identify Your Task

The single most valuable piece of advice you can get about the Arguments
section is this: always read the question before you read the argument. Each
question asks you to perform a specific task. Fortunately, the LSAT uses stock,
predictable language to identify the task you need to perform, which each case
will teach you to recognize.
Conclusion questions task you with identifying the argument’s conclusion.
Such questions invariably use wording along the lines of this:
Which one of the following best or most accurately states, expresses, or renders
…
the main conclusion drawn in the argument above?
the conclusion of the argument as a whole?
the main point of the office manager’s reasoning?
the argument’s overall conclusion?
STEP 2: Read the Argument with Your Task in Mind

The nature of your task will have a dramatic impact on how you read the
argument. Sometimes you will focus exclusively on the material in the
argument. Other times you will be looking for a point in the argument where you
can supply a piece of missing information. The wording of the question will help
to identify the task you need to perform; you’ll read each passage with a clear
focus on what’s most important. You should be an engaged reader, circling key
terms and jotting notes that identify the different parts of the argument.
Conclusion questions ask you to find something that’s already on the page. The
argument has a conclusion; your job is to locate it. There are two primary tools
you can use to help you distinguish between what you’re looking for (the
conclusion) and the rest of what makes up the argument (premises and
background information).
First, you’re looking for an opinion. The conclusion is likely to be phrased so
that it expresses some kind of point of view, solution, proposal, explanation, or
prediction. By contrast, the premises (as well as any background statements)
are statements of fact, objective expressions of information and details about
the situation.
Premises are facts. Conclusions are opinions.
Second, keep an eye out for indicator words. Indicator words appear at the
beginnings of sentences. Their presence is a sign that the sentence serves a
particular logical function. Certain words serve to introduce premises. Others
words signal to the reader that the writer is introducing a conclusion. When
you see an indicator word, you’re well on your way to identifying the role that
sentence plays in the argument:
STEP 3: Know What You’re Looking For

After you’ve read the argument, you will know what the correct answer should
look like and what function it needs to serve, even if you won’t know exactly
what the phrasing will be. Being aware of what you’re looking for before you
begin reading the answer choices will help you sort through them more quickly
and more accurately.
Once you’ve read the argument, determine which of the sentences states the
conclusion of the argument. Remember to be an active reader: once you’ve made
your selection, indicate in writing that you believe this to be the conclusion. Put
brackets around it, put an asterisk next to it in the margin, do something.
Marking up the argument will help ensure (1) that you know what answer you’re
looking for when you turn to the answer choices; and (2) that you don’t lose
your train of thought while you’re working through the choices.
What if you’ve read the argument once and you’re not certain you’ve
What if you’ve read the argument once and you’re not certain you’ve
correctly identified the conclusion? Try this technique:
1. Read the section of the argument that you believe presents the background
information and premises.
2. As the last sentence, insert “Therefore,” then follow it with the sentence that
you think is the conclusion.
If the argument makes sense as rewritten, you’ve correctly identified the

conclusion. Here’s an example:
The mayoral election is approaching. I plan to vote for the incumbent

mayor, since her record on fighting crime is strong and nothing is more
important to our city than public safety.
Rewritten using this technique, this argument reads as follows:
The mayoral election is approaching. The incumbent mayor’s record on

fighting crime is strong. Nothing is more important to our city than public
safety. Therefore, I plan to vote for the incumbent mayor.
The reason this technique works is that arguments are easiest to follow when the
premises are presented before the conclusion. One of the ways the LSAT writers
make Conclusion questions more difficult is by burying the conclusion in the
middle of several premises. Another way is to include no premise indicators or
conclusion indicators. This technique addresses both of those sources of
difficulty.
STEP 4: Read Every Word of Every Answer Choice

There is a substantial reading comprehension component to the Arguments
section. The difference between a right or wrong answer can turn on the
presence or absence of a single word. Because you’re working under time
constraints, it can be tempting to begin reading a choice, assume you know
where it’s going, and not read all the way through to the end. This is a costly
mistake. Read every word of every answer choice every time.
The right answer to a Conclusion question will be the choice that most closely
matches the argument’s conclusion. The test writers will use paraphrasing and
synonyms to make the correct answer more difficult to spot. They’ll also
sometimes change the sentence structure, so that if there are two clauses in the
conclusion sentence, the correct answer will reverse their order.
conclusion sentence, the correct answer will reverse their order.
COMMON TYPES OF WRONG ANSWER CHOICES
1. Introduces new information. This is the easiest type of wrong answer choice
to identify. If you read a statement in the answer choice that you didn’t see in
the argument, it can’t be the correct answer to a question that asks you to
indentify the conclusion. The right answer must be somewhere in the
argument.
2. Restates a premise. By far the most common type of incorrect answer to a
Conclusion question is a restatement of one of the premises or a piece of
background information from the argument. The test writers also know you
are more likely to select an answer choice if it contains a statement you’ve
already seen.
3. Inaccurately summarizes the conclusion. You’ll also frequently see answer
choices that reference the argument’s conclusion but do not accurately restate
it. Such choices might add information to the conclusion, change the scope of
the conclusion (make it too broad or too narrow), or change the effect of the
conclusion by using language that is too powerful (words such as “always” or
“never”) or too weak.
Practice Question
Office Manager: The new building that our firm is moving into has
enough square footage that we could install additional conference
rooms. With the extra conference rooms, the new building would
have exactly enough offices and cubicles for the firm’s current staff.
Therefore, in light of the fact that our firm is growing so quickly that
we expect to double our staff within the next 18 months, we will
probably use the extra square footage for additional offices and
cubicles.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of
the office manager’s argument?
(A) The firm is growing so quickly that it expects the size of its staff will
double within the next 18 months.
(B) Most of the firm’s new staff will require offices instead of cubicles.
(C) The new building the firm is moving into has enough square footage
that the firm could install conference rooms.
(D The extra square footage in the new building is more likely to be used
for offices and cubicles than for conference rooms.
(E) With conference rooms, the new building would have enough office
and cubicle space for all of the firm’s current employees.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice D. Note that this answer
choice is the only statement of opinion in the argument. You also have a
conclusion indicator, “Therefore,” pointing you to this statement, although this
argument illustrates a common way in which Conclusion questions will try to
throw you off track. The conclusion is separated from its indicator word by
another premise, which makes it harder to identify.
Choice C restates the first sentence, which is background information.
Choices A and E restate the argument’s premises. And choice B introduces new
information that appears nowhere in the argument.
Variation: Logically Completes the Argument Question

Take a look at the following argument:
The new office space that our firm is moving into has enough square
footage that we could install conference rooms alongside the offices and
cubicles. With conference rooms, the new office space would have exactly
enough offices and cubicles for the firm’s current staff. But our firm is
growing so quickly that we expect to double the size of our staff within the
next 18 months. Therefore, ________.
Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?
This is just a slightly more difficult version of a Conclusion question. You’re

asked to pick an answer choice that most accurately states the argument’s
conclusion. (Another way of phrasing this that you might come across is “Which
one of the following most reasonably completes the last sentence of the
passage?”) So instead of identifying the conclusion, you’re supplying it. These
questions aren’t particularly common (they average less than one per LSAT), but
they show up often enough to merit a brief discussion.
You should approach these Logically Completes the Argument questions
using techniques similar to the ones you use to answer standard Conclusion
questions. Everything you see is either background information or a premise.
The argument will build toward a conclusion but stop short of stating it. Before
you turn to the answer choices, jot down on the page what you think the
conclusion will be.
conclusion will be.
The correct answer will express an opinion that is the result of combining one
or more of the ideas or facts presented in the argument’s premises. Typically this
opinion will repeat specific words and phrases that appeared in the premises. By
contrast, many incorrect answers to this type of question will present an opinion
that combines the information from the premises with a new fact or
consideration not previously discussed. The other most common type of wrong
answer is a simple restatement of one of the premises.

Case 2
What Do I Know for Sure? Make a Deduction
This case focuses on questions that ask you to make a deduction based on the
content of the argument. Deduction questions are historically the third most
common type of Arguments question, making up 12 percent of the questions (an
average of about six per test).
Like Conclusion questions, Deduction questions focus your attention on
what’s already on the page. But where Conclusion questions ask you to identify
a single statement in the argument, Deduction questions ask you to combine.
Deduction questions instruct you to assume that every statement in the argument
is true. The correct answer takes two statements from the argument and
combines them to produce a new statement that, based on the facts contained in
the argument, you can be sure is also true.
Before turning to the details of how to apply the four-step method to
Deduction questions, this case begins with a discussion of the two most common
ways that Deduction questions combine statements.
Background, Part 1: Words of Quantity, Frequency, and Probability

Frequently the argument associated with a Deduction question will contain
several statements describing the argument’s subject matter in terms of quantity,
frequency, or probability, and the correct answer will be a deduction that results
from the combination of two of those statements. Deduction questions
repeatedly use a handful of descriptive terms to make those descriptions. These
terms carry very precise meanings. It’s important to understand exactly what
those meanings are so you won’t mistakenly assume that an argument has told
you any more than it actually has.
WORDS OF QUANTITY
All/Each/Every/Any: 100%
Most: more than 50%, less than 100%
Many: more than one, less than 100%
Some: one or more, less than 100%
Few: one or more, less than 50%
Only: exactly one, no more and no less
None/No: 0%
Yes, you read that correctly: on Deduction questions, the only difference
between many and some is that if there are many things, you can safely assume
there is more than one. The word some could imply just one thing. Otherwise the
two terms are interchangeable.
WORDS OF FREQUENCY
Always/Every time/Invariably: 100% of the time
Usually: more than 50% of the time, less than 100% of the time
Often/Frequently: more than one time, less than 100% of the time
Sometimes: at least one time, less than 100% of the time
Rarely: at least one time, less than 50% of the time
At least once: one or more times
Once: 1 time
Never: 0 times
Again, the same (somewhat counterintuitive) rule is true here: the only
difference between sometimes and often is the assurance that often means “more
than once.”
WORDS OF PROBABILITY
Must/Definite/Certain: guaranteed, 100% chance
Probable/Likely: More than a 50% chance
Possible/Can/May/Could: Not impossible, not certain
Unlikely/Improbable: Not impossible, less than a 50% chance
Impossible/cannot: foreclosed, 0% chance
Background, Part 2: Reviewing Conditional Statements

Deduction questions also require you to revisit a topic covered in Case 2 of the
Logic Games chapter: conditional statements. Many Deduction questions present
information in the form of conditional statements. To identify the correct answer
to these questions, you have to know how such statements can and cannot be
combined. Three aspects of conditional statements are particularly important to
combined. Three aspects of conditional statements are particularly important to
Deduction questions: (1) making the deduction that is the contrapositive; (2)
figuring out what you know and what you don’t know; and (3) translating
nonstandard conditional statements.
First, a conditional statement is any statement that takes the form “If A, then
B.” Symbolically, such a statement is represented as “A → B.” A conditional
statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive. Whenever you know “If A,
then B,” you also know that statement’s contrapositive, “If not B, then not A,”
which is symbolized as “B → A.”
Understanding contraposition is essential to success on Deduction questions.
A recurring pattern in Deduction questions is the presentation of an argument
that contains two statements in the following form: “If A, then B” and “Not B.”
The correct answer to such a question—by operation of the statement’s
contrapositive—is almost always in the form “Not A.” This is the most common
type of conditional statement–based deduction that you’ll make on Deduction
questions.
Second, when you have a conditional statement, it’s important to keep track
of what you know and what you don’t. Remember: follow the arrow. Always
start on the left side of the statement. For example, suppose one statement in the
argument tells you “A → B.” The contrapositive means you automatically also
know “B → A.” How might that statement interact with a later statement in the
argument?
Third, unlike the Logic Games section, where conditional statements typically
took the standard “if, then” form, the Arguments section frequently uses
conditional statements in nonstandard form.
Below is a table summarizing how to symbolize such statements:
You would do well to memorize this chart. On test day, you are virtually certain
to encounter a Deduction question that requires you to translate and manipulate a
nonstandard conditional statement. In particular, “Unless,” “All,” None,” and
“Only if” statements are Deduction-question hallmarks.

Deduction questions always tell you to assume that everything in the argument is
true and ask you, based on that assumption, what else you know to be true.
Within that general framework, however, there are two subtypes of Deduction
questions.
One subtype of question asks you to pick an answer choice that is
conclusively established. The other subtype asks you to pick the answer choice
that is most strongly supported by the argument. The differences between these
two subtypes won’t affect how you read the argument, but they will affect what
kind of answer choice you’re looking for. Common phrasings of each include
the following:
CONCLUSIVELY ESTABLISHED
If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?
Which one of the following follows logically from the statements above?
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information
above?
STRONGLY SUPPORTED
The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the
following?
Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above?
Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of
the information above?

There is a very important difference between Deduction questions and
Conclusion questions. The “arguments” associated with Deduction questions
typically do not contain a set of premises and a conclusion. Rather, they are
simply collections of factual statements. Consequently, as you read the argument
you don’t have to worry about identifying its constitutive parts. Rather, your
focus should be on identifying and understanding each factual statement the
argument contains.
Be an active, engaged reader. As to each sentence of the argument, ask
yourself what factual information it contains. Be on the lookout for logically
operative trigger words, circling them as you go, including the following:
Terms of quantity, probability, and frequency (as previously discussed)

Terms that signal a conditional statement
Terms of comparison (more, less, like, unlike, also, etc.)

You’re looking for facts: concrete, specific statements that are squarely
supported by the content of the argument. When the question is worded such that
you’re looking for an answer choice that is conclusively established, you need
something that is absolutely, positively, 100 percent guaranteed to be true based
on the argument. When you’re looking for the answer choice that is most
strongly supported by the argument, the correct answer doesn’t have to be
logically compelled by the argument, but it should require only the tiniest of
inferential leaps from the information in the argument to the statement in the
answer choice.
If you see that the argument uses conditional statements, you should quickly
symbolize those statements (and their contrapositives) in the margin of your test
booklet. When an argument contains multiple conditional statements, the correct
answer is almost always a combination of those statements. Symbolizing them
will enable you to combine them quickly and accurately.

Identifying the right answer to a Deduction question is like trying to pick out a
faint radio signal against a wall of background noise. The right answer never
faint radio signal against a wall of background noise. The right answer never
involves every statement contained in the argument. Indeed, the primary way the
test writers make Deduction questions more difficult is by providing you with
information that you don’t need. If the argument only contained two statements,
it wouldn’t be hard to find the answer choice that combined them. But when the
argument contains six statements, finding an answer choice that appropriately
combines two of them is much more difficult.
The right answer will be a factual statement that, depending on the wording
of the question, either is guaranteed to be true or is very, very likely to be true
based on the content of the argument.
1. Deductions not supported by conditional statements. Errors in
contraposition, deductions that go against the arrow, and mistakes in
translating “unless” and “only if” conditionals are common wrong answers on
Deduction questions whose arguments include conditional statements.
2. Answers that discuss new or outside information. Deduction questions ask
you what must be true based on the content of the argument. Not surprisingly,
then, answers that discuss topics and information that are not discussed in the
argument cannot be correct. That might sound straightforward, but there are
two ways the test writers will try to tempt you to select one of these choices.
The first way is by playing on your outside knowledge of related topics. For
example, if the argument gave you information about the calorie content of a
hamburger, wrong answer choices might discuss the levels of vitamins, fiber,
salt, or protein in a hamburger. The second way is by using the word only.
That one word quietly makes a comparison between what’s listed in the
answer choice and everything else in the entire world; only is a giant red flag
in an answer choice to a Deduction question.
3. Implying an inference based on context. If someone told you, “My friend
Calvin is tall. My friend Gus is tall and thin,” you might reasonably infer that
Calvin is not thin. But on a Deduction question, that kind of inference is
impermissible. You can’t assume that a fact is true based on only context.
Deduction questions are about explicit information; you need to be able to
point to the portion of the argument that expressly tells you the fact you’re
relying on.
4. Mismatched quantity, probability, or frequency. Be on the lookout for
subtle shifts and slip-ups in the use of these terms. An argument that tells you
that something “may” be true won’t support an answer choice that says
something “must” be true. If “some” things have a quality, you don’t know
that “all,” “most,” or even “many” of them have that quality, too.
5. Answers involving normative language. Like the word only, normative
words of quality and judgment—should, ought to, bad, good, better, worse,
etc.—are red flags in Deduction question answer choices. Unless the argument
contains these same kinds of judgment-passing words—and the arguments
associated with Deduction questions rarely do—they disqualify any answer
choice in which they appear. A set of descriptive, factual statements cannot
guarantee the truth of a normative, value-laden conclusion.
Practice Question 1
The world is home to more than a dozen species of wolves. Some of
them are not threatened by habitat destruction, but the Great Plains
wolf is. The enactment of a federal habitat-restoration program
would increase the number of Great Plains wolves in the wild
without causing overpopulation. If the Great Plains wolf population
increased in size without becoming overpopulated, the wolves would
hunt Northern pocket gophers, which would benefit many farming
communities throughout the Midwest.
If the above statements are true, which one of the following must be
also be true?
(A) At least some Midwest farming communities would benefit if a
federal habitat-restoration program were enacted.
(B) If a federal habitat-restoration program is not enacted, the size of
the Great Plains wolf population will not increase in size.
Answer and Analysis. On a Deduction question, always check for statements

that you can symbolize as conditionals, like the fourth sentence of this argument.
Whereas in the Logic Games section you used single letters to symbolize
conditionals, in the Arguments section you should use shorthand notations so
you can better keep track of the contents of the statements. Here, you might
symbolize that sentence as:
Although it may not be immediately apparent, the third sentence of this

argument is also a conditional statement: If a federal habitat-restoration program
argument is also a conditional statement: If a federal habitat-restoration program
is enacted, then the Great Plains wolf population would increase in size without
becoming overpopulated:
federal program → increase in size
This question thus introduces the second most common type of conditional
statement–based deduction you’ll make on Deduction questions. An argument
that contains two statements in the form of “If A, then B” and “If B, then C” will
support the deduction “If A, then C.” Here, that means the conditional
statements
can be combined to form the deduction:
Choice A is a version of that deduction (federal program → benefit

communities) and thus would be the correct answer to this question. Compare it
to choice B. If you represent choice B symbolically, it becomes:
no federal program → no increase in size
You can’t draw that conclusion based on either of the conditional statements
contained in the argument; it’s an erroneous attempt to state the contrapositive of
the third sentence.
Practice Question 2
Electronics manufacturer: Developing a line of smartphones would
require a research-and-development push that would directly trade
off with our R&D efforts on five other products. Plus, a line of MP3
players—another product we have discussed developing—has an
inherently higher profit potential than a line of smartphones and
would be cheaper to manufacture.
The electronics manufacturer’s statements, if true, most strongly support
The electronics manufacturer’s statements, if true, most strongly support
which one of the following?
(A) Developing a line of MP3 players would not trade off with the R&D
efforts on any other products.
(B) The manufacturer is more likely to make money by developing a line
of MP3 players than it is by developing a line of smartphones.
(C) Developing a line of smartphones would be a bad business decision
for the manufacturer.
(D) The manufacturer will make money if it develops a line of MP3
players.
(E) The only new product that would be profitable for the manufacturer is
a line of MP3 players.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer here, choice B, illustrates the
difference between a “conclusively establish” Deduction question and a
“strongly support” Deduction question. The argument does not come right out
and say that a line of MP3 players would be “more likely to make money” than a
line of smartphones. But the argument does say that a line of MP3 players “has
an inherently higher profit potential.” It takes an inference to go from the latter
to the former, but that inference is not a very big one, and it’s even easier to
make in light of the fact that MP3 players are cheaper to manufacture.
Meanwhile, choice A makes an implied inference; the argument is silent on
the question of whether developing MP3 players would entail any R&D trade-
offs. You might reasonably assume that it would not—why criticize smartphones
on that ground if MP3 players are not immune from the same criticism?—but the
argument never comes right out and says so. A reasonable assumption is not a
deduction. Choice C introduces normative language—a “bad” business decision
—not taken from the argument. Choice D is a mismatch of probability: although
the MP3 has a higher profit potential, it is not guaranteed to be profitable. And
choice E has the watchword only, which implicitly discusses a wealth of outside
information. Nothing in the argument states that the electronics manufacturer
could not profitably develop, for example, earphones, car stereos, or tablet
computers.

Case 3
From General to Specific One Step at a Time: Apply a
Principle
This case discusses Arguments questions that ask you to apply a general
principle to a specific situation. Over the past five years, Principle questions
have been one of the least common types of Arguments question, making up a
little more than 7 percent of the questions (an average of just three per test). Still,
it is one you should be familiar with.
This is the third question type that focuses your attention exclusively on the
content of the argument. Conclusion questions ask you to identify a particular
statement in the argument. Deduction questions ask you to combine two
statements in the argument. And Principle questions ask you to pick an answer
choice that accurately describes the content of the argument in more general
terms.

Principle questions require you to select an answer choice (or “principle”) that is
an accurate, more general description of the argument. Typical wordings of such
questions include:
Which one of the following principles is best illustrated by the argument

above?
The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following
principles?
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying
the argument above?
Sometimes the question will use the term proposition or generalization in place
of principle.

Since your ultimate task is to identify a principle that accurately restates the
argument in more general terms, your first step is to understand the specific
argument in more general terms, your first step is to understand the specific
terms of the argument. Sometimes the argument associated with a Principle
question will be a true argument, offering one or more premises in support of a
conclusion. When you see an argument like this, use the techniques you learned
in Case 1 to identify the argument’s parts.
Other times the argument will simply be a collection of factual statements. In
that case, you should draw on the techniques you learned in Case 2. Identify
each separate factual claim the argument makes. Check to see if the argument
establishes any kind of relationship between those factual claims or makes any
comparison or connection between them.

The right answer to a Principle question will preserve the logical relationship
between the various statements in the argument while summarizing or recasting
the argument at a higher level of generality. How much more general will the
principle be? It depends. Some principles sweep very broadly. Others are so
specific that they can feel like the right answer to a Deduction question. But the
level of generality at which the principle is stated will not affect how you tackle
the question: you’ll break the principle down into parts and work with the parts
one at time.

Finding the right answer to a Principle question is a step-by-step process of
parsing and matching. Each answer choice will list a different principle. Parsing
requires you to break each of those principles down into its component parts so
that you can work with the parts one at a time.
The principle usually has two parts: (1) a statement of a rule to guide
behavior or decisions; (2) a caveat that limits the contexts or circumstances in
which the rule applies. You’ll work with each part individually, looking to see
whether there is a portion of the argument that corresponds to that part of the
principle. You’ll repeat this process with each part of each principle in each
answer choice.
The right answer will state a principle that accounts for each factual
component of the argument and the logical relationship between those
components
Common Types of Wrong Answer Choices. There’s only one kind of wrong
answer to a Principle question: an answer choice that contains one or more
component parts that do not correspond to any portion of the argument. Most
wrong answers will conform to some parts of the argument but not all of them.
Practice Question
Horticulturalist: Amateur gardeners often spray their gardens with a
particular type of pesticide known as fungicides in an attempt to rid
their gardens of stinging nettle. They should not do so. Stinging
nettle is a flowering herb. Fungicides do not stunt the growth of
flowering herbs. Spraying a fungicide on stinging nettle thus will not
stunt its growth. Plus, fungicides have the potential to severely
damage the topsoil in most gardens.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle
underlying the horticulturalist’s reasoning?
(A) An amateur gardener should not use a pesticide to rid a garden of a
particular weed if the pesticide will not stunt the growth of that weed
and may have other harmful effects on the garden.
(B) An amateur gardener should use every pesticide that is likely to stunt
the growth of any weed.
(C) An amateur gardener should not use a pesticide if the pesticide will
stunt the growth of a weed without killing it.
(D) An amateur gardener should not use a pesticide to rid a garden of a
particular weed if it is unclear whether the pesticide will stunt the
growth of that weed.
(E) An amateur gardener should not use a pesticide that might have
negative consequences for the garden, even if that pesticide would
stunt the growth of some weeds.
Answer and Analysis. This argument offers a conclusion—amateur gardeners

should not attempt to rid their gardens of stinging nettle by spraying their
gardens with fungicides—and two premises in support of that conclusion: (1)
fungicide does not stunt the growth of stinging nettles; (2) fungicides have the
potential to severely damage most gardens’ topsoil. You’re looking for an
answer that tracks the content of the argument and reinforces the logical
relationships between the various statements.
To assess the principles in the answer choices, break each one of them down
into parts and look for a part of the argument that corresponds to each part of the
principle. Start with choice A. Its conclusion is “An amateur gardener should not
use a pesticide to rid a garden of a particular weed.” That part of the principle is
consistent with the argument: “a pesticide” is a more general description of
consistent with the argument: “a pesticide” is a more general description of
“fungicides,” and “a weed” is a more general description of “stinging nettle.”
Next, the principle conditions its conclusion on the presence of two facts. The
first fact is that “the pesticide will not stunt the growth of that weed”; that part of
the principle tracks premise (1) of the argument. The second fact, that the
pesticide “may have other harmful effects on the garden,” tracks premise (2),
which states severe topsoil damage is a harmful effect. Therefore, choice A is
the correct answer to this question. All three parts of the principle it states
correspond to different parts of the argument.
Compare choice B. Its conclusion—“An amateur gardener should use every
pesticide”—does not match the conclusion of the argument. And the second part
of choice B also does not match any part of the argument. The argument tells
you nothing about pesticides that are effective in stunting weed growth.
The conclusion of choice C matches the conclusion of the argument, but the
second part of its principle has the same problem that choice B had: it discusses
pesticides that do stunt weed growth. It also introduces a new consideration—
killing weeds instead of merely stunting their growth—that has no counterpart in
the argument.
The conclusion of choice D matches that of the argument, but the second part
of its principle does not. The argument says fungicide should not be used
because it absolutely will not stunt the growth of stinging nettle, while the
corresponding part of this principle would prohibit pesticide use even when a
pesticide’s effectiveness is only uncertain.
In choice E, two of its three parts correspond to the argument. But its
statement that the rule against using a pesticide should be followed “even if that
pesticide would stunt the growth of some weeds” has no counterpart in the
argument.
As this example illustrates, working a Principle question can be a meticulous
process. Breaking the choices down into smaller, more manageable parts is the
best way to identify subtle differences between wrong answers and the
argument.
Variation: Finding a Fact Pattern That Fits Within a Principle

Sometimes the argument itself states a principle, the answer choices contain
various collections of factual statements, and you must select the answer choice
that falls within the range of situations covered by the principle. Principle
questions of this type are typically worded like this:
Which one of the following is consistent with the principle expressed by the
argument?
Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle stated
above?
This variation is not a substantive one. You’ll still parse the principle by
breaking it down into parts, and you’ll attempt to match each of those parts to a
part of each of the factual scenarios or “arguments” contained in the answer
choices. Instead of working with multiple general principles, you’re working
with multiple factual scenarios. Both your task—finding an answer choice that
accurately restates the argument at a different level of generality—and the
process by which you perform that task will remain the same.

Case 4
Bridging the Gap: Identify an Assumption
This case focuses on Arguments questions that ask you to identify an assumption
of the argument. Over the past several years, Assumption questions have been
the single most common question type. About 16 percent—that’s eight questions
across the two sections—are likely to be Assumption questions.
Unlike question types discussed in the first three cases, which focused on
material that was part of the argument, Assumption questions focus on what’s
missing—what’s not on the page but should be. Your task is to provide the
missing link that bridges the gap between the argument’s premises and its
conclusion. This case will teach you how to do so by focusing on differences
between the wording of the premises and the wording of the conclusion.
Background: What Is an Assumption?

An assumption is an unstated premise. It is a fact or piece of evidence that is not
part of the argument’s support, but the argument nonetheless relies on it. When
an assumption is identified and stated explicitly, the logic of the argument
becomes clearer. If the assumption is true, the argument becomes more
persuasive. If the assumption is false or questionable, the argument’s persuasive
force is diminished. Consider the following example:
Anyone who is an American is not a Canadian. Therefore, Tanya is not a

Canadian.
This simple argument proceeds on the assumption that Tanya is an American.

Assumption questions ask you to identify an assumption made by the argument.
The following are the most common ways in which Assumption questions are
phrased:
The argument depends on the assumption that:

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
The argument relies on assuming which one of the following?
The conclusion follows logically from the premises if which one of the
following is assumed?
Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the argument
to be properly drawn?

Unlike a Conclusion question, where the answer is already written on the page,
an Assumption question asks you to find something that should be there but
isn’t. That affects how you should read the argument. Instead of looking for the
answer, you’ll be looking for the place in the argument where the answer fits in.
Assumption questions require you to identify differences between the

wording of the premises and the wording of the conclusion.
An assumption is an unstated premise that bridges the gap between the

conclusion and the premises offered in support of that conclusion. On the LSAT,
assumptions lurk in shifts in language and changes in wording between the
premises and the conclusion. Accordingly, you need to focus on three things as
you read the argument:
1. Identify the argument’s conclusion and premises. Use the tools and
techniques you learned in Case 1 to perform this step (keeping in mind that
some statements may just be background information).
2. Identify new language in the conclusion. Look carefully for terms, words, or
phrases in the conclusion that you don’t see anywhere else in the argument.
Draw circles around any new language that shows up for the first time in the
conclusion.
3. Identify the gap between the premises and the conclusion. Look for
language that appears in the premises but does not appear in the conclusion.
The conclusion substitutes the new language you found in step 2 for the
language you’re finding here at step 3.
Consider the following argument:
Consumer psychologist: Car manufacturers will soon begin to include side

airbags as a standard feature on most cars they manufacture. This makes
sense, for these manufacturers want to maximize the number of cars they
sense, for these manufacturers want to maximize the number of cars they
sell, and most parents will not purchase a new car unless it is safe and
will reduce the risk of injury in case of an accident.
The first sentence of this argument is its conclusion. It is supported by two

premises in the next sentence, which are introduced using the “For … and … ”
premise indicator.
In the conclusion, we see that car manufacturers “will soon begin to include
side airbags as a standard feature.” That’s the first time in the argument that we
see language about airbags.
Look at the second premise: most parents will purchase a new car only if “it
is safe and will reduce the risk of injury in case of an accident.” That language
does not appear in the conclusion. That’s the gap we’re looking for: the
conclusion has replaced “is safe and will reduce the risk of injury in case of an
accident” with “include side airbags as a standard feature.”
Identifying a language gap is a mechanical process that you can apply to even
the most difficult Assumption questions. Once you’ve identified the conclusion,
circle the words you don’t see anywhere else in the argument. Then review the
premises one by one and look for words used in the premises that have dropped
out of the conclusion. With practice, you’ll be able to pick out these shifts in
wording even in arguments that you have a hard time understanding.

Before you turn to the answer choices, articulate to yourself the words or phrases
you want to connect. With the practice question argument you might say, “I’m
looking for an answer that connects the inclusion of side airbags as a standard
feature with safety and the ability to prevent injuries in an accident.” Don’t
worry about the specifics of how those phrases will be connected. There’s no
way you can anticipate the exact phrasing that the correct answer will use.

The correct answer to an Assumption question will bridge the gap between the
premises and the conclusions, not just linguistically but logically. Once you’ve
identified what you think is the correct answer choice, double-check yourself by
using the “plug it in as a premise” technique. Reread the argument (premises
first, then conclusion, the same way you reread it on Conclusion questions), but
plug in your answer choice as the final premise right before the conclusion. This
new premise should contain the new language from the conclusion that’s
missing from the rest of the argument and also cause the argument to make
missing from the rest of the argument and also cause the argument to make
better sense.

1. Introduces irrelevant new information. This is the most common type of
wrong answer choice to an Assumption question. These answer choices will
discuss a fact or idea that is superficially related to but logically distinct from
the topic of the argument. These choices tend to be worded very generally and
offer very little concrete information.
2. Makes an irrelevant comparison. This is a subcategory of choices that
introduce irrelevant new information. An answer choice that makes an
irrelevant comparison might state that the topic of the argument has some
quality or characteristic in common with a different topic. Or, it might make
some kind of comparative claim about the topic of the argument that is the
“best” or “only” of a particular category. These choices go astray because they
broaden the argument’s scope instead of strengthening the connection
between its premises and its conclusion.
3. Bolsters or provides more detail about a premise. These choices can be
intuitively appealing because they can make the argument seem more
credible. But knowing more about the premises doesn’t help bridge the gap
between those premises and the conclusion.
4. Weakens the argument. This is another frequent type of wrong answer. It
can be appealing because many of the arguments in the Arguments section are
questionable or even wrong, and these choices point out something that the
argument overlooks. But remember, your job is always to find the assumption
that makes the argument work.
Practice Question
Let’s take another look at the argument from earlier, this time with answer
choices as well:
Consumer psychologist: Car manufacturers will soon begin to include
side airbags as a standard feature on most cars they manufacture.
This makes sense, for these manufacturers want to maximize the
number of cars they sell, and most parents will not purchase a new
car unless it is safe and will reduce the risk of injury in case of an
accident.
Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
(A) Parents are also concerned with safety and reducing the risk of injury
(A) Parents are also concerned with safety and reducing the risk of injury
in case of an accident when they purchase a used car.
(B) Safety is more important to parents who are purchasing new cars than
aesthetics and price.
(C) Cars that include side airbags as a standard feature are safe and will
prevent many injuries in case of an accident.
(D) Car manufacturers study their customers’ preferences and buying
habits in great detail.
(E) People who are not parents purchase new cars on a far more frequent
basis than parents do.
Answer and Analysis. Only choice C attempts to bridge the gap between
airbags and safety. And it does so in a way that makes sense in the context of the
argument.
The argument is concerned only with parents who are purchasing new cars.
Choice A gives you irrelevant new information about the parents who are
purchasing used cars, which does not bridge the gap between airbags and safety.
Choice B compares the importance of safety to the importance of aesthetics and
price. A choice like this one goes outside the scope of the argument to introduce
new, tangential considerations. Choice D simply provides more detail about a
premise. And choice E weakens the argument, which is the opposite of what
you’re being asked to do. This choice actually demonstrates why the argument
should be rejected.
The “plug it in as a premise” technique introduced earlier in the chapter
makes it clear that choice C is the correct answer. Consider:
Consumer psychologist: Car manufacturers want to maximize the number

of cars they sell, and most parents will not purchase a new car unless
it is safe and will reduce the risk of injury in case of an accident. Cars
that include side airbags as a standard feature are safe and will
prevent many injuries in case of an accident. Therefore, car
manufacturers have begun to include side airbags as a standard
feature on most cars they manufacture.
Read like that, this argument is airtight, so you can be confident that choice C is
the correct response.

Case 5
Causes, Explanations, and Predictions: Strengthen the
Argument
This case addresses questions that ask you to select the answer choice that
strengthens the argument’s conclusion. You’re likely to encounter about five
Strengthen questions on test day.
Strengthen questions follow a consistent pattern. The argument’s premises
present a set of facts, usually based on some kind of research, study, or survey.
The argument draws a conclusion based on the data presented in the premises.
That conclusion might be a prediction, an explanation of past events, or a claim
about causation. The correct answer provides additional, concrete information
that lends further support to the argument’s conclusion. The test writers
repeatedly utilize the same small handful of argumentative strategies to generate
right answers to Strengthen questions. This case will teach you what those
strategies are.

Strengthen questions ask you to identify an answer choice that presents a
concrete fact that bolsters the argument. They use some variation of the
following wording:
Which one of the following, if true, …

most strengthens the argument?
provides (or “lends” or “adds”) the most support for the speaker’s position?
would most strengthen the reasoning above?
most helps to support [a particular claim] made in the argument?

Your priority here is the same as it was on Conclusion and Assumption
questions: identify the conclusion and the premises offered in support of it. Use
indicator words to guide you. The premises of the argument will introduce some
kind of data: the results of historical research, a scientific study, or simple
observation. The conclusion will then state an opinion about or based on that
observation. The conclusion will then state an opinion about or based on that
data.
Stockbroker: My firm classifies all of its brokers as either risk-averse or

risk-tolerant. We recently undertook a comprehensive study of our
brokers’ investment philosophies and found that over the past year
the portfolios managed by risk-tolerant brokers were performing 16
percent better than those managed by risk-averse brokers. It is thus
clear that success in investing in the stock market is a consequence of
risk tolerance.
The argument’s conclusion appears in the last sentence, introduced by the

conclusion indicator thus. The first sentence provides background on the study.
The second sentence offers direct evidentiary support for the conclusion.

Before you turn to the answer choices, determine what kind of conclusion the
argument has drawn. The conclusion of a Strengthen argument will take one of
the following three forms:
1. A claim about causation (A causes B)

2. An explanation (A is the reason B happened in the past)
3. A prediction (A suggests B will happen in the future)
Being aware of what type of conclusion the argument has drawn will make it
easier to identify the correct answer.
In this example, the conclusion is a claim about causation. The stockbroker
claims that risk tolerance is the cause of successful investing in the stock market.

Right answers to Strengthen questions are concrete, factual, and specific. In fact,
the test writers repeatedly use a few basic types of right answers to Strengthen
questions. The correct answer to a Strengthen question will:
1. Provide data or evidence that is consistent with the conclusion. This is the
most common type of right answer to a Strengthen question. Where the
argument’s conclusion is some kind of theory, the right answer provides new
information that makes the theory look more credible.
Example: “A separate study showed that stockbrokers who became more
conservative and risk-averse over time saw a steady decrease in the
profitability of their investments.”
2. Rule out an alternative causation or explanation. If the argument concludes
that A causes B, the correct answer might rule out C causing B. If the
conclusion is an explanation or a prediction, the right answer might rule out
alternative predictions or explanations.
Example: “Risk-tolerant stockbrokers are not more likely to receive

training, advice, and hands-on management than risk-averse
stockbrokers.”
3. Bolster the reliability of the data. Strengthen arguments base their
conclusions on the results of a study, a survey, or some other kind of research.
The correct answer to some questions will firm up the study’s credibility.
Example: “The study undertaken by the stockbroker’s firm has been

repeated, with similar results, by every major investment firm in the
city.”
4. Rule out reverse causation. While the first three types of right answers could
show up regardless of whether the argument’s conclusion makes a claim about
causation, explanation, or prediction, this last category is specific to causation
questions (which are the most common subtype of Strengthen questions). If
the conclusion claims A causes B, the correct answer might rule out B causing
A.
Example: “Experiencing success as an investor does not cause a

stockbroker to become more risk-tolerant.”
1. Weakens the argument. These choices can be tempting for the same reason
they’re tempting on Assumption questions: if you find the argument’s
conclusion to be questionable or problematic, these choices can play to your
instincts, even though they do the opposite of what the question asks. There’s
at least one wrong answer that weakens the argument on virtually every
Strengthen question. Circling the words in the question that identify your task
can help prevent you from selecting these choices.
2. Provides additional, irrelevant data about the evidence. Strengthen
questions are normative: you’re looking for a choice that makes the
conclusion better, more persuasive. A purely descriptive choice doesn’t
perform that task.
3. Makes a general statement about the topic of the argument. Correct
answers to Strengthen questions are usually concrete and precise.
Generalizations that paint in broad strokes can be tempting because they’re
uncontroversial; they don’t seem wrong when you read them.
4. Offers support for a different conclusion. These choices can make the
argument seem stronger in some undefined way. This is why it’s important to
have a precise understanding of what the argument concludes: you’re looking
for a choice that shares the same narrow focus.
Practice Question
choices as well:
Stockbroker: My firm classifies all of its brokers as either risk-averse or

risk-tolerant. We recently undertook a comprehensive study of our
brokers’ investment philosophies and found that over the past year
the portfolios managed by risk-tolerant brokers were performing 16
percent better than those managed by risk-averse brokers. It is thus
clear that success in investing in the stock market is a consequence of
risk tolerance.
Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
(A) The performance of the brokers’ investment portfolios over the past
year has not been representative of how those portfolios typically
perform.
(B) The firm’s study utilized a combination of self-reporting and
empirical data analysis to classify its brokers as risk-tolerant or risk-
averse.
(C) Some stockbrokers will not be able to earn a profit no matter what
their level of risk tolerance is.
(D) Risk-tolerant stockbrokers also exhibit more of the traits associated
with being a good manager than do risk-averse stockbrokers.
(E) All the stockbrokers in the study received an equal amount of training
and were supervised by the same management team.
Answer and Analysis. Choice E is the correct answer, as it eliminates an
alternative causation or explanation. Choice A weakens the argument. It
undermines the conclusion that risk-tolerant brokers are more successful. Choice
B is a purely descriptive choice; it does nothing more than give you additional,
descriptive details about something you already know. Choice C is a general
statement. It lacks any hard facts that specifically connect it to the claim made
by the argument’s conclusion. And finally, you might think of choice D as
strengthening the argument in an irrelevant way. Knowing that risk-tolerant
brokers also make good managers doesn’t tell you anything about profitable
investing, and profitable investing is the only thing the conclusion concerns itself
with.
Variation: Using a General Principle to Strengthen the Argument

There is an additional type of Strengthen question that you might come across in
the Arguments section. These questions ask you to select a principle that
strengthens the line of reasoning contained in the argument.
A question like this is different from a typical Strengthen question. These
questions require you to combine the tools and techniques you’ve learned in this
case with the ones you learned in Case 3’s discussion of Principle questions.
Step 1: Read the Question and Identify Your Task. Each of the following is a
typical phrasing of a question that asks you to strengthen an argument using a
general principle:
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the
reasoning of the argument above?
Which one of the following principles most helps to justify drawing the
conclusion in the argument?
Which one of the following principles, if valid, provides the most support for
the argument above?
Which one of the following, if true, most justifies the above application of the
principle?
Step 2: Read the argument with your task in mind. A standard Strengthen
question is like a snapshot from a science class. The argument gives you
empirical data (the facts, evidence, or study results in the premises) and a theory
(an explanation, prediction, or claim about causation) that is based on that data.
The right answer, in some form or fashion, reinforces the connection between
the data and the theory.
By contrast, a Strengthen with a General Principle question is more like a
snapshot from a philosophy class. The conclusion of the argument associated
with these questions will be a normative statement: a claim that someone should
or should not do something; an assessment that a proposed course of action
should or should not be taken; or an evaluation that endorses or criticizes a
proposal, practice, or idea. The premises will explain the factual background and
context in which the conclusion applies. The right answer will be a general
principle that justifies the conclusion’s normative stance.
As you’re reading the argument, your focus should remain on identifying the
conclusion and any premises offered in support of it. In addition to using the
standard indicators to help you identify the conclusion, the conclusion to a
Strengthen with a General Principle question will feature some kind of
normative language: should, should not, appropriate, unethical, responsible for,
and so on.
Step 3: Know what you’re looking for. The right answer to a Strengthen with a
General Principle question will provide additional justification for the
argument’s normative stance. Before you turn to the answer choices, you should
articulate to yourself what that stance is: that entails identifying both the
conclusion and the reasons offered in support of it. The arguments associated
with these questions typically contain a lot of background information that you’ll
need to sort out. Restating the argument to yourself in the form of “X because
Y” will help you zero in on those portions of the argument that directly support
the conclusion. Once you can do so, you’re ready to move on to the answer
choices.
Step 4: Read every word of every answer choice. Your approach to the answer
choices will be virtually identical to the approach you use on Principle questions,
discussed in Case 3. Two aspects of that approach bear special emphasis here.
First, the key to success is parsing and matching. Break each answer choice
down into its component parts. Typically there will be two parts to the principle:
a rule to govern decisions or behavior, and a condition or context that triggers
the rule. After you’ve broken the principle down into parts, see if you can match
each part of the principle to a corresponding part of the argument. This bite-
sized, back-and-forth approach builds in analytical precision. The right answer
will match 100 percent; wrong answers will have one or more mismatched
components.
Second, the right answers to Strengthen with a General Principle questions
Second, the right answers to Strengthen with a General Principle questions
vary tremendously in their level of generality. Some of them are very concrete,
utilizing the same terms as the argument. Others speak at a very high level of
abstraction, pronouncing general ethical and decisional principles that would
make a philosophy professor proud.
Practice Question
Oil-rig operator: The government should not fine me for negligently
operating the rig, even though it is possible I could have prevented
the drill pipe from rupturing if I had been monitoring the pressure
gauge more carefully. At the time the pipe ruptured, I was operating
the rig in compliance with all relevant federal regulations. If the
hydraulic-release valve had been correctly installed on the rig,
pressure would not have built up inside the drill pipe, and the pipe
would not have ruptured.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, provides the most support
for the operator’s argument?
(A) When the drill pipe on an oil rig ruptures, the government should not
fine the rig operator if the sole, exclusive cause of the rupture was the
incorrect installation of a hydraulic-release valve.
(B) The government should fine oil-rig operators after accidents only
when an operator should have anticipated the accident.
(C) The government should fine an oil-rig operator whenever the
operator’s failure to comply with relevant federal regulations causes a
drill pipe to rupture.
(D) When the drill pipe on an oil rig ruptures, the government should not
fine the rig operator if the cause of the rupture was anything other
than the operator’s failure to comply with a relevant federal
regulation.
(E) When a drill pipe on an oil rig ruptures, the party whose negligence
most proximately causes the rupture must bear all cleanup costs
associated with the rupture.
Answer and Analysis. The term should not in the opening sentence of the
argument indicates that the first clause of this sentence is the argument’s
conclusion. Using the “X because Y” technique, this argument contends that the
government should not fine the oil-rig operator because he or she was operating
the rig in compliance with all relevant federal regulations at the time the drill
pipe ruptured. The rest of the argument functions as background information.
That means you’re looking for an answer that (1) announces the same rule of
decision (no fine after a drill-pipe rupture); (2) for the same reason (regulatory
compliance). The correct answer is thus choice D. Note the low level of
generality of this answer choice: it’s less a general principle and more a
restatement of various parts of the argument. This isn’t uncommon on
Strengthen with a General Principle questions.
Choice A is a match on rule of decision, but it gets the reason wrong.
According to the argument, the operator might have been able to prevent the
rupture by more closely monitoring the gauge, so the faulty valve was not the
sole, exclusive cause of the rupture. Choices B and C both misstate the rule of
decision (each proposes a scenario when a fine is appropriate; you’re looking to
justify a decision not to impose a fine). Both are also a mismatch on the reason:
there’s nothing in the argument about reasonable anticipation, and the argument
expressly belies the claim that the operator failed to comply with the relevant
federal regulations. Finally, choice E is simply off topic: the argument is
concerned with whether the government should fine the operator, not the broader
question of who will be responsible for cleanup costs.
Case 6
Now, Why Would That Be? Resolve a Paradox
This case explains the best approach for answering Arguments questions that ask
you to resolve an apparent paradox. Paradox questions have made up only 7
percent of the questions over the past few years, which is an average of three or
four questions per LSAT.
Paradox arguments are made up of two statements. There will appear to be
some kind of tension, inconsistency, discrepancy, or conflict between them.
Each of the answer choices will introduce some new information that pertains to
the topic of the two statements. The correct answer will help dissolve or explain
away the apparent inconsistency between the argument’s two statements.
Paradox questions are most similar to Assumption and Strengthen questions.
Each asks you to identify a piece of new information that can be added to the
argument so that all of the argument’s parts fit together in a logically coherent
way.
You’ll know you’re facing a Paradox question when you see any of the
following language:
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to …

resolve the apparent paradox described above?
contribute to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy between the results of
the two studies?
explain the conflict between [part one of the argument] and [part two]?
account for the findings of the study described in the argument?

On each of the previous question types we’ve discussed, your focus has been on
identifying the argument’s conclusion and premises. But a Paradox question has
neither. It has a pair of observations (sometimes accompanied by a sentence of
background information to help orient you to the conflict presented).
Accordingly, as you read, your focus should be on identifying the two
conflicting statements. The conflict itself usually appears near the end of the
argument.
Because the nature of these questions requires the argument to introduce two
divergent facts, findings, or points of view, Paradox arguments usually—
although not always—include some kind of transition indicator, a word or
phrase that signals to the reader that the passage is changing course. The two
conflicting statements will appear on either side of the transition indicator. The
list below offers some of the more common transition indicators:
Cuisine from the south of Italy is one of the most popular kinds of food in
the United States. But this is not the case for northern Italian cuisine. In
fact, in a recent survey, northern Italian cuisine was voted one of the least
popular styles of cooking in the country.
The use of but as a transition indicator helps you to locate the conflicting or
contradictory statements in the argument. You have two seemingly similar types
of food—one of them is popular while the other is not.

The correct answer to a Paradox question will introduce a new fact,
consideration, or interpretation. But it can do so in any number of ways.
Therefore, do not turn to the answer choices until you can accurately state to
yourself what the paradox is that needs resolution. You can do so by framing the
paradox as a question that the answer choice needs to address. That question
should take one of these two forms:
1. Why would statement 1 be true while statement 2 is also true?

2. Why would statement 1 be true if statement 2 is not also true?
Continuing with this example, before turning to the answer choices you could
ask yourself: “Why would southern Italian cuisine be so popular while northern
Italian cuisine is so unpopular?”

You’re looking for the answer choice that provides the best answer to the
question you asked yourself at step 3. The correct answer to a Paradox question
will address both sides of the conflict and explain away the difference between
them.

1. Offers a generic background statement. This is the most common type of
wrong answer on Paradox questions—all fluff and no substance. These
answers read like something you might say in response to a professor’s
question when you haven’t done the reading for class.
2. Makes the conflict worse. This second most common type of wrong answer
exacerbates the conflict instead of helping to dispel it. On test day, when
you’re working under time pressure, selecting a choice that addresses both
sides of the paradox without reading it carefully is an easy mistake to make.
3. Has the same effect on both sides of the conflict. Another common varietal
of wrong answer is a choice that introduces a factor or consideration that
applies to both sides of the conflict with equal force or in the same manner. A
Paradox question presents two statements that are diverging where you
wouldn’t expect them to. The correct answer will affect the two sides of the
conflict differently.
4. Makes an irrelevant comparison. This common type of answer choice
introduces a third statement or category of information over and above the two
in the argument.
5. Draws a distinction within one side. Answer choices like these ignores half
of the question. Subdividing one half of a paradox into smaller parts and
distinguishing among those parts doesn’t shed light on the reasons for the
discrepancy between the two halves of the conflict.
Practice Question
choices as well:
Cuisine from the south of Italy is one of the most popular kinds of food in
the United States. But this is not the case for northern Italian cuisine. In
popular styles of cooking in the country.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent
paradox described above?
(A) The variety, quality, and affordability of international cuisine
available in the United States have skyrocketed in recent years.
(B) Northern Italian cuisine frequently incorporates obscure ingredients
that are difficult to locate, while the ingredients necessary to prepare
southern Italian cuisine are easily found in most American grocery
stores.
(C) Southern Italian cuisine is more time-consuming and labor-intensive
to prepare than northern Italian cuisine is.
(D) Immigrants from all parts of Italy brought their local cuisines with
them when they came to the United States in great numbers in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
(E) Southern Italian cuisine has recently become more popular in the
United States than French cuisine, which for many years was this
country’s favorite international food.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice B. To help you determine
whether you’ve identified the right answer, ask yourself the question you
formulated in step 3, then say, “Because …” and read the answer choice. The
question and answer should make sense next to each other. Applying this
technique here yields this result:
Why would southern Italian cuisine be so popular while northern Italian

cuisine is so unpopular? Because northern Italian cuisine frequently
incorporates obscure ingredients that are difficult to locate, while the
ingredients necessary to prepare southern Italian cuisine are easily found in
most American grocery stores.
We can see why southern Italian cuisine is popular (it incorporates ingredients
that are easy to find), and we know why its northern counterpart is less so (the
necessary ingredients are more difficult to locate). This technique will also help
you confirm that the choice you’ve selected addresses both halves of the
paradox.
Choice A is a generic background statement that is loosely connected to the
topic of the argument but engages in generalization or pontification. Choice C
addresses both sides of the question you formulated in step 3, but it tells you that
the southern cuisine is more troublesome and yet it is more popular, making the
argument even more of a paradox. In choice D, knowing that Italian immigrants
from all regions of Italy brought their native cuisines with them to the United
States does not provide an explanation for why two subtypes of Italian cuisine
have fared so differently. It therefore has the same effect on both sides of the
conflict, and is the wrong choice. Choice E makes an irrelevant comparison. The
right answer needs to reconcile the popularity of two different kinds of Italian
cuisine. Learning about French cuisine doesn’t aid that effort.
Discrediting a Study: A Particularly Common Type of Right Answer

We’ll conclude this case by describing a trend that’s emerged among Paradox
questions on recent tests. The single most frequent way a correct answer resolves
an apparent paradox is by discrediting a study, survey, interview, poll, or piece
of research.
For example, consider the following argument:
Mayor: Last week my staff took to the streets of downtown and polled
thousands of pedestrians about their views on the city’s proposed
bond package. More than 55 percent of the people we polled said
they planned to vote in favor of having the city issue bonds. Yet the
bond proposal was defeated on Election Day.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to account for the
discrepancy between the poll results and the defeat of the bond proposal?
This question asks, “Why did the bond package fail even though a majority of
people polled said they supported it?” The correct answer might say something
like, “Persons who live and work in the downtown area have historically been
much more likely to vote in favor of bond packages than residents of other parts
of the city.”
Highlighting a mismatch between measurement and reality is a common ploy
of correct answers to Paradox questions. The basic assumption that underlies
studies, research, surveys, interviews, and polls is the idea that they can
accurately describe the outside world. Paradox questions frequently feature right
answers that interrupt the connection between the study and its object, giving
you a reason to say, “There is no paradox here. The reason there’s a discrepancy
between the study and reality is that the study was flawed.”
Case 7
Reading with a Skeptic’s Eye: Weaken the Argument
This case introduces the strategy for working Arguments questions that ask you
to pick an answer choice that weakens the conclusion of the argument. Weaken
questions typically account for about 9 percent of the questions on the
Arguments section, an average of four or five per test.
Weaken questions are the fourth variety of question that asks you to find
something that’s missing from the argument. Whereas the question types just
covered asked you to be the argument’s ally, Weaken questions make you the
argument’s enemy. Your orientation shifts from aiding the argument to
undermining it.
Weaken questions follow a predictable pattern similar to the one described in
Case 5. The argument associated with a Weaken question invariably starts out
with premises that present specific facts, data, information, or evidence. The
conclusion then formulates a theory, explanation, prediction, or solution based
on that data. The correct answer to a Weaken question will somehow show that
the data do not support the conclusion.
the data do not support the conclusion.

Weaken questions require you to pick the answer choice that does the most
damage to the argument’s ability to support its conclusion. The question will
have a structure like those that follow:
Which one of the following, if true, …

most seriously weakens [the speaker’s] argument?
most undermines the argument?
most calls into question the claim above?
most strongly counters [the speaker’s] claim?
most seriously calls into question the evidence offered in support of the
conclusion above?

You will approach a Weaken question in virtually the same way as a Strengthen
question. Your first priority is to identify the conclusion and the premises used to
support it.
Case 1 introduced the idea that conclusions are statements of opinion, while
premises are statements of fact. A version of that idea holds true on Weaken
questions. The opinion expressed by the conclusion to such a question will be a
theory, explanation, prediction, or solution. Accordingly, the conclusion will use
words that express probability, likelihood, or normativity. Examples include
probable, improbable, likely, unlikely, should, ought to, need to, never, rarely,
always, frequently, will, would, and cause.
Political consultant: Most of the candidates in the upcoming election

believe that the economy is the single most important issue to voters.
However, in the latest poll conducted by my firm, a majority of
voters did not select “strong record on job creation” as the quality
they thought was most important in a candidate. This is evidence that
the candidates are overestimating the likelihood that most voters will
base their voting decision on economic issues.
Here, a conclusion indicator (“This is evidence that …”) introduces the last
sentence. That sentence also uses the term likelihood, which is typical of the
kinds of opinions that the conclusions of arguments associated with Weaken
questions will express. The argument’s first sentence provides background
information, and the second sentence contains the data or evidence on which the
argument’s conclusion is based.

Weaken questions are all about the relationship between a specific fact or piece
of data and a conclusion that, while based on that data, speaks in broader, more
general terms. The answer choices will test the relationship between the data and
the conclusion. There are two techniques you may be able to use to help you
home in on that relationship.
First, before you turn to the answer choices, answer the following three
questions:
1. What theory, explanation, prediction, or solution does the conclusion

advance?
2. What evidence or data do the premises offer in support of that conclusion?
3. How do the data support the conclusion?
The correct answer to a Weaken question will cast doubt on the relationship
between the premises and the conclusion. Articulating the precise nature of that
relationship will make it easier to spot the correct answer.
Continuing with this example, the conclusion’s theory is that candidates are
overestimating the importance of economic issues to voters. The evidence
offered in support of that theory is that most voters surveyed did not list job
creation as an issue that was important to them. That data support the conclusion
because job creation is an example of an economic issue.
Second, think back to Case 4 on Assumption questions, which discussed the
importance of language gaps and being on the lookout for terms in the
conclusion that do not appear anywhere in the premises. You will sometimes be
able to use that language-gap concept on Weaken questions, too. Here, the
conclusion substitutes in a broad new term—“economic issues”—in the place of
a more specific one from the premises: “strong record on job creation.”
Not every Weaken question has a language gap like this, but many do. When
you see one, take note; it’s likely the key to finding the correct answer. Whereas
on Assumption questions you would have been looking for an answer that
bridged the language gap between these two terms, on a Weaken question you
should be on the lookout for an answer choice that points out this gap or
somehow emphasizes its significance.
The right answer to a Weaken question will show that the facts, data, or evidence
contained in the premises do not actually support the theory, explanation,
prediction, or solution offered by the conclusion. It will do so in one of two
ways:
1. Undermine the connection between the data and the conclusion. This is by
far the most common type of right answer to a Weaken question: an answer
choice that undermines the connection between the data in the premises and
the theory in the conclusion. Such an answer choice typically provides new
details or information that reveals a flaw or shortcoming in the data. Put
differently, the answer choice will make explicit an assumption built into the
data and demonstrate that the assumption is faulty.
Example: “Nearly 45 percent of voters selected ‘strong record on job
creation’ as the most important quality in a candidate, while no other
choice was selected by even 15 percent of voters.”
2. Introduce new data that are inconsistent with the conclusion. Another
common type of right answer on Weaken questions is one that introduces new
facts, data, evidence, or information that is inconsistent with the conclusion.
Whereas the previous type of right answer would provide additional details
about the evidence contained in the premises, this type of answer will
introduce entirely new evidence, facts, and information wholly outside the
scope of the premises. Where the argument is one, such as this example, that
has a language gap between the premises and the conclusion, the correct
answer will frequently introduce new data that highlight that gap.
Example: “The two qualities that voters were most likely to select as most
important in a candidate were ‘committed to reducing the trade deficit’
and ‘favors tax breaks for small businesses.’”

1. Strengthens the argument. You’ll find this type of wrong answer on almost
every Weaken question you encounter. These choices can be tempting
because so many of the questions on the Arguments section ask you to select
an answer choice that bolsters, or is at least consistent with, the information in
the argument.
2. Weakens a straw man. A straw man is a misrepresentation or a
mischaracterization of an argument. Many wrong answers to Weaken
questions employ this argumentative tactic, undermining a conclusion that,
upon close inspection, is not the conclusion advocated by the argument.
Straw-man answer choices usually misrepresent the argument’s conclusion by
restating it in more extreme, categorical, black-and-white terms.
3. Offers a generic background statement. This type of wrong answer should
look familiar to you by now; it also shows up on Assumption, Strengthen, and
Weaken questions. The choice might provide additional information about the
topic of the argument or clarify a premise. A choice like this illustrates why
it’s important to answer the three questions listed in step 3 before you turn to
the answer choices.
4. Invites you to make an inference. This final category of wrong answer
choice can be a vexing one. A correct answer to a Weaken question will
directly undermine the soundness of the argument’s conclusion without
requiring you to import any outside knowledge or information. If you find
yourself going beyond the information on the page to postulate ways that the
choice might weaken the argument, you’re likely in the process of talking
yourself into an incorrect answer.
Practice Question
Take another look at the argument from earlier, this time with answer choices as
well:
Political consultant: Most of the candidates in the upcoming election

believe that the economy is the single most important issue to voters.
However, in the latest poll conducted by my firm, a majority of
voters did not select “strong record on job creation” as the quality
they thought was most important in a candidate. This is evidence that
the candidates are overestimating the likelihood that most voters will
base their voting decision on economic issues.
Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?
(A) The voters polled by the consultant’s firm were a representative
sample of all voters likely to participate in the upcoming election.
(B) The polling conducted by the consultant’s firm did not establish that
there is no likelihood that any voter will base his or her voting
decision on economic issues.
(C) The consultant’s firm conducted its polling of voters using methods
developed in the quantitative political-science literature.
developed in the quantitative political-science literature.
(D) Polls whose questions are followed by a list of answers from which
the poll respondents must choose have been shown to produce
markedly different results from polls that allow respondents to
generate their own answers to the poll questions.
(E) A recent poll by the same firm revealed that more than 50 percent of
voters selected “supports overhaul of the US tax system” as the most
important quality in a candidate
Answers and Analysis. The correct answer is choice E, as it undermines the

connection between the data in the premises and the theory in the conclusion.
Choice A strengthens the argument, which is the opposite of what the question
asks you to do. A wrong answer choice like this will certainly trip up the test
taker who did not read the question carefully. Choice B weakens a straw man.
The consultant does not claim to have proven that there will not be a single voter
who bases his or her vote on economic issues. Rather, the conclusion says the
likelihood that a majority of voters will do so is low. Choice C cannot be the
correct answer; it says nothing about whether voters are concerned with
economic issues. Finally, it can be easy to talk yourself into a choice such as
choice D by speculating about the consequences of the information it contains:
“Oh yeah, that could weaken the argument. If a different kind of poll might have
produced a different result, then maybe this poll wasn’t accurate and if they’d
used the other method it would have shown that job creation is a high priority for
voters.” That kind of thinking is a red flag.
Case 8
Taking a Step Back: Describe the Reasoning
This case discusses questions in the Arguments section that ask you to describe
the argument’s reasoning. In the recent past, Describe questions represented a
little more than 9 percent of all the questions in the Arguments section, for an
average of about four or five per test.
Describe questions are the first of three question types that require you to
understand and analyze the method, pattern, and structure of the reasoning
employed by the argument. In one sense, Describe questions are a change of
pace from Strengthen, Weaken, and Paradox questions.
Describe questions pertain entirely to what’s already written on the page; you
won’t have to look for gaps or figure out what’s missing. Even so, Describe
won’t have to look for gaps or figure out what’s missing. Even so, Describe
questions build heavily on the skills you’ve developed while working the
previous cases. The ability to identify an argument’s conclusion, premises, and
background statements is the backbone of a sound approach to Describe
questions.
This case uses the heading “Describe the Reasoning” to encompass three
different kinds of Arguments questions:
1. Questions that ask you to explain the role that a particular statement plays in
an argument
2. Questions that ask you to describe how the argument proceeds
3. Questions that ask you to identify the point over which two speakers disagree
The common thread between these questions is the importance of identifying the
different parts of an argument and describing how they fit together.
The most common type of Describe question asks you to explain what role a
particular statement plays in the argument, so this case focuses on such questions
and concludes with a brief discussion of the other two types of Describe
questions.

Below are the most common phrasings of questions that focus your attention on
defining the role a particular statement plays in an argument (where you see an
ellipsis, the question would reproduce verbatim the relevant portion of the
argument).
Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the
argument by the statement that […]?
The observation that […] plays which one of the following roles in the
argument?
The claim that […] figures in the argument in which one of the following
ways?

The question tasks you with determining the role played by a particular
statement in the argument. The first thing you should do when reading the
argument is to circle the statement in the argument that you’re concerned with.
Next, read the argument and identify its parts. Start out by using the
techniques you learned in Case 1 of this chapter to identify the argument’s
techniques you learned in Case 1 of this chapter to identify the argument’s
conclusion, the premises, and any background information. In addition, be aware
that the answer choices to these Role of the Statement questions make frequent
use of a few additional classifications that you should become familiar with and
be attentive to as you read the argument:
1. An intermediate or subsidiary conclusion. Consider this simple argument:

“All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. No one
who is mortal lives forever. Therefore, Socrates will not live forever.” In this
argument, the statement “Socrates is mortal” is an intermediate or subsidiary
conclusion. It is a conclusion because it is supported by the first two premises
of the argument. But it is subsidiary because it, in turn, supports the
argument’s main or ultimate conclusion that Socrates will not live forever.
Identifying that a particular statement is an intermediate conclusion is the
most common classification that a Role of the Statement question will ask you
to make.
2. The statement to be refuted. “Some people contend that Socrates is
immortal. This is false. Socrates is a man, and all men are mortal. Therefore,
Socrates is mortal.” In this example, the argument’s ultimate conclusion is
that Socrates is mortal. What role does the first sentence of the argument play
vis-à-vis that conclusion? It is the claim the argument sets out to disprove. The
statement is not the argument’s conclusion; indeed, it states the opposite of the
conclusion. Nor is it a premise, because it doesn’t lend any support to the
conclusion. Even so, it plays an important role in the argument by framing the
discussion as one that criticizes a particular idea or viewpoint. Identifying a
statement as one that the argument sets out to disprove is the second most
common classification that Role of the Statement questions ask you to make.
3. The difference between an analogy and evidence. Being the basis for an
analogy is a different role for a statement than being a piece of evidence.
Evidence is a fact that directly supports a conclusion. An analogy is a
comparison of one situation to another similar situation. For example,
“Teachers should make use of visual aids in the classroom. Doing so would
help students retain the material they were being taught, just as sales
presentations that use visual aids are more effective at winning customers.”
The statement about sales presentations is not direct evidence for the
conclusion about teaching, but as an analogy it offers an indirect reason to
accept the argument’s conclusion.

Once you’ve read the argument, take a moment to attach a label to the statement
Once you’ve read the argument, take a moment to attach a label to the statement
that’s the subject of the question. You should be able to articulate to yourself
what role the statement plays before you turn to the answer choices. Be precise.
For example, if an argument has both an intermediary conclusion and an
ultimate conclusion and the statement at issue is a premise, make sure you know
which of the two conclusions that premise supports.

The right answer will correctly describe the role the statement plays in the
argument. There are no telltale signs of right answers or categories of wrong
answers here. You’ll see the same few descriptive terms repeated across these
questions: ultimate conclusion, intermediate conclusion, premise, the statement
to be refuted; an example that illustrates the conclusion; evidence in support of
the conclusion; an analogy that strengthens the conclusion; a response to an
objection; and so on. Whether one of those labels is right or wrong depends
entirely on the context of the question.
Practice Question
Athletic trainer: A severe case of plantar fasciitis is unlikely to be
ameliorated by a traditional program of physical therapy, since
plantar fasciitis is an inflammation of the ligaments that run along the
bottom of the foot. Because traditional physical-therapy programs
feature stretching and exercise, which cause blood flow to the
muscles and connective tissue in the patient’s feet to increase, such
programs result in inflammation of the ligaments along the bottom of
the foot.
Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in
the argument by the athletic trainer’s statement that traditional physical-
therapy programs feature stretching and exercise?
(A) It is a premise that directly supports the argument’s main conclusion.
(B) It is the argument’s intermediary conclusion.
(C) It expresses a viewpoint with which the argument expresses
disagreement.
(D) It is a premise that supports the argument’s intermediate conclusion.
(E) It is the argument’s ultimate conclusion.
Answer and Analysis. This argument illustrates several of the concepts that this
case introduces. Rewritten using the techniques from Case 1, the argument reads
like this:
Athletic trainer: (1) Traditional physical-therapy programs feature

stretching and exercise. (2) Stretching and exercise cause blood flow
to the muscles and connective tissue in the patient’s feet to increase.
(3) Therefore, traditional physical-therapy programs cause
inflammation of the ligaments along the bottom of the foot. (4)
Plantar fasciitis is an inflammation of the ligaments that run along the
bottom of the foot. (5) Therefore, a severe case of plantar fasciitis is
unlikely to be ameliorated by a traditional program of physical
therapy.
As the rewrite illustrates, this argument has both an intermediate conclusion
(sentence 3) and an ultimate conclusion (sentence 5). Since the argument asks
you what role statement 1 plays, you can eliminate choices B and E. Statement 1
is a premise; it helps the argument build toward its conclusions. Since it is a
simple, descriptive statement of fact that expresses no viewpoint, you can also
eliminate choice C. As a premise, it directly supports the intermediate
conclusion. Sentences 1 and 2 enable the argument to draw the conclusion stated
in sentence 3, which then combines with sentence 4 to directly support the
ultimate conclusion in sentence 5. Therefore, the correct answer to this question
is choice D.
One final note: suppose the question instead had asked what role was played
in the argument by the claim or notion that “a traditional program of physical
therapy can ameliorate a severe case of plantar fasciitis.” That statement would
fall within the “foil of the argument” classification—the claim or viewpoint to be
refuted.
Two More Variations

As previously noted, there are two additional varieties of Describe questions.
One will ask you to identify the point of disagreement in an argument between
two speakers; the other will ask you to describe how the argument proceeds.
Identify a Point of Disagreement. In the “identify a point of disagreement”

question type, the argument will contain two short passages spoken by two
participants in a conversation. The question will be worded as follows:
[Speaker A]’s and [Speaker B]’s statements provide the strongest support
for concluding that they disagree with each other over [ … ]:
Your basic approach to reading these arguments is the same as it is to a “Role of
Your basic approach to reading these arguments is the same as it is to a “Role of
the Statement” question. You should read each speaker’s argument and identify
its conclusion and premises.
Once you’ve done so, you should articulate the specific point over which they
disagree. Do so by formulating a statement in this form: “The first speaker thinks
X, while the second speaker thinks Y.”
Typically, the speakers disagree by reaching a different conclusion on a
particular topic. Sometimes, however, they agree on the conclusion but disagree
over the reason that conclusion is true. The answer choices to these questions
will be concrete and tied to the subject matter of the argument.
For example, consider the following argument:
Clarence: All students should take art classes, as they derive many
benefits from doing so. Students find painting, drawing, and other
forms of artistic expression to be relaxing, and these artistic forms
foster creativity and an appreciation for aesthetics. Plus, students who
study art have been shown to be less impulsive and more empathetic.
Art classes promote healthy, well-rounded development.
Ruth: My objection to students’ taking art classes is that such classes
reduce the total instruction time spent on math and science. These
subjects help prepare students for the modern workforce. Art classes
do not.
Clarence’s and Ruth’s statements provide the strongest support for
holding that they disagree with each other over whether:
(A) art classes are the only way in which schools can promote healthy,
well-rounded development
(B) students should take art classes
(C) students who take music classes are less impulsive and more
empathetic
(D) art classes promote healthy, well-rounded development
(E) art classes or math and science classes do more to prepare students for
the modern workforce
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice B. The conclusion of

Clarence’s argument is the first half of its first sentence: “All students should
take art classes.” The rest of his argument offers six or seven premises in support
of that conclusion. Ruth, on the other hand, has an “objection to students taking
art classes.” That’s the basic point about which they disagree. Clarence thinks all
students should take art classes, while Ruth thinks they should not. Choice B
encapsulates this dispute.
Choice A is incorrect because it introduces an irrelevant comparison. Ruth
does not object to Clarence’s proposal because she thinks there are better ways
to promote healthy, well-rounded development; she is focused on a different
issue entirely (namely, preparing students to join the modern workforce). Choice
C is incorrect because it is not tied to the subject matter of the argument; it
introduces a new topic (music classes) that was not discussed by either speaker.
Choice D is incorrect because Ruth does not take issue with the truth of
Clarence’s premises; instead, she argues that he is focusing on the wrong
considerations. Choice E is wrong for a similar reason; Clarence does not
attempt to defend art classes on the ground that they prepare students to join the
workforce.
Describe How the Argument Proceeds. The final variety of Describe questions
is a question that asks you, in very general terms, to explain how an argument
proceeds. Such questions are worded like this:
[Speaker A] responds to [Speaker B] by:

The argument proceeds by:
Again, you should start out by identifying the argument’s premises and
conclusion. But you should also go one step further. Once you’ve labeled each
part of the argument, attach a sublabel to it. Is the conclusion a prediction, an
opinion, a solution, a theory, a principle, or a policy judgment? Are the premises
anecdotes, observations, examples, data, or the results of a study?
As you work through the answer choices to these questions, make use of the
parse-and-match method you learned in Case 3. Each choice will have several
different components. Take one part of the choice and see if it corresponds to
one part of the argument. If it does, repeat the process with the next part of the
description; if it doesn’t, move on to the next answer choice. The correct answer
will accurately describe the argument’s reasoning without any omissions or
additions.
Let’s take a look at a sample argument:
Doctor: It is highly likely that my patient is suffering from either

mononucleosis or a penicillin-resistant bacterial infection. Blood
work confirms that the patient is not suffering from a penicillin-
work confirms that the patient is not suffering from a penicillin-
resistant bacterial infection. As a result, I am virtually certain that my
patient has contracted mononucleosis.
The argument proceeds by:
(A) evaluating the correctness of a particular diagnosis in light of an
ongoing epidemiological trend
(B) refuting a claim that a particular diagnosis is correct by offering
evidence that an alternative diagnosis is likely correct
(C) hypothesizing that a particular diagnosis must be correct based on the
particular set of symptoms presented
(D) concluding that a particular diagnosis is very likely correct by ruling
out the only probable alternative
(E) inferring, from a claim that one of two possible diagnoses must be
correct, that the other diagnosis is incorrect
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice D. The doctor’s conclusion
appears in the last sentence of the argument: she is virtually certain that the
patient has contracted mononucleosis. She draws this conclusion based on two
premises: (1) it is highly like that her patient has either mono or a bacterial
infection, and (2) blood work has ruled out the possibility of a bacterial
infection. Thus, the premises present two possible diagnoses and then rule out
one of them. The conclusion endorses the correctness of the other diagnosis.
Each part of choice D corresponds to one portion of the argument.
The parse-and-match method eliminates each of the remaining answer
choices. Choice A is incorrect because the argument does not discuss an ongoing
epidemiological trend. Choice B is incorrect because the argument does not
refute a claim. The doctor is advancing her own theory about the patient’s
diagnosis, not rebutting a theory offered by someone else. Choice C is incorrect
because the doctor does not discuss the particular symptoms that led her to her
diagnosis. And choice E gets the argument’s structure backwards: from the
premise that one of two possible diagnoses must be incorrect, the argument
concludes that the other diagnosis must be correct.
Case 9
Finding a Flaw: Criticize the Reasoning
This case addresses Arguments questions that ask you to criticize or find a flaw
This case addresses Arguments questions that ask you to criticize or find a flaw
in the reasoning of an argument. Flaw questions have been the second most
common question type on recent LSATs, accounting for about 16 percent of the
test (an average of eight questions).
Flaw questions are like Describe questions with an editorial bent. The
arguments associated with Flaw questions typically commit one of a handful of
common errors of reasoning. Once again you’ll start out by breaking the
argument down into parts and understanding what role each part plays. You’ll
then go one step further and find the “flaw” in the argument. This case will
introduce you to those errors of reasoning and teach you how to identify them.

Flaw questions ask you to select an answer choice that identifies a flaw or error
in the argument’s reasoning. These questions use some variation of the following
wording:
The argument above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it:
The argument above is flawed in that it:
The argument’s reasoning is questionable in that it fails to consider the
possibility that (or, “in that it takes for granted that”):
Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in the
argument above?
Which one of the following most accurately describes the error in [the
speaker]’s reasoning?

You should take the same approach to reading the argument associated with a
Flaw question that you take on Describe questions. Start out by breaking the
argument down into background information, premises, and conclusions. Pay
attention to the relationship between the premises and the conclusion. Does the
argument offer a theory to explain some data? A prediction based on a survey or
a poll? An opinion based on experience?
Many Flaw questions use arguments that attempt to undermine or discredit an
opposing viewpoint. These arguments go something like, “Some people say X.
But they’re wrong for Y reason.” In the previous case, you learned how to
identify when part of an argument is playing the role of the statement to be
refuted. If you see such a statement on a Flaw question, pay close to attention to
how the argument attempts to discredit it.
Since this is a Flaw question, you know the argument somehow fails to establish
its conclusion. There is an almost infinite number of ways that an argument can
commit an error of reasoning, but on the LSAT, a small handful of errors show
up over and over. Below is a brief summary of the nine most common errors of
reasoning committed in the arguments associated with Flaw questions:
Necessary Versus Sufficient Conditions. Sometimes a particular outcome

depends in some way on a condition. A condition can be either necessary or
sufficient. A necessary condition is a deal-breaker. The absence of a necessary
condition forecloses the outcome from being obtained. For example, being a
fruit is a necessary condition of being an apple. A sufficient condition is a deal-
maker. Satisfying a necessary condition isn’t always enough to guarantee that an
outcome will be obtained, and sometimes an outcome can be obtained even if a
sufficient condition is not satisfied. For example, being an apple is a sufficient
condition for being a fruit.
Confusing Parts and Wholes. When a whole is composed of multiple parts, it

frequently takes on qualities that are not shared by any of its parts standing
alone. For example, if a paragraph is very long, it does not follow that each of
the sentences in that paragraph is also very long. The paragraph could be
composed of numerous short sentences. Conversely, each individual component
of a bicycle might be able to fit in the trunk of your car, but it does not follow
that the bicycle itself will also fit in the trunk.
Inadequate or Unrepresentative Sample. Flaw questions often use arguments

that base generalizations, predictions, or theories on a limited set of data or
experiences. Those conclusions often sweep much more broadly than the data
will support. For instance:
Tourist: I’ve seen three people walking down the street today drinking
Red Bull. Red Bull must be very popular in New York.
The fact that three people have been seen drinking a particular beverage is not an
adequate basis on which to conclude that the beverage is very popular in a city
with millions of residents.
Confusing Correlation with Causation. Causation is a frequently recurring

topic in Flaw questions. Do not confuse correlation with causation. Correlation
is a simple observation that two things or events appear together, often
frequently. Causation, however, is the claim that those two things or events are
associated because one causes the other. Consider this argument:
Paleontologist: My research into the fossil record reveals a high

concentration of volcanic ash in the atmosphere during periods with
high rates of species extinction. Therefore, volcanoes cause mass
extinction.
The mere fact of correlation (the fossil record and volcanic ash), without any
additional facts or evidence, is not enough to support an inference of causation.
Ignoring a Third Cause or Reversing Causality. This is another error of

reasoning related to causation. Many Flaw questions will observe that A and B
are correlated and conclude that A causes B, without considering the possibility
that C—some third, unnamed factor—is the cause of both A and B. For instance:
Market analyst: The Nikkei Index dropped by more than 7 percent today,
while the Hong Kong Stock Exchange was down nearly 5 percent.
Clearly the market in Hong Kong was responding to the slow trading
in Tokyo.
This argument overlooks the possibility that the drop in both markets was caused
by some third factor—such as a dip on the New York Stock Exchange, increased
oil prices, a natural disaster, the release of poor earnings reports, or any number
of other reasons. Similarly, an argument might erroneously assume that A causes
B when in actuality B causes A (“Whenever it rains, people carry umbrellas.
Therefore, carrying an umbrella makes it more likely to rain”).
Shifts in Meaning and Ambiguous Language. Another common error is using

the same term twice in the course of an argument, but assigning it a different
meaning each time. For instance:
Boy: I deposited my money in a bank. There are two banks along every
river. Therefore, I probably deposited my money somewhere along a
river.
This is a silly and obvious example. It’s far more common for a shift in meaning
to be more subtle.
Ad Hominem Attack. Ad hominem is Latin for “to the man.” An ad hominem

attack is an attempt to discredit an argument by making personal attacks against
the person advancing the argument instead of making logical attacks against the
content of the argument. On the LSAT, these unreliable arguments often look
something like this:
Researcher: My colleague suggests that the results of my study are not

reliable because I used a faulty research method. But she herself used
the same method in her last study.
This kind of argument inappropriately criticizes the speaker instead of what is
spoken.
Straw Man. A straw-man argument is one that attempts to respond to or

discredit an opposing position by misrepresenting the content of that position.
(This kind of argument is called a “straw man” because the position it attacks is
not the real point at issue, just as a scarecrow made of straw is not a real person.)
For example:
It is foolish to suggest that handgun ownership should be banned. How

could people feel safe in their homes without any firearms to defend
themselves against intruders?
Suggesting that a total ban on all forms of firearms (handguns, shotguns, rifles,
etc.) would make people feel unsafe is not responsive to the more limited
proposal to ban handguns.
Appeal to Popularity. On the LSAT, an argument stands or falls on the

soundness of the logical relationship between its premises and its conclusion.
The wisdom of the crowd has no place in the Arguments section. Flaw questions
often present arguments in which the fact that many people agree with or
advocate a proposition is presented as evidence of the proposition’s truth. For
example,
Patient: Dr. Hernandez is an excellent doctor. She has the longest waiting
list of any doctor in the city.
Popularity is not evidence of reliability or accuracy.

The right answer will correctly describe the error in reasoning committed by the
argument. It might do so using very general language, such as, “The analyst
erroneously infers that something is true of a whole based on the fact that
something is true of each of the parts.” Or the answer might be phrased in
something is true of each of the parts.” Or the answer might be phrased in
concrete terms that are tied to the subject matter of the argument: “The
choreographer errs by inferring that the dance is easy based on the fact that each
step is simple to execute in isolation.”

1. Inapplicable flaws. You can expect to see more than one of the common
fallacies and errors of reasoning listed above as answer choices for each
Arguments question. Only one flaw can be the right answer. When you’re
picking between flaws, you should be able to pinpoint where the flaw occurs
using the work you did in steps 2 and 3.
2. Circular reasoning. An argument engages in circular reasoning when it
assumes the truth of the point that it sets out to prove. For example: “Jane and
Lila played a game of tennis. Jane lost. Therefore, Lila won.” This argument
is circular. By stating “Jane lost” as a premise, the argument takes it for
granted that Lila won. The odds of your seeing a Flaw question in which the
argument displays circular reasoning are less than 5 percent. But “the
argument engages in circular reasoning,” “the argument assumes the truth of
what it sets out to prove,” and “the argument begs the question” are some of
the most common wrong answer choices on Flaw questions. When you see
circular reasoning as one of the answer choices, you should indulge a
superstrong presumption against picking that choice.
3. A feature of the argument that is not a flaw. For example, an answer choice
might accuse an argument of “rejecting a view merely on the ground that an
inadequate argument has been made in support of it.” That might be an
accurate description of the argument, but that’s not a flaw! Rejecting a view
because it has been inadequately supported is the essence of logical reasoning.
This type of answer choice can be very tempting because it is an accurate
description of the argument. Don’t select a choice unless you agree that the
pattern of reasoning it describes is questionable, unreliable, or faulty.
Practice Question
Pet-store owner: When you purchase a coral trout, you can be assured that
you are purchasing one of the most beautiful fish in the world. The
wide array of fish, sea snakes, turtles, and mollusks that inhabit the
waters around the Great Barrier Reef make up the world’s most
beautiful collection of marine fauna. And the coral trout’s natural
habitat is the waters around the Greater Barrier Reef.
The pet-store owner’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the
grounds that it:
(A) takes a mere correlation to be evidence of a causal relationship
(B) bases a generalization on a sample that is unlikely to be representative
(C) uses the term beautiful in two different senses
(D) provides an inadequate definition of the term habitat
(E) takes for granted a characteristic of a group is shared by all members
of that group
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer to this question is choice E. The
conclusion of this argument is its first sentence: the coral trout is one of the most
beautiful fish in the world. But the only evidence for that conclusion is that the
coral trout can be found in the Great Barrier Reef. The beauty of the Great
Barrier Reef’s sea life, as a group, does not guarantee that every species that
lives near the reef is also, individually, beautiful.
Choice A is incorrect because the argument does not assert the existence of
any causal relationship. Choice B is incorrect because the argument does not rest
on a sample (i.e., the problem with the argument is not that most coral trout are
dissimilar to the coral trout discussed by the pet-store owner). Choice C is
incorrect because there is no indication in the argument that the term beautiful
has shifted in meaning. And choice D is incorrect because the argument does not
turn on the precise meaning of the term habitat; the focus of the argument is the
beauty of the fish.
Case 10
Mapping for Similarity: Parallel the Reasoning
It can be hard to generalize about the level of difficulty of most of the question
types you’ll encounter in the Arguments section. The exception to that rule is a
question that asks you to identify the answer choice that most closely parallels
the argument’s reasoning. None of these questions is easy. Many of them are
among the hardest questions you’ll encounter in the Arguments section. All of
them are inordinately time-consuming. Fortunately, over the past few years
they’ve made up a little less than 8 percent of the questions in the Arguments
sections.
You know you’re dealing with a Parallel question when you see any of the
following:
The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in
the argument above?
Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the
argument above?
The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in
the argument above?
A Parallel question might also be worded like this:
The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most closely
parallel to that in the argument above?
Which one of the following arguments exhibits a pattern of flawed reasoning
most similar to that in the argument above?
The questionable reasoning in the argument above is most similar in its
reasoning to which one of the following?
These latter questions tell you that the argument is flawed, questionable, or
unsound; the former questions imply that the argument is valid. That distinction
doesn’t make a difference to how you should approach these questions, but it can
sometimes help you ensure you’re on track to finding the right answer.

When you read the argument associated with a Parallel question, your focus
should be not on its substantive content but rather on the structure of the
reasoning it employs. Most arguments are nothing more than a series of
conditional statements. You should use symbolizations to map out the reasoning
employed by such arguments.
Parallel questions do not require you to substantively manipulate conditional
statements or make deductions based on them. Instead, they require you to keep
track of the ways in which the argument and the five answer choices use
conditional statements. Rare indeed is the Parallel question whose argument
employs nothing but standard-form “If A, then B” conditional statements.
Even beyond these complicated but familiar translations, Parallel questions will
test your ability to recognize when a natural-language statement can be
translated into a conditional symbolization. For example, a sentence that begins
“every” or “any” is usually an “All A are B” conditional statement.

The correct answer to a Parallel question will utilize a pattern, structure, method,
or strategy of reasoning that is identical to the one employed by the argument.
So before you turn to the answer choices, you should use your symbolization
tools to map out the pattern of reasoning the argument employs.
For example, consider the following argument and question:
Strategist: Politicians who are not firmly committed to a core set of

beliefs will formulate new campaign strategies and talking points
before each upcoming election. Politicians are elected to serve
multiple terms in office only if they formulate new campaign
strategies and talking points before each upcoming election.
Therefore, politicians who are not firmly committed to a core set of
beliefs are elected to serve multiple terms in office.
Which one of the following displays a flawed pattern of reasoning most
closely parallel to that in the strategist’s argument?
It may not be obvious at first, but every statement in that argument is—or at least
can be made into—a conditional statement. Before you turned to the answer
choices on this question, you would need to symbolize the entire argument in
conditional-statement form. You can do so at the bottom of the test-booklet
page.
Instead of using single capital letters to symbolize these sentences, symbolize
them in a way that reminds you of what they actually say. You might choose
them in a way that reminds you of what they actually say. You might choose
shorthand (as we did in Case 2), so that:
“firmly committed to a core set of beliefs” thus might become “firmly

committed”
“formulate new campaign strategies and talking points before each
upcoming election” becomes “formulate new”
“elected to serve multiple terms in office” becomes “multiple terms”
Alternatively, you might choose to use a longer symbolization:
“firmly committed to a core set of beliefs” becomes “FCCSB”

“formulate new campaign strategies and talking points before each
upcoming election” as “FNCS&TP”
“elected to serve multiple terms in office” become “ESMTO”
Anything that makes sense to you is fine; we’ll use shorthand here. Recast as
conditional symbolizations, this argument looks like this:
not firmly committed → formulate new

multiple terms → formulate new
Therefore, not firmly committed → multiple terms
Remember the rule from the Logic Games chapter and this chapter’s discussion
of Deduction questions that the only way to a make a valid deduction using
conditional statements is to follow the arrow. This symbolization illustrates why
the question tells you that this argument “displays a flawed pattern of
reasoning.” It makes an invalid deduction by going against the arrow in its
combination of the two conditional-statement premises.
That’s how the difference between a question that asks you to parallel the
reasoning and a question that asks you to parallel the flawed reasoning can help
you double-check that you’re on track to find the right answer. On a Parallel the
Flaw question, your symbolization should show that the argument’s conclusion
is a deduction that goes against the arrow. On a regular Parallel question, the
conclusion should be a valid, arrow-following deduction.

You can already begin to see why Parallel questions are so time-consuming;
translating each sentence in the argument into a conditional statement and then
symbolizing each conditional statement is no easy task. But that’s not even the
symbolizing each conditional statement is no easy task. But that’s not even the
half of it. To identify the correct answer on a Parallel question, you have to
repeat that process for each answer choice until you find a choice that employs
the same pattern of reasoning as the argument. The only silver lining within this
great cloud is that it’s the one argument type with one answer that is objectively
correct. Once you find an answer whose structure matches the argument, pick it
and move on. There’s no need to diagram the remaining choices.
Practice Question
Take another look at the argument from earlier, this time with answer choices as
well:
Strategist: Politicians who are not firmly committed to a core set of

beliefs will formulate new campaign strategies and talking points
before each upcoming election. Politicians are elected to serve
multiple terms in office only if they formulate new campaign
strategies and talking points before each upcoming election.
Therefore, politicians who are not firmly committed to a core set of
beliefs are elected to serve multiple terms in office.
Which one of the following displays a flawed pattern of reasoning most
closely parallel to that in the strategist’s argument?
(A) Music that is pleasing to the ear is melodic. Music that is melodic
involves chords and harmony. Thus, music is pleasing to the ear only
if it involves chords and harmony.
(B) A loyal person is a likeable person, for a loyal person always stands
by her friends and a likeable person also always stands by her friends.
(C) A well-constructed house includes code-compliant framing, wiring,
and insulation. A house is marketable only if it is well constructed.
Therefore, a marketable house includes code-compliant framing,
wiring, and insulation.
(D) Nuclear proliferation will accelerate only if there is widespread
access to fissile material. Widespread access to fissile material goes
hand in glove with increased regional instability. Therefore, nuclear
proliferation will not accelerate unless there is an increase in regional
instability.
(E) If health-care costs continue to rise, foreign currency markets will
devalue the dollar. But health-care costs will not continue to rise.
Therefore, foreign currency markets will not devalue the dollar.
Answer and Analysis. Symbolically, these choices look like this:
(A) pleasing → melodic

melodic → chords and harmony
therefore, pleasing → chords and harmony
(B) loyal → stand by friends
likeable → stand by friends
therefore, loyal → likeable
(C) well constructed → code-compliant
marketable → well constructed
therefore, marketable → code-compliant
(D) nuclear prolif → fissile-material access
fissile-material access → regional instability
therefore, nuclear prolif → regional instability
(E) continued rising costs → devalued dollar
no continued rising costs
therefore, no devalued dollar
As these symbolizations illustrate, the correct answer to this question is choice

B. One trick the test writers will use to make it more difficult to identify the
correct answer is to switch the order in which the statements appear. You see
this in choice B, where the conclusion is listed before the two premises, while
the argument lists the premises before the conclusion. The order in which
statements appear has no bearing on the logical relationship between them, but
changing that order can make the passages appear superficially dissimilar.
Most of the previous cases discussed the common types of wrong answer
choices that are associated with a particular question type. With two exceptions,
it’s not possible to undertake such a generalized discussion about Parallel
questions because whether an answer is right or wrong depends entirely on the
structure of the argument. In short, Parallel questions, like Principle questions,
require you to play a matching game. All you can do is symbolize each choice
one by one until you find one that matches.
As for those two exceptions, here are two generally applicable pieces of
advice about wrong answer choices on Parallel questions. First, on questions that
ask you to find a parallel pattern of flawed reasoning, one or more of the answer
choices will present you with a valid, nonflawed argument. You see that here
with choices A, C, and D. Second, it’s also common for two or more answer
choices to employ an identical pattern of reasoning. Again, choices A, C, and D
illustrate this. You don’t even have to read the argument to know that such
choices cannot be correct; if one were right, necessarily the other(s) would be
too.
Case 11
You’re now familiar with all 10 types of questions you’ll encounter on the
Arguments section and the frequency with which you’ll encounter them. The
table below summarizes that information:
This case discusses the strategy you should use to approach the Arguments
section as a whole. Section-wide strategy for the Arguments section is less
complicated than it is for the Logic Games and Reading Comprehension
sections. An effective approach to the Arguments section is one that abides by
the following five guidelines.
Accuracy Trumps Speed …

This principle is a constant across all three sections of the test. Rushing your
way through the Arguments section in a desperate bid to work every single
question is a bad strategy. Your goal is not to answer as many questions as
possible. Your goal is to correctly answer as many questions as possible. Again,
as discussed in the Logic Games chapter, if you answer 75 percent of the
questions (that’s 19 or 20 of the 25 or 26 questions in an Arguments section) at a
90 percent rate of accuracy and then bubble in blind guesses for the remaining 5
questions, you’ll be on track for an excellent score.
… But Speed Is Not Unimportant

If your aim is to work 20 Arguments questions in 35 minutes, you have about 1
minute, 45 seconds per question. That’s not a ton of time to read the question,
read the argument, work through all five answer choices, and bubble in your
selected answer. Accuracy requires you to be careful, precise, and thorough in
your approach to the questions. But you also must be efficient and decisive.
Time is always a factor.
With Two Exceptions, Decide Which Questions to Skip on a Case-by-Case
Basis
Conclusion questions tend to be among the easiest, most straightforward
questions in the Arguments section. You should plan to work every one that you
see. Skip all Parallel questions until you’ve already worked every other question
in the section. Should you have time left over, come back and try your hand at a
Parallel question. Those two exceptions aside, it’s not possible to speak in
general terms about the difficulty of each question type. There is tremendous
variation within each category.
What’s more, you can’t reliably predict how many of each question type will
appear in a given Arguments section. The table at the beginning of this case
summarizes the average number of questions of each type that appear on the
LSAT as a whole. But there is variation from test to test and from section to
section. One recent test had a total of two Strengthen questions (the fourth most
common question type); another had seven Principle questions (the second least
common question type). You need to be comfortable working all non-Parallel
question types.
So how do you decide which questions to skip? Skip a question if, after the
first time you read the argument, you do not understand what you’ve read. If
you’re having a hard time making sense of the content of the argument, your
chances of correctly answering the question are very low. Don’t let stubbornness
get the best of you here. You don’t have time to read the argument two or three
times and then decide that you’re going to skip the question; you need to save
that time for questions you’ll actually answer. By all means, put a star in the
margin, circle the question number, or make some other note to yourself that
you’ve skipped the question. That way, once you’ve worked through all the
easier questions, you can come back and give it a second look. But if the first
read leaves you scratching your head, move on.
Always Work the Very Last Question in the Section

This is the exception to the general rule that the questions get harder as the
section goes on. The last question in the section is almost always an easy or
medium-difficulty question. It’s usually preceded by three or four of the very
hardest questions in the section, so if you get bogged down on those, it’s easy to
run out of time. Develop a rule for yourself about when you’ll always work the
last question in the section. It could be after you’ve worked sequentially up to a
particular question number; it could be when you see there are only 10 minutes
left in the section. Whatever your rule, stick to it, and make sure you take
advantage of this opportunity to pick up an easy point.
advantage of this opportunity to pick up an easy point.
CHAPTER 5
LSAT Reading Comprehension
The importance of retrieval, not recall, in the Reading Comprehension

section
How to apply annotative-reading techniques to the passages
The six different types of questions you will encounter and techniques
for working each one
How to approach the comparative reading passage
How to approach the Reading Comprehension section as a whole
A s noted in Chapter 1, each Reading Comprehension section contains

four passages (one of which, the comparative reading passage, is
actually a pair of two shorter passages). There will be one passage
from each of the following general content areas: law, science, the
arts, and social science/humanities. Examples of specific topics that you might
encounter include:
Law: international law, intellectual property, legal theory, legal history,
courtroom practice
Science: geology, botany, computer science, evolutionary biology, ecology,
engineering, mathematics, animal behavior
The arts: literature, painting, dance, theater, sculpture, music, film, poetry
Social science/humanities: economics, anthropology, history, urban planning,
linguistics, archaeology, philosophy, psychology
The Reading Comprehension section is an open-book test; the correct answer to

every question must be directly supported by the text of the passage. This
chapter lays out a strategy that is designed to take advantage of that fact. That
strategy requires you to take a particular approach both to reading the passage
and to answering the questions. The first two cases in this chapter concentrate on
reading. They introduce annotative reading, a technique that has been designed
especially for the Reading Comprehension section of the LSAT. You’ll learn
how to annotate the passage as you read it in a way that positions you to answer
the questions quickly and with a high rate of accuracy.
Cases 3 through 8 introduce the six major types of questions you’ll encounter,
while Case 9 discusses question types that are unique to the Comparative
Reading passage.
You’ll use a three-step method in the Reading Comprehension section:
1. Read the question and identify your task.

2. Go back to the passage to find the answer.
3. Read every word of every answer choice.
The cases will demonstrate how this method should be applied to each major
question type. As in the previous two chapters, the last case discusses section-
wide strategy.
Three final notes before turning to the first case. First, you’ll be learning a
particular, specialized way of reading that you probably haven’t employed
before. You may start off reading slowly. That’s OK. With practice, you’ll get
faster at employing the annotative-reading techniques, and eventually you’ll be
able to work at a pace that is compatible with the Reading Comprehension
section’s 35-minute time constraint. In the early stages of your study, take the
time to apply the techniques correctly, even if it takes you a long time to do so.
Practice only helps if you’re building good habits.
Second, as you work the practice Reading Comprehension passages and
sections in this book, keep a log of the questions you miss and relevant details
about each question. We all have different strengths and weaknesses as readers.
You won’t be able to identify the areas in which you need improvement unless
You won’t be able to identify the areas in which you need improvement unless
you’ve been tracking your performance. A sample performance log might look
like this:
After you’ve worked through a few passages, look for trends among the
questions you’re missing. This will help you focus your studying efforts. It may
also be helpful to you as you’re developing your strategy for tackling the section
as a whole; Case 10 will explore this possibility in greater detail.
Finally, much of the Reading Comprehension section’s difficulty stems from
the fact that you’re probably unaccustomed to reading texts with the particular
combination of length, density, and subject matter that you encounter on the
LSAT. The more comfortable you can become reading this kind of material, the
better you’ll fare on test day. Working practice questions is not the only way you
can increase your comfort level. The articles in the weekly newsmagazine The
Economist tend to be somewhat similar to the passages on the LSAT in their
length, tone, purpose, and content. Reading a few such articles each day is a
good way to improve your reading skills.
Case 1
Retrieval, Not Recall: How to Read on the LSAT
This case introduces the annotative-reading method you will use to read the
passages in the Reading Comprehension section. This case focuses on the “why”
and “what” of annotative reading (the rationale for using this technique and the
tasks it will help you accomplish), while Case 2 explains the “how” (the tools
and techniques you will use to implement it).
You will read each passage with two aims in mind: (1) attaining an
understanding of the passage’s main idea; and (2) mapping the location of the
various details, evidence, and examples so that you can quickly locate and
review them as you’re working the questions.
The Reading Comprehension Section as an Open-Book Test

If one of your professors gave you an open-book exam, would you bring your
If one of your professors gave you an open-book exam, would you bring your
book and class notes into the exam room only to leave them facedown on your
desk as you attempted to answer all the questions from memory? Of course not.
You would double-check your answers to the exam’s questions against the
information in the textbook and your notes.
The Reading Comprehension section gives you the same opportunity to verify
the correctness of your responses. It is effectively an open-book test. And every
right answer must be objectively, demonstrably correct based solely on the
information in the text. Outside information, subjective judgments, and
debatable inferences can play no role in determining the correctness of an
answer. Imagine a person who takes the LSAT and, upon receiving a
disappointing score, decides to sue the LSAC (with a test that’s administered to
would-be future lawyers, the possibility is not as far-fetched as it sounds). “I’m
absolutely certain,” the test taker argues, “that the answers I selected to the
Reading Comprehension questions were right and that the answers you identified
as correct were wrong.” If the judge were to ask one of the test writers, “Why is
B the correct answer to question 5?” the test writer would have to be able to
point to a specific portion of the passage and say, “This is the portion of the
passage that makes B the correct answer.” There can’t be room for debate; it
can’t be a matter of interpretation.
This is the mind-set with which the LSAC writes Reading Comprehension
questions. As a test taker, your job is to exploit that mind-set. Getting a good
score on the Reading Comprehension section doesn’t require you to undertake a
sophisticated analysis of the passage. You don’t have to come up with insightful,
original things to say about it. You don’t have to contemplate its broader
significance or implications. All the right answers are right there on the page, in
the passage.
How to Read the Passage with an Eye Toward Answering the Questions
Typically when you read, it’s either for pleasure or to learn—that is, to be able to
retain and recall the information in the text. Obviously you’re not reading for
pleasure on the LSAT. Nor are you reading for long-term recall; odds are you’ll
happily forget everything about the passages roughly 30 seconds after you finish
the section. What may be less obvious is that you’re also not reading for short-
term recall either.
That’s the key point: you’re not reading for recall at all. You’re reading the
passages on the Reading Comprehension section for one purpose: to correctly
answer as many questions as possible in 35 minutes. And the best way to
correctly answer as many questions as possible is to not rely on recall, but to go
back to the passage and find the answer to every question you work.
And yet the most common mistake that test takers make on this section is
trying to answer the questions from memory instead of going back to the passage
to retrieve the answer. Not only is it a common mistake, but it’s also the mistake
the test is most designed to exploit. The test writers know you’re working under
time pressure and will be tempted to rely on your recall. The wrong answers are
carefully worded to look like right answers to test takers who are working from
memory.
The answers are in the passage. You just have to find them.
After you read each question, don’t try to remember the answer. Go find it.
All of the techniques in the later cases are derived from this single idea. By far
the single most important element of an effective Reading Comprehension
strategy is being able to quickly find the answer to each question. And in order
to do that, you need to develop a new style of reading, an LSAT-specific reading
style.
You will read each passage from start to finish just once before working any
questions, annotating the passage using “upfront reading” techniques. Your
annotations will allow you to quickly find the answers to the questions when you
go back to the passage for your question-specific reading.
Upfront Reading
If the Reading Comprehension section were untimed, it wouldn’t especially
matter how you read the passage. You could pore over every word, taking as
long as you needed to understand its content, purpose, and structure. In reality,
you only have 35 minutes to work all four passages. This time constraint
requires you to be productive, but also efficient.
Your upfront reading of the passage will be narrowly focused on
accomplishing two tasks: articulating the main point of the passage as a whole
and mapping the location of details, evidence, and examples.
Articulating the Main Point of the Passage as a Whole. The upfront reading is
the only time you’ll read the passage straight through, from start to finish. It is
your chance to step back and see the whole forest. With each question, you’ll
study a particular tree. Almost all Reading Comprehension passages have at least
one question that asks you to identify the passage’s main point, and having a
clear handle on the main point is a helpful tool in answering many small-picture
questions, too.
You should use your upfront reading to identify the passage’s main point
and map the location of the various details.
Mapping the Location of Details, Evidence, and Examples. During your

upfront reading your goal is not to carefully study and absorb all of the facts,
examples, evidence, and other details that the passage discusses. Instead, you
should use a system of annotations to simply map their locations, which will
streamline your question-specific reading. Once marked for easy reference,
you’ll be able to return to them quickly.
If you pore over the details during your upfront reading, you will inevitably
have to rush or even abandon some of your question-specific readings and
instead rely on your recall. Doing that plays right into the traps that the test
writers have laid for you.
Plus, closely studying all the details upfront will surely cause you to waste
valuable time. Suppose a passage supported its main point by offering four
examples. If none of the questions asked you about example number two, any
time you spent memorizing it would be for naught. Why read a portion of the
passage closely if doing so won’t help you get a better score? The guideline is
this: know exactly where the details are, not exactly what they say. You’ll spend
your time wisely by letting the questions guide you.
Case 2 will introduce you to the customized annotation system to mark up the
passage as you read it—the nuts and bolts of annotative reading.
Case 2
The Mechanics of Annotative Reading
During annotative reading, you’ll mark up the passage and make notes about its
key points as you read. The primary benefit of annotative reading is that it
enhances your focus and concentration. The passages on the Reading
Comprehension section aren’t exactly page-turners. Annotating them as you read
forces you to pay attention and remain an active, engaged reader. If you’re
reading passively, it’s all too easy to come to the end of a paragraph only to
realize that you spaced out and didn’t absorb anything you read. Time is of the
realize that you spaced out and didn’t absorb anything you read. Time is of the
essence; you can’t afford to read the same paragraph two or three times.
Annotative reading gives you a series of tasks to perform, and you can’t perform
them if you’re not paying attention.
The system of annotative reading described in this case is tailor-made for the
Reading Comprehension section. While there is room for some flexibility in how
it is implemented, two aspects of it are indispensible. Whatever system of
annotation you ultimately adopt must incorporate both of these aspects.
First, you are looking for three specific kinds of information in the passage:
1. The main point of each paragraph

2. Words that indicate connections between the paragraphs and the big ideas of
the passage
3. Key components of factual details
Those first two bits of information will help you zero in on the passage’s main
point as a whole. Annotating the factual details will pay dividends when it comes
time to answer the questions. Mark up the passage for this information and
nothing else.
Second, you must use the same system of symbols, marks, or notations for
everything. Otherwise, it’s too easy to zone out and start mindlessly underlining
or circling. Plus, having different annotations for different types of information
will make it easier for you to locate each type quickly as you’re working the
questions.
This case recommends that you put brackets around each paragraph’s main
point, draw circles around words that indicate connections between the
paragraphs, and underline the key snippets of factual detail. It also recommends
making notes in the margins using the same letters or symbols. If you have a
different system that works for you, feel free to use it, but do so consistently.
Understanding the Main Idea

Arriving at an understanding of the passage’s main point is a three-step process.
First, as you read you’ll identify the main point of each paragraph. Second,
you’ll identify the logical relationships between the main points of each
paragraph. Third, when you’re done reading, you’ll summarize the passage by
stringing together the main points of each paragraph. Summarizing the passage
will help you home in on its main point.
Identify the Main Point of Each Paragraph. To identify the main point of
each paragraph, you’ll draw on the skills you learned in Case 1 of Chapter 4, the
discussion of Conclusion questions in the Arguments section. Each Argument
contains background information, premises, and conclusions. The same is true of
the Reading Comprehension passages; they’re basically just longer versions of
that. This is also true of each paragraph within the passage. Zeroing in on each
paragraph’s core idea is the first step toward identifying the main point of the
passage as a whole.
To identify the main point of a paragraph, use the same two techniques you
learned in Chapter 4 for identifying the conclusion of an argument. First, keep an
eye out for conclusion indicators, words whose function it is to introduce a
conclusion. If you see one of the words listed below, circle it.
Second, the main point of the paragraph will typically use normative
language (language that says something is “good” or “bad”) to express an
opinion, evaluation, solution, proposal, explanation, assessment, or prediction.
However, this is not always the case. Sometimes the purpose of an individual
paragraph is to simply provide factual context, offer background information, or
summarize a recent development. The main point of such a paragraph will
simply be the fact that all of the other details fit under.
Once you’ve identified the main point of the paragraph, put brackets around
the sentence, and make a note next to it in the margin. You can note “MP” for
“main point,” “T” for “thesis,” or simply use an asterisk (*) to indicate
importance. If you determine that the main point isn’t contained in any one
sentence, you can either bracket the two sentences that it’s drawn from or jot a
very brief summary of it in the margin. If you take this later tack, keep it short
(three to five words); making extensive notes consumes a lot of time. You’ll
repeat this process for every paragraph in the passage.
Circle the Connections Between Ideas. You’ll also look for words that indicate
the connections between the ideas contained in each paragraph. For example,
authors use certain words to indicate that what they are about to say will stand in
contrast to what they just said. The following list offers some of the most
common contrast indicators.
If you see these words or words like them, circle them. They indicate that the
passage’s reasoning is changing direction.
Conversely, certain words indicate that an upcoming thought is consistent
with and builds on the thought that preceded it. Circle these as well.
These words indicate that the passage’s argument is continuing along the same
course.
Finally, circle any words of emphasis that communicate to the reader that a
given portion of the passage is particularly significant to its overall argument.
Circling these words will remind you later that this was a point at which the
passage built to one of its big ideas.
As noted above, understanding the passage’s main point requires you to be
able to answer two questions: what does each paragraph say, and how do the
paragraphs relate to each other? Bracketing the big-picture statements in each
paragraph will help you answer the former question. Circling all of the indicator
words will help you answer the latter.
Summarize the Passage. Once you’ve finished reading, your focus shifts from
the paragraph level to the passage level. The passage is nothing more than the
sum of its parts. To understand the main point of the passage, you’ll figure out
how the main points of its paragraphs fit together.
Start with the main points of the first two paragraphs. Is the second paragraph
more of the same, or is it something different? Connect the two main points of
each paragraph using a simple indicator word that captures their logical
relationship, such as “and,” “because,” or “but.”
Once you’ve connected the main ideas of the first two paragraphs, repeat the
process for each remaining paragraph. By doing so you’ll create a synopsis of
the whole passage that encapsulates all of its key ideas and how they fit together.
Also keep a lookout for normative statements that are framed in sweeping,
big-picture terms. Every so often, an author will come right out and state the
main point of the passage in a single sentence. When you see language that looks
like it’s trying to synthesize, reconcile, or explain a big idea, make sure you
mark it. That language is likely one of the most important portions of the
passage.
In the early stages of your Reading Comprehension practice, write out this
summary using complete sentences. Doing so will help you build your reading
and annotating skills, and it’s a good way to double-check your understanding of
the passage. As you become more comfortable with the technique, use shorter
summaries. Write down a few key words or phrases that capture each
paragraph’s main idea. Given the 35-minute time limit, you won’t be able to
write out full-sentence summaries of each paragraph on the day of the test.
Instead, jot these shorter summaries in the margins beside each paragraph. Add
an “and,” “but,” “because,” or other appropriate connector in the margin where
the next paragraph begins. These shorthand summaries will help ensure that you
don’t lose track of the passage’s big picture as you’re working through the
questions.
Mapping the Location of the Details

When it comes to the details, your goal is to know exactly where they are, not
exactly what they say. If one of the questions asks you about the work of a
particular scholar, for example, you need to be able to scan the passage, find that
scholar’s name, and review what the passage says about her work. By marking
the location of key factual details, your annotation system will expedite this
scan-and-retrieve process.
Underline the Key Facts. Specifically, you should underline the key portion of
each discrete factual topic within the passage. As you read, mark:
The names of people (scholars, researchers, authors, critics, etc.) whose work is
discussed
The subject or findings of any experiments, studies, reports, illustrative
examples, or other data
The names of key concepts, theories, techniques, or terms of art
Pluses and minuses, pros and cons, or strengths and weaknesses attributed to a
proposal, theory, or explanation (these frequently appear in numbered lists)
Underline judiciously. Limit yourself to only the essential portion of each

topic. Being disciplined about what you underline will force you to think
critically about the text. Visually, you want to create a user-friendly map so that
when you read a question and think, “Where did I read about that?” you can
quickly glance back to the passage and find it. You won’t be able to do that if
you’ve cluttered up the page by underlining half of the words in the passage.
In short, you want to use a “Goldilocks” amount of underlining. Mark just
enough of the key terms, names, words, and phrases to jog your memory about
each topic. But don’t mark so much that you can’t easily find what you’re
looking for. It’s rarely helpful to underline an entire sentence. It’s never helpful
to underline two entire sentences consecutively.
Putting Annotative Reading into Practice

Putting Annotative Reading into Practice
Here’s a summary of your annotative-reading strategy:
1. Identify the main point of each paragraph.

Be on the lookout for normative language.
Circle any conclusion indicators.
Once you’ve identified the main point, put brackets around it and make a
note in the margin.
2. Determine the connections between paragraphs. Draw circles around contrast
indicators, continuity indicators, and emphasis indicators.
3. Underline key factual details. Use a “Goldilocks” approach.
4. Summarize the passage’s contents by stating each paragraph’s main point and,
where possible, connecting them with a conjunction that captures their logical
relationship.
Practice
A sample passage follows. Read it and annotate it using the tools and techniques
you’ve just learned. Don’t worry about how long it takes you to finish; take the
time to do it right.

Before you continue reading, write down the main points of each of the
passage’s four paragraphs in the space below. Connect them using a simple
conjunction that captures the logical relationship between the ideas.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
A sample annotation of this passage follows. Before you compare your

annotation to that sample, review your work and ask yourself the following
annotation to that sample, review your work and ask yourself the following
questions:
1. Have I used conclusion indicators and normative language to identify each

paragraph’s main point?
2. Have I used contrast indicators, continuity indicators, and emphasis indicators
to identify the logical relationship between each paragraph?
3. Have I created a summary of the passage that uses appropriate conjunctions to
connect the main points of each paragraph?
4. Have I used a “Goldilocks” amount of underlining to highlight the key words
and phrases that signal the location of the various factual details discussed in
the passage?

Your summary of the passage should look something like this:

The amount of text that is circled, bracketed, and underlined in this passage is
a good indicator of about how much of the passage you should be marking up as
you read. This passage also demonstrates the need to be flexible as you read.
Notice there is more text underlined and circled in the last two paragraphs than
there is in the first two paragraphs. That’s because the first two paragraphs are
there to provide context and background information. The argument doesn’t
really gain steam until paragraphs three and four.
If you had a hard time identifying each paragraph’s main point or deciding
what to underline, don’t despair. Annotative reading takes practice. Each of the
next eight cases includes a practice passage as well as sample annotations and
summaries. Take the time to fully annotate and summarize each of these
passages. Everything you do in the Reading Comprehension section begins with
annotative reading.
Finally, it’s worth pointing out that this was not an easy passage to read. It
was conceptually dense, featured a number of long sentences, and used a lot of
technical terms. If it appeared on an LSAT, it would be one of the two more
difficult passages in the section. In Case 10, we’ll discuss how to quickly rank
the passages based on difficulty so that you’ll work the easier passages first. As
you read and annotate the passages in the next eight cases, make notes to
yourself about how difficult you find each passage and why. Those notes will
help you put your section-wide strategy into practice.
A key component of that section-wide strategy is pacing. Case 10 will discuss
in greater detail how you should pace yourself as you work the Reading
Comprehension section. For now, all you need to know is that your goal is to
eventually be able to complete your upfront reading of the passage—including
making annotations and creating a summary—in somewhere between three and
four minutes. In the early stages of your practice, don’t worry too much about
timing. But as you become more comfortable with the techniques, keep track of
how long it takes you to read and annotate each passage. Gradually accelerate
the process so that you are moving toward a reading pace that you can employ
on test day.
Case 3
Main Idea Questions
Main Idea questions, as the name suggests, require you to pick the answer choice
that most accurately states the main point of the passage as a whole. Almost
every passage in the Reading Comprehension section includes a Main Idea
question. The annotative-reading strategy you learned in the previous case will
help you answer these questions quickly and with a high rate of accuracy.

A Main Idea question will be worded in one of the following ways:
Which of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the
passage?
Which of the following most accurately summarizes the main idea of the
passage?
The passage most helps to answer which one of the following questions?
STEP 2: Go Back to the Passage and Find the Answer

By creating a summary of the passage as part of your annotative-reading
process, you’ve done the hard work of finding the answer to a Main Idea
question. That said, it’s important to recognize that a summary is not the same
thing as the main point. The main point of the passage is the core idea that it’s
trying to persuade you of. The summary contains the main point, but it also
contains background information and evidence or arguments offered in support
of the main point.

The right answer to a Main Idea question will be the portion of your summary of
the passage that embodies the key takeaway from the passage. The right answer
will usually borrow or quote some language directly from the passage itself.
Since Main Idea questions ask you about a big-picture concept, it can be
tempting to go beyond what you’ve read and speculate about the passage’s
significance or implications. As you work through the answer choices, keep in
mind that the correct answer must be objectively, demonstrably correct based
solely on the material in the passage.
COMMON TYPES OF WRONG ANSWERS

1. Too broad in scope. This is the most common type of wrong answer on Main
Idea questions. Several of the incorrect answer choices are likely to go beyond
the scope of the passage. They might discuss new information about a related
topic. They might make a comparison between the topic of the passage and an
outside topic that was not discussed in the passage. In particular, keep an eye
out for the word only, which subtly makes the strongest possible comparative
claim about the content of the passage.
2. Too narrow in scope. At least one of the wrong answers to a Main idea
question is usually the main point of one paragraph. Such answer choices are
designed to trick you, since they are focused on too small a portion of the
passage.
3. In the right direction, but too strong. Finally, some wrong answers to Main
Idea questions will express an idea that is similar to the one expressed in the
passage but that is stated in overblown, amplified terms. The passages are
excerpted from academic writing; they are cautious and precise. Watch out for
answers that take the basic point of the passage and state it a little too
categorically or forcefully.
Practice
Read and annotate the passage that appears on the following page. Write down
the summary you create in the blanks that appear at the end of the passage. Once
you’re finished, compare your annotations and summary to the example on the
following page.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)

SUMMARY
Practice Question
Which of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?
(A) Despite its limitations, the use of air-bubble curtains has proven to be
more effective than any other method of containing oil spills.
(B) Two industrial chemists have made a valuable contribution to the field
of petroleum engineering with their development of air-bubble
curtains, a compressor-based technology for containing oceanic oil
spills.
(C) The use of air-bubble curtains is a new method for containing oil spills
that has distinct advantages over the use of mechanical booms.
(D) Mechanical booms, an unreliable method used to contain past oil
spills, can finally be abandoned now that air-bubble-curtain technology
has been developed.
(E) Most petroleum engineers today have rejected the use of mechanical
booms and are embracing the use of air-bubble curtains as the most
effective method for containing oil spills.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice C. Note how choice C
tracks sentences two and three of the summary of the passage and quotes
language from the topic sentence of the third paragraph. Even on Main Idea
questions, the answer is in the passage; you just have to find it. Choice C doesn’t
say much about paragraph one, but that’s OK; the purpose of paragraph one was
to provide background information, so its content can be omitted from a
statement of the passage’s main point. That’s the difference between a main
point and a summary.
Choices A and E are wrong for the same reason: they go beyond the scope of
the passage to compare air-bubble curtains to all other spill-containment
technologies; the only other technology to which the passage compares air-
bubble curtains is mechanical booms. Choice B accurately states the main point
of paragraph two, but it omits any discussion of the opinion expressed in
paragraph three. Finally, choice D takes the basic idea of the passage—which is
that air-bubble curtains have some advantages over mechanical booms—and
states it too strongly. Nowhere does the passage say that booms are “unreliable”
or should “finally be abandoned.”
Variation: Primary Purpose Questions. Consider the following question:
The author’s main purpose in the passage is to

(A) defend a new technology against criticism
(B) identify the major shortcomings of the field of petroleum engineering
and suggest how they should be remedied
(C) support the view that a new technology will actually be worse than the
technology it was intended to replace
(D) show that the effectiveness of a new oil-spill-containment technology
cannot be accurately gauged without further study
(E) explain the benefits of a new technology as compared to an existing
technology
A question like this might also be worded to read, “Which one of the following
most accurately states the primary function of the passage?”
These questions are just Main Idea questions that have been restated at one
higher level of generality. Answering these questions requires you to (1)
summarize the content of the passage; (2) describe that content in slightly more
general terms; and (3) find the answer choice that matches your description. In
comparing each answer choice to your description, you may find it helpful to
draw on the technique you learned for answering Principle questions in Case 3
of Chapter 4: break each answer choice down into its constituent parts, and
compare the parts to your description one at a time.
Here, we’ve already summarized the passage as part of the annotative-reading
strategy. To restate that summary at one higher level of generality, you might
say, “The passage describes an old technology, then it describes a new
technology, and finally it explains two advantages that the new technology has
over the old technology.” Now you can compare the answer choices to that
description. You can eliminate choice A because the passage does not criticize
the air-bubble-curtain technology. Choice B is too broad in scope; the passage is
about two specific technologies, not the entire field of petroleum engineering.
Choice C is wrong for the same reason choice A is wrong; the passage argues
that air-bubble curtains may be superior to booms, not inferior. And choice D
falls short because the passage does not call for further study. Choice E is the
correct answer; it is a slightly less-thorough version of the description just
articulated.
Case 4
Line ID Questions
This case addresses Line ID questions, which are questions that direct your
attention to a particular line or lines in the passage. Over the past five years,
there has been an average of about one Line ID question per passage. The skills
you build in learning how to work these questions will also come in handy as
you work the single most common type of question in the Reading
Comprehension section, Information Retrieval questions, which are discussed in
the next case.

Line ID questions require you either to determine the meaning of a word or
phrase in context or to describe the purpose or function served by a particular
portion of the text. The hallmark of these questions is that they include a
parenthetical notation that tells you exactly what portion of the passage the
question pertains to. Below are some examples of the more common wordings of
Line ID questions (the blanks would be filled in with content from the passage,
and the Xs and Ys would be replaced by numbers):
In saying _________ (lines X–Y), the author most likely means which one of
the following?
Which one of the following terms most accurately conveys the sense of the
word “_______” as it is used in line X?
The phrase “_______” (lines X–Y) is most likely intended by the author to
mean:
The author of the passage uses the term “______” (line X) primarily in order to:

Line ID questions make the process of going back to the passage easy. The
question tells you where the relevant material appears; you don’t have to rely on
your annotations to know where to go. But the portion of the passage that you
reread should be broader than just the single line to which the question refers.
Once you’ve located the word or phrase that’s the subject of the question, you
should also read the sentence that immediately precedes it and the sentence
that’s immediately after it. By reading these three sentences, you’ll get a fuller
sense of the context in which the word is used.
Pay especially careful attention to the sentence that follows the word or
phrase under review. Line ID questions frequently ask about terms of art or
technical phrases about which the passage offers some explanation. That
explanation is usually not offered until after the word has been introduced.
Some Line ID questions ask the author’s reason for using a particular term.
Here, your annotations and your summary of the passage can help you get a
handle on the function of a particular word or phrase. What is the main point of
the paragraph in which the word or phrase appears? Did you circle any indicator
words in the vicinity? The purpose for which a word or phrase is used depends
heavily on the broader argumentative context.

Right answers to Line ID questions are wholly context-dependent. To make it
easier to identify the right answer, you should come up with your own answer to
the question before you leave the passage to start reviewing the answer choices.
Generate a synonym or a definition to which you can compare each answer
choice. This will help prevent you from losing your train of thought as you’re
reviewing all five answer choices.

1. A second meaning of the word. Many of the words and terms that appear in
Line ID questions carry multiple meanings. Thus, it’s common for one of the
wrong answer choices to list a meaning that can be correct but is inappropriate
in context. For example, if the question asked about the word reflective and
the passage used that word to mean “capable of reflecting light,” one of the
answer choices would probably read “thoughtful or contemplative.” You can
avoid these choices by reading the sentences immediately before and after the
word or phrase in question so that you have a full sense of context.
2. An idea from a different portion of the passage. Many wrong answers to
Line ID questions recite a phrase or concept that is drawn directly from a
different portion of the passage. To a test taker who is relying solely on her
recall of what she read, such choices can be tempting because they accurately
restate something that the test taker remembers reading. Going back to the
relevant portion of the passage will help you avoid falling for this type of
wrong answer.
Practice
you’re finished, compare your annotations and summary to the example that
follows. Then work the two Line ID questions that appear on the page after the
example annotation.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

SUMMARY
Practice Question 1
Which one of the following is closest to the meaning of the word “spurious” as
used in line 40?
(A) inauthentic
(B) accidental
(C) alternative
(D) clandestine
(E) debatable
Answer and Analysis. Returning to the passage and reviewing the three
sentences surrounding the word spurious in line 40 reveals that, in context, the
passage is contrasting “spurious” trademarks with “genuine” trademarks. As the
example of the deliberately misspelled “Louis Vuttion” label illustrates, you’re
looking for an answer choice that captures the idea that a spurious trademark is a
knockoff or an imposter. Therefore, the correct answer is choice A.
Practice Question 2
The passage discusses consumer confusion (lines 59–65) most likely in order to:
(A) explain the purpose for which trademark protection extends to a

company’s trade dress
(B) support the claim that holdover trademark licensees are guilty of
trademark counterfeiting
(C) call into question the assumption that a holdover licensee will profit
from the goodwill associated with a trademark
(D) criticize large companies in the restaurant industry for failing to
require franchisees to sign more restrictive franchise agreements
(E) provide an example of the ways in which trademarks make it easier for
consumers to distinguish between different brands of goods
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice B. This question illustrates
the value of identifying the main point of each paragraph during your upfront
reading of the passage. The summary identified the notion that holdover
licensees are guilty of trademark counterfeiting as the main point of paragraph
four, which is the paragraph in which lines 59–65 appear. Choice B directly
connects the discussion of consumer confusion to paragraph four’s main point.
Choices A and E each refer to topics that were discussed in the first paragraph,
and they also add embellishments that go beyond the content of the passage.
Choices C and D both misstate a topic that was discussed in paragraph two.
Case 5
Information Retrieval Questions
This case discusses Information Retrieval questions. Information Retrieval
questions require you to select an answer choice that correctly restates one of the
factual details presented in the passage. Over the past five years, this has been
the single most common type of Reading Comprehension question; each passage
has featured an average of between two and three Information Retrieval
questions. That means that about 30 percent of the questions you answer will be
Information Retrieval questions. Learning how to approach these questions is
critical to your success on the Reading Comprehension section.
The test writers use a wide variety of wordings to ask Information Retrieval
questions. The basic idea that the question will get across is, “What did the
passage say about_______?” Some of the more common phrasings include:
According to the passage, _______?

The passage states (or “asserts,” “indicates,” “claims,” “mentions”) which one
of the following about ______?
In the passage, the author makes which one of the following claims about
_______?
Based on the passage, which one of the following is the author most likely to
believe about _______?
Given the information in the passage, _______?
A few variations of this question type tend to be particularly time-consuming.

For instance:
The passage provides information sufficient to answer which one of the

following questions?
The information in the passage most strongly supports which one of the
following statements?
According to the passage, each one of the following _______ EXCEPT:
The reason these variations are more time-consuming is that the question does
not limit itself to a single topic. The topic varies from answer choice to answer
choice, and typically the answer choices address five different topics, each of
which was discussed at a different place in the passage.

Your approach to Information Retrieval questions is substantively identical to
the approach you took to answering Line ID questions: you’ll go back to the
relevant portion of the passage, review what it says about the topic of the
question, and then compare each answer choice to the passage. The primary
difference between the two question types is that on Information Retrieval
questions, it’s up to you to find the line or lines in the passage where the relevant
information is located.
It’s on this front that annotative reading really pays dividends. By underlining
key words as you read, you mapped the location of all of the facts, details, and
examples discussed in the passage. Instead of having to reread the whole
examples discussed in the passage. Instead of having to reread the whole
passage, you can scan through your annotations until you find an underlined
word or phrase that is connected to the topic of the question. Your annotations
will enable you to quickly locate the discussion of any given topic.
Once you’ve found the relevant portion of the passage, review what it says
about the topic of the question. You’ll undertake this initial review at different
times depending on the nature of the question. If the question limits itself to a
particular topic, you should quickly review the relevant portion of the passage
before you turn to the answer choices. But if you’re working one of the more
time-consuming types of Information Retrieval question, where the topic at issue
is determined solely by the content of the answer choices, your first rereading of
the passage will not take place until after you’ve read the first answer choice.
Your rereading process will be iterative. In other words, you won’t just go
back to the passage once. Instead, you’ll review the relevant portion of the
passage multiple times as you work your way through the answer choices. After
you read each answer choice, you’ll go back to the passage to see if the answer
choice matches what was said in the passage. You’ll go back and forth between
the passage and the answer choices multiple times.
Expediting the process of finding the relevant portion of the passage on
Information Retrieval questions is the primary reason you underline the facts and
details during your upfront reading. As you work the practice Reading
Comprehension passages in this section, as well as the practice sections at the
back of this book, make sure that your annotation system is serving the purpose
of expediting your scan-and-retrieve process on Information Retrieval questions.
It may take you some time before you can consistently recognize when a passage
has moved onto a new topic, or determine how much of each topic you need to
underline. Adjust your annotating process as you practice so that it serves its
most important function: streamlining the process of going back to the passage
on Information Retrieval questions.

The right answer to an Information Retrieval question will be drawn directly
from the passage with no substantive modifications. But the answer is unlikely
to be a direct quote from the passage. Instead, the test writers use synonyms and
paraphrasing to make the right answer harder to recognize. For example, if the
passage states that a technical breakthrough “will help overcome previous
limitations on computing speed,” the answer might offer the paraphrase that the
breakthrough “promises faster computing.”
1. Introduces outside information on a related topic. Some wrong answers
will introduce topics that are related to the topic of the passage but were not
discussed in the passage. These answers are designed to take advantage of the
fact that when you read, ordinarily you’re supposed to think about the broader
implications of what you’ve read. Not so here. Anything from outside the
passage is off-limits. For example, if the passage focused on a painting’s
aesthetic value, an answer choice might ask you about its financial value. It
doesn’t matter if an answer choice is true to the best of your knowledge. If it’s
not explicitly stated in the passage, it can’t be the answer to an Information
Retrieval question.
2. Directly contradicts information in the passage. There is usually at least
one answer choice on each Information Retrieval question that states the exact
opposite of something that was stated in the passage. Typically such a choice
will include language that is quoted directly from the passage. These choices
are designed to “sound right” to test takers who are relying on their recall of
the passage. Going back to the passage to compare each answer choice to the
content of the passage will enable you to easily recognize that these choices
are incorrect.
3. In the right direction, but too strong. You’ve seen this category of wrong
answer before, on Main Idea questions. Answer choices that take an idea from
the passage and state a more extreme version of it are commonplace on
Information Retrieval questions, too. If the passage points out two
shortcomings of a proposal, a wrong answer might say that the proposal has
no value. If the passage says that a solution is unlikely, a wrong answer might
say that a solution is impossible. The right answer to an Information Retrieval
question will mirror the passage’s content, tone, and precision.
4. Attributes an idea to the wrong person. In most Reading Comprehension
passages, the author will not only state her own views but also recount and
summarize the views of third parties. For instance: “Behavioral economists
believe X. Classical economists believe Y. In my view, Z.” Wrong answers to
Information Retrieval questions frequently attribute a view stated in the
passage to the wrong person.
Practice
follows. Then work the two practice questions that appear on the following page.
follows. Then work the two practice questions that appear on the following page.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)

SUMMARY

Practice Question 1
According to the passage, greenhouse gases released by the thawing of the
permafrost
(A) both reflect heat back into space and also trap heat that has been
emitted from the surface
(B) could cause global temperatures to increase at a substantially faster rate
(C) is one of the potentially significant negative climate feedbacks
identified by Richard Lindzen’s research team
(D) would probably be in the form of methane rather than carbon dioxide
(E) could cause an increase in the frequency and severity of wildfires
Answer and Analysis. The question asks about the thawing of the permafrost.
The annotations show that this topic was discussed in the first paragraph. After
quickly reviewing the discussion at lines 10–25, you turn to the answer choices.
As for choice A, nothing in the first paragraph talks about the reflecting and
trapping of heat; this choice is taken from the discussion of clouds at lines 51–
55. Choice B looks good; it paraphrases the content contained in lines 17–23 of
the passage. Choice C contradicts lines 11–12, which state that permafrost
carbon stores are a potential positive feedback. Plus, the permafrost is not
mentioned in paragraph two’s discussion of the findings made by Lindzen’s
research team. Choice D is a distortion of the statement at lines 19–20 that
carbon released by the thawing of the permafrost would be either in the form of
carbon dioxide or methane. The passage does not take a position on which of
those gases would be more prevalent. Choice E references the discussion of
wildfires that appears at lines 63–66. The passage states that warmer
temperatures could cause more frequent and severe wildfires, and the passage
also states that the thawing of the permafrost could cause warmer temperatures.
It might seem reasonable to connect those two ideas. But the passage itself never
makes that connection. Choice B is closely and directly tethered to the passage’s
content, so it is the correct answer.
Practice Question 2
The passage states that climate scientists:
(A) have concluded that most large-scale climate models overestimate the
(A) have concluded that most large-scale climate models overestimate the
significance of positive feedbacks
(B) share the view that regulation is needed to slow the rate at which
greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere
(C) use the results of climate models to predict future changes to the
earth’s climate
(D) have made no progress in their efforts to predict the effects of climate
feedbacks
(E) generally believe that the net effect of all global climate feedbacks will
be negative
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice C, which restates the
opening sentence of the passage (lines 1–4); its substitution of “climate
scientists” for “climatologists” is supported by the sentence that begins on line 4.
Choice A attributes an idea from the passage to the wrong person. This is an
accurate statement of Richard Lindzen’s view (lines 28–31), but that view is in
direct contrast to the view of “many climate scientists” expressed in lines 26–28.
Choice B introduces new, outside information that is related to the topic of the
passage. Choice B may well be a true statement, but since it’s not discussed
anywhere in the passage it can’t be the correct answer. Choice D goes in the
right direction, but it is too strong. Lines 5–6 say only that climate scientists
have “struggled with” how to predict the effects of climate feedbacks; to say
they “have made no progress” is an overstatement. Choice E directly contradicts
the information in the passage. Lines 26–28 state that many climate scientists
believe that the net effect of all global climate feedbacks is likely to be positive,
not negative.
These two practice questions illustrate two fundamental points about
Information Retrieval questions. First, it would be difficult to overstate the
extent to which the correct answer must be drawn directly from the text of the
passage. Before you select an answer, you should be able to point to the
particular portion of the passage that makes the answer you’re picking the right
answer. Second, the more thorough you are in comparing each answer choice to
the passage, the better you will do on Information Retrieval questions. It’s the
best way to ensure that you’re evaluating each answer with the necessary
specificity and precision.
Case 6
Inference Questions
The focus of this case is Inference questions. On average, each passage in the
Reading Comprehension section includes one Inference question. Don’t let the
name mislead you; even on an Inference question, the right answer will be drawn
directly from the passage. For that reason, Inference questions are very similar to
Information Retrieval questions. You’ll utilize many of the same techniques you
learned in the previous case to tackle Inference questions.

Below are some examples of typical Inference questions:
Which one of the following inferences is most strongly supported by the

passage?
It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following _______?
It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to
agree with which one of the following statements?
The passage most strongly suggests which one of the following about
_______?

The term inference carries a very particular meaning on the Reading
Comprehension section. Ordinarily you think of inferences as conclusions that,
while not definitively true, are very probably true based on a particular set of
facts. For example, suppose that you walked into a room and saw that a fish tank
had been overturned, there was water on the floor, no fish were anywhere in
sight, and a cat was sitting next to the fish tank with water on its face licking its
lips. You might infer that the cat knocked over the tank and then ate the fish.
That conclusion is an example of what is normally meant by calling something
an inference: a reasonable but probabilistic conclusion.
That meaning goes out the window on the Reading Comprehension section.
Even though the question uses the term inference, the correct answer to the
question will still be a statement that must be true based solely on the
information in the passage. On the LSAT, if you were presented with the above
set of facts, you could “infer” that any fish that were once in the tank are no
longer in the tank, or that there is at least one animal in the room. Don’t read the
term inference as an invitation to draw on outside knowledge of the topic or
speculate about the significance of the content of the passage. Even on an
Inference question, the answer is already there on the page; you just have to find
it.
There are two main types of “inferences” you’ll be asked to draw in the
There are two main types of “inferences” you’ll be asked to draw in the
Reading Comprehension section. The first one is a necessary-implication
inference. For example, suppose that a passage argued that a poem written in
1820 was a particularly impressive artistic accomplishment because its
originality of expression inaugurated a new rhyming technique that was
previously unknown to nineteenth-century writers. Based on that argument, you
could infer that the author of the passage believes that the historical
circumstances surrounding the creation of a work of art are important in
assessing its artistic value. The passage doesn’t come right out and say it, but
based on what was said in the passage it necessarily must be true.
The second main type of inference you’ll be able to make is a detail-
combination inference. For example, suppose that line 15 of the passage
characterized a certain mathematician’s work as providing an exhaustive and
comprehensive account of chaos theory. Suppose that line 37 of the same
passage stated that the mathematician’s work did not include a discussion of
Feigenbaum constants. You could combine these two statements to infer that
Feigenbaum constants are not part of chaos theory. Where Information Retrieval
questions required you to find the line on which one topic was discussed, detail-
combination Inference questions require you to combine the lines on which two
topics are discussed.
In the end, your approach to working Inference questions is virtually identical
to your approach to working Information Retrieval questions. After reading each
answer choice, you’ll reread the relevant portion (or portions) of the passage to
see if the answer choice is either a combination of two statements from the
passage or a necessary implication of something said in the passage. And you’ll
go back to the passage multiple times, once for each answer choice.

As discussed above, the right answer will either be a combination of two details
from the passage or a statement that is necessarily true based on a particular
piece of information in the passage. With Inference questions, just as with
Information Retrieval questions, the test writers are likely to disguise the correct
answer by using synonyms and paraphrasing.
Common Types of Wrong Answers. The test writers use the same kinds of
wrong answers on Inference questions that they use on Information Retrieval
questions. So be on the lookout for answers that introduce outside information
on a related topic, directly contradict information from the passage, are in the
right direction but too strong, or attribute an idea to the wrong person.
Practice
follows. Then work the practice question that appears on the following page.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)

SUMMARY

Practice Question
It can be inferred from the passage that Cvetkovich would be most likely to
agree with which one of the following statements?
(A) The core principles of traditional trauma theory include the notion that
trauma engenders public culture.
(B) The diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder has no role to play in
trauma discourse.
(C) The idea that trauma is a productive force has been accepted by a
majority of the field’s most well-established critics.
(D) Michelle Tea’s novels create a cultural response to trauma that has the
potential to engender political efficacy.
(E) The investigative work of Margaret Randall exemplifies the
dichotomous public–private approach to understanding trauma.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice D. This is a detail-

combination inference. Lines 13–17 state that Tea’s novels are part of
Cvetkovich’s “archive of feelings,” and lines 45–50 state that Cvetkovich
believes that each of the texts in her “archive of feelings” holds the promise of
political efficacy.
Choice A directly contradicts information from the passage: lines 4–10 and
59–65 establish that the notion that trauma engenders public culture is a radical
departure from traditional trauma theory. Choice B is in the right direction, but it
goes too far: lines 34–39 establish that Cvetkovich wants to “resist the near-total
authority” given to the diagnosis of PTSD, but the passage does not go so far as
to say that medical diagnosis should play no role whatsoever in trauma theory.
Choice C goes beyond the scope of the passage. The passage discusses the
content of Cvetkovich’s new theory, but it does not discuss that theory’s critical
reception. Finally, choice E misstates the content of the passage. The passage
draws no connection between its discussions of Randall’s investigative work
(line 16) and the public–private dichotomy (line 33). If anything, the statement at
lines 45–50 suggests that Cvetkovich’s view of the relationship between the two
would be the opposite of what’s stated in choice E.
Case 7
Tone Questions
This case addresses Tone questions. Tone questions ask you to describe the
author’s attitude toward a particular topic that is discussed in the passage. They
will not ask you to describe the tone of the passage as a whole. Tone questions
are not especially commonplace; there is an average of about one Tone question
per Reading Comprehension section (that’s per section, not per passage).

You’ll know you’re dealing with a Tone question when you see any of the
following question stems:
The author’s attitude toward _______ is most accurately described as:

Which one of the following best characterizes the author’s attitude toward
_______?
The author’s stance toward _______ can best be described as:
Which one of the following best describes the author’s opinion of _______?

Per usual, your first step in working a Tone question is to return to the portion of
the passage that discusses the topic identified in the question. Use your
underlining and annotation to quickly locate the topic. Reread the entirety of the
pertinent portion of the passage. If the topic is discussed in more than one place
in the passage, reread each of the discussions. As you read, try to come up with a
rough formulation of the tone or attitude with which the author treats the topic.
On the LSAT, you can think about tone as having three component parts:
valence, intensity, and content. Valence refers to the general direction or tenor of
the author’s attitude. There are three basic tonal valences: positive, neutral, and
negative. Intensity is a more specific description of the valence of the author’s
attitude. If the tone is generally positive, how positive is it? A positive tone
could be cautious, qualified, measured, enthusiastic, or unbridled, to name a few.
Finally, content refers to the object or target of the author’s tone. This will be a
specific, discrete aspect of the topic heading identified by the question.

The right answer to a Tone question will apply the same combination of valence
and intensity that the passage did to the relevant content. Tone is similar to
purpose in that it is a restatement or description of the passage’s content at a
higher level of generality. As a result, you should treat Tone answer choices the
higher level of generality. As a result, you should treat Tone answer choices the
same way you treat the answer choices to the Purpose questions discussed at the
end of Case 3. Break them down into pieces. Each piece of the right answer will
correspond to a specific piece of the passage.

1. Wrong valence. Eliminating choices based on valence is the easiest way to
narrow the field of answer choices. If the author’s attitude toward the topic in
question is generally negative, any choice that is neutral or positive can be
eliminated. Sometimes this technique will be enough to eliminate most of the
wrong answers. But on more difficult Tone questions, four or even all five of
the answer choices will correctly capture the tone’s valence.
2. Wrong intensity. Tone questions won’t require you to parse the fine-grained
distinctions between, for example, a tone that is “persuasive” versus
“satisfied” versus “assured.” The difference will be substantial, something like
“unbridled” versus “qualified.” You can select between those answers based
on whether the relevant text of the passage contains any caveats or notes of
caution.
Practice
Read and annotate the passage that appears on the following page, summarizing
the passage in the blanks at the end of the passage. Sample annotations and a
sample summary follow, and a practice Tone question appears on the page
following the annotated passage.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

SUMMARY

Practice Question
The author’s attitude toward the international reaction to the Supreme Court’s
1987 decision is most accurately described as
(A) disdain for the parochial interests that drove that reaction coupled with
a dismissal of its significance
(B) acceptance of the policy reasons necessitating that reaction mitigated
by a concern with the dangerous precedent it set
(C) anger over the unlawful nature of that reaction tempered by a grudging
respect for the interests it advanced
(D) criticism of the force and nature of that reaction accompanied by an
acknowledgment of its detrimental consequences to the United States
(E) approval of the decisive and forceful nature of that reaction tempered
by a pessimistic outlook about the resolution of similar future disputes
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice D. The best way to identify
it as such is to break it into parts. The first portion of the answer, “criticism of
the force and nature of that reaction,” corresponds to the “unnecessarily
overblown” characterization in lines 62–63 and the “rigid, one-size-fits-all
solution to a problem that demands case-by-case solutions” language in line 72.
And the second portion of the answer, “acknowledgment of [the international
reaction’s] detrimental consequences to the United States,” corresponds to the
discussion of American interests at lines 61–65 and to the discussion of costs
and delays at lines 72–75.
Each of the remaining choices has a valence problem. Choices B and E are
both incorrect to say that the passage characterizes the international reaction in a
generally positive manner. And choices A and C each misstate the passage’s
attitude toward the consequences of this international reaction. The passage’s
attitude is one of concern or dismay. That attitude is generally negative, not
unconcerned or approving.
Case 8
Arguments-Style Questions
This case discusses a group of three different question types that give you new
This case discusses a group of three different question types that give you new
information and ask you to apply it to the passage in a specified manner.
The question might ask you to pick an answer choice that strengthens a
portion of the passage, that weakens a portion of the passage, or that is most
similar or closely analogous to a portion of the passage. The common thread
between these question types is that you’ve seen them before in the Arguments
section. You’ll use the same techniques you learned in Chapter 4 when you
encounter Strengthen and Weaken questions in the Reading Comprehension
section. This case briefly reviews those techniques. Parallel questions, on the
other hand, require a slightly different approach in the Reading Comprehension
section than in the Arguments section. This case introduces you to that approach.

Each passage will contain, on average, one Arguments-style question; the most
common variation is a Parallel question. Following are some representative
examples of how these questions will be worded. The language in these
questions closely tracks the language used to ask the same kinds of questions in
the Arguments section.
WEAKEN
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s argument
as expressed in the passage?
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the position that the
passage attributes to _______?
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the author’s
claim that ________?
STRENGTHEN
Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the contention in
the passage that _______?
Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the
______ mentioned in lines X–Y?
PARALLEL
As described in the passage, ______ is most closely analogous to which one of
the following?
Suppose that ________ [a new factual scenario of some kind]. Which one of
the following responses to that situation would be most consistent with the
views expressed at lines X–Y of the passage?
As it is described in the passage, ______ would be best exemplified by which
one of the following?
Which one of the following is most analogous to _______?

By definition, these questions will give you new information to work with. So
your task here is to find the pertinent information in the passage and then
compare to it to the information in the question and answer choices. The nature
of that comparison and how you’ll go about making it will depend on what type
of question you’re working.
No matter what kind of comparison you’re asked to make, you should start by
reviewing the portion of the passage from which the claim is taken. The question
itself usually doesn’t recount all the relevant information from the passage. Use
the same techniques you learned in Cases 4 and 5. Read the surrounding portions
of the passage to get a sense of context, and use your summary of the passage to
remind yourself of how the content of the question fits into the overall argument
of the passage.

Your approach to Strengthen questions will mirror the approach you learned in
Case 5 of the Arguments chapter. The question will present a claim (some kind
of a statement of opinion) that’s taken from the passage. The claim will be
phrased in general terms. The correct answer will provide a specific, concrete
example that is consistent with that general claim. Common types of wrong
answers include choices that weaken the claim, provide irrelevant information,
make a general statement about a related topic, or offer support for a different
but related claim.
Weaken questions, too, closely track their Arguments counterparts, which
were discussed in Case 7 of Chapter 4. The question will present a broad-
sweeping claim from the passage. The correct answer will either introduce new
facts that are inconsistent with that claim or undermine the connection between
the claim and any evidence offered in the passage to support it. Common types
of wrong answers include choices that strengthen the claim, weaken a straw
man, offer a generic background statement, or invite you to make an inference.
It’s only when you encounter a Parallel question that you’ll need to take a
different approach. In the Arguments section, Parallel questions revolved around
working with conditional statements. In the Reading Comprehension section,
working with conditional statements. In the Reading Comprehension section,
Parallel questions require you to take a general principle from the passage and
apply it to a new situation. Sometimes the general principle will be explicitly
stated in the passage. Other times you will have to extract or derive it by
describing the relevant portion of the passage in general terms. Parallel questions
typically involve (1) a particular person or type of person (or other actor) (2)
taking an action, making a decision, or arriving at a judgment (3) for a specific
reason or based on specific evidence.
Among the questions you worked in the Arguments section, it is Principle
questions that are most similar to Parallel-style questions in the Reading
Comprehension section. Finding the right answer to a Parallel question is a step-
by-step process of breaking each answer choice down into pieces and matching
each piece to the relevant portion of the passage. Work with the pieces of each
answer choice one at a time. The actor, action, and reason all need to match.
Here, as on Information Retrieval questions, you’ll go back and forth between
the passage and the answer choices multiple times.
Practice
Read and annotate the passage that appears on the following page, summarizing
the passage in the blanks at the end of the passage. Sample annotations and a
sample summary follow. Two practice questions appear on the page following
the annotated passage.

SUMMARY
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

SUMMARY

Practice Question 1
Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen Longino’s contention
that science chooses its areas of inquiry based on non-epistemic values?
(A) A public university issues a grant to an engineer’s proposed study of

liquid coolants because the university believes the study has the
potential to be quite lucrative.
(B) A biologist refuses to credit the results of a new experiment within her
field until the results have been published in a peer-reviewed journal.
(C) An agrochemical company tests a new pesticide in the laboratory
instead of in the field because the controlled environment of the lab
produces more accurate results.
(D) A physicist executes a particular experiment because the experiment is
simple and likely to produce fruitful results.
(E) A pharmaceutical company waits to test a new medication on human
subjects until each subject has signed disclosure forms and legal
releases.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice A. In lines 39–46, the
passage discusses Helen Longino’s contention that science chooses its areas of
inquiry based on non-epistemic values. According to Longino, government and
corporate entities decide which studies and experiments to fund based on
economic and political values. Since this is a Strengthen question, we’re looking
for a concrete, fact-specific example of that general phenomenon. In choice A, a
government entity (a public university) decides which study to fund (it issues a
grant) based on economic values (high profit potential). Choice B is incorrect
because the facts don’t match; the biologist is not making a decision about what
to study or which experiments to fund. Choices C and D are incorrect because
the passage lists simplicity, fruitfulness, and accuracy as examples of epistemic
values (lines 27–31), while Longino focuses on non-epistemic values. Choice E
is an example of the argument attributed to Mark Risjord, that moral and cultural
values prohibit the use of certain research methodologies (lines 46–52).
Practice Question 2
As it is presented in the passage, the approach to choosing between the two
competing theories of evolution taken by 1970s anthropologists is most similar
competing theories of evolution taken by 1970s anthropologists is most similar
to the approach exemplified in which one of the following?
(A) A legislator refuses to participate in the debate over a bill because she
is not sure which position her constituents would want her to support.
(B) A basketball coach decides which of two players will be in the starting
lineup based on who has played better over the last five games.
(C) A hiring manager chooses between two equally well-qualified job
candidates by hiring the candidate who grew up in the same hometown
as the manager.
(D) A diner goes to a restaurant whose food is not as good as its
competitors because he is friends with the chef.
(E) A reporter presents three story ideas to her editor so her editor can
decide which one she should pursue.
Answer and Analysis. The passage states that in the late 1970s, anthropologists
were confronted with two theories of evolution that “had equal scientific merit”
(lines 64–65) and chose between them based on non-epistemic values (lines 67–
73). So, the correct answer should feature a person who is confronted with two
options that are equally good based on one criterion and chooses between these
two options based on an unrelated criterion. Therefore, the correct answer is
choice C: the hiring manager chooses between two equally well-qualified
candidates by relying on a criterion (where they grew up) that is unrelated to the
candidate’s qualifications for the job.
Choice A is incorrect because the legislator does not actually make a choice
between the two options she is confronted with. In choice B, the coach makes his
selection based on relevant, intrinsic criteria. In choice D, the diner is not
choosing between two equally good options; the restaurant’s food is stated to be
inferior to its competitors’. And in choice E, the reporter is dealing with three
options, not two. She is also not the person who is making the ultimate decision
about which story to write.
Case 9
The Comparative Reading Passage
This case addresses comparative reading. To refresh, of the four passages in the
Reading Comprehension section, one will be a comparative reading passage.
That means that instead of having to read one passage that’s approximately 500
words in length, you’ll have to read two passages that are approximately 250
words in length, you’ll have to read two passages that are approximately 250
words in length. The bulk of this case addresses the two most common question
types that are unique to comparative reading passages. Before turning to that
discussion, this case briefly explains how the majority of your approach to
comparative reading will be largely unchanged.
You should use the same annotative-reading strategy here that you use
elsewhere. The only major change you need to make to that strategy is to
summarize each passage separately. The two comparative reading passages will
always be about the same topic or two very closely related topics. They will
have some similarities, and they will have some differences. Creating one
summary for passage A and a second summary for passage B is the first step
toward getting a handle on the precise nature of the relationship between the
topics of the two passages.
On average, one or two of the questions following the comparative reading
passage will focus exclusively on one passage. They might be Main Idea
questions, Information Retrieval questions, or any of the other question types
discussed in Cases 3 through 8. You should approach these single-passage
questions the same way you approach them on the other three passages. The only
notable difference is that you’re likely to see at least one answer choice that is
wrong because it is taken from the other passage. For example, if the question
were to ask, “Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main
point of passage A?,” one of the answer choices would almost certainly present
you with a picture-perfect statement of the main point of passage B. This one
aspect aside, these questions are no different from the ones you work elsewhere
in the section.
The four or five other questions about the comparative reading passage will
require you to work with both of the passages. Although the passages will have
both similarities and differences, the two-passage questions overwhelmingly
focus on their similarities. That’s not to say there’s no chance that you’ll see a
question that asks you to identify a topic that was discussed in one passage but
not the other. But on average, more than 80 percent of the two-passage questions
will require you to identify areas where the two passages overlap and have topics
in common. These questions come in two main types: two-passage Information
Retrieval questions and Common Topic questions.
Two-Passage Information Retrieval Questions

As the name suggests, these questions are close cousins to the single-passage
Information Retrieval questions that were covered in Case 5. Importantly, these
are the most common type of two-passage question that are associated with
are the most common type of two-passage question that are associated with
comparative reading passages. Some typical phrasings of two-passage
Information Retrieval questions include:
Which one of the following is mentioned in both passages as ______?

It is likely that both authors would agree with which one of the following
statements about ______?
Both passages explicitly refer to which one of the following?
The author of passage A would be most likely to agree with which one of the
following statements about ______ in passage B?
It can be inferred from the passages that both authors would be most likely to
accept which one of the followings statements about _______?
The best way to work two-passage Information Retrieval questions is to take

it one passage at a time. The correct answer will be a statement, claim, or fact
that appears in both passages. Start off by going back to passage A and using
your annotations to locate its discussion of the relevant topic. Any answer choice
that doesn’t appear in passage A can be immediately eliminated. After you’ve
limited the field to answer choices that appear in passage A, repeat this process
in passage B with any choice that survived the first cut. Your basic process is
unchanged from one-passage Information Retrieval questions; the only
difference is that for a few choices you’ll have to perform it twice.
In addition to the types of wrong answers that were detailed in Case 5, you’re
likely to see a couple of answer choices that are wrong because they restate a
point that is discussed in one passage but not the other. The test writers often
quote language from one of the passages to try to make these answer choices
seem more appealing. As long as you go back to both passages on every answer
choice, you should be able to avoid falling for this type of wrong answer.
Common Topic Questions

The other main variety of two-passage questions asks you to identify a big-
picture topic that the two passages share in common. In essence, these are two-
passage Main Idea questions. For example:
Both passages are primarily concerned with addressing which one of the
following questions?
Which one of the following is true about the relationship between the two
passages?
The passages share which one of the following as their primary purpose?
Both passages are primarily concerned with examining which one of the
following topics?
On Common Topic questions, as on single-passage Main Idea questions,

you’ll lean heavily on the summaries of the two passages that you created as part
of your annotative-reading process. There is a wide range of possible ways in
which the two passages can relate to one another. If passage A advances a thesis,
passage B might articulate a different thesis that addresses the same question,
problem, or data set. Passage B might further elaborate on the thesis presented in
passage A. Passage B might take a step back and advance a broader argument of
which the thesis in passage A is only one part. Or, passage B might argue that
the results of an experiment call the validity of passage A’s thesis into question
without articulating a counterthesis of its own. The summaries you create of the
two passages will help you pinpoint the nature and scope of their relationship.
There are two main varieties of wrong answers to Common Topic questions.
The first are choices that are too narrow in scope because they focus on a topic
that was addressed by only one of the two passages. The second are choices that
are too broad in scope. These choices will discuss material, make comparisons,
or draw conclusions that are not supported by either passage. These wrong-
answer types closely track the categories of wrong answers that were discussed
in Case 3.
Practice
Read and annotate the comparative reading passage that appears on the
following page, summarizing each short passage in the appropriate blanks at the
end of the passage. Sample annotations and sample summaries follow. Two
practice questions appear on the page following the annotated passage.

The following passages are adapted from critical essays on the Native
American writer Samson Occom (1723–1792).
PASSAGE A
PASSAGE B
SUMMARY: PASSAGE A
(1)
(2)
SUMMARY: PASSAGE B
(1)
(2)

The following passages are adapted from critical essays on the Native
American writer Samson Occom (1723–1792).
PASSAGE A
PASSAGE B
SUMMARY: PASSAGE A
SUMMARY: PASSAGE B

Practice Question 1
It is likely that both authors would agree with which one of the following
statements?
(A) Occom’s work should be situated at the foundation of a tradition of

Native American intellectual sovereignty.
(B) Occom’s “Life Narrative” is first and foremost an early American
autobiography.
(C) Most religious autobiographies give voice to the conflicted identities
and precarious subjectivities of their authors.
(D) Occom’s work is best understood not as literature but as a political
document.
(E) Most scholars believe that Occom’s “Life Narrative” is primarily
concerned with questions of identity and authenticity.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer to this two-passage Information

Retrieval question is choice E. Both passage A (lines 29–34) and passage B
(lines 19–23) include a version of this statement about most of the scholarship
on “Life Narrative.” Choices A and D are incorrect because only passage B
makes these claims. Nothing in passage A suggests that the author shares either
of these views. Both choices B and C borrow language and terminology from
passage A, but neither of these statements actually appears in passage A. Plus,
neither of these statements is closely related to the topic of passage B, so there is
no text-based reason to believe that the author of passage B would agree with
them.
Practice Question 2
Which of the following most accurately describes a relationship between the two
passages?
(A) Passage B criticizes a scholarly position that is introduced and

described in passage A.
(B) Passage A anticipates and responds to the position articulated in
passage B, while passage B does not comment on the position
articulated in passage A.
(C) Passage B is concerned in its entirety with a scholarly problem that
(C) Passage B is concerned in its entirety with a scholarly problem that
passage A discusses in support of a more general thesis.
(D) Passage A traces the historical origins of an intellectual movement
while passage B explores its contemporary status.
(E) Passage A gives several interpretations of a piece of writing of which
passage B gives only one interpretation.
Answer and Analysis. The correct answer is choice A. This is a Common Topic
question. Passage A introduces and describes the common, majority approach to
understanding “Life Narrative” of Samson Occom. Passage B uses the work of
several Native American scholars to argue that the common interpretation of
Occom’s “Life Narrative” is flawed and advocate for a different way of reading
the work. The sample summaries of the first paragraph of each passage highlight
the nature of this relationship.
Both halves of choice B are incorrect. Passage A does not discuss or respond
to the ideas presented by the Native American scholars discussed in passage B,
while passage B directly criticizes the position articulated in passage A. Choice
C is incorrect because both passages are concerned with the same narrow
problem: how best to understand a single work by a single author. Choice D is
incorrect for similar reasons. Both passage A and passage B are concerned with
how to interpret a particular piece of writing, not the development of an
intellectual movement. Finally, choice E is incorrect because passage A focuses
exclusively on the autobiographical interpretation of Occom’s “Life Narrative”;
no additional interpretations are presented.
Case 10
The core of your section-wide Reading Comprehension strategy is the same as it
was in the Logic Games section: work smarter, not faster. The primary purpose
of this case is to give you a set of tools you can use to rank the passages in order
of difficulty so that you can skip the hardest passage and go straight to work on
the easier passages first. By doing so, you’ll concentrate your efforts on the
portion of the test where they’re most likely to pay off with correct answers.
On Skipping the Hardest Passage

The key to success on Reading Comprehension is to go back to the passage and
find the answer to every question. You can either correctly apply the method
you’ve learned in this chapter to the passages and questions that will provide the
biggest payoff, or you can rush your way through all four passages in the order
they are presented, cutting corners, relying on your recall, and making hurried
guesses. In this way, the Reading Comprehension section is similar to the Logic
Games section. You’re better off ranking the passages by order of difficulty so
you can tailor your attack of the section as a whole. Consider: the average
Reading Comprehension section has 27 questions. Suppose you annotate the
three easier passages and work all 21 questions associated with those passages in
33 minutes. Because you have the time to be careful and thorough, your
accuracy rate on those questions is 90 percent. With your remaining time, you
work the Line ID question from the final passage. If you still have time, you can
carefully read the final passage and guess on the other five questions. In that
scenario, you’ll answer most of the 27 questions in the section correctly.
Now let’s say you read all four passages in the order in which they appear,
and attempt to answer all 27 questions. If your accuracy rate on the fourth
passage dips down to 50 percent, you’re looking at a total of 19 questions
answered correctly.
The bottom line is simple: accuracy trumps speed. Below is a five-step
section-wide strategy that is designed to give you the time you need to execute a
game plan that will maximize the number of questions you answer correctly:
1. Rank the passages in order of difficulty. The factors you can rely on to
distinguish easier passages from harder passages are discussed in greater
detail in the next section.
2. Read and work the two easiest passages first. In most Reading
Comprehension sections, there is usually a pair of easier passages and a pair
of more difficult passages. For ordering purposes, all that matters is for you to
be able to identify the two easier passages. As long as you’re working the two
easier passages first, the particular order in which you work them isn’t
important. Make sure you work the two easiest passages at a sustainable pace.
If you’re planning to work all four passages, you have about three minutes to
read each passage, and you can spend about 45 seconds on each question. If
you’re going to work three passages, you have about four minutes to read each
passage and about one minute per question. But keep in mind that those
figures are just averages. You should be able to read and annotate the two
easiest passages at a slightly faster clip. Similarly, certain question types will
take more or less time to work. Line ID questions and Main Idea questions
tend to take less time than average, while Arguments-style questions tend to
take awhile. Information Retrieval questions are unpredictable. Some you’ll
be able to work very quickly; others can be quite time-consuming. Be sure
you’re taking advantage of the opportunity to pick up a little extra time on the
easier passages and questions.
3. From the two remaining passages, read and work the passage that plays
to your strengths. The criteria you should use to select which of the more
difficult passages to work are also discussed in greater detail in the next
section.
4. Work the Line ID question(s) from the most difficult passage. If you have
a spare minute or two, apply the technique you learned in Case 4 to any Line
ID questions about the passage you’re skipping: read the sentence directly
before the line reference, the sentence that contains the information cited, and
the sentence directly after the line reference. This will enable you to answer
Line ID questions with a pretty high rate of accuracy even without having
read the rest of the passage. In this regard, Line ID questions are similar to
Complete and Accurate List questions on the Games section.
5. Work the final passage, but only if you have time. Don’t hurry through the
easier passages and questions to get here. Hurrying makes you more likely to
miss the questions about the easier passages, and the time you invest working
the questions about the hardest passage is less likely to yield correct answers.
Remember to bubble in answers to all of the questions; there’s a chance you
can get a point for guessing.
Ranking the Passages by Difficulty

1. Any Passage That Only Has Five Questions Is an Easier One. This simple
metric is one of the most reliable ways to determine a Reading Comprehension
passage’s level of difficulty. There can be as many as eight and as few as five
questions about any given passage. When a passage has the bare minimum of
five questions, it is invariably one of the two easier passages on the section. If
you come across a five-question passage on test day, it should definitely be one
of the first two passages you work. The downside, of course, is that you only get
to answer five questions, so you don’t have quite as many opportunities to earn
points. But this is still a good use of your time, as your accuracy rate is likely to
be even higher than normal.
2. Look at the Amount of Ink on the Page. This might sound imprecise, but it
works. Looking at how much ink is on the page is a quick and very effective
way to get a rough-and-ready sense of how difficult a passage will be. Open up a
sample LSAT and flip through the Reading Comprehension section. Look at the
bottom portion of the right-hand page. On some of the passages, it’s totally
covered by text. But on others, there’s a big empty block of white space. Those
latter passages are likely to be easier than the former. In other words, shorter
passages (less ink) are easier to work than long ones (more ink). Why? Think
about the source of all that extra text. The more text there is on the page, the
longer and more complicated the question stems, and the denser and more
intricate the answer choices. The shorter the questions, the higher chance it’s one
of the easier two passages.
3. Preview the Passage. If neither of the first two indicators points you toward a
workable passage, you’ll have to preview the passage’s content. Read the first
two or three sentences of the first paragraph of the passage. Pay attention to the
language that’s being used. Is it clear, concrete, and straightforward, or is it
jargon-laden, abstract, and dense? Do you see technical terms or terms of art that
you’re unfamiliar with? Also make note of the sentence structure. Short and
direct sentences are easy to read. Convoluted sentences that span six lines tend to
be harder to digest.
Notice that “topic” or “subject matter” is not one of the things you should be
focused on as you preview the passage. It’s a mistake to select or reject passages
based on which of the four general topic areas they fall under. The test writers
are very careful to ensure that there is no consistent correlation between topic
and difficulty. The passages are designed to be background-neutral. Even if you
were an English major and haven’t taken a science class since high school, the
science passage could be the easiest of the four. If you categorically refuse to
work any passages from one of the four general topic areas, you run the risk of
cutting yourself off from a prime opportunity to score points.
4. Consider the Mix of Question Types. If you’re still having trouble

determining which passages will be easier or harder, quickly scan the questions.
Look for difficult or time-consuming question types. As a general rule, questions
with long answer choices (three lines each) tend to be harder than questions with
one-line answer choices. And if a passage has a lot of the Arguments-style
questions discussed in Case 8 (especially Parallel questions that begin with
“Suppose” and require you to analyze a lengthy factual scenario), that’s a pretty
good sign that it’s one of the two more difficult passages in the section.
When it comes to the two harder passages, you’re more likely to rely on the
mix of question types to determine which of the two you want to work first. It’s
here that the missed-question log you’ve been keeping as you prep can come in
here that the missed-question log you’ve been keeping as you prep can come in
handy. If there is a particular question type that you frequently miss, even after a
good bit of practice, take note. If you see a passage that features two or three
such questions, it makes sense to leave that passage for last.
Ranking the passages in the Reading Comprehension section in order of
difficulty is admittedly an inexact science. Different test takers will have
different opinions about how difficult each passage is, and the fact that you’re
working under time pressure means you’ll have to make some snap judgments,
just as you did in the Logic Games section. But if you apply these four criteria
each time you work a practice section, by the time test day rolls around you
should be able to come up with a reliable estimate of each passage’s difficulty in
relatively short order.
CHAPTER 6
The LSAT Writing Sample
Why there’s no reason to worry about the writing sample

A five-paragraph essay structure you can use no matter what topic
you’re writing about
The rules of mechanics, usage, and style that are particularly important
on the Writing Sample section
T he writing sample is not scored. No one from the LSAC will read your
essay. The LSAC simply scans what you’ve written and sends a copy of
it to each law school that you apply to. The law schools are free to do
with it whatever they see fit.
The fact that the writing sample is not scored has two implications for you.
First, studying for the writing sample will not help you get the highest score you
can on the LSAT. Thus, you don’t need to read this chapter any sooner than one
or two weeks before you take the test. As test day draws near, read through this
chapter and then work two or three practice writing samples so that you get a
feel for what they look like and some experience applying the techniques in this
chapter. That’s all you need to do. The overwhelming majority of your
preparation time should be spent on the other three sections.
preparation time should be spent on the other three sections.
Second, to succeed on this section, all you have to do is write a decent essay.
It doesn’t have to be perfect or even great. If an admissions officer is on the
fence about your application, or if you are at the top of a short list, he or she
might read your essay looking for red flags—your grammar, syntax, or spelling
are atrocious, your essay is poorly organized, you didn’t follow the instructions
of the section (these are all warning signs that you’re likely to struggle
academically), or you have a bad attitude. As long as you write a competent
essay that doesn’t trigger any alarm bells, you’ve done your job. And you won’t
reap any additional rewards by going above and beyond that modest target.
With those two caveats in mind, the two cases in this chapter will teach you
how to approach the writing sample. Case 1 introduces the five-paragraph
structure you should use to write your essay. Every writing sample prompt
follows the same basic format. As a result, no matter what the specific content of
your prompt is, you’ll be able to write an effective response to it using the five-
paragraph structure. Case 1 also discusses the importance of prewriting and lays
out a systematic process you can use to plan and organize the content of your
essay. Case 2 discusses eight general principles of good writing that are
particularly pertinent to the writing sample. Learning and adhering to these
principles will help you produce a polished, reader-friendly essay.
Case 1
The Five-Paragraph Model
This case introduces the five-paragraph structure you should use to write your
writing sample. It also introduces a two-stage prewriting process that you should
use to plan and organize your five-paragraph essay. The prewriting process and
five-paragraph essay structure you’ll learn in this case will help ensure that your
writing sample demonstrates clarity and good organization—two qualities that
are very important to the law school admissions officers who might read your
essay. Admittedly, the five-paragraph structure is a little bit mechanical and
formulaic. But remember, your goal is to write an essay that is free of red flags.
If you follow the advice in this case, you can rest assured that your writing
sample will be good enough to keep you in the running for admission to any law
school you apply to.
The Format of the Writing Sample

The writing sample is an exercise in priority setting and comparative decision
making. The prompt will present you with two options and ask you to select
making. The prompt will present you with two options and ask you to select
whichever one of them better accomplishes two stated goals (we’ll call them
goal A and goal B). You’ll then be presented with a set of facts that explain how
well each option accomplishes each goal. Generally speaking, the facts will
demonstrate that one option will successfully accomplish goal A but fail to
accomplish goal B, and vice versa. Unlike the material in the other sections,
which is dense and academic, the writing sample prompts are simple and
straightforward. They involve regular people making everyday decisions:
parents deciding where to send their child to preschool, a small business
deciding how to expand, a vacationer deciding how to plan a trip, and so forth.
Your task is to write a persuasive essay that argues in favor of one option
over the other option. There is no right answer. One option is not inherently
superior to the other. In fact, the prompts are designed so that either option is a
defensible choice. The quality of your answer depends not on which option you
select, but rather on how well you defend the option you’ve selected and criticize
the option you’ve rejected— essential skills that all future lawyers need.
The persuasive quality of any piece of writing is a function of its
thoroughness and its organization. Using the following five-paragraph structure
will enable you to write an essay that discusses all of the factual material from
the prompt in a well-organized and logical manner:
Paragraph 1: Introduction
Paragraph 2: Discuss the goal that your option satisfies.
Paragraph 3: Discuss the goal that your option does not satisfy.
Paragraph 4: Explain why the goal that your option satisfies is the more
important of the two.
Paragraph 5: Conclusion
This five-paragraph structure reflects the distinctive style of writing that is

favored by the legal profession. Legal writing is relentlessly functional. Lawyers
expect any piece of writing they read—be it a brief, a memo, or a letter—to (1)
tell them what it’s going to say; (2) say it; and (3) tell them what it just said. It
might feel repetitive at first, but using it will make your writing focused, easy to
follow, and persuasive. This is what good writing looks like to a lawyer. This is
the style of writing that law school admissions officers and the professors on law
school admissions committees are accustomed to seeing. Therefore, it’s the style
of writing you should adopt in your writing sample. The five-paragraph structure
embodies this style.
embodies this style.
The Two Stages of Prewriting

Think before you write. It’s impossible to write a clear and organized essay
unless you begin writing with an idea of what you want to say and how you want
to say it. That requires upfront planning. You’re given 35 minutes to work on the
writing sample. You should spend roughly the first 10 minutes of your time
doing prewriting. About two-thirds of the page on which the writing sample
prompt appears will be blank and designated as scratch paper. Use that space to
plan your essay.
The prewriting process has two separate stages: organizing and
brainstorming. You already know the five-paragraph structure you’ll use to write
your essay, so a formal outline isn’t necessary. We’ll discuss organizing and
brainstorming in turn, using the following sample prompt to illustrate the
process:
Ron Bryant is about to move into a new apartment. He will either move
into a high-rise building or a gated community. He is equally satisfied
with the rent price, the amount of space, and the floor plan at both
apartments. Using the facts below, write an essay in which you argue for
one apartment over the other based on the following two criteria:
Ron wants an apartment that is a short, convenient drive to his job.

Ron wants an apartment in a neighborhood where he can maximize the
amount of leisure time he spends outdoors.
The high-rise apartment is located close to a highway on which Ron

can drive to his job. With no traffic, the drive takes 10 minutes, but the
highway suffers from heavy traffic congestion an average of two days a
week. There is an entrance to a bike trail five blocks from the high-rise
building. Ron does not own a bicycle. The high-rise building is less than
a block away from a public pool, which is open from May through
September. The neighborhood is home to many cafés, bars, and coffee
shops, most of which have outdoor patios.
The apartment in the gated community is located along a major
thoroughfare that runs directly to Ron’s job. With no traffic, the drive
takes 20 minutes, but there is moderate traffic congestion along the route
every day of the week. An outdoor walking/jogging trail runs around the
perimeter of the property on which the gated community is located. The
perimeter of the property on which the gated community is located. The
city’s largest park is two blocks from the apartment. There is a farmer’s
market in the parking lot of a nearby shopping mall that is open for
business once a week.
The first stage of prewriting is organizing. You’ll take the facts from the
prompt and organize them into lists according to the option they apply to and the
goal they pertain to. The headings at the top of the lists will be the two options.
Then, under each heading, you’ll make a separate list for each of the goals:
Next, you’ll take each fact from the prompt and put it into the appropriate
column. This is an initial determination of relevancy. Each fact that the test
writers include in the prompt will pertain to one of the two goals. Sorting out the
facts will help you determine how they pertain to those goals. There’s no need to
rewrite the facts verbatim; doing so would consume too much time and space.
Instead, just jot down summaries or shorthand that convey the gist of what’s in
the prompt. Continuing with the sample prompt, your list now looks like this:
Finally, determine whether each fact is positive or negative when viewed in
light of the goal that it’s relevant to. Make a note of your determination by
drawing a plus sign or a minus sign in the margin next to each item on your lists.
This should help you start to get a sense of which option you think is stronger.
Once you’ve made these notations, you’ve completed the organizing stage of
your prewriting process. You should be able to complete this stage in less than
five minutes.
Next up is the brainstorming stage. Start out by figuring out how the two
options relate to each other. As noted above, it’s typically the case that one
option does a better job of accomplishing goal A, and the other option does a
better job of accomplishing goal B. In our sample prompt, the high-rise
apartment probably does a better job of being convenient to work; the commute
time is half as long, and on most days there is no traffic. But the gated-
community apartment has more options for outdoor activities.
Once you know which goal each option accomplishes, your task is to decide
which option you’re going to advocate in your essay. The fourth paragraph in
your five-paragraph essay will be dedicated to explaining why one goal is more
important than the other. It’s a sensible, straightforward way to break the tie
between the two options. As you’re brainstorming, come up with two or three
reasons why one goal is more important than the other goal.
It doesn’t matter which goal you pick; all that matters is that you come up
with compelling arguments defending your choice. And you’re not limited by
the content of the prompt. You can be creative in coming up with reasons to
prioritize one goal over the other. Continuing with the sample prompt, you might
argue that convenience to work is more important because a longer commute
argue that convenience to work is more important because a longer commute
would cut into the time that Ron could spend outdoors or because he can only
spend time outdoors during certain times of the year. Conversely, you might
argue that it’s more important that he have lots of options for being outdoors
because being outside is what makes him the happiest or because he won’t mind
the longer commute if he’s able to regularly exercise outdoors. You’re free to
make whatever arguments you want as long as they are sensible and plausible.
Once you’ve decided which option you’re going to defend, you’ll turn to
thinking of ways to play up its strengths and downplay its weaknesses. Review
the list you made of the facts that are relevant to your chosen option’s ability to
satisfy each of the goals. Try to think of reasons why any positive fact is
especially important and why any negative fact is insignificant or unimportant.
When you’re done, repeat the process with the other option, only this time try to
amplify the importance of the negative facts and minimize the importance of the
positive facts. The ideas you come up with here will be incorporated into the
second and third paragraphs of your essay. Once you’ve completed this process,
you’re ready to begin writing.
Writing the Five-Paragraph Essay

You’ll recall from the introduction to this case that the five-paragraph structure
you’ll use to write your essay looks like this:
Paragraph 1: Introduction
Paragraph 2: Discuss the goal your option satisfies.
Paragraph 3: Discuss the goal your option does not satisfy.
Paragraph 4: Explain why the goal that your option satisfies is the more
important of the two.
Paragraph 5: Conclusion
As you begin writing, be cognizant of the fact that you have a limited amount
of space to write in. There are 55 lines on the two pages that make up the writing
area. Most people write between 8 and 10 words per line. That gives you about
450 to 550 words to work with. You can’t afford to be verbose. You need to
write five full paragraphs, so budget your space accordingly. The introduction
and the conclusion should be a little bit shorter: 3 to 4 sentences each for a total
of about 8 lines. The three body paragraphs should be a little longer: 4 to 5
sentences each for a total of about 13 lines. It’s especially important to pay
attention to the space constraints in the early stages of your essay. You’ll dig
attention to the space constraints in the early stages of your essay. You’ll dig
yourself a hole that’s very difficult to climb out of if your first paragraph is 20
lines long.
Your introductory paragraph should tell the reader everything you’re about to
say. The first sentence of the introductory paragraph should state your ultimate
conclusion. Don’t begin with a restatement of the problem or issue; take a stance
right out of the gate. The second sentence should state that your option
accomplishes goal A, for example, while the other option does not. The third
sentence should minimize both the extent to which your option does not
accomplish goal B and also the extent to which the other option does. The final
sentence should briefly explain why goal A is more important. If the reader were
to stop reading after that first paragraph, he or she should have a handle on the
core arguments of your essay.
The second paragraph will focus on the goal that your option successfully
accomplishes. You need to make two separate kinds of arguments here. First,
you want to emphasize the strengths of your option vis-à-vis this goal. Second,
you want to emphasize the weaknesses of the other option vis-à-vis this goal. As
you do so, don’t merely recite the facts as they’re listed in the prompt. Interpret
those facts. Explain why they are significant. Extrapolate from them to draw
your own conclusions.
Try to say something about all of the facts in the prompt. As you write, refer
to the list of relevant facts that you made while you were organizing. Put a check
mark next to each fact once you’ve said something about it. Talking about each
of the facts will help your essay appear thorough and thoughtful. It will also
ensure that you don’t run short of things to talk about.
Deal honestly with bad facts. It’s often the case that neither option
accomplishes either goal perfectly. Even if the option you’ve selected is clearly
the superior way to accomplish goal A, there might be some facts in the prompt
that suggest that your option will only partially accomplish goal A. If that’s the
case, don’t ignore these bad facts. Acknowledge them, then explain them away
by offering reasons to downplay their significance. A good way to accomplish
this is by writing sentences that begin, “Even if” or “Even though.”
The third paragraph will focus on the goal that your option does not
accomplish as effectively as the option that you’ve rejected. Your task here is the
mirror image of what it was in the second paragraph. You want to minimize the
weaknesses of your option as it relates to this goal, and you want to minimize the
strengths of the other option. To be clear: do not minimize the importance of the
other, less-important goal in the third paragraph. Save that for paragraph four. In
paragraph three, focus on why your option might be better at accomplishing this
goal than it first seems and why the other option is actually not as great as it’s
made out to be.
The purpose of the fourth paragraph is to explain why the goal that your
option satisfies is the more important of the two goals. You should offer two or
three reasons to support this determination. You might simply argue that goal A
is more important than goal B, period. You might make an argument about
comparative effectiveness, that is, that your option will do a better job of
accomplishing goal A than the other option will do of accomplishing goal B. Or
you might argue that accomplishing goal A in the short run will actually make it
easier to accomplish goal B in the long run. There are other possibilities, too.
You’re free to use any argument you can think of that provides a plausible
reason for prioritizing the goals the way you did.
The first two words of your final paragraph should be, “In conclusion.”
Substantively, this paragraph will be very similar to your first paragraph.
Remember, good legal writing tells a reader what it’s about to say, says it, and
then tells the reader what it just said. The final paragraph will once again state
which option you’re defending, emphasize how effectively that option
accomplishes one goal, downplay the extent to which it fails to accomplish the
other goal, and explain why the first goal is more important than the second.
Don’t reproduce your introductory paragraph verbatim. Vary your word choice
and your sentence structure. But content-wise, there should be nothing in the last
paragraph that hasn’t appeared at an earlier point in the essay.
Sample Essays
Following are two sample responses to the example writing sample prompt
about Ron Bryant’s new apartment that was introduced earlier in this case. The
first essay selects the high-rise apartment option. The second essay selects the
option of the apartment in a gated community. You can refer to these essays as
you practice writing essays on different topics. As these sample essays illustrate,
the option you choose to defend is less important than the manner in which you
defend it.
SAMPLE ESSAY 1
Ron should move into the high-rise apartment. The high-rise apartment is
substantially more convenient to his job and will minimize his commute
time. Although the apartment in the gated community would probably
allow him to spend more time outdoors, there are several good outdoor-
entertainment options near the high-rise. And it is more important that
entertainment options near the high-rise. And it is more important that
Ron’s apartment be in a convenient location, since a long commute
would drastically reduce the amount of leisure time he has to spend
outdoors.
The high-rise apartment is substantially more convenient to Ron’s job
than the apartment in the gated community. With no traffic, his commute
will take half as long as it would from the other apartment. He’ll save
that time twice a day: going to and coming from work. Assuming a five-
day workweek, that means he saves more than an hour and a half of
commute time per week. It is true that the highway that runs near the
high-rise apartment has two days of heavy traffic each week. But even if
the traffic were so bad that it doubled his commute time to 20 minutes,
the high-rise is still more convenient. Every day there is moderate traffic
congestion on the major thoroughfare outside the gated community,
which would add a few minutes to Ron’s commute time. It is more
convenient to have six 10-minute commutes plus four 20-minute
commutes than it is to have ten commutes of 25 or 30 minutes.
The high-rise apartment also would allow Ron to spend a lot of leisure
time outdoors. While the public pool is only open five months a year,
during those months it provides Ron with an outdoor-entertainment
option that is unique among all the available alternatives. The
neighborhood bars, cafés, and coffee shops would allow Ron to socialize
outdoors with his friends. And the bike trail would allow Ron to broaden
his horizons by taking up a new hobby. At the gated community, there is
an outdoor jogging trail, but he can also walk or jog in the public park.
And the farmer’s market is only available one day a week. There is no
guarantee Ron’s schedule will allow him to regularly attend.
Finding an apartment that is convenient to work is the more important
of Ron’s two priorities. If he moved into the apartment at the gated
community, Ron would spend at least an extra hour and a half—probably
more—commuting each week. That time would directly trade off with
time he might otherwise spend outdoors. Plus, he has some good
outdoor-entertainment options at the high-rise, while there is nothing he
can do to make the gated-community apartment more convenient to his
job. The relative difference in convenience is much greater than the
relative difference in his ability to spend time outdoors.
In conclusion, the high-rise apartment is the better choice for Ron. He
will spend substantially less time commuting to work if he moves into
the high-rise, and he will have a solid range of outdoor entertainment
options. In the end, it makes sense for him to make convenience to his
options. In the end, it makes sense for him to make convenience to his
job the higher of his two priorities.
SAMPLE ESSAY 2
Ron should move into the apartment in the gated community. The gated-
community apartment will allow Ron to spend substantially more leisure
time outdoors. Although the high-rise apartment’s location is slightly
more convenient, his commute time will be more consistent at the gated-
community apartment. And it is more important for Ron to maximize the
amount of leisure time he spends outdoors, since doing so will improve
his outlook and demeanor.
The apartment in the gated community gives Ron vastly superior
outdoor-entertainment options. The convenience of the walking/jogging
trail being located on the premises will allow Ron to make use of it every
day. At the nearby park, Ron can have picnics or barbecues with his
friends and attend community events. Shopping at the farmer’s market
will allow him to spend less time indoors at a grocery store. At the high-
rise, the bike trail is of no use to Ron without a bike, and the pool is of no
use to him seven months a year. Patronizing commercial patios is
expensive and does not allow Ron to exercise outdoors.
Although Ron’s commute time might be longer from the gated
community than from the high-rise, his schedule would be more regular
and predictable. The level of traffic congestion on the road outside the
apartment is the same every day. Ron could quickly figure out how much
time the traffic would add to his commute and budget accordingly. By
contrast, the level of congestion on the highway is unpredictable. Heavy
congestion on a route that normally takes 10 minutes to travel at highway
speeds could cause Ron’s commute time to be as high 30 minutes. But on
any given day, Ron will not know in advance how long his commute will
take. This unpredictability is a substantial inconvenience. It will make it
difficult for him to ensure he arrives at work on time, and it will put a
damper on his after-work social calendar.
Finding an apartment that will allow him to maximize the amount of
leisure time he spends outdoors is the more important of Ron’s two
priorities. Being outside is Ron’s favorite pastime. A few extra minutes
in the car each day will not feel like a steep price to pay for the ability to
regularly socialize and exercise outdoors. Plus, the unpredictability of
Ron’s commute to and from the high-rise would undermine his ability to
spend time outdoors. For example, it would be more difficult for Ron to
join an after-work softball league if he could not arrive to practice on
join an after-work softball league if he could not arrive to practice on
time. By contrast, Ron’s regular, predictable commute to and from the
gated-community apartment would not limit his outdoor-entertainment
options.
In conclusion, the apartment at the gated community is the better
choice for Ron. He will be able to spend more leisure time outdoors
doing a wider variety of activities, and his commute, even if slightly
longer, will be more predictable. Given that spending leisure time
outdoors is Ron’s favorite activity, it makes sense for him to make his
ability to do so a higher priority than convenience to his job.
Case 2
Eight Principles of Good Writing
This case discusses eight general principles of good writing that are particularly
important to adhere to on the Writing Sample section. The Writing Sample
section is designed to allow law schools to evaluate the organization, clarity,
language usage, quality of reasoning, and mechanics of your writing. The
arguments that you think up during your prewriting process will improve the
quality of your reasoning. The five-paragraph structure will ensure that your
essay is well organized. The principles discussed in this case focus on clarity,
language usage, and mechanics. They also highlight some LSAT-specific
strategies you can use to make sure that your essay does not raise any red flags
when it’s reviewed by a law school admissions officer.
1. Try to Fill Every Line

The most surefire way to go astray on the writing sample is to fail to respond to
the prompt. Obviously that means that you’ll get yourself in trouble if you write
an answer that is frivolous or off-topic. But it also means that you put yourself at
risk if you write a topical answer that, for whatever reason, makes it seem as
though you weren’t giving your full effort. The easiest way to minimize this risk
is to write an answer that fills up every line in your answer booklet. An
admissions officer is much less likely to think that your answer is incomplete or
half-hearted if you’ve used up all the space that you were given to write in.
2. Write Legibly and Within the Lines

If an admissions officer is unable to read what you’ve written, that will count
against you. If you know you have messy handwriting, make a conscious effort
against you. If you know you have messy handwriting, make a conscious effort
to slow down and write neatly. This is especially important if you’re a heavy
computer user who’s out of practice when it comes to writing by hand. Also be
sure to keep your writing within the designated area on the page (the boxed-in
lines). The LSAC does not scan a copy of the margins, so anything that’s written
there will not be transmitted to the law schools that receive your application.
3. Be Decisive and Consistent

While it does not matter which option you choose, it matters a great deal that
you clearly choose one of the options and stick to it throughout your essay.
Because the quality of your reasoning is a critical component of your essay, you
will hurt yourself if you flip-flop in your choice or use wishy-washy language to
defend it. Since the prompts are carefully designed to allow you to write a good
essay defending either option, it can be tempting to try to straddle the fence by
saying something along the lines of, “Well, option 1 is really good, but option 2
has some good things going for it too.” If you write an essay like that, all you’re
doing is demonstrating that you can’t follow directions. That’s not the message
you want to send to the law schools you’re applying to. Resist the urge to hedge
your bets. Pick one option and stick to it.
4. Use Proper Mechanics

Mechanics are the formal rules of writing. Make sure that your answer abides by
those rules. For example, make sure your essay has multiple paragraphs. This is
implicit in Case 1’s recommended five-paragraph structure, but it’s important
enough to merit a separate mention. If there’s nothing on the page but a big,
uninterrupted block of text, that will be a bright red flag to any reader. In
addition, you should write in complete sentences. Avoid sentence fragments and
run-on sentences. Use formal, proper punctuation. And follow the rules of
capitalization. This last point can be tricky for people who have gotten into the
habit of writing in all capital letters when they are printing by hand.
5. Use Formal Language

Treat the writing sample like a term paper or a piece of business correspondence.
Avoid slang, contractions, abbreviations, overly casual language, and jargon. If
your parents wouldn’t be familiar with the word, don’t use it. You should also
abide by the linguistic conventions of formal writing. Stick to the neutral, third-
person point of view instead of using the first person (I, me, we) or the second
person (you).
6. But Keep It Simple

6. But Keep It Simple
Formal language is not the same thing as needlessly complex or pretentious
language. Simple, straightforward language is the most effective way to
communicate. Don’t use a big word just for the sake of using a big word. If a
shorter word conveys your meaning just as well, use the shorter word. Simplicity
is also a virtue when it comes to sentence structure. The best writing uses short
sentences that are crisp and direct. Of course, you should vary your sentence
structure and mix in the occasional compound, complex, or compound-complex
sentence. But most of your sentences should be short, simple sentences.
7. Focus on Your Topic Sentences

Strong topic sentences are the hallmark of good writing. Each of the five
paragraphs in your essay should begin with a clear summary of that paragraph’s
content. The topic sentence should serve the same function in relation to the
individual paragraph that your introductory paragraph serves in relation to the
essay as a whole: tell the reader what you’re about to say and why it’s important.
You can’t write a strong topic sentence unless you have a clear understanding of
what it is you’re trying to communicate in each paragraph. Therefore, you
should start thinking about your topic sentences during the brainstorming stage
of the prewriting process.
8. Proofread
A law school admissions officer who reads your essay will be paying close
attention to your grammar, mechanics, and language usage. If you finish your
essay with a few minutes left, go back over your essay and proofread it. Look for
misspelled or repeated words, grammatical errors, missing punctuation, a lack of
subject-verb agreement, and other mistakes that are easy to make when you’re
writing under time pressure. This is not to say that you should hurry through
your writing to make sure that you have time at the end to proofread. You’re
better off taking the time to write clearly and persuasively. But if you do wind up
with some extra time, use it to clean up any mistakes in what you’ve written.
These eight principles are not intended to be an exhaustive list of what goes
into good writing. But they do cover some of the most important basics.
Remember: you don’t need to write a perfect essay. All you need to do is write
an essay that will not raise any red flags about your application. If you write a
five-paragraph essay that is consistent with the eight principles discussed in this
case, you can rest assured that your performance on the writing sample will not
derail your law school application.
CHAPTER 7
Law School
The economic climate for lawyers

Factors to consider when choosing a school
How location affects your school choice
What to keep in mind when applying
“I t was the best of times, it was worst of times” fairly well sums up the
current state of law school in the United States. It may be the worst
of times for recent grads, but perhaps it is the best of times for
prospective students.
While the bulk of this book is devoted to helping you improve your score on
the LSAT, in this chapter we’ll step away from the nuts and bolts of test
preparation to discuss the application process, the experience of attending law
school, and the postgraduate realities for future law students.
Should I Go to Law School?

First of all, let’s state the obvious: law school is not for everyone. The hours are
First of all, let’s state the obvious: law school is not for everyone. The hours are
long, the workload is difficult, and competition at the best schools is fierce.
But if you prepare yourself adequately for the experience, it’s also likely to be
one of the most invigorating, challenging, thrilling, demanding, edifying,
exasperating, and satisfying experiences of your life. You will be equally
exhausted and exhilarated.
The most brilliant people you’ll ever meet in your life, you’ll meet in law
school. Your intellect and physical stamina will be pushed to the utmost limits of
your endurance, and you’ll know both success and frustration. You’ll be given
the know-how and means to effectuate real change in the lives of others, and
you’ll learn the (little-known) fact that lawyers are some of the most generous
people in the entire world, with a profound devotion to their friends, their
community, and their loved ones. Yes, there will be many sleepless nights (some
of them because you were studying), but you’ll arrive at the end of those three
years of law school with your intellect sharpened and your critical reasoning
skills honed to surgical precision.
Recently, however, schools have suffered some valid criticism that there are
too many law school grads with too much debt and too few career opportunities.
Recent law school grads enter the profession owing a median of approximately
$75,000 in student loans, and the New York Times reported that these grads were
facing “one of the grimmest job markets in decades.”
Despite this reality, however, there has never been a better time to be a
prospective law student. The journal of the American Bar Association reported
that law schools could be admitting as many as 80 percent of their applicants for
the fall of 2013, making it easier to gain admission to the best law schools even
with a lower LSAT score or GPA. Better still, this trend is likely to continue for
a few more years, making this year a great time to at least think about applying
to law school.
I’ve Heard It’s a Bad Time to Apply to Law School

It’s no coincidence that the fall of 2008 saw a significant uptick in the number of
LSAT administrations. September of that year marked the beginnings of the
subprime mortgage crisis, soon followed by the collapse and near collapse of
many banks and financial institutions. Law school has long been considered a
safe port in a storm, and as more and more Americans were faced with rising
unemployment, recent college grads and those who had been laid off turned to
law school as a safe place to ride out the economic typhoon.
In the academic year 2007–2008, the period before the global economic
In the academic year 2007–2008, the period before the global economic
crisis, approximately 142,000 LSATs were administered. But in 2008–2009, the
first year of the crisis, that number climbed past 151,000, the highest number
since 1990–1991 (not surprisingly, a period that also saw record unemployment
rates). And in 2009–2010, the number of LSAT administrations reached an all-
time high of 171,514, before the numbers started to dip again.
The discouraging employment numbers for new lawyers in 2012 were largely
echoes of the 2008 financial crisis. But how, you might ask, can the previous
financial turmoil possibly be affecting employment prospects today, when
unemployment rates have actually been declining for the rest of the population?
That’s mostly due to the legal profession’s unique hiring process.
For most nonlawyers, a job search involves checking the classifieds in our
local newspaper, networking with family and friends, or going online to sites
like CareerBuilder or Monster.com. Hiring in the legal profession works very
differently. Most law students will get that first job out of law school through a
process known as on-campus interviews (OCI). Almost all law schools have
some variation of OCI.
Basically, the OCI process involves various law firms, government agencies,
and nonprofit organizations sending representatives to a central location to
conduct mass interviews with current law students. Afterward, some students
will receive callback interviews. The initial interviews are relatively short, while
the callback interviews can last all day and may require the student to meet with
dozens of partners and associates. The callbacks are usually held on-site (at the
firm’s offices), which may require the student to fly or drive extensively from
city to city during the callback period.
Strangely enough, this initial OCI period usually takes place the month before
a student begins his or her second year of law school (2L), even though the jobs
won’t start until the summer after the second year of law school. Most students
participating will only have two semesters’ worth of grades, with another two
years of law school still to follow.
The career services office (CSO) at your law school will prepare you for this
rather grueling period with mock interviews and résumé reviews. Suffice to say
that once you’ve secured your job as a summer associate, you’ll usually start in
late May or June following your 2L year, working for a period of about 10
weeks. For many students working at larger firms, the summer associate job can
be fairly lucrative, though savvy students will resist the urge to indulge in
luxuries and use the paycheck to pay down debt. After the summer internship is
over, firms will then decide which summer associates will receive offers of full-
time employment.
Keep in mind, however, that even those successful candidates who receive
offers of full-time employment still have to finish one more year of law school
and pass the bar exam before they can be admitted to practice. For most students,
this means graduating in May, taking the bar exam at the end of July, and
receiving bar results around the beginning of November.
But think about the oddity of this time line: it basically means that law
students are interviewing for full-time employment nearly two and a half years
before they actually start the job.
It’s this strangely protracted hiring process coupled with the financial crisis
that has led to the current stark employment numbers for new attorneys. The first
batch of students affected by the financial collapse took the LSAT in the fall of
2008 and started law school in the fall of 2009. This also means that the first of
these students affected by the financial collapse would have been going through
OCI in the fall of 2010, with a graduation date of May 2012.
Unfortunately, in the fall of 2010, the unemployment rate for all Americans
was still near record high levels, and many law firms canceled or seriously
curtailed recruiting during OCI. Since OCI is traditionally where most students
find their full-time jobs after law school, it meant that in May 2012, law schools
began graduating many prospective attorneys who had not yet secured full-time
employment. Those dire employment numbers were reported widely in the
media, further depressing the number of LSAT test takers. At the same time, the
economy began a gradual recovery, meaning graduate school was no longer the
only viable option for young people coming out of undergrad.
All of this has led to the current dip in the number of LSAT administrations,
which for 2012–2013 were the lowest since 2000–2001. Fewer prospective law
students means fewer attorneys in four years’ time. The unemployment rate,
meanwhile, has dipped to its lowest levels since 2008. With the economy
currently experiencing a recovery in terms of employment numbers, this should
provide a self-correction to the employment prospects of future law students. So
while it might be tough out there for recent grads, it’s a great time for those who
are considering applying to law school.
Where Should I Apply?

Oddly, despite the stark realities faced by recent law school graduates, most of
those very same graduates loved their law school experience. As reported in the
Wall Street Journal, a survey of the class of 2012 at law schools across the
country found that 90 percent of graduates gave their legal education a grade of
A or B. Only 9 percent gave their law school a C grade, and 1 percent gave it a
D. Even more revealing: no students in the survey gave their school a failing
grade.
The critical reasoning skills you’ll acquire in law school translate well to any
profession. But choosing which law schools to apply to can be daunting. There
are currently 202 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States (in most
states, attendance at an ABA-accredited school is a prerequisite to taking the
bar). And although many of the programs, like Harvard and Yale, have obvious
name-brand recognition, many excellent programs fly under the radar.
Realistically, there are only a few reasons most of us have heard of any law
schools. First, some schools may be universally well known for academic
excellence, as in the case of the Ivy League schools. Second, you might know of
a law school at an institution you attended as an undergrad or that friends or
family attended. Third, if a school is nearby, you’re probably familiar with it.
And fourth, many people recognize law schools at institutions that are also home
to an undergraduate program with a well-regarded football or basketball
program. But none of these reasons for recognizing a name provides a
reasonable basis for choosing a law school!
Many students begin their search for a law school by examining law school
rankings. In a 2012 survey that asked prospective law students the most
important factor in choosing a law school, 32 percent responded that law school
rankings were their primary consideration. The best-known rankings are
provided by U.S. News & World Report and are available online; you can find
them by searching for “U.S. News law school rankings.”
But despite the primacy of the rankings for prospective students, the same
survey found that after three years of law school, only 17 percent of law school
grads would tell prospective students to use the rankings as the most important
factor in choosing a law school. Instead, recent grads prioritized job placement,
affordability/tuition, geographic location, and academic programming. The U.S.
News & World Report website also does a great job of collecting these types of
data for you so you can make an informed decision.
I Know I Want to Go to Law School, But I Don’t Know if I Want

to Be a Lawyer
Many prospective law students know they want to go to law school but have
doubts about actually being a lawyer. They may be attracted to the prospect of
the intellectual rigors of law school. The prospect of spending long days in a
corporate law office is less appealing.
Thankfully, the law is not a monolithic profession, and a Juris Doctor is the
Swiss Army knife of graduate degrees. The day in the life of a federal prosecutor
is going to be radically different from that of a solo practitioner who specializes
in family law. From public-interest or government work to law enforcement to
corporate megafirms, the law offers a wide spectrum of experiences. Some
lawyers may specialize in litigation; others may spend their entire career in the
legal profession without ever setting foot in front of a jury.
Big firms tend to offer big paychecks, with starting salaries around $160,000
a year. But Big Law, as it is affectionately known, also requires associates to
work long hours. Some associates thrive in the pressure cooker of Big Law and
relish the experience, but others may prefer more leisure time and choose to
work for a small firm or government agency. For students considering public-
interest or government work, this does usually mean a smaller salary, but many
schools now offer loan repayment assistance programs (LRAPs), which provide
debt forgiveness of government-backed student loans after a predetermined
period. A complete list of schools offering LRAPs can be found through the
American Bar Association website at
http://apps.americanbar.org/legalservices/probono/lawschools/pi_lrap.html.
Also consider creating your own specialization in law school. Although there
isn’t really such a thing as a “major” in law schools, students can certainly create
their own concentrations. The first-year curriculum is largely prescribed, but
students have great latitude in choosing their course work in the second and third
years of school. Promising practice areas with growth potential include
alternative-energy law, health care, copyright and intellectual property, and
financial regulation. Lisa L. Abrams’s The Official Guide to Legal Specialties is
a great place to begin when considering different practice areas, and Federal
Reports Inc.’s “600+ Things You Can Do with a Law Degree (Other than
Practice Law)” provides a thorough survey of alternative career prospects for
law school grads and attorneys.
Do I Need to Attend Law School in the State Where I Plan to

Practice?
One of the strangest things you’ll learn in law school is that law school doesn’t
really prepare you for the bar exam. Certainly, law school teaches you to “think
like a lawyer” (a phrase you’ll hear over and over), but that doesn’t mean you’ll
have all the applicable statutes memorized by the time you graduate.
For most students, this means taking a six-week bar prep class immediately
following graduation. Although many companies offer competing courses, the
landscape is basically dominated by two firms: BarBri and Kaplan PMBR. The
courses are offered for all 50 states and Washington, DC, meaning you can go to
law school anywhere in the country and still return to the state in which you
intend to practice in order to take that particular bar exam.
It’s also important to remember that most law schools offer an identical first-
year curriculum, with courses in civil procedure, constitutional law, contracts,
criminal law, property, torts, and legal research/writing. And the fact of the
matter is, the laws in most states are fairly uniform. The U.S. Constitution in
Rhode Island, after all, is the same U.S. Constitution used in Alaska. The Federal
Rules of Civil Procedure are identical in all states because they’re federal rules.
Contracts are governed by the Uniform Commercial Code, which has been
enacted in one form or another in all 50 states. And property law finds its roots
in the common-law practices of medieval England (explaining why a landlord is
called a “land lord” in the first place).
That being said, there are some advantages to going to a law school in the
place where you ultimately plan to practice. A primary consideration for many in
choosing a law school is the portability of the degree. Portability in a law degree
basically means what the name implies: the ability to take your law degree,
travel anywhere in the country, and still get a job. The more prestigious the
program, the more portable the degree.
Students looking at lower-ranked programs may benefit from considering
their postgraduate career plans. A degree from Northeastern University and a
degree from Harvard both give graduates access to the Boston legal market, but
degree from Harvard both give graduates access to the Boston legal market, but
the Harvard degree is ultimately more portable. However, if the student intends
to stay in the Boston area, a Northeastern degree could be a great (and more
affordable) choice.
Also remember that the law is very much a relationship-driven profession.
Your law school classmates are also future judges, hiring partners, and opposing
counsel. Alumni of the same school tend to look out for each other in the hiring
process or when offering referrals, and established law schools with extensive
alumni networks may offer a competitive advantage over law schools of more
recent provenance. Thus, while U.S. News & World Report may rank UCLA as a
better law school than Emory (number 15 versus number 24), for students
practicing in Atlanta, Emory may be the better choice.
Finally, wherever you choose to go to school, make sure you’re going to be
happy. You’re going to be spending at least three long, stressful years in that
place, and quality of life is an important consideration. The University of
Minnesota School of Law offers a great program, but if you don’t like cold
weather, you’re likely to be unhappy for about six months of the year. Love the
sunshine? Maybe the University of Washington–Seattle isn’t a good fit. If it’s
important to be home for Thanksgiving, a law school on the opposite side of the
country may not be right for you.
Best Law Schools for Standard of Living

Best Cities for Young Attorneys
What Else Do I Need to Do to Complete My Law School
Applications?
The LSAT and GPA are the primary components used in making admissions
decisions, weighed in about a two-to-one ratio in favor of the LSAT. Law
schools believe that these numbers are the most reliable predictors of your
success in law school. Your undergraduate GPA is viewed as a rough measure of
your ability to work hard and apply yourself, and your LSAT score is believed to
be a good measure of your native intellectual ability.
Thus, you can use those two numbers to make a reasonably accurate
prediction about whether you’re likely to gain admission to a particular law
school. The Law School Admissions Council, which creates and administers the
LSAT along with processing your law school applications through its Credential
Assembly Service, hosts an LSAT/GPA calculator on its website at
http://officialguide.lsac.org.
You can use the calculator not only to gauge your chances of admission, but
also to help determine your goal LSAT score. If it has always been your dream
to attend the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, Pitt’s website will tell you
that for the most recent class, the median LSAT score was 158, and the median
GPA was 3.34. But what if you have a 3.0 GPA? You can plug your GPA into
the GPA/LSAT calculator and play around with different LSAT scores to find
the score with which you have roughly a 50% chance of being admitted (in this
case, an LSAT score of 162). This gives you a more personalized target score
when prepping for your LSAT.
That’s not to say you should limit your applications solely to those schools
that offer you the best chance of admission. Everyone should reach a little bit
beyond what his or her numbers would indicate are “safe” prospects. You are
more than two numbers on a grid, after all, and every school admits a few
students who don’t line up numerically with the rest of the class, on the basis of
the strength of the qualitative portions of their applications.
What do these “qualitative” components consist of? For most schools, your
application checklist will include the following:
Personal statement (two to three pages)

Recommendations or evaluations (two to three)
Résumé or work history
List of honors and extracurricular activities
Don’t overlook the importance of these more subjective portions of your

application! Remember, applicants at most schools are a self-selecting group.
That is to say, the applicants tend to resemble each other, numerically at least. If
you have a 3.2 GPA and a 158 on your LSAT, you’re probably not likely to
apply to Yale. You’re more likely to apply to schools where you have a better
chance of acceptance. And since most people operate in a similarly rational
fashion, most other applicants are going to look just like you on paper.
Ultimately, the rest of your application is there to create points of difference
between yourself and the competition. Why do you deserve to take a spot at this
particular law school over someone who is your numerical twin? And in that
regard, your personal statement is likely to prove the third most important part of
regard, your personal statement is likely to prove the third most important part of
your application after LSAT and GPA.
That isn’t to diminish the importance of well-written, detailed
recommendation letters or a résumé highlighting significant accomplishments.
But ask yourself: Do they really create points of difference between myself and
my peers? After all, ideally, most people will ask for letters from college
professors. And ideally, those professors will have nice things to say about you
and your class work. But if every letter says great things, then how does that
create a point of difference?
The same goes for résumés. The bulk of law school applicants are relatively
young. In 2011, just over 80 percent of law school applicants were younger than
30, and 62 percent of applicants were younger than 25. For most young people,
this means fairly thin résumés at this juncture of their professional careers. For
those coming directly out of undergrad into law school, this may even mean no
professional experience. Again, this isn’t to diminish the importance of a great
résumé; your professional experience, internships, leadership roles, and
community involvement can only help your candidacy. But they may not make
you as different as you imagine, especially when so many law students come
from such similar backgrounds.
So it comes down to the personal statement. Don’t overlook this very
important document, and don’t try to write the entire thing in an evening. Devote
substantial time to brainstorming, writing, editing, and revising. And don’t
merely recycle the personal statement you used to get into your undergraduate
university! The person you were at age 17 is very different from the person you
are now.
All law schools require you to submit a personal essay as a part of your
application, and for the most part, you should be able to use the same personal
statement for all of your applications. Typically, the personal statement is a short
(two to three pages) piece of writing designed to give the admissions committee
insight into your character, personality, and motivations for attending law
school. It should be a personal statement, containing information not found
elsewhere on your application, not merely a narrative version of your résumé.
And unless you plan to practice public-interest law, it shouldn’t necessarily be
about why you are a good person. Too many law students craft personal
statements containing vague promises to “change the world” if they have a law
degree. But if your résumé doesn’t demonstrate that you’ve ever engaged in
significant community involvement, volunteerism, or charitable work, then why
should the admissions officer believe that’s all going to change once you’ve
completed law school?
Instead, think of your personal statement as your interview on paper. Most
law schools don’t require or even offer an interview, so this is the chance to
share who you are. What stories do you tell people when you meet them for the
first time? How do you spend your time when you’re not in school? What have
been the formative events in your life? What are your hobbies or passions? What
makes you different from absolutely everyone else?
You’ll also want to devote significant time to proofreading. Your personal
statement also functions as a technical writing sample that the admissions
committee will scrutinize for grammar, mechanics, style, organization, and
clarity. Admissions officers are far more likely to read your personal statement
for this purpose than they are to read your response to the Writing Sample
section of the LSAT. For that reason, it’s a good idea to take a draft of your
personal statement to your college writing center or your prelaw adviser. If you
enlist proofreaders, make sure they understand that you want critical feedback,
not merely validation of a job well done.
You are about to embark on a truly remarkable journey, one you will look
back upon as being the most exciting, most transformative, and most exhausting
few years of your life. On behalf of everyone at McGraw-Hill Education, we
wish you all the best and hold nothing but the highest hopes for your future
success in law school and beyond!
PART II
LSAT Practice Tests
LSAT Practice Test 1
You can also take this practice test on your tablet or smartphone as well as
your laptop or home computer. See page 7A of the Welcome insert for more
information.
Answer Sheet

Section I
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Section IV
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30.

SECTION I
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
Questions 1–2
Jamey: Scientists recently trained a bacterium to survive and grow on a diet of
arsenic rather than phosphorus, which is one of the six required elements to
sustain life in our universe. Based on their results, there may be life in the
universe that does not require the same elements that we’ve assumed were
necessary for life. This proves that we need to expand our search
parameters for life on other planets.
Lorne: No, the bacterium survived on arsenic, but it grew much faster when fed
phosphorus. Thus, your conclusion seems unwarranted and to invest
significant effort in expanding our search parameters for alien life forms
would be a waste of scientific resources.
1. Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest defense of

Jamey’s argument against Lorne’s criticism?
(A) The bacterium, while on a diet of arsenic, had a life span only half that of
a bacterium on a diet of phosphorus.
(B) The bacterium, while on a diet of arsenic, showed signs that other
elements necessary for life’s existence, like carbon, were toxic to it.
(C) Infrared satellite images of planets rich in phosphorus exhibit only four
(C) Infrared satellite images of planets rich in phosphorus exhibit only four
of the five other elements necessary to sustain life.
(D) Scientists have proven that due to exposure to arsenic over long periods
of time other organisms can develop a tolerance to small amounts of the
poison.
(E) Infrared satellite images of planets rich in arsenic and devoid of
phosphorus have shown no signs of conditions that could foster life.
2. Which one of the following most accurately describes Lorne’s criticism of

Jamey’s argument?
(A) It argues that while Jamey’s facts are correct her conclusion does not
follow from those facts.
(B) It provides an alternative set of facts that, while it does not completely
invalidate Jamey’s set of facts, may undermine her conclusion.
(C) It presents new information that disproves Jamey’s conclusion.
(D) It offers facts irrelevant to Jamey’s argument in an attempt to challenge
her credibility.
(E) It points out Jamey’s conclusion is too far of a leap in logic to be
supported by her facts.
3. Public official: Hospital admissions for dog bites has doubled over a 15-
year period. This increase has outstripped considerably the growth in
population and the increase in pet ownership over the same period. In
addition, the average cost of treatment for dog bites is more than
$18,000. We’re at a loss to explain this trend but one thing is clear: the
high cost of treating these bites means that dog owners should be held
legally accountable for their pets’ attacks on others.
Which one of the following, if true, most strongly undermines the public
official’s conclusion?
(A) The high cost of treating dog bites can be attributed mostly to infections
contracted in the hospital.
(B) The lack of growth in pet ownership can be attributed to a significant
decrease in cat ownership over the 15-year period.
(C) Most dog bite incidents occur between the pet and its owner.
(D) The court costs required to litigate pet ownership liability cases would
far outstrip the health costs of dog bites.
(E) The statistics do not take into account the slight reduction in number of
smaller clinics that used to handle most dog bites before the 15-year
smaller clinics that used to handle most dog bites before the 15-year
period.
4. The eyes of the female cichlid fish feature five photoreceptor cones, the most
of any vertebrate and two more than the three that human eyes have. The
dull-colored female cichlid fish uses its highly discriminating color vision to
locate the more colorful male cichlids so that it may successfully choose a
mate. If the color of the male’s scales is altered the female can unknowingly
bypass the male altogether. Increased water turbidity due to deforestation
and economic development has altered the visual environment of fish. Thus,
it will be difficult for the female cichlids to find mates and the survival of the
cichlid population will be seriously threatened.
Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above?
(A) An experiment showed that the eyes in some varieties of cichlids adapted
when the fish were switched between blue to green waters.
(B) The female cichlid is incapable of distinguishing certain shades of red in
its mates when the light permeating the water diminishes in the evening.
(C) The tilapia, a type of cichlid, has shown a marked decrease in population
in a lake near an industrial park near Chicago.
(D) Turbidity in the waters has caused various non-cichlid species to move to
other bodies of water, leaving the cichlids a more open mating
environment.
(E) The discriminating vision of the female cichlid has been found to make it
more susceptible to eye-borne diseases that threaten the cichlid
population.
5. Coffee houses in City A have experienced a decrease in coffee revenues due

to a downturn in the economy of City A, so much so that some of the most
popular coffee houses may have to close. At the same time, however, more
people are visiting coffee houses in City A than ever before and the number
of successful coffee houses in City A is greater than ever.
discrepancy in the information above?
(A) More coffee houses opened in City A during the last year have survived
than in any previous year.
(B) Because of the economic downturn, people of City A are brewing their
own coffee at home rather than buying it at coffee houses.
own coffee at home rather than buying it at coffee houses.
(C) The patronage for a popular bakery far exceeds the patronage of even the
most popular coffee house.
(D) Coffee is the main source of revenue only for the most popular coffee
houses; other coffee houses rely on pastries and other food items for
revenue.
(E) Most coffee houses lower their prices for coffee during an economic
downturn.
Questions 6–7
Manager: Last year the total number of dropped cell phone calls on our
network of cell towers decreased, so our effort to increase cell tower
effectiveness worked.
Technician: If you look at the statistics for individual cell towers, however, you
find that the number of dropped calls actually increased substantially for
every tower that was in operation both last year and the year before. The
number of dropped calls has clearly increased, given that the set of towers,
the only ones for which we have dropped-call figures that allow a
comparison between last year and the year before, demonstrate a trend
toward more dropped calls.
6. If the dropped-call figures cited by both the manager and the technician are
accurate, which one of the following must be true?
(A) The market share of the company’s cell phone service fell last year.
(B) The company erected at least one new cell tower in the last two years.
(C) The volume of the company’s cell phone calls has changed over the last
two years.
(D) The quality of the company’s cell tower system has not improved over
the last two years.
(E) The company’s cell phone calls are of lower quality than they once were.
7. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously calls into question the
technician’s argument?
(A) Most of the company’s cell towers that were in operation throughout last
year and the year before are located in areas where cell phone usage
overall skyrocketed last year.
(B) Discounts to the heavier cell phone users did not increase cell phone
(B) Discounts to the heavier cell phone users did not increase cell phone
usage.
(C) Prior to last year there was an overall downward trend in cell tower
traffic.
(D) Those cell towers that experienced a decrease in dropped calls were not
positioned in high-traffic areas.
(E) The company’s cell towers last year handled less traffic from the
company’s other wireless services.
8. Professor: To define what is considered literature is futile. Any definition of

what constitutes literature would either exclude some works that are, in
fact, literature or include others that might not be worthy of the
designation. The notion of music and art are equally problematic. This is
why the viability of a humanities department at our university should be
seriously questioned.
The reasoning in the argument is questionable because the argument
(A) is advanced by someone who has a vested interest in eliminating a
humanities department
(B) makes the unsupported claim that defining literature is futile
(C) fails to show any specific link between the indefinability of the arts such
as literature and the maintenance of a humanities department
(D) ignores the fact that some people view literature as definable
(E) generalizes from an unrepresentative sample to all literature
9. New research studies showed that there is a higher rate of stroke in the
southern states than the rest of the country. The studies also found that
people in these states eat more fried fish and less non-fried fish than the rest
of the country. We can conclude from this that eating fried fish increases
one’s chances of suffering a stroke. Therefore, people who want to reduce
their risk of suffering a stroke should not eat fried fish.
The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by which one of the following is

most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?
(A) People who drink more than two ounces of alcohol a day tend to suffer
more recurring illnesses. Since excessive alcohol drinking increases
one’s chances of incurring liver disease, people who want to avoid liver
disease should give up drinking alcohol.
(B) Studies show that people who eat a diet that includes foods with high
levels of antioxidants show a lower incidence of cancer. This proves that
levels of antioxidants show a lower incidence of cancer. This proves that
antioxidants prevent the occurrence of cancer, so the government should
require that food producers increase the antioxidant content of their
foods.
(C) Studies have shown that people who live near towers that emit powerful
electromagnetic fields experience higher incidents of cancer, so the
government should prohibit home construction close to electromagnetic
field–emitting towers.
(D) The majority of people who wear their seat belts when involved in an
auto accident avoid serious injury. It has also been shown that drunk
drivers who cause an auto accident are less likely to be as seriously
injured as the other people involved in the accident, whether or not the
other people wear seat belts. Therefore, to reduce health care costs due to
accidents, we should hire more traffic police to enforce the seat belt laws.
(E) The majority of people who participate in vigorous exercise experience
less occurrence of illnesses beyond the age of 50. This proves that
vigorous exercise is important to good health as one grows older, so
those who want to avoid illnesses should participate in vigorous exercise.
10. Mr. Thomas: Ms. Garcia said that she gave up her sales responsibilities and
was focusing only on her administrative duties. But I overheard a
colleague of hers say that Ms. Garcia is working harder than ever before
and will be gone for much of the next year visiting customers; that does
not sound like she has given up her sales responsibilities to me. At least
one of them is not telling the truth.
Mr. Thomas’s reasoning is flawed because it
(A) fails to consider that Ms. Garcia’s colleague may have been deceived by
her
(B) draws a conclusion on equivocal language
(C) is based partly on hearsay
(D) fails to infer that Ms. Garcia may be a person of poor character, given
her lack of ambition
(E) criticizes Ms. Garcia rather than the claims she made
11. David: The quality of Company A’s management is declining in its ability
to provide effective leadership to its employees and to generate high
growth. There must be a return to the company’s traditional values of
risk and innovation.
Talia: There is no need to switch gears. Revenue growth might not be what
it used to be, but most managers consider the current growth rate
acceptable. Expectations for growth are unrealistic for this stage of the
company’s history.
David and Talia disagree over whether corporate growth
(A) can be changed
(B) is decreasing or increasing
(C) is perceived by management the same as employees
(D) is adequate as it is
(E) is changing over time
12. In defending the new toy-manufacturing regulations aimed at protecting

children from harmful defects in toys, the government regulator in charge of
enforcing the rules pointed to recent success in catching defects: inspections
discovered 60 percent more defects among toys produced under the new
regulations than under the previous rules.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the defense
offered by the regulator?
(A) The defects were caught mostly in toys aimed at children aged one to
four years.
(B) The rules cause manufacturing companies to incur additional costs that
hurt profitability.
(C) The quality of toys manufactured domestically is higher than that of toys
produced by foreign manufacturers.
(D) The increase in discovered defects did not decrease the number of
incidents where children were hurt by defective toys.
(E) The regulations are more stringent than those enforced by similarly
industrialized nations.
13. Economist: The vast majority of nations that have a low corporate tax rate
tend to run high budget deficits, but some nations with a high corporate
tax rate also run a high budget deficit. What all nations that run high
budget deficits have in common, however, is that they are saddled with
large entitlement programs.
If all of the economist’s statements are true, which one of the following must
also be true?
(A) Some nations with large entitlement programs do not have a high budget
deficit.
(B) The majority of nations with large entitlement programs have a low
corporate tax rate.
(C) Some nations with large entitlement programs have a high corporate tax
rate.
(D) Every nation with large entitlement programs has a low corporate tax
rate.
(E) Fewer high corporate tax rate nations than low corporate tax rate nations
have large entitlement programs.
14. Studies indicate that the rate at which soil erosion is increasing is leveling
off: the amount of soil lost to erosion this year is almost identical to the
amount of soil lost to erosion last year. If this trend continues, soil erosion
will no longer be getting more serious.
The reasoning is questionable because it ignores the possibility that
(A) the effects of soil erosion are cumulative
(B) crop-destroying insects and climate change are becoming more serious
(C) the leveling-off trend of soil erosion will not continue
(D) some soil erosion has no noticeable effect on farm productivity
(E) the areas of soil erosion this year were less critical than those that
occurred last year
15. Larry: The federal government audited our books and assessed our
company with a significant fine for a minor tax law infraction. Other
companies in our industry were not audited even though we know for
certain that they have committed the same infraction. This is unfair
treatment by the federal government.
Elizabeth: You were not treated unfairly, since the federal government
cannot afford to audit every company that it thinks is breaking the law.
Each company in your industry that broke the law had an equal chance of
being audited.
Which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to
justify Elizabeth’s position?
(A) It is fairer not to enforce a tax law at all than to enforce it in some, but
not all, of the cases to which it applies.
(B) Fairness in the application of a tax law is ensured not by all violators’
(B) Fairness in the application of a tax law is ensured not by all violators’
having an equal chance of being fined for their violation of the law, but
rather by fining all known violators to the same extent.
(C) The fines attached to tax laws should be imposed on all people who
violate those laws, and only those people.
(D) If all companies that broke a tax law in a given year are equally likely of
being audited and fined for breaking it, then the law is fairly applied to
whomever among them is then fined.
(E) The fines attached to breaking the tax code should be assessed not as
punishments for breaking the law but rather as deterrents for unethical
bookkeeping.
16. After purchasing a trailer for his truck from a car dealer in Abilene, Jason
was informed by an Abilene city official that he would not be allowed to
keep his trailer, since the city codes consider a trailer an industrial vehicle,
and individuals cannot park industrial vehicles within the city of Abilene.
The city official’s argument depends on assuming which one of the
following?
(A) Trailers are not classified as residential vehicles in Abilene.
(B) It is legal for car dealers to sell trailers in Abilene.
(C) Vans and flatbed trucks are not classified as industrial vehicles.
(D) Any vehicle not classified as an industrial vehicle may be parked in
Abilene.
(E) Jason lives in Abilene.
17. Energy expert: It is true that over the past 10 years there has been a fivefold
increase in government funding for the development of alternative
energy technologies, while the practical applications in use from this
research have increased alternative energy usage by a meager 10 percent.
Even when inflation is taken into account, the amount of funding now is
at least two times what it was 10 years ago. Nevertheless, current
government funding for developing alternative energy technologies is
inadequate and should be increased.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the energy
expert’s conclusion with the evidence cited above?
(A) More people today, engineers and non-engineers, are working to develop
alternative energy technologies.
(B) The idea that the government should develop alternative energy
(B) The idea that the government should develop alternative energy
technologies was more popular 20 years ago than it is today.
(C) Research over the past 10 years has enabled engineers today to identify
new alternative energy technologies faster than was thought possible 10
years ago.
(D) Over the past 10 years, the salaries of engineers employed by the
government to work on alternative energy technologies have increased at
a rate higher than the inflation rate.
(E) The government agency responsible for administering alternative energy
funds has been consistently mismanaged and run inefficiently over the
past 10 years.
18. Historian: Anyone who thinks that the extreme military tactics of the
ancient empire of T were the product of a warmongering political class
is overlooking the basic truth: the political class was made up primarily
of intellectuals with a vision of a more civilized world. Empire T
conquered and slaughtered many tribes in pursuit of its goals; but it later
became clear that the new world, as the empire defined it, was
unachievable. So at least some of the ordinary people of T were in fact
murderers.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, provides the most support
for the historian’s argument?
(A) Aggressiveness in pursuit of what is eventually found to be unachievable
constitutes warmongering.
(B) The pursuit of a civilized world justifies warmongering.
(C) The pursuit of a civilized world does not justify warmongering.
(D) Warmongering in pursuit of a civilized world constitutes inhumanity.
(E) Conquest in pursuit of what is later found to be an unachievable vision
constitutes murder.
Questions 19–20
The sudden boom in business startups in a certain region’s economy is said to be
causing people not even employed by these businesses to spend more freely, as
if they too were gaining economic power. Clearly, however, actual spending by
such people is remaining unchanged, because there has been no unusual decrease
in the amount of money held by those people in savings accounts.
19. The argument in the passage proceeds by doing which of the following?
(A) arguing that because two alternative developments exhaust all the
plausible possibilities, one of those developments happened and the other
did not
(B) arguing that because people’s economic behavior is guided by economic
self-interest, only misinformation or error will cause people to engage in
economic actions that harm them economically
(C) concluding that because only one of the two predictable consequences of
a certain sort of behavior is observed to happen, this observed
phenomenon cannot, in the current situation, be a consequence of such
behavior
(D) concluding that because a probable consequence of a supposed
development failed to occur, that development itself did not occur
(E) concluding that because the evidence concerning a supposed change is
ambiguous, it is most likely that no change is actually occurring
20. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies?
(A) There exist no statistics for sales of goods in the region.
(B) People in the region who are not employed by business startups and who
have relatives employed by startups commonly borrow money from
those relatives to make large purchases.
(C) If people in the region who are not employed by business startups are
making large purchases, they are not paying for them by taking on debt.
(D) People in the region not employed by startups are optimistic about their
prospects for increasing their incomes.
(E) If people in the region who are employed by startups change jobs, the
new jobs generally pay more than the ones they lost.
21. Criminal actions, like all actions, are ultimately products of a natural
predisposition. It is not the criminals or their environment but the inherent
flaws in human nature that create and maintain the criminal element in
society—it is simply human nature. Therefore, the prison system should be
abolished immediately.
What is the assumption upon which the argument depends?
(A) It is the nature of humanity and nothing else that should be held
responsible for crime.
(B) There is an ambiguity inherent in the term nature.
(C) The statistical evidence is drawn from only a small segment of the
population.
(D) Someone becomes a criminal solely by virtue of having committed a
crime.
(E) Some actions are socially acceptable and some are not.
22. Each December 31 in Country B, a tally is made of the country’s total

available natural gas inventory—that is, the total amount of natural gas that
has been produced throughout the country but not consumed. In 2010 that
amount was considerably lower than it had been in 2009. Furthermore,
Country B has not imported or exported natural gas since 1990.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true
on the basis of them?
(A) In Country B, the amount of natural gas consumed in 2009 was greater
than the amount of natural gas consumed in 2010.
(B) In Country B, more natural gas was mined in 2009 than was mined in
2010.
(C) In Country B, more natural gas was consumed during the first half of
2010 than was consumed during the first half of 2009.
(D) In Country B, the amount of natural gas consumed in 2010 was greater
than the amount of natural gas mined in 2010.
(E) In Country B, the amount of natural gas consumed in 2010 was greater
than the amount of natural gas consumed in 2009.
23. Richard: Literary tools such as “prefaces” and “prologues,” unlike the novel
itself, serve no purpose.
Jeri: I agree; and since such literary tools are meaningless they should be
eliminated from literature.
Jeri’s remarks indicated that she interpreted Richard’s statement to imply that
(A) literary tools that are not useful are meaningless
(B) only literary tools that serve a purpose have meaning
(C) literary tools that serve a purpose are meaningful
(D) all literary tools that serve a purpose are useful
(E) if a literary tool does not serve a purpose, it should be eliminated from
literature
24. Joanie: Property losses due to natural disasters have increased significantly.
Also, fatalities due to natural disasters over the last two years have
skyrocketed. It is obvious that the rate of natural disasters is on the
increase.
Lonnie: I agree with your facts but not with your inference. Increased
development has given natural disasters more to destroy. Also, over the
last two years, the world has experienced some unusually large-scale
natural disasters.
Lonnie criticizes Joanie’s argument by pointing out
(A) that the rate of natural disasters is a difficult statistic to quantify
(B) that statistics, when it comes to natural disasters, are notoriously
untrustworthy
(C) that the trends portrayed by the statistics on natural disasters do not
represent the underlying causes that lead to her conclusion
(D) her lack of qualifications to make such a judgment regarding the rate of
natural disasters
(E) other statistics that support the opposite conclusion
25. A political leader is considered great by assessing the decisions and actions
that the political leader performed while in office. An inventory of the
leaders’ decisions and actions is the only indicator of greatness. Therefore, to
say that a political leader is great is just to summarize the quality of his or
her known decisions and actions, and the leader’s greatness can provide no
basis for predicting the quality of the leader’s future decisions or actions.
Which one of the following arguments contains reasoning that is most
similar to that used in the argument above?
(A) The bacteria that cause ear infections are not all the same, and they differ
in their effects. Therefore, although it may be certain that a child has an
ear infection, it is impossible to predict how the infection will progress.
(B) Although ear infections are very common among children, there are some
children who never or only very rarely develop an ear infection. Clearly
these children must be in some way physiologically different from other
children who develop ear infections frequently.
(C) The only way of knowing whether a child has an ear infection is to
observe symptoms. Thus, when a child is said to have an ear infection,
this means only that the child has displayed the symptoms of having an
ear infection, and no prediction about the patient’s future symptoms is
ear infection, and no prediction about the patient’s future symptoms is
warranted.
(D) Unless a child displays ear infection symptoms, it cannot properly be said
that the child has an ear infection. But each of the symptoms of an ear
infection is also the symptom of another disease. Therefore, one can
never be certain that a child has an ear infection.
(E) A child’s ear infection is caused by bacteria trapped by a blocked
eustachian tube in the ear. Each type of bacteria is different and the
aperture of a child’s eustachian tube changes constantly depending on the
weather. Therefore, it is not possible to predict from a child’s history of
infection how susceptible he or she will be in the future.
STOP
THIS SECTION ONLY. DO NOT GO ON TO ANY OTHER TEST
SECTION.
SECTION II
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
1. Reynolds Dairy is attempting to dominate the organic yogurt market by

promoting its nonfat “Slim-gurt,” its most popular line of yogurt, with a
costly new sweepstakes giveaway. But market research shows that, in the
opinion of 76 percent of all consumers, “Slim-gurt” already dominates the
market. Since any product with more than 55 percent of the sales in a market
is, by definition, dominant in that market, Reynolds Dairy dominates the
market now and need only maintain its current market share in order to
continue to do so.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument above

depends?
(A) Market research studies describing the current situation are able to
predict the future as well.
(B) What the consumer believes to be true about a product is in fact the true
conditions in the marketplace.
(C) Consumers’ belief in market dominance is required for a company’s
product to actually achieve market dominance.
(D) Market research studies are thorough and accurate and it is foolish for a
company to ignore the results of a study that counters its strategy in the
marketplace.
(E) Consumers’ perception of market dominance actually results in popular
demand for a product.
2. Every school of psychology has a theory as to how we can achieve

happiness. However, most people would judge someone who follows every
prescription for happiness given by one of these theories to not be truly
happy—not the life they would want for themselves or their children.
The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the
following?
(A) It is impossible to develop a psychological theory that accurately
describes happiness.
(B) A person who achieves what is necessary under one theory of happiness
does not necessarily achieve happiness under another theory.
(C) Happiness as defined by psychology is unachievable in practice.
(D) Most people do not know what is truly necessary to achieve happiness.
(E) Most people do not have a conception of happiness that matches that
defined by any school of psychology.
Questions 3–4
Aligorian Wildlife Defense League: Uncontrolled logging in industrialized
nations has endangered many species. To protect wildlife we must regulate
the logging industry and its activities in Aligorian; future forest
development must be offset by the development of replacement forest
habitats. Thus, development would cause no net reduction of forests and
pose no threat to the species that inhabit them.
Aligorian Logging Commission: Other nations have flagrantly developed forest
areas at the expense of wildlife. We have conserved. Since Aligorian
logging might not affect wildlife and is necessary for economic growth, we
should allow logging to proceed unfettered. We have as much right to
govern our own resources as countries that have already put their natural
resources to commercial use.
3. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument

advanced by the Aligorian Logging Commission depends?
(A) The species that inhabit Aligorian forests are among the most severely
threatened of the designated endangered species.
(B) Aligorian regulation of logging has in the past protected and preserved
wildlife.
(C) In nations that are primarily agricultural, logging does not need to be
regulated.
(D) The species indigenous to natural forests will survive in specially
constructed replacement forest habitats.
(E) More species have been endangered by the uncontrolled logging of
forests than have been endangered by any other type of development.
4. Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would most strongly

support the Aligorian Logging Commission’s position against the Aligorian
Wildlife Defense League’s position?
(A) Regulation should be implemented to prevent further damage only when

a reduction of populations of endangered species by logging has been
found.
(B) The economic needs of individual nations are not as important as the
right of future generations to have wildlife preserved.
(C) It is careless to allow further depletion of natural resources.
(D) Environmental regulation must aim at preventing further environmental
damage and cannot consider the different degrees to which different
nations have already harmed the environment.
nations have already harmed the environment.
(E) When wildlife is endangered, national resources should be regulated by
international agreement.
5. Goni: You cannot blame me for the tax penalty we incurred. Even though
the penalty was assessed due to my error, you know full well that the
error was due to my poor handwriting, and I certainly cannot be held
responsible for the fact that my handwriting has deteriorated with age.
Avi: But I can hold you responsible for your poor bookkeeping, because
you know how poor your handwriting is. People are responsible for the
consequences of actions that they voluntarily undertake, if they know
that those actions risk such consequences.
The principle that Avi invokes, if established, would justify which of the
following judgments?
(A) Jack was not responsible for losing his board position, because, knowing
that his position was vulnerable in the election, he did everything
possible to preserve it.
(B) Jack was responsible for missing his daughter’s dance recital, because he
decided to hold a meeting with his staff late in the workday even though
he knew the meeting might go long and he might miss the recital.
(C) Jack was responsible for his dog being frightened, because, even though
it was his brother who set off the firecracker, he knew that dogs are often
frightened by loud noises.
(D) Jack was responsible for having offended his friend when he made an
offensive comment about her colleague, although he did not know his
friend would mistakenly understand the comment to be about herself.
(E) Jack was responsible for his bicycle being stolen last month, because he
did not take any of the precautions that the city police recommended in
the antitheft pamphlet they published this week.
6. Editorial: The governor’s chief prosecutor assures the governor that with a
thorough investigation and ample time to assemble the evidence he can
root out political corruption at all levels of the state government. But the
governor should not listen to the prosecutor, who in his youth was
convicted of fraud. Surely his legal advice is as untrustworthy as he is
himself, and so the governor should discard any hope of rooting out
corruption and simply do the best he can to execute the state’s business
despite such hindrances.
Which one of the following is a questionable argumentative strategy
employed in the editorial?
(A) trying to win support for a plan by playing on people’s fears of what
could happen if not implemented
(B) rejecting a plan on the grounds that a particular aspect of the plan is
likely to fail
(C) presupposing what the plan sets out to prove
(D) criticizing the source of a plan rather than examining the plan itself
(E) taking lack of evidence for that a plan has worked in the past as proof
that the plan will fail
7. Lawyer: Consider any situation where a moral injustice is committed. There

are always situations in which it is right to protest the nature of that
injustice. So, there are always situations in which it is right to protest
taxation without representation.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the
following is assumed?
(A) Taxation without representation can always be protested.
(B) Some kinds of injustices are dangerous to protest.
(C) An injustice is of a moral nature only if it can be protested.
(D) All injustices that can be protested are of a moral nature.
(E) Taxation without representation is a moral injustice.
8. Arisha: Our city’s campaign to persuade homeowners to reduce their

garbage and increase recycling should be implemented in your city. In
the 18 months since the enactment of the legislation authorizing the
campaign, the volume of garbage dumped at our landfill has decreased
by 30 percent and our recycling centers have increased capacity.
Brandon: But the major shift to recycling occurred during the first six
months after that legislation was enacted, right after your city’s new
recycling centers opened, and before the recycling campaign even got
started.
In responding to Arisha, Brandon does which one of the following?
(A) He presents evidence to suggest that recycling campaigns are usually
ineffective.
(B) He advances the claim that a campaign such as Arisha recommends is
not necessary because most homeowners recycle.
not necessary because most homeowners recycle.
(C) He introduces evidence to show that the campaign Arisha advocates is
only effective for a short period of time.
(D) He cites facts that tend to weaken the force of the evidence with which
Arisha supports her recommendation.
(E) He denies Arisha’s assumption that Brandon’s city wants to reduce
garbage and increase recycling.
9. Most people who use their cell phone more than 10 times a day do not have a
landline phone installed in their home. In Ronde County most people used
their cell phone more than 10 times a day. Therefore, in Ronde County most
people do not have a landline phone installed in their home.
Which one of the following arguments has a flawed pattern of reasoning

most like the flawed reasoning in the argument above?
(A) It is clear that most citizens in Eastland are law abiding since there is a
very low crime rate in Eastland and most crimes are not very serious.
(B) It is clear that Halley cannot cook, since she does not own a pot or pan
and no one in her family who does not own a pot or pan can cook.
(C) It is clear that Alvarez’s friends usually carpool to work, since all of his
friends can drive and all of his friends go to work.
(D) It is clear that most people in Daytown vote in early voting, since most
people who live in retirement communities vote in early voting and most
people in Daytown live in retirement communities.
(E) It is clear that most of Richard’s friends love jazz, since he only goes to
concerts with people who love jazz and he goes to concerts with most of
his friends.
10. Current sales maps showing the areas of the United States where our
products are most likely to secure loyal customers are based on sales data
gathered 10 years ago from a small number of regional salespeople. New
maps are being compiled using sales data from hundreds of retail centers and
input from a network of loyal customers. These sales maps will be much
more useful.
Each of the following, if true, helps to support the claim that the new maps
will be more useful EXCEPT:
(A) Market information has changed in the past 10 years.
(B) Sales information is the most important factor in determining whether
(B) Sales information is the most important factor in determining whether
customers will become loyal.
(C) Some of the retail centers have been open more than 10 years.
(D) Customers can provide information on the market that retail centers
cannot.
(E) Sales information can be described more accurately when more
information is available.
11. Editorialist: TV dramas are contributing to an increase of violence in our

society. By constantly being shown violent crimes such as murder and
assault, viewers begin to think such actions are the norm and that there is
something wrong with acting in a more civil manner.
TV drama producer: Well, if there is such an increase, it’s not because of
TV dramas: we simply give people what they want to see. What can be
wrong with letting the viewers decide? Furthermore, if restrictions were
put on my show, that would amount to censorship, which is wrong.
The editorialist and the TV drama producer’s statements provide the most
support for holding that they disagree about whether
(A) TV dramas influence people’s conception of what is the norm
(B) it is wrong not to let the viewers decide what they want to see on TV
(C) TV dramas, by depicting violent crimes, are causing an increase of
violence in society
(D) TV dramas should be censored
(E) the level of violence in society has changed
12. A billboard company executive recently announced an increase in its

billboard rental rates by 5 to 10 percent next year over rates this year and
expects other billboard companies to follow suit. The executive argued that
despite this increase, advertisers will continue to profit from billboard
advertising, and so billboard rentals will be no harder to secure than this
year.
Which one of the following, if true, would most support the billboard
company executive’s argument?
(A) The number of billboards leased by providers of services is increasing,
while the number of billboards leased by products is decreasing.
(B) Most costs of production and distribution of services typically advertised
on billboards are expected to rise 2 to 5 percent in the next year.
on billboards are expected to rise 2 to 5 percent in the next year.
(C) Next year billboard leases will no longer be available for periods shorter
than nine months.
(D) A recent survey has shown that the average number of people
commuting in their own cars along routes with billboards is increasing at
the rate of 2 percent every three months.
(E) The method of estimating the traffic passing a particular billboard will
change next year.
13. Announcement for a television program: Are female politicians more

effective than male politicians at applying policies that help the
homeless and indigent citizens among their constituency? To get the
answer we’ll ask politicians of both sexes this question. Tune in
tomorrow.
Which one of the following, if true, identifies a flaw in the plan for the
program?
(A) Those who are best able to provide answers to the question are the
homeless and indigent constituents of the respective politicians.
(B) The homeless and indigent need more advocacy groups arguing for their
rights.
(C) Politicians are in general unwilling to disparage other politicians with
whom they have to develop policy with.
(D) Homeless and indigent citizens among their constituents generally do not
vote.
(E) Female politicians make up only 15 percent of the US Congress, and this
number is even smaller in state legislatures.
14. Business consultant: The practice of streamlining this business process to

reduce costs cannot be adequately supported by the claim that any
simplification of a business process is more effective than doing nothing
at all to reduce costs. What must also be taken into account is that such
streamlining may hurt quality of service and reduce customer
satisfaction.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the
business consultant’s argument?
(A) Streamlining a business process is more effective than other forms of
solutions for reducing costs.
(B) Streamlining a business process’s effectiveness at reducing costs is not
(B) Streamlining a business process’s effectiveness at reducing costs is not
sufficient justification for using it.
(C) Streamlining a business process is more effective than not streamlining a
business process at all for reducing costs.
(D) Streamlining a business process hurts quality of service and reduces
customer satisfaction more than other solutions for reducing costs.
(E) Streamlining a business process should not be used to reduce costs unless
it improves quality of service and increases customer satisfaction.
15. Shipments are recorded in inventory on the date it arrives only if they are
received before 3 p.m. Valerie knows that a shipment was received before 3
p.m. So, Valerie knows that the shipment was recorded on the date it arrived.
Which one of the following exhibits both of the logical flaws exhibited by
the argument above?
(A) It is obvious to Jamey that she will receive a raise at the end of this
financial quarter, because Jamey will receive a raise only if everyone in
her department receives a raise, and Jamey knows everyone in her
department will receive a raise.
(B) We know that Sally plays tennis every Tuesday evening. Today is
Tuesday, so it follows that Sally is playing tennis this evening.
(C) Monte aspires to become a psychiatrist. It is well known that
psychiatrists earn a great deal of money. Monte evidently wants to make
a great deal of money.
(D) Phil believes that a square is a triangle and that a square has three sides.
Therefore, Phil believes that there is a square that has three sides.
(E) Employees are the only ones who are allowed to eat their lunch in the
company break room. Since Jessica is an employee, she will be allowed
to eat lunch in the company break room.
Questions 16–17
Park ranger: The only reason for us to restrict climbing in the park is to protect
those inexperienced climbers from hurting themselves. Climbing on Mount
Brunda is undoubtedly dangerous, but we should not restrict climbing. If
inexperienced climbers cannot climb in our park they will most certainly
travel to the next county over to climb in their parks, which have much
more dangerous terrain than ours.
16. The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that
in the park ranger’s argument?
(A) The reason for the ordinance restricting loud music in residential areas
after 10 p.m. was to protect those who were being disturbed by parties in
their neighborhood as well as to maintain property values. Loud music
had become a serious problem, but it has now been eliminated from our
neighborhoods. So, we can probably remove the restriction now.
(B) The reason for requiring financial audits is to ensure that our business
plans are operating within the budget constraints set by our accountants.
Currently, financial concerns are less compelling than product
development concerns, but in the long run, our financial viability must be
ensured. Therefore, the requirement of financial audits should not be
discontinued.
(C) Detention is used to separate a poorly behaving child from the well-
behaving children. A poorly behaving child hinders the education of the
other children, but detention also stigmatizes that child. Since the
disruption to the other students is less a problem than the stigmatization
of a poorly behaving child the practice of detention should be
discontinued.
(D) Speed bumps on streets are meant to slow down traffic and reduce the
danger to pedestrians. However, it would be detrimental to the Riverside
Street area to have traffic move slower. So, speed bumps should not be
implemented there.
(E) The function of an antivirus software is to prevent harmful programs
from infecting a computer. However, Bulwark computers are built to be
resistant to harmful programs and thus do not need an antivirus program.
Antivirus programs, therefore, should not be installed on Bulwark
computers.
17. Which one of the following principles, if established, would provide the
strongest support for the park ranger’s argument?
(A) Since safety in a recreational activity depends on the level of skill of the
participant in that activity, the climbing restrictions should be left to the
discretion of the professional climbing instructors operating in the area.
(B) If recreational activities constitute a danger to the participants in those
activities, then the park administrators should enact restrictions
prohibiting those activities.
(C) Since the park could be held legally liable for accidents that occur within
the park’s borders, restrictions apply to any unnecessarily dangerous
the park’s borders, restrictions apply to any unnecessarily dangerous
activities within the park.
(D) Restrictions that seek to eliminate dangers should not be enacted if their
enactment would lead to dangers that are greater than those they seek to
eliminate.
(E) Restrictions of recreational activities of the park visitors should not be
put into effect unless those activities pose a danger to participants.
18. During an eight-month period, the total output of offshore oil rigs within the
nation of Salveria remained constant. During this period monthly output of
oil rigs owned by Cenpan Oil Company doubled, and its share of the oil
market within Salveria increased correspondingly. At the end of this period,
new safety standards were imposed on oil rigs owned by Salveria companies.
During the four months following this imposition, Cenpan Oil Company’s
share of the Salveria market declined substantially even though its monthly
output within Salveria remained constant at the level reached in the eighth
month of the eight-month period.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be
true?
(A) A decrease in the total monthly output of oil within Salveria will occur if
the safety standards remain in effect.
(B) Over the four months before the imposition of the safety standards, the
combined market share of companies other than Cenpan Oil Company
with offshore oil rigs in Salveria decreased.
(C) Since the imposition of the safety standards, Cenpan Oil Company’s
average profit on each barrel of oil sold within Salveria has increased.
(D) If the safety standards had not been imposed, Cenpan Oil Company’s
share of the Salveria oil market would have decreased even more than, in
fact, it did.
(E) The total monthly output within Salveria of oil from oil rigs owned by
companies other than Cenpan Oil Company decreased over the four
months following the imposition of safety standards.
Questions 19–20
Because excessive income taxes can make business activity difficult if not
impossible, their use by governments is never justified. Purists, however, claim
that all business taxes, such as sales tax, transportation fees, and export tariffs,
should be prohibited because government should never be a burden to business
activity. This is ridiculous; almost every interaction between government and
activity. This is ridiculous; almost every interaction between government and
business is some sort of burden, from work safety to food safety rules to labor
regulations to payroll requirements. Yet, none of these is prohibited on the basis
of being a burden. Furthermore, we should be attending to far more serious
infrastructure problems that cause unnecessary restrictions to growth and
business failures. Therefore, the use of some taxes, fees, and tariffs is acceptable
and should not be prohibited.
19. Which of the following statements, if true, would be the strongest challenge
to the conclusion?
(A) Unnecessary restrictions to growth and business failures happen to
nonprofits and individual citizens as well.
(B) There would be more unnecessary restrictions to growth and business
failures if it were not for sales tax, transportation fees, and export tariffs.
(C) Income taxes are just as burdensome to businesses as other taxes such as
sales taxes and transportation fees.
(D) Sales tax, transportations fees, and export tariffs together can make
business activity difficult if not impossible.
(E) Some taxes, fees, and tariffs help businesses by making them avoid
socially unproductive activities.
20. Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage above?
(A) Some of the unnecessary restrictions to growth and business failures are
caused by excessive income taxes.
(B) The fact that something is a burden to business is not sufficient reason
for prohibiting it.
(C) The use of excessive income taxes by governments should be prohibited
because excessive taxes are burdensome to business.
(D) Excessive income taxes by governments on business are a less serious
problem than are unnecessary business failures.
(E) There is nothing burdensome about the use of nonexcessive taxes by
governments.
21. Fred achieved the highest revenues in the fourth-quarter sales challenge by
beating Gigi, the winner of each of the three previous quarters. We can
conclude from this that Fred took sales training during the last year.
The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
(A) If Gigi took sales training, she would win the sales challenge.
(A) If Gigi took sales training, she would win the sales challenge.
(B) Gigi did not take as much sales training as Fred did.
(C) Gigi is usually a better salesperson than Fred.
(D) If Fred took sales training, he would win the sales challenge.
(E) Fred could beat a three-time winner only if he took sales training.
22. Most people make major purchases such as cars and appliances without
doing any research of their own. Some of these people rely solely on advice
from friends or a salesperson, whereas some others make decisions merely
on an emotional response. Only a few always do their own research before
making such a purchase. Nonetheless, a majority of buyers say that they are
happy with their purchase.
If the statements in the passages are true, which one of the following must
also be true?
(A) Some people who research large purchases on their own, while just as
often relying on advice from their friends and a salesperson or on
emotions, are happy with their purchases.
(B) Most people who make large purchases either rely solely on advice from
their friends or a salesperson or make decisions based merely on
emotion.
(C) Some people are happy with their purchase even though they do not do
any research on their own.
(D) Most people who rely solely on advice from their friends or a
salesperson rather than emotions are happy with their purchases.
(E) Most people who make large purchases without doing any research on
their own are happy with their purchases.
23. Many people believe that the remedy for our education problems is to reduce
the size of the classes, but recent statistics from New York City show that
while class sizes in the city varied widely, city-wide standardized test scores
were similar.
The statistics cited function in the argument to
(A) illustrate the need for reducing class size in schools across the nation
(B) demonstrate that there is no relation between class size and the quality of
education
(C) suggest that the size of classes is not the only influence on the quality of
education
(D) establish that the size of classes does not need to be reduced
(D) establish that the size of classes does not need to be reduced
(E) prove that standardized testing is a poor way to gauge the success of an
educational system
24. While most people normally believe that well-watered plants grow best on a
bright sunny day, studies show that, in fact, the reverse is true. Plants
actually benefit from the haze caused by carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
enabling them to absorb 25 percent more carbon than normally possible. The
burning of fossil fuels and other human industrial activities are the main
cause of increased carbon dioxide. Therefore, such industrial activities are
obviously beneficial to agriculture and those who depend on it.
The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which
(A) Vigorous exercise has been proven to help prevent a number of diseases,
ailments, and injuries, so obviously no harm, and a great deal of good,
can come from vigorous exercise.
(B) Excessive use of certain antibiotics increases one’s susceptibility to
certain antibiotic-resistant infections. Therefore, the best policy is to
avoid using such antibiotics, thereby strengthening the body’s ability to
resist disease.
(C) Because a low-carbohydrate diet has been shown to be more healthful
than a diet high in carbohydrates, a diet in which foods with low
carbohydrate content have been entirely replaced by foods with high
amounts of carbohydrates is bound to be even more healthful.
(D) Fresh fruits and vegetables contain more vitamins and minerals than
processed fruits and vegetables. Therefore, one ought to completely
abandon processed for fresh fruits and vegetables.
(E) Excessive stress can lead to sleep disorders and physical and mental
illnesses, so if one wishes to avoid health problems associated with
stress, one ought to take a day off from work every week.
25. Columnist: A democratic society cannot function unless strong bonds of

mutual trust have formed among its citizens. Only by participation in
civic organizations, political parties, and other groups outside the family
can such bonds be formed and strengthened. Thus, it is obvious that the
widespread reliance on e-mail and Internet social networking for
interaction has an inherently corrosive effect on democracy.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the columnist’s
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the columnist’s
argument depends?
(A) Civic organizations cannot usefully advance their goals by using social
networking.
(B) Anyone who relies on e-mail and social networking for interaction is
unable to form a strong bond of mutual trust with another citizen.
(C) Relying on e-mail and social networking for interaction generally makes
people less likely to participate in groups outside their families.
(D) People who rely on e-mail and social networking for interaction are
generally closer to their families than are those who do not.
(E) Meetings and other forms of personal interaction strengthen, rather than
weaken, democratic institutions.
STOP
SECTION.

SECTION III
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
PASSAGE A
PASSAGE B
1. Which one of the following best expresses the main idea of passage B?
(A) As globalization continues justices actively engaged in interpreting the
Constitution make an effort to avoid the ever-increasing distraction
caused by precedents set by the highly active foreign courts.
(B) The opponents of comparativism have given into isolationist concerns
and their ill-conceived attacks on comparativist justices are hindering
American progressivism.
(C) The United States is a unique and exceptional nation and due to the
wisdom shown by its forefathers in designing the Constitution justices
do not need to refer to precedents beyond its borders.
(D) As a relatively new method of interpreting the Constitution
comparativism has not established a long enough history to prove
whether it is a passing fad among legal scholars or a practice that is here
to stay.
(E) Some legal scholars and jurists have offered legitimate criticisms of
comparativism due to the inapplicability of foreign precedent to US law
as established by the Constitution.
2. It can be inferred that the author of passage A would most likely hold which
one of the following attitudes towards the opponents of comparativism
discussed in passage B?
(A) Derisive because the basis of their arguments is close-minded and rooted
in bigotry.
(B) Appreciative of the role they are taking in the public discourse while
ultimately feeling their arguments are wrongheaded.
(C) Critical because their arguments ignore the reality of the current legal
and political situation.
(D) Scornful because their arguments are irrelevant to the current scholarly
discourse.
(E) Dismissive of their political response but respectful of the basis for their
opposition.
3. Which one of the following statements about those who oppose

comparativism can be inferred from passage B?
(A) They support the execution of minors and the mentally handicapped,
support anti-sodomy laws, and oppose affirmative action.
(B) They consider the fact that the United States is unique in the world in
some of its legal practices as a relevant consideration when interpreting
the Constitution.
(C) They are not as well versed in foreign court systems as those who
support comparativism.
(D) They believe that globalization is a short-term economic trend and that
legal scholars should not allow constitutional interpretation to be
influenced by such fleeting shifts in the economy.
(E) They believe that the trust that Americans have given their justices is
misplaced and should be reinstituted in a smaller body of justices that
will not be so easily swayed by foreign adjudications.
4. According to information contained in passages A and B, Supreme Court

Justices Kennedy and Breyer would be most likely to agree about which of
the following?
(A) English law is more applicable to US law than that of other nations.
(B) Foreign law can validly be used as precedent in US courts.
(C) Foreign law should be the central consideration with regard to
constitutional issues.
(D) Comparativism has had more influence in other nations than in the
United States.
(E) The use of comparativism is only applicable in the Supreme Court.
5. The opponents of comparativism, as discussed in passage B, would most

likely analogize the use of comparativism in domestic cases as
(A) a doctor who is unsure what the correct medicine is for a treatment and
consults with other doctors for their opinion before making a
recommendation
(B) a teacher who is unsure what method to use for teaching a difficult
subject in grammar, so she consults several teaching guides, some of
which are for foreign students learning English
(C) a board member of a long-standing organization who must determine a
new policy and uses the policies of another, younger but similar
organization to determine the language of that policy
(D) a candidate for public office who argues during a debate that a national
policy currently in effect is wrongheaded because France and Germany
do not have such a policy in effect
(E) an international corporation that recalls a product in Germany because it
fails to meet German health standards and then recalls it in France and
England as well even though the product meets their health standards
6. It can be inferred that the opposition in the case in which Justice Kennedy
used comparativism
(A) held that Justice Kennedy made the right decision but that using foreign
law as a justification was wrong
(B) thought that Justice Kennedy’s decision would have been correct if he
had based it on English common law instead of current foreign
precedents
(C) saw comparativism as unacceptable in cases involving laws governing
moral issues but acceptable in all others
(D) used comparativism as a cover for a deeper disagreement to Kennedy’s
decision
(E) alleged that comparativism was equivalent to committing treason
7. The issues that are central to both passages A and B can best be described as
(A) offering an a priori justification for a new approach to interpreting the
Constitution
(B) criticizing a trend in constitutional interpretation by Supreme Court
justices
(C) proposing an alternative method of interpreting the Constitution that will
resolve high profile cases being argued before the Supreme Court
(D) explaining the origins of some new techniques of constitutional
interpretation being used by current Supreme Court justices
(E) describing the nature of a legal controversy and the polarization of those
on both sides of the argument
8. Which one of the following best states the main idea of the passage?
(A) Biophysical economics has shown that it is prone to the same flaws as
neoclassical economics, so it should be discarded for not contributing
any worthwhile economic ideas.
(B) Its focus on energy proves that biophysical economics is a limited and
somewhat immature economic field of study with dubious influence on
predictive models.
(C) The failure of predictive models based on the prevailing economic ideas
has allowed a new and innovative economic theory to come forward
from unlikely sources, including non-economists.
(D) Biophysical economics has supplanted neoclassical economics as the
dominant field of study because it uses some of the same concepts as
traditional economics to create its new predictive models.
(E) Biophysical economics is an intriguing subset of environmental
economics worth studying mainly for its suggestion to use the laws of
thermodynamics in economic analysis.
9. It can be inferred that which one of the following is true of the theories put
forward by the biophysics economists?
(A) An economy can sustain positive growth as long as it has a stable or
increasing EROI.
(B) An economy can sustain positive growth as long as it has the supply of
natural resources to support its energy needs.
(C) An economy can grow despite any technological advances or physical
changes when there are market forces that overcome such deficiencies.
(D) Biophysical economists and ecological economists agree about the
physical limitations to the world economy but disagree about the
solutions.
(E) Of the proponents of biophysical economics, the ecologists are the
majority of those who believe that the collapse of the world economy is
imminent.
10. According to the passage, which of the following, if true, would most
directly affect the biophysical economic models?
(A) Consumers switch their preference from gasoline-powered to electric-

powered automobiles.
(B) The government increases taxes on gasoline, coal, and natural gas.
(C) In order to maintain current supply levels, the largest mining companies
must use a more costly and dangerous method to source coal.
(D) In order to maintain current supply levels, oil companies must take on
more debt to explore new areas and drill new wells.
(E) An energy company derives a new technology for drilling a new deep-
sea oil well that avoids an increase in cost the company had expected.
11. According to the passage, which one of the following best describes the
biophysical economist view of oil supplies for energy?
(A) scarce supply and expensive to source

(B) stable or slightly decreasing supply, yet increasingly cheaper to source
(C) unknown supply, yet increasingly cheaper to source
(D) decreasing supply, yet inexpensive to source
(E) abundant or stable supply, yet increasingly expensive to source
12. Which one of the following best describes the function of the final
paragraph?
(A) gives supporting facts for why biophysical economics has better
predictive models than neoclassical economics
(B) shows that while biophysical economics may offer stronger theories,
certain practicalities will hinder its progress in overturning the
dominance of classical economics
(C) exhibits the conflict between biophysical economists and ecological
economists
(D) explains that while biophysical economics is new it is not immune to the
problems that have led to the distrust of neoclassical economics
(E) demonstrates how a disagreement between the factions within the
biophysical economics community will only serve to make their
arguments against neoclassical economics stronger
13. The author’s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) outline the ideas and pitfalls of a new economic theory intended to solve
the failings of an older, prevailing economic theory
(B) debunk an alternative economic model to the classically accepted
economic model
(C) explain how a current economic crisis has resulted in some unlikely
theories on the economy
(D) prove that economists supporting new economic theories are prone to
the same pitfalls as economists supporting older, more well established
theories
(E) describe an economic conflict between two rival theories as to why an
economic crisis occurred
(A) Recent theories and discoveries put forward by scholars have raised
some doubt about the authenticity of Galileo Galilei’s work and argue
that the conflict with the Catholic Church may have been unjust.
(B) Recent theories and discoveries put forward by scholars have put doubt
on the church’s motives for trying Galileo Galilei, and a conspiracy may
surround his fall from grace. Nevertheless, the facts of his trial and
house arrest are undeniable.
(C) Scholars questioning the story of Galileo Galilei’s conflict with the
church have been heavily influenced by current political events and
should be discounted, especially since the facts of his trial and house
arrest are indisputable.
(D) The recent discovery of authentic and unambiguous documents have put
the story of Galileo Galilei’s fall from grace into serious question, and
scholars are currently pursuing explanations regarding the truth of his
crime and his house arrest.
(E) The two areas in question today with scholars are whether Galileo
Galilei was ever put on trial by the Catholic Church and for what reason.
His house arrest was never in doubt, but why he was not burned at the
stake like his compatriots still confounds some scholars.
15. Which of the following political events of his time was most likely to have
influenced Giorgio de Santillana while writing his book The Crime of
Galileo?
(A) the dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan

(B) the end of Nazism and the rise of communism
(C) the House Un-American Activities Committee hearings
(D) the cold war and the resulting Korean War
(E) the rise of television as a source of entertainment and news
16. The passages suggests that Pietro Redondi would most likely agree with
which of the following statements about Galileo Galilei?
(A) The forgery of the injunction issued for the arrest of Galileo Galilei was
one more piece of evidence that there was a conspiracy within the
Catholic Church to cover up a more serious crime committed by the
scientist.
(B) Galileo’s contemporaries were jealous of his achievements and betrayed
him to the church, so the church invented the crime of Copernicanism to
cover up its culpability in this betrayal.
(C) The Medici family financed Galileo Galilei and urged him to challenge
church doctrine, but they failed to protect him when he came to trial,
which is why he was ultimately put under house arrest.
(D) The theory that the earth and other planets revolved around the sun was
less offensive to the Catholic Church than the natural philosophy
theorizing that atoms were indestructible and immutable.
(E) The Jesuit astronomer Orazio Grassi, S.J., disliked Galileo Galilei and
his theories, regardless of their truth, and it was Grassi’s determination
to destroy the scientist that resulted in his trial and house arrest.
17. The passage implies which of the following with regard to the relationship
between Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei?
(A) Both scientists supported Copernicanism but differed on the theory of

atomism and this is why their punishments were different.
(B) Both scientists supported atomism but differed on the theory of
Copernicanism and this is why their punishments were different.
(C) Both scientists had a relationship with the church that was poisoned by
Orazio Grassi, but Bruno was burned at the stake because he had
committed the worse of their crimes.
(D) Both scientists had offended the church by continuing to teach their
scientific beliefs despite the church’s objections, but one of them fared
better because he enjoyed the protection of a wealthy benefactor.
(E) Both scientists supported Copernicanism but differed on God’s
relationship to the order of the universe.
18. The passage implies which of the following with regard to the church and
publications in the time of Galileo Galilei?
(A) Publications were registered with the church regardless of whether they
offended church doctrine.
(B) The church probably would not have put an author on trial for a theory
published in a book that had not been put on the list of proscribed books.
(C) The church put every author who had a book on the proscribed list on
trial and all except Galileo Galilei were burned at the stake.
(D) Books on the church’s proscribed list were not necessarily considered
offensive to the church and not every book that was offensive to the
church was on the proscribed list.
(E) Even though the church considered Galileo Galilei’s The Assayer
offensive, it did not add it to the list due to the patronage of the Medici
family.
19. The author’s primary purpose in the passage is to
(A) summarize recent discoveries that give further insight into the story of
Galileo Galilei’s conflict with the Catholic Church
(B) describe a dispute between two scholars who disagree regarding the
basis for Galileo Galilei’s trial and punishment by the Catholic Church
(C) present and assess two theories from scholars that have called into
question aspects of the story of Galileo Galilei’s conflict with the
Catholic Church
(D) explain the complicated aspects of the Catholic Church’s considerations
when it put Galileo Galilei on trial and decided his punishment
(E) criticize the theories of two scholars that have questioned the validity of
aspects of the story of Galileo Galilei’s conflict with the Catholic Church
20. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which of the following?
(A) two interpretations of roles played by gender in the classroom and how it
effects the learning process
(B) two unsubstantiated theories of an educational strategy, neither of which
agrees with the other or has quelled recent criticism
(C) two studies on single-sex education that are controversial and have been
criticized by the academic community
(D) two revolutionary discoveries of how children learn in the classroom
that are just beginning to be incorporated into public schools
(E) how a practice long successful in private and parochial schools is being
applied to public education but not without controversy over application
and efficacy
21. The reference to studies on single-sex education in lines 13–18 serves

primarily to
(A) give credibility to the arguments in favor of single-sex education

(B) exhibit the academic environment and research that currently surrounds
the development of contemporary single-sex education
(C) offer a caveat that might give the reader pause when accepting the
arguments for single-sex education
(D) create doubt in readers’ minds so that they will favor Dr. Sax’s approach
over the other approach
(E) describe the historical background that led education to develop the
modern concept of single-sex education
22. The passage suggests that Dr. Sax would probably agree with which one of
the following statements about the children in the classroom?
(A) Because girls are more susceptible to pressures to keep quiet in social
situations, they should be separated from boys to allow them to express
themselves more freely.
(B) Because boys would rather look strong than smart in front of the
opposite sex, they should be separated from them so that they can
express themselves more honestly.
(C) Because there is a stark difference between how boys and girls perform
on standardized tests, different tests should be given to each based on
their learning differences.
(D) Because boys are inherently more adept with visual stimuli, boys should
be separated from girls so that they may benefit from a more visual
educational environment.
(E) Because there is no difference between how boys and girls perform on
manual dexterity tests, any nonacademic courses should be coed.
23. Which of the following statements best exemplifies the American Civil
Liberties Union’s concern mentioned in lines 46–49?
(A) Boys are separated from girls because they can handle a more disorderly
environment than girls. Therefore, only boys are taught how to organize
their belongings more effectively.
(B) Girls are separated from boys because their listening is better. Therefore,
girls never learn to listen to the opposite sex effectively.
(C) Boys are separated from girls because they have better visual acuity.
Therefore, boys take only jobs that involve their visual abilities.
(D) Girls are separated from boys because boys pester them in class.
Therefore, girls never learn to negotiate the cross-gender dynamic.
(E) Boys are separated from girls because they can handle a more disorderly
environment than girls. Therefore, the school reinforces the
misconception that boys are better than girls for jobs with chaotic
environments.
24. The passage suggests that critics of both the genetic and social approaches to
single-sex education would agree with which of the following statements?
(A) Single-sex education makes sense as long as each class teaches the
fundamentals of American values.
(B) Single-sex education is warranted only to protect children from instilling
in them un-American values.
(C) Single-sex education is an excellent method of ensuring that American
values are taught in a way that is appropriate for the particular gender.
(D) Single-sex education is an inherently flawed model of educating
children because it authorizes a particularly un-American separation
rather than integration of the sexes.
(E) Teachers of single-sex education classes are unable to instill truly good
values in their students since the opposite sex is not present to give their
unique perspective.
25. Which of the following statements can be inferred about single-sex

education based on the passage?
(A) Until researchers are able to put forward convincing evidence, single-sex
education will remain a minor force in American public education.
(B) As long as single-sex education controverts American values of
integration people will oppose its growth in the American public
education system.
(C) Regardless of the failure of research to prove the efficacy of single-sex
education, advocates and parents will continue to demand single-sex
classes for children.
(D) Anecdotal evidence and the advocacy of people like Dr. Sax will propel
single-sex education into the mainstream of American public education.
(E) The social malaise of the American public school system will quell the
genetic approach and advance the sociological approach into dominance.
STOP
SECTION.

SECTION IV
Time—35 minutes
26 Questions
Questions 1–5
A conference planner must schedule six keynote speakers—Chapman, Dabu,
Forest, Gant, Hart, and Jonas—over six days of a conference—days 1 through 6.
The speakers are assigned to the days, one speaker per day, according to the
following conditions:
Chapman and Dabu must speak on days that are separated from each other
by exactly one day.
Chapman and Gant cannot speak on consecutive days.
Gant must speak on a later day than Forest.
Jonas must speak on day 3.
1. Which one of the following lists an acceptable schedule of the speakers for
days 1 through 6, respectively?
(A) Hart, Forest, Jonas, Dabu, Gant, Chapman
(B) Forest, Gant, Chapman, Jonas, Dabu, Hart
(C) Gant, Hart, Jonas, Chapman, Forest, Dabu
(D) Forest, Chapman, Jonas, Dabu, Gant, Hart
(E) Chapman, Dabu, Jonas, Forest, Gant, Hart
2. Which one of the following is a complete and accurate list of the days to
which Chapman could be assigned?
(A) 2, 4, 5
(B) 2, 4, 6
(C) 2, 3
(D) 2, 4
(E) 1, 2
3. Which one of the following CANNOT be true?

(A) Hart is scheduled to speak on day 2.
(B) Dabu is scheduled to speak on day 2.
(C) Chapman is scheduled to speak on day 2.
(D) Forest is scheduled to speak on day 1.
(E) Forest is scheduled to speak on day 5.

(A) Either Forest or else Gant is scheduled to speak on day 2.
(B) Either Forest or else Gant is scheduled to speak on day 5.
(C) Either Chapman or else Dabu is scheduled to speak on day 2.
(D) Either Chapman or else Dabu is scheduled to speak on day 4.
(E) Either Forest or else Hart is scheduled to speak on day 6.

(A) Dabu and Gant are scheduled to speak on consecutive days.
(B) Forest and Chapman are scheduled to speak on consecutive days.
(C) Forest and Hart are scheduled to speak on consecutive days.
(D) Dabu and Gant are scheduled to speak on days that are separated from
each other by exactly one day.
(E) Forest and Jonas are scheduled to speak on days that are separated from
each other by exactly one day.
Questions 6–12
Exactly six students—Bjorn, Chaim, Dottie, Fran, Gertie, and Heste—need to be
assigned to four tutors: Sosa, Upton, Willie, and Zane. Each student is assigned
to exactly one tutor, with at least one student assigned to each tutor. Sosa tutors
only in math. Upton tutors only in physics and chemistry. Willie tutors only in
math and physics. Zane tutors only in chemistry and English. Each student needs
tutoring in only one of the subjects offered by the tutors and needs tutoring in no
tutoring in only one of the subjects offered by the tutors and needs tutoring in no
other subject.
The following rules govern the assignment of the students to the tutors:
At least Bjorn and Chaim are assigned to Willie.

At least Fran is assigned to Zane.
If Dottie is assigned to Upton, then Gertie needs tutoring in math
6. Each of the following could be true of the assignment of students to tutors

EXCEPT:
(A) It assigns Gertie to Upton and Dottie to Zane.
(B) It assigns Gertie to Sosa and Dottie to Zane.
(C) It assigns Fran to Zane and Gertie to Zane.
(D) It assigns Dottie to Willie and Heste to Zane.
(E) It assigns Dottie to Sosa and Gertie to Upton.

(A) Sosa is assigned exactly one of the students.
(B) Zane is assigned fewer than three of the students.
(C) Upton is assigned fewer than two of the students.
(D) Zane is assigned exactly one of the students.
(E) Willie is assigned exactly two of the students.
8. Each of the following could be true EXCEPT:

(A) Both Dottie and Gertie need tutoring in English.
(B) Both Dottie and Heste need tutoring in chemistry.
(C) Both Dottie and Heste need tutoring in math.
(D) Both Dottie and Gertie need tutoring in math.
(E) Both Dottie and Bjorn need tutoring in physics.
9. If Fran and Heste need tutoring in the same subject as each other, then the
maximum number of students who need tutoring in physics is
(A) two
(B) three
(C) four
(D) five
(E) six
10. If Dottie and Fran need tutoring in the same subject as each other, then
which one of the following must be true?
(A) Dottie and Fran need tutoring in English.

(B) At least two students need tutoring in math.
(C) At least two students need tutoring in English.
(D) At least one of Gertie and Heste needs tutoring in math.
(E) At least one of Gertie and Heste needs tutoring in chemistry.
11. If exactly two students are assigned to Upton, then which one of the
(A) Gertie needs tutoring in chemistry and Dottie needs tutoring in

chemistry.
(B) Gertie needs tutoring in math and Dottie needs tutoring in chemistry.
(C) Heste needs tutoring in math and Dottie needs tutoring in physics.
(D) Heste needs tutoring in English and Fran needs tutoring in English.
(E) Heste needs tutoring in math and Gertie needs tutoring in math.
12. If Bjorn, Chaim, Gertie, and Heste all need tutoring in the same subject as
each other, then which one of the following could be true?
(A) Exactly two of the students need tutoring in physics.

(B) Dottie needs tutoring in English.
(C) Dottie needs tutoring in math.
(D) Exactly two students need tutoring in English.
(E) Exactly three of the students need tutoring in chemistry.
Questions 13–19
In a small town, there are six buildings that need to be certified by two
inspectors as earthquake-safe, three government buildings—I, J, and K—and
three commercial buildings—M, N, and O—each evaluated once by inspector
Harris and once by inspector Limon, during six consecutive weeks—week 1
through week 6. Each inspector inspects one building per week. No building will
be inspected by Harris and Limon during the same week. The following
be inspected by Harris and Limon during the same week. The following
additional constraints apply:
Limon cannot inspect any government building until Harris has evaluated
that building.
Harris cannot evaluate any commercial building until Limon has evaluated
that building.
Limon cannot inspect any two government buildings consecutively.
Harris must inspect building M during week 4.
13. Which one of the following is an acceptable inspection schedule, with the
buildings listed in order of inspection from week 1 through week 6?
(A) Harris: I, N, J, M, K, O
Limon: N, I, M, J, O, K
(B) Harris: K, N, I, M, J, O
Limon: M, K, O, I, N, J
(C) Harris: I, J, M, O, K, N
Limon: M, I, O, J, N, K
(D) Harris: J, O, I, M, K, N
Limon: O, I, M, J, N, K
(E) Harris: J, K, I, M, N, O
Limon: M, J, K, N, O, I
14. If Harris inspects building K during week 3 and Limon inspects building J
during week 6, which one of the following must be true?
(A) Limon inspects N during week 5.

(B) Limon inspects M during week 1.
(C) Harris inspects J during week 2.
(D) Harris inspects I during week 1.
(E) Harris inspects O during week 6.
15. If Harris inspects building O during week 2, then Limon must evaluate
which one of the following buildings during week 5?
(A) O
(B) K
(C) N
(D) M
(E) I
(A) Harris does not inspect any two government buildings consecutively.
(B) Harris inspects N before inspecting J.
(C) Harris inspects a commercial building during week 2.
(D) Limon inspects a commercial building during week 3.
(E) Limon inspects K during week 6.
17. If Limon inspects M during week 1 and I during week 2, which one of the
(A) Harris does not inspect any two government buildings in a row.
(B) Harris inspects O during week 6.
(C) Harris inspects J during week 5.
(D) N is the first of the commercial buildings to be inspected by Harris.
(E) M is the third of the commercial buildings to be inspected by Harris.
18. Which one of the following is a complete and accurate list of the weeks
during which Harris must inspect a government building?
(A) week 1, week 3, week 5

(B) week 1, week 2, week 3
(C) week 1, week 5
(D) week 1
(E) week 6
(A) Limon inspects K during week 2.

(B) Limon inspects I during week 3.
(C) Limon inspects M during week 5.
(D) Harris inspects O during week 1.
(E) Harris inspects I during week 6.
Questions 20–26
A lumberyard offers exactly 10 types of lumber—both domestic and exotic
varieties of cherry, maple, oak, pine, and walnut. The lumberyard is having a
sale on some of these types of lumber. The following conditions must apply:
Exotic oak is on sale; domestic maple is not.

If both types of oak are on sale, then all walnut is.
If both types of cherry are on sale, then no pine is.
If neither type of cherry is on sale, then domestic oak is.
If either type of pine is on sale, then no walnut is.
20. Which one of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the
types of lumber that are on sale?
(A) exotic maple, exotic oak, domestic pine, exotic pine

(B) exotic cherry, exotic oak, domestic walnut, exotic walnut
(C) exotic maple, domestic oak, exotic oak, domestic walnut
(D) domestic cherry, exotic oak, exotic pine, domestic walnut
(E) domestic cherry, exotic cherry, exotic maple, exotic oak, domestic pine
21. If domestic walnut is not on sale, then which one of the following must be
true?
(A) At least one type of oak is not on sale.

(B) At least one type of cherry is not on sale.
(C) Exotic maple is not on sale.
(D) Domestic pine is not on sale.
(E) Domestic pine is on sale.
22. If both types of cherry are on sale, then which one of the following is the
minimum number of types of domestic lumber that could be included in the
sale?
(A) one
(B) two
(C) three
(D) four
(E) five
(A) Neither type of cherry and neither type of maple is on sale.

(B) Neither type of maple and neither type of pine is on sale.
(C) Neither type of cherry and neither type of pine is on sale.
(D) Neither type of maple and neither type of walnut is on sale.
(E) Neither type of cherry and neither type of walnut is on sale.
24. If neither type of cherry is on sale, then each of the following must be true
EXCEPT:
(A) Exotic pine is not on sale.

(B) Domestic walnut is on sale.
(C) Exotic walnut is on sale.
(D) Domestic pine is not on sale.
(E) Exotic maple is on sale.
25. If domestic walnut is the only type of domestic lumber on sale, then which
one of the following CANNOT be true?
(A) Exotic walnut is not on sale.

(B) Exotic cherry is not on sale.
(C) Exotic pine is not on sale.
(D) Exotic maple is not on sale.
(E) Exotic walnut is on sale.
26. If exactly four of the five types of exotic lumber are the only lumber on sale,
then which one of the following could be true?
(A) Neither type of cherry is on sale.

(B) Neither type of pine and neither type of walnut is on sale.
(C) Exotic cherry is not on sale.
(D) Exotic pine is not on sale.
(E) Exotic maple is not on sale.
STOP
THIS SECTION ONLY. DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER TEST
SECTION.

Section I
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. B
7. A
8. C
9. A
10. B
11. D
12. D
13. C
14. A
15. D
16. E
17. B
18. E
19. D
20. C
21. A
22. D
23. B
24. C
25. C
Section II
1. B
2. E
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. E
8. D
9. D
10. C
11. C
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. A
16. C
17. D
18. E
19. D
20. B
21. E
22. C
23. C
24. A
25. C
Section III
1. E
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. C
6. D
7. E
8. C
9. A
10. C
11. E
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. D
17. D
18. B
19. C
20. B
21. C
22. D
23. E
24. D
25. C
Section IV
1. D
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. D
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. D
11. B
12. C
13. A
14. D
15. C
16. D
17. B
18. D
19. A
20. B
21. A
22. A
23. E
24. E
25. B
26. D
Your Raw Score

It is impossible to say with complete precision what raw score will translate
to what scaled score on future LSATs, but here is a rough estimation.
SECTION I
1. Answer: C
This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you find among the
answers the strongest defense against Lorne’s criticism of Jamey’s argument.
You read through Jamey’s and Lorne’s statements, paying particular
attention to the basis for Lorne’s criticism. In this case, Lorne believes that
the results of the test that bacteria can survive on arsenic is not enough
support to justify further research into life on other planets.
You look through the answers to assess their potential to undermine this
belief.
Answer A actually supports Lorne’s criticism by saying that bacteria survive
better on phosphorus. Answer B brings up the toxicity of carbon while the
bacteria were surviving on arsenic, which might also be seen as support for
Lorne’s position since it gives further evidence that life based on an arsenic
diet is unsustainable. Answer C provides evidence in favor of Jamey’s claim.
It also shows that there is less chance of finding life on phosphorus-rich
planets than on arsenic-rich planets, which implies the denial of Lorne’s
implicit claim, that because of the higher likelihood of finding life on
phosphorus-rich planets we should search there for life. Answer D gives
some additional support to Jamey’s argument that life can survive on arsenic,
but it does not necessarily undermine Lorne’s criticism that life on
phosphorus is more sustainable. Finally, answer E says that they have not
found proof of life on planets rich in arsenic and devoid of phosphorus.
Although this doesn’t mean they do not exist, it does not strengthen Jamey’s
argument against Lorne. Therefore, the correct choice is answer C.
2. Answer: B
This is a Describe question. It asks that you describe Lorne’s approach to
criticizing Jamey’s argument.
You reread Lorne’s argument and see that he brings forth a new fact, that the
bacterium survived longer on phosphorus than on arsenic, which may
undermine Jamey’s conclusion.
The correct answer will describe Lorne’s attempt to undermine Jamey’s
conclusion by bringing up that new fact.
Answer A is fairly accurate. Lorne does agree with Jamey’s facts and says
they do not support the conclusion. This may be your answer, but you should
evaluate the rest of the options to see whether there is a better one. Answer B
says that Jamey presents new facts that undermine her conclusion, which
matches your own evaluation. This is much better than answer A and is very
likely your answer. You should continue to evaluate the rest of the options.
Answer C cannot be correct because Lorne definitely does not support
Jamey’s conclusion. Regarding answer D, Lorne’s facts are not irrelevant
and he attacks Jamey’s conclusion, not her credibility. Answer E says that
Lorne attacks Jamey’s logic, but Lorne’s criticism is centered on the results
of the study. He makes no criticism of Jamey’s logic. Thus, you cannot
choose answer E. Answer B is the correct choice.
3. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. It asks you to identify among the answers the
statement or fact that most undermines the official’s conclusion.
You read the argument with this question in mind, but you are mainly
concerned with the conclusion. The public official concludes that because of
the upward trend in dog bites and the costly nature of the attacks, dog owners
should be held more accountable for their pets’ attacks.
You can configure your own answer and match it against the given options.
In this case, the answer should undermine the conclusion that the dog owners
should be held accountable for the costly attacks by providing alternative
reasons for the costs.
Answer A points out that the high cost of the attacks is the fault of the
hospital. This might very well be your answer, but you should evaluate the
rest of your options. Answer B tries to explain the slow growth in pet
ownership, which is one of the variables that leads to the conclusion, but it
explains rather than contradicts or undermines that variable and thus cannot
be your answer. Answer C says that most dog bites are between the owner
and his or her dog, which does not address the issue of how the alleged
negligence of the owners results in costly dog bites. Answer D goes beyond
the argument at hand and discusses the ramifications of making increased
accountability a reality, but this does not undermine the conclusion that
owners should be held more accountable. It only undermines another
argument about how to make them more accountable. Finally, answer E does
bring some doubt to the statistics used in the argument, but there is still a
possibility that the numbers justify the conclusion. You do not know. In the
end, the best choice is answer A.
4. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. The question asks that you find among the
options the statement that least strengthens the argument. This means that
four out of the five statements will strengthen the argument while one will
actually weaken the argument.
In essence, the argument states that environmental damage will hinder the
In essence, the argument states that environmental damage will hinder the
survival of the cichlid fish population.
You will look for a statement that says this is not true, that in fact the cichlid
fish will survive despite environmental damage to the waters in which they
swim.
Answer A is very promising. It says that the eyes of the cichlids can adapt to
a change in water conditions, which would suggest that the cichlid
population would manage to survive despite the environmental damage
described in the argument. This may be your answer, but you should evaluate
the remaining options to be sure. Answer B gives a fact that further supports
the argument’s notion that the cichlid’s enhanced vision requires clearer
water for the species to survive. Answer C suggests that a particular
population of cichlids may have been adversely affected by its proximity to
an industrial plant, supporting the idea that pollution affects their survival
and supporting the argument. Answer D says cichlids, in order to survive,
have fled to clearer waters, also supporting the argument. Finally, answer E
offers another phenomenon that hindered the cichlid vision and adversely
affected the survival of the cichlid population, again linking the success of
vision to survival and supporting the argument. The correct choice is
answer A.
5. Answer: D
This is a Paradox question. The question asks that you choose the answer
that helps resolve a discrepancy, or in other words, a seeming contradiction
in the statements.
The statements discuss two economic conditions. The first says that coffee
revenues are down and popular coffee houses may have to close. The second
says that more people are visiting coffee houses and the number of
successful coffee houses is higher. The first focuses on coffee and popular
coffee houses, the second on coffee houses in general.
The correct answer will find a way to resolve this difference between these
The correct answer will find a way to resolve this difference between these
groups.
Answer A focuses on coffee houses but does nothing to address the fact that
coffee sales are down; thus, this answer does not resolve the discrepancy.
Answer B may explain the downturn in coffee sales, but it does not address
the growth of coffee houses in the second economic scenario. Answer C
enters into another area altogether, comparing a bakery to coffee houses, and
this is far afield of what you are looking for. Answer D says that the most
popular coffee houses rely on coffee while other coffee houses rely on food
for revenue. This would seem to explain the discrepancy, for if coffee
revenues are down this would only affect those coffee houses that rely on
coffee for most of their revenues, while the other coffee houses might grow
and grow in number because they do not rely on coffee for most of their
revenues. This seems to be your most likely candidate. Finally, answer E
focuses on coffee and its price but not on the growth in coffee houses, so it
cannot be the answer. The correct choice is answer D.
6. Answer: B
This is a Deduction question. This question asks you to derive a conclusion
from the seemingly contradictory statements made by the manager and the
technician.
You analyze their statements and discover that the manager says that the
total number of dropped cell phone calls on the network is down. The
technician says that for the cell towers in operation last year and the year
before the trend is toward a higher number of dropped cell phone calls.
You can assume the answer will have to do with the fact that the manager is
looking at the total number of dropped calls and the technician is looking at a
specific group of cell towers (those that were in operation last year and the
year before).
Answer A discusses a drop in market share for the cell phone service. While
this might be the result of a large drop in cell phone calls, there is no
definitive connection between the two, so this cannot be your selection.
Answer B says that at least one new cell tower was erected in the last two
years. This would mean that there is at least one tower included in the
manager’s statistics that is excluded in the technician’s and may explain why
the manager’s number shows an increase and the technician’s a decrease.
This could very likely be your answer, but you must review the rest of your
options to make sure. Answer C focuses on cell phone calls, but the manager
and technician are discussing the number of dropped cell phone calls. Also,
this answer does not say what kind of change, so it is too inexact to be your
choice. Regarding answer D, a lack of quality improvement would seem to
indicate that the number of dropped calls would remain basically the same,
so it does not reconcile the difference between the manager’s and
technician’s statements regarding an increase or decrease in dropped calls.
Finally, answer E discusses the quality of the calls that are not dropped,
which is another topic altogether. The correct choice is answer B.
7. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. This question asks you to choose the answer that
most undermines the technician’s argument against the manager.
You can reread the technician’s argument and see that there has not been an
increase in efficiency based on dropped cell phone calls for cell towers that
existed last year and the year before. Also, the technician says there is a trend
toward more dropped calls, so the second year’s number must be higher than
the number for the previous year.
The correct answer will probably undermine one aspect of these bases.
Answer A says that the cell towers that existed last year and the year before
experienced an abnormally high number of calls last year. This might explain
why there was a trend toward more dropped calls for those towers and seems
to undermine the technician’s claim that the company has not achieved better
efficiency. This may be your answer, but you must review the remaining
options to be sure. Answer B in essence says the opposite of answer A,
indicating that cell phone usage has not increased, which might be seen as
support for the technician’s argument. Answer C says before last year there
was a downward trend in usage, but it says nothing about what happened last
year. While it implies that the trend might have changed, you cannot be sure
and, thus, you cannot know this answer’s implications for the technician’s
argument. Answer D somewhat undermines the manager’s argument, but it
only addresses the decrease in dropped calls, not the increase, and is not as
strong as answer A. Answer E compares the company’s results with those of
another company, which is irrelevant. You only care about the internal
results at issue with the manager and technician. The correct choice is
answer A.
8. Answer: C
This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you identify why the
argument is questionable.
The professor is arguing that the need for a humanities department should be
questioned because literature and other areas of the humanities cannot be
clearly defined.
The correct answer will most likely point out the unjustified leap the
professor makes from the difficulty of defining literature to questioning the
need for a humanities department.
Considering answer A, you do not know what kind of professor is making
the statements, so you do not know whether he or she has a vested interest in
eliminating a humanities department. Answer B cannot be correct because
the professor does give some support for literature’s lack of definability.
Answer C says that the professor has failed to link the indefinability to the
maintenance of a humanities department, which is exactly what you
formulated as the expected answer. This is most likely your answer, but you
must review the remaining options to see if one of them is better. Answer D
may be true, but this is outside the argument the professor is making and
does not deal with the logic of the statements. Answer E makes an
observation that is not in evidence. The professor does not mention any
sample at all. His statements are entirely general, so this answer is off the
mark. The correct choice is answer C.
9. Answer: A
This is a Parallel question. The question is asking you to find the set of
statements that follow the same pattern of logic as the statements regarding
Southern diet and the rate of strokes in that area.
You read through the statements and follow the logic. The statements in the
answer may not be ordered in the same manner, but the argument will follow
the same logic. Basically, the statements describe a health phenomenon
related to a particular group, connect that phenomenon to another related
phenomenon, and make an extreme recommendation based on that
connection.
The correct answer will describe a phenomenon for a particular group,
connect that phenomenon to another related phenomenon, and make an
extreme recommendation based on that connection.
Answer A describes how people who drink more than two ounces of alcohol
a day tend to suffer more recurring illnesses (first phenomenon), then says
that excessive alcohol consumption increases the chances of developing liver
disease (second phenomenon), and finally recommends that people who want
to avoid liver disease give up drinking alcohol (extreme recommendation).
While the structure is somewhat different, it is essentially the same logic.
This is most likely your answer, but you should evaluate the remaining
options to make sure. Answer B follows an “if … then” pattern, and deals
with only one phenomenon, that antioxidants help prevent cancer. The study
proves this phenomenon, the phenomenon is clarified, and a rather
reasonable recommendation is made. This cannot be your answer. Answer C
is missing a second phenomenon or observation. It simply says that people
who live near powerful electromagnetic fields experience more cancer and
recommends that the government do something about it. Answer D includes
a second phenomenon or observation, but then provides a conclusion that
completely ignores it. Answer E is similar to answer B and follows a typical
“if … then” pattern, and it also deals with only one phenomenon, that
vigorous exercise leads to fewer illnesses after age 50. Thus, the correct
choice is answer A.
10. Answer: B

This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you identify the flaw in Mr.
Thomas’s logic.
You read the argument and see that Mr. Thomas believes that the fact that
Ms. Garcia said that she was giving up her sales responsibilities is in
contradiction to the pattern of visiting customers.
The correct answer will most likely highlight a misunderstanding of Ms.
Garcia’s words versus her perceived actions.
Answer A says that Mr. Thomas failed to consider that the colleague misled
him. This may be true, but you are only concerned with the reasoning Mr.
Thomas uses with the given facts, not whether the foundation of that
reasoning is flawed. Answer B says the flaw is making a conclusion based on
equivocal language. This is very possibly the flaw because just working
harder and visiting customers do not mean that Ms. Garcia is necessarily
continuing her sales responsibilities. Such activities are ambiguous and could
be interpreted in many ways. This may be your answer, but you must review
the remaining options to be sure. Similar to A, answer C may be true, but
again you are concerned only with Mr. Thomas’s logic using the facts he has
and not the origin of them. Answer D also does not discuss the flaw in logic,
but rather says Mr. Thomas failed to make a judgment regarding Ms.
Garcia’s lack of character. Regarding answer E, Mr. Thomas does not really
criticize Ms. Garcia. Instead, he says that either she or the colleague is lying,
leaving open the option that Ms. Garcia is telling the truth. Therefore, the
11. Answer: D

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you qualify Talia and
David’s disagreement with regard to growth.
In this case, David believes the company needs to change in order to return
to earlier levels of growth. Talia believes that the company has reached an
acceptable level considering the age of the company.
The correct answer will qualify the disagreement with regard to current
versus past growth.
Answer A says the disagreement is over whether growth can be changed, but
this cannot be correct. Talia never says that the company cannot change, only
that change is unnecessary. Answer B cannot be correct because both Talia
and David acknowledge that growth has slowed. Answer C adds an
irrelevant element not even mentioned in the discussion. Neither Talia nor
David discusses a difference in perception among managers and employees,
so this answer cannot be correct. Answer D says the disagreement is over
whether growth is currently adequate, and this does seem to accurately
qualify the disagreement because David believes that current growth is
inadequate and the company needs to do something about it. Talia believes
current growth is adequate and that the company should stay the course. This
would seem to be your answer, but you must review the last option to be
sure. Answer E says the disagreement is over whether growth is changing
over time, but both agree that growth has changed from the early days. It is
only the current status of growth that is under discussion. Thus, answer D is
the correct choice.
12. Answer: D

This is a Weaken question. It asks you to find among the answers the one
that most undermines the defense given by the government regulator for new
regulations.
The regulator argues that the new rules are more effective because they have
enabled the discovery of 60 percent more defects in toys than before.
You can formulate your own answer, expecting it to be a statement that
negates that the improved discovery of defects actually benefits children.
Answer A says the defects were found mostly in toys for a particular age
group. This does not discredit the regulator’s argument. It is too narrow in
scope. Answer B may be true but is irrelevant since it discusses another topic
altogether, the effect the regulations might have on profitability. This has
nothing to do with the regulator’s defense, which uses the improvement in
discovery as justification. Answer C also brings up an irrelevant fact, the
difference between domestic-and foreign-made toys. The regulator does not
distinguish between domestic and foreign toys, so this is not pertinent to the
question. Answer D brings up a fact that is very pertinent, for if the number
of incidents of harm done by toys does not go down despite increased
discovery of defects, then the new regulations are still inadequate and the
regulator’s defense is seriously undermined. This is very likely your answer,
but you must review the last option to be sure. Answer E is another statement
that may be true, but the regulator’s defense has nothing to do with
comparing his regulatory system with those of other industrialized nations.
This is an irrelevant fact and you must conclude that the correct choice is
answer D.
13. Answer: C

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you take all the
statements into account and determine which among the answers must also
be true.
You must pay close attention to the logical terms—“vast majority,” “some,”
and “all”—found in the statements.
The correct answer will be based on these qualifications for the particular
groups: low corporate tax rate, high budget deficit, and large entitlement
programs.
Answer A cannot be the correct choice because the last statement says that
all countries with a high budget deficit have large entitlement programs and
the equation works in reverse as well. Answer B tries to draw a conclusion
based on the last two statements, but those statements say that only some of
the countries with a low corporate tax rate have a high budget deficit. The
term some does not necessarily mean a majority. It could mean as few as one
or two countries. Answer C tries also to draw a conclusion from the last two
statements, and it succeeds where answer B failed. You know that all
countries with high budget deficits have large entitlement programs. You
also know that some of the countries that have high budget deficits have a
high corporate tax rate. Therefore, it must be true that some of the countries
with large entitlement programs also have a high corporate tax rate. This is
most likely your answer. You can be sure that Answer D is not true. You
know that all countries with a high budget deficit have large entitlement
programs. The second statement says that some of the countries with a high
budget deficit have a high corporate tax rate. Therefore, it cannot be the case
that all countries with large entitlement programs have a low corporate tax
rate. Finally, answer E may be true, but for the purposes of this exercise it
leaves out an important link between the corporate tax rate and entitlement
programs, that the countries have a high budget deficit. This answer wants to
make a statement regarding all nations that have high and low corporate tax
rates whether they have a high budget deficit or not, and that is not relevant
to your discussion. Therefore, the correct choice is answer C.
14. Answer: A

This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you find among the possible
answers a statement that identifies the failure in the argument. In this case,
the question asks that you finish the sentence with the element that is ignored
by the argument.
by the argument.
The argument makes a judgment that soil erosion will no longer be getting
more serious based on two years of data, during which the amount of soil
lost remained the same.
You expect the correct answer to point out the fact that the data only cover
two years or that the level of erosion, regardless of the growth factor, is still
a threat.
Answer A seems a likely candidate since it says that the effects of soil
erosion are cumulative, meaning that damage done previous to these two
years as well as the loss over the two years has mounted and there needs to
be significant movement in reverse to indicate that the problem is abating.
Answer B may be true but these other problems (insects, climate change) are
not relevant to the reasoning at hand. Regarding answer C, the statements do
take into account the future and explicitly say “if this trend continues”; the
argument does not ignore this possibility. Answer D links erosion to farm
productivity, another factor that is irrelevant to the reasoning in the
statements. The only reasoning you are concerned with is that which leads to
the conclusion that soil erosion will no longer become more serious. The
effects of soil erosion are not at issue. Finally, answer E also adds an
irrelevant factor, geographic location of the erosion, in an attempt to confuse
you. You are concerned with overall erosion only, not how it is distributed
among areas. Therefore, the correct choice is answer A.
15. Answer: D

This is a Strengthen question. The question asks you to selected the axiom
among the options that most justifies Elizabeth’s argument.
Elizabeth believes Larry’s complaint of unfairness is wrong because as long
as each company in Larry’s industry has an equal chance of being audited by
the government, then his company was treated fairly.
the government, then his company was treated fairly.
The correct answer will equate the equal probability of being audited to
fairness.
Answer A says it would be fairer not to enforce the rule at all than enforce it
sometimes. Elizabeth might agree with this principle, but it is not supporting
what she says regarding the fairness with which Larry’s company has been
treated. Answer B discusses the fairness of fines, or punishment, and even
though Larry mentions that his company was fined as a result of the audit,
Elizabeth addresses only the fairness of audits. She makes no statement
regarding the fairness of the fine, so this principle is beyond the scope of
Elizabeth’s argument. Answer C is also about the fairness of fines and for the
same reason as answer B is disqualified. Answer D expresses almost exactly
what you formulated before reviewing the options. It equates equal likeness
of being audited with fairness, regardless of who is eventually fined. This is
very likely your answer, but you must review the last option to make sure.
Answer E discusses the aspects of assessing fines and does not relate to the
nature of auditing. Thus, the best choice is answer D.
16. Answer: E

This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you choose which
among the possible answers supports the argument made by the city official
that Jason would not be able to keep his trailer due to an Abilene city
ordinance denying parking rights for industrial vehicles.
Jason bought his trailer in Abilene, only to be told that he cannot keep it
because trailers and other industrial vehicles cannot be parked within the city
The correct answer will match Jason’s situation with the stipulations of the
city ordinance.
Answer A says that trailers are not classified as residential vehicles, but this
does not mean that they are necessarily classified as industrial vehicles
either, which is the stipulation under the code. Answer B is about whether
car dealers can sell trailers in Abilene, which is obviously true since Jason
bought his trailer in that city. The code stipulates where people can park a
trailer, not where they can sell it. Answer C says that vans and flatbed trucks
are not classified as industrial vehicles, but the argument is concerning
Jason’s trailer, not his van or flatbed truck, so this cannot be the right choice.
Answer D is in essence a restatement of the code as it relates to nonindustrial
vehicles, but Jason’s trailer is considered an industrial vehicle, so this cannot
be what the official’s argument depends on. Finally, answer E says Jason
lives in Abilene. By process of elimination this is your answer, but it also
makes sense. For the official to argue that the code applies to Jason and his
trailer, Jason must live in Abilene. Thus, the correct choice is answer E.
17. Answer: B

This is a Paradox question. It wants you to reconcile the energy expert’s
conclusion with the contradictory evidence the expert presents.
Even though funding for alternative energy technologies has increased
significantly, there has been little impact on the use of these technologies.
Yet the expert concludes that the government should increase funding for
alternative technologies.
The correct answer will give a rationale for why an increase in funding is
justified today in spite of the slow adoption rate of alternative energy.
Answer A discusses the number of professionals involved in developing
alternative energy technologies, but it mentions nothing about the funding,
which is the central focus of the energy expert’s conclusion, so this cannot be
your answer. Answer B, regarding the popularity of the idea that government
should fund the development of alternative energy technologies, doesn’t
explain why an increase in funding is justified today. Answer C suggests
technological change has made it possible for funding to be converted into
success at a better rate. This would be a clear justification for increasing
funding, despite the slow adoption rate. Answer D gives some explanation as
to why the government may have to increase funding, mainly to fund higher
salaries, but it does not reconcile why that increase should happen
considering the meager adoption of practical applications of the new
technologies. Answer E does not reconcile the expert’s conclusion; rather, it
undermines it by saying that the money that has been spent so far has been
wasted. Thus, the correct choice is answer B.
18. Answer: E

This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you identify the axiom
or principle that gives support for the historian’s judgment of the ordinary
people of empire T.
The historian tells of an empire that conquered other nations in the name of
its vision of a more civilized world. In the process, the people of the empire
slaughtered people, and the historian says that because their vision was
unachievable, the people of empire T were murderers.
The correct answer will explain how conquering other nations can be
equated to murder.
Answer A actually contradicts the historian’s statements by saying that
empire T’s actions were warmongering; at the very beginning the historian
argues that the leaders of the empire were not warmongering and were
pursuing a vision of a more civilized world. Regarding answers B and C, the
historian speaks of warmongering as the alternative view to their pursuit of a
civilized world. One does not justify the other or vice versa. Also, the
historian says they are not warmongering and both these principles state that
they are warmongering. Answer D uses a term not even mentioned in the
argument—the historian never discusses inhumanity—and it says empire T
was warmongering, something the historian is actually arguing against.
Finally, answer E is the only answer that actually discusses the historian’s
accusation of murder. It also says that conquest in pursuit of what is later
found to be an unachievable vision is murder, and this supports the
historian’s accusation against the people of empire T perfectly (to a “T”).
19. Answer: D

This is a Describe question. The question asks you to identify the most
accurate description of how the argument proceeds.
The argument states that a phenomenon is expected to occur, namely that
people not employed by the startups will be encouraged by the boom to
spend more money, and then argues that because people’s savings accounts
are not decreasing, in actuality this cannot be the case.
The correct answer will most likely describe the argument as assuming that
because one phenomenon is not occurring (savings not decreasing), the cause
is not occurring (people not spending more).
Answer A cannot be your answer because the argument does not give two
alternative developments. One development, the boom, causes the other, the
spending, but they are not alternatives to each other. Answer B goes off on a
tangent. The argument says nothing about economic self-interest,
misinformation or error, or economic harm. Answer C cannot be correct
because the argument discusses only one consequence of their behavior, a
decrease in savings, not two, and there is no indication that the consequence
is predictable. Answer D is right on the mark. It says that the argument
concludes that the development (increased spending) did not occur because a
supposed consequence (lower savings) did not occur. This would seem to be
your answer, but you should evaluate your last option. Answer E indicates
the evidence of the change is ambiguous; however, the argument clearly
states savings accounts have not decreased, so there is no ambiguity and this
cannot be your answer. The correct choice is answer D.
20. Answer: C

This is an Assumption question. The question asks you to find the
assumption upon which the argument relies.
The argument assumes that increased spending by those not employed by the
new businesses would result in an unusual decrease in their savings.
You review your options with that understanding in mind.
Whether answer A is true or not is irrelevant to the argument since it does
not focus on sales. Rather, it focuses on spending by a certain subgroup of
the population. Answer B actually contradicts the argument by saying that
the people not employed by startups are in fact spending more by borrowing
money from relatives. Answer C states the opposite from answer B, saying
that people not employed by the business startups are not borrowing to make
large purchases, which would support the notion that if they were making
large purchases their savings would decrease. This is very likely your
answer, but you must review the remaining options to be certain. Answer D
also contradicts the argument by merely restating in other words the reason
that people are expected to spend more. The argument says this is not the
case because savings have not decreased. Finally, answer E discusses people
who are employed by startups, but the argument is only concerned with
people not employed by the startups and their spending habits. This cannot
be your answer. The correct choice is answer C.
21. Answer: A

This is an Assumption question. It is asking you to find among the options
the one answer that identifies the assumption that makes the argument work.
The argument says that criminal actions are simply human nature and
concludes that the prison system should be abolished immediately.
concludes that the prison system should be abolished immediately.
Therefore, the assumption is that criminals should not be punished for their
crimes because they are naturally predisposed to commit those crimes.
The correct answer will state that criminals cannot be held accountable for
the crimes they commit.
Answer A fits your requirement perfectly because it states that only human
nature can be held responsible for crime. This may very well be your answer,
but you must review the remainder of the options to be certain. Answer B is
not only inaccurate—there is no ambiguity inherent in the term nature in this
argument—but it also does not address the issue of accountability, and
therefore is not your answer. Answer C seems way off the mark because the
argument is not based on any statistical evidence, and it is not trying to
extract observations of criminals to make a generalization on the entire
population. And again, it does not address the issue of responsibility, so this
cannot be correct. Answer D cannot be the correct choice because the
argument does not distinguish criminals from crimes. It directly links them in
the first sentence. Answer E seems to be discussing another argument
altogether, since the argument you are concerned with does not discuss
socially acceptable or socially unacceptable actions. These are vague terms
when your discussion deals with the more specific actions of crime. Thus,
the correct choice is answer A.
22. Answer: D

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you select from among
the possible answers the one statement that must be true after taking into
account the given statements regarding a country’s natural gas inventory.
The discussion says that the country’s supply is down from the year before
and that the country has not imported or exported natural gas in 10 years.
The correct answer will have to be consistent with a scenario in which what
is used decreases the inventory and what is not used remains in inventory.
is used decreases the inventory and what is not used remains in inventory.
There is no external use or source of inventory.
Answer A is impossible to know because you do not know anything about
the inventory that carried over from 2008. The inventory was higher in 2009,
but the carryover from 2008 could have been very little or none, so it is
possible that consumption was much lower than 2010. There is simply no
way to know for sure. Without the 2008 data or consumption numbers,
answer B is difficult to conclude. You cannot know which year had more
mining. Answer C muddles things by breaking the years into halves, but the
statements only discuss full years and there is nothing in the statements that
enables you to conclude anything with regard to parts of the year. This
cannot be your answer. Answer D says more natural gas was consumed than
mined in 2010. You know that some inventory carried over from 2009, so for
the inventory in 2010 to be lower than that in 2009, the country must have
consumed more natural gas in 2010 than was produced. This must be your
answer. Answer E requires that you know the inventory that carried over
from 2008. Otherwise, you cannot know how consumption in 2010
compared to 2009. The correct choice is answer D.
23. Answer: B

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you assess Jeri’s
interpretation of Richard’s statement.
Jeri says that all prefaces and prologues are meaningless and recommends
that all prefaces and prologues be eliminated from literature. This
recommendation is based on Richard’s assessment that they are extraneous
and serve no purpose.
The correct answer will likely have something do with Jeri’s equating
“extraneous and serve no purpose” with being “meaningless,” since this is
the justification for her recommendation that prefaces and prologues be
eliminated from literature. It will behoove you to pay close attention to the
language of each answer.
Answer A uses the word useful, which is not a term used by either Richard or
Jeri. While “not useful” can be seen as an equivalent of “extraneous and
serve no purpose,” you must be careful not to make such a leap, even if it
seems warranted. Answer B is a viable option because this is how Jeri
perceives Richard’s meaning, but in the positive. Jeri does think that Richard
is saying that only literary tools that serve a purpose (Richard’s exact words)
have meaning, which could be flipped to say all literary tools that serve no
purpose are meaningless. This is most likely your answer, but you must
review the remaining options to make sure there is not a better one. Answer
C is very similar to answer B, but in the interest of choosing the best answer
you might consider answer C a lesser choice. It changes the word meaning to
meaningful, which has a different connotation and it lacks the absolute
meaning that the word only offers in answer B. Answer B is still your best
choice so far. Answer D does not link Jeri’s remarks to Richard’s. It also
uses the word useful, which is not the same terminology as that used by
Richard. Answer E takes the logical leap that Jeri makes in her statement, but
it does not explain her interpretation and how it might lead to the conclusion
to eliminate prefaces and prologues from literature. The correct choice is
answer B.
24. Answer: C

This is a Describe question. The question asks that you qualify what exactly
Lonnie is pointing out in his criticism of Joanie’s statement.
Joanie observes an increase in property losses and fatalities due to natural
disasters and concludes that there has been an increase in natural disasters.
Lonnie agrees about the increased property losses and fatalities but says
there are other reasons for the increase, including increased development and
more “large-scale” disasters, and these other reasons undermine Joanie’s
conclusion.
The correct answer will most likely say that Lonnie agrees with the result but
not necessarily with the underlying causes.
For answers A and B, Lonnie never questions the statistics and actually uses
them in his criticism, so you can eliminate both these options. Answer C is
fairly close to what you want. Lonnie accepts the statistics but states that
they do not represent the underlying causes that lead to her conclusion. This
is most likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options.
Answer D cannot be your choice because Lonnie never questions Joanie’s
qualifications. Lastly, regarding answer E, Lonnie never brings up other
statistics. He accepts the same statistics that Joanie uses, but he interprets
them differently. Thus, the correct choice is answer C.
25. Answer: C

This is a Parallel question. The question asks you to read the argument and
find another argument that uses a similar form of reasoning, questionable
though it may be.
In this case, the argument states that a political leader is considered great
based on past decisions or actions and only on this basis, and that being
considered great now is no basis for predicting future performance by the
leader. In essence, this is saying that an assessment can be made based on
past conditions, but given that assessment you cannot predict whether that
assessment will remain valid in the future.
Scanning through the answers, you notice they all are oriented around the
same subject, ear infections in children. The correct answer will also make a
statement about past or present situations not allowing you to predict the
future of that condition.
Answer A gives you a fact about the unpredictability of the various bacteria
that cause ear infections and says that if the child has an ear infection, it is
impossible to predict how it will progress. This answer switches from the
unpredictability of bacteria to the unpredictability of the infection, but your
sample remains focused on one subject, a leader, so this answer does not
follow the same pattern. Answer B discusses children who do not contract
ear infections, but it never discusses whether their special nature allows you
to predict or not predict whether they will contract one in the future, so this
does not follow the pattern. Answer C essentially argues that children are
only considered to have an ear infection if they show the symptoms, but
having such symptoms does not allow you to predict whether such symptoms
will continue in the future. This would seem to approximate the logic of the
argument and is likely your answer, but you must review the remaining
options to be sure. Answer D starts out well, saying that only with the proper
symptoms can a child be considered to have an ear infection, but then it says
that the child may not have an ear infection because the symptoms are shared
by other diseases. Nothing about predicting future ear infections is
mentioned. Answer E never says that a child has an ear infection. Instead it
speaks generally about the disease itself. Although the last sentence
approximates the conclusion of your statements, this cannot be your answer.

SECTION II
1. Answer: B
This is an Assumption question. It is asking you to identify among the
answers the assumption upon which the argument bases its statement that
“Slim-gurt” already dominates the market.
The argument bases its claim on an opinion poll in which 76 percent of the
respondents consider “Slim-gurt” the dominant yogurt on the market. Then,
you learn that a company that enjoys more than 55 percent of sales in the
marketplace is considered dominant.
The correct answer will justify the leap from the poll to the dominance
qualification in the marketplace.
The argument does not make any claim about future dominance. It is only
concerned about the current situation, so answer A cannot be correct.
Answer B states that what the consumer believes is true is in fact true in the
marketplace. This would justify the argument’s link between the consumer
opinion poll and the conclusion that the company is in fact dominant in the
marketplace. This is most likely your answer, but you should review the
remaining options to make sure. Answer C says that the consumer belief in
dominance is a requirement or precondition for dominance, but there is
nothing in the statements that implies such a causal relationship. Most of the
argument revolves around the current situation, not a causal one. Answer D
focuses on the market research but says nothing about market dominance,
which is the main idea of the argument. Also, nothing in the argument
implies that the company is ignoring the market research. Answer E may be
true, but it is speculative about a future dominance while the argument is
concerned with current dominance. The correct choice is answer B.
2. Answer: E
This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you identify among the
answers the one that is justified by the statements in the argument.
The argument says that there are many schools of thought as to how to
achieve happiness, but most people would not consider someone who
follows every tenet of one of these schools to be happy. This seems to imply
that either happiness is unachievable or that there is some other solution to
achieving happiness.
The correct answer will support the notion that people have their own
definition of happiness that may not be addressed by the schools of thought.
Answer A cannot necessarily be concluded from the argument because the
argument does not say that psychology has failed to accurately describe
happiness. It says only that abiding by every prescription of the theories may
not lead to happiness as people define it. Answer B discusses the difference
in results between following competing theories. Nothing in the argument
suggests that some psychological theories regarding happiness are mutually
exclusive, so this cannot be the correct choice. Regarding answer C, the
argument does not say that happiness as defined by the theories is not
achievable in practice. Rather it says that achieving it might not be perceived
as happiness by most people. Answer D may be true, but the argument is
only concerned with their definition of happiness with regard to those who
abide by psychological theories. Answer E says that most people’s
conception of happiness does not match that defined by psychology and this
is definitely supported by the argument, because in essence it is saying that
most people who look at those who abide by the psychological theories do
not see their definition of happiness. The correct choice is answer E.
3. Answer: D
This is an Assumption question. It asks that you identify an assumption upon
which the Commission bases its argument.
Reading through the League’s and the Commission’s arguments you learn
that the Commission believes that due to conservation efforts, unfettered
logging will have no effect on the country’s wildlife.
The correct answer will support the notion that the nation’s conservation
efforts are adequate or that unfettered logging will not cause harm to those
efforts.
Answer A says that the Aligorian wildlife includes some of the most
threatened species, but this would seem to be the basis of the League’s
argument, not the Commission’s. The Commission’s argument is that its
conservation efforts are adequate regardless of what wildlife lives in the
forest. Answer B also seems to be supporting the League’s argument and not
the Commission’s, since the League is arguing that there should be a
continuance or increase of such regulation, while the Commission is arguing
against further regulation. Answer C says that agricultural nations need not
have logging regulated, but neither the League nor the Commission tells you
that Aligoria is a primarily agricultural nation, so this cannot be the correct
choice. Answer D says that the indigenous species will survive in specially
constructed habitats. The assumption is that such conservation efforts are
adequate to protect the nation’s threatened species. Even though it seems
rather general, this would fit your expectations for a valid assumption upon
which the Commission bases its argument. Though not perfect, it might be
your best option. Answer E is again an assumption supporting the League’s
argument and not the Commission’s, since the Commission believes that
uncontrolled logging will not affect its wildlife. The correct choice is
answer D.
4. Answer: A
This is a Strengthen question. It asks that you identify a principle among the
possible answers that supports the Commission’s position.
Since the Commission believes that the nation’s conservation efforts have
done well enough to allow unfettered logging, you would expect the
principle to justify allowing an unregulated logging industry to thrive.
The correct answer will most likely support the notion that regulations
should be slowed or not instituted at all.
Answer A says that regulations should not be implemented until logging has
actually caused a reduction in population of an endangered species. This is a
fairly supportive statement for the Commission’s argument, since it supports
holding off on any regulations until something bad actually happens. This is
a good contender, but you must review the remainder of the answers to see
whether a better one can replace it. Answer B puts wildlife preservation for
future generations above the current economic needs of the nation, which
does not support the Commission’s argument. Answers C and D are actually
supported by the League’s statement, which argues for more control over
logging and thus against further depletion of natural resources. The League’s
argument also supports the notion that Aligoria must handle its own
environmental problems without regard to other nations’ experiences. Thus,
these answers are unsupportive of the Commission’s argument, which is
what your question is asking for. Finally, answer E is supported by neither
argument since both argue under the assumption that it is Aligoria’s
responsibility to deal with the issue, not an international governing body.
Thus, the correct choice is answer A.
5. Answer: B
This is a Principle question. It is asking that you apply Avi’s reasoning to a
judgment in a different situation.
Goni argues that the tax penalty is not her fault because her advanced age has
resulted in her having poor handwriting, which led to the bookkeeping error.
Avi argues that regardless of such a physical limitation, Goni was aware of
the problem and its effect on her bookkeeping and thus was taking a risk in
the problem and its effect on her bookkeeping and thus was taking a risk in
her job, and thus she can be held responsible for her mistake.
The correct answer will be a situation where a person knowingly takes a
risky action and must be held accountable for the resulting negative effect.
Answer A says that Jack was not responsible for losing his board position.
You know immediately this cannot be right because your answer must hold
the person responsible. Answer B says that Jack was responsible for missing
the recital because he held a meeting that he knew would go on for too long.
Here, a person did something knowing it was risky and he must be held
responsible for the consequences. This would seem to be your answer, but
you must review the remaining options to be sure. Answer C says that Jack is
responsible for something his brother did and had no control over just
because he knew his dog would be scared by that action. This does not
follow your pattern since Jack was not taking the risky action himself.
Answer D says Jack is responsible for offending a friend by telling her
something that he had no idea she would take personally. This does not
follow your pattern because he did not know that his action would result in
such an offense, so he did not willingly take such a risk. Finally, answer E
says that Jack is responsible for something that happened to him because he
did not take recommended precautions. The key with this one is that the
consequence happened to him rather than being something that he in fact
caused. The correct choice is answer B.
6. Answer: D
This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you identify among the
answers the faulty strategy used by the editorial.
The editorial argues that the governor should ignore the statements made by
the chief prosecutor due to the prosecutor’s own criminal conviction in the
past.
The correct answer will most likely focus on the editorial’s strategy of using
the prosecutor’s past behavior to justify its recommendation.
the prosecutor’s past behavior to justify its recommendation.
Answer A cannot be the correct choice because the editorial does not support
the plan recommended by the prosecutor. It actually argues against
implementing the plan. Answer B is out of scope. The editorial speculates as
to the success or failure of the prosecutor’s plan based on the prosecutor’s
character, not a particular aspect of the plan. Answer C is a bit vague, but
while the editorial does presuppose that the prosecutor is untrustworthy, this
is not what the editorial is setting out to prove. The editorial is not really
trying to prove anything. It is merely making a recommendation. Answer D
says the editorial is criticizing the prosecutor rather than addressing the
prosecutor’s plan itself, and this is exactly what the editorial is doing. This is
most likely your answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer
E states that without proof that the prosecutor’s plan has worked before, then
it is destined to fail. Again, the editorial focus is on the character of the
prosecutor, not the viability of the plan. The correct choice is answer D.
7. Answer: E
This is an Assumption question. The question asks you to determine which
answer is an assumption upon which the lawyer’s argument is based.
The lawyer argues that it is always justified to protest a moral injustice and
then argues that it is always justified to protest taxation without
representation. You see quickly that the argument equates taxation without
representation with moral injustice.
The correct answer will most likely state something similar.
Answer A is just a restatement of the last sentence in the argument and is not
really an assumption upon which the argument is based. Answer B speaks of
danger, but the argument says nothing about the danger of protesting. It does
not even imply such danger. Answer C offers a qualification for an injustice
to be considered moral, but the argument assumes the injustice is already
considered moral regardless of whether it is protested or not, so this
qualification does not function in this case. Answer D tries to reverse an “if
… then” statement given by the lawyer. The lawyer says if it is a moral
injustice, then it should be protested. This answer is saying that if an
injustice can be protested, it must be of a moral nature. You cannot reverse
an “if … then” statement and expect it to be true, and the lawyer’s statements
do not support such a reversal. Answer E says that taxation without
representation is a moral injustice. This fits your expected answer and is, in
fact, the correct answer since it connects logically the lawyer’s second
statement concerning injustice and the statement regarding taxation without
representation. The correct choice is answer E.
8. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. It is asking you to find among the possible
answers the one that describes Brandon’s counter to Arisha’s statements.
Arisha argues that the city’s campaign to reduce waste has been successful
based on certain facts and statistics. Brandon argues that the timing and
certain events prove that progress was made despite the city’s campaign.
The correct answer will point out how Brandon uses his facts to call into
question Arisha’s conclusion with regard to the campaign.
Answer A cannot be your choice because Brandon never states that the
campaign was not effective. He only points out that other circumstances may
have been responsible for the positive results, so this cannot be the correct
choice. Also, Brandon never makes any claims that the campaign was
unnecessary, nor does he point out the commonality of recycling, so answer
B cannot be correct either. Answer C says Brandon takes issue with the
length of the campaign, but his argument has more to do with the timing and
circumstances under which it ran than the length of the campaign. Answer D
says Brandon presents facts that weaken the force of Arisha’s evidence, and
this is exactly what Brandon’s argument is doing. This is most likely your
answer, but you must review the last option to be sure you have the right
one. Answer E says that Brandon doubts the city really wants to reduce
waste, but this is clearly not so. He only doubts the facts upon which Arisha
bases her conclusion. Therefore, the correct choice is answer D.
9. Answer: D
This is a Parallel question. The question asks that you find among the
possible answers the one that has reasoning that matches the reasoning in the
argument.
In essence, the argument says that most people who depend on their cell
phone have no landline. In Ronde County, most people depend on their cell
phone. Therefore, in Ronde County most people don’t have a landline. The
logic goes from general to the specific without taking into consideration that
the specific group, in this case Ronde County, might have its own
distinguishing characteristics.
You look at the answers for a similarly flawed logic.
Answer A bases a conclusion about the citizens of Eastland on crime facts
about Eastland. There is no generalization applied to a specific group, so this
does not follow your expected pattern. Answer B is problematic from the
start because its conclusion is regarding one person, not a group. Answer C
has the same problem as answer A; it judges a group based on facts about
that group. There is no generalization being applied to them. Answer D says
that most people who live in retirement communities take part in early
voting, and since most people in Daytown live in retirement communities,
then most of them must take part in early voting. This is exactly the
reasoning used in your argument. A generalization regarding retirement
communities and early voting is applied to the people of Daytown who
mostly live in retirement communities. This is most likely your answer, but
you must review the last option to make sure you have found your correct
answer. Answer E has the same problem as answers A and C in that it judges
a group by facts about that group. No generalization is applied to them. The
correct choice is answer D.
10. Answer: C

This is a Weaken question. The question asks that you identify the one
statement among the answers that fails to support the argument that the new
sales maps will be more useful.
The argument rests on the idea that the maps are based on newer data
sourced from more locations around the country.
STEP 3: Know what you’re looking for
The correct answer will most likely fail to support that expectation or will
simply have nothing to do with it.
Answer A supports the claim because obviously if the data have changed
over the last 10 years, newer data will be more useful. Answer B supports the
claim because it justifies the need for the data in the first place: the data
provide information about the company’s customers. Answer C says retail
centers have been open more than 10 years, but it is unclear how this
supports the claim that the new report will be useful. This seems only to
indicate that the older report excluded these centers for some reason, but you
do not know why. This may be your answer, but you must review the
remaining options to be sure. Answer D supports the claim because it
justifies the inclusion of input from the network of loyal customers. Lastly,
answer E supports the claim because it justifies the use of more data in the
new report. You are left with answer C, which does not seem to support any
particular claim at all. The correct choice is answer C.
11. Answer: C

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you choose from among
the answers the statement that describes what exactly the editorialist and the
producer disagree on.
The editorialist believes that TV dramas contain enough violence to actually
The editorialist believes that TV dramas contain enough violence to actually
increase violence in society. The producer believes TV dramas just reflect
what people want to see and that limiting content would be censorship.
You would expect the correct answer to center on the role TV dramas play in
fostering violence in society.
Answer A is promising because the editorialist does believe dramas
influence people’s conception of the norm while the producer believes
dramas are just answering people’s demand, but it is also true that the
producer does not directly address the influence issue, which makes this
answer somewhat inadequate. You must review the remainder of the answers
to see if this is the best answer. Regarding answer B, the editorialist does not
argue that viewers should not be able to decide what they want to see on TV.
The editorialist only describes the influence of dramas, so this cannot be
your answer. Answer C says they disagree whether TV dramas are causing
violence in society by depicting violent crimes, and this is exactly what they
disagree on. The editorialist surely believes this is true, and the TV drama
producer says in the first statement that such an increase is not because of
TV shows. This is a better answer than A and is probably your best choice.
Answer D would be a good choice if the editorialist actually argued for
censorship, but he or she does not. Only the producer brings up censorship.
Answer E cannot be your choice because the editorialist and the producer
both accept that violence has increased in society. The correct choice is
answer C.
12. Answer: D

This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you identify the
statement among the possible answers that most supports the billboard
company executive’s argument.
You read the executive’s statements and learn that the executive defends an
increase in rates by arguing that there will be no ill consequences as a result,
namely that advertisers will still profit from this form of advertising and they
will still be able to find billboards to rent.
will still be able to find billboards to rent.
You can assume the correct answer will support this logic by giving credence
to the claim that billboard advertising will continue to be successful for
advertisers.
Answer A differentiates billboards leased by service providers from those
rented by product makers. The executive makes no such distinction, so this
cannot be your answer. Also, without knowing the amount of increase and
decrease for these groups, you cannot know whether the net change supports
or weakens the executive’s argument. Answer B discusses the cost of
production or delivery of services, but the executive’s reference to
profitability is intended to refer to the benefit derived from advertising
expenditures, not the traditional accounting profit as this answer suggests.
Answer C says short leases will no longer be available to advertisers, but the
length of the lease is irrelevant to the executive’s argument, since it only
concerns pricing, not length of leases. Answer D suggests that billboards will
enjoy more exposure going forward. This does support the executive’s claim
that despite the price increase, billboards will continue to be a good
investment for advertisers. This could very well be your answer, but you
must review the last option to be sure. Answer E says a measurement factor
will change for billboards, but it does not say what effect that change will
have on the metrics for billboard advertisers. This option is too tangential to
be your answer. The correct choice is answer D.
13. Answer: A

This is a Flaw question. It asks you to identify among the possible answers
the one that describes accurately a flaw in how the program will achieve its
goal.
By reading the description of the program you learn that the moderators will
attempt to find out which politicians are more effective, males or females, by
asking the politicians themselves.
The correct answer will probably point out that the program is going to
foolishly ask politicians to assess their own effectiveness, something even a
nonpolitician would have difficulty doing well.
Answer A says that the target of the politicians’ treatment would be a better
source for evaluation, and this is another way of saying that the politicians
are not the right people to be asking to evaluate their own effectiveness. This
is probably your answer, but you should evaluate the remaining options to
make sure you have selected the right one. Answer B may be true, but it does
not seem to have anything to do with the television show’s topic, which
focuses on the politicians, not advocacy programs that hold them
accountable on this matter. Answer C might be a flaw if the politicians on
the program work together on policy. There is nothing to suggest such a
relationship. They could be politicians in completely different governing
bodies, so this cannot be your answer. Answer D describes a situation
beyond the scope of the show. It does not matter whether or not homeless
and indigent citizens vote. Finally, answer E may be true, but the program is
not focused on how many male or female politicians there are in the country.
Thus, the correct choice is answer A.
14. Answer: B

This is a Conclusion question. The question asks that you identify the
statement that gives the essence of the business consultant’s point.
The consultant is arguing that streamlining for the sake of doing anything to
reduce costs is not worth it if it hurts the quality of service and reduces
customer satisfaction.
The correct answer will simplify that very sentiment that streamlining for
streamlining’s sake is insufficient reason to do it.
Answer A cannot be your answer because the consultant does not express
any preference for a particular solution and actually makes an argument
against streamlining as a means to just reduce costs. Answer B says that the
effectiveness of streamlining at reducing costs is not justification enough to
do it, which is exactly what the consultant is saying and it matches what you
formulated as your expected answer. This is very likely your answer, but you
must review the remaining options. Answer C restates what the consultant is
arguing against, that streamlining to reduce costs is better than not doing it,
so this cannot be your answer. Answer D cannot be correct because the
consultant says only that streamlining may hurt quality of service and reduce
customer satisfaction, and the consultant does not make an evaluation that
streamlining is more or less harmful in this way. Answer E cannot be your
choice either because the consultant does not discuss the possibility that
streamlining might improve these aspects of the business. The consultant
only mentions the risk that the opposite will happen. The correct choice is
answer B.
15. Answer: A

This is a Parallel question. The question asks that you identify which of the
sets of statements relies on the same flawed logic used in the argument.
You read the argument, paying close attention to the logic exhibited. You are
given an expected pattern, then you are given a fact that Valerie knows, and
finally you are given a dubious assumption Valerie makes by fitting her fact
to the expected pattern.
The correct answer will follow a similar pattern even if the statements are
not in the same order.
Answer A is tricky because the statements are reordered, but they follow
your pattern. You get the concluding assumption first, that Jamey knows she
will get a raise. Then you are given the pattern that Jamey will receive a raise
if everyone in her department receives a raise. Finally, you are given the fact
that feeds the assumption, that Jamey knows everyone in her department
received a raise. The order is different, but the pattern is there and this is
most likely your answer. However, you must review the remaining options in
case there is a better one. Answer B is close, but the conclusion is an
expected result in the future, not something that has already happened. Also,
there is no person making the logical assumption. This cannot be your
answer. Answer C is problematic because none of the statements involves
someone making the assumption based on an acknowledged pattern and a
fact known to that person. Answer D gives you Phil’s belief and the
assumption he makes, but there is no pattern upon which that assumption is
based. Answer E does not have a dubious assumption. It is a pattern that
leads to a valid “if … then” statement. If she is an employee, then she will be
allowed to eat in the company break room. Thus, the correct choice is
answer A.
16. Answer: C

This is a Parallel question. The question asks that you find among the
answers the one that uses the same logic as the park ranger’s argument.
You read the ranger’s argument, paying close attention to the ranger’s logic.
The ranger argues that restrictions are to protect less-experienced climbers
and enacting such restrictions would only force them to go to other, more
dangerous parks to climb. The logic is that rules are meant to protect
someone, but if by enacting those rules you are actually causing more harm
to those people, you should not enact those rules.
The correct answer will follow a similar pattern.
Answer A argues that the rule was to protect someone, but now that the
problem is gone, the rule no longer should be enforced. This does not match
your pattern. Answer B argues that a rule is in effect for a good reason, but
priorities have changed, making the rule less important, but in the long run,
problems may arise so the rule should remain in effect. This is obviously not
your pattern either. Answer C says that a rule is used to protect someone but
this rule actually causes harm to that person, and since that harm is greater
than it would be without the rule, that rule should not be in effect. This is
very close to your pattern and is most likely your answer. You must review
the remaining options to be sure. Answer D says a rule will protect people,
but that rule will have an unintended negative consequence to other people
and thus the rule should not be instituted. This is close, but this answer has
the rule having an ill effect on people other than those who must abide by the
rule. In your pattern the ill effect is experienced by those directly affected by
the rule. Answer E says that a program can protect something but that
something is already protected against the danger, so the program should not
be instituted. This is not your pattern because it is saying that no harm will
come to the protected something because it already has enough defenses
against the danger. Thus, the correct choice is answer C.
17. Answer: D

This is a Strengthen question. This question asks you to identify among the
possible answers the axiom that gives support to the ranger’s argument.
You read the ranger’s argument, paying close attention to the justifications
for his argument. The ranger argues that restrictions are to protect less-
experienced climbers and enacting such restrictions would only force them to
go to other, more dangerous parks to climb. The logic is that rules are meant
to protect someone, but if by enacting those rules you are actually causing
more harm to those people, you should not enact those rules.
The correct answer will say that rules should not be put into effect if they
cause more harm than if they were not in effect.
Answer A may or may not support the ranger’s argument depending on the
instructors in the ranger’s area. The ranger does not give you this
information and thus, this cannot be your answer. Answers B and C both are
principles supporting the opposition to the ranger’s argument. They both
support the idea that restrictions should be instituted, either to avoid harm or
for legal reasons, so these cannot be correct. Answer D says the rules should
not be instituted if those rules will cause more harm than the harm they are
supposed to eliminate. This is very much in support of the ranger’s argument
and is likely your answer. Answer E is a principle that supports the ranger’s
opposition, although more weakly than B and C. The correct choice is
answer D.
18. Answer: E

This is a Deduction question. The question asks you to identify the statement
that cannot be true based on the statements in the argument. Four out of the
five options are true.
The argument might seem complicated, but you can simplify it quickly. It
says that for the first eight months, Cenpan increased its output and market
share while the output of the entire industry (including Cenpan) remained
constant. After the regulations, Cenpan’s share decreased but its output
remained the same, while the output of the entire industry (including
Cenpan) remained constant. You can deduce that in the first eight months the
companies other than Cenpan lost market share and decreased output. Also,
you can deduce that after the regulations, because Cenpan’s output did not
change and its market share decreased, the total output of companies other
than Cenpan must have increased. Most likely more companies came into the
market.
You judge the answers based on these deductions. If an answer is possible,
then it cannot be the correct answer.
Answer A is possible. Even though nothing in the argument indicates that
this will definitely happen, there is no reason to say it would not happen.
Answer B is not only possible, it is certain, for if Cenpan gained market
share, then the other companies as a whole must have lost market share.
Answer C is possible. You know nothing about Cenpan’s costs or pricing,
and it is hard to believe that the increased cost of abiding by the new safety
standards did not adversely affect the company’s profit margin.
Nevertheless, there is nothing in the argument to indicate that the company’s
average profit did not improve after the imposition of the new safety
standards. Answer D also is possible because nothing in the argument would
cause us to deny that the company might have been worse off if the safety
standards had not been imposed. Finally, answer E cannot be true, because
you know that after the imposition of the safety standards, Cenpan’s market
share decreased while its output remained the same. For that to happen, the
other companies as a whole must have produced more. Thus, their output
could not have decreased. The correct choice is answer E.
19. Answer: D

This is a Weaken question. The question asks you to identify the one
statement among the possible answers that most challenges the argument.
You read the argument and discover that it claims, put simply, that some
business taxes are acceptable even if burdensome because business is able to
function with other burdens that nobody objects to.
You expect the correct answer to challenge this notion by saying that the
taxes are in fact a worse burden than suggested in the argument and should
be opposed.
Answer A cannot be your choice because it is outside the scope of the
argument. What happens to nonprofits and individual citizens has no bearing
on the argument, which is only concerned with businesses. Also, the
argument says nothing about failures. Answer B might be used to support the
argument, saying that further restrictions would occur if it were not for the
imposition of such taxes. Answer C is a restatement of the argument but
using income taxes instead of the regulatory burdens as the comparison, and
since this supports the argument, this cannot be your choice. Answer D says
that taxes mentioned in the argument are in fact so burdensome that business
activity is almost impossible. This would be a strong challenge to the notion
that such taxes are no more burdensome than regulation and thus tolerable.
This may be your answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer
E offers support to the argument by saying that such taxes are actually
helpful to businesses. The correct choice is answer D.
20. Answer: B

This is a Deduction question. This question asks that you choose a statement
among the possible answers that can be inferred from the argument.
The argument states that some business taxes are acceptable even if
burdensome because business is able to function with other burdens that
nobody objects to.
The correct answer will have something to do with the level of burden that
taxes, regulations, and so on, have on businesses and whether businesses can
viably function under that burden.
Answer A contradicts the argument by saying the taxes are too burdensome,
and thus, this statement cannot be inferred. Answer B says that being
burdensome to business is not reason enough for a prohibition, and this is
exactly what the argument is saying about the business taxes. This statement
can be inferred from the argument and is most likely your choice, but you
must review the remaining options to be sure. Regarding answer C, the
argument says that excessive income taxes are not justified, but it never says
that they should be prohibited. It is conceivable that the person making the
argument might say this, but given the argument you cannot know this.
Answer D says that business failures are a bigger problem than excessive
taxes, but the argument says that business failures are just a symptom of
what is really the more important issue, infrastructure problems. This
inference is mixing up issues to confuse you and cannot be your answer.
Answer E says that the nonexcessive taxes are not burdensome at all, but this
is not what the argument implies. Actually, the argument says that they do
create a burden but a burden no different from that created by regulations
that are considered acceptable. Therefore, the correct choice is answer B.
21. Answer: E

This is a Strengthen question. The question asks that you identify the
statement among the possible answers that helps the argument reach its
conclusion.
After reading the argument you determine that the statement must link sales
training to Fred’s success at winning the sales challenge over Gigi.
The correct answer will link sales training to winning the challenge.
Answer A would be correct if the conclusion involved Gigi, but it doesn’t.
The conclusion is regarding Fred, so this cannot be your answer. Answer B
would be useful if the conclusion was a matter of who had more sales
training than the other, but your conclusion is concerned only with Fred’s
sales training. Answer C restates something already established or implied
by the first statement in the argument. Gigi has obviously been a better
salesperson in the past, but you are only concerned with supporting the
conclusion, which explains why Fred beat Gigi in the challenge in the fourth
quarter, not with what is usual or in the past. Answer D is a viable option for
your choice. It says that if Fred took training, he would win the sales
challenge. You might choose this as your answer if you stopped here, but
you must review the final option. Answer E is your strongest contender. It
says that the only way Fred could win over Gigi is if he took sales training.
The certainty of its term only makes it a much stronger choice. The correct
choice is answer E.
22. Answer: C

This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you identify among the
answers the one statement that must also be true, when taking into
answers the one statement that must also be true, when taking into
consideration the statements in the argument.
The argument describes how people make decisions on major purchases. It
speaks about them in terms of groups, using words like most, some, and
majority. These terms are important to help you identify your answer.
Since the “majority” is the most exact number and the largest, the correct
answer will most likely be about that group.
Answer A may be true but does not necessarily have to be so. Since so few
do research on their own (according to the argument) and rely on other
advice, then it is only slightly less likely that this group is in the minority that
are not happy with their purchases than it is that they are in the majority that
are happy with their purchases. Answer B is trying to trick you: it seems to
be saying exactly what the argument is saying, but it is not. The argument
says that most people make the purchases without doing any research, but
only some of those are relying on advice from friends or a salesperson and
only some make the decision based on emotions. You have no idea what
share each of those groups composes within the larger group, so answer B
may or may not be true and thus cannot be your answer. Answer C is your
best option so far. You know that a majority of buyers are happy with their
purchases, and you know that most buyers make these purchases without
doing any research. Logically, majority and most are interchangeable, and
there must be some overlap of these groups. Therefore, you know that at
least some of the buyers who do not do any research must be happy with
their purchases. This is most likely your answer, but you must review the
remaining options. Answer D is impossible to know. You know only that
some of the people who purchase without research use advice from their
friends or salespeople, and this group could easily be in the minority that is
unhappy with their purchases. Nothing gives you an indication that this
group overlaps with the majority that is happy with their purchases. Answer
E is possible, but there is no way to know. There is no indication as to the
level of overlap with these groups. As indicated with answer C, you know
that at least some of those who buy without research are happy with their
purchases, but any more than that is impossible to know. The correct choice
is answer C.
23. Answer: C

This is a Describe question. The question asks that you identify the reason
that the argument cites the statistics.
The argument discusses a particular view, that smaller class size improves
education. The statistics seem to contradict this notion, or at least they
indicate that class size is an insufficient solution.
The correct answer will most likely describe how the statistics counter the
view that class size is the answer to the problem.
Answer A cannot be the correct choice because it indicates that the statistics
support the idea of smaller class size. Answer B is a bit too extreme. The
argument definitely uses the statistics to create doubt about reduced class
size as a solution, but it does not use the statistics to eliminate it outright.
Answer C is a viable option. The argument does indeed use the statistics
toward establishing that the size of classes is not the only influence. For now,
this is your best choice, but you need to review the remaining options in case
there is a better one. Answer D, like answer B, is too extreme. The argument
does not seek to completely eliminate the idea of reducing class size,
especially since the statistical sample is described as a mix of class sizes. If
the argument wanted to eliminate the notion, it would compare small classes
with large classes. This cannot be your answer. And the viability of
standardized testing as a measurement of an effective school system is
outside of the scope of the argument, so answer E is incorrect. The correct
choice is answer C.
24. Answer: A

This is a Parallel question. It asks that you identify the argument among the
possible answers that uses the same reasoning as in the main argument.
possible answers that uses the same reasoning as in the main argument.
You read the main argument paying close attention to how the logic
functions. In essence, it tells you that an activity (industrial activity) has a
positive effect (haze for plants) and that such activity is beneficial to
everyone involved without reservation.
The correct answer will describe an activity that has a positive effect, and it
will say that everyone who engages in that activity derives such benefit
without reservation.
Answer A says that vigorous exercise is good for people and that no harm
can come from it. While this does not follow the same pattern as your
argument, it is very similar. It says that an activity (vigorous exercise) has a
positive effect (prevents ailments) and that activity is beneficial to everyone
involved without reservation. This would seem to be your answer, but you
have to review the remaining options to be sure. Answer B is easy to
eliminate right off because it describes an action’s negative effect and simply
makes a judgment that the effect justifies avoiding that action. This is not
your pattern at all. Answer C is close to using the same reasoning, but it
makes an extreme recommendation, beyond that suggested by the possible
benefit, and the argument does not make a recommendation that people
increase or transform all activity to industrial activity. Answer D does the
same as answer C; it makes a drastic recommendation based on an observed
benefit. The argument does not recommend that people increase their
industrial activities based on the observed benefit. Answer E gives a negative
effect and then recommends against the causal behavior. This is not your
pattern. Also, the answer gets a bit too specific with its recommendation
(take a day off). Your argument remains very general with its statements.
25. Answer: C

This is an Assumption question. The question asks that you identify among
the possible answers the assumption upon which the columnist’s argument is
based.
based.
You read the argument seeking the basis for the columnist’s conclusion. The
columnist argues that the reliance on e-mail and Internet social networking
threatens the strong bonds of mutual trust necessary for a democratic society.
The correct answer will link e-mail and Internet social networking to this
negative effect.
Answer A cannot be your choice because the argument makes no claim with
regard to effectiveness of social networking as a tool for civic organizations.
This may be an implication of the argument but not an assumption upon
which it depends. Regarding answer B, the argument may suggest that these
people are not forming the necessary strong bonds, but it is not saying that
they are incapable of it, so this cannot be the correct choice. Answer C is
very promising. The argument that e-mail and social networking are
corroding democracy is based on the judgment that these activities keep
people from forming strong social bonds outside their families. This would
seem to be your answer, but you should review the remaining options to be
sure. Also, while the argument mentions family, it makes no judgment
regarding the closeness of citizens to their families. It only judges their
ability to form bonds outside the family. Thus, answer D cannot be correct.
Finally, answer E is an implication or restatement of the second statement
and is certainly a partial basis for the argument, but it is not comprehensive
enough to consider as an assumption upon which the argument depends. The

SECTION III
Passage 1
1. Answer: E

This is a Main Idea question. The question asks you to identify among the
possible answers the one statement that represents the main idea of the
passage.
Answer A expresses the opposite of what is discussed in the passage, saying
that justices are striving to ignore precedents set by foreign courts, but the
passage discusses how more and more justices are paying close attention to
precedents set by foreign courts. Answer B makes too pointed a statement
against the critics of comparativism. The passage actually acknowledges the
validity of these critics’ concerns. Answer C could be a statement made by
the critics of comparativism, but it does not encompass the full scope of the
passage. Answer D cannot be your choice because the passage says that
comparativism has been around since the nineteenth century, so it is not
relatively new and cannot be considered a passing fad. Finally, answer E
seems on the mark. It correctly articulates the author’s point of view, who
suggests in the second paragraph of passage B that some of the arguments
made by the opponents of comparativism are legitimate. The correct choice
is answer E.
2. Answer: C

This is an Inference question. It asks that you find among the possible
answers the one that expresses the author of passage A’s attitude toward the
opposition to comparativism.
opposition to comparativism.
Scan for key words in the second paragraph that clue you into the author’s
perspective. The author states that comparativism’s supporters “rightly”
contend that the United States is taking on an increased role in world events.
Answer A is too one-sided and we can quickly eliminate it as an option.
Answer B has the basic disagreement between the two authors correct, but
there is no evidence to support either the “appreciative” or “wrongheaded”
claim. Answer C is most likely your answer. Since the author of passage A
suggests that the increasingly role of the United States in world affairs is
inevitable and that it is right to be involved in that legal framework, then the
author must also believe that those who ignore this inevitability must be
wrong and are ignoring the reality of the global legal and political situation.
You must review the remaining options to see whether any one of them is
better. Answer D is too strong a condemnation of the opponents to
comparativism. The author is certainly not that antagonistic to their
opposition. While the author of A is not “scornful,” neither is that author
“dismissive” of the claims made by the opponents of comparativism, making
answer E unlikely. Therefore, the correct choice is answer C.
3. Answer: B

This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify among the
possible answers a statement about the opposition to comparativism that can
be inferred from the passage.
Look for the correct answer in paragraph four, which is where the author
explores opponents’ views.
Answer A is too extreme. The anti-comparativists did not object to the
Supreme Court decisions regarding executions, anti-sodomy laws, and
affirmative actions. Rather, they objected to the court using comparativism to
make those decisions. Answer B might very well be inferred from the
passage. The opponents definitely believe that the United States should
develop its own unique legal precedents based on its own legal system as set
forward by the nation’s forefathers. This is one of the bases for opposing
comparativism. This is most likely our answer but we must review the
remaining options. Answer C cannot be inferred from the passage because
the author never discuses the qualifications of those involved in the public
discourse. As far as we know it is possible the opposition is more versed in
foreign court systems. Regarding answer D, nothing in the passage indicates
one way or the other the opposition’s views on globalization. Also, none of
their objections are based on globalization. Finally, while the opposition took
measures to restrain comparitivism in the courts they never suggested that
the structure of the justice system be changed. The correct choice is answer
B.
4. Answer: B

This is a Line ID question. Go back to the statements concerning Kennedy
and Breyer made in passages A and B and find the point of overlap.
Passages A and B only mention that both Kennedy and Breyer have used
comparativism in making judicial decisions. Look for any answer that
suggests this commonality in the use and acceptance of foreign law.
Answer choice A discusses a point of view held by the opponents of
comparativism, not Kennedy and Breyer. Answer choice B, however, tells
you that foreign law can be used in foreign courts, something you know that
the two justices believe. This must be your correct answer. Answer choice C
is too extreme. While you know that Kennedy and Breyer have used foreign
law in making their decisions, there is nothing to suggest that this is the
central concern. Answer choice D compares the use of comparativism in the
United States to other nations, something that is never discussed. And
answer choice E is too extreme. While Breyer and Kennedy are both
identified as Supreme Court justices, you don’t know that they believe
comparative law to be only applicable in the Supreme Court. The correct
choice is answer B.
5. Answer: C
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks that you find an
analogy that the opponents of comparativism might use for those who use
comparativism in domestic cases.
You refer to passage B and look for comparisons.
Answer A says doctors will consult other doctors, but the opposition would
support judges consulting other judges to make a decision, so this does not
fit. Answer B says teachers use guides, some of which are for teaching
foreign students, but the opposition would not oppose judges referring to law
books or even law books used by foreign judges to understand American
law, so this analogy does not work. Answer C says a board member uses the
policies of another, very different organization to write its own policies. The
opposition would very well oppose judges using the law of another nation to
write law in the United States. This analogy seems close enough to be your
answer, but you should review the remaining options. Answer D says the
candidate argues that a rule is bad because other countries do not have that
same rule. The opposition would not object to a judge voicing his or her
opinion regarding US law versus foreign law. This might lead to politicians
changing the law, so this analogy is not right. Answer E is a company
applying the rules in a stricter nation universally to its product. This analogy
does not fit because the judge is not judging a law solely on the standards of
a foreign country and then discarding it altogether. Therefore, the correct
choice is answer C.
6. Answer: D

This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify an
inference that can be derived from the passage’s discussion of Justice
Kennedy’s use of comparativism.
You refer to the passage and see that opposition members suggested
impeaching Kennedy, which is a harsh reaction. The correct answer will
reflect this.
Answer A says that the opposition supported the decision but not Kennedy’s
use of comparativism. Again, the vehemence of their reaction to his decision
does not support this as a possible correct answer. Answer B also suggests
that the opposition supported the decision and does not seem to be implied
by the passage. Answer C says the opposition was of two minds with regard
to comparativism, but the passage does not indicate any such doubt. The
passage implies the opposite, that opponents were fairly strict in wanting no
foreign involvement at all in determining law in the United States. Answer
D, that the opposition perhaps utilized the comparativism argument as a
cover, could very well be inferred from the passage and is exactly what you
expected to see as your correct answer. Answer E is too extreme. While
opposition members wanted to impeach Kennedy, they did not suggest that
he had committed treason, nor did they demand a trial to determine if he had
done so. The correct choice is answer D.
7. Answer: E

This is a variation of a Main Idea question—a Primary Purpose question.
The question asks you to identify among the answers the one that expresses
the primary purpose of the passage.
Answer A cannot be the correct choice because the passage is not justifying
comparativism. Answer B attributes too strong a position to the author. The
author is not so biased as to be considered a critic of either side of the
comparativism argument. Regarding answer C, the author cannot be
considered to be proposing the use of comparativism. It is already in use and
the author does not seem to be promoting it. In fact, at the end of the passage
the author indicates that adopting it is more a matter of giving in to certain
globalization pressures than anything the author has to say about the practice.
Answer D cannot be correct because it ignores the fact that the author uses
much of the passage to discuss the opposition to comparativism. Finally,
answer E must be your answer. The passage is intended to discuss the nature
of a legal controversy, in this case comparativism, and it does describe the
opposing sides of the issue. The correct choice is answer E.
Passage 2
8. Answer: C

This is a Main Idea question. The question asks that you identify the main
idea of the passage from among the possible answers.
Answer A takes the last paragraph and exaggerates the importance of its
observation that biophysical economics is subject to the same flaws as other
schools of economics. This answer also goes further than the passage in
saying that biophysical economics should be discarded because of those
flaws, a recommendation that the passage definitely does not make. For
answer B, the passage does say that there is some difficulty applying the
EROI to certain aspects of the economy, but it does not make such a harsh
assessment of the energy focus, nor does the passage say that its influence on
predictive models is dubious since the passage also discusses some
predictive models based on the EROI. Answer C seems to fit the passage
perfectly. The passage indicates that the failure of predictive models based
on classical economics has opened the way for new economic schools of
thought and that economists along with noneconomists have formulated
biophysical economics. This would seem to be your answer, but you should
review the remaining options. Answer D is wrong in many ways. First, the
passage makes no claim that biophysical economics has replaced
neoclassical economics, only that it has come about because of certain
failures by the older school of thought. Second, the passage makes clear that
biophysical economics does not use the same concepts as traditional
economics and in fact has developed its own concepts based on energy.
Lastly, answer E cannot be your answer because the passage states that
biophysical economics is a break from even environmental economics, so
even though it is somewhat related by its concern for natural resources, it is
not a subset of environmental economics. Thus, the correct choice is
answer C.
9. Answer: A

This is an Inference question. The question asks that you determine which of
the possible answers can be inferred from the theories put forward by
biophysical economists.
You refer to the passage.
Answer A says that an economy can survive as long as it has a stable or
increasing EROI. This is exactly how the passage describes the function of
the EROI. It says that an economic system requires a positive EROI in order
to survive. This is probably your answer, but you must review the remaining
options to be certain. Answer B tries to trick you by linking natural resources
to energy, but the focus of this statement is still natural resources, which is
the central focus of ecological economics, not biophysical economics.
Answer C is an argument that would be made by neoclassical economics,
which believes that market forces can solve most major economic problems.
Answer D seems viable as a choice, but the passage really does not indicate
what solutions these two groups offer for solving the world’s economic
problems, so you do not know whether they agree or not about solutions.
You know only that these two groups have different ways of approaching
and defining the problems. Answer E cannot be concluded from the
information you have. You know only that the ecologists tend to focus less
on energy than other proponents of biophysical economics. Thus, the
correct choice is answer A.
10. Answer: C
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks that you choose
which event among the possible answers would most directly affect a
biophysical economic analysis.
Since their approach is based on the EROI, you are looking for an event that
directly affects the energy delivered by a process or used in that process.
Answer A seems like a good potential answer. A consumer switch from
gasoline-powered to electric-powered automobiles may indirectly affect
energy consumption, but this is still a consumer preference and a market-
based influence and it could be masking an underlying process that is using
more energy (like the production of electric cars). Answer B involves
government intervention in the economy, and taxes will only affect
consumer behavior and not the underlying energy delivery or consumption.
Answer C definitely affects the EROI economic model. If the cost to
maintain current energy supply levels goes up significantly, it could affect
the long-term viability of that energy source and thus the survival of the
economic system. This is most likely your answer, but you must review the
remaining options. Answer D involves debt in the equation and debt may or
may not be related to increased costs. It could also be due to poor
management. Because you do not know the reason for taking on more debt,
you cannot know whether or not this affects the biophysical economic
model. Answer E says the new technology helps the company avoid an
increase, which means the cost remains the same and thus has no impact on
the economic model at all. The correct choice is answer C.
11. Answer: E
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks you to identify
among the possible answers the view that the biophysical economist has of
oil supplies for energy.
Look back at paragraph three and read the last sentence, which states that
biophysical economists believe the EROI for oil has already begun its
descent, which means that the cost of producing oil is becoming increasingly
expensive while supplies have not risen equally.
Answer A says oil is scarce and expensive, but the passage implies that oil
has not reached its peak in supply, so the first part is wrong even if the
second part is right. Answer B says oil is stable or slightly decreasing and
cheaper to source. The first part might be right, but the second part is
incorrect: the passage makes it clear that oil is becoming more expensive to
source. Answer C says the supply is unknown and it is cheaper to source.
Again, the second part cannot be right according to the passage. Answer D is
completely wrong. Oil is not decreasing in supply and it is not inexpensive to
source, according to the passage. Answer E is your last available option, and
it is right on target. The economists view oil as abundant or stable in supply
and it is increasingly expensive to source, which is why the EROI has
already begun its descent. The correct choice is answer E.
12. Answer: D
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks that you identify the answer
that best describes the function of the final paragraph within the passage.
The final paragraph is essentially saying that biophysical economics is not
immune to the problems that other economic schools experience, so the
paragraph is attempting to equalize things a bit between the new type of
economics and the old.
Answer A is in many ways the antithesis of what the final paragraph is
saying, establishing the superiority of biophysical economics over
neoclassical. This does not match what you know and cannot be your
answer. Answer B says that certain practicalities will hinder the ability of
biophysical economics to surpass classical economics, but the last paragraph
says only that biophysical economics experiences the same problems as
classical economics, not that it will not overcome those problems and even
surpass the other schools of thought. Answer C feeds off the second
sentence, which indicates a small dissonance between the ecologists and the
rest of biophysical economics supporters, but to say that the entire paragraph
functions to show the “conflict” between them is extreme and inaccurate.
Answer D matches your understanding of how the last paragraph functions.
The last paragraph does indeed explain that the new economics is not
immune to the problems that have plagued classical economics and made it
problematic for noneconomists. This is probably your answer, but you must
review your last option. Answer E says the last paragraph makes the
disagreement within the biophysical economics community into an
advantage over classical economics, but you know that the paragraph implies
that the flaw makes the new economics more similar to classical economics,
at least as an economic discipline if not in substance. Thus, the correct
choice is answer D.
13. Answer: A
This is a variation of a Main Idea question—the Primary Purpose question.
Answer A is pretty much on target. The passage does explore the substance
and the problems surrounding a new economic theory that is supposed to
supplant an earlier, more dominant economic theory. This option may very
well be your answer, but you must explore the remaining options as well.
Answer B cannot be correct because the passage does not favor the
neoclassical economic model over the biophysical economic model. If
anything, the passage gives the new model equal standing to the classical
model. Answer C makes the economic crisis responsible for the development
of the biophysical economic theories, but the passage says the crisis resulted
in disenchantment with the old model. It does not make a causal connection
between the crisis and the development of new models. Actually, the passage
seems to make more of a connection between environmental concerns and
the new models. This answer also seems too limited to the first paragraph,
while the remaining sections of the passage do much more than what is
described in answer C. Answer D focuses on the last paragraph and ignores
all that came before. This is too limited a statement to be your primary
purpose. Answer E cannot be your answer because the passage does not
really give the theories of biophysical economics or neoclassical economics
regarding the economic crisis. Therefore, the correct choice is answer A.
Passage 3
14. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question.
Answer A says that the passage puts doubt on Galileo’s work, but you know
from the passage that the doubt is not with his work but with the story behind
the church’s persecution of Galileo, so this answer cannot be correct. Answer
B encapsulates the idea of the passage perfectly. The passage does in fact
purport that there are new theories as to why Galileo was targeted by the
church and it does say that his trial and house arrest are fact. This may be
your answer, but you must review the remaining options. Answer C focuses
on a part of the passage that mentions that Santillana was influenced by the
political environment in the United States, but while this observation may
show the author’s own doubts regarding his theories, the author does not
suggest that Santillana’s theories be discounted on the basis of the factual
elements in the case. Answer D is a promising candidate, but it falls just
short of answer B by not mentioning the last paragraph and its factual claims.
Also, it says that scholars are “currently pursuing explanations,” but the
passage indicates that much of the pursuit has already occurred. Either way,
answer B is still a better option. Answer E makes the error of saying that the
existence of a trial is in question, when this is one of the elements that is
considered fact by the passage. The correct choice is answer B.
15. Answer: C
This is an Inference question. The question asks you which historical
political event influenced Santillana while writing his book.
Reread the section about his book, The Crime of Galileo. Santillana wrote
about how Galileo’s contemporaries turned on him and denounced him to the
church to protect their own way of life. You look through the events and
assess their similarity to Santillana’s description of Galileo’s situation.
Answer A cannot be correct because Galileo’s contemporaries obviously did
not bomb Galileo’s home. Answer B cannot be right because the fall of
Galileo was not the fall of a homicidal dictator, nor was it the rise of a new
type of government. Answer C is promising. The House Un-American
Activities Committee demanded that people suspected of being un-American
come before the committee and name their associates who were Communists
or consorting with Communists. Scientists and artists denounced their friends
in order to save their own careers. This is probably your answer due to its
striking similarity to Galileo’s situation, but you should review the remaining
options. Answer D cannot be correct because Galileo and his peers were not
in a standoff that resulted in two sides building up armaments, which led to
an indirect conflict. Answer E cannot be your choice because Galileo’s peers
were not supporting an industry that would supplant Galileo’s outdated form
of industry. Note: If you were unfamiliar with the House Un-American
Committee hearings you could easily eliminate the incorrect answers, which
would leave answer C as your only option. The correct choice is answer C.
16. Answer: D
the statement that Pietro Redondi would agree with regarding Galileo
Galilei.
Refer to the part of the passage that explains Redondi’s views. Redondi
believed that Galileo’s persecution by the church had nothing to do with his
theory that the earth revolved around the sun (i.e., Copernicanism) and not
the other way around. Redondi believed it had more to do with Galileo’s
belief in atomism, which contradicted the church’s belief in
transubstantiation.
Answer A focuses on the forged injunction, but Redondi regards the
Copernicanism argument irrelevant to his theory, and there is no evidence in
the passage for his views on the injunction. Answer B says that Galileo’s
contemporaries betrayed him out of jealousy, but the passage says that they
did so to protect themselves. Also, Redondi believes the church invented the
Copernicanism justification not to protect Galileo’s contemporaries but to
abide by the wishes of wealthy benefactors who liked Galileo. Answer C
cannot be your choice because nothing in the passage indicates that Galileo’s
face-off with the church was at the urging of the Medici family. Also, the
passage says Redondi believed his house arrest rather than the death penalty
was probably the result of the intervention of the Medici family, not the
result of their inaction. Answer D would probably be supported by Redondi.
He believed that Galileo’s real crime of believing in atomism was covered up
with the Copernicanism justification to gratify the Medici family. That
indicates Copernicanism was less offensive than atomism, and this is
probably your answer, but you have one last option. Answer E puts Orazio
Grassi, S.J., at the center of the entire story, and while Redondi might
entertain such a notion, it is doubtful he would agree with this since Pope
Urban VIII must have been involved as the leader of the church. Therefore,
the correct choice is answer D.
17. Answer: D
This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify a
relationship between Bruno and Galileo that can be inferred from the
passage.
Your only connection between the two in the passage is that one was
executed (Bruno) while the other (Galileo) was spared. The passage suggests
that Galileo was spared because he had the favor of the Medici family while
Bruno did not have such a supporter. You can expect the answer will revolve
around these connections in some way.
Answer A says that Bruno and Galileo agreed on Copernicanism but differed
on atomism, but the passage suggests no such thing. Actually, the passage
gives no insight as to whether they agreed or disagreed on Copernicanism,
and there is a slight suggestion that they agreed on atomism since the author
uses their punishment differences as part of his argument. Answer B has the
same problem as answer A. Answer C makes an unwarranted leap by linking
them both to Orazio Grassi, who in the passage is linked only to the Galileo
story. Also, there is no indication in the passage that Bruno committed a
worse crime than Galileo. On the contrary, the passage suggests that they
were equally guilty but received very different punishments. Answer D says
that both scientists offended the church by teaching their beliefs, and one
fared better due to the protection of a wealthy benefactor. This is exactly
what you expected the answer to look like. The passage does imply that both
offended the church by insisting on teaching their beliefs, but Galileo was
saved from execution by his relationship with the Medici family. This is very
likely your answer, but you should review your last option to be certain.
Answer E mentions that they differed on God’s relationship to the order of
the universe. This topic is not even discussed in the passage, and their
agreement or disagreement on the matter cannot be ascertained. The correct
choice is answer D.
18. Answer: B
This is an Inference question. The question asks that you choose a statement
from among the possible answers that describes the relationship between the
church and publications during the time of Galileo.
This question deals with the last part of paragraph three, which discusses
how the church’s list of proscribed publications figured into Redondi’s
analysis.
Answer A cannot be your choice because the passage questions why The
Assayer was not added to the proscribed list if the ideas in it were offensive
to the church, suggesting that offensive books were denied registration with
the church. Answer B says that an author probably would not have been put
on trial for a book that had not been proscribed, and this is exactly the
question posed by the passage. The author questions why The Assayer was
not on the proscribed list if, according to Redondi, Galileo was really
persecuted for the ideas put forward in this book. This answer is very much
implied by this section of the passage and is probably your answer, but you
must review the remaining options. Answer C is a bit extreme. Nothing in
the passage indicates that every author of a book that was proscribed was put
on trial and (except for Galileo) burned at the stake. Answer D may be an
answer to the question posed by the author of the passage, but it is not the
implication of the question. Answer E is an interesting theory and might
connect the dots for the author of the passage, much like answer D, but it is a
bit too far a reach for an answer to this question. The correct choice is
answer B.
19. Answer: C
This is a variation of a Main Idea question—the Primary Purpose question.
Answer A is a viable option. The passage does discuss recent discoveries and
give insight into the Galileo story, but the answer is a bit too general and
words like summarize and discoveries seem rather inexact when applied to
what is presented in the passage. The author is doing more than
summarizing, and the passage presents scholarly theories in addition to
discoveries. Therefore, this answer is somewhat unsatisfactory. Still, you
should keep it in mind as you review the remaining options. Answer B
cannot be the correct choice because the passage does not mention a conflict
between two scholars. For all you know, Santillana and Redondi agree
completely on each other’s theories. Answer C is a more specific and more
accurate description of the passage’s purpose. The passage does present and
assess Santillana’s and Redondi’s theories that call into question aspects of
the Galileo story, so this is probably your answer, but you should review the
remaining options to be certain. Answer D focuses on the church’s
considerations when putting Galileo on trial, and this is certainly not the
primary purpose of the passage since it ignores Santillana’s and Redondi’s
theories altogether. Finally, answer E uses the word criticize to characterize
the author’s purpose, and the passage does not exactly criticize Santillana’s
and Redondi’s theories; rather, the author poses some questions that might
cast some doubt on them. Still, the author seems to acknowledge that they do
have some valid ideas. Therefore, the correct choice is answer C.
Passage 4
20. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question.
If needed, you can review the first sentence of each paragraph to remind
If needed, you can review the first sentence of each paragraph to remind
yourself of the progression of thought through the passage.
Answer A would be more likely a study performed by the psychologist
Leonard Sax, but it does not encompass the full scope of the passage and
cannot be the answer. Answer B seems like a good description of the
passage. The passage does put forward two theories, both of which have
questionable evidence to support them and have drawn criticism. This might
be your answer, but you should review the remaining options to be certain.
With answer C, language is important. The passage is not discussing two
studies. Rather, it is discussing two approaches to single-sex education, each
of which is under study. The difference is subtle but important and
disqualifies this option. Answer D makes the mistake of saying that the
practice is just beginning to be incorporated into public schools. The passage
makes it clear that this is not a new practice. Finally, answer E is tempting
because the passage does discuss single-sex education generally in this
manner, but this answer ignores the two schools of thought with regard to
single-sex education and thus cannot be your answer. The correct choice is
answer B.
21. Answer: C
This is a Line ID question. The question asks you to find the answer that best
describes the purpose of the specified lines.
The lines in question discuss how the studies that have been done are not
reliable as evidence to support single-sex education and that in some cases
they actually undermine such support. The correct answer will be some
variation on this summary.
Answer A says the opposite of what the lines say. The content of the lines
definitely does not favor single-sex education. Answer B is too innocuous.
The lines do not simply exhibit or discuss the research. There is an obvious
point being made by the lines discussing such uncertain studies. Answer C is
an accurate description of the lines. The discussion of the questionable
studies offers a caveat to any support offered by Sax or other supporters of
single-sex education. This is probably your answer, but you must review the
remaining options to be certain. Answer D says the lines give favor to Dr.
Sax’s approach to single-sex education, but the lines speak of studies on
single-sex education in general. They do not specify whether the studies
diminish one approach in relation to another. Answer E cannot be your
answer because these particular lines give no historical perspective. In fact,
the lines that come before these are intended for that purpose. The correct
choice is answer C.
22. Answer: D
This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify the
statement among the possible answers with which Dr. Sax would agree.
You know from the passage that Dr. Sax believes that using genetic
differences is how single-sex education should be formulated. So the answer
will most likely be consistent with that perspective.
Answer A says that social pressures should be involved in determining
single-sex education, and this is consistent with the other school of thought,
not Sax’s, so this cannot be your answer. Answer B says boys fear looking
smart in front of girls, but this is not a genetic factor. Rather, it seems to be a
social factor, something the opposing school of thought would use to justify
single-sex education. Answer C says that because boys and girls test
differently, they should be given different tests based on learning differences.
This cannot be the correct choice because it is basing its conclusion on
performance on academic tests rather than on genetic factors. Answer D says
that because of an inherent difference between boys and girls, they should be
separated into different environments that take this difference into account.
This is much stronger than answer C, because the term inherent suggests that
the difference is genetically determined, and using such a determinant in
single-sex education is right in line with Sax’s views. This is most likely
your answer, but you have one last option to review. Answer E argues for
coed education based on testing, and Sax does not support coed education, so
this cannot be your answer. The correct choice is answer D.
23. Answer: E
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks you to identify a
statement that is consistent with the ACLU’s concerns discussed in the
specified lines.
The lines discuss the point that the ACLU is concerned that Sax’s approach
will encourage dangerous stereotypes and ruin any gender progress that has
been made in education. The correct answer will be consistent with this fear
of stereotypes.
Answer A is Sax’s approach in action, and while an imbalance is described,
there is no indication that a dangerous stereotype is being encouraged.
Answer B may be the negative effect of Sax’s theory in practice, but this is a
result, not a stereotype being propagated. Answer C may be an effect of
Sax’s approach, but this could be a positive result and the ACLU is not
concerned that students might find jobs more appropriate to their genetic
disposition. Answer D is another possible negative effect of Sax’s theory in
practice, but this is not a stereotype being fostered. Finally, answer E says
the perception that boys are better than girls for jobs with chaotic
environments is a stereotype created or fostered by Sax’s ideas, and this is
exactly what the ACLU is concerned about. The correct choice is answer
E.
24. Answer: D
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks you to
determine which of the statements is consistent with the views of single-sex
education critics.
Review the final paragraph, which deals mainly with the critics.
Answer A says single-sex education is OK as long as the fundamentals of
American education are taught, but this is not what the critics are saying. The
passage says nothing about the critics taking issue with the content of the
education. Rather, they object to the structure itself. Answer B has the same
problem as answer A. It is not the content of education or some threat of
learning un-American values that is the danger. Answer C is in support of
single-sex education as a method of instilling American values, and this is
definitely in conflict with your understanding of the critics’ point of view in
the final paragraph. They believe quite the opposite. Answer D is very much
in line with the critics’ point of view. They view the model of single-sex
education as inherently flawed; the structure itself is an un-America idea of
segregation. This is probably your answer, but you must review your last
option to be sure. Answer E focuses on pedagogy, saying that single-sex
education teachers are incapable of instilling good values because of the
structure. This seems off the mark and is not as good an answer as D. The
25. Answer: C
This is an Inference question. The question asks you to identify the statement
that can be inferred regarding single-sex education after reading the passage.
You refer to the passage.
Answer A creates an “if … then” statement that is unsupported by the
passage. It says that if convincing evidence is produced, then single-sex
education will grow as a movement, but the passage says in the final
sentence of the first paragraph that single-sex education will grow despite the
evidence, so this cannot be your answer. Answer B attempts to apply the
critics’ point of view as a general understanding about single-sex education,
and this is not necessarily true. Answer C says that parents will continue to
support single-sex education despite the lack of research supporting it, and
this is implied in the last sentence of the first paragraph, which says the same
thing in different words. This is probably your answer, but you should
review the remaining options. Answer D is a bit too optimistic, and it is
unsupported by the passage. The passage says that growth will continue, but
it does not go so far as to suggest it will become mainstream. Answer E says
that the sociological approach will win out over Dr. Sax’s approach, and this
is definitely not suggested by the passage. The passage does not actually pick
a winner or suggest that one will dominate the other. The correct choice is
answer C.

SECTION IV
Questions 1–5

You are asked to arrange the elements in sequential order, one speaker per day
and according to certain conditions, so you recognize this as a one-tier ordering
game.

Since there are six days in the conference, you can build a grid with six columns,
each representing a day of the conference, and a placeholder for each. You
shorten the names of the speakers to their initials (C, D, F, G, H, and J) and write
them in the upper right corner above the grid.

In the game description, the first rule you notice is that there can be only one
speaker per day and that each speaker cannot repeat. To symbolize your clues
you go through them one by one.
Clue 1: Chapman and Dabu must speak on days that are separated from each
other by exactly one day.
Using the box form for symbolization, you can symbolize this clue as follows:
Since C and D could speak before or after each other, you alter it slightly as
Since C and D could speak before or after each other, you alter it slightly as
follows:
Clue 2: Chapman and Gant cannot speak on consecutive days.

You can use the box form for symbolizing this clue as well, as follows:
Notice that you use the same double arrow to indicate that C cannot be before G
and G cannot be before C.
Clue 3: Gant must speak on a later day than Forest.

This can be symbolized simply by using a line to indicate the order in which
they have to be placed:
F — G
Clue 4: Jonas must speak on day 3.

This requires no symbolization. You can insert J into your diagram where he
belongs, on day 3.

To double-check your symbolizations you translate your symbolized clues back
into normal English and see whether they match the original language of each
clue. Once you are certain that your symbolizations are correct, you can insert
them beside your diagram for easy reference. Below is what your diagram
should look like after you have created and confirmed the validity of all your
symbolizations.
From your third clue you know that F can never be last because G must
come after F. You can put ~F above the sixth column on your diagram to
represent that F can never be in that column.
You see that speaker C is repeated in the first two clues and G is repeated in
the second and third clues. No hard and fast deductions can be derived from
these repetitions. You can see that there might be situations where G is
forced to be before or after D because C and D must have one day between
them and G cannot occupy that gap, but depending on where C is located,
this will not always be the case.
There are no down-to-two deductions that can be derived from the clues.
Even though there must be a day between them, C and D form a block. In
essence, they form a block of three days if you include the unassigned day
between them. Looking at your diagram, you notice that there are only two
days before J, so you know that C or D cannot be on day 1, because that
would force the other to be assigned to day 3, which is unavailable. You also
know that neither can be assigned to day 5. This would also force the other to
be assigned to day 3, and there is no day beyond day 6. To represent these,
you can put ~C/D over days 1 and 5.
you can put ~C/D over days 1 and 5.
Adding your deductions you now have this diagram:

Questions 1 and 2 are Complete and Accurate List questions, although the
second is not the typical variety of this kind of question.
None of the questions gives further information.
That leaves questions 3, 4, and 5, and these can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
1. Answer: D
The question asks you to identify the one answer with an acceptable schedule
for all six days. Using your diagram, you can quickly work through each
answer and eliminate those that break with your clues. For example, you can
quickly eliminate answer A because C and G are scheduled consecutively,
which is inconsistent with your second clue. You can also eliminate answer
B because it does not have J scheduled on day 3. You eliminate answer C
because G is scheduled before F, which is inconsistent with your third clue.
You can also eliminate answer E because C and D are scheduled
consecutively, which is inconsistent with your first clue. You are left with
answer D and this schedule is consistent with your clues. You can represent
answer D and this schedule is consistent with your clues. You can represent
this schedule on the diagram as follows:

2. Answer: B
The question asks you to identify a complete list of the days that C can be
assigned to. You know from your deductions that C cannot be scheduled on
day 1 or day 5, so you can eliminate answers A and E. You also know that
nobody but J can be scheduled for day 3, so you can eliminate answer C.
You are left with answers B and D. The only difference between these
answers is that B includes day 6 as a possibility, and you know from your
rules that C can easily be scheduled for day 6 as long as D is scheduled for
day 4 and G is scheduled on any day that is not consecutive with day 6. Both
are possible, so answer B offers you a complete and accurate list for C. The
3. Answer: A
The question asks you to identify the scheduling option among the possible
answers that cannot be true. This means all but one of the options is possible.
You can evaluate each answer at a time. For answer A, you use your diagram
to test the scheduling of H on day 2. You see that C and D must occupy day
4 and day 6 (or vice versa) to have a day between them. According to your
second clue, G cannot be scheduled consecutively before or after C. This
forces you to schedule G on day 1, but this means that G is scheduled before
F, which is inconsistent with clue three. Thus, it cannot be true that H is
scheduled on day 2, and this is the correct answer to the question. For
learning purposes, the remaining scenarios have been diagrammed to
demonstrate that they all work.
4. Answer: D
The question asks which scenario must be true. Your experience up to this
point will be very helpful in assessing each of the possible answers. Many of
the answers you can eliminate based on the scenarios of question 3, but in
case you skipped that question we will work through each answer here. The
easiest way to test the answers is to create a schedule that does not abide by
the scenario given in each answer, and if it is possible to create such a
schedule, then the answer is not necessarily true. The one answer or schedule
that is impossible to create must be your answer. For example, answer A
says that either F or G is scheduled to speak on day 2. You test this answer
by creating a schedule in which neither F nor G is scheduled on day 2. If
such a schedule is consistent with the rules of the game, then the answer is
not necessarily true and cannot be your answer. What follows are the
scenarios you created to test each answer. As you can see, for answer D, it
was impossible to create a schedule in which C or D was not scheduled on
day 4.

5. Answer: C
The question asks you to identify which scenario among the possible
answers cannot be true. Similar to question 4, you test each answer by
attempting to create a schedule that is consistent with the answer and the
rules of the game. If you can create such a scenario, then the answer can be
true and it cannot be your answer. For example, answer A says that D and G
are scheduled to speak consecutively. As you can see in the diagram that
follows, you can create a schedule in which D and G are scheduled to speak
on consecutive days and the schedule is consistent with the rules of your
game, so this cannot be the correct choice. For answer C, it is impossible to
create a schedule in which F and H are scheduled on consecutive days,
because if you put them before day 3, then it forces G and C to be on
consecutive days, which is inconsistent with clue 2. If you schedule them on
days 4 and 5, then G must be scheduled on day 6 to be consistent with clue 3,
and C and D must be scheduled on days 1 and 2, which is impossible
because they must have one day between them according to clue 1. If you
schedule them on days 5 and 6, then G will have to be scheduled before F
and this is inconsistent with clue 3. Answer C cannot be true and must be
your answer.
Questions 6–12
This is a grouping game. You can tell that it is a grouping game because it is
asking you to assign each student to a particular tutor and each tutor is assigned
at least one student. The tutors in their respective disciplines serve as the groups
at least one student. The tutors in their respective disciplines serve as the groups
(or group leaders, if that helps). There are six students to assign to four tutors
(groups). There is a twist to this grouping because each student needs to be
tutored in only one subject matter and all but one of the tutors can teach more
than one subject.
Your diagram will be a grid with four columns, one for each group. You shorten
the group names to their initials: S, U, W, and Z. You can do the same thing with
the students—B, C, D, F, G, and H—and list them in the upper right corner
above your diagram for reference. Since each group specializes in a particular
subject matter, it might help to show each tutor’s specialties in the diagram. You
can shorten those as well, to Ch, E, M, and P. Your initial diagram might look
like this:

You go one by one through the clues and symbolize them.
Clue 1: At least Bjorn and Chaim are assigned to Willie.

This clue need not be symbolized. The clue says that B and C are assigned to W.
It also says they might not be the only ones assigned to W. You can put B and C
into the W column and they will remain there through each question.
Clue 2: At least Fran is assigned to Zane.

This is another clue that need not be symbolized. Similar to the previous clue, it
says that F is assigned to Z and there may be more students assigned to Z. You
can put F into the Z column and it will remain there through each question.
Clue 3: If Dottie is assigned to Upton, then Gertie needs tutoring in Math.

This clue can be symbolized, but you must first recognize that only two teachers
tutor in math, S and W. You can reduce this clue to an “if … then” statement as
follows:
D = U → G = S/W
D = U → G = S/W

To double-check your symbolizations, you translate your symbols back into
In this case only one clue has been symbolized, but once you have verified that it
works, then you can add your symbolizations to your diagram. Your diagram
should look as follows:

Finally, before you tackle the questions, you see if you can make any deductions
based on the setup of the game and the clues. You go through each type of
deduction.
This is not an ordering game, so this deduction does not apply to this
particular game.
There are no repeated elements among the rules in this game.
There are no down-to-two deductions in this game.
There are no instances of block splitting in this game.

Approach the questions in this order:

This group of questions does not have a Complete and Accurate List
question. Questions that provide more information are:
Question 9 (“Fran and Heste need tutoring in the same subject …”)
Question 10 (“Dottie and Fran need tutoring in the same subject …”)
Question 11 (“Exactly two students are assigned to Upton …”)
Question 12 (“Bjorn, Chaim, Gertie, and Heste all need tutoring in the
same subject …”)
That leaves questions 6, 7 and 8, which you can answer in that order.
THE ANSWERS
6. Answer: D
The question asks which one of the possible answers cannot be true. You
evaluate each answer, one by one. You assume your diagram remains as
drawn, with B and C in W and F in Z. You also notice that the subject matter
(math, physics, etc.) does not come into play for this question. Placement is
the only factor. For answer A, if G = U and D = Z, then you can put H with S
and you have a valid grouping. For answer B, if G = S and D = Z, then you
can put H with U and you have a valid grouping. For answer C, if F = Z and
G = Z, then you can put D with S and H with U and you have a valid
grouping. For answer D, if D = W and H = Z, you know from clue 3 that G
must be with W or S. Regardless of which tutor G is assigned to, you are still
left with no student to assign to U. Each tutor must have at least one student,
so this scenario cannot work and it must be your correct answer. For answer
E, if D = S and G = U, then you can assign H to any of the tutors and still
have a valid grouping. The correct choice is answer D.
7. Answer: B
The question asks which scenario among the possible answers must be true.
This means all but one of the answers has the possibility of being not true,
but only one must be true no matter what the grouping. Again, you review
each answer, one at a time. To determine whether the answer has the
possibility of being not true, you attempt to create a scenario in which the
stipulation in the answer is not true, and if you can create such a grouping
and it is consistent with the rules of your game, then it cannot be your
choice. You assume that your diagram remains as drawn, with B and C in W
and F in Z. Also, you notice that the subject matter (math, physics, etc.) does
not come into play in this question. Placement is the only factor. Answer A
says that S tutors exactly one student, so you test whether more than one
student can be assigned to S. You assign two students, H and D, to S and
then G to U. This is a valid grouping, so answer A cannot be your choice.
Answer B says that Z is assigned fewer than three students, so you can test
whether Z can be assigned three or more students, but such a test is
unnecessary. If Z is assigned three student and you already know that W is
assigned two students, then you are left with only one student to assign to S
or U. One of the tutors will be left with nobody to teach, and your game
requires that each tutor be assigned at least one student. It must be true that Z
is assigned fewer than three students and B must be your answer for this
question. Let’s review the remainder of the possible answers for learning
purposes. Answer C says U is assigned fewer than two students, so you test
whether U can be assigned two or more students. You assign G and H to U,
which leaves D to be assigned to S. This is a valid grouping and thus cannot
be your answer. Answer D says exactly one student is assigned to Z, so you
test whether more than one student can be assigned to Z. You assign D to Z,
along with F, making it two students. You assign G to S, and H to U. This is
a valid grouping, and this cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E says that
W is assigned exactly two students. You already know that W must be
assigned at least two students, B and C, so you test whether W can be
assigned three. You assign G to W (along with B and C), D to U, and H to S.
This is a valid grouping and cannot be your answer. Therefore, the correct
choice is answer B.
8. Answer: A
The question asks that you find the one statement that cannot be true, no
matter the grouping. That means all but one of the answers has the possibility
of being true. You review each answer and test whether it can be true or not.
To test the answer, you create a grouping that is consistent with the answer
and the rules of the game, and if such a grouping is possible, then it cannot
be the correct choice. If such a grouping is impossible, then it must be your
choice. Your diagram remains as drawn, with B and C in W and F in Z. Also,
this is the first question that uses the subject matter as a determinant for the
grouping. It will change the dynamic of your scheduling. Answer A says D
and G need tutoring in English, which means they must be with Z, since Z is
the only tutor that can teach English. This would mean Z would teach three
students (F included), and you know from question 7 that this cannot be true.
If Z has three students and W already has two students, there is only one
student left to assign to either S or U. The game requires that each tutor have
at least one student, so the correct answer to this question is A. Let’s review
the remaining options for learning purposes. Answer B says that D and H
need to learn chemistry, which means they could be assigned to U or Z.
There are numerous groupings possible here, but one could be that you
assign D to Z and H to U, which leaves H to be assigned to S, and you have a
valid grouping. Answer C says that D and H need tutoring in math. Only S
and W teach math. You can assign both D and H to S and G to U and you
have a valid grouping. Answer D says that D and G need tutoring in math.
Only S and W teach math. You can assign D and G to S and assign H to U
and you have a valid grouping. Finally, answer E says both D and B need
tutoring in physics. Only U and W tutor physics. If both D and B are
assigned to U, then clue 3 says you must assign G to S or W. You choose to
assign G to S, and you have a valid grouping. The correct choice is answer
A.
9. Answer: B
The question tells you that F and H need tutoring in the same subject and
then asks what is the maximum number of students who need physics.
Essentially, the question is asking you to create a situation that maximizes
the number of students U and W are teaching under the given scenario. You
use your diagram to illustrate this grouping. You know from your clues that
F must be assigned to Z, but you do not know whether F is being tutored in
chemistry or English. In the interest of maximizing the number available to
assign to W, you will assume F is being tutored in chemistry. Therefore, you
can assign H to U (if you assumed English, they would both have to be
assigned to Z). This allows you to assign D to S and G to W. There is no way
to assign more to U or W without depriving another tutor of a student. For
the sake of this question you can assume all of W’s students are studying
physics, and you know that H is studying chemistry. Therefore, the
maximum number of students studying physics is three.
10. Answer: D
The question tells you that D and F need tutoring in the same subject and
then asks you to determine which of the possible answers must be true. This
means all but one of the answers may not true, but only one must be true no
matter what the grouping. You know that F is assigned to Z, but you do not
know in which subject, chemistry or English, F is being tutored, so D also
may be tutored in either chemistry or English. Therefore, while F can be
assigned only to Z, D can be assigned to either U or Z. You will test both
scenarios. First, you will assign D to U. According to clue 3, if D is assigned
to U, then G must be with either S or W. If you assign G to S, then H can be
assigned to any tutor. If you assign G to W, then H must be assigned to S.
In the second scenario you assign D to Z. In this case, G and H must be

distributed between S and U.
Now, you look at your answers and evaluate each one. Answer A says D and
F are tutored in English, but you have already shown that it is possible for D
to be tutored in chemistry, since Z and U both tutor chemistry. Answer B
says at least two students need tutoring in math. If you assume all of W’s
students are being tutored in physics, then it is possible that only one student
(G or H) is tutored in math. Therefore, it is possible that this answer is not
true. Answer C says at least two students are tutored in English. In the first
scenario above, there are no students tutored in English (F and D are tutored
in chemistry), so this answer has the possibility of being untrue. Answer D
says that at least one of G and H is tutored in math. In both scenarios above,
no matter the configuration, you see that either or both of G and H are being
tutored in math. This answer must be true, so this is your choice. The final
option, answer E, says that at least one of G and H must be tutored in
chemistry. In the first scenario you see a grouping where neither G nor H is
being tutored in chemistry, so this answer may be untrue. The correct
choice is answer D.
11. Answer: B
The question tells you that U is assigned exactly two students and asks you
to determine which of the answers gives facts that could be true. You must
determine which is possible, which means that all but one of the answers are
impossible. For the remaining unassigned students, D, G, and H, there are
three scenarios for assigning exactly two students to U: DG, DH, GH. You
can quickly eliminate the DG scenario because it is inconsistent with your
clues. When D is assigned to U, G must be assigned to S or W, so G cannot
be assigned to U. You are left with DH and GH. You create both of these
scenarios in your diagram. Your initial diagram remains as drawn previously,
with B and C in W and F in Z. Answer A cannot be correct because if G
needs tutoring in chemistry, then D must need math. Answer B could be true,
because when G needs Math, D could be learning chemistry. This is your
answer, because it could be true. Answer C cannot be true because if H is
learning math, D and G must be together with U, and this is impossible under
the rules of the game. Answer D cannot be correct because under the
provisions of the question, H must be with either S or U. Answer E cannot be
correct because if H and G are both learning math, then there is only one
student with U, and that breaks the rules set by the question.
12. Answer: C
The last question tells you that B, C, G, and H all need tutoring in the same
subject and then asks you to identify the one statement among the possible
answers that could be true. This means that all but one of the statements must
be impossible. You know from your clues that B and C are assigned to W,
and W tutors only math and physics. Therefore, S, W, and U are the only
tutors who can receive G and H. If B and C are learning math, then at least
one of G and H must go to S. Also, if B and C are learning physics, at least
one of G and H must go to U. You evaluate each answer and eliminate those
that are impossible. Answer A says that exactly two students learn physics.
This is impossible. If the two physics students are B and C, then G and H
must also learn physics and that adds up to more than two. If you try to put
two physics students with U, then one of them must be G or H, which would
mean B, C, G, and H are learning physics and again you have more than two.
This answer cannot be true and cannot be the correct choice. Answer B says
D is learning English. This is also impossible. Since G and H must be
assigned to the same subject, either S or U will be left without a student. D
must be assigned to either S or U. Answer C says D learns math. This is very
possible if B, C, G, and H all learn physics. They will be distributed among
U and W, leaving S to teach D. This is your answer, but let’s review the
remaining options for learning purposes. Answer D says exactly two students
learn English. This is impossible because you have already proven that G, H,
and D must be assigned to S or U depending on the dominant subject. Thus,
Z must have only one student and Z is the only tutor teaching English. This
cannot be your answer. Answer E says that exactly three students learn
chemistry. This is impossible because you know that B, C, G, and H learn
the same subject and chemistry cannot be one of them. That leaves only two
possible students to learn chemistry. The correct choice is answer C.
Questions 13–19
This game is a two-tiered ordering game. It has all three of the telltale signs of
this type of game. First, it has the language of both ordering and grouping
games. For each inspector, all the buildings must be scheduled over six weeks,
and within each week, the schedule of one inspector affects the schedule of the
other inspector. Some buildings cannot be inspected before another building and
certain buildings cannot be inspected by one inspector until the other inspector
has inspected it. This is typical language for an ordering game. At the same time,
each building must be assigned to a particular week with another building, and
no building can be inspected by both inspectors in the same week, and they can
only be inspected once by each inspector. This is typical grouping language.
Your diagram will take the form of a grid with the inspectors listed on the left
and the weeks going from left to right. You can abbreviate government to G and
commercial to C. The building letters appear above and to the right of the
diagram and they are grouped into their respective sets (G and C). Since there
are only two inspectors, you will not abbreviate their names.

Once you have your diagram, you can proceed to symbolize your clues. You
symbolize them one at a time below.
Clue 1: Limon cannot inspect any government building until Harris has
evaluated that building.
This can be reworded to say that if it is a government building, then Harris must
inspect it before Limon. This can be symbolized as follows:
G → H — L
Clue 2: Harris cannot evaluate any commercial building until Limon has
evaluated that building.
This is similar to the first clue and can be reworded to say that if it is a
commercial building, then Limon must inspect it before Harris. This can be
symbolized as follows:
C → L — H
Clue 3: Limon cannot inspect any two government buildings consecutively.

You can use box notation to symbolize this clue. There are several ways to
symbolize this, but the simplest is as follows:
You put G in the bottom boxes because in your diagram Limon’s schedule
appears below Harris’s schedule. Another way to represent the same clue is to
show each configuration of consecutively scheduled government buildings. You
use the double arrow to show that regardless of order, these buildings cannot be
inspected consecutively. For example:
For the purposes of the exercise here, we will use the simpler one.
Clue 4: Harris must inspect building M during week 4.

This clue need not be symbolized. You can simply put M on Harris’s schedule
during week 4.
To double-check your symbolizations, you translate your symbolized clues back
clue. Once you have confirmed that your symbolizations represent the clues
clue. Once you have confirmed that your symbolizations represent the clues
correctly, you can insert them to the right of your diagram for easy reference.
Your page should look as follows:

Before you tackle the questions, you see if you can make any deductions based
on the setup of the game and the clues. You go through each type of deduction.
Because Harris must inspect each government building before Limon can
inspect it, you can deduce that Harris cannot schedule a government building
during week 6, because this would not give Limon a chance to inspect it. Nor
can Limon schedule a government building in week 1, because Harris would
not have had a chance to inspect it. Similarly, because Limon must inspect a
commercial building before Harris can inspect it, you can deduce that Limon
cannot schedule a commercial building in week 6, because this would not
give Harris time to inspect it. Nor can Harris schedule a commercial building
in week 1 because Limon would not have had a chance to inspect it. These
deductions can be symbolized as follows:
There are no repeated element deductions you can make for this game.
There are no down-to-two deductions you can make for this game.
In effect, the government buildings form a block on Limon’s schedule. They
cannot be consecutive and none of them can be scheduled for week 1.
Therefore, they must be scheduled for weeks 2, 4, and 6, and Limon’s
commercial buildings must be scheduled for weeks 1, 3, and 5. Instead of
symbolizing this deduction you will note it at the bottom of the diagram,
keeping in mind this is a deduction for Limon’s schedule and not Harris’s.
You add your deductions to the diagram so that it now looks as follows:

Answer the questions in the following order:


Questions 13 and 18 are both Complete and Accurate List questions and
should be answered first. Questions that give more information include the
following:
Question 14 (“Harris inspects building H during week 3 and Limon
inspects building G during week 6 …”)
Question 15 (“Harris inspects building O during week 2 …”)
Question 17 (“Limon inspects M during week 1 and I during week 2
…”)
That leaves questions 16 and 19, and they can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
13. Answer: A
The question asks which of the schedules is acceptable. You must analyze
each schedule to see whether it is inconsistent with your clues. For answer A,
you notice that Harris inspects every government building a week before
Limon, and Limon inspects every commercial building a week before Harris.
Also, Limon does not inspect two government buildings consecutively.
Therefore, this is the correct answer, but for learning purposes let’s evaluate
the remaining answers. Answer B is an unacceptable schedule because
Harris inspects commercial building N before Limon, and this is inconsistent
with clue 2. Answer C is an unacceptable schedule because it does not have
Harris inspecting building M in week 4 and this is inconsistent with clue 4.
Answer D is unacceptable because Limon inspects government building I
before Harris and this is inconsistent with clue 2. Lastly, answer E is
unacceptable because Limon inspects government buildings J and K
consecutively, and this is inconsistent with clue 3. The correct choice is
answer A.
14. Answer: D
The question gives you new information, that Harris inspects building K in
week 3 and Limon inspects building J in week 6. You add this new
information to your diagram, and you deduce certain requirements that this
scenario creates. If Harris inspects K in week 3, then Limon must schedule K
for week 4, because he must inspect K after Harris inspects it. Also, Limon
cannot schedule K for week 5 because Limon cannot have two government
buildings scheduled consecutively. Therefore, Limon must schedule I for
week 2. He cannot schedule I for week 3 or 5 because I and K or I and J
would be consecutive, and he cannot schedule I for week 1 because Harris
must have at least a week before to inspect a government building. You now
evaluate your answers. Answer A cannot be correct because Limon can
easily schedule N in week 1 or 3, which still gives Harris enough time to
inspect it after him. Answer B is completely inconsistent with clue 4. Answer
C cannot be the answer because Harris does not have to schedule J during
week 2. He can also schedule it during week 5 because that is still before the
week that Limon has scheduled it. Answer D, as you know from your
deductions, must be true. Harris must inspect I during week 1. This is your
answer. Answer E cannot be correct because Harris can also schedule O
during week 2 and 5, both of which give Limon advance time to inspect it
before him.

15. Answer: C
The question tells you that Harris inspects O in week 2 and asks which of the
buildings Limon must inspect in week 5. You add this new information to
your diagram and see what deductions you can make with regard to which
building Limon must inspect in week 5. You can deduce that if Harris
inspects O in week 2, then Limon must have inspected O in week 1, because
Limon must inspect each commercial building before Harris and week 1 is
Limon must inspect each commercial building before Harris and week 1 is
the only week available for Limon to inspect building O. Your deduction
tells you that the government buildings are in weeks 2, 4, and 6. This means
that Limon will have to inspect M in week 3 in order to inspect it before
Harris and remain consistent with clue 2. That leaves N as the one remaining
building Limon must schedule, and it must be in week 5. This is your
answer. You do not have to evaluate the other answers.

16. Answer: D
The question asks you to identify among the possible answers the one
statement that must be true. This means that all but one of the answers may
not be true. If you give the answers a quick read, you can quickly see that
answer D must be true because you already deduced that Limon must inspect
a commercial building in week 3, but for learning purposes let’s review the
remaining answers. The following diagram shows a scenario for each answer
that proves it does not have to be true. Answer A shows that Harris can
inspect two government buildings consecutively and the scheduling can still
be consistent with the rules of the game. Answer B shows that Harris can
inspect J before N. Answer C shows that Harris can inspect a government
building during week 2. Lastly, answer E shows that Limon can inspect a
government building other than K during week 6.
17. Answer: B
The question tells you that Limon inspects building M in week 1 and I during
week 2. It asks that you identify the one possible answer that could be true.
This means that all but one of the answers must be false. You add the new
information to your diagram. You can use clue 1 to deduce that Harris
inspects I during week 1. Now you evaluate your possible answers. For
answer A, Limon does not inspect his two remaining commercial buildings
until week 3. Therefore, Harris cannot do his two remaining commercial
buildings (N and O) until weeks 5 and 6. Harris must inspect his two
remaining government buildings (J and K) during weeks 2 and 3, which
means he must inspect two consecutive government buildings and answer A
must be false. Using the same logic, answer B could be true. One of the
commercial buildings Harris inspects during week 5 or 6 can be O, so answer
B could be true and this is your answer. We’ll analyze the remaining answers
for learning purposes. Answer C cannot be true because, based on your
initial deductions, Harris cannot inspect a government building in week 5.
Answer D cannot be true because you have already deduced that Harris’s
first inspection must be I so that Limon can inspect I during week 2. Finally,
answer E cannot be true because clue 4 tells you that Harris must schedule M
for week 4.
18. Answer: D
The question asks you to identify from among the possible answers the
complete and accurate list of the weeks during which Harris must inspect
government buildings. This means that all but one of the answers include
weeks that may or may not be scheduled for a government building for
Harris. The only clue that affects when Harris inspects a government
building is the requirement that he inspect it before Limon, so Limon’s
schedule will most likely be the determining factor in your consideration of
each answer. Your initial deductions tell you that Limon must inspect a
government building during weeks 2, 4, and 6. From this knowledge you can
determine that in week 3 Harris must inspect the building that Limon
inspects in week 1. Therefore, whichever answer is correct, it must include
week 1. This deduction allows you to eliminate answer E, which does not
include week 1. Determining the remaining weeks during which Harris must
inspect a government building means determining when he must inspect the
government buildings Limon inspects during weeks 4 and 6. Harris must
inspect the week 4 building during either week 2 or week 3, but it does not
really matter which. Regarding the week 6 building, Harris can inspect this
in week 2, 3, or 5. All of these weeks come before the week Limon inspects
the building and do not cause conflicts with the scheduling of commercial
buildings after Limon inspects them. Because the other two buildings have
such flexibility, week 1 is the only week that he must inspect a government
building. The correct choice is answer D.
19. Answer: A
The question asks which among the answers could be true. This means all
but one of the possible answers must be false. You analyze each answer to
determine whether a schedule could exist with the stated fact. Luckily, the
first answer turns out to be your answer. Answer A could indeed be true
because K is a government building and your initial deductions tell you that
Limon can schedule only government buildings in weeks 2, 4, and 6. Answer
B cannot be true because I is a government building and Limon cannot
schedule a government building in week 3. Answer C cannot be true because
Harris cannot inspect a commercial building until Limon has inspected it.
Harris must schedule M for week 4 according to clue 4. Therefore, Limon
cannot inspect M after week 4. Answer D cannot be true because O is a
commercial building and your deductions tell you that Harris cannot
schedule a commercial building during the first week. Such scheduling does
not allow Limon to inspect the commercial building before Limon. Answer E
cannot be true because I is a government building and your deductions tell
you that Harris cannot schedule a government building in week 6 because it
does not allow time for Limon to inspect it after Harris. The correct choice
is answer A.
Question 20–26

This is a grouping game, but the terse nature of the descriptions somewhat
obscures the game’s nature. Put simply, there are two categories of lumber,
domestic and exotic, and they are being allocated to the “On Sale” and “Not on
Sale” groups. Within each category there are five different types of wood:
cherry, maple, oak, pine, and walnut.

The diagram will be a simple four-box grid with Domestic and Exotic on one
side and On Sale and Not on Sale across the top (you could do it the other way
as well). You abbreviate the types of wood as C, M, O, P, and W. Each type of
wood will appear in the grid twice, because both domestic and exotic are
offered.
You symbolize the clues one at a time.
Clue 1: Exotic oak is on sale; domestic maple is not on sale.

These do not need to be symbolized. You will simply put an “O” in the exotic
and on sale box, and you will put an “M” in the domestic and not on sale box.
Clue 2: If both types of oak are on sale, then all walnut is on sale.
This can be symbolized using your block format, as follows:
Clue 3: If both types of cherry are on sale, then no pine is on sale.

Clue 4: If neither type of cherry is on sale, then domestic oak is on sale.

Clue 5: If either type of pine is on sale, then no walnut is.

It might be useful to convert this to a contrapositive. You must keep in mind that
the right side could be interpreted as meaning that both domestic walnut and
exotic walnut are on sale and could be rewritten as follows:
You form the contrapositive as follows:
Notice that terms have switched sides of the arrow and the negation has switched
the letters to the opposite boxes. The “or” has become an “and” and vice versa.
You can compact the right side into one box as follows:
This says that if either type of walnut is on sale, then both types of pine must not
be on sale.

clue. Once you confirm that you have the correct symbolizations, you proceed to
write them next to your diagram, including the contrapositive for the last clue.
Your page should look something like this:
This is not an ordering game, so there are none of these types of deductions
to be made.
There is a repeated element implied by the clues that is a bit tricky. Clue 1
says that exotic oak is on sale. Clue 4 says that if no type of cherry wood is
on sale, then domestic oak is on sale. In essence, this says that if no type of
cherry wood is on sale, then all oak is on sale. Clue 2 says that if all oak is on
sale, then all walnut is on sale. You can deduce that if both types of cherry
wood are not on sale, then both types of walnut are on sale. This deduction
could be written as follows:
There are none of these types of deductions to be made.
There are none of these types of deductions to be made.

Question 20 is a Complete and Accurate List question and should be

answered first. Questions that offer more information are as follows:
Question 21 (“domestic walnut is not on sale …”)
Question 22 (“both types of cherry are on sale …”)
Question 24 (“neither type of cherry is on sale …”)
Question 25 (“domestic walnut is the only type of domestic lumber on
sale …”)
Question 26 (“exactly four of the types of exotic lumber are the only
lumber types on sale …”)
The only remaining question is 23.
THE ANSWERS
20. Answer: B
The question asks you to identify a complete and accurate list of the types of
lumber that are on sale. You must review each answer and test them against
your clues. You apply each one to your diagram. You place the letters in the
On Sale column and the remaining in the Not on Sale column. With answer
A, both types of cherry wood are not on sale and according to clue 4,
domestic oak must be on sale, so this grouping is not consistent with the
game and cannot be the answer. Answer B is completely consistent with
game and cannot be the answer. Answer B is completely consistent with
your rules, and it can be a complete and accurate list of the lumber on sale.
This is your answer, but let’s review the remaining answers for learning
purposes. Answer C cannot be your answer because it is inconsistent with
clue 2. Both oaks are on sale so both types of walnut must be on sale, but in
this grouping exotic walnut is not on sale. Answer D is inconsistent with clue
5. Exotic pine is on sale and therefore neither walnut can be on sale, but in
this grouping domestic walnut is on sale, so this answer cannot be a complete
and accurate sale list. Answer E cannot be your answer because both
domestic and exotic cherry wood are on sale, which means neither pine type
can be on sale, but in this grouping domestic pine is on sale.

21. Answer: A
The question tells you that domestic walnut is not on sale and asks which of
the possible answers must be true based on this fact. You look first for the
clues that affect walnut, which brings you to the second clue. It says that if
both types of oak are on sale, then both types of walnut must be on sale as
well, but this question says that domestic walnut is not on sale so you know
that both oaks cannot be on sale. Clue 1 says that exotic oak must be on sale.
Taking both of these clues together, you can deduce that in order for
domestic walnut not to be on sale, domestic oak cannot be on sale. Answer A
says that at least one type of oak is not on sale, and based on your deductions
this must be true, so this is your answer. Neither answer B nor answer C can
be correct because according to the clues, whether or not walnut is on sale
has no effect on the sale status of the types of cherry wood or maple. Neither
answer D nor answer E can be your choice because your clues do not help
you understand the sale status of pine if domestic walnut is not on sale. Clue
5 works in only one direction (from pine to walnut). Knowing that one of the
walnuts is not on sale tells you nothing about the types of pine. Your
contrapositive would help only if the domestic walnut was on sale, but that is
not the fact given to you. The correct choice is answer A.
22. Answer: A
The question tells you that both types of cherry wood are on sale, then asks
you the minimum number of domestic lumber types that can be included in
the sale. You add this information to your diagram and attempt to ascertain
what this number might be. Clue 3 tells you that if both cherry woods are on
sale, then both pines must be not on sale. The rest of the types of wood can
also be put in the Not on Sale column without breaking any of your rules.
Remember that having both types of walnut not on sale tells you nothing.
This question once again tempts you to make a conclusion based on
reversing the “if … then” statement in clue 5. The only domestic wood that
must be on sale is cherry wood.
23. Answer: E
The question asks which of the possible answers cannot be true. Answer A
could be true. The clues tell you nothing about the relationship between
cherry and maple. Regardless of whether both types of cherry are on sale,
you can put exotic maple on sale or not. Answer B has the same problem.
Your clues tell you nothing about a relationship between maple and pine, and
therefore it could be true that neither type of maple and neither type of pine
is on sale. If both types of cherry are on sale, clue 4 tells you that domestic
oak must be on sale, but it says nothing about pine. Clue 3 tells you only
what happens if both cherry woods are on sale, not when they are not on
sale, so answer C cannot be correct. Answer D has the same problem as
answers A and B. There is no relationship between maple and any of the
other woods, so this scenario could be true. Finally, consider answer E. This
answer conflicts with your deduction that if neither type of cherry is on sale,
then both walnut types must be on sale. This answer cannot be true and must
be your answer. The correct choice is answer E.
24. Answer: E
The question tells you that neither cherry type is on sale and asks you to
determine which statement among the possible answers is not necessarily
true. You create the scenario using your diagram. Because both cherry types
are not on sale, clue 4 tells you that domestic oak is on sale. Because both
oak types are now on sale, clue 2 tells you that both walnuts are on sale.
Your contrapositive tells you that because either the domestic walnut or the
exotic walnut is on sale, both pines are not on sale. This leaves only one type
undetermined, exotic maple. Based on the preceding logic, answers A, B, C,
and D all must be true. Only answer E may or may not be true. Exotic maple
can be either on sale or not on sale. Nothing in this scenario tells you one
way or the other.
25. Answer: B
The question tells you that domestic walnut is the only type of domestic
lumber on sale and then asks you to determine which among the possible
answers cannot be true. This means that all but one of the options are
possible. You use your diagram to visualize the scenario. Answer A could be
true. If exotic walnut is not on sale, you can still maintain domestic walnut as
the only domestic wood on sale. No clue changes this requirement.
Regarding answer B, if exotic cherry is not on sale, then both cherries are not
on sale and clue 4 requires that domestic oak be on sale. This would mean
that walnut would not be the only domestic wood on sale, and that goes
against the information given by the question. This is your answer. Answer C
is true because the very fact that domestic walnut is on sale triggers the
contrapositive of clue 5. Exotic maple is one wood that is not restricted by
the clues of this game, so it can be on sale or not on sale. It does not matter.
In this particular question, exotic walnut is not restricted by the clues either
and can be on sale or not on sale. Therefore, neither answer D nor answer E
can be correct.
26. Answer: D
The question tells you that four of the five types of exotic lumber are the
only lumber types on sale. It then asks you to determine which of the
possible answers could be true. This means that all but one of the possible
answers is impossible given the clues in the game. Because the exotic woods
are the only ones on sale, there can be no domestic woods on sale.
Everything else is not on sale. You test each one on your diagram. Answer A
cannot be the correct choice because clue 4 tells you that when both cherry
woods are not on sale, then domestic oak must be on sale. Answer B cannot
be correct because you have only five types of exotic woods. If neither exotic
pine nor exotic walnut is on sale, that leaves only three exotic woods on sale.
Answer C has the same problem as answer A. If exotic cherry is not on sale,
then both types of cherry wood are not on sale, and clue 4 tells you that if
this is the case, then domestic oak is on sale. Answer D could be true. This
grouping is consistent with all of the clues, including clue 5, which is
grouping is consistent with all of the clues, including clue 5, which is
triggered by this configuration. This is your answer. Answer E cannot be true
because it is inconsistent with clue 5. If exotic maple is not on sale, then
exotic pine must be. However, because pine is on sale, then both types of
walnut must not be on sale, and that means you would have only three exotic
woods on sale, not the four required.

LSAT Practice Test 2
You can also take this practice test on your tablet or smartphone as well as
your laptop or home computer. See page 7A of the Welcome insert for more
information.
Answer Sheet

Section I
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SECTION I
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
Questions 1–5
From among eight candidates, an epidemiological think tank must choose four
medical scientists for a special research project. Four of the candidates—Bosch,
Cristof, Eber, and Gross—are published scientists, and four—Hoff, Jackson,
Klipp, and Mann—are unpublished scientists. Bosch, Hoff, Klipp, and Mann are
microbiologists whereas Cristof, Eber, Gross, and Jackson are immunologists.
The scientists must be selected according to the following conditions:
Exactly two published scientists and two unpublished scientists are selected.
Exactly two microbiologists and two immunologists are selected.
Either Klipp or Gross or both are selected.
1. Which one of the following is an acceptable selection of the scientists for the
research project?
(A) Cristof, Gross, Hoff, and Mann

(B) Eber, Gross, Jackson, and Mann
(C) Bosch, Cristof, Jackson, and Mann
(D) Bosch, Gross, Hoff, and Klipp
(E) Bosch, Hoff, Jackson, and Klipp
2. If Bosch and Klipp are selected for the research project, the other two
scientists selected must be
(A) two immunologists, both of whom are published scientists
(B) two immunologists, both of whom are unpublished scientists
(C) an immunologist who is a published scientist and an immunologist who
is an unpublished scientist
(D) an immunologist who is a published scientist and a microbiologist who is
an unpublished scientist
(E) an immunologist and a microbiologist, both of whom are published
scientists
3. If Bosch and Cristof are selected for the research project, which one of the
following must also be selected?
(A) Hoff
(B) Eber
(C) Gross
(D) Mann
(E) Jackson
4. If Hoff and Mann are selected for the research project, which one of the
following could be, but need not be, selected for the research project?
(A) Klipp
(B) Bosch
(C) Jackson
(D) Cristof
(E) Gross
5. If Jackson is selected for the research project, which one of the following
must also be selected?
(A) Gross
(B) Bosch
(C) Mann
(D) Cristof
(E) Hoff
Questions 6–12
A tour operator has chosen six stops along the route of the tour—J, K, L, M, N,
and P—each with at least one of the following features: scenic views, a historic
and P—each with at least one of the following features: scenic views, a historic
landmark, and restroom facilities. No stop has any other features. The following
conditions must apply:
K has scenic views and restroom facilities.

L has scenic views and a historic landmark.
L and N have no features in common.
M has more features than L.
K and P have exactly one feature in common.
J has fewer features than P.
6. For exactly how many of the stops is it possible to determine exactly which
features each one has?
(A) six
(B) five
(C) four
(D) three
(E) two
7. Which one of the following must be false?
(A) Exactly four of the six stops have restroom facilities.

(B) Exactly four of the six stops have scenic views.
(C) Exactly four of the six stops have historic landmarks.
(D) Exactly five of the six stops have restroom facilities.
(E) Exactly five of the six stops have historic landmarks.
8. If all the stops that have historic landmarks also have scenic views, which
one of the following must be false?
(A) P has scenic views.

(B) P has restroom facilities.
(C) K has scenic views.
(D) J has scenic views.
(E) J has restroom facilities.
9. If P has no features in common with J but has at least one feature in common
with every other stop, then which of the following must be false?
(A) Exactly four of six stops have scenic views.

(B) Exactly four of six stops have restroom facilities.
(C) Exactly four of six stops have historic landmarks.
(D) J has scenic views.
(E) P has restroom facilities.
10. Suppose that no two stops have exactly the same features as one another. In
that case, each of the following could be true EXCEPT:
(A) Exactly four of the six stops have restroom facilities.
(B) Exactly three of the six stops have restroom facilities.
(C) Exactly four of the six stops have historic landmarks.
(D) Exactly three of the six stops have scenic views.
(E) Exactly four of the six stops have scenic views.
11. If exactly four of the six stops have historic landmarks, and exactly four of
the six locations have scenic views, then each of the following must be true
EXCEPT:
(A) N and P have no features in common.
(B) J and K have no features in common.
(C) J and N have no features in common.
(D) J and P have exactly one feature in common.
(E) L and P have exactly one feature in common.
12. Suppose that the condition requiring that M has more features than L is
replaced by a new condition requiring that M and L have exactly two
features in common. If all of the other original conditions remain in effect,
which one of the following must be false?
(A) J and M have no features in common.
(B) M and P have exactly two features in common.
(C) M and P have no features in common.
(D) K and M have exactly one feature in common.
(E) K and M have exactly two features in common.
Questions 13–18
Exactly seven different buses are arriving at Bellevert Station from Delbert,
Exactly seven different buses are arriving at Bellevert Station from Delbert,
Evans, Fortman, Hampton, Janistown, Koenig, and Lynnville. The following
conditions govern their arrivals:
The buses arrive one at a time.

Either the Lynnville or the Koenig arrives fourth.
The Fortman arrives at some time after the Koenig but at some time before
the Lynnville.
Both the Hampton and the Janistown arrive at some time after the Evans.
The Hampton does not arrive next after the Janistown; nor does the
Janistown arrive next after the Hampton.
13. Which one of the following could be the order in which the buses arrive,
from first to last?
(A) Delbert, Evans, Koenig, Fortman, Janistown, Lynnville, Hampton
(B) Hampton, Evans, Delbert, Koenig, Fortman, Lynnville, Janistown
(C) Evans, Hampton, Janistown, Koenig, Fortman, Lynnville, Delbert
(D) Evans, Hampton, Delbert, Koenig, Fortman, Lynnville, Janistown
(E) Evans, Koenig, Delbert, Lynnville, Hampton, Fortman, Janistown
14. If the Koenig arrives at some time before the Evans, then exactly how many
different orders are there in which the seven buses could arrive?
(A) four
(B) five
(C) six
(D) seven
(E) eight

(A) The first bus to arrive is from Evans.
(B) The Koenig arrives at some time before the Lynnville.
(C) The Delbert arrives at some time before the Fortman.
(D) The Janistown arrives at some time before the Lynnville.
(E) The Evans arrives at some time before the Koenig.

(A) The Delbert is the next bus after the Koenig.
(B) The Delbert is the next bus after the Fortman.
(B) The Delbert is the next bus after the Fortman.
(C) The Fortman is the next bus after the Delbert.
(D) The Evans is the next bus after the Hampton.
(E) The Evans is the next bus after the Fortman.
17. If exactly one of the buses arrives after the Koenig but before the Lynnville,
then which one of the following could be true?
(A) The first bus to arrive is the Evans.
(B) The second bus to arrive is the Fortman.
(C) The third bus to arrive is the Evans.
(D) The sixth bus to arrive is the Fortman.
(E) The sixth bus to arrive is the Hampton.
18. If the Delbert arrives at some time before the Evans, then the Koenig must
arrive
(A) sixth
(B) fifth
(C) fourth
(D) third
(E) second
Questions 19–25
Exactly seven cargo trucks—P, Q, R, T, U, W, and Z—are to be unloaded at
seven warehouse docks, exactly one cargo truck to a dock. The seven docks are
side by side and numbered consecutively 1 through 7. Assignment of cargo
trucks to docks must meet the following conditions:
P is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than T.

W is unloaded at the dock numbered one lower than the dock at which Q is
unloaded.
R is unloaded at dock 1 or else dock 7.
Z is unloaded at dock 4.
19. Which one of the following is an acceptable assignment of cargo trucks to

warehouse docks, in order from dock 1 through dock 7?
(A) R, W, Q, Z, T, P, U
(B) R, U, Z, W, Q, P, T
(B) R, U, Z, W, Q, P, T
(C) P, U, T, Z, W, Q, R
(D) P, W, U, Z, Q, T, R
(E) P, T, U, Z, R, W, Q
20. It must be true that the lowest numbered dock on which

(A) P can be unloaded is dock 2
(B) Q can be unloaded is dock 3
(C) T can be unloaded is dock 2
(D) U can be unloaded is dock 3
(E) W can be unloaded is dock 2
21. If U is unloaded on dock 5, which one of the following is a pair of trucks that
could be unloaded, not necessarily in the order given, at docks whose
numbers are consecutive to each other?
(A) R, T
(B) T, W
(C) W, Z
(D) Q, R
(E) Q, T
22. There can be at most how many docks between the dock at which P is
unloaded and the dock at which T is unloaded?
(A) five
(B) four
(C) three
(D) two
(E) one
23. If U is unloaded at dock 2, which one of the following must be true?

(A) Z is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than T.
(B) W is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than T.
(C) T is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than R.
(D) P is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than Z.
(E) R is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than Q.
24. If Q is unloaded at a dock numbered one less than the dock at which P is
unloaded, then which one of the following must be true?
(A) W is unloaded at dock 6.
(B) U is unloaded at dock 5.
(C) R is unloaded at dock 1.
(D) Q is unloaded at dock 5.
(E) P is unloaded at dock 3.
25. If W is unloaded at dock 1, which one of the following could be true?

(A) U is unloaded at a dock numbered one lower than the dock at which Q is
unloaded.
(B) Q is unloaded at a dock numbered one lower than the dock at which U is
unloaded.
(C) Q is unloaded at a dock numbered one lower than the dock at which T is
unloaded.
(D) P is unloaded at a dock numbered one lower than the dock at which U is
unloaded.
(E) P is unloaded at a dock numbered one lower than the dock at which R is
unloaded.
STOP
SECTION.
SECTION II
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions
1. David: The only way for a professional athlete to be successful after having
suffered a serious injury is to relearn how he originally played the game
before the injury. It is futile for an athlete to learn a whole new way to
play the game.
Kathy: Wrong. Sam Daughton was a professional quarterback who suffered
a serious leg injury and had to go through significant physical therapy
and training. When he returned to the game he had left his older, more
physical style of play behind and embraced a more successful style of
finesse.
Kathy uses which one of the following argumentative techniques in
countering David’s argument?
(A) She establishes a solution by excluding the only plausible alternative to
that solution.
(B) She offers a developed and relevant analogy that supports his claim.
(C) She undermines his claim by showing that it rests on an equivocation.
(D) She presents an example that counters his claim.
(E) She offers a different explanation for a phenomenon.
Questions 2–3
Digital camera manufacturers typically advertise their products by citing the
Digital camera manufacturers typically advertise their products by citing the
resolutions of their cameras, usually measured in pixels and indicating the
degree of detail at which the camera’s sensor is capable of recording the image
in memory. Differences between cameras in this respect are irrelevant, however,
since all modern sensors record far more detail into memory than can be
represented on electronic screens or printed on photographic paper.
2. Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the
argument?
(A) Advertised differences among cameras in the resolution of their sensors

have no practical bearing on the cameras’ relative quality as
photographic tools.
(B) Digital camera manufacturers should concentrate on incorporating other
desirable qualities into their cameras, rather than concentrating only on
the sensors’ resolution.
(C) By concentrating their advertising on the issue of resolution,
manufacturers are making a mistake about the interests of potential
purchasers of cameras.
(D) Differences among electronic screens and photographic paper have a
more significant effect on the quality of the image than do differences in
the resolution of digital camera sensors.
(E) Apart from differences in resolution, there is no practical difference
among modern digital cameras in the quality of images they produce.
3. The argument depends on assuming which one of the following?
(A) In determining the amount of detail reproduced in the photographic

image, differences in the resolutions of available cameras neither
compound nor decrease the deficiencies of available electronic screens
and photographic paper.
(B) Flawless photographic technique is necessary to achieve the maximum
image resolution possible with the equipment and materials being used.
(C) Software used to represent and print images produced by digital cameras
do not have any significant effect on the image quality.
(D) The only factors important in determining the degree of detail
reproduced in the final photographic image are the resolution of the
camera’s sensor and the resolution of the electronic screen.
(E) The definition of the term “resolution” does not represent a significant
determinant of the quality of photographic instruments and their results.
determinant of the quality of photographic instruments and their results.
4. People are often told to eat a substantial breakfast because it reduces the
amount of food consumed during the rest of the day. Yet, a recent study
reported that for both obese and normal weight adults, eating a large, small,
or no breakfast made no difference at all with regard to their non-breakfast
calorie intake during the rest of the day.
Which of the following is most reasonably supported by the information

above?
(A) Dieters who eat small breakfasts benefit from the same reduction of
calories as those who eat no breakfast at all.
(B) Dieters who eat a large breakfast eat less food for the rest of the day but
because they eat higher-calorie non-breakfast foods the calorie intake
remains the same.
(C) Dieters who eat a small or no breakfast may actually reduce their calorie
intake while those who eat a large breakfast probably increase their
calorie intake.
(D) Whether dieters eat a large, small, or no breakfast makes no difference to
their overall calorie intake.
(E) Dieters who eat no breakfast at all eat more during the rest of the day, but
because they eat lower-calorie non-breakfast foods the calorie intake
remains the same.
5. A group of 1,000 homeowners was randomly selected from three cities in the
Midwest and asked the question “Do you plan to pay off your mortgage in
full through regular payments or the sale of your home?” More than 92
percent answered, “Yes.” This shows that the overwhelming majority of
homeowners want to pay off their mortgage, and that if the national
mortgage default rate among homeowners is high, it cannot be due to a lack
of desire on the part of homeowners.
The reasoning of the argument above is questionable because the argument

(A) attempts to make two conflicting conclusions using the results of one
survey
(B) fails to justify its assumption that 92 percent is an overwhelming
majority
(C) contradicts itself by admitting that there may be a high default rate
among homeowners while claiming that most homeowners want to pay
among homeowners while claiming that most homeowners want to pay
off their mortgages
(D) treats homeowners from three cities in the Midwest as if they are
representative of homeowners nationwide
(E) overlooks the possibility that there may in fact not be a high default rate
among homeowners
Questions 6–7
Professor Allyn: The literature department’s undergraduate courses should
cover only true literary works, and not such questionable material as
political speeches.
Professor Raleigh: Political speeches might or might not be true literary works,
but they have a powerful and sometimes dangerous effect on society—
largely because people cannot discern the actions implied by the words.
The literature department’s courses give students the critical skills to
analyze and understand texts. Therefore, it is the literature department’s
responsibility to include the study of political speeches in its undergraduate
courses.
6. Which one of the following principles most strongly supports Professor

Raleigh’s argument?
(A) All undergraduate students should take at least one course that helps
them develop critical skills.
(B) Political speeches should be discussed in a way that makes the implied
actions clear.
(C) The literature department’s courses should enable students to analyze
and understand all kinds of texts that can have a powerful and sometimes
dangerous effect on society.
(D) Any professor teaching an undergraduate course in the literature
department should be free to choose whatever materials are necessary to
teach that course.
(E) All texts that are subtly constructed and capable of influencing people’s
thoughts and actions should be considered a form of literature.
7. Which one of the following is an assumption on which Professor Raleigh’s

argument depends?
(A) The literature department’s academic responsibility is not limited to

teaching students how to analyze true literary works.
teaching students how to analyze true literary works.
(B) Political speeches given at legitimate political rallies are not dangerous
to society.
(C) The literature department does not teach students in their courses any
other skills besides those needed to analyze and understand texts.
(D) Texts that are true literary works never are detrimental to society.
(E) Courses offered by the literature department cannot include both true
literary works and material such as political speeches.
8. If a teacher gives a child only a few options for how he or she can spend time
in class, the child is more likely to adhere to the teacher’s instructions than if
the teacher gives the child many options.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle

illustrated above?
(A) Children dislike calculating the best of a variety of options unless they
can see a clear difference among the benefits that would result from each
option.
(B) The tendency children have to alter their behavior varies inversely with
the number of alternative activities made available to them by an adult.
(C) Children are likely to ignore instructions from their teachers if they are
confused about those instructions.
(D) To get good results, the clarity with which a teacher can instruct the
children is of equal importance to the quality of the proscription for not
following the teacher’s instructions.
(E) Most children are unlikely to follow their teacher’s instructions unless
they can vividly imagine the consequences of not following the teacher’s
instructions.
9. A fungus caused by spores called late blight can destroy whole crops of
tomatoes and can reach epidemic levels in areas where tomatoes are grown.
The spores that cause the fungus can be controlled with a synthetic
fungicide, but the fungicide can pose health hazards to people living nearby.
The fungicides are thus unsuitable for small farms, garden stores, and
backyard gardens near populated areas. Fortunately, commercial tomato
fields are in isolated locations where fungicides can be used safely.
Therefore, most of the nation’s tomato crops are not seriously threatened by
late blight.
depends?
(A) The fungus caused by late blight spores is the only disease that threatens
tomatoes nationwide.
(B) It will eventually be possible to breed tomatoes that are resistant to late
blight spores.
(C) The fungus caused by late blight spores spreads more slowly on
commercial tomato fields than in small tomato farms, garden stores, and
backyard gardens.
(D) Most of the tomato plants that have not been exposed to the late blight
spores grow in small tomato farms, garden stores, and backyard gardens.
(E) Commercial fields produce most or all of the nation’s tomatoes.
10. Lawyer: Our next objection will probably be overruled, because normally
about half of all objections that the judge considers are overruled, and
our last five objections have all been sustained.
The lawyer’s reasoning is flawed because it presumes, without giving
warrant, that
(A) the judge is required to overrule at least half of all objections raised
(B) the likelihood that an objection will be overruled is influenced by the
potential influence it may have over the expected verdict
(C) the last five objections having been sustained guarantees that the next
five objections will be overruled
(D) having the last five objections sustained affects the likelihood that the
next objection will be sustained
(E) the majority of the last five objections deserved to be sustained
11. Fifty years ago, the percentage of the nation’s tax revenues spent on the
maintenance of the national parks was twice what it is today. Given that tax
revenues have risen over the past 50 years, we can conclude that tax
revenues have risen at a greater rate than the cost of maintaining the nation’s
national parks.
Which one of the following is the assumption upon which the argument’s
conclusion relies?
(A) In general, the national parks are in better condition today and less costly
than they were 50 years ago.
(B) The national parks today have the same maintenance requirements as
(B) The national parks today have the same maintenance requirements as
they did 50 years ago.
(C) Unlike the national parks, expenditures to maintain the federal buildings
are the same percentage of tax revenues as they were 50 years ago.
(D) The amount spent per square mile of national park space is identical to
the amount spent per square mile of national park space 50 years ago.
(E) The costs related to maintenance of other federal properties have risen
faster than the price of maintaining the national parks over the past 50
years.
Questions 12–13
City mayor: An independent group has released a new study that shows that
more than 63 percent of our students graduate from high school. That is an
increase of 15 percent from what the graduation rate was when I entered
office. This proves that my education policies are a success and that we
should continue implementing them.
Critic: While I applaud your success at increasing the graduation rate I must
point out that of those who graduated only 29 percent tested as being
prepared for college and well-paying careers. That is less than half and
proves that your policies are a complete failure.
12. The critic counters the mayor’s argument by

(A) questioning the mayor’s motives for reaching a certain conclusion
(B) asserting that measuring progress toward educational goals is difficult
and therefore the statistics lack credibility
(C) attempting to show that the mayor’s description of the facts is misleading
(D) discrediting the mayor’s methods while applauding the goal
(E) disputing the accuracy of the figures cited by the mayor
13. Which one of the following could the mayor properly cite as indicating a
flaw in the critic’s reasoning concerning the education study?
(A) The high school students that tested as being unprepared for college and
well-paying careers are isolated to a particular region of the city.
(B) The high school students that tested as being prepared for college and
well-paying careers did not, in fact, continue on to enter college or begin
well-paying careers.
(C) The increase in graduation rate was due to the annexation of a school
district with a high graduation rate among its high schools.
district with a high graduation rate among its high schools.
(D) The test for preparedness is a new test and does not have any previous
results with which to compare the current results.
(E) Other cities in the same state have a lower rate of preparedness for
college and well-paying jobs.
14. The retail price of bleached flour is considerably higher than that of
unbleached flour. However, the process by which flour is bleached is fairly
simple and not very costly. Therefore, the price difference cannot be
accounted for by the greater cost of providing bleached flour to the
consumer.
The argument relies on assuming which one of the following?
(A) Grocery stores do not expect that consumers are willing to pay more for
bleached flour than for unbleached flour.
(B) There is little competition among companies that process bleached four.
(C) Price differences can generally be accounted for by such factors as
supply and demand for the products, not by differences in production
costs.
(D) The only factor relevant to the cost of providing bleached flour to the
consumer is the cost of the bleaching process.
(E) Processing unbleached flour costs more than processing bleached flour.
Question 15–16
A newspaper article on lawsuits in the United States argued that they are on the
decline as a method of resolving disputes. The article’s evidence was the
decreasing number of court verdicts in civil cases, as if the only method of
resolving civil cases is through a lengthy and expensive court hearing. Surely, in
a modern legal system, the fact that a case reached a court verdict is a sign that
the legal system failed to resolve the dispute by other means. The parties to a
lawsuit have ways other than through the courts to resolve their differences, such
as settlement through arbitration and mediation.
15. The argument criticizing the newspaper article is directed toward

establishing which one of the following as its main conclusion?
(A) There is no reason to believe, on the basis of what the newspaper article
said, that lawsuits as a method of resolving disputes are on the decline.
(B) Without the possibility of lengthy and expensive court hearings,
professionals involved in arbitration and mediation would not be
professionals involved in arbitration and mediation would not be
thriving.
(C) Because court hearings are lengthy and costly, other methods of
resolving disputes such as arbitration and mediation are necessary.
(D) Lawsuits are unsuccessful if the only way of resolving the dispute is
through a court hearing.
(E) Although lawsuits are a popular and effective method for citizens to gain
remuneration for being wronged, that does not preclude them from using
other methods to resolve their disputes.
16. The argument criticizing the newspaper article employs which one of the
following strategies?
(A) arguing that the article’s conclusion is motivated by a desire to promote
the reduction in number of lawsuits
(B) detailing historical changes that make the article’s analysis outdated
(C) pointing to the common interests between the lawyers and judges who
manage court hearings, which the article ignores
(D) reinterpreting evidence that the article uses as indicating the negation of
what the newspaper concludes
(E) questioning the accuracy of the statistical evidence that the article uses
17. President of company X: Did the manager hire the best engineer to design
the new product?
Vice president: Yes.
President: And the best production team?
Vice president: Yes.
President: In fact everyone he assigned to designing and manufacturing the
product was the very best he could find?
Vice president: That’s correct.
President: So, your report deliberately misrepresented the manager’s
performance when you claimed he never really wanted the new product
to succeed.
Each of the following accurately describes a flaw in the president’s
reasoning displayed above EXCEPT:
(A) It takes for granted that the product could fail only if the manager wanted
it to fail.
it to fail.
(B) It ignores the possibility that the vice president failed to make the correct
inferences from the facts known and therefore his report’s negative
assessment was unintentional.
(C) It takes for granted that the manager was not forced to assign the people
he did to design and manufacture the product.
(D) It ignores the possibility that the manager failed to allot enough time or
resources to the production team.
(E) It ignores the possibility that the manager knew that the people assigned
to the product would not work well together.
18. My brother likes spinach, but not cabbage, which he says is too bitter. So it is
not true that whoever likes cabbage likes spinach.
The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely resembles that in
which one of the following?
(A) Sophia enjoys managing computer networks, but not computer
programming, which she says is tedious. So it is not true that whoever
enjoys managing computer networks enjoys computer programming.
(B) Although a man is more than seven feet tall, he is not considered a giant.
Thus, it is not the case that all giants are more than seven feet tall.
(C) All minimalist music compositions were written after the year 1960. This
music composition is minimalist, so it must be true that it was written
after the year 1960.
(D) People who repair their own plumbing are do-it-yourself fanatics. My
next-door neighbors are do-it-yourself fanatics, so it follows that they
repair their own plumbing.
(E) This photographic print is not in color, but it is expensive. So it is not
true that some color photographic prints are expensive.
19. Expert witness: We have tested the explosive used in the bank robbery 10
times under controlled circumstances. Each time we detonated 5 square
inches of the explosive substance coated with a dye to measure the
distance of the explosion. In all 10 cases, the dye covered an area much
less than 20.7 square feet. In fact, the dye-covered area was always
between 9.2 and 12.5 square feet. I conclude that 5 square inches of the
explosive substance destroys an area much less than 20.7 square feet.
Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the value of the
expert’s evidence as basis for the conclusion?
expert’s evidence as basis for the conclusion?
(A) Another explosive substance was substituted, and in otherwise identical
circumstances, the dye covered between 21.1 and 23.1 square feet.
(B) Not all expert witnesses are the authorities in their fields that they claim
to be.
(C) Expert witnesses are notoriously unreliable because they tend to adjust
their evidence to support the prosecution’s case.
(D) On the eleventh detonation of the explosive substance the area covered
was also less than 20.7 square feet—this time covering 20.1 feet.
(E) If similar results had been found after 100 test detonations of the
explosive substance, the evidence would be stronger.
20. Historian: The spread of access to the Internet allows more people to learn
about injustices and, in the right circumstances, leads to an increased
capacity to distinguish true reformers from mere opportunists. However,
widespread access to the Internet invariably comes faster than the
development of a generally enlightened education system. In the interim,
the populace is vulnerable to clever charlatans calling for change.
Consequently, some relatively reasonable regimes may be toppled by
their own progressive policies to bring new technologies to the masses.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the historian’s
argument depends?
(A) A lack of enlightened education affects the ability to differentiate
between legitimate and illegitimate calls for reform.
(B) Any reasonable regime that fails to provide a generally enlightened
education system will be toppled by a clever charlatan.
(C) A charlatan can never enlist the public support necessary to topple an
existing regime unless a generally enlightened education system is in
place.
(D) Without access to the Internet there can be no general awareness of
injustice in a society.
(E) Any generally enlightened education system will tend to preserve the
authority of reasonable regimes.
21. Many sleep aid drugs increase appetite. While dieting can help
counterbalance the increased weight gained from taking such sleep aids,
some weight gain is unlikely to be preventable.
The information above most strongly supports which one of the following?
The information above most strongly supports which one of the following?
(A) At least some patients taking sleep aid drugs gain weight as a result of
taking them.
(B) All patients taking sleep aid drugs should diet to maintain their weight.
(C) The weight gain experienced by patients taking sleep aid drugs should be
attributed to lack of dieting.
(D) A physician should not prescribe any sleep aid drugs for a patient if that
patient is overweight.
(E) People who are trying to lose weight should not ask their doctors for
sleep aid drugs.
22. Intelligence is a limited resource, and education and training helps to use this
resource efficiently. Since the most successful people do not differ greatly
from each other in intelligence it follows that a requirement for a person to
achieve success is a superior education.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the
argument?
(A) Education helps people use limited resources efficiently.
(B) No person can become successful without a superior education.
(C) Only a successful person has a superior education.
(D) The differences in intelligence between successful people are not great.
(E) Superior intelligence is a requirement for a person to be successful.
23. Attacks on your opponent’s character should be avoided before a football

game. Such attacks have nothing to do with the opponent’s competitiveness;
instead they attempt to question the opponent’s moral right to compete in the
game at all.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the
reasoning above?
(A) Attacking the character of one’s opponent does nothing to preserve one’s
moral right to play in further football games.
(B) Questions of character should be raised before a football game if they are
relevant to the opponent’s ability to compete on the field.
(C) Attacks on the opponent’s character should not impress the spectators at
the game.
(D) Attacks on an opponent’s character result from an inability to compete
effectively with the opponent on the field.
effectively with the opponent on the field.
(E) Behaviors that have nothing to do with the aspects of playing the game
on the field should be avoided.
24. In order to hire a new employee a manager cannot post an opening without
first getting approval from the manager’s superior. Unfortunately, the
manager’s superior cannot approve the request if the manager does not
already have approval from human resources. Any manager who wants to
hire a new employee, therefore, must gain approval from human resources.
The argument above is most similar to which one of the following?
(A) Among the football players on the Chicago team any player who played
against Dallas also played against New Orleans, and some players who
played against New Orleans also played against Seattle. Therefore, some
players on the Chicago team who played against Dallas have also played
against Seattle.
(B) A doctor cannot prescribe riflinine for a patient without first prescribing
cenoflan for that patient. Unfortunately, cenoflan makes most patients
extremely nauseated or extremely hyperactive. It is likely, therefore, that
a patient who has taken riflinine has felt extremely hyperactive.
(C) A martial arts student cannot achieve the brown belt without first
achieving the purple belt. The purple belt is impossible to achieve unless
the blue belt has already been achieved. Therefore, a martial arts student
who has reached the brown belt must have previously achieved the blue
belt.
(D) It is impossible to be a law-abiding citizen without knowing the society’s
laws. A person who knows the laws of a society has learned them by
means of exhaustive and difficult study or else by growing up among
law-abiding citizens within that society. There are two major ways,
therefore, for a person to become a law-abiding citizen.
(E) One cannot properly identify a bacterium without examining the
flagellum that enables its movement. A powerful microscope can be used
to examine the flagellum of a bacterium. A powerful microscope,
therefore, is necessary for anyone wishing to identify a bacterium
properly.
25. French film director Claude Morrel was accused by Russian film director
Slovan Stipich of plagiarizing a movie he made that had been released 15
years before Morrel’s. The two movies are set in different periods and
regions, but they contain enough plot similarities to make the resemblance
unlikely to be coincidental. Morrel’s defense rests on his argument that
plagiarism was impossible because Stipich’s movie was made in Russian, a
language Morrel does not understand, and because the movie was never
subtitled or reviewed in any other language.
The argument in Morrel’s defense depends on the assumption that
(A) there is a common myth between both cultures to which both directors
referred to subconsciously in the movies in question
(B) Morrel is familiar with an old Cyrillic language that is extinct but related
to the modern Russian language
(C) Morrel has never met Stipich
(D) Stipich’s movie did not become popular in Russian
(E) nobody related the plot of Stipich’s movie in detail to Morrel before
Morrel produced his movie
STOP
SECTION.
SECTION III
Time—35 minutes
24 Questions
PASSAGE A
PASSAGE B
1. Which of the following issues is central to both passages A and B?
(A) As globalization takes hold of nations across the world they are leaving
behind their local and traditional legal systems to build more Western-
style institutions.
(B) As globalization takes hold of nations across the world many newly
independent nations are designing constitutions to better integrate with
both the world at large and their own people’s interests.
(C) Some nations, as they transition to Western-style legal systems, have
found that these systems occasionally conflict with traditional customs
and legal structures.
(D) As nations transition to more Western-style legal systems the
adjudication of legal cases has been taken over by the rule of law from
traditional, more informal institutions.
(E) Nations, as they transition to more Western-style legal systems, have
suffered a new type of imperialism that is more harmful than what they
suffered over the last 100 years.
2. What is the main purpose of the second paragraph of passage A?
(A) exhibit how legal pluralistic arrangements have been highly successful in
one particular area of the world
(B) describe the forms of legal pluralism that have existed through the years
(C) argue that legal pluralism is an unworkable solution for governments
(C) argue that legal pluralism is an unworkable solution for governments
trying to transition to modernity
(D) describe the manner in which an abstract problem described elsewhere
has actually arisen
(E) explain how legal pluralism has only led to disastrous results throughout
history and into modernity
3. According to information in passage A, which of the following would best

describe the attitude of newly independent governments towards traditional
leaders?
(A) respectful tolerance

(B) disdainful accommodation
(C) angry resentment
(D) suspicious unease
(E) uncertain anxiousness
4. The author of passage B uses the example of Zimbabwe’s attempts to reform

its water management system in order to
(A) describe the extent to which Zimbabwe has gone to bring its country into
the family of modern nations
(B) contrast the local traditional method of dealing with administrative issues
with that of the national government
(C) illustrate the range of difficulties experienced by Zimbabwe in its legally
pluralistic society
(D) exemplify the conflict between foreign interests and the traditional
institutions on a particular health-related issue
(E) introduce a circumstance when the government failed to work with the
local tribal chiefs to modernize the nation’s infrastructure
5. Which of the following best describes the relationship between passage A

and passage B?
(A) Passage A presents an alternative perspective on legal pluralism that

passage B rejects.
(B) Passage A offers a resolution to the conflict inherent to legal pluralism
and passage B questions the validity of that solution.
(C) Passage A discusses the origins of legal pluralism and passage B
suggests that a global human rights conflict is attributable to the practice
suggests that a global human rights conflict is attributable to the practice
of legal pluralism
(D) Passage A discusses a tension inherent to legal pluralism and passage B
presents a specific example that illustrates that tension.
(E) Passage A discusses the issue of globalization and human rights and
passage B places this issue in its proper context.
(A) Critics have misinterpreted Faulkner’s novel as an allegory of the
breakdown of the social fabric of southern society in the early twentieth
century.
(B) Critics have come to interpret Faulkner’s novel as a reinterpretation of
the southern gothic novel and a new representation of its complexities.
(C) Critics have discovered that while Faulkner’s novel explores aspects of
southern social structures, it also explores the limitations of the novel as
a storytelling device.
(D) Critics have failed to come to any definitive interpretation of Faulkner’s
novel because the very nature of the novel is one that questions whether
interpretation is even possible.
(E) Critics have come to realize that Faulkner worked collaboratively with
fellow Hollywood screenwriters in writing his novel and thus call into
question its authorship.
7. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with
which one of the following statements about the contemporary critics of
Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom!?
(A) The critics fail to take into account the central story of Henry Sutpen and
his rise to power, which aligns with Faulkner’s main concern, the
breakdown of southern culture.
(B) The critics’ theories may not take into account the influences on
Faulkner’s style, but the novel’s structure and its conclusion give some
credence to them.
(C) The critics have become too focused on structuralist concepts that have
led them on a tangent when it comes to addressing the dominant themes
of Faulkner’s novel.
(D) The critics allowed the influence of Hollywood and detective novels on
Faulkner’s writing to color this perspective and depart from accepted
critical notions.
(E) The critics have done an excellent job of overthrowing all previously
accepted theories concerning the novel and narrative theory.
8. The primary purpose of the second paragraph is to
(A) give evidence that casts some doubt on a critical theory

(B) offer biographical information that supports a critical theory
(C) describe the circumstances under which critics came to their conclusion
(C) describe the circumstances under which critics came to their conclusion
(D) detail the historical background that surrounded the creation of the novel
(E) clarify the underlying foundations of a particular critical theory
9. The passage implies which one of the following with regard to Faulkner’s
character Quentin Compson in the novel?
(A) He was not in fact from the South even though he identifies himself as a
Southerner.
(B) His character was inspired by Hollywood scriptwriters whom Faulkner
encountered.
(C) He hates his southern heritage and his account of Sutpen’s history
indicates as much.
(D) He appears in other novels and serves to express Faulkner’s own
perspective.
(E) His character was derived through reading detective novels by Raymond
Chandler.
10. The modern critics of Faulkner discussed in the passage would be most
likely to agree with which of the following statements?
(A) Faulkner intended the Sutpen murder mysteries to represent the decay of
the southern paternal system.
(B) It is the reader who must supply the evidence that is sorely lacking in the
novel so that the mysteries at the heart of the Sutpen story can be solved.
(C) All novels are a collaboration between the novelist and the reader and
only together can they unlock the mysteries put forward by the text.
(D) Despite Faulkner’s efforts to the contrary there are specifics revealed
within the story that give incontrovertible proof of what really occurred
during Sutpen’s life.
(E) The novel is an inherently misleading medium, given that the author’s
voice is by its nature untrustworthy, demanding that the reader figure out
which, if any, information in the novel is accurate.
11. According to the passage Faulkner’s writing of the novel was heavily
influenced by all of the following EXCEPT:
(A) scriptwriting
(B) noir detective novels
(C) southern culture
(D) gothic story structure
(D) gothic story structure
(E) the author’s own struggles with a southern heritage
12. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with presenting which one
of the following?
(A) historical background that may have affected the content of a novel
(B) an exploration of a critical theory as to why an author structured a novel
as he did
(C) a conflict between literary critical approaches that has yet to be resolved
(D) an explanation of why an author included a mysterious chapter at the end
of a novel
(E) a discussion of the influences that resulted in an author’s unique
approach to writing a novel
13. Which of the following best states the main idea of the passage?
(A) The theoretical nature of dark energy and the exorbitant cost of space
exploration mean that scientists will never understand what is causing an
ever-expanding universe.
(B) The disagreement between two opposing factions with irreconcilable
theories on dark energy are hindering progress on understanding the
theories on dark energy are hindering progress on understanding the
ever-expanding universe.
(C) While the universe’s future, contraction or infinite expansion, remains
unresolved, several theories concerning the force causing its expansion
are fueling the current scientific discussion.
(D) Since Einstein’s theory of gravity has failed to deliver an explanation for
dark energy, scientists have turned to the theory of quintessence because
it lacks the burden of the cosmological constant.
(E) Until scientists obtain observational evidence through experiments in
space they are left with the theoretical concept of dark energy, which has
fueled several hypotheses as to how it works.
14. The author of the passage mentions in the first paragraph that it was known
how much energy was necessary to cause the past and current rate of
expansion of the universe in order to
(A) show that scientist do have some understanding of the larger universe
even if they lack the specific understanding of what is causing it to
expand
(B) show that scientists remain in a theoretical quandary with regard to the
nature of dark energy
(C) prove that the universe is ever-expanding and will not contract as thought
previously
(D) explain the high level of uncertainty with scientists’ theoretical models
for explaining dark energy
(E) give credence to the theory that dark energy constitutes the vast majority
of the makeup of the universe
15. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of the following is true of
quintessence?
(A) It proves that Einstein’s theory of gravity is flawed and needs to be
replaced with a new one.
(B) Observational evidence is unnecessary because its equations do not
include the troublesome cosmological constant that burdened Einstein’s
theory of gravity.
(C) Dark energy is not inherent in space itself and not consistently present
throughout the universe.
(D) Quantum theorists do not have the same problem of finding too much
energy as they did with Einstein’s equations.
energy as they did with Einstein’s equations.
(E) Dark energy replaces gravity and explains all forces, both attractive and
expansionary.
16. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to

(A) offer theories of dark energy that are in conflict with each other
(B) offer theories of dark energy that have been challenged but remain under
consideration due to lack of evidence
(C) offer theories of dark energy that have been discarded due to lack of
evidence
(D) introduce evidence that supports one theory of dark energy over another
(E) make an argument in favor of expending public funds for experiments
that will prove the nature of the expanding universe
17. According to the passage, all of the following are theoretically possible
characteristics of dark energy EXCEPT:
(A) It is a naturally occurring phenomenon of space itself.
(B) It is increasing with the expansion of the universe.
(C) It supplants gravity as the dominant force in the universe.
(D) Evolving rivers of it flow through space.
(E) It will eventually give way to gravity and the universe will contract.
18. If the author of the passage were to add one more sentence at the end of the
last paragraph, which of the following would it be?
(A) Until financial resources become available scientists should move on to
more practical pursuits.
(B) For now the mysteries surrounding what constitutes most of the known
universe will remain unsolved for at least awhile longer.
(C) It is obvious that such theoretical concepts are no longer of concern to
the society at large and thus should be abandoned.
(D) Since neither Einstein’s theory of gravity nor the theory of quintessence
have been vindicated, scientists must find a new and more viable theory
to explain dark energy.
(E) It is impressive that concepts developed more than 100 years ago by
Einstein and several hundreds of years ago by the Medieval scientists
still persist today even if they are unsupported by any hard evidence.
19. Which one of the following titles most accurately describes the contents of
the passage?
(A) The New Proposition: Privacy in the Defense of Property
(B) In Transition: How Privacy Moved from the Private to Public
Consideration
(C) Creativity Under Defense: The Legal Profession Takes on Copyright
Law at the Turn of the Century
(D) The Essay with Personality: Two Men Redefine a Nation’s Definition of
Privacy Under the Law
(E) Privacy Gets Real: Warren and Brandeis Extend Privacy Protection to
Thoughts, Sentiments, and Emotions
20. It can most reasonably be inferred from the passage that Brandeis and
Warren’s approach to the right to privacy was
(A) based on their observations of serious deficiencies in the current law
(A) based on their observations of serious deficiencies in the current law
(B) intended to protect their own property interests, specifically some
portraits each of them owned
(C) revenge upon those who had slandered their acquaintances
(D) intended to neutralize actions directed at Warren and his acquaintances
as objects of public gossip
(E) intended to protect some very talented and creative people among their
relatives
21. The passage suggests that the other scholars referred to in the passage would
be most likely to believe which one of the following statements?
(A) If person B steals a short story written by person A and publishes it word
for word in a local pamphlet, A’s privacy has been infringed upon.
(B) If person B steals person A’s photograph from A’s home and publishes
the photograph, A’s privacy has not been infringed upon.
(C) If person A writes a story that has not yet been published and person B
reads it and later publishes his or her own version of the story, A’s
privacy has been infringed upon.
(D) If person A tells person B a personal anecdote and person B publishes
that anecdote in the local newspaper, person A’s privacy has been
infringed upon.
(E) If person A gives a photograph to person B and person B, in turn,
publishes that photograph in a local newspaper, person A’s privacy has
been infringed upon.
22. According to the passage, Brandeis and Warren’s approach to personality

was
(A) an evolution of earlier ideas
(B) a tweak to existing law that had larger ramifications
(C) a discounted side step from their central argument
(D) a revolutionary expansion of the existing law
(E) a redefinition, which was poorly understood by existing scholars, of an
existing concept
23. The function of the second paragraph is to

(A) clarify elements within the essay that led to their conclusions
(B) explicate the structure of the essay
(C) explore the underlying cultural phenomena that influenced the writers
(C) explore the underlying cultural phenomena that influenced the writers
(D) give the reasons that they wrote the essay
(E) portray the writers and their personal reasons for writing the essay
24. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) discredit an archaic legal argument
(B) explore the current influence of a historic legal essay
(C) establish the historic importance of a landmark legal essay
(D) delineate between two different conceptions of the right to privacy
(E) discuss the circumstances and nature of a historic legal argument
STOP
SECTION.
SECTION IV
Time—35 minutes
27 Questions
1. Arbus: It has been argued that adding a 3-D effect to a movie degrades the
integrity of the original 2-D version, and that nobody should be required
to wear special glasses to experience a work of art. But nobody argues
that we should not transform a theatrical movie into a home video that
people can view at home because it erodes the value of the theatrical
version, nor do they argue that people should not be required to use a
video player to watch it. The home video version is a technologically
different production that stands on it own. Judgments of it do not reflect
on the original theatrical version. Similarly, a 3-D version of a movie is a
distinct version from the original and should be judged on its own merit.
It does not degrade the integrity of the original 2-D version.
Arbus’s argument uses which one of the following techniques of
argumentation?
(A) It appeals to an inference from a general principle and a set of facts.
(B) It draws on popular opinion on the matter at issue.
(C) It proffers an example counter to a general principle.
(D) It invokes an analogy between similar cases.
(E) It distinguishes facts from value judgments.
2. During the meeting of the G-20 summit of major economic countries the
member nations authorized a rescue package to aid one of its members in
handling a debt crisis that threatened its economic future. Afterward, the
parliament of one of the G-20 members passed a resolution condemning its
own prime minister for promising to contribute funds to the rescue package.
A parliamentary leader insisted that the overwhelming vote for the resolution
did not imply the parliament’s opposition to the financial intervention; on the
contrary, most members of parliament supported the G-20 action.
discrepancy presented above?
(A) In the parliamentary leader’s nation, it is the constitutional prerogative of
the parliament, not of the prime minister, to initiate financial aid to
foreign entities.
(B) Members of the parliament traditionally are more closely attuned to
public sentiment, especially with regard to the use of public money, than
are prime ministers.
(C) The public would not support the financial rescue unless it was known
that the parliament approved of the action.
(D) The G-20 nations cannot legally commit funds of a member nation to a
financial intervention.
(E) The treasury would be responsible for providing the funding vouchers
necessary to move the money across borders for such rescue packages.
3. The game Complicus requires a great deal of manual dexterity. Laurie is a

highly capable auto mechanic. Therefore, Laurie would make an excellent
Complicus player.
The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that
in which one of the following?
(A) Any good cyclist can learn to in-line skate eventually. Katherine is a
champion cyclist. Therefore, Katherine could learn to in-line skate in a
day or two.
(B) The role of Ebenezer Scrooge in community productions is often played
by an experienced actor. Irving has played Ebenezer Scrooge in the
community production for several years. Therefore, Irving must be an
experienced actor.
(C) People who work with their hands for a living invariably enjoy do-it-
yourself projects. Larry has been a successful construction manager for
many years. Therefore, Larry enjoys do-it-yourself projects.
many years. Therefore, Larry enjoys do-it-yourself projects.
(D) People with long arms make good volleyball players. Everyone in
Jackie’s family has long arms. Therefore, Jackie would make a good
volleyball player.
(E) All horseracing jockeys have excellent balance. Ricardo is a champion
cyclist. Therefore, Ricardo would make a good horseracing jockey.
4. Psychologist: Doctors should stop refusing to prescribe drugs to help people

with depression. Most cases of depression that psychiatrists treat are
known to be caused by chemical imbalances. This suggests that people
suffering from depression do not need months or even years of therapy,
but rather need the right drugs to alter their biochemistry and alleviate
what is causing their depression.
Each of the following describes a flaw in the psychologist’s reasoning
EXCEPT:
(A) It neglects the possibility that for some people the available drugs are
completely ineffective at treating their types of chemical imbalances.
(B) It presumes, without providing any evidence, that depression contributes
to a chemical imbalance.
(C) It fails to consider the possibility that for some people therapy is the only
treatment known to be effective for cases of depression not caused by a
chemical imbalance.
(D) It presumes, without providing justification, that the cases of chemical
imbalance psychiatrists treat are representative of all cases of chemical
imbalance.
(E) It overlooks the possibility that therapy could help depressed people cope
with their chemical imbalance.
5. An antidote for whooping cough has been developed, but researchers warn
that its widespread use could be dangerous, despite the fact that this drug has
no serious side effects and is currently very effective at limiting the duration
and severity of whooping cough.
Which one of the following, if true, helps most to reconcile the apparent
discrepancy indicated above?
(A) The drug can be fatal when misused, such as taking larger-than-
prescribed doses.
(B) The drug does not prevent the spread of whooping cough from one
(B) The drug does not prevent the spread of whooping cough from one
person to another, even when the drug eventually cures the disease in the
first person.
(C) The drug must be administered several times a day, so patient
compliance is likely to be low.
(D) Use of the drug contributes to the development of deadlier strains of
whooping cough that are resistant to the drug.
(E) The drug is very expensive and making it widely available would be
infeasible.
6. Juan: It is wrong to think that the same managerial style should be used
with all employees. For many employees their work experience has been
more team oriented than others and they would therefore function better
on group, rather than solo, projects. An employee’s accustomed style of
work environment should always dictate how they are managed.
Dorothy: No, not always. Flexibility in the workplace, being able to work
either on one’s own or on a team, is invaluable to a company and its
ability to function in the marketplace.
The conversation lends the most support to the claim that Juan and Dorothy
disagree on which one of the following?
(A) It is sometimes desirable to tailor managerial styles to the way the
employee functions best.
(B) The main purpose of management is to train employees to be flexible
within the work environment of the company.
(C) All employees should learn to adapt to various managerial styles.
(D) Many employees would work better on a team rather than solo projects.
(E) All employees work better when assigned solo projects.
7. Political consultant: Most people do not have every word they utter judged
for consistency, but every speech given by a politician is closely
analyzed. That is why politicians give such consistent speeches, although
such speeches are often not explicit on details.
The political consultant’s statements, if true, most strongly support which
(A) Only politicians have every speech they give judged for consistency.
(B) No other people give more consistent speeches than do politicians.
(C) By having every word closely analyzed, some people are caused to be
very consistent with their statements.
very consistent with their statements.
(D) Some people are highly consistent with their statements in spite of the
fact that not every word they utter is judged for consistency.
(E) A speech given by a politician is generally evaluated more strictly than
the majority of things said by other people.
8. Media consultant: Electronic media are bound to bring an end to the

traditional news organizations in our society. This is because the
emergence of the traditional news organization, characterized by a group
of journalists managed by an erstwhile news editor, was facilitated by the
low cost and ease of publishing and distributing a newspaper. Currently,
however, newspapers are being overtaken by electronic media. So, it is
inevitable that the traditional news organization will not survive in our
society.
The reasoning in the consultant’s argument is flawed because it
(A) relies inappropriately on an expert’s opinion
(B) confuses the value of an institution with the method by which it operates
(C) presupposes as a premise what it is trying to prove
(D) presupposes that just because something might happen it will happen
(E) mistakes something that enables an institution to arise for something
necessary for the survival of the institution
Questions 9–10
David: The effort of advanced nations to create new biofuels has increased
demand for the world’s crops and diverted them from being used as food.
As a result, prices for food have risen, increasing world hunger and
political instability across numerous developing world nations. Advanced
nations should scale back their efforts to produce more environmentally
friendly fuels.
Lucie: There are many other factors that could be responsible for driving up the
prices of food. Last year severe weather destroyed crops of wheat in Russia
and China. Also, a mealy bug infestation decreased Thailand’s output of
cassava.
9. Which one of the following most accurately describes Lucie’s criticism of

David’s explanation?
(A) It points out that David’s explanation is based on two hypotheses that
(A) It points out that David’s explanation is based on two hypotheses that
contradict each other.
(B) It cites an analogous case in which David’s explanation clearly cannot
hold.
(C) It offers an alternative explanation that is equally supported by the
evidence that David cites.
(D) It refers to sources of additional data that cannot easily be reconciled
with the facts David cites.
(E) It cites facts that suggest David’s argument overlooks alternative
explanations.
10. Which one of the following, if true, could be used by David to counter
Lucie’s rejection of his argument?
(A) Russia, China, and Thailand are not the only countries supplying crops
for use in developing biofuels.
(B) Wheat and cassava are minor crops in the development of biofuels.
(C) The amount of crops affected by severe weather and pest infestation has
remained unchanged for the last five years.
(D) Infestations by the mealy bug can be easily managed by introducing
farmers to new pesticide technologies.
(E) Political instability is directly attributable to food riots over price
increases.
11. A safety report indicates that, on average, automobile accidents decline by

about 9 percent in those areas in which the city has reduced the number of
traffic signs posted. In a certain city, the city reduced its number of traffic
signs by 50 percent and over a three-year period the number of automobile
accidents remained the same.
Which one of the following, if true, does NOT help resolve the apparent
discrepancy between the safety report and the city’s public safety records?
(A) In the last three years, most of the automobile accidents occurred due to
a lack of attention to traffic signs.
(B) Bureaucratic errors left many of the more accident-prone areas of the city
still with the same number of traffic signs as before the reduction.
(C) The city now includes accidents involving pedestrians in its yearly total
of automobile accidents, whereas three years ago it did not.
(D) Three years ago speed limits in the city were increased by as much as 10
kph (6 mph).
kph (6 mph).
(E) In the time since the city reduced its number of traffic signs the city has
experienced a higher than average increase in automobile traffic.
12. Jack said he was not going to include members of the marketing department
in the project-planning meeting. However, among the items each attendee
left the meeting with was a sales report that Jack felt was important. Since
members of the marketing department had promised to produce just such a
sales report and intended to give it to Jack at the meeting, at least some
members of the marketing department must have been at the project-
planning meeting.
A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument
(A) fails to establish that something true of some people is true of only those
people
(B) uses a term that is innately evaluative as though that term was purely
descriptive
(C) treats the evidence of someone’s presence at a given event as an
assurance that that person had a legitimate reason to be at that event
(D) overlooks the possibility that a person’s interest in one kind of thing is
compatible with that person’s interest in another kind of thing
(E) disregards the possibility that a change of mind might be warranted by a
change in circumstances
13. If you have no skill with tools at all you will not be able to repair the water
heater. And if you are not able to repair the water heater you will not be able
to perform the duties of a maintenance engineer.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true?
(A) If you are not able to perform the duties of a maintenance engineer, you
are not able to repair a water heater.
(B) If you are able to perform the duties of a maintenance engineer then you
have at least some skill with tools.
(C) If you have some skill with tools, you will be able to perform the duties
of a maintenance engineer.
(D) If you are able to repair a water heater, you will probably be able to
perform the duties of a maintenance engineer.
(E) If you are not able to perform the duties of a maintenance engineer you
have no skill with tools.
14. Art critic: The meaning of a work of art is ever shifting, not fixed, and
therefore it may attract many equally valid interpretations.
Interpretations essentially involve imposing meaning on a work of art,
rather than discovering meaning in it, so interpretations need not
consider the intentions of the artist. Thus, any interpretation of a work
of art reveals more about the critic than about the artist.
Which one of the following is an assumption required by the art critic’s
argument?
(A) In order to truly understand a work of art one must know the artist’s
history.
(B) A critic of a particular work of art can never know the true intentions of
the creator of that work of art.
(C) An artist’s intentions are relevant to a valid interpretation of the artist’s
work.
(D) A meaning imposed on a work of art reflects facts about the interpreter.
(E) There are no criteria by which to distinguish the validity of different
interpretations of works of art.
15. The studies showing that the replacement of an older power plant with a
modern one decreases the incidence of major illnesses do not distinguish
between a conventional or nuclear power plant; their survey included at least
some areas powered by a nuclear power plant. The studies may also be taken
as showing, therefore, that there is no increased health risk associated with
living next to a nuclear power plant.
The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most
similar to the pattern of flawed reasoning in the argument above?
(A) Research has shown that it takes more energy to produce a paper bag
than a plastic bag, but after each is used and deposited as waste in a
landfill a plastic bag lasts longer and takes up more space than a paper
bag. There is, therefore, no more environmental harm from a plastic bag
than from a paper bag.
(B) Research shows that there is no greater long-term health benefit
connected to taking vitamin supplements than with a moderate increase
in the intake of fruits and vegetables. Clearly, then, there is no long-term
health risk connected to the failure to take vitamin supplements, so long
as enough fruits and vegetables are consumed.
(C) Research has shown that young people who drive a car with an
accompanying adult and receive one full year of intensive driving
accompanying adult and receive one full year of intensive driving
instruction are less likely to become involved in accidents than those who
simply pass a driving test and start driving on their own. This shows that
adults are inherently more responsible drivers than young people.
(D) Research shows that the incidence of cancer is decreased by eating fruits
and vegetables. The fact that this benefit exists regardless of whether
they are grown conventionally or organically shows that there is no
increased cancer risk to eating fruits and vegetables containing pesticide
residues.
(E) Research has shown that there is no long-term health risk connected to a
diet consisting largely of foods high in saturated fat and cholesterol if
such a diet is consumed by someone who is genetically predisposed to
process such a diet. Therefore, the health of a person’s parents is more
important than diet.
Questions 16–17
Mr. Anderson: I am upset that my daughter’s entire soccer team has been
suspended for two games because some of her team members were
taunting members of the opposing team. She was not taunting them, and it
was clear to everyone who the culprits were.
League director: I’m sorry you are upset, Mr. Anderson, but your daughter’s
situation is like being stuck at the airport because of a delayed flight.
People who aren’t involved in causing the delay nevertheless have to suffer
by waiting there.
16. If the league director is speaking sincerely, then it can be inferred from what
the league director says that the league director believes that
(A) Mr. Anderson’s daughter might not have taunted members of the
opposing team
(B) a flight delay is generally caused by weather or inefficiencies in the air
traffic control system
(C) Mr. Anderson’s daughter knows who it was that taunted members of the
opposing team
(D) being suspended from two games will deter future unsportsmanlike
behavior
(E) many team members were taunting members of the opposing team
17. The league director’s response to Mr. Anderson’s complaint is most
vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
(A) It attempts to confuse the point at issue by introducing irrelevant facts
about the incident.
(B) It makes a generalization about all the members of the team, which is not
justified by the facts.
(C) It assumes that Mr. Anderson’s daughter is guilty when there is evidence
to the contrary that the director has disregarded.
(D) It suggests that taunting members of the opposing team produces as
much inconvenience as does being caught at the airport due to a flight
delay.
(E) It does not acknowledge the fact that waiting at the airport due to a flight
delay is unavoidable while the mass punishment was avoidable.
18. Editorialist: The frontal lobe of a teenager is not as well developed as an

adult’s and the frontal lobe is primarily responsible for recognizing
good from bad actions and their consequences. This means that
teenagers do not have the ability to make good decisions while driving
an automobile. Therefore, teenagers should have additional restrictions
put on their driver’s licenses.
If the statements above are true, which one of the following most weakens
the argument that teenagers do not have the ability to make good decisions
while driving an automobile?
(A) Studies have shown that a vast majority of automobile accidents are
attributable to slow response time to adverse stimuli, which is not
controlled by the frontal lobe.
(B) Brain research has shown that other lobes of the brain contribute to
decision-making functions in the brains of both teenagers and adults.
(C) Studies have shown that teenagers who have been in automobile
accidents have frontal lobes of a similar size to those in adult brains.
(D) It has been proven that the development of the parietal lobe of a
teenager’s brain is equivalent to that in the brain of an adult.
(E) Adults with brain injuries to their frontal lobe are involved in more
automobile accidents than adults with healthy brains.
19. Due to wider commercial availability of electronic books, sales of printed

books have dropped significantly.
Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated
above?
(A) Because of the wide variety of high-quality home video recorders, sales
of high-quality televisions have improved.
(B) Because a new brand of chewing gum entered the market, consumers
reduced their consumption of an established brand of chewing gum.
(C) Because neither of the two most popular spreadsheet programs has all of
the features consumers want, neither has been able to dominate the
market.
(D) Because a child was forbidden to watch television until the child
completed homework, that child avoided dawdling and focused on
homework.
(E) Because of the rising cost of union labor, manufacturers began to make
more extensive use of robots in the manufacturing process.
Questions 20–21
George: It was wrong of Kristen to tell our boss that the reason the project will
not succeed is that our company does not have the talent or resources to
successfully execute all the steps necessary to make the project come to
fruition. Saying such falsehoods can never be other than morally wrong
and we do have the talent and the resources—Kristen just does not believe
in the project and did not want to do the work.
20. The main conclusion drawn in George’s argument is that

(A) it is always wrong not to tell the truth
(B) the real reason Kristen did not support the project is that she does not
believe in it and does not want to do the work
(C) it was wrong of Kristen to tell her boss that the project would not
succeed because she believes the organization cannot execute all the
steps necessary to make the project a success
(D) it is wrong to avoid expressing one’s own opinion by blaming the failure
on deficiencies within the organization
(E) Kristen did not tell her boss the truth
21. The justification George offers for his judgment of Kristen’s behavior is
most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the justification
(A) relies on an illegitimate appeal to pity to obscure the fact that the
(A) relies on an illegitimate appeal to pity to obscure the fact that the
conclusion does not logically follow from the premises advanced
(B) attempts to justify a judgment about a particular case by citing a general
principle that stands in far greater need of support than does the
particular judgment
(C) judges behavior that is outside an individual’s control according to moral
standards that can properly be applied only to behavior that is within
such control
(D) ignores an important moral distinction between saying something that is
false and failing to say something that one knows is true
(E) confuses having identified the cause of a given effect with having
eliminated the possibility of there being any other causes of that effect
22. Research indicates that members of the police force generally were raised in
economically disadvantaged households. For it was discovered that, overall,
police officers grew up in communities with average household incomes that
were lower than the average household income for the nation as a whole.
The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
(A) does not take into account the fact that members of the police force
generally have lower salaries than their counterparts in the private sector
(B) fails to take into account the fact that many police officers live in high-
density urban communities, which generally have low average household
incomes
(C) fails to note there are some communities with low average household
incomes in which no members of the police force grew up
(D) presumes without justification that members of the police force generally
were raised in households with incomes that are average or below
average for their communities
(E) inappropriately assumes a correlation between household income and
economic advantage
23. Not surprisingly, there are no astronauts under the age of twenty-one. And,
as is well known, no one under the age of twenty-one can purchase alcohol.
Finally, some scientists are astronauts, some purchase alcohol, and some are
under twenty-one.
If the statements above are true, then on the basis of them which one of the
following must also be true?
(A) Some astronauts neither purchase alcohol nor are scientists.
(A) Some astronauts neither purchase alcohol nor are scientists.
(B) Some scientists are neither astronauts nor purchase alcohol.
(C) Some people who purchase alcohol are not astronauts.
(D) All scientists either are astronauts, purchase alcohol, or are under
twenty-one.
(E) No astronauts are twenty-one years old.
24. For years, invasive plant species like kudzu have smothered broad swaths of
the local forests, taken over our wetlands, and clogged our waterways.
Invasive plants have proven to be a potent threat to biodiversity. However,
scientific studies show that invasive plant species are rarely the cause of
native species’ extinctions.
Which of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent
discrepancy in the information above?
(A) Invasive plants are not considered a threat to human health and therefore
biodiversity has less importance.
(B) Kudzu’s growth crowds out other invasive plants that could be harmful
to biodiversity.
(C) While kudzu and other invasive plants can adversely affect biodiversity
in a particular locality, they have less affect on a larger geographic scale,
and most species range over such large geographic scales.
(D) The biodiversity of forests, wetlands, and waterways was decreasing
even before being threatened by kudzu and other invasive plant species.
(E) Scientific studies attribute extinctions to industrial waste, pollution from
automobiles, and other harmful human activities.
25. I have read her paper arguing for a new, more rigorous approach to analyzing
literature and M frequently ascribes bad faith to scholars who disagree with
her. It is troubling that M asserts that these scholars’ opinions are colored by
laziness and loyalty to outdated schools of thought. Add to this that M has
often shown herself to be arrogant, overly ambitious, and sometimes plain
nasty, and it becomes clear that M’s paper does not merit attention from
serious scholars.
The author of the above scholarly review commits which one of the
following reasoning errors?
(A) dismissing an approach to literary criticism by giving a biased account of
it
(B) failing to distinguish between the criteria of being true and of being
(B) failing to distinguish between the criteria of being true and of being
sufficiently interesting to merit attention
(C) using an attack on the moral qualities of the author of the paper as
evidence that the paper is not worthy of scholarly discussion of its truth
(D) presenting as facts several assertions about the paper under review that
are based only on strong conviction and would be impossible for others
to verify
(E) taking it for granted that a scholar is unlikely to do the work necessary
and question an established school of thought
26. Regulatory regimens are created to institute fairness in the delivery of

government services. Thus, despite growing dissatisfaction with complex
regulatory systems, it is unlikely that regulations will be simplified.
The claim that regulatory regimens are created to institute fairness in the
delivery of government services plays which one of the following roles in the
argument?
(A) It is used to weaken the claim that regulations should be simplified.
(B) It is a conclusion for which the claim that regulations are unlikely to be
simplified is offered as support.
(C) It is cited as evidence that regulatory systems are becoming more and
more complex.
(D) It is a conclusion for which the only support offered is the claim that
dissatisfaction with complex regulatory systems is growing.
(E) It is a premise offered in support of the claim that it is unlikely that
regulations will be simplified.
27. Presidents cannot achieve greatness as long as they remain in the capital city.
Their abilities to listen, analyze, and negotiate, which government functions
hone, are useful to a leader, but an understanding of the citizen’s everyday
experiences and frustrations can be obtained only by the immersion in
communities around the country that is precluded by being a government
functionary.
depends?
(A) Presidents cannot achieve greatness without an intuitive grasp of a
citizen’s everyday experiences and frustrations.
(B) Participation in communities, interspersed with impartial observation of
everyday experiences and frustrations, makes presidents great.
everyday experiences and frustrations, makes presidents great.
(C) No great president lacks the power to listen, analyze, and negotiate.
(D) Knowledge of the citizen’s everyday experiences and frustrations cannot
be acquired by merely listening, analyzing, and negotiating in life.
(E) Presidents require some impartiality to get an intuitive grasp of a
citizen’s everyday experiences and frustrations.
STOP
THIS SECTION ONLY. DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER TEST
SECTION.
Section I
1. A
2. C
3. E
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. E
8. B
9. C
10. B
11. E
12. C
13. D
14. A
15. B
16. E
17. A
18. C
19. C
20. C
21. A
22. B
23. D
24. E
25. B
Section II
1. D
2. A
3. A
4. C
5. D
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. E
10. D
11. B
12. C
13. D
14. D
15. A
16. D
17. A
18. B
19. D
20. A
21. A
22. B
23. E
24. C
25. E
Section III
1. C
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. D
6. C
7. B
8. B
9. D
10. E
11. D
12. B
13. E
14. A
15. C
16. B
17. E
18. B
19. D
20. D
21. A
22. D
23. C
24. E
Section IV
1. D
2. A
3. E
4. B
5. D
6. C
7. C
8. E
9. E
10. C
11. A
12. A
13. B
14. D
15. D
16. A
17. E
18. A
19. B
20. C
21. B
22. D
23. B
24. C
25. C
26. E
27. A
Your Raw Score
It is impossible to say with complete precision what raw score will translate
to what scaled score on future LSATs, but here is a rough estimation.
SECTION I
Questions 1–5
As with all logic games, you follow the six-step process.

This is a grouping game. You know it is a grouping game because the
description says you must “choose” four scientists for a project. It also says the
scientists must be “selected” according to certain rules that limit the composition
of the group. Furthermore, the game gives you two qualifications that exclude or
include the candidate from the project: publication and specialization.

You can create your diagram as a grid with four slots. You can abbreviate the
scientists’ names to their initials. There are two ways you can handle the
placement of the variables: you can list them outside the grid and then place
them into the grid as they are assigned, or you can put them into the grid and
select those who qualify or eliminate those who do not qualify when handling
each question. Because it simplifies things visually, let’s put them in the grid as
follows:
Clue 1: Exactly two published scientists and two unpublished scientists are
selected.
You do not need to create symbolizations of this clue. You can simply put the
number 2 below each column to show that the elements in each column must add
up to 2.
up to 2.
Clue 2: Exactly two microbiologists and two immunologists are selected.
You do not need to create a symbolization of this clue either. As with the
previous clue, you can put the number 2 to the right of each row to show that
each row must add up to 2.
Clue 3: Either Klipp or Gross or both are selected.
Essentially, this clue is saying that there is no situation where neither K nor G is
included in the group. If K is not in the group, then G must be in the group. If G
is not in the group, then K must be in the group. Finally, both K and G can be in
the group, but it cannot be the case that neither is in the group. You symbolize
this clue as follows: K G K & G
Logically, the above can be reduced to K/G. The logical disjunction “or” does
not exclude that both can be in the group.

clue. In this case you have only one clue that has been symbolized. Once you
have verified that it works, you can add the symbolizations to your diagram.
Your diagram should look as follows:

No deductions of this type are possible in this game.

As you take the test, answer the questions in this order:

answered first. Questions that give you more information include the
following: Question 2 (“Bosch and Klipp are selected for the research
project . . .”)
Question 3 (“Bosch and Cristof are selected for the research project . .
.”)
Question 4 (“Hoff and Mann are selected for the research project . . .”)
Question 5 (“N is selected for the research project . . .”)
There are no remaining questions.
THE ANSWERS
1. Answer: A
The question asks you to identify the answer that gives an acceptable
selection of scientists for the project. This means that all but one of the
groupings is unacceptable. You can quickly eliminate answer C because it
does not include K or G, which is inconsistent with clue 3. You can look at
each of the remaining scenarios using your diagram to determine whether it
is acceptable or not. Answer A includes G and it gives you two unpublished,
two published, two microbiologist, and two immunologist scientists. This is
an acceptable selection and must be your answer. Let’s look at the remaining
options for learning purposes. Answer B has three immunologists and only
one microbiologist, so it is inconsistent with clue 2. Answer D has three
microbiologists and only one immunologist, so it is inconsistent with clue 2
as well. Answer E has three microbiologists and only one immunologist,
which is also inconsistent with clue 2. It also has three unpublished and only
one published scientist, which is inconsistent with clue 1. The correct
choice is answer A.
2. Answer: C
The question tells you that both B and K are selected and then asks you to
determine which answer gives you the two other scientists who must be
selected with them. You use your diagram to determine the correct answer.
Because B and K are both microbiologists, you determine that the other two
must be immunologists in order to be consistent with clue 2. Also B is
published while K is unpublished. Therefore, the other two must be split the
same way, one published and one unpublished, so that the group is consistent
with clue 1. The question already requires the selection of K, so you do not
need to be concerned with abiding by clue 3. Restating your requirements,
you need two immunologists, one who is published and one who is
unpublished. This is exactly what answer C gives you, so the correct choice
is answer C.
3. Answer: E
The question tells you that B and C are selected and asks you to choose from
among the possible answers the one scientist who must be selected. Of the
two remaining slots, G or K must be one of them, but you cannot select G
because that would put three published scientists into the group, which is
inconsistent with clue 1. Therefore, the third slot must be taken by K, but K
is not one of your possible answers, so you must determine which scientist
occupies the fourth slot. Looking at the diagram, you notice that you need an
unpublished immunologist in order to satisfy both clues 1 and 2. The only
scientist that satisfies that requirement is J. The correct choice is answer E.
4. Answer: D
The question tells you that H and M are selected for the group and asks you
to select from among the possible answers the one scientist who could be,
but need not be, selected. This means that all but one of the options either
must be selected or cannot possibly be selected. The answer will be the one
scientist whom you have the flexibility to include or not include. You use
your diagram to evaluate the scenario. Clue 3 requires that you select either
K or G for the group, but you cannot select K, because this would give you
three microbiologists and three unpublished scientists, which is inconsistent
with clues 1 and 2. Therefore, you can eliminate answer A as a possible
answer. Because you cannot select K, you must select G for the group.
Therefore, you can eliminate answer E as a possible answer. Answer B is
impossible because selecting B would give you three microbiologists.
Answer C is impossible because selecting J would give you three
unpublished scientists. You are left with answer D. Selecting scientist C is
consistent with the clues and gives you an acceptable group, but you do not
necessarily have to select C. You could select E as well and it is this
flexibility that leads you to select answer D. The correct choice is answer
D.
5. Answer: B
The question tells you that J is selected for the group and asks you to
determine which of the answers gives you the scientist that must be selected
as well. You use your diagram to analyze the scenario. J is the only
unpublished immunologist, which means that in order for there to be two
unpublished scientists, you must select only one from the unpublished
microbiologist group. Also, in order for the group to have two
immunologists, you must select only one from the published immunologist
group. This leaves only one slot, and it must come from the published
microbiologist group. Since B is the only published microbiologist, you must
select B to the group. The correct choice is answer B.
Questions 6–12

Though it is worded in a manner to suggest there is an ordering process (a tour
usually follows along a particular path), this is a grouping game. The stops along
the route are being assigned to “feature” groups—scenic views, historic
landmarks, and restroom facilities. The tour operator has already chosen the six
stops along the tour, so you are not scheduling the tour, but you are told that
each stop has at least one of the features, so you know that you are assigning
features to stops.
The game is to assign stops to features. You could work this game the other way
around, assigning features to stops, but working with three pools rather than six
will make your task simpler. You can diagram this game using a grid with the
features abbreviated along the left side as SV, HL, and RF. The stops are along
the top, and you will mark off the features with an X as you attempt to solve the
problems given by the questions.
Clue 1: K has scenic views and restroom facilities.

This clue does not require symbolization. You can mark off the SV and RF
boxes for K.
Clue 2: L has scenic views and a historic landmark.

Same as clue 1, this clue does not require symbolization. You can simply mark
off the SV and HL boxes for L.
Clue 3: L and N have no features in common.

This says that L and N cannot have the same features. Therefore, it can be
symbolized as follows:
L ≠ N
Clue 4: M has more features than L.

For your purposes, this is saying that M will have more feature boxes marked off
than L. In the simplest terms possible you can symbolize this as follows: M > L
Clue 5: K and P have exactly one feature in common.

You can use your box notations to symbolize this one as follows:
Clue 6: J has fewer features than P.
This is similar to clue 4 and can be symbolized as follows:
J < P

clue. Once you have verified that your symbolizations work, you can add them
to your diagram. Your diagram should look as follows:

based on the setup of the game and the clues. You go through your types of
deductions.
Stop K appears in clues 1 and 5. Clue 1 says that K has SV and RF. Clue 5
says that K and P have exactly one feature in common. Therefore, at least
one of P’s features is either SV or RF, but it cannot have both. The next
repeated-element deduction allows you to go further toward determining the
feature set for P.
feature set for P.
Stop P appears in clues 5 and 6. Clue 5 says that K and P have exactly one
feature in common. You have already determined that P must have either SV
or RF but not both in its feature set. Therefore, P cannot have all three
features. At most, it can have two. Clue 6 says that J has fewer features than
P. Since every stop must have at least one feature, then J must have one and
P must have two, which means that P has HL as a feature. You write a
number 2 below P’s column to indicate that it can have only one more
feature (either SV or RF, of course). You write a number 1 below J’s column
to show that it can have only one feature.
Stop L appears in clues 2, 3, and 4. According to clue 2, L has SV and
HL. According to clue 3, L and N cannot have the same features. Therefore,
N cannot have SV or HL. Since it must have at least one feature, it must have
RF, the only remaining feature, so you will mark off N as having RF and
only that feature on your grid; you can black out SV and HL. Clue 4 says
that M has more features than L. Clue 2 tells you that L has two features.
Therefore M must have all three features in order to have more features than
L. You can mark off all three features for M in your grid.
Here is your new diagram with all your clues and deductions added to it:

As you take the test, answer the questions in the following order:
As you take the test, answer the questions in the following order:

There are no Complete and Accurate List questions, so you must move on to
questions that give more information. Those include:
Question 8 (“all the stops that have historic landmarks also have scenic
views . . .”)
Question 9 (“P has no features in common with J but has at least one
feature in common with every other stop . . .”)
Question 10 (“no two stops have exactly the same features as one
another . . .”)
Question 11 (“exactly four of the six stops have historic landmarks, and
exactly four of the six locations have scenic views . . .”)
Question 12 (“the condition requiring that M has more features than L is
replaced by a new condition requiring that M and L have exactly
two features in common . . .”) The remaining questions are 6 and 7
and can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
6. Answer: C
The question asks how many stops you can determine the features for
without any further information. Through your deductions, you determined
four of the stops, leaving J and P as uncertain. Therefore, the correct choice
is answer C.
7. Answer: E
The question asks which of the answers must be false. This means that all
but one of the answers could possibly be true. If J has RF and P has SV, then
it is possible that four of the six stops have RF, so answer A cannot be your
answer. If J has SV as its only feature and P has RF, then answer B could be
true. If J has HL as its only feature, then answer C could be true. If J and P
have RF, then answer D could be true. Answer E is impossible because the
only stops that can have HL are J, L, M, and P. Your deductions determined
that K and N could not have HL. Therefore, the correct choice is answer E.
8. Answer: B
The question tells you that all the stops that have HL also have SV and asks
you to determine which among the possible answers must be false. This
means that all but one of the answers could possibly be true. The new
information tells you that the second feature of P must be SV since it also
has HL. Since P cannot have more than two features, it cannot have RF.
Therefore, you can quickly determine that answer B must be false and it
must be your choice. Answer A is your deduction from the new information
and must be true. Answer C is the result of your original deductions and
must be true. Answers D and E may or may not be true. J does not have HL,
but that does not mean that it cannot also have SV. Likewise, you cannot
determine whether it has RF or not. Since these statements cannot be
determined as false or true, neither can be your answer. The correct choice
is answer B.
9. Answer: C
The question tells you that P and J have no features in common but that P has
one feature in common with every other stop. Then, it asks you to determine
which answer must be false. This means that all but one of the answers either
must be true or could possibly be true. You apply the new information to
your diagram. In order for P to have one feature in common with every stop
other than J, it must have RF. If you assigned SV to P, then P would still not
have a feature in common with stop N. Therefore, J must have SV, because it
is the only remaining feature that P does not have. With the feature set
determined for all the stops, it should be easy to find your answer. Answers
A, B, D, and E are all reflected in the following diagram. Only answer C is
impossible because J can only have one feature (SV) and K and N cannot
have HL. The correct choice is answer C.
10. Answer: B
The question tells you that no two stops have exactly the same features as
one another and asks you to identify which of the answers cannot be true. All
but one of the answers could be true. You apply the new information to your
diagram. You need only worry about J and P, since they are the only stops
whose features remain variable. For stop J, you can determine only that it
does not have RF, because the only other stop with one feature is N.
Therefore, J must have SV or HL. For stop P, the only other stop with two
features is L, which has SV and HL. P already has HL, so it must have RF as
its second feature. According to your diagram, answer A must be true.
Because P must have RF and J cannot have RF, exactly four stops have
restroom facilities. This also means that answer B must be false and must be
your choice for the correct answer. Answers C and D are possible if J’s one
feature is HL. Lastly, answer E is possible if J’s one feature is SV. The
11. Answer: E
The question tells you that exactly four stops have HL and exactly four have
SV, then asks you to determine which answer could be false. That means all
but one of the possible answers must be true. You apply the new information
to your diagram. For four stops to have historic landmarks, J must have HL,
because your deductions determined that K and N could not have HL.
Because J must have HL, P must have SV in order to satisfy the second
requirement that four stops have SV. With all the features set, it is just a
matter of looking through the answers for the one that conflicts with your
diagram. You can quickly see that answer E cannot be true. Since P must
have SV, stops P and L have two features in common and cannot have
exactly one in common. All the remaining answers match your diagram
perfectly and must be true. The correct choice is answer E.
12. Answer: C
This question changes the clues and gives you a different starting point for
solving the game. It removes the requirement that M have more features than
L and sets a new requirement, that M and L have the same two features. This
change does not alter your other deductions, and it also does not change the
possibility that M has all three features, but it does remove RF as a required
feature for stop M. You remove the mark from RF for M, but you do not
black that box out. The question asks you to determine which among the
answers must be false. Answer A may or may not be true. Even under the
new conditions, J may have any one of the three features, so it is possible
that J and M have a feature in common. Since there is a possibility it can be
true, this cannot be your choice. Answer B also could be true. The new
conditions do not prohibit stop P from having SV and HL, which are the
same features as M. By the same token, it is impossible that M and P have no
features in common. Stop M must have SV and HL. Stop P must have HL, so
even under the new conditions, M and P will share at least one feature. This
must be your choice for the correct answer. Answer D must be true because
K and M both must have SV. Answer E could be true if M also has RF. The
Question 13–18

This is an ordering game. You know this because you are being asked to
determine the order of arrival of the seven buses.

There are seven buses that will arrive in order from first to seventh. You can
create a grid with seven columns, and to make your job easier, you can
abbreviate the names of the buses to their first initials. The arrivals go in order
from left to right. For reference, write the list of buses in the upper right corner
above your grid.

Symbolize the clues to make them easy to refer to as you work through the
questions.
Clue 1: The buses arrive one at a time.

This sort of requirement is usually incorporated into the description of the game
and is not listed among the clues. It does not require symbolization, but it tells
you that no more than one bus can arrive at a time. If desired, you could put a
number 1 below each column, indicating that each slot can only add up to one
bus.
Clue 2: Either the Lynnville or the Koenig arrives fourth.

To indicate that either L or K but no other bus will arrive fourth, you put L/K
To indicate that either L or K but no other bus will arrive fourth, you put L/K
above the fourth column.
Clue 3: The Fortman arrives at some time after the Koenig but at some time
before the Lynnville.
This clue tells you that the F bus arrives between the K and the L buses. You can
use the following notation to show this relationship:
K — F — L
Clue 4: Both the Hampton and the Janistown arrive at some time after the
Evans.
You can use the following notation to symbolize this relationship:
E — H & J
Clue 5: The Hampton does not arrive next after the Janistown; nor does the
Janistown arrive next after the Hampton.
Essentially, this clue is saying that the J bus and the H bus cannot arrive
consecutively. You can represent this relationship using your box notation and
the double arrow, as follows:

clue. Once you have verified that they work, you can add your symbolizations to
your diagram. Your diagram should look as follows:

Before you tackle the questions, you attempt to make deductions based on the
setup of the game and the clues. You go through each type of deduction.
setup of the game and the clues. You go through each type of deduction.
Clue 3 tells us that L must come after F, so F cannot be last in the order. It
also tells you that K cannot be last or even second to last because both F and
L have to come after it. The opposite is true as well: bus F cannot be first and
bus L cannot be earlier than third. You can represent these deductions in
your diagram by placing the negation above the columns in which they
cannot appear (see the diagram that follows).
Clue 4 tells you not only that E cannot be last but also that the latest it can be
is fifth, because both H and J must come after it (this will change again later,
but for now, you are focusing only on this particular deduction). This clue
also tells you that neither H nor J can arrive first because E must arrive
before both of them. You represent these deductions by placing the negation
above the columns in which they cannot appear.
Buses H and J are repeated in clues 4 and 5. Clue 4, as we have seen, tells
you that H and J must come after E. Clue 5 tells you that H and J cannot be
consecutive in whatever order they arrive. There must be at least one bus
between H and J. Therefore, the latest E can arrive is not fifth, as previously
determined, but fourth, because there has to be another bus between H and J
(for example, if J arrives fifth, then H must arrive seventh with another bus
arriving sixth). You must put a ~E above the fifth column. Now you notice
that E is restricted to arriving first, second, or third.
Your diagram with deductions added should look like this:

As you take the test, answer the questions in this order:

answered first. The questions that give more information are as follows:
Question 14 (“Koenig arrives at some time before the Evans . . .”)
Question 17 (“exactly one of the buses arrives after the Koenig but
before the Lynnville . . .”)
Question 18 (“Delbert arrives at some time before the Evans . . .”)
Remaining are questions 15 and 16, and they can be answered in that order.
THE ANSWERS
13. Answer: D
The question asks you to identify the answer that gives an acceptable order
for the buses to arrive. You can look at each answer in your diagram and
evaluate whether it is consistent with your clues and deductions. You quickly
eliminate answer A because neither L nor K arrives fourth. In answer B, bus
H arrives first and that is inconsistent with clue 4 and your deductions.
Answer C has buses H and J arriving consecutively, which is inconsistent
with clue 5. Answer D is completely consistent with the clues of the game
and is your choice for the correct answer. Answer E has bus L arriving
before bus F, which is inconsistent with clue 3. The correct choice is
answer D.
14. Answer: A
The question tells you that bus K arrives before bus E and asks how many
different orders are possible given this condition. You can create the various
orders in your diagram. You know right off that L and not K must arrive
fourth because the latest E can arrive is fourth, and if K must be earlier than
E, then K must arrive earlier than fourth. Clue 3 tells you that not only K and
E but also F must arrive before L. Therefore, K, F, and E must be the first
three buses to arrive. K must be first because it must arrive before F (clue 3)
and E (the question’s requirement). The only two of these buses that can
change in the order are F and E, alternating between the second and third
arrival. After the fourth arrival (bus L), clue 5 tells you that H and J must
arrive fifth and seventh with D arriving between them. The only two of these
that can change in order are H and J. As you see in the diagram that follows,
there are only four orders with F and E alternating positions and H and J
alternating positions. Since there are only four possible orders, the correct
choice is answer A.
15. Answer: B
The question asks that you choose the answer that must be true. This means
that all but one of the answers could be false. Answer A could be true. Bus E
could be first—nothing in the clues tells you otherwise—but it could just as
easily be false, so this cannot be your answer. Answer B must be true. Clue 3
tells you that bus K must arrive before bus F and before bus L, so your
choice must be answer B. You could stop there, but let’s look at the other
choices for learning purposes. Answer C could be true or false since D is the
one bus that can arrive pretty much at any time except fourth (K/L). Answer
D could be true or false since there is no clue governing the relationship
between the J and L buses. Also, the L bus has the freedom to arrive last, so
the J or any other bus could easily arrive before it. Answer E could be true or
false. This answer tries to confuse you by using the reverse order stipulated
by the previous question. You must be sure to forget the information given
by the previous question and return to the original game each time you assess
a question. In this case, the E bus is restricted to arriving in the first three
places, but the K bus has the freedom to arrive anytime between the first and
fifth places. Bus E could arrive first and K second, or vice versa without
contradicting your clues. Therefore, this answer cannot be your answer. The
16. Answer: E
The question asks that you choose the answer that could be true, which
means that all but one of the answers must be false. You can test each answer
in your diagram. Answer A cannot possibly be true. If L arrives fourth, then
clue 3 tells you that K and F must arrive before L in an order consistent with
the clue (K-F-L). Buses E, H, and J are forced to arrive together in the fifth,
sixth, and seventh slots. On the other hand, if K is the fourth arrival, clue 3
tells you that D, F, and L have to occupy the fifth, sixth, and seventh arrivals
in a manner consistent with the clue and E, H, and J are forced to arrive
together in the first, second, and third slots. Unfortunately, neither leaves the
possibility for an order that is consistent with clues 4 and 5. In either
situation, E, H, and J are forced to arrive consecutively, and clues 4 and 5
say this is not possible. Bus E must arrive before H and J, and H and J cannot
arrive consecutively. Answer A cannot be the correct choice. Answers B and
C have the same problem as answer A. The arrival of D after or before F in
any configuration forces E, H, and J to arrive consecutively, so these cannot
be your answer. Answer D could not possibly be true. Clue 4 says that E
must arrive before H and J. The E bus cannot arrive after either of those
buses or the order will be inconsistent with this clue. Finally, answer E could
be true. You have already seen in question 14 that E can be the next bus to
arrive after F. It was one of the four possible orders that were acceptable.
17. Answer: A
The question tells you that one of the buses arrives after K but before L and
then asks you which of the possible answers could be true. That means all
but one of the answers are false. If exactly one bus arrives between K and L,
then clue 3 tells you it must be F. Buses K, F, and L must arrive
consecutively. This creates a block and you can look at two different orders,
one with K arriving fourth and the other with L arriving fourth. You can plot
both of these possibilities in your diagram (marked 1 and 2). When K arrives
fourth, answer A could be true because E can be scheduled first or second
without causing an inconsistency with the clues. When L arrives fourth, E
must arrive first. Therefore, this must be your choice for the correct answer.
For learning purposes let’s assess the remaining answers. Answer B is not
possible. Because K, F, and L form a block and clue 2 locks K or L into the
fourth arrival, F must arrive either fifth or third. Answer C cannot be true
either. When K arrives fourth, E can only arrive first or second. When L
arrives fourth, E can only arrive first. Answer D cannot be true for the same
reason as answer B: bus F can only arrive fifth or third. Finally, answer E
cannot be true because H and J cannot be consecutive. When K is fourth, the
K, F, and L block takes over the sixth arrival. When L is fourth, bus E is
forced to be first, which means H and J must arrive fifth and seventh so that
another bus may arrive between them. The correct choice is answer A.
18. Answer: C
The question gives you a situation in which the D bus arrives before the E
bus and asks you to determine when K arrives. For D to arrive before E, they
must both arrive earlier than fourth, which leaves only one spot available for
another bus to arrive before the fourth bus. If L arrives fourth, there are not
enough slots available for both K and F, so K must arrive fourth. The
Questions 19–25

This is an ordering game. You know it is an ordering game because you are
asked to arrange the trucks in sequential order at docks 1 through 7; and because
you are asked to assign each truck to only one dock, it is a one-tiered ordering
game.

The diagram for this game will be a simple grid with seven columns into which
you will place your trucks. You can put the truck names in the upper right corner
for easy reference.

You symbolize the clues as follows:
Clue 1: P is unloaded at a lower numbered dock than T.
Using your visualization of the docks, the clue says that P must be to the left of
T. This can be symbolized using the line notation, as follows: P — T
Clue 2: W is unloaded at the dock numbered one lower than the dock at which Q
is unloaded.
This clue gives you the exact order of two trucks, but it does not say specifically
where in the order they appear together. You use your box notation to show that
they must be next to each other, with the W truck to the left of the Q truck.
Clue 3: R is unloaded at dock 1 or else dock 7.

The clue says that R is located at 1 or 7. It also says that R cannot be unloaded at
docks 2 through 6. You can represent this clue by writing ~R above columns 2
through 6.
Clue 4: Z is unloaded at dock 4.

The clue says truck Z is unloaded at dock 4, and you can represent this clue by
simply putting Z in column 4 of your diagram.

clue. Once you have verified that your symbolizations work, you can add them
to your diagram. Your diagram should look as follows:

based on the setup of the game and the clues. You go through each type of
deduction.
Clue 1 tells you that P must come before T. Therefore, you can deduce that P
cannot be last in the order. Also, T cannot be first since P must come before
it. You can write T above column 1 and P above column 7.
Clue 2 tells you that W must come before Q. Therefore, you can deduce that
W cannot be last in the order. Also, Q cannot be first since W must come
before it. You can write Q above column 1 and W above column 7.
Clue 3 already tells you that column 1 or 7 must unload truck R, but the
second truck could be any of the other trucks, except those the other clues
exclude. No further deductions of this kind are possible.
Clue 2 creates a block of W and Q. Also, truck Z must be at dock 4, so your
diagram is split into two groups of three docks. Truck W cannot be unloaded
at dock 3 because Q would have to be unloaded at dock 4, which is already
occupied by Z. You can write ~W above column 3.
You add the deductions and your complete diagram should look as follows:

As you take the test, approach the questions in this order:


Question 19 is the only Complete and Accurate List question for this game.
It should be answered first. Questions that give more information are as
follows: Question 21 (“U is unloaded on dock 5 . . .”)
Question 23 (“U is unloaded at dock 2 . . .”)
Question 24 (“Q is unloaded at a dock numbered one less than the dock
at which P is unloaded . . .”)
Question 25 (“W is unloaded at dock 1 . . .”)
The remaining questions are 20 and 22, and they can be answered in that
order.
THE ANSWERS
19. Answer: C
The question asks you to identify an acceptable loading assignment for the
trucks among the possible answers. The following diagram depicts each
answer choice. Answer A is unacceptable because P is loaded in a higher
dock than truck T and this is inconsistent with clue 1. Answer B is
unacceptable because Z is not unloaded at dock 4, which is inconsistent with
clue 4. Answer C is consistent with all your clues and is your answer.
Answer D is unacceptable because truck W and truck Q are not unloaded
next to each other, which is inconsistent with clue 2. Answer E is
unacceptable because R is not loaded at dock 1 or 7, which is inconsistent
with clue 3. The correct choice is answer C.
20. Answer: C
The question asks which answer gives the correct lowest numbered dock at
which a specified truck can be unloaded. The trick is to test each answer and
see whether the truck can be unloaded at a lower dock. Looking at your
diagram you see that if R is unloaded at dock 7, then that makes room for P
to be unloaded at dock 1, which is lower than dock 2. Therefore, answer A
cannot be the correct choice. Again, if R is unloaded at dock 7, then W can
be unloaded at dock 1 and Q can be unloaded at dock 2, which is lower than
dock 3. Therefore, answer B cannot be correct. Considering answer C, your
deductions allowed you to determine that T cannot be unloaded at dock 1.
The lowest T can be unloaded is dock 2. Therefore, answer C must be the
answer. Truck U is unrestrained by any of your clues. If R is unloaded at
dock 7, U can be unloaded at dock 1 or dock 2, both of which are lower than
dock 3. Therefore, answer D cannot be your choice. In considering answer B,
you determined that W could be unloaded at dock 1, which is lower than
dock 2. Therefore, answer E cannot be your choice. The correct choice is
answer C.
21. Answer: A
The question tells you that truck U is unloaded at dock 5, then asks which of
the pairs could be unloaded at consecutive docks, but not necessarily in the
order given in the answer. This means that all but one of the pairs could not
possibly be unloaded at consecutive docks. It also means that each answer
creates a new block with which you must contend in each scenario. You add
the new information to your diagram and assess each pair. With answer A, R
can be unloaded at dock 7 and T could be unloaded at dock 6. See the
following diagram for this configuration. This must be your answer, but let’s
review the remaining options for learning purposes. The pair given by
answer B, TW, is not possible. The pair cannot be at the higher docks
because there would not be a dock to accommodate Q, which must be after
W. They also cannot be located in the lower docks because they must
accommodate P, which must come before T. If you unload P, T, and W at
docks 1, 2, and 3, then again you do not have room for truck Q, which must
be unloaded right after W. This answer cannot be correct. Answer C, WZ, is
impossible. Because U is unloaded at 5, the only configuration is W at 3 and
Z at 4 (clue 4), but this is impossible because clue 2 says that Q must unload
at the next highest dock to W. This cannot be your answer. Answer D, QR, is
not possible. Truck R must be at dock 1 or 7. This answer asks whether Q
could be unloaded at dock 2 or 6. Neither is possible. If Q is at dock 6, then
W must be at 5, but the question requires that U be unloaded at 5. If Q is at
dock 2, then W must be at 1, which is impossible because R is unloaded at
that dock. This cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E, QT, is not
possible. Truck T must be loaded after P. If Q and T are unloaded at docks 2
and 3 (in whatever order), then P must be unloaded at dock 1, but this
configuration leaves no room for Q to come after W. The same is true for
docks 6 and 7. The correct choice is answer A.
22. Answer: B
The question asks what is the most number of docks that can come between
the docks at which P is unloaded and T is unloaded. You can test this by
putting T at the highest dock (since it must come after P) and moving P
around to see how far up you can move it. You unload T at dock 7, so R
must be unloaded at dock 1. If you put W and Q at 5 and 6, you can put P
and U at 2 and 3 respectively. This order is acceptable given the clues of
your game. This is the farthest you can place P and T from each other. There
are four docks between them. Therefore, the correct choice is answer B.
23. Answer: D
The question tells you that U is unloaded at dock 2 and asks you to identify
the statement among the possible answers that must be true. This means that
all but one of the answers may or may not be true. You put the new
information into your diagram and assess the answers based on what you see.
Before you even look at the answers, you recognize that W and Q must be
unloaded either at 5 and 6 or 6 and 7 to be consistent with clue 2, because
those are the only consecutive loading docks available. Of course, this makes
it impossible for both P and T to be to the right of Z. Actually, regardless of
where T is unloaded, P must be to the left of Z, because there is only one
remaining open dock to the right of Z. Answer A may or may not be true.
Truck T can be unloaded at dock 3 as long as P is unloaded at dock 1 and R
is unloaded at dock 7, so Z could be unloaded at a higher dock (4) than T (3).
That means answer A cannot be correct. For the same reason, W could be
unloaded at a higher dock (5 or 6) than T (3), so answer B cannot be your
answer. If you unload truck R at dock 1, P at dock 3, and T at dock 7 (W and
Q are at 5 and 6 respectively), then T could be unloaded at a higher dock
than R. Therefore, answer C cannot be the correct choice. Answer D must be
true. As you deduced, no matter where T is unloaded, P must be to the left of
Z, so it must be unloaded at a lower dock. This is your answer. Answer E
cannot be correct because no matter where W and Q are situated, you still
have the option of unloading R at 1 or 7. If R is at 7, then it is being
unloaded at a higher dock than Q. The correct choice is answer D.
24. Answer: E
The question tells you that Q is unloaded at a dock numbered one less than
the one that unloads P and then asks you to pick the answer that must be true.
Because Q is part of the WQ block, the new fact creates an even larger
block, WQP. In order for three trucks to be together, they must be at docks 1
through 3 or docks 5 through 7. But you also know that T must come after P.
Therefore, the block cannot be unloaded at docks 5 through 7. They must be
unloaded at docks 1 through 3. You can write these deductions into your
diagram. Answer A cannot be true because W must be unloaded at dock 1.
Answer B may or may not be true. U could be unloaded at 5 or 6. It is
interchangeable with T. Answer C cannot be true because W is unloaded at
dock 1. Answer D cannot be true because Q must be unloaded at dock 2.
Finally, answer E must be true. Truck P must be unloaded at dock 3 for the
order to be consistent with the new fact and your clues. The correct choice
is answer E.
25. Answer: B
The question tells you that W is unloaded at dock 1, then asks you which of
the answers could be true. This means that all but one of the answers must be
false. Since W is unloaded at dock 1, clue 2 tells you that Q must be
unloaded at dock 2. Also, clue 3 tells you that because W is at dock 1, truck
R must be at dock 7. You put the new information as well as your deductions
into your diagram. There are still three docks unassigned. You now assess
each answer. Answer A must be false. Truck U cannot be unloaded at a dock
one lower than Q because that is reserved for W in order for the
configuration to be consistent with clue 2. Answer B could be true because
you can assign U to dock 3, P to dock 5, and T to dock 6. This order is
consistent with your clues and the facts given by the question, so this must
be the correct answer. For learning purposes, let’s review the remaining
options. Answer C must be false because if T is assigned to dock 3, then P
must be assigned to a higher dock than T and this is inconsistent with clue 1.
Answer D cannot be true. Trucks P and U would have to be assigned to
docks 5 and 6 respectively and T would have to be assigned to dock 3. This
order is inconsistent with clue 1 because T would be assigned a lower dock
than P. Answer E must be false. Since R is assigned to dock 7 and P to dock
6, T would be assigned a lower dock than P and this is also inconsistent with
clue 1. The correct choice is answer B.
SECTION II
1. Answer: D
This is a Describe question. It asks you to assess Kathy’s argumentative
tactic in countering David’s argument.
Read both David’s and Kathy’s arguments. David argues that after an injury
an athlete must relearn how to play the game in the manner that the athlete
did before the injury. Kathy disagrees and tells a story about a professional
quarterback who suffered an injury and afterward adjusted his game to a new
style.
The correct answer will describe Kathy’s technique as one using a
counterexample that undermines David’s argument.
Answer A is incorrect because Kathy is not really establishing any solution.
She is merely giving an example of a particular quarterback’s solution to his
problem. Also, the term solution seems wrong. Neither David nor Kathy is
offering a solution. Rather, they are offering or suggesting a prescription.
The difference is subtle but enough of a reason to exclude this as a possible
answer. Answer B cannot be correct because at the outset it is obvious Kathy
disagrees with David. She does not support his claim. Regarding answer C,
there is no equivocation in David’s argument. He makes a fairly
straightforward statement that the only way an athlete can be successful after
an injury is to relearn the athlete’s original method of play. Kathy is equally
unequivocal and uses stark language to disagree. Answer D is exactly what
you formulated as the correct answer. Kathy does in fact use an example to
counter David’s claim, so this is most likely your answer. Answer E cannot
be your answer. David and Kathy are not trying to explain the same
phenomenon. On the contrary, they are offering a different path to success.
2. Answer: A
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks that you identify the answer
that most accurately states the main point of the argument.
You read the argument, which states that digital camera manufacturers
advertise a particular feature for their cameras but evidently this feature is
irrelevant because it is incompatible with other technologies and thus can be
considered impractical.
The central assumption of the argument maintains that the memory capacity
of digital cameras typically is far in excess of electronic screen capabilities,
so differences in memory are not really significant.
Answer A seems to be giving exactly the meaning of the argument, that the
resolution of the cameras’ sensors has no bearing on their relative quality as
tools. This would seem to be your answer, but you must review the
remaining options to be sure. Answer B says the argument is making a
recommendation that manufacturers add more features to their cameras, but
the argument never makes such a recommendation. The argument focuses
entirely on resolution as an advertised feature and its inherent problems. This
cannot be your answer. Answer C says the argument is making an
assessment of the manufacturers’ decision to focus on resolution, but the
argument is only describing the flaw in that decision. Such an assessment
may be implied or the next step, but what you have before you makes no
judgment regarding their decision. This cannot be the correct choice. Answer
D is incorrect because it focuses on the last part of the argument and ignores
the manufacturers and their choice of what to emphasize in advertising.
Finally, answer E cannot be the answer because it suggests that resolution is
the only practical difference between the cameras. Also, the argument does
not make a claim concerning the difference in quality between cameras. It
only claims that the emphasis on resolution is misplaced as a quality
measure. The correct choice is answer A.
3. Answer: A
This is an Assumption question. It asks which answer gives the assumption
upon which the argument depends.
The assumption is that the memory capacity of the camera is not a critical
concern because modern electronic screens and photographic paper transfer
methods cannot convey a majority of the data captured.
The answer should contain wording that makes a connection between the
very high data memory capacity of digital cameras and the much lower
resolution abilities of electronic screens and other methods related to image
display.
Essentially, answer A states that differences in resolution do not affect the
deficiencies in screens and paper. The argument does in fact argue that
resolution is irrelevant because the deficiencies in screens and paper limit the
level of detail. Thus, the argument depends on resolution having no effect on
those deficiencies, which is what this answer states. This is most likely your
answer, but you must review the remaining options to be sure. Answer B
cannot be correct because the argument bases its claim on technology, in
particular the resolution and its interaction with screens and photographic
paper, not on the skill of the photographer. Answer C may be true but your
argument does not even mention the software involved in displaying digital
photographs on screens. It is uncertain that software is even part of the
equation, so you cannot choose this as your answer. Answer D actually
contradicts part of the argument by stating that resolution determines the
degree of detail reproduced. The argument makes the opposite argument.
Answer E makes a strange connection between the definition of the term
resolution and its effect on judging the quality of photographic instruments.
The argument does not necessarily depend on the definition of the term
resolution. Rather, it depends on how the measure of resolution is used by
manufacturers and their claims’ relationship to practical uses. This cannot be
your answer. The correct choice is answer A.
4. Answer: C
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks you to identify the
statement supported by the argument.
The argument is about a misconception that a large breakfast decreases
calorie intake for the rest of the day when it actually makes no difference
whatsoever.
The correct answer might support a statement that says eating a large
breakfast either makes no difference or counteracts efforts to reduce calories.
Answer A is not supported by the information. The argument implies that the
size of breakfast has no effect on calorie intake outside of breakfast. This
means the calorie intake outside of breakfast is fixed or unchanged. On the
other hand, this also implies that the size of the breakfast may have
beneficial or detrimental effects, and a small breakfast versus no breakfast
may in fact have different dieting benefits. This cannot be your answer.
Answer B may give an explanation for why the non-breakfast food calorie
intake remains unchanged, but nothing in the argument supports that notion.
It is equally possible that they eat lower-calorie food for the rest of the day
but more of it, thus overall calorie intake remains the same. There is nothing
in the argument that allows you to choose one theory over the other. Answer
C says that a small or no breakfast can reduce calorie intake while a large
breakfast increases it. The argument supports this statement because it says
that the size of the breakfast has no effect on calorie intake for the remainder
of the day, but this means that the size of the breakfast may very well
increase or decrease overall calorie intake. This is most likely your answer,
but you should review the remaining answers to confirm the wisdom of your
choice. Answer D says the size of the breakfast makes no difference, but the
argument specifies that it will make no difference to calorie intake for the
rest of the day. It does not indicate that the size of the breakfast will have no
overall effect. In fact, it implies the opposite (answer C). Answer E has the
same fault as answer B. It may give an explanation for why the non–
breakfast food calorie intake remains unchanged, but nothing in the
argument supports that notion. It is equally possible that they eat less of
higher-calorie foods. The correct choice is answer C.
5. Answer: D
This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you determine why the
argument is questionable.
The argument describes a survey covering three cities in the Midwest and
from the results argues that the national mortgage default rate cannot be
attributed to homeowners’ lack of desire to pay off their mortgages.
You can expect the correct answer to point out some flaw in the survey or
the conclusion that the survey of the Midwest justifies a conclusion
regarding the entire nation.
Answer A cannot be your choice because the argument does not include two
conclusions, conflicting or not. The argument makes only one conclusion,
which is that the high mortgage default rate is not due to a lack of desire on
the part of the homeowners to pay off their mortgages. Answer B cannot be
your choice because 92 percent is an overwhelming majority by any expert
or nonexpert’s standards. Answer C cannot be your choice because the high
default rate does not contradict what could be considered a desire on behalf
of those homeowners to pay off their mortgages. They are two very different
statistics, one based on actual behavior, the other based on what people want
for the future. Answer D fits into your expectations for the correct answer. It
points out that the argument is using a survey of the Midwest as a basis for a
statement regarding the entire nation. This seems to be your answer, but you
must review the final option. Answer E cannot be your answer because the
argument does not overlook this possibility. The argument says if the default
rate is high, and it is only concerned with this possibility. The implication is
that the opposite is possible but not of concern in this particular argument.
6. Answer: C
This is a Strengthen question. The first question asks you to identify the
principle or axiom that supports Professor Raleigh’s side of the argument.
Professor Allyn argues that political speeches are not true literary works and
should be excluded from the literature department’s curriculum. Professor
Raleigh believes that regardless of whether they are considered true literary
works, political speeches should be included because the department can
give their students the skills to help them be better citizens in the larger
society.
You expect the correct answer to be a principle supporting the department’s
responsibility to make their students better citizens through teaching them to
better analyze political speeches.
Answer A cannot be correct because it is too general and does not even
address the specifics of their argument. Also, both professors would probably
agree with this principle, and you are being asked which answer supports
only Raleigh’s argument. Professor Raleigh might agree with answer B, but
it is a principle that assumes speeches are already taught in the department.
Essentially, it puts the cart before the horse. Answer C says pretty much
what you formulated as your expected correct answer. It says that the
literature department should enable students to handle all texts that have an
effect, dangerous or otherwise, on society. This is most likely your answer,
but you should review the remaining answers. Answer D is supportive of
Raleigh’s position and contradicts Allyn’s position, but it is a bit too general
and does not address the subject of political speeches. Answer E supports a
claim that Raleigh does not make. Raleigh says that whether political
speeches are a literary form or not they should still be taught. Therefore, this
principle does not fit Raleigh’s argument. The correct choice is answer C.
7. Answer: A
This is a Assumption question. It asks that you identify the assumption upon
which Raleigh bases his argument.
Raleigh’s argument seems to be based on the idea that the literature
department should be teaching students something beyond just true literary
works, so you expect your answer to be a similar idea.
The correct answer will state that the literature department’s responsibility
includes more than teaching true literary works.
Answer A says that a literature department’s academics should not be limited
to analyzing true literary works. Raleigh’s argument depends on the idea that
the literature department should be doing more than just teaching true
literary works since he is advocating that they teach about political speeches
whether they are considered literature or not. This option is most likely your
answer, but you should continue to review the remaining answers. Answer B
is incorrect because Raleigh talks about all political speeches and does not
make a distinction regarding the circumstances surrounding the political
speech. Answer C focuses on Raleigh’s statement concerning the goal of the
department’s courses, but this is a rather limited assumption and Raleigh’s
argument does not exactly depend on it. If this assumption proved false and
courses taught other skills, it would not diminish his argument concerning
political speeches. In fact, it might strengthen it. Answer D cannot be correct
because Raleigh’s argument considers political speeches important
regardless of whether they are considered true literary works. Therefore,
since the literary status of political speeches is irrelevant to his argument,
then whether true literary works are detrimental or not to society is irrelevant
as well. Finally, answer E cannot be the answer because it actually states the
opposite of what Raleigh is arguing. The correct choice is answer A.
8. Answer: B
This is a Principle question. The question asks you to identify which answer
most accurately illustrates the principle expressed in the argument.
The argument states that a child follows a teacher’s instructions better if
given a few options rather than many.
The correct answer will most likely restate this principle in a different
manner while remaining consistent with the intent of the argument.
Answer A cannot be your answer because it ignores the many-versus-few
options aspect of the argument and states that success is a matter of defining
the benefits of each option. This is certainly not in the same spirit of the
argument. Answer B states that there is an inverse relationship between
children’s change of behavior and the number of alternatives given them, so
children will alter their behavior (abide by instructions) more if they have
fewer choices and alter their behavior less (refuse to abide by instructions) if
they have more choices. This is exactly what your argument is saying and is
most likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options.
Answers C, D, and E focus on the delivery of instructions and not the content
of them. Your argument is more concerned with the content, mainly how
many options, so none of these answers can be correct. The correct choice
is answer B.
9. Answer: E
This is an Assumption question. The question asks you to identify the
assumption upon which the argument depends.
The argument tells you about a fungus threatening crops of tomatoes and a
synthetic fungicide that can control it. The fungicide is harmful to humans,
synthetic fungicide that can control it. The fungicide is harmful to humans,
so it cannot be used in populated areas. Then the argument makes the
conclusion that the nation’s tomato crops are not threatened by the fungus
because commercial tomato fields are not located near populated areas and
the fungicide can be used on them.
You can guess that the correct answer will have something to do with
equating the nation’s tomato crops with commercial tomato fields, since its
final statement is based on that assumption.
Regarding answer A, the argument is concerned only with the threat of late
blight on tomato crops, but it does not depend on it being the only threat. The
existence of other threats would not diminish the argument in any way.
Answer B is concerned with a possible future, but the argument is concerned
only with the current threat. This cannot be the correct choice. Answer C
discusses the speed with which the fungus spreads through particular crops,
but the argument is not based on the speed of the attack. Instead, it is based
on the fungicide used to stop it and its side effects. This cannot be correct.
Answer D is irrelevant because the argument is about the commercial farms
and the nation’s tomato crops. It is not about these smaller sources of
tomatoes. Finally, answer E states that commercial fields produce most or all
of the nation’s tomatoes. This is what you formulated as your possible
answer. The argument’s main assumption is that the commercial fields are
equal to the nation’s tomato crops. Without that assumption, the conclusion
that the nation’s tomato crops are not seriously threatened is not possible.
10. Answer: D
This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you identify the false
presumption at the heart of the argument.
The lawyer predicts that the next objection will be overruled by the judge
based on a statistic.
You can guess that the probable answer will identify the false presumption as
You can guess that the probable answer will identify the false presumption as
that of using a statistic to solidly predict the next result.
Answer A cannot be the presumption because no such requirement guiding
the judge’s ruling is mentioned in the argument and such a presumption
would eliminate the word probably from the lawyer’s argument. It would
make the overruling a certainty. Answer B cannot be the presumption
because the lawyer’s prediction is based on past behavior, plain and simple,
not a more complicated expectation based on the influence past decisions
had on the verdicts in those cases. Answer C cannot be the presumption
because the lawyer says the next objection will “probably” be overruled,
which implies likelihood, not a guarantee. A presumption of a guarantee
would lead the lawyer to state that the objection will be overruled. Also, the
lawyer only states that the next object will likely be overruled, not the next
five as the answer presumes. Answer D could very well be your
presumption. It is very similar to answer C, but the lawyer does presume the
likelihood of the next objection when he or she says it will “probably”
happen. Also, this presumption only concerns itself with the next objection,
which is exactly the lawyer’s prediction. This is most likely your answer, but
you have one last option to consider. Answer E cannot be the presumption
because the lawyer’s prediction is based on the judge’s decisions and not on
the quality of those decisions. The correct choice is answer D.
11. Answer: B
This is an Assumption question. The question asks that you identify an
assumption that justifies the conclusion of the argument.
The argument states that as a percentage of tax revenues, the cost of
maintaining the national parks is half today what it was 50 years ago. It tells
you that tax revenues rose after the last 50 years and then concludes that tax
revenues rose at a greater rate than the cost of maintaining the parks. The
argument moves from rate of growth to actual growth and back to rate of
growth. If actual tax revenues grew, the only way that the rate of growth of
tax revenues could be higher than the rate of growth of maintenance costs
would be if the actual costs of park maintenance increased very little or not
at all.
You would expect the correct answer to be along this line of thinking.
Answer A states that the parks are in better condition and less costly to
maintain today than they were 50 years ago. Nothing in the argument
suggests that the costs of maintenance have decreased. It says only that the
percentage of revenues has decreased. Also, the conclusion suggests an
increasing growth rate of both maintenance cost and tax revenues, so your
assumption should suggest something to do with growth, not reduction.
Answer B is similar to your expected answer. It suggests that the parks
require the same maintenance today as 50 years ago. This might very well be
your answer, but you must review the remaining options. Answer C is
completely irrelevant since the maintenance of federal buildings is not even
part of the argument. Answer D tries to confuse you by focusing on another
type of rate, breaking down the cost to “per square mile” of the national
parks, but the argument is concerned only with the total national
expenditures on national parks. It is possible that the cost per square mile
remained identical while the total area of national parks decreased or
increased (no telling by how much). Answer E is similar to answer C,
focusing on an irrelevant fact, the cost of maintaining “other federal
properties.” The correct choice is answer B.
12. Answer: C
This is a Describe question. The question asks you to choose the answer that
describes the argument that the critic makes in response to the mayor’s
argument.
The city mayor argues that an increase in percentage of students graduating
from high school is proof that the mayor’s education policies are a success.
The critic argues that another metric concerning preparedness for college and
jobs proves the opposite.
You expect the correct answer to state that the critic uses new data to show
that the mayor’s data leads to the wrong conclusion.
Answer A is incorrect because the critic sticks to the numbers and says
nothing about the mayor personally or the mayor’s motives. Answer B
cannot be your answer because the critic uses a statistic to support his or her
conclusion, so the critic obviously believes that statistics have credibility and
that measuring progress toward education goals is not difficult. Answer C
says the critic attempts to show that the mayor’s use of facts is misleading.
This is indeed what you expected the answer to say. The critic uses a statistic
to show that the mayor’s facts lead to the wrong conclusion. This is most
likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options. Answer D is
tempting and the critic’s attack might be read that way, but the critic does not
exactly discredit the mayor’s methods so much as undermine the mayor’s
argument in support of his methods. Also, this description ignores the use of
statistics within the argument. Answer E cannot be your choice because the
critic does not dispute the mayor’s statistics. The critic points out only that
the mayor’s facts do not lead to the right conclusion. The correct choice is
answer C.
13. Answer: D
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify a fact that the
mayor could use to counter the critic’s claim.
You expect the correct answer will undermine the basis for the critic’s
argument, which is that the test indicates the students’ lack of preparedness.
The correct answer will make the case that the test is inadequate in some
manner.
Answer A points out that the students who tested poorly were located in a
particular region, but this does not invalidate the test or its use as support for
the critic’s argument. Answer B is irrelevant since the critic is not using the
students’ eventual career in college or in the work world as a basis for the
argument. Answer C is a statement the critic might use to undermine the
mayor’s argument, not the other way around, so this cannot be your answer.
Answer D undermines the test by saying that it is new and the results this
year cannot be compared to anything, which, if true, undermines the use of
this test in the argument since the mayor makes his argument based on
statistics over the several years he has been in office. This is probably your
answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer E is irrelevant
since both the mayor and the critic are concerned only with their own city
and no other city. The correct choice is answer D.
14. Answer: D
This is an Assumption question. The question asks that you identify the
assumption upon which the argument relies.
The argument says that bleached flour is priced much higher than
unbleached flour even though the process to bleach the flour is not very
costly. It concludes that the price difference must have to do with something
other than the cost of “providing” bleached flour to the consumer.
You can expect the assumption to be that the cost of bleaching is the only
cost that should be considered when attributing causes for the price
difference.
Answer A is somewhat outside the scope of the argument because it focuses
on consumer demand. The argument suggests that something other than cost
may be responsible but does not indicate what that may be. The argument
bases its conclusion on cost. Also, this assumption indicates that consumer
demand should force bleached and unbleached to be priced the same.
Answer B is also outside the scope of the argument. It might be a conclusion
you draw from the argument, but it is not an assumption upon which the
argument is based. Answer C is a clarification or furthering of the
conclusion, and it is not an assumption upon which the argument is based.
Answer D states that the cost of the bleaching process is the only factor
relevant to the cost of providing bleached flour to the consumer. This is
probably your answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer E
seems to actually contradict the argument and thus cannot be an assumption
upon which it is based. The correct choice is answer D.
15. Answer: A
This is a Conclusion question. It asks you to identify the main conclusion
that can be drawn from the argument.
The argument states that a newspaper article’s claim that lawsuits are on the
decline is based on a misleading statistic, court verdicts, and that one should
consider alternative methods of resolving lawsuits.
You can expect the correct answer to be that by considering these other
methods it becomes clear the article’s claim is not true, lawsuits are not on
the decline.
Answer A states this conclusion exactly. This is very likely your answer, but
you must review the remaining options to be sure. Answers B and C may be
true, but nothing in the argument gives you a cause-and-effect relationship
between the length and expense of court hearings and the growth of
arbitration and mediation. The argument tells you only that the hearings are a
result of the failure of these other means. The success or failure of lawsuits
through court hearings is not even discussed in the argument. The argument
is concerned only with the length and expense of the process, so answer D
cannot be your choice. Answer E has to be true for the argument to work, but
it is not the conclusion. Rather it is a precondition. The correct choice is
answer A.
16. Answer: D
This is a Describe question. It asks that you identify the strategy used by the
argument.
The argument looks at the basis for the claim in the article, the decreasing
number of court verdicts, and says that this statistic can be understood
differently by looking at it in a wider context and taking into consideration
differently by looking at it in a wider context and taking into consideration
alternative methods of resolving disputes, thus leading to a very different
conclusion.
You expect the correct answer to give a succinct description of this
approach.
Answer A is incorrect because the argument makes no claim regarding the
motivation of the journalists. The argument sticks to attacking the
journalist’s argument itself. Answer B obviously cannot be your answer
because the argument does not explore the history of lawsuits and alternative
dispute resolution. Like the newspaper article, the argument concentrates on
the current situation. Answer C also cannot be correct because the argument
says nothing about the relationship between lawyers and judges. Answer D
says exactly what the argument does and fits your expectations of the correct
answer perfectly. The argument does in fact look at the evidence used by the
article and reinterprets it to reach the opposite conclusion. This is most likely
your answer, but you have one last option to consider. Answer E cannot be
your answer because the argument does not question the statistic or its
accuracy. Instead, the argument accepts the statistic as true but questions
how the statistic is interpreted. The correct choice is answer D.
17. Answer: A
This is a Flaw question. The question asks that you identify the one answer
that fails to point out a flaw in the president’s reasoning. This means that all
the options but one are valid flaws in the president’s reasoning.
The president is questioning the vice president about a manager’s decisions.
Based on the manager’s hiring the best engineer and the best production
team and the best staff, the president questions the vice president’s
assessment that the manager did not want the new product to succeed.
The correct answer will either have nothing to do with the president’s logic
or it will actually support his criticism of the vice president.
Answer A does not seem to describe the president’s logic at all, nor does it
describe a flaw in the president’s logic. The relationship between the
manager’s desires and the success of the product is not at issue. What’s at
issue is the judgment of the vice president regarding the manager. This is
most likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options to be
sure. Answer B essentially says the president fails to acknowledge that the
vice president misinterpreted the facts and made a poor assessment of the
manager. Therefore, the vice president did not willfully misrepresent the
manager’s performance. With regard to the president’s accusation against the
vice president, this is definitely a flaw in the logic and cannot be your choice.
Answer C is also a flaw. The president does assume the manager hired the
engineer, team, and staff upon his own will, so this could be considered a
flaw because if the manager had no choice, then the manager could very well
have wanted the new product to fail despite the nature of the hires. Answers
D and E are also valid flaws. They both point out factors outside the hires.
Despite the quality of those hires, if the manager failed to allot enough time
and resources or if the manager knew the hires would not work well together,
these facts would indicate that the manager wanted the new product to fail.
18. Answer: B
This is a Parallel question. The question asks you to match the flawed
reasoning in the argument with the answer that exhibits similarly flawed
logic.
Essentially, the argument says a person likes X, but not Y. Therefore, it is
not true that any person who likes Y likes X. You also notice that the
statements go from the specific (my brother) to the general (whoever). You
are looking for the same pattern among your options.
The correct answer will follow the pattern described in step 2.
Answer A says that a person likes X but not Y. Therefore, it is not true that
any person who likes X likes Y. Notice that the second half of the pattern has
been reversed (XY instead of YX). This answer does not match your pattern.
Answer B says a person is X (7+) but not Y (a giant). Therefore it is not true
that any person who is Y (a giant) is X (7+). Even though the wording is
somewhat different, the flawed logic follows the same pattern and this is
most likely your answer. You should review the remaining options to be
sure. Answer C says all compositions that are X (minimalist) are Y.
Therefore if a composition is X, then it is Y. Again, the pattern is not the
same, plus the order is reversed, moving from the general to the specific
while the argument goes from the specific to the general. Answer D says
people who do X are Y. Therefore, the neighbors who are Y are X. The order
of terms is correct but this option, like answer C, also goes from the general
to the specific, which is the wrong direction of logic. Finally, answer E says
a photo that is not X is Y. Therefore, it is not true that some photos that are X
are Y. The order is wrong and the logical terms are wrong. The first term is
in the negative. Also, the general statement is not categorical (all, every, etc.)
but “some.” The correct choice is answer B.
19. Answer: D
This is a Weaken question. The question asks that you determine which fact
most undermines the basis for the expert’s conclusion.
The expert says that they tested 5 square inches of an explosive substance 10
times, and every time it failed to explode an area beyond 20.7 square feet.
The expert’s evidence is that the tests exploded areas between 9.2 and 12.5
square feet. The expert concludes that 5 square inches of the substance
explodes an area much less than 20.7 square feet.
You expect the correct answer to be some fact that counters the evidence
presented by the tests and offers proof that the explosive may explode an
area close to or beyond 20.7 square feet.
Answer A is about testing another type of explosive in identical
circumstances, but this does not undermine the expert’s evidence since
another explosive tells you nothing about the explosive used in the bank
robbery. Answer B has nothing to do with the evidence and attempts to
undermine the expert’s qualifications. This is not what the question is asking.
Answer C also tries to undermine the expert’s qualifications by describing a
common malpractice, but it is still not relevant to the evidence at hand and it
is too general a statement to be of use. Answer D says that another test was
done that still did not cover 20.7 square feet, but it came close at 20.1 feet.
This seems close enough to lay some doubt about the expert’s use of only the
10 previous tests and the conclusion that the substance destroys an area
“much less” than 20.7 square feet. This may be your answer, but you have
one more option to consider. Answer E is a hypothetical and may be true, but
it is not as strong as answer D at undermining the expert’s evidence and
conclusion. The correct choice is answer D.
20. Answer: A
This is an Assumption question. The question asks that you identify an
assumption upon which the argument depends.
The argument claims that the Internet increases the awareness of injustices
for those attempting to solve injustices. Then it says that Internet access
comes faster than an enlightened education system, and that people are
vulnerable to questionable reformers promising solutions. Thus, countries
with enlightened technology policies may cause their own downfall.
The correct answer will most likely connect poor education to a lack of
ability to recognize fake reformers.
Answer A says that a lack of enlightened education affects the ability of
people to recognize between legitimate and illegitimate reformers. This
matches your expectations for the correct answer exactly and is most likely
your answer, but you must review the remaining options to be sure. Answer
B offers a direct causal relationship between the education level and the
toppling of the nation, but the argument says that only some countries, not
all, may experience such a connection, and it definitely does not make its
claims with such certainty. Answer C supports the opposite of what the
argument is saying. Answer C says that a charlatan can topple a government
only if there is an enlightened education system in place, but the argument
says that it is the lack of an enlightened educational system that enables
charlatans to achieve such a result. The argument says that Internet allows
more people to be aware of injustices, but it does not say that the Internet is
the only source, so answer D cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E
makes a connection between enlightened education and the sustaining of
reasonable regimes. The argument connects a lack of enlightened education
with the toppling of reasonable regimes. It makes no claim regarding the
opposite condition, so this cannot be correct. The correct choice is answer
A.
21. Answer: A
This is a Deduction question. The question asks you to identify the statement
that is most strongly supported by the argument.
The argument states that sleep aids increase appetite and that some of the
resulting weight gain can be counterbalanced by dieting.
You can expect the correct answer to be related to the connection between
sleep aids and gaining weight.
Answer A says that some patients who take sleep aids gain weight as a
result. This matches your expected answer. Nothing in the statement is
unsupportable by the argument, and this most likely is your answer, but you
must review the remaining options to see if there isn’t a better one. Answer
B states a recommendation in categorical terms, but the argument does not
say that all people who take sleep aids gain weight, nor does it say that
dieting helps all people gain weight. This cannot be your answer. Answer C
is unsupportable by the argument because the argument links the weight gain
to taking the drugs, not to dieting or lack of dieting. Answers D and E are
incorrect because the argument does not go into the decision of whether or
not to prescribe. Nor does it go into a patient’s decision to request the drug.
These elements are beyond the scope of the argument, which is concerned
only with those who have already taken the drugs and how they deal with the
resulting weight gain. The correct choice is answer A.
22. Answer: B
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks that you identify the answer
choice that restates or clarifies the conclusion of the argument.
The argument says that education and training enable people to use their
intelligence efficiently and that successful people do not vary much in
intelligence. Therefore, to achieve success, people must be well educated.
You can guess that the correct answer will link education to success more
succinctly than the argument does.
Answer A is a partial restatement of the first premise in the argument, but it
is not a restatement of the conclusion, so it cannot be your answer. Answer B
says that no person can be successful without a superior education. This is
pretty much a restatement of the conclusion and is close to what you
expected. The argument does conclude that in order for a person to be
successful, he or she must have a good education. This is probably your
answer, but you should go through the remaining options. Answer C
attempts to reverse the relationship, saying that only successful people have a
superior education, but the argument says a superior education is a
prerequisite for success and does not say that a superior education is
exclusive to successful people, nor does it say that all people with a superior
education become successful. Answer D is simply a restatement of the
second premise in the argument and is not related to the conclusion. Answer
E tries to connect intelligence to success, but the argument says there is not
much difference in intelligence among successful people. It concludes that
education impacts success, and it is this conclusion that you are being asked
to find restated among the answers. The correct choice is answer B.
23. Answer: E
This is a Principle question. The question asks you to identify the principle
or axiom that most justifies the claim made in the argument.
The argument says that you should avoid attacking an opponent’s character
before a football game and that such attacks have nothing to do with
competitiveness; rather, they question the team’s moral right to compete.
You expect the principle to state that attacks that are not related to
competitiveness are irrelevant or something to that effect.
Answer A attempts to say that attacks on character fail to achieve a moral
result, but the argument is saying that such attacks should not be used in the
first place, so this cannot be your answer. Answer B says that attacks on
character are warranted in certain cases, but the argument makes it clear that
such attacks are never warranted. Answer C may be true, but the perception
of the attacks by the spectators is not the concern of the argument, so this
cannot be correct. Answer D offers a theory as to why teams attack the
character of the opposing team, but this is an explanation, not a justification
for the argument. Finally, answer E states your expected answer perfectly. If
such behaviors should be avoided, then definitely attacks on character, which
the argument says have nothing to do with competing on the field, should be
avoided. The correct choice is answer E.
24. Answer: C
This is a Parallel question. The question asks that you identify the argument
that uses the same logical reasoning as the main argument.
The argument gives you a bureaucratic situation that says the manager
cannot post an opening (A) without the superior’s approval (B), but the
superior cannot approve it unless Human Resources approves it first (C).
You can reorder these as “if C, then if B, then A.”
The answer must follow the same pattern.
For answer A, each attribute exists concurrently with the others, and one is
not required before the other, so this cannot be correct. Answer B has
conditionals that are not certain. They are likelihoods. Language such as
“most patients” and “it is likely” disqualify this answer from consideration
since the argument’s requirements are certainties. Answer C says a student
(A) cannot achieve a brown belt without achieving a purple belt (B), but the
student cannot achieve the purple belt without first achieving a blue belt (C).
In other words, if C, then if B, then A. This is the same pattern as in the
argument and is likely your choice, but you must review the remaining
options. Answer D has two alternative paths to reach the ultimate goal while
the argument has only one path, so this cannot be correct. Answer E says a
microscope “can” be used to examine the flagellum, but it does not say the
microscope is the only way to examine the flagellum, so there might be other
tools that can be used to do so. Therefore, this cannot be your answer. The
25. Answer: E
This is an Assumption question. The question asks you to identify the
assumption upon which Morrel’s defense depends.
Morrel argues that he is not guilty of plagiarism because Stipich made his
movie in Russian and it was never subtitled.
You can expect the correct answer to be something to the effect that Morrel
had no other way than viewing the original film, subtitled or not, to learn the
plot.
Answer A cannot be your choice because Morrel does not defend himself by
saying he knew of the plot from some other source. Answer B might indicate
that Morrel might be able to figure out the language in the movie, so this
would actually make him look more guilty and would certainly not be an
assumption underlying Morrel’s claim of innocence. Answer C cannot be
correct. Morrel does not base his defense on being unable to understand
Stipich if and when they ever met. Answer D cannot be correct because the
popularity of Stipich’s movie is irrelevant to whether Morrel plagiarized the
movie. Answer E fits your expected answer well. Morrel is assuming that
there was no other way for him to learn plot elements of Stipich’s movie than
by viewing the film, so he is also assuming that nobody told him the plot of
Stipich’s movie before he made his movie. This is your answer. The correct
choice is answer E.
SECTION III
Passage 1
1. Answer: C
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks that you identify the answer
that gives you the main idea of the passage.
Answer A offers the opposite of what the passages are saying. The passage
discusses nations attempting to maintain both Western and traditional legal
systems, not attempting to supplant traditional with a Western-style system.
Answer B is tempting because it discusses the efforts of the countries to
create constitutions that satisfy the competing interests, but it does not
mention the difficulties the countries have faced in attempting to integrate
Western and traditional legal systems, and this is a central aspect of the
passages. Answer C is better. It talks about how nations are working toward
Western-style legal systems, but their efforts to balance competing interests
have encountered conflicts with traditional legal structures. You must review
the remaining options to see if there is a better one. Answer D is too focused
on legal cases while the passage is more general. Also, the passage discusses
how the rule of law moved legal cases back to traditional, more informal
institutions after the court system proved inadequate to the task. Finally,
answer E is too limited to the last paragraph and the accusation by human
rights groups. It leaves out the rest of the passage. The correct choice is
answer C.
2. Answer: D
This is a Main Idea question. This question asks for the main idea of just the
second paragraph of passage A.
Look back to that particular paragraph and read the first and last sentences to
recall that paragraph’s purpose.
Answer A cannot be your answer because the paragraph does not suggest
that these legally pluralistic nations have been highly successful; if anything,
it suggests that they have been problematic. Answer B cannot be correct
because the paragraph does not discuss the history of legal pluralism or
different forms it has taken over time. Answer C cannot be correct. While the
paragraph does discuss the difficulties of achieving legal pluralism, it does
not make a prognosis that it is unworkable. Answer D describes paragraph 2
very well. The first paragraph discusses the issue of legal pluralism in
general, while paragraph 2 presents Africa as a place where the abstract
problem has actually arisen. This is probably your answer, but you have one
last option. Answer E is a bit extreme. It does not say that the results have
been “disastrous” throughout history. In the reading-comprehension section
you should always be suspect of answers that use such extreme words or
descriptions of any passage. The correct choice is answer D.
3. Answer: A
This is an Inference question. The question asks you to identify the attitude
newly independent governments have toward traditional leaders as implied
by the passage.
There is little specific information in the passage regarding their attitude, but
the passage does give the impression of governments earnestly trying to
integrate the two, so there is a willingness on their part to create a system of
legal pluralism that works.
legal pluralism that works.
Answer A seems like a good description of a government trying to integrate
traditional values into a wider world value system even though it is difficult
to do so and the attempt does not always work very well. To be sure that this
is your answer, however, you must review the other options. Answer B could
be our choice. The word “accommodation” looks right, but the “disdain” is a
bit harsh. Disdain requires evidence that the traditional leaders are coercing
or pressuring the governments to create legal pluralism and that is not
evident in this passage. Answer C is also too extreme and has the same
problem as answer B. There is no evidence that the governments are being
forced to create legal pluralism. They are just trying to work out a
compromise. If the governments felt anger and resentment they would
probably be much less willing to attempt legal pluralism in the first place.
Answer D would require that the traditional leaders gave the governments
reasons to be suspicious or uneasy, and none of those elements are explored
here. Lastly, answer E is wrong because if there was anything to be uncertain
or anxious about it would be Western legal systems, not their own traditional
leaders. They might be uncertain or anxious about integrating the two
systems, but not the traditional leaders. The correct choice is answer A.
4. Answer: C
This is a Line ID question. The question asks that you identify the reason the
passage uses the example of Zimbabwe’s attempts to reform its water
management system.
Find the discussion of this subject, which is in the second paragraph of
passage B. This example seems to be used to further exhibit the difficulties
governments face at creating legal pluralism when they must accommodate
traditional interests. You expect the correct answer to say something along
those lines.
Answer A might be correct if the example described a success, specifically
the creation of a new water management system, but the example does not do
this. Instead, it shows how such an effort did not succeed, at least not at first.
Answer B cannot be correct because the example does not explore the
different approaches to water management. You are given no specifics. It
says only that the conflict existed because informal systems and traditional
institutions controlled water systems. Answer C is most likely your answer
because the example does come after another example of the difficulties with
legal pluralism, and it is far from similar to the first example. Thus, it offers
insight into the range of difficulties. You must review the remaining options
to be sure this answer is correct. Answer D mentions “foreign interests,” and
nothing in the example indicates that foreign interests were involved in the
attempt to achieve reform of the water management system. Answer E is
tempting, but the example says only that a conflict ensued. It says nothing
about the end result, so you do not know whether there was a failure or not.
5. Answer: D
This is a Main Idea question. In the case of paired passages, look for the
points of comparison between the main ideas of passages A and B.
Refer to your passage summaries. Note that passage A discusses legal
pluralism in general, whereas passage B discusses problems specific to
Zimbabwe.
Passage B does not reject any contention made by passage A, it only
elaborates upon passage A, so you can reject answer choice A. Similarly,
passage B never questions the validity of any statements made in passage A,
so you can reject answer choice B as well. Answer choice C is tempting but
too extreme. Passage B does not suggest that legal pluralism is the cause of a
“global human rights conflict.” We know that pluralism has caused some
problems, but not on the scale suggested by answer choice C. Answer choice
D, however, correctly identifies our relationship. Passage A discusses legal
pluralism in general, and passage B discusses the specific example of
Zimbabwe. Passage A never discusses human rights, so you can eliminate
answer choice E. The correct choice is answer D.
Passage 2
6. Answer: C
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks that you identify the main
idea of the passage.
Answer A uses the first few sentences of the first paragraph as a basis for its
idea, but the passage does not say those critics are misinterpreting the novel.
It just says that the reader could read the novel from a very different
perspective than the one offered by those critics. Answer B seems to
contradict what the passage is saying by centering its idea on the southern
novel. The passage discusses critics who view Absalom, Absalom! as
exploring the nature of the novel in general, not just the southern novel, so
this cannot be your answer. Answer C is very promising. The passage does
discuss the novel’s interpretation as an exploration of southern social
structures and some critics’ view that it is also an exploration of the novel
form and whether it can hold any truths. This is most likely your answer, but
you should review the remaining options to be sure. Answer D may be
tempting since the passage says that the novel might be calling into question
the novel as a form of storytelling, but the passage does not suggest that the
novel’s nature makes it impossible to interpret, nor does it suggest that critics
have failed to do so. In fact, the passage is giving validity to just such an
interpretation. Finally, answer E cannot be correct because the passage
mentions the Hollywood circumstance only incidentally, and it is not a
central element of the passage’s discussion. The correct choice is answer
C.
7. Answer: B
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks that you identify
the statement with which the author would agree concerning the
contemporary critics.
Look back at the discussion of the contemporary critics.
The author would most likely not agree with answer A because the author
states that the new critics recognize the central story but they argue that the
reader can ignore it. It would be inaccurate to say that they fail to take it into
account. Answer B looks promising. The author points out the influences
that led to the novel’s structure but does not attribute these to the critics,
implying they might not have taken these into account, but the author does
believe the structure and end of the novel give validity to their theories. This
may be your answer, but you should review the remaining options to be sure.
Answer C says the opposite of what the author might say. The author seems
to acknowledge that the critics have a valid perspective, so the author would
surely not be so critical. Also, this is one of those answers that sounds too
extreme to be the right answer. Answer D tries to confuse you by attributing
the author’s observations to the critics. The author makes the connections to
Hollywood and detective novels but does not attribute these influences to the
critics’ analysis. Finally, regarding answer E, the author does not state that
the new critics have overthrown previously accepted theories. Instead, the
author merely suggests that the new critics are offering a different theory,
one that fits into the modernist way of thinking. Never does the author
suggest that previous theories have been supplanted. The correct choice is
answer B.
8. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks you to identify the purpose
of the second paragraph.
Review the second paragraph. It gives some biographical information on
Faulkner at the time that he wrote the novel as well as some outside
circumstances that might have influenced the structure of the novel.
Answer A cannot be correct because the paragraph does not attempt to cast
doubt on the new critical theory or any theory for that matter. If anything, the
paragraph seems to be supporting the new theory by discussing how the
influences affected the structure of the novel. Answer B seems right. As we
have already discussed, the second paragraph gives biographical information
that could be seen as supportive of the new structuralist critical theory. This
is probably your answer, but you must review the remaining options to be
sure. Answer C cannot be correct because the paragraph is about Faulkner,
not the critics or their process. Answer D is tempting and would finish a
strong second to answer B, but the paragraph is not really focused on
providing a historical background. Lastly, answer E is also a tempting
answer because the paragraph could be viewed as discussing the foundations
of the theory, but the language is a bit too general when compared to answer
B or even answer D. The word “foundations” could be interpreted too many
ways, while “biographical information” is more specific and more accurate.
9. Answer: D
This is an Inference question. The question asks what the passage implies
with regard to Faulkner’s main character in the novel, Quentin Compson.
Find within the passage the section that discusses this character and reread it.
Answer A cannot be correct because the passage never implies that Quentin
is not from the South. It does the opposite, in fact, by noting Quentin’s “own
southern heritage.” Answer B cannot be correct because the second
paragraph (as we’ve already explored) implies that it was the structure of the
novel that was influenced by Faulkner’s time in Hollywood, not the
characters of the novel. Answer C may or may not be true. The passage does
imply that Quentin’s account of what happened to the Sutpens indicated such
a hatred—otherwise his roommate would not have asked the question—but
the passage never indicates his true feelings, so this cannot be the correct
choice. Answer D is indeed implied by the passage when the author writes
that Quentin is Faulkner’s “frequent proxy,” which implies that the character
appears in other novels and that he represents Faulkner’s perspective. This is
E has the same problem as answer B: the detective novels influenced the
structure, not the characters. The correct choice is answer D.
10. Answer: E
This is an Information Retrieval question. The question asks you to identify a
statement that the modern critics would agree with.
If you read the entire passage, you should be able to answer this question, but
returning to the first and last paragraphs may help as well, since those
paragraphs address specifically how the modern critics view the novel.
Answer A is a statement that the older, more traditional critics would make,
because they emphasize the story central to the novel, specifically the Sutpen
family and how they represent the decay of the southern paternal system.
Answer B suggests that the reader is a participant along with Quentin and his
roommate in solving the mystery, but the passage does not discuss the
reader’s role in the mysteries in the novel. Readers are discussed only with
regard to being challenged about how they perceive the novel or novels in
general. Answer C may or may not be true, but this answer goes beyond
anything in the passage. The critics propose that the writer challenges readers
concerning the nature of the novel, but they do not go as far as to suggest
that there is a collaboration going on. The only collaboration mentioned in
the passage is between Quentin and his roommate. Answer D cannot be your
answer because it is the lack of such details that give the critics fuel for their
theory. Finally, the critics would very likely agree with answer E because it
states exactly (as discussed in the passage) what the critics think Faulkner
was trying to achieve, a structure that allows readers to question whether
what they are reading is important or true and to wonder what is the nature of
the novel as a medium. The correct choice is answer E.
11. Answer: D
the one element that according to the passage did not influence Faulkner’s
novel.
You refer to the passage and scan for all the influences mentioned. You
should be able to eliminate from the answer choices all those that are
specifically included in the passage.
specifically included in the passage.
Answer A is mentioned in the first part of paragraph two. Answer B is
mentioned in the latter part of paragraph two. Paragraph one discusses the
southern aspects of the novel, giving support to answer C. Answer D may be
true, but the passage does not discuss gothic story structure, so this may be
your answer. You need to consider your last option. Answer E is not as clear
as the others, but the passage says that Quentin is Faulkner’s proxy, so it is
implied that Faulkner also has such struggles. The correct choice is answer
D.
12. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks you to identify the main
purpose of the author in writing the passage.
If necessary, you can review the passage by reading the first and last
sentences of each paragraph to get a sense of the author’s purpose.
Answer A concentrates only on paragraph two and thus cannot be your
choice because it ignores the rest of the passage that discusses the critical
theory. Answer B is closer to the author’s intent. The author is definitely
exploring a critical theory and why Faulkner structured his novel to allow
that theory to come to the fore. This is most likely your answer, but you need
to go through the remaining options to be sure. Answer C comes from the
first paragraph, but the author does not say that the approaches are
necessarily in conflict, nor that there is an attempt to resolve them. Answer D
focuses on the last paragraph but excludes all that came before, so this
cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E has a similar problem to answer A.
It concentrates on paragraph two. The correct choice is answer B.
Passage 3
13. Answer: E
This is a Main Idea question. The first question for this passage asks you to
identify the main idea of the passage.
identify the main idea of the passage.
Review the first and last paragraphs to get a sense of the main idea.
Answer A cannot be correct because the passage suggests that budgetary
conditions may make it difficult, but the passage does not suggest that it is
impossible. When an answer uses such categorical terms as never, you can
almost always eliminate that answer. Answer B cannot be correct because
the passage never discusses a disagreement between the two different
theories. It merely presents the different theories and posits that future
research could reconcile them. Nor does the passage suggest that any of the
theories are hindering progress. Only the lack of money is hindering
progress, according to the passage. Answer C cannot be correct because the
universe’s future is not unresolved. The passage states for certainty that it is
expanding and not contracting. Answer D cannot be correct because
Einstein’s theory did not necessarily fail to deliver an explanation. The
passage makes it clear that one of his failed theorems offers a possible
explanation, so this cannot be your choice for the answer. Finally, answer E
seems to give a good explanation of the main idea. The passage is suggesting
that until tests are done, scientists are left with a theoretical concept (dark
energy) and several hypotheses about how it works within the universe. The
correct choice is answer E.
14. Answer: A
the reason that the author mentions the known quantity of the energy
necessary to sustain the current rate of expansion in the universe.
Reread those particular lines in the passage (at the end of paragraph one).
Answer A seems like a good answer. It is true that the passage is suggesting
that scientists understand the overall universe and what is necessary to
sustain its expansion, but they hardly know what is enabling it to do so, so
this is probably the correct choice. Still, you must review the remaining
options to be certain. Answer B is true but limited in scope. It focuses on
what is not known, not on why the passage mentions what is known about
the universe. Therefore, this cannot be your answer. Answer C cannot be
correct because at that point in the passage the expansion of the universe is
considered a given. The author is not still trying to prove that point. Answer
D is incorrect because the author has not yet gotten to the discussion of the
theoretical models that explain dark matter. Finally, answer E is also a bit
premature since at this point you do not know the estimated magnitude of
dark energy’s makeup of the universe. Knowing the total energy needed to
expand the universe gives no indication of what makes up that energy. The
15. Answer: C
This is an Inference question. The question asks you to identify what
statement regarding quintessence can be inferred from the passage.
Look back at the passage and review the section that discusses quintessence,
or at least scan for key words in that section.
Answer A cannot be correct because quintessence is not presented as
contradictory to Einstein’s theory. The passage presents quintessence as one
hypothesis that might explain the behavior of dark energy within Einstein’s
cosmological constant. Answer B cannot be true because the conclusion of
the entire passage is that quintessence and other ideas are just theoretical,
and until observational evidence is obtained, we will never know the nature
of the universe. Answer C says that dark energy is not inherent in space and
is not consistent throughout the universe. The passage implies both of these
ideas. It says that quintessence conceptualizes dark matter as a force that
evolves with the growing universe. Also, quintessence conceptualizes dark
matter as an “inhomogeneous energy fluid or field” that is not consistently
present. This is most likely your answer, but you should review your
remaining options. Answer D cannot be correct because the scientists have
used Einstein’s cosmological constant to explain the excess energy. The
excess energy is not a problem with Einstein’s equations as the answer
suggests. Finally, answer E is too certain about what dark energy or
quintessence has replaced or explained. Since it is still theoretical, you
cannot yet accept such certainty even if the results seem likely. The correct
choice is answer C.
16. Answer: B
This is a Main Idea question. The question is asking you to identify the
primary function of the passage, or in other words, what the author is trying
to do by writing the passage.
Read the first and last sentences of each paragraph to get a sense of the
progression of thought.
Answer A does not seem right because the author does not really say the
theories are in conflict with each other. The author only discusses various
views that are held by different scientists. It is possible that each side
considers the other theory just as likely to be correct as its own. Answer B is
a good description of the passage. The author is presenting theories of dark
energy, and while the author does not exactly discuss any challenges to the
theories, it is evident that the theories are still under question by the scientific
community. The author also says that these theories will remain theoretical
until observational evidence is brought to bear. This most likely should be
your choice, but you must review your remaining options. Answer C cannot
be correct because the passage only discusses theories that are still
considered viable until contrary evidence is found. They have not yet been
discarded. Regarding answer D, even though the passage discusses problems
with the cosmological constant theory, it does not favor quintessence over
that theory. It merely presents it as an alternative theory. Answer E focuses
on the last paragraph or conclusion of the passage, but it ignores the
remainder of the passage, so this cannot be your answer. The correct choice
is answer B.
17. Answer: E
the answer that is not a theoretically possible characteristic of dark energy.
You refer to the passage and review the characteristics of dark energy.
Answer A is what Einstein’s cosmological constant argues is the nature of
dark energy when it says that dark energy constitutes the “energy density of
the vacuum of space.” Answer B is mentioned in paragraph three, which says
that quintessence theorizes that dark energy “evolves with the growing
universe and exerts increasingly expansionary forces.” Answer C is
mentioned in the first and last paragraphs, when the passage discusses dark
energy as making up more of the universe and turning dark matter and matter
into “minority players.” Also, the paragraph says that “the notion that gravity
is the dominant force in the universe is no longer sustainable.” Answer D is a
characteristic of the quintessence theory. Lastly, consider answer E. The
passage says in the first few sentences that this characteristic of dark energy
is no longer held to be true, so the correct choice is answer E.
18. Answer: B
This is an Inference question. The question asks you to identify a
hypothetical sentence the author might include at the end of the last
paragraph.
Read the final paragraph to remind yourself of where it was leading you. The
last two sentences discuss the potential for scientific exploration to discover
the nature of dark energy, but suggest that financial limitations may kill such
opportunities.
Answer A does not fit the tone of the article, which is focused on the
theoretical even if it is realistic about the prospects of finding evidence.
Nothing in the article hints that scientists might just give up on proving their
theories. Answer B fits the tone of the author. It is hopeful but realistic about
the prospects of finding evidence of dark energy. This is most likely your
answer, but you must review the remaining options to be certain of your
choice. Answer C makes a rather unjustified statement about the public and
its priorities. Nothing in the passage and especially the final paragraph
supports such a harsh judgment. Answer D is completely off the mark. The
passage states that the cosmological constant and quintessence are the
scientific community’s best bets for explaining dark energy, at least until
another theory or hard evidence is found. Nothing in the passage suggests
that the author believes scientists should just abandon those theories. Finally,
answer E might be a good sentence to come at the end of paragraph three if
paragraph four did not exist, but this is not the case. Therefore, the correct
choice is answer B.
Passage 4
19. Answer: D
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks that you choose a title for the
passage from the possible answers.
Scan the passage again or read the first and last sentences of each paragraph
to get a sense of the passage’s meaning.
Answer A’s title is not appropriate because Brandeis and Warren proposed
privacy in the defense of personality, not property. Answer B’s title is
somewhat valid. Warren and Brandeis did move privacy as a legal issue
further into public consideration, but this title does not seem to be describing
the overall idea of the passage, which is much more concerned with how
they defined the legal issue of privacy and what it covered with regard to
personality versus property. Answer C’s title ignores the issue of privacy
altogether and focuses on creativity and copyright law. Although creativity
was affected by Brandeis and Warren’s efforts, it seems wrong not to address
privacy in the title since this is the central focus of the passage. Answer D
addresses the issue of privacy and Brandeis and Warren’s approach to the
issue with a humorous quip about personality. Since the title includes the two
major elements discussed in the passage, this could very well be the title of
the passage. You have one last option to consider. Answer E might be a close
second place, but it focuses too much on the ultimate extent of Brandeis and
Warren’s argument rather than on the overall argument that is discussed
throughout the passage. The correct choice is answer D.
20. Answer: D
This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify a statement
regarding Brandeis and Warren’s approach to the privacy issue that can be
inferred from the passage.
You refer to the passage and read through the first paragraph, which
discusses the origin and basis of their work.
Answer A may be true and is a viable choice, but the passage actually says
that the legal profession had defined privacy according to property and was
satisfied with that definition. The implication is that Brandeis and Warren
decided to redefine the law, not correct deficiencies. While this could be
your answer, you cannot be certain and need to review the remaining
options. Answer B cannot be your answer because it says that the concern
was property, not personality, which was their basis for changing the law.
Answer C is one of those extreme answers that you can reject altogether.
Nothing in the passage implies such hostility or desire for revenge.
Regarding answer D, the passage says that Warren enlisted Brandeis because
he was “peeved” about gossip about higher society, and since Warren was
very likely a member of high society, it is likely he was seeking a way to
neutralize efforts to slander or blacken his and his friends’ reputation. This
could very well be your answer, but you have one last option to consider.
Answer E cannot be your choice because no such relation is even hinted at in
the passage. The correct choice is answer D.
21. Answer: A
This is an Inference question. The question asks that you identify a statement
that scholars other than Warren and Brandeis would agree with.
Since Warren and Brandeis believed privacy extended to personality and not
just property, you can expect the correct answer to favor defining privacy
protection as a matter of protecting only property.
Answer A discusses the stealing of a short story (written by person A) and
the subsequent publishing of that story. The short story could be considered
private property, and publishing it could be seen by the other scholars as an
infringement of person A’s privacy because the property has been stolen
word for word. This is most likely your answer, but you must review the
remaining options to be certain of your choice. Answer B says the opposite
of answer A. The photograph could be considered property, and stealing it
and publishing it would be the same as the story in answer A, but this answer
says the scholars would not consider it an infringement of privacy, which
they actually would. This cannot be your answer. Answer C describes a
person who steals the essence of someone else’s story and publishes his or
her own version of the story. Since the exact story was not published, it is
not the property of the original writer, so this would not be a breach of
privacy according to the other scholars. Of course, Warren and Brandeis
would very much consider this a breach under their more open definition of
privacy that considers an unpublished work as an extension of a person’s
personality, but that is not what the question asks. Answer D is a situation
that covers gossip, which is the problem Warren was trying to solve in the
first place. Obviously, other scholars thought this was acceptable behavior.
Regarding answer E, the first person willingly gave the photograph to the
second person, and it is unlikely that any scholar, Warren, Brandeis, or
otherwise, would consider this an infringement of privacy. The correct
choice is answer A.
22. Answer: D
how the passage portrays Brandeis and Warren’s approach to personality.
Look back at paragraphs three and four, which discuss their approach to
personality.
Answer A cannot be correct because the passage says that Brandeis and
Warren were influenced by trends in society, not by earlier ideas, which were
focused on property. The passage actually implies that their ideas were a
stark departure from earlier ideas. Answer B suggests that their approach was
a tweak, but the passage really implies that the definition of privacy as
protecting personality was a bigger change than just a tweak. Answer C
seems completely off the mark. Their approach to personality was central to
their argument and was definitely not a side step. Answer D seems like a
good description of their approach as portrayed in the passage. The passage
treats their approach to personality as a significant event that changed the
legal definition of privacy going forward. This is most likely your answer,
but you have one more option to consider. Answer E suggests that existing
scholars poorly understood their approach, but nothing in the passage
suggests such a problem. The passage does not really discuss the reception
by existing scholars, so this cannot be your answer. The correct choice is
answer D.
23. Answer: C
This is a Main Idea question. The question is asking you to identify how the
second paragraph functions within the passage.
You refer to the passage and review the second paragraph to assess its
purpose. Reading just the first sentence, you get the sense that the second
paragraph gives some historical context to Warren and Brandeis’s approach
to privacy.
Answer A might be correct if you focused on just one or two sentences in the
paragraph, but there is much more to the paragraph than just the essay, and
while the paragraph does mention some elements within the essay, there is
not much clarification of those elements in that paragraph. Answer B cannot
be correct because the paragraph does not even address the structure of the
essay other than to say that much of it is devoted to the right to personality.
Answer C is an appropriate description of the paragraph’s function. The
paragraph discusses the rise of yellow journalism and the beginning of the
Museum Period. These could be considered cultural phenomena that
influenced Brandeis and Warren. This is most likely your answer, but you
have two more options to consider. Answer D is actually a description of the
first paragraph, not the second. Answer E cannot be your answer because
part of the first paragraph functions this way and there are no personal details
about the writers in the second paragraph. The correct choice is answer C.
24. Answer: E
This is a Main Idea question. The question asks you to identify the main
purpose of the passage.
Read the first sentences of each paragraph and the last sentence of the last
paragraph to gain an overall understanding of the passage’s purpose.
Answer A belongs to the “too extreme” type of answer. The passage does not
seek to discredit or support any legal argument. It is merely discussing
Warren and Brandeis’s efforts to redefine a legal concept. Answer B is
tempting because the passage does suggest that their essay was historically
influential on the definition of privacy up to today, but the passage is not
mainly focused on describing that influence and therefore this cannot be your
answer. Answer C has the same problem as answer B; the passage does
indicate in the last paragraph that their essay had historic importance, but
you cannot say this is the main purpose of the entire passage since there is so
much content devoted to other aspects of the essay, its origin, its cultural
context, and how its privacy argument contrasted with the previous
definition of privacy. Answer D takes into account only the third paragraph
and not the rest of the passage. Finally, answer E gives you what you need.
The passage does indeed tell the circumstances and the nature of Brandeis
and Warren’s historic legal argument. The correct choice is answer E.
SECTION IV
1. Answer: D
This is a Describe question. It asks you to identify the technique used in the
argument.
Arbus argues that to make a 3-D version of a movie does not degrade the
original version because a home video version of a movie is not considered a
degradation of the original theatrical version; it is considered a different
production altogether and is treated as such.
The correct answer will point out that Arbus makes his argument by likening
one case to an analogous case that supports a different conclusion.
Answer A cannot be correct because Arbus does not cite some general
artistic or critical principle that guides the situation. Answer B cannot be
correct because Arbus does not even discuss the popularity of 3-D movies.
He addresses only the criticism itself. Answer C has the same problem as
answer A. There is no general principle at work within the argument. Answer
D says exactly what you expected the correct answer to say. The argument
works by using an analogous situation to show the flaw in the criticism. This
is most likely your answer, but you have one more option to consider.
Answer E cannot be correct because the argument makes no such distinction
between facts and value judgments. Also, the argument discards the value
judgment in the criticism of 3-D movies but accepts it in the analogous
situation with home video, so this cannot be your answer. The correct
choice is answer D.
2. Answer: A
This is a Paradox question. The question asks you to identify the answer that
helps resolve the discrepancy in the argument.
The argument discusses an international economic body deciding to help bail
out a country. The prime minister of a member nation commits his nation to
help out with the bailout. The parliament of his country condemns its prime
minister for that commitment but supports the bailout.
You can expect the correct answer to resolve the discrepancy by saying that
the parliament had a problem with its prime minister making the
the parliament had a problem with its prime minister making the
commitment without some sort of approval from the people of the country or
the parliament itself.
Answer A gives you a close approximation of what you need. It says the
parliament is the only official body of that nation that can make such a
commitment. This is probably your answer, but you should review the
remaining options to be certain this is the right choice. Answer B may be
true, but as a logical argument it is weakly constructed and does not resolve
the discrepancy anywhere near as strongly as answer A, which is
constitutionally enforceable. Answer C has the same problem as answer B in
that it is a weaker resolution than the constitutionally enforced answer A.
Answer D would be a good choice if the discrepancy existed between the G-
20 and the member nation, but the discrepancy is between the parliament’s
support for the bailout and lack of support for the prime minister, so this
cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E is a logistical issue and is
irrelevant to the discrepancy between support for the effort and lack of
support for the prime minister. The correct choice is answer A.
3. Answer: E
This is a Parallel question. The question asks you to choose the answer that
most resembles the flawed reasoning in the argument.
Essentially, the argument says that a game requires a particular skill.
Because a woman is skilled in a profession (which you are meant to assume
requires the same skill), she would make an excellent participant in that
game.
The correct answer will follow the same pattern.
Answer A says a person who performs one activity will be good at another,
so a woman who is good at the one activity could learn to be good at the
other. This is not the same pattern at all, especially since the logic orients
between activities and not skills. Also, saying that someone can learn an
activity is not saying the person will be good at it. This cannot be your
answer. Answer B says that a particular activity is performed by a person
with a particular skill. Because a man has been engaged in that activity for
several years, he must have that skill. This is not your pattern either because
it is saying the person will have the skill as evidenced by participating in the
activity rather than saying he will be good at the activity as evidenced by
having the skill or participating in a similar activity that requires that skill.
Answer C says that people who have a certain skill invariably enjoy an
activity. Because a man has a certain profession, he must enjoy that activity.
This does not follow your pattern either. The activity does not require the
skill and there is no claim that because the man is in a particular profession
he would be very good at the activity. Answer D says that people with a
physical attribute are good at an activity and that everyone in a woman’s
family has that physical attribute so she must be good at that activity. The
use of a physical attribute instead of a skill is problematic, and just because
the woman’s family has the attribute does not necessarily mean that she has
the attribute, so this cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E says a
profession requires a skill. Then it says that a man participates in another
profession (which you are to assume requires the same skill). Finally, it says
that he will be good in the first profession. This is very close to the logic
pattern in the argument and must be your answer. The correct choice is
answer E.
4. Answer: B
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to find the one answer that is
not a flaw in the psychologist’s reasoning. This means that four out of the
five possible answers are flaws in the psychologist’s reasoning.
The psychologist argues that psychiatrists should not resist prescribing
antidepressant drugs to patients suffering from depression because most
cases of depression are caused by a chemical imbalance and the drugs help
eliminate such imbalances.
The only way to identify the one that is not a flaw is to review the answers
one by one.
Answer A is a flaw and cannot be your answer because the psychologist
makes a categorical statement that doctors should stop refusing to prescribe
the drugs altogether, which means that the psychologist makes no allowance
for the fact that the drugs might be ineffective for some patients. Answer B is
not a flaw because the psychologist does not say depression causes a
chemical imbalance. The psychologist actually argues the opposite, so this
must be your choice, but you should review the remaining options to be sure.
Answer C can be considered a flaw for the same reason as answer A. The
psychologist makes an unsupportable categorical statement that drugs should
be prescribed for all. Answer D can be considered a flaw as well because the
psychologist does assume that the chemical imbalances addressed by the
drugs are a complete and known factor, and if this is not the case the
psychologist has made an error in supporting the unrestrained prescription of
such drugs. Finally, answer E can be considered a flaw. The psychologist
assumes that drugs are the only way to treat the chemical imbalances, but if
therapy can deal with them, then the psychologist’s argument that drugs are a
complete solution falls apart. The correct choice is answer B.
5. Answer: D
This is a Paradox question. The question asks you to find among the answers
the statement that resolves the discrepancy described in the argument.
The argument describes a situation in which an antidote to whooping cough
has a good success rate but scientists warn that widespread use of the drug
could be dangerous.
You expect that the correct answer will identify that widespread use versus
limited use affects the safety of the drug in some way.
Answer A cannot be the correct choice because the researchers warn about
widespread use, not overuse. Nothing in the argument indicates a risk of
incorrect dosages. Answer B assumes that the drug is supposed to be
something more than an antidote and actually prevent the spread of the
disease, which it is not. The discrepancy cannot be a result that is not
expected of the drug in the first place. This cannot be your answer. Answer C
may explain why the drug might be difficult to administer, but it does not
indicate why it is dangerous even when effective as an antidote. Answer D
offers a valid explanation for the discrepancy. Even if the drug is effective, if
its use eventually results in the development of deadlier strains of the
disease, then the drug could very well be too dangerous. This is most likely
your answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer E is an
administrative concern but not one that would indicate why the drug is
dangerous even if effective. The correct choice is answer D.
6. Answer: C
This is a Deduction question. The question asks that you identify the basis
for the disagreement between Juan and Dorothy.
Juan argues that managers should adjust their managerial style to the
employees, and Dorothy believes that employees should be flexible enough
to adjust to the company’s needs. It could be said that the disagreement is
over whether management should adjust to employees or employees should
adjust to management.
You expect the correct answer to be similar to one of those two options.
Answer A is problematic because it uses the word sometimes. Neither Juan
nor Dorothy speaks in such half-terms. Answer B cannot be correct because
their argument is not about training. Answer C says all employees should
learn to adapt to managerial styles. This is similar to the answer you
formulated and is most likely your choice. You should review the remaining
options to be sure. Answers D and E cannot be correct because their
argument is not over the nature of employees’ projects. Rather it is over the
interaction between employees and managers. The correct choice is answer
C.
7. Answer: C
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks you to choose the one
statement that is supported by the political consultant’s argument.
The political consultant states that because politicians’ speeches are closely
analyzed, politicians give consistent speeches that are not explicit on details.
You expect the correct answer to state something to the effect that people
who are closely analyzed make consistent speeches with little detail.
Answer A cannot be correct because the consultant does not say that
politicians are the only people who are scrutinized in this way. Answer B
cannot be correct because the consultant does not say politicians give the
most consistent speeches. The consultant makes no comparison between
politicians and other speech-givers. Answer C says that people give very
consistent statements when closely analyzed. This fits your expected answer
and is supported by the political consultant’s statements. This is most likely
your answer, but you should review your remaining options. Answer D states
the opposite of what the consultant is arguing by saying that people make
consistent statements regardless of scrutiny. Answer E cannot be your
answer mainly due to wording. It is uncertain whether “evaluated more
strictly” means the same thing as “judged for consistency,” and “majority of
things” is a somewhat vague term for comparison. The correct choice is
answer C.
8. Answer: E
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify the flaw in the
media consultant’s argument.
The media consultant argues that electronic media is bringing an end to
traditional news organizations. The consultant implies that the low cost and
ease of publishing and distributing a newspaper no longer exist, and thus
electronic media will make traditional news organizations obsolete.
You expect the correct answer to point out that just because the low cost and
ease of publishing and distribution do not exist, that does not necessarily
mean that traditional news organizations will cease to exist.
Answer A cannot be correct because the consultant never makes use of an
expert opinion in supporting the argument. Answer B cannot be correct
because the consultant does not make an assessment regarding the value of a
traditional news organization. At issue is whether another industry will put it
out of business, not whether the value of that new industry will surpass the
value of the traditional news organization. Answer C cannot be correct
because the consultant is not presupposing that traditional news
organizations will die out. The consultant is attempting to prove it by
pointing out conditions that exist in the industry (more costly and difficult to
publish, takeover by electronic media, etc.). Answer D is incorrect because
the consultant is consistent in logical terms. The words “are bound to” are
almost exactly the same as “inevitable,” and there is no inconsistency that is
similar to saying that something will happen based on what might happen.
Finally, answer E states that the consultant mistakes something that enables
an institution to arise for something necessary for that institution’s survival.
This is the flaw you expected. The consultant assumes that just because
circumstances such as low cost and ease of publishing and distributing the
newspaper no longer exist, traditional news organizations will die out. But it
is possible that these organizations can find another way to survive, such as
adopting the tools of electronic media, for example. The correct choice is
answer E.
9. Answer: E
This is a Describe question. The question asks that you identify the statement
that most accurately describes Lucie’s criticism of David’s statement.
David states that the effort to create new biofuels has caused an increase in
demand for crops usually used for food. The resulting price increase for food
is causing hunger and instability throughout the developing world, so he
argues that advanced nations should scale back their efforts. Lucie criticizes
his argument by citing factors other than biofuels that could be causing the
increased prices that produced the problems.
The correct answer will describe Lucie’s logic as citing other factors that
undermine David’s assumptions.
Answer A cannot be correct because Lucie does not point out any
contradictions in David’s statements. In fact, she does not exactly question
his underlying facts, only the connection he draws between them. Answer B
cannot be correct because Lucie brings up no such analogy. The crops in
Russia and China and the meal bug infestation are not analogous to the
demand for biofuels putting price pressure on food crops since the former are
disasters and the latter is a market demand occurrence. Answer C cannot be
your answer because Lucie’s argument is not supportable by any of David’s
facts. Again, the difference between a market occurrence and a disaster
prohibits this sort of logical flexibility. Answer D is incorrect because
Lucie’s facts are not in conflict with David’s facts, so they can be easily
reconciled since they are concerning different phenomena. Finally, answer E
is your correct answer because Lucie does not question David’s facts. She
only points out that his conclusion does not follow so easily from them. She
thinks that his assumption that the development of biofuels is responsible for
the increase in food prices is questionable. The correct choice is answer E.
10. Answer: C
This is a Weaken question. The question asks that you choose the statement
that David might use to counter Lucie’s objection.
David states that the effort to create new biofuels has caused an increase in
demand for crops usually used for food. The resulting price increase for food
is causing hunger and instability throughout the developing world, so he
argues that advanced nations should scale back their efforts. Lucie criticizes
his argument by citing factors other than biofuels that could be causing the
increased prices that resulted in the problems.
You expect that David would somehow prove that the disasters that affected
You expect that David would somehow prove that the disasters that affected
the crops were inconsequential to the price increases that caused all the
problems in the developing world.
Answer A might be true, but the concern was the worldwide price increase,
not just that affecting biofuels. This statement does not change the fact that
the disasters in those countries could have affected the overall world crop
supplies. Answer B has the same problem as answer A. The issue is food
supplies, not just supplies for biofuels. Answer C is exactly what you are
looking for. It says that the disasters are nothing new and could therefore be
considered an inconsequential factor in the rise of world food prices. This is
most likely your answer, but you must review your last two options. Answer
D is an irrelevant statement since it is future-oriented and has nothing to do
with the current increase in prices. Answer E is actually helpful to Lucie’s
argument by giving another statement that undercuts David’s dependence on
the development of biofuels as the reason for the price increases. You are
looking for a statement to undercut Lucie, not help her, so the correct
choice is answer C.
11. Answer: A
This is a Paradox question. The question asks that you identify the answer
that does not help resolve a discrepancy between a report and some safety
records. This means that four out of the five possible answers resolve the
discrepancy.
The argument discusses a safety report indicating that a reduction in traffic
signs leads to a decline in automobile accidents, but a certain city reduced its
traffic signs by 50 percent and saw no decline in automobile accidents over a
three-year period.
You must go answer by answer and test whether each one resolves the
discrepancy.
Answer A explains the accidents that occurred but does not explain why the
decrease in signs did not have the desired effect of lowering the number of
accidents. This is most likely your answer, but you should review the
remaining options to be certain. Answer B indicates that bureaucratic errors
resulted in the same number of traffic signs as before. Therefore, the
reduction of 50 percent was misleading and you should not have expected
the reduction in accidents to occur. This explains the discrepancy. Answer C
indicates that the number of automobile accidents actually did decrease but
due to the addition of a new category of accidents the total number of
accidents is hiding a result that is actually consistent with the safety report.
This explains the discrepancy. Answer D says there was an increase in the
speed limit, which is another change in traffic conditions that could alter or
change the results. You do not know, but it definitely makes the city’s results
suspect and gives at least a partial explanation of the discrepancy. Answer E
is another change in traffic conditions that could explain the increase in
accidents. This also gives at least a partial explanation for the discrepancy.
12. Answer: A
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify the error in
reasoning in the argument.
The argument states that Jack said he was not going to include the marketing
department in a meeting, but people left the meeting with a report that the
marketing department had promised to produce and deliver at the meeting, so
at least some members of the marketing department must have been at the
meeting.
You might guess that the answer will identify the flaw as the assumption that
the marketing department is the only department that could produce that
particular sales report.
Answer A is a close approximation of that exact flaw. It says that the
argument fails to establish that something which is true for some people is
true for only those people. Just because the marketing department promised
to produce and deliver the report does not mean they are the only people who
could produce and deliver the report. Someone else at the meeting could
have fulfilled Jack’s need. This is most likely your answer, but you must
review the remaining options. Answer B cannot be correct because the only
such term used in the argument is the importance Jack put on the report, but
this is not a flaw and is irrelevant to the logic of the argument. Answer C
ignores the basis for the conclusion, that the report was delivered, and
focuses on whether someone has a right to be at the meeting, which is an
irrelevant factor, since you do not know whether or not the marketing
department was at the meeting in the first place. Answer D is about Jack’s
interest in the report, but whether or not he wanted the report is unimportant
since the reasoning is based on the fact that the report was produced and
delivered at the meeting, so this cannot be your answer. Finally, answer E
says that the flaw is that Jack could have changed his mind based on
changing circumstances, but you have no evidence of that change. The
13. Answer: B
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks that you identify a
statement that must be true based on the statements in the argument.
The argument is a series of “if . . . then” statements. Since the statements are
in the negative, it might be helpful to create the contrapositive. The first
statement: if you can repair the water heater, then you must be skilled with
tools. The second statement: if you can perform the duties of a maintenance
engineer, then you must be able to repair a water heater. Since both
statements share a term (repair a water heater), you can also say that if you
can perform the duties of a maintenance engineer, then you must be skilled
with tools.
The correct answer will say that if you can perform the duties of a
maintenance engineer, then you must be skilled with tools.
Answer A cannot be your answer because you cannot reverse the second
statement. “If A then B” does not mean “if B then A.” Answer B is exactly
your contrapositive and must be your answer, but you should review the
remaining options to be sure. Answer C has the same problem as answer A.
You cannot reverse the contrapositive “if . . . then” statement and expect it to
be true. Answer D adds the word probably to the statement, which changes
the meaning of the statement and makes it unworkable with your logical
statements. Concerning answer E, you must consider joining the statements
to say that if you have no skill with tools at all, then you will not be able to
perform the duties of a maintenance engineer. But once again, the reverse of
this statement is not true, and this is why answer E cannot be correct. The
14. Answer: D
This is an Assumption question. The question asks that you choose from
among the answers the assumption the artist requires to make the argument.
The artist argues essentially that the meaning of a work of art is variable and
that the intentions of the artist are irrelevant. Therefore, the interpretation
reveals more about the critic than the artist.
You expect the correct answer will link the meaning of a work of art directly
to the critic or interpreter.
Answer A cannot be correct because it links understanding of the art to the
artist’s history, which is in direct conflict with the statements saying that the
artist’s intentions are irrelevant to an interpretation. Answer B cannot be
correct because it states that the interpreter can never know the real
intentions of the artist, but the art critic does not base the argument on not
being able to know the artist’s intentions. Rather, the critic feels that those
intentions are irrelevant to any interpretation. Answer C is similar to answer
A in that it expresses the opposite of what the critic is arguing. Answer D
makes a direct connection between the meaning of the work of art and the
interpreter. This is the assumption as you formulated it and is likely the right
answer, but you have one more option to consider. Answer E might be
something the critic would say at the end of the argument, but nothing in the
statements before you show that the critic is seeking to establish the validity
of interpretations. Rather, the critic is making an observation about the
nature of interpretations of works of art. This cannot be your answer. The
15. Answer: D
This is a Parallel question. The question asks you to identify which of the
answers follows the same pattern of reasoning as the argument.
The argument says that a study proves that replacing an older power plant
with a newer one reduces the incidence of major illnesses but does not
distinguish between conventional and nuclear power plants. Therefore, the
argument claims, there is no increased health risk from living next to a
nuclear power plant. The logic works off the fact that the study fails to
distinguish between two types of subjects, and then makes a dubious
conclusion based on that failure.
Answer A is straightforward concerning the two types of bags, but it does
not base its conclusion on a failure to distinguish between two types of bags.
It merely states its facts and derives a conclusion based on those facts. This
does not follow the same pattern of reasoning and cannot be your answer.
Answer B also features a study with no failure to distinguish between types.
The study gives a choice between supplements and eating fruits and
vegetables, and the statement says you can choose the latter over the former
without health risk. This does not follow your pattern. Answer C makes a
dubious claim based on questionable evidence but not on any failure to
distinguish between two types of drivers. This cannot be your answer.
Answer D features a study claiming that fruits and vegetables help reduce the
incidence of cancer and says this benefit exists regardless of whether they are
grown conventionally or organically. It then makes a dubious claim that
there is no risk of increased cancer from eating fruits and vegetables
containing pesticide residues. The claim is based on the fact that the study
does not distinguish between the types of fruits and vegetables. This follows
your pattern and is most likely your answer, but you have one more option to
consider. Answer E does not base its claim on a failure to distinguish
between genetic types. The dubious claim or leap in logic is based on a
simple link between health and a genetic predisposition to eat an unhealthy
diet. Therefore, this does not follow your pattern. The correct choice is
answer D.
16. Answer: A
This is an Inference question. The question asks you to choose the statement
that expresses a probable belief held by the league director based on his
statements.
Mr. Anderson presents the situation, saying that his daughter’s entire soccer
team was suspended because some members of the team were taunting
members of the opposing team. He is angry because his daughter was not
one of those doing the taunting, and everyone knows the culprits. The league
director defends the decision to suspend the entire team by using an analogy
to passengers forced to endure a delayed flight even though they had nothing
to do with the reason the plane is delayed. It is obvious that the league
director believes that Mr. Anderson’s daughter is innocent but should be
punished along with the others anyway.
The correct answer will indicate the league director’s belief in the innocence
of Mr. Anderson’s daughter.
Answer A says the league director believes Mr. Anderson’s daughter might
be innocent, and this is exactly what is implied by his statements since he
compares her to an airline passenger who is delayed even though he or she
had nothing to do with the delay. This is most likely your answer, but you
must review the remaining options to be certain. Answer B focuses on an
irrelevant aspect of the director’s argument, the causes of flight delays.
While he might believe in this statement, there is nothing in the argument
that leads us to infer that he understands why a flight is delayed. He only
knows that the passengers are not responsible. Answer C cannot be correct
because it is Mr. Anderson who says “everyone” knows who taunted them,
which you can assume includes his daughter, but the league director does not
suggest such knowledge, and the question asks what can be inferred only
from the league director’s statements, not from Mr. Anderson’s. Answer D
cannot be correct because the league director does not indicate what result he
hopes to achieve from the punishment. He only attempts to justify the nature
of the punishment. Finally, answer E cannot be correct because the league
director’s statements suggest only that he believes that many team members
did not taunt. His statements imply this by saying that some passengers on
the plane were blameless for the delay. He gives no hint regarding his idea of
the number of those who actually taunted the opposing team, or in
accordance with the analogy, those people responsible for the delay. The
17. Answer: E
This is a Weaken question. The question asks that you identify a
vulnerability in the league director’s statements.
Mr. Anderson presents the situation, saying that his daughter’s entire soccer
team was suspended because some members of the team taunted members of
the opposing team. He is angry because his daughter was not one of those
doing the taunting, and everyone knows the culprits. The league director
defends the decision to suspend the entire team by using an analogy to
passengers forced to endure a delayed flight even though they had nothing to
do with the reason the plane is delayed.
The correct answer will be based on the flaw in comparing the punishment,
which the league director may choose to impose or not, to the flight delay,
which is unavoidable.
Answer A cannot be your answer because the director does not discuss any
facts about the incident. Answer B cannot be correct because he makes no
such generalization regarding the entire team. He does not discuss the team
at all. Answer C cannot be correct because the director compares Mr.
Anderson’s daughter to airline customers who are blameless for the delay, so
he must consider her blameless as well. Answer D cannot be your answer
because it is not the taunting that is being compared to the inconvenience. It
is the punishment that is being compared to the inconvenience. Finally,
answer E says that the complaint does not acknowledge that the
inconvenience of a flight delay is unavoidable, but the director could have
chosen not to impose the punishment. This is a strong criticism of the
director’s argument, so the correct choice is answer E.
18. Answer: A
This is a Weaken question. The question asks you to choose the statement
that most weakens the editorialist’s argument.
The editorialist argues that the frontal lobe in teenagers is not well developed
and adversely affects their decision making, which is why they make bad
decisions while driving. Thus, additional restrictions should be put on
teenage drivers.
You might expect the correct answer to either debunk the idea that teenagers
have an underdeveloped frontal lobe or to argue that such a deficiency has no
link to poor driving behavior.
Answer A says that most automobile accidents can be attributed to the poor
functioning of a part of the brain other than the frontal lobe. This would
suggest that a poorly developed frontal lobe might have nothing to do with
poor driving, and this could very well be your answer. You must review the
remaining options before settling on this answer as your choice. Answer B
says that other parts of the brain contribute to decision making in teenagers
and adults, but this still does not negate the idea that the frontal lobe, when
poorly developed, may result in bad decision making and poor driving
behavior. This cannot be your answer. Answer C is incorrect because the
argument uses the term “developed,” not “smaller.” To say that a teenager’s
frontal lobe is not as well developed could mean something other than size,
so saying that a teenager’s frontal lobe is similar in size to that of an adult
does not necessarily mean that it is equally developed. Answer D cannot be
your answer because it discusses a different lobe, and it is possible that some
lobes develop more quickly than others. Finally, answer E cannot be correct
because it is comparing adults to adults while the argument is comparing
teenagers to adults. Logically, this cannot serve to weaken the argument. The
19. Answer: B
This is a Parallel question. The question asks you to identify which statement
most closely resembles the argument.
The argument states that the increased availability of electronic books has
caused a decrease in sales of printed books. The logic is that an increased
availability of a related product is causing the decrease in demand for
another product.
Answer A does not conform to your model because it says the increase of
one related product causes the increase of another product (increase-
increase). Answer B says that the introduction of a new product has caused
the decrease of an older related product. This does conform to your model
since the increase of one causes the decrease of the other. This is likely your
choice, but you must review the remaining options. Answer C does not
conform because it says that two products are both insufficient to dominate
the market. You have no idea whether the increase of one is causing the
decrease or increase of the other. Answer D does not conform because it says
that when a child cannot do one activity, the child does more of another
activity. A decrease leads to an increase, which is not the same as your
model argument. Finally, answer E does not conform because it says that a
decrease in the use of union labor leads to an increase in the use of robots. A
decrease leads to an increase, which is similar to answer D and cannot be
your choice. The correct choice is answer B.
20. Answer: C
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks that you identify George’s
main conclusion.
George argues that Kristen was wrong to tell their boss that they do not have
the talent and resources to complete the project because they do have the
talent and resources. George believes that Kristen told this to the boss
because she did not want the project to succeed.
The correct answer will state something to the effect that Kristen should not
have said what she did for the reasons she gave.
Answer A cannot be George’s conclusion. George says that Kristen’s lie in
this situation was wrong, but you cannot be sure he does not believe that
lying in other cases is not warranted. Answer B focuses on the last sentence,
expecting you to assume that the last sentence is the conclusion, but it is not.
The last sentence is what George believes is the reason for Kristen’s lie and
is meant to support his conclusion. George’s argument is intended to
influence you regarding Kristen’s lie, not to inform you why she lied.
Answer C states the conclusion George wants you to come to. He wants you
to believe that it was wrong for Kristen to tell their boss that the project
would fail due to a lack of talent and resources. This is likely your answer,
but you should review the remaining options to be certain. Answer D cannot
be correct because Kristen is not blaming the failure on the deficiencies. She
is actually predicting the failure. Finally, answer E cannot be your choice
because it leaves out the ethical judgment George is making. The correct
choice is answer C.
21. Answer: B
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify the statement that
reveals a vulnerability in the justification George uses to make his judgment.
George argues that Kristen was wrong to tell their boss that they do not have
the talent and resources to complete the project because they do have the
talent and resources. George believes that Kristen told this to the boss
because she did not want the project to succeed.
The correct answer will attack the general statement regarding morality that
George uses to justify his argument.
Answer A cannot be correct because George does not invoke pity upon
Kristen. If anything, George is morally indignant toward Kristen. Answer B
refers to the statement “saying such falsehoods can never be other than
morally wrong . . . ,” which is indeed a general principle that needs further
justification than the judgment regarding Kristen’s actions. This is most
likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options. Answer C
cannot be correct because surely what Kristen says concerning the project is
within her control and can be judged by such a moral standard. Answer D
cannot be correct because you do not know (and George does not say) what
Kristen knows or does not know with regard to the talent and resources of
the company, so George’s justification cannot be judged vulnerable on this
basis. Answer E cannot be correct because no cause and effect is being
addressed in the argument. The entire argument concerns a prediction of
what might happen, not what did happen. The correct choice is answer B.
22. Answer: D
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify the flaw in the
argument.
The argument says that members of the police force were raised in
economically disadvantaged households and bases this conclusion on the fact
that the communities in which they grew up had household incomes lower
than the average household income for the nation as a whole.
You would expect the correct answer to note that just because the
You would expect the correct answer to note that just because the
communities in which the police officers grew up had a lower average
household income than the nation as a whole, this does not necessarily mean
that the individual families of the police officers had a lower household
income than the nation as a whole.
Answer A cannot be correct because the argument concerns the incomes of
the households in which the officers grew up, not their current household
income. Answer B cannot be correct because it simply clarifies the basis for
the argument by describing the type of neighborhood without pointing out a
flaw in that description. Answer C cannot be your answer because the
argument concerns the police officers and where they grew up, but it is not
concerned with how many communities facilitated the rearing of future
police officers. Answer D points out that the argument assumes that within
their communities the officers lived in households with average or below-
average income. This is exactly the problem with the argument. If the police
officers grew up in households with above-average (or even the highest)
incomes for their communities, then the fact that the community has below-
average household income compared to the country is no longer relevant and
it is possible they grew up in economically advantaged households. This is
E cannot be correct because it raises a broader issue than the argument at
hand. It is true that other factors like debt and assets might affect a
household’s economic situation, but household income is the logical basis
the argument uses for economic advantage or disadvantage. Either way,
answer E is not as strong as answer D. The correct choice is answer D.
23. Answer: B
This is a Conclusion question. The question asks you to identify the
statement that must be true given the statements in the argument.
The argument makes several assertions regarding astronauts, age, and
purchasing alcohol, and you must determine whether they support one of the
possible answers. The statements can be simplified as follows: astronauts >
21; purchase alcohol > 21; some scientists are astronauts; some scientists
purchase alcohol; and some scientists < 21.
The correct answer will be consistent with the logical statements stated in
step 2.
Answer A cannot be supported by the statements because you know only that
some scientists are astronauts. None of the statements says how many
astronauts are scientists. Answer B is supported by the statements. If only
some of the scientists are astronauts and only some of the scientists purchase
alcohol, then it logically follows that some scientists are not astronauts and
some astronauts do not purchase alcohol. This is most likely your answer,
but you must review the remaining options. Answer C cannot be correct
because none of the statements reveals a relationship between those who
purchase alcohol and astronauts. Without such a statement, you cannot come
to this conclusion. Answer D cannot be true because the statements tell you
that some scientists are not astronauts, some do not purchase alcohol, and
some are over the age of twenty-one. Therefore, it is possible that there is at
least one scientist who is not an astronaut, does not purchase alcohol, and is
over twenty-one. Finally, answer E cannot be correct because the first
statement says that there are no astronauts under the age of twenty-one, but
this does not negate the possibility that there is an astronaut who is exactly
twenty-one years old. The statement would have to say that there are no
astronauts aged twenty-one or younger, but this is not the case. The correct
choice is answer B.
24. Answer: C
This is a Paradox question. The question asks you to identify the answer that
resolves a discrepancy in the argument.
The argument discusses how the spread of kudzu and other invasive plant
species has posed a threat to biodiversity, but then the argument says that
scientific studies show that invasive plant species are rarely the cause of
native species’ extinctions.
You expect the correct answer to point out that while kudzu and other such
invasive species threaten the biodiversity in local areas, they do not threaten
invasive species threaten the biodiversity in local areas, they do not threaten
the overall extinction of species.
Answer A may affect how you value the importance of the discussion by
devaluing the threat to biodiversity, but it does nothing to resolve the
discrepancy. Answer B might be seen as a benefit of kudzu when compared
to other invasive plants, but this statement does not resolve the question of
why kudzu affects local biodiversity but does not cause species’ extinctions.
Answer C resolves the discrepancy by saying that kudzu can affect local
biodiversity while not threatening the existence of species on a wider scale.
This is most likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options
to be sure there is not a better one. Answer D may be true, but it does not
negate the existing damage caused by invasive species, nor does it resolve
the discrepancy in the facts at hand now. Answer E explains the extinctions,
but it does not address why kudzu is not included in their list of causes even
though it does so much damage to local biodiversity. The correct choice is
answer C.
25. Answer: C
This is a Flaw question. The question asks you to identify a logical error in
the scholarly review.
The author takes issue with M’s paper and its claims based on M’s tendency
to ascribe bad faith to scholars who disagree with her and the distasteful
nature of M’s personality. Based on those observations, the author
recommends that M’s paper should be ignored by scholars.
You expect that the correct answer will point out the problem with basing
criticism of the paper on M’s past behavior and M’s personality.
Answer A cannot be correct because there is no indication that the author’s
account of M’s criticism is biased in any way. It is very possible that the
author’s recounting of M’s criticism is accurate, so this cannot be the error.
Answer B cannot be the error because the author does not question the
veracity of M’s criticism. The author merely comments on the significance
of M’s criticism given the nature of the source. Regardless of whether the
criticism is true or not, it seems that the author would still argue that the
paper does not merit attention. Answer C is exactly what you expected to be
the correct answer. The author uses an attack on M’s character as evidence
that M is not competent as a scholar and that M’s criticism does not merit
attention from “serious scholars.” This is likely your answer, but you must
review the remaining options to be certain of your choice. Answer D cannot
be the error because the author makes no assertions concerning the paper.
The author merely mentions the substance of M’s criticism. Answer E cannot
be your answer because it is more likely an error that M would commit if M
argued a point based on the paper. The correct choice is answer C.
26. Answer: E
This is a Describe question. It asks you to choose the statement that describes
the role of the first sentence in the argument.
The argument states that regulatory regimens are created to make sure
government services are delivered fairly. Thus, despite qualms with the
system, it is unlikely the government will simplify regulations. The first
sentence seems to be a supporting fact that justifies the conclusion.
The correct answer will offer a supporting fact or premise that justifies the
conclusion that regulations are unlikely to be simplified.
Answer A cannot be correct because the conclusion that regulations will not
be simplified is based on the fact that they are created as they are in order to
ensure fairness. The statement does not weaken the conclusion. Answer B
cannot be true because the word thus tells you that it is the first sentence that
leads the author to conclude the second sentence, not the other way around.
Answer C cannot be correct because instituting fairness does not justify the
complexity of the regulations. It justifies why they will remain complex and
not be simplified. Answer D cannot be correct because the phrase “growing
dissatisfaction with complex regulatory systems” does not support the
fairness in regulatory systems. If anything, it is the one statement that
controverts that effort. Finally, answer E is the one premise that supports the
claim that it is unlikely things will change. The effort for fairness supports
the conclusion that regulations will not be simplified. The correct choice is
answer E.
27. Answer: A
This is an Assumption question. The question asks you to choose the answer
that gives an assumption upon which the argument depends.
The argument claims that presidents cannot achieve greatness by remaining
in the capital city and that they must go out and immerse themselves in
communities around the country in order to gain an understanding of the
citizens’ everyday experiences.
You can guess that the correct answer will link a president’s greatness to
gaining an understanding of a citizen’s everyday experiences.
Luckily, answer A is right on the mark. It says that presidents cannot achieve
greatness without an intuitive grasp of a citizen’s everyday experiences and
frustrations. This is exactly the assumption that supports the argument and it
is likely your answer, but you must review the remaining options to be
certain. Answer B adds details to the interaction a president may participate
in while immersed in outside communities, but it is not the participation that
will make the president great but the understanding the president obtains
through that participation, so this cannot be your answer. Answer C says the
skills the president hones while in the capital city are necessary for greatness,
but the argument says these are useful but not enough for greatness, so this
cannot be your answer. Answer D cannot be correct because the argument
says nothing about life experience. Its statements revolve around activities
while in office. Finally, answer E cannot be the correct choice because the
argument does not say what approach or methodology the president must
take when immersed in communities, so the president could remain impartial
or get actively involved in issues. The correct choice is answer A.

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© 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as

eBook conversion by codeMantra

McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use

LSAT is a registered trademark of the Law School Admission Council, which

THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” MCGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND

PART I All About the LSAT

CHAPTER 1 Introducing the LSAT

CHAPTER 2 LSAT Diagnostic Test

CHAPTER 3 LSAT Logic Games

CHAPTER 4 LSAT Arguments

CHAPTER 5 LSAT Reading Comprehension

CHAPTER 6 The LSAT Writing Sample

CHAPTER 7 Law School

PART II LSAT Practice Tests

LSAT PRACTICE TEST 1

LSAT PRACTICE TEST 2

ABOUT McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION

Learn about the LSAT

Prepare for the Logic Games section

Prepare for the Arguments sections

Prepare for the Reading Comprehension section

Prepare for the Writing Sample section

5 Because the Writing Sample section is not scored, it is the least

Take the Practice Tests

Your LSAT Action Plan

Step 1: Identify Your Needs

Step 3: Practice under Test-Like Conditions

Sample LSAT Action Plans

Sample Action Plan 1 — If You Have Two

Sample Action Plan 2 — If You Have One

Introducing the LSAT

In this chapter, you will learn:

W elcome to McGraw-Hill’s LSAT. If you’ve already purchased this

Test Dates and Registration Information

The Format of the LSAT

One section of analytical reasoning, more commonly known as the Logic

These sections contain somewhere between 99 and 103 multiple-choice

How the LSAT Is Scored

A Brief Introduction to the LSAT’s Four Sections

Logic Games (Chapter 3)

Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning

Reading Comprehension (Chapter 5)

Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage

The Writing Sample (Chapter 6)

How to Approach Test Day

A small, nonelectric pencil sharpener.

Backpacks, messenger bags, briefcases, handbags, and the like

Obtaining or Cancelling Your Score

LSAT Diagnostic Test

T his diagnostic test is designed to closely resemble the real LSAT in

Directions: Before beginning the test, photocopy this answer sheet or

2. An apartment complex is installing alarm systems in every apartment due to

3. Larry: Some laws passed by Congress are considered to be bad by our

4. Based on new evidence, anthropologists now believe that during the

5. A rise in the number of young people entering the workforce in a small

6. Speaker: The government must recognize that contemporary business firms

7. The argument proceeds by