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Bremsstrahlung and X-ray production
Modern Physics, PI/PD 218
Int.MSc, BSc BEd IV semester

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895 discovered that when fast
moving electrons strike a metallic target, a highly penetrating
radiation is emitted. As nobody knew what radiation it was, he
named it x-rays.

 According to electromagnetic theory, an accelerated


charged particle emits electromagnetic radiation. When a fast
moving electron, with kinetic energy K, strikes a target, there
is a attractive force between the negative electron and
positive charge of the nucleus of the atom. This force changes
the path of the electron which is equivalent to saying that
electron is deaccelerated or accelerated. Since the electron
has undergone acceleration, it emits electromagnetic
radiation.
The loss in kinetic energy (K1-K2) of the electron appears as
electromagnetic radiation of energy hʋ, which we call x-rays.

Bremsstrahlung
Electron of kinetic energy K1 (x-ray of energy hʋ)

Target nucleus
of charge Ze+
Electron of kinetic
energy K2(<K1)

Fig1: Production of x-rays by Bremsstrahlung process

Process of radiation of being produced by an accelerated charged


particle is called Bremsstrahlung, a German word meaning slowing
down.
Fig 2: An outline of an x-ray tube for production of x-rays by slowing down fast moving
electrons in the target T
Electrons are emitted from a cathode C, heated indirectly
by filament F connected to a battery.
These electrons are accelerated in a vacuum by a high
potential difference V of several thousand volts applied
between the cathode C and the anode T (target).
Kinetic energy K of the electrons when they strike the
target is, K=eV.
These electrons hit the target , where they loss 98% of
their kinetic energy because the collisions cause them to
produce heat. The rest of their kinetic energy makes up x-
rays produced by the Bremsstrahlung process. These x-rays
are emitted in all directions.
As they are very penetrating and dangerous to health, the
tube is surrounded by lead shielding.
Fig 3 shows a typical x-ray spectrum, where Intensity I(ʋ) vs ʋ for two
different operating voltages has been plotted. Fig 4 shows plots of I (ʋ) vs
ʋ for two different targets , tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo)
operating at same voltage.

Fig 3: The plot of x-ray intensity I (ʋ) vs Fig 4: The plots of relative intensity
ʋ observed in a continuous x-ray I(ʋ) vs ʋ observed in the x-ray
spectrum at two different operating spectra of W and Mo operating at
voltages. same voltage
Important characteristics drawn from the plots:

(a) The x-ray spectrum from any target has a continuous


distribution of radiation of all frequencies up to a certain
maximum frequency ʋmax. The value of ʋmax does not
depend on the target material (fig 4), but on the potential
difference V(fig 3). Also ʋmax is directly proportional to V,
i.e., ʋmax/V=constant (1)

(a) In case of Mo there are discrete lines superimposed on


the continuous x-ray spectrum. The positions of those
lines is not affected by changing V, but the lines do
appear at different positions in different materials. These
are characteristic x-ray lines.
The existence of the high frequency ʋmax limit and its dependence
on V given by Eq (1) cannot be explained by classical
electromagnetic theory, whereas photon hypothesis could provide
an explanation:
The incident electron can produce any number of photons. If it
loses all its energy in producing a single photon of energy h ʋmax ,
the following relation should hold,
h ʋmax = eV (2)

Hence we may write,

Which is the experimentally observed relation eq (1).

(2)=> or or
X-ray production (inverse of photoelectric effect)
In photoelectric effect, the energy of the incident photon is absorbed by an
electron in the metal and it is knocked out carrying the energy of the
incident photon. If v is the velocity of the electron ejected , E its kinetic
energy and ʋ the frequency of the incident photon, then we know

The production of continuous x-ray spectra is the result of inverse


photoelectric effect in which kinetic energy of the electron is carried by
the emitted x-ray photon. If Ei and Ef are initial and final kinetic energy of
the incident photon respectively, then the energy of the x-ray photon
emitted is equal to Ei-Ef=E. If ʋ is the frequency of the emitted x-ray
photon then,

Therefore its quite appropriate to regard x-ray production as inverse


photoelectric effect
Assignment

Q. To produce x-rays of 1.377 Å wavelength from a copper


target in an x-ray tube, one must operate the tube at a voltage
of 9000 volts. Calculate the ratio h/e.

Q. An x-ray tube operates at 40kV. Find the maximum speed


of the electron striking the cathode.

Q. Electrons are accelerated in a television tube through a


potential difference of 9.8 kV. Find the highest frequency and
minimum wavelength of the electromagnetic wave emitted,
when theses electrons strike the screen of the tube. In which
region of the spectrum will these waves lie?
If you have any questions, do let me know.
Thank you!
Compton effect
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
In one of my previous classes, we discussed about the
Photoelectric effect. It provides an evidence that energy is
quantized. In order to establish the particle nature of radiation,
it is necessary that photons must carry momentum.

In 1923, Arthur Holy Compton discovered that when an X-ray


beam is scattered from a substance , the scattered beam has
wavelength higher than that of the incident beam. This is
called the Compton effect.

Compton studied the scattering of x-rays of known frequency


from graphite and looked at the recoil electrons and the
scattered x-rays. This can be explained only by assuming that
the X-ray photons behave like particles.
When a beam passes through a substance, a photon
gives a part of its energy to the electron. The electron
recoils and the photon loses a part of its energy.
Therefore the frequency of the scattered photon is less
than that of the incident photon or the wavelength of the
scattered photon is greater than that of the incident
photon.
Compton succeeded in explaining his experimental results
only after treating the incident radiation as a stream of
particles—photons—colliding elastically with individual
electrons. In the scattering process, which is illustrated by the
elastic scattering of a photon from a free electron (Fig 1), the
laws of elastic collisions can be made use of, particularly the
conservation of energy and momentum.

Let the incident photon, of energy E (hʋ) and momentum p


(hʋ/c), collides with an electron that is initially at rest. After
collision, the photon scatters with a at an angle θ while the
electron recoils with an angle . Let E’, p’ and W,P be the
respective energy and momentum of scattered photon and
recoiled electron.
Fig1
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum,

p=p’cosθ+Pcos
p-p’cos θ= Pcos --------------(1)

p’sinθ=Psin --------------(2)

Squaring and adding (1) and (2),

p2+p’2cos2 θ-2pp’cos θ+p’2sin2 θ=P2cos2 +P2sin2 


p2+p’2- 2pp’cos θ=P2 --------------(3)
Let us now turn to the energy conservation. If the rest
mass of the electron is taken to be mo , the initial
energy is moc2 and the final energy is (P2c2+ mo2c4)

E+moc2=E’+W
pc+moc2=p’c+ (P2c2+ mo2c4) -----------(4)

c(p-p’)+moc2= (P2c2+ mo2c4)


c2(p-p’)2+mo2c4+2c3mo(p-p’)= P2c2+ mo2c4
(p-p’)2+2moc(p-p’)= P2 -----------(5)
Using equation (3) and (5),
(5)=>(p-p’)2+2moc(p-p’)= p2+p’2- 2pp’cos θ
p2+p’2-2pp’+2moc(p-p’)= p2+p’2- 2pp’cos θ
moc(p-p’)= pp’(1-cos θ) ---------(6)

If λ is the wavelength of the incident beam and λ’ is the


wavelength of the scattered beam
p=h/ λ, p’=h/ λ’ ,

(6)=> moc(h/ λ –h/ λ’ )= [h2(1-cos θ)]/ λ λ’


=>moch(λ’ – λ)=h2(1-cos θ)

λ’ – λ=[h(1-cos θ)]/moc ------(7)


When(a) θ=1800, Compton shift is maximum
λ= 2h/moc
(b) θ=900, λ=h/moc = λc, λc is the Compton wavelength

Equation (7) represents the change in wavelength.


This relation [Eq (7)], which connects the initial and final
wavelengths to the scattering angle, confirms Compton’s
experimental observation: the wavelength shift of the X-rays
depends only on the angle at which they are scattered and not on
the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident photons. In
summary, the Compton effect confirms that photons behave like
particles: they collide with electrons like material particles.
Assignment (10 marks)

Q. High energy photons ( -rays) are scattered from electrons initially at


rest. Assume the photons are backscatterred and their energies are much
larger than the electron’s rest-mass energy, E >> moc 2 .
(a) Calculate the wavelength shift.
(b) Show that the energy of the scattered photons is half the rest mass
energy of the electron, regardless of the energy of the incident photons.
(c) Calculate the electron’s recoil kinetic energy if the energy of the
incident photons is 150 MeV.
Thank you
de Broglie hypothesis
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
de Broglie hypothesis

de Broglie hypothesis states that a wave is associated with every


moving particle. The wavelength of this wave is λ= h/p ,
Where p is the momentum of the particle and h is the Planck’s
constant.
This relation known as de Broglie relation and the wave
associated with a particle is known as matter wave.
Proof
Let us assume a material particle with energy E and momentum p.
According to de Broglie , a wave is associated with this particle whose frequency is
related to its energy by Planck’s relation for quantum of light, i.e.,
E=hʋ
= (1)
(=2ʋ, angular frequency)

Energy constitutes the fourth component of momentum and the angular frequency
the fourth component of propagation vector k ( ).
Since all the 4 components of our vectors transform in identical manner under
Lorentz transformation, therefore the relation identical to (1) must hold good
between p and k.
p=ħk
Considering only the magnitudes, p=ħk=(h/2)(2/λ)=h/λ
p=h/λ (de Broglie relation)
de BROGLIE wavelength associated with electrons:

Let us assume that the mass of an electron of is ‘m’ and charge is ‘e’ which is accelerated by a
potential ‘V’ volts from rest to Velocity v

The Kinetic Energy =

Energy of Electron = eV

= eV,

Therefore, ,

Substituting the values h = 6.625x10-34 Joule sec, e= 1.6x10-19 C and m= 9.1x10-31 kg


in above equation

If V=100 Volts then λ =1.226Å. This shows that the wavelength associated with an electron
accelerated to 100 Volts is 1.226Å .
Experimental verification of de Broglie hypothesis

 Davisson Germer experiment


Thomson experiment

Initial atomic models proposed by scientists could explain only


the particle nature of electrons but failed to give explanation for
the properties related to their wave nature. C.J. Davisson and
L.H. Germer in the year 1927 carried out an experiment,
popularly known as Davisson Germer experiment to explain
the wave nature of electrons through electron diffraction.
The experimental setup for the Davisson and Germer experiment is enclosed within a
vacuum chamber.

The main components of the setup are as follows:


Electron gun: A Tungsten filament that emits electrons via thermionic emission i.e. it emits
electrons when heated to a particular temperature.
Electrostatic particle accelerator: Two opposite charged plates (positive and negative
plate) are used to accelerate the electrons at a known potential.
Collimator: The accelerator is enclosed within a cylinder that has a narrow passage for the
electrons along its axis. Its function is to render a narrow and straight (collimated) beam of
electrons ready for acceleration.
Target: A Nickel crystal. The electron beam is fired normally on the Nickel crystal. The
crystal is placed such that it can be rotated about a fixed axis.
Detector: A detector is used to capture the scattered electrons from the Ni crystal. The
detector can be moved in a semicircular arc as shown in the diagram above.
Davisson and Germer were studying the scattering of electrons from a crystal
of Ni. The electrons were scattered in different directions. The intensity in
different directions was measured by a movable detector.
The variation of the scattered intensity is plotted as function of the scattering
angle. The intensity of the scattered beam is proportional to the radius vector .
The angle between the radius vector and the incident beam is angle of
scattering θ.

At an acceleration potential
40V: Smooth curve was obtained
48V: A small , but distinct hump appears at an angle about 600
Hump increases with acceleration potential and angle at which it appears also
changes.
54V: Hump becomes most prominent (500)
At higher potential, hump decreases until it disappears completely about 68V.

The preferential reflection of 54 eV electrons at θ=500 is an evidence of


diffraction of electron from the single crystal of Ni.
Explanation
The Bragg equation for maxima in diffraction pattern is
nλ=d sinθ (λ- Wavelength of associated wave with the electron, d- distance between
the atoms in surface layer)

The electron beam accelerated by 54V was directed to strike the given Nickel crystal
are a sharp maximum electron distribution occurring at an angle of 500 with the
incident beam. The incident and diffracted beam in the experiment make an angle of
650 with the Bragg’s planes. The spacing of planes (d) in this Bragg’s planes by X-Ray
diffraction is 0.91 nm.
For n=1, θ=500, λ=1.65Å (2)

For 54V electron the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron is given by
De-Broglie relation, λ=12.26/V Å
V=54V, λ=12.26/54 Å = 1.67 Å (3)
(2) and (3) are in good agreement
Thompson experiment
G.P. Thomson performed experiments through which he was able to obtain a
diffraction pattern of an electron beam in 1928. The experimental set up is shown in
the figure. A beam of electrons is accelerated through a potential difference of 10 to
50 kV from an electron gun and is incident on a thin platinum foil. The emergent
beam is received on a photographic plate. The diffraction pattern is obtained only
when wave is associated with particle.

The electron beam is diffracted at the spacing’s between the randomly oriented
crystals of the thin foil. On the photographic plate, a circular diffraction pattern
similar to Laue’s X- ray diffraction pattern is obtained. This conclusively proves that
the electron beams behave like waves.
Thank you
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
According to classical physics, the future behavior (unique path) of a physical
system can be determined exactly, if the initial conditions and the forces acting on
the system are known. That is, if the initial coordinates ro, velocity vo, and all the
forces acting on the particle are known, the position rt and velocity vt are uniquely
determined by means of Newton’s second law. Classical physics is thus
completely deterministic.

Does this deterministic view hold also for the microphysical world?
In the context of quantum mechanics, a particle is represented by means of a wave
function corresponding to the particle’s wave, and since wave functions cannot be
localized, so a microscopic particle is somewhat spread over space and, unlike
classical particles, cannot be localized in space. The classical concepts of exact
position, exact momentum, and unique path of a particle therefore make no sense at
the microscopic scale. This is the essence of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

The position and the corresponding momentum of a particle


cannot be determined simultaneously with perfect accuracy .
Both of them involve an amount of uncertainty. If x is the
uncertainty in the x-coordinate of the particle and Px is the
uncertainty in x component of momentum in their simultaneous
determination,
x Px  ħ/2

This is called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.


This principle indicates that, although it is possible to measure the momentum
or position of a particle accurately, it is not possible to measure these two
observables simultaneously to an arbitrary accuracy. That is, we cannot
localize a microscopic particle without giving to it a rather large momentum.
We cannot measure the position without disturbing it; there is no way to carry
out such a measurement passively as it is bound to change the momentum

To understand this, consider measuring the position of a macroscopic object


(e.g., a car) and the position of a microscopic system (e.g., an electron in an
atom). On the one hand, to locate the position of a macroscopic object, you
need simply to observe it; the light that strikes it and gets reflected to the
detector (your eyes or a measuring device) can in no measurable way affect the
motion of the object. On the other hand, to measure the position of an electron
in an atom, you must use radiation of very short wavelength (the size of the
atom). The energy of this radiation is high enough to change tremendously the
momentum of the electron; the mere observation of the electron affects its
motion so much that it can knock it entirely out of its orbit.
- ray microscope experiment
A striking thought experiment illustrating uncertainty principle is Bohr’s /
Heisenberg’s Gamma-ray microscope.The aim of the experiment was to observe an
electron within an atom. For that purpose, - rays are to be employed. Therefore ,
the microscope used to observe an electron is called - ray microscope

In this diagram, an electron which is at rest is


illuminated by a - ray photon of frequency 
at wavelength λ. This photon will be scattered
by the electron and the electron will recoil. If the
scattered photon enters the microscope, then the
electron will be observed. For this to happen, the
electron must be scattered within a cone of semi-
vertical angle .
Let us consider the scattered photon which is
entering the microscope by making an angle 
with the axis of the microscope, i.e., it enters
through the edge of the microscope.
Let ’ and λ’ are the frequency and wavelength of the scattered photon.
The momentum of the incident photon = h/λ
And of the scattered photon = h/ λ’
Let the recoil momentum of the elctron be p.
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum we have,
,where  is the angle of scattering of the electron

--------(1)

This gives the x- component of momentum of the electron. The first term is constant,
but the second term on the R.H.S may vary according to the angle at which the
scattered photon enters the microscope. Since the photon may enter through the cone
mentioned above, the second term may vary from to . Thus the
uncertainty in px is
--------(2)
When the electron is viewed through the microscope , due to diffraction it is seen
as a set of concentric rings consisting of central bright fringe surrounded by
alternative bright and dark fringes. The uncertainty in the position of the electron
is equal to the diameter of the central bright fringe.
Let it be x. According to Rayleigh criterion, the distance between the point of
maximum intensity ( centre of the central fringe) and the first minimum is equal to

i.e.,

-------(3)

Multiplying (2) and (3)

It is the Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation


Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can be generalized to any pair of
complementary, or canonically conjugate, dynamical variables: it is impossible to
devise an experiment that can measure simultaneously two complementary
variables to arbitrary accuracy. Energy and time, for instance, form a pair of
complementary variables. Their simultaneous measurement must obey the time–
energy uncertainty relation:
E t  ħ/2

This relation states that if we make two measurements of the energy of a system
and if these measurements are separated by a time interval t, the measured
energies will differ by an amount E which can in no way be smaller than ħ/t.
If the time interval between the two measurements is large, the energy difference
will be small. This can be attributed to the fact that, when the first measurement
is carried out, the system becomes perturbed and it takes it a long time to return
to its initial, unperturbed state. This expression is particularly useful in the study
of decay processes, for it specifies the relationship between the mean lifetime and
the energy width of the excited states.
Assignment

Q. Using the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, show that


electrons cannot reside within a nucleus.

Try this out. If you cannot, let me know.


Also, once I gave you an assignment in the class. Could you all
complete that?
Thank you
Wave packets
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
Wave packet picture of a particle

A wave packet is formed by superposition of infinite


number of waves whose frequencies extend over a finite
range. A wave packet moves with group velocity whereas
the superposing waves move with their individual phase
velocity. Since the wave packet can be localized, it is
reasonable to assume that it is associated with the motion
of a particle. Now let us see whether the group velocity is
equal to the particle velocity.
Let us consider a wave packet
represented by the wave function
(x,t) propagating along x-axis with
the group velocity vg. (x,t)
vg
Let X(t) be the position of the point
of maximum displacement at any
instant t. Now the group velocity of
the wave packet
X(t)
x

Let the wave packet be represented by

-----------(1)

Where a(k) is the amplitude of the plane wave whose wavelength is 2/k and
whose frequency /2.
Let us assume that the harmonic waves present in (x,t) have values of k
lying within a small range about some value . a(k) is non- zero only
when k is very close to

This assumption is made in order to ensure that the momentum of the


particle described by the wave packet is reasonably well defined: When k is
restricted to a narrow range, the momentum associated with it according
to the de-Broglie relation is also restricted.

For the same reason, when  is close to .


Expanding  in Taylor series about ,we get,

-----------(2)

Where

It is evident that ,

-----------(3)
Again differentiating eqn (3) wrt t, we get,

Solving we finally arrive at

-----------(4)

The integral in eqn (4) is the second derivative of  at the


maximum point X.
Therefore it is non zero. Hence, eqn (4) gives us

Or
Let us now assume that the moving particle is represented by the
central wave, i.e., frequency and wavelength of the central wave
are respectively the frequency and wavelength of the wave
associated with the moving particle.

Then the energy and momentum of the particle are respectively

If m is the relativistic mass of the particle then E=mc2


v- velocity of the particle

Now it can be concluded that a moving particle is


associated with a wave packet . The central wave of the
wave packet is the wave associated with the particle
whose wavelength and frequency are given by de-Broglie
relations
Thank you
Correction

de –Broglie hypothesis
Slide 9
Explanation
The Bragg equation for maxima in diffraction pattern is
nλ=d sinθ (λ- Wavelength of associated wave with the electron, d- distance between
the atoms in surface layer)

The electron beam accelerated by 54V was directed to strike the given Nickel crystal
are a sharp maximum electron distribution occurring at an angle of 500 with the
incident beam. The incident and diffracted beam in the experiment make an angle of
650 with the Bragg’s planes. The spacing of planes (d) in this Bragg’s planes by X-Ray
diffraction is 2.15 Å.
For n=1, θ=500, λ=1.65Å (2)

For 54V electron the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron is given by
De-Broglie relation, λ=12.26/V Å
V=54V, λ=12.26/54 Å = 1.67 Å (3)
(2) and (3) are in good agreement
Introduction to Cosmology
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
1
COSMOLOGY

Hey folks!
If you are watching to an empty dot
in the night sky through a highly
sophisticated optical telescope then
probably this would be the picture.
1000’s of distant galaxies, some more
than 13 billion years old and trillions
of twinkling stars.

Image: Deep field image taken by Hubbles Space Telescope


from space. (Source: nasa.gov)

2
UNIVERSE
It is the collection of all the forms of matter and energy which includes the
galaxies, stars, planets, and many other celestial objects.

Cosmology is the study of the Universe and its components, how it formed,
how it has evolved and what is its future.

Have you ever come across any of these questions

 What is the Origin of this universe ?


 What is the Spatial extent of this universe?
 What is our location in this universe? Image itself
is a question
mark
 What is the theory of physics that governs
its existence? Pleiades open star clusters
in the constellation Taurus.
 What is the past and future of our universe? (Source: nasa.gov)

Let us try to understand some of these questions


HISTORY OF COSMOLOGY
 Cosmology is as old as human race.

 Neolithic Cosmology : 20,000 to 100,000 years ago, i.e., very early


cosmology was extremely local. Cosmological things were weather,
earthquakes, sharp changes in the environment, etc. The earliest
recorded astronomical observation is the Nebra sky disk from northern
Europe dating approximately 1,600 BC (Fig: 1). This 30 cm bronze disk
depicts the Sun, a lunar crescent and stars (including the Pleiades star Fig: 1
cluster (actual image shown in slide 3 ))

 Egyptian/Mesopotamia Cosmology: It is about 5,000 years old. The


Mesopotamian civilizations of Sumer, Babylon, Cannan, and Judea all
had a common concept of the cosmos. Their impressions of the night
sky formulated into various myths which then later became the core of
Egyptian religion and also describes the origin of universe based on
it. Babylonian astronomy is noted for their detailed, and continuous,
records of astronomical phenomenon such as eclipses, positions of the
Fig: 2
planets and rise and setting of the Moon (Fig:2). These records date
back to 800 B.C. and are the oldest scientific documents in existence.
4 History of Cosmology continues...
 Greek Cosmology : Greek philosophical tradition introduces an intellectual
approach based on evidence, reason and debate which influences philosophers
and scientists into the 21st century and many of our modern cosmological
frameworks. The underlying theme in Greek science is the use of observation
and experimentation to search for simple, universal laws which resulted
in the development of Geometric Cosmology. Shape and size of the Earth
was clearly understood concepts in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. Size
and distance of the Moon was calculated by Aristarchos in BC 310-230.
Ideas that were ruled the ancient description of the cosmos -
i. Earth-centred (Geocentric) universe, idea raised by Aristotle and Ptolemy.
ii. Sun-centred (Heliocentric) universe, idea raised by Aristarchos and Copernicus.

5
 Renaissance : Before the renaissance during the middle ages, Catholic Church
dominates most knowledge enterprises during this era. Church adopted Aristotle's
worldview i.e., geocentric universe into Christian thought. It was Copernicus
in 1500's reinvented the heliocentric theory and challenged Church doctrine.
While Copernicus includes a rotating Earth in his heliocentric model, he
continues to stick to Aristotle's celestial motions, i.e. orbits that are perfect circles.
 Tycho Brahe (1580's) was astronomy's
1st true observer. He built the Danish
Observatory (using sextant’s since
telescopes had not been invented yet)
from which he measured positions of
planets and stars to the highest degree of
accuracy for that time period (1st modern
database). He showed that the Sun was
much farther than the Moon from the
Earth, using simple trigonometry of the
angle between the Moon and the Sun at
6 1st Quarter.
 Neither the Egyptian or Tycho's models successfully predicts the motion of the planets. The solution
was discovered by a student of Tycho's, who finally resolves the heliocentric cosmology with the use
of elliptical orbits. He was Kepler.
 Kepler used Brahe's database to formulate the Laws of Planetary Motion which corrects the problems
of epicycles in the heliocentric theory by using ellipses instead of circles for orbits of the planets.
 The pioneer of astronomical observation in a modern context is Galileo. He developed laws of motion
(natural versus forced motion, rest versus uniform motion). Then, with a small refracting telescope (3-
inches), destroyed the idea of a "perfect", geocentric Universe with the following 5 discoveries:

Mountains and seas on moon Milky Way is made of lots of


Spots on the sun stars

Venus has phases


Moons of Jupiter
7
Finally the Copernican or Heliocentric universe by was accepted.
NEWTONIAN COSMOLOGY
 Newton expanded the work of Galileo to better define the relationship between energy and motion. In
particular, he developed the following concepts: change in velocity = acceleration, caused by force;
inertia = resistance to change in velocity and is proportional to the mass of the object; momentum =
quantity of motion and is equal to mass times velocity; law of conservation of momentum = total
momentum of an interaction is conserved i.e., it remains same before and after.

 Newton showed that the planets are acted on by the force of


gravity arising from the Sun. Each orbit is a constantly changing
velocity where gravity adds a small ‚Δv‛ at each moment. This
‚Δv‛ is what produces the elliptical curvature that is the orbit.

Galileo was the first to notice that objects are ‚pulled‛ towards the
center of the Earth, but Newton showed that this same force (gravity)
was responsible for the orbits of the planets in the Solar System and
hence he formulated the law of Gravitation, ‚Objects in the Universe
attract each other with a force that varies directly as the product of
their masses and inversely as the square of their distances‛. All
masses, regardless of size, attract other masses with gravity. You
don't notice the force from nearby objects because their mass is so
small compared to the mass of the Earth. 8
WAY TO MODERN COSMOLOGY
 The era of William Herschel (1738-1822) was the one when astronomy expanded its frontiers
beyond the solar system.
 He came into fame after the discovery of the planet Uranus.
 His study of stars gave a first understanding of what the Milky Way is, namely that is a distribution
of stars in a disc, spread all around the sun. Such a distribution of stars on a large scale is known as
a galaxy, so Milky Way being called the galaxy.

Sun

A map of Milky Way prepared by William Herschel

 The Herschelian picture with the sun at the centre of galaxy, remained the accepted picture until the
beginning of the 19th century.
 The distances to stars in the Galaxy were determined in early days by trigonometric method. But
this method loses accuracy beyond ~ 50-100 parsec(a unit of distance will discuss later).
 The dark patches (as observed by Hershel) in the Milky Way are not due to absence of stars, rather
they arise from absorption of starlight by particles of dust en route (shown in next slide).
9
 Dark patches in the famous Horsehead Nebula (an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium
and other ionized gases.) show regions of concentration of dust.
 Interstellar dust exists in several forms, such as graphite, silicates and solid hydrogen. The effect
of this dust is to reduce the intensity of light from distant stars in the Galaxy through absorption
and scattering.
 In the early days astronomers overestimated stellar distances in the Galaxy as they failed to correct
for interstellar extinction. Without correction, the faintness of a star was assumed to be wholly due
to its distance from us. The early astronomers also mistook dark regions for ‘holes’ or empty
regions in the Galaxy.

10
Horsehead Nebula
Thank you

11
Cosmological units and galaxies

Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,


Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
SCALE OF MEASUREMENTS IN COSMOLOGY
Distance
Units Definition Value
Astronomical distance from earth to sun 1AU = 1.49 x 1011 km
Units (AU)
Light year distance that light travels in 1 ly = 9.46 x 1012 km
(ly) one year = 6.32 x 104 AU
= 0.3066 pc
Parsec the distance at which one 1 pc = 3.1 x 1013 km
(pc) astronomical unit subtends an = 2 x 1013 AU
angle of one arc-second = 3.26 ly

Parallax is the apparent


displacement of an object
because of a change in the
Earth Alpha Centauri observer's point of view.
Nearest star next to sun

2
 Although we have different units for distance calculation, astronomers
prefer the parsec,

1 parsec (pc) ≈ 3.26 ly


1 kiloparsec (kpc) = 103 pc
1 meagaparsec (Mpc) = 106 pc
1 gigaparsec (Gpc) = 109 pc

Time
 The basic unit of time is of course the ‘second’, but on occasions,
cosmology demands much longer time scales. The typical unit is the
gigayear,
1 Gyr ≡ 109 years ≈ 3 × 1016 s

Mass
 The masses of astronomical objects are best expressed in the mass unit of
the Sun’s mass,
1 Mʘ ≈ 2 × 10 s
33

3
Galaxy
A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar
systems, all held together by gravity.
 A galaxy contains ~ 1011 stars
 Each globular clusters contains ~106 stars
 Galactic disk itself consists of more than 200 billion stars. The diameter of
the disc ~30kpc and its thickness is 1kpc.

Fig 1: Schematic of a Galaxy

4
Stars like our sun with nearly circular orbits in the disc and tend to be
luminous, hot and young are called Population-I stars. Population II
stars tend to be found in globular clusters and the nucleus of a galaxy.
They tend to be older, less luminous and cooler than Population I stars.

Please note that we are residing within the Milky Way galaxy. So we
cannot have a picture of Milky Way the way it is shown in the schematic
diagram.

In the 18th century Immnuel Kant proposed the ‘island-universe


hypothesis’ – our Galaxy may be one amongst many populating the
universe and that all such galaxies are like islands in vast (empty) space.

It was Hubble in 1920 who discovered that certain bright nebulae
previously considered part of our galaxy were actually remote
objects(later turned out to be galaxies) lying well beyond it like an island
floating in infinite space. This confirmed the island-universe hypothesis.

5
 Looking far away in space is looking back in time. Since, photons originated
from distant objects like galaxies, stars etc take time to reach earth and that time
duration is huge (remember in Gigayear)

8 minutes ago

28000 years ago


2.2 million years ago
 So the sun you are watching at any instant is the 8 minutes old face of the sun.
Likewise a photon takes 28000 years to reach earth from the centre of the Milky
Way galaxy. A photon from nearest Andromeda galaxy takes 2.2 million years to
reach earth.
 So remember whenever you look up to the night sky, the stars you see may not be
present by that moment as they might have been dead already thousand of years
ago.
6
Types of Galaxies
 In 1926, Edwin Hubble devised a classification scheme for galaxies based on
their morphologies called Tuning fork diagram because of the shape in which
it is traditionally represented (as shown below).
 Hubble's scheme divides galaxies into three broad classes based on their visual
appearance-
• Elliptical galaxies • Spiral galaxies • Lenticular galaxies

Fig 2: Edwin Hubble’s classification


scheme (Tuning fork diagram
Elliptical galaxies – Elliptical galaxies are
shaped like a spheriod, or elongated sphere. In
the sky, (where we can only see two of their three
dimensions) these galaxies look like elliptical, or
oval, shaped disks. The light is smooth, with the
surface brightness decreasing as you go farther
out from the center. Elliptical galaxies are given a
classification that corresponds to their elongation
from a perfect circle, otherwise known as their
ellipticity. The larger the number, the more
elliptical the galaxy is.

Elliptical galaxy ESO 325-G004


So, for example, a galaxy of classification of 416 million light-years away in the
constellation Centaurus
E0 appears to be perfectly circular, while a
classification of E7 is very flattened (Fig 2). The
elliptical scale varies from E0 to E7. Elliptical
galaxies have no particular axis of rotation.

8
8
 Spiral galaxies –
• Spiral galaxies have three main components: a bulge, disk, and halo (discussed in slide 4).
• The bulge is a spherical structure found in the center of the galaxy. This feature mostly contains
older stars.
• The disk is made up of dust, gas, and younger stars. The disk forms arm structures.
• Our Sun is located in an arm of our galaxy, the Milky Way.
• The halo of a galaxy is a loose, spherical structure located around the bulge and some of the disk.
The halo contains old clusters of stars, known as globular clusters.
• Spiral galaxies are classified into two groups, ordinary and barred. The ordinary group is
designated by S or SA, and the barred group by SB.
• In normal spirals (Fig:3) the arms originate directly from the nucleus, or bulge, where in the barred
spirals (Fig:4) there is a bar of material that runs through the nucleus that the arms emerge from.
• Both of these types are given a classification according to how tightly their arms are wound. The
classifications are a, b, c, d ... with "a" having the tightest arms. In type "a", the arms are usually
not well defined and form almost a circular pattern. Sometimes you will see the classification of a
galaxy with two lower case letters. This means that the tightness of the spiral structure is halfway
between those two letters.

9
Fig 3: Spiral galaxy M100 Fig4: Barred Spiral galaxy M100
 Lenticular galaxies –
 S0 galaxies are an intermediate type of galaxy between E7 and a "true" spiral Sa. They
differ from ellipticals because they have a bulge and a thin disk, but are different from
Sa because they have no spiral structure. S0 galaxies (Fig 5) are also known
as Lenticular galaxies.
 Irregular Galaxies –
 Irregular galaxies (Fig: 6) have no regular or symmetrical structure. They are
divided into two groups, Irr I and IrrII. Irr I type galaxies have HII regions, which
are regions of elemental hydrogen gas, and many Population I stars, which are young
hot stars. Irr II galaxies simply seem to have large amounts of dust that block most of
the light from the stars. All this dust makes it almost impossible to see distinct stars in
the galaxy.

10
Fig 5: Lenticular galaxy NGC 2787 Fig 6: Irregular galaxy NGC 1427A
How to calculate the distance of a celestial object ?
 Celestial objects are physical object or structure that exists in the
observable universe, e.g., star, planets, moon etc.
 Apparent magnitude (m) - The apparent magnitude of a celestial object,
such as a star or galaxy, is the brightness measured by an observer at a
specific distance from the object. The smaller the distance between the
observer and object, the greater the apparent brightness.
 Absolute magnitude (M) - The absolute magnitude of a star, M is the
magnitude the star would have if it was placed at a distance of 10 parsecs
from Earth. By considering stars at a fixed distance, astronomers can
compare the real (intrinsic) brightness of different stars.
 Distance modulus formula - It is the difference between the apparent
magnitude and absolute magnitude of a celestial object (m – M), and
provides a measure of the distance to the object, r.

11
Thank you
Expansion of universe
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
OLBERS’ PARADOX
 Newton models has assumed that universe was infinite(in space and
time) , uniform and static.
 If the distribution of stars uniform and infinite in the universe then the night
sky should be infinitely bright!

But we do not
see that much
brightness in
the night
sky!!
 Luminosity (L) is the amount of light emitted by an object in a unit of time.
 Let us understand the paradox mathematically-

Flux from a star,

Intensity of radiation
from a shell of stars per
steradian*,

If the universe is infinite,


total intensity of radiation is dr Infinity!

But the night sky is actually


dark!
* SI unit of solid angle
REDSHIFT
 You have studied about Doppler effect in sound. It tells that when you and
source are in relative velocity then the frequency of the sound changes. If
source is approaching then higher frequency and if it is moving away then
lower frequency.
 Likewise in the case of electromagnetic wave if a source of light is moving
away from you then the wavelength gets longer (lower frequency) and if it
approaches you the wavelength gets shorter (higher frequency).
 Redshift is expressed as z given by-

z   obs emit or, 1  z   obs


 (1) , λemit is the emitted wavelength
 emit  emit
λobs is the observed wavelength

Including the effect


of relativity,
 v||  , v|| is the parallel component of
1  z   1  
velocity of the source
 c 
1  v|| c , 
1
1 z  1 v2 c2
1  v|| c
1  z  1  v|| c , since v|| is large for celestial objects

v||
z  (2)
c
HUBBLE’S LAW
In 1929, Edwin Hubble plotted velocity vs distance of the galaxies calculated from earth.

Fig:1 Spectra of a galaxy Fig:2 Hubble diagram

 Fig:1 represents the emitted spectra, λemit (black line) and observed spectra, λobs (blue line)
of a galaxy recorded using a telescope. The red marked peak is the absorption peak of
Hydrogen and you can see it is shifted towards higher wavelength which is also called as
redshift of the spectra.
 Now you can calculate the redshift (z) from equation (1) and then can get the velocity
from (2).
 The distances of the galaxies were measured using some standard method.
 From the Hubble diagram you can see the linear relation between velocities and distances of
the galaxies.
 Hubble has deduced the relation as vd
 v  Hd
This relation is called as Hubble’s law where Ho is called Hubble’s constant
 Hubble law tells that the further away a galaxy is, the larger its recessional velocity or
redshift.
 So, the conclusions of Hubble’s law are-
 We are not in a special location in the universe.
 All galaxies are moving away from each other.
 It is meaningless to ask “where is it expanding from” as all observers see the same thing
from any position in the universe.
 Universe is expanding.
COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND
EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE
 The Cosmological Principles are-
1. Isotropic : On the largest scales, the local universe looks the same in any direction that one
observes.
2. Homogeneity : On the largest scales, the universe has the same physical properties
everywhere.
 The fact of Hubble’s law and the homogeneity and isotropy of the distribution of galaxies
suggests a highly regular structure of the universe with no preferred position and direction.

 Imagine the above picture each dot on the balloon represents a galaxy. If the balloon is pumped
with more air it expands. However, notice that the dots itself does not expand, only the separation
between them is increased.
 So the universe is expanding in itself i.e., the space is expanding not the galaxies.
8
SOLUTION TO OLBERS’ PARADOX
 The possible solutions we can predict till now-
1. Read slide 3 first. The brightness of stars goes down as 1/r2. The number of
stars goes up by r2.
You can see in the plot below that as r increases, more volume is coverd and
hence more no of stars but the flux of light decreases gradually and hence
distant stars will be fainter.

1/r2
r2 Try to analyze
the first
solution

2. Dust clouds obscure the light from distant stars/galaxies. But in that case those
clouds would heat up and we would see them.

So, we need to understand the universe more to answer this question.


Thank you
Big Bang Cosmology
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE HUBBLE CONSTANT ‘Ho’

 Well you are all aware of Hubble’s law which says that universe is expanding.
 There are some significant facts associated with the Hubble’s constant Ho
 It is the slope of the Hubble’s plot of velocities vs. distances of the galaxies.
 It represents the constant rate of cosmic expansion caused by the stretching of
space-time itself.
 Although the expansion rate is constant in all directions at any given time, this
rate changes with time throughout the life of the universe
 When expressed as a function of cosmic time, H(t), it is known as the Hubble
Parameter.
 The expansion rate at the present time, Ho, is about 70 km/s/Mpc (where 1
Mpc = 106 parsec = 3.26 × 106 light-y)
 A very important realization of Hubble’s law is that if our universe is
expanding then it means that there must be some point in the past (time,
t=0) where everything was a dot from where it has started expanding i.e.,
our universe has a starting point. That starting or occurrence of the
universe out of nothing is the BIG BANG.

 Now the last significant point of Hubble’s constant is –


The inverse of the Hubble Constant is the Hubble Time, tH = d/v = 1/Ho;
it reflects the time since a linear cosmic expansion has begun
(extrapolating a linear Hubble Law back to time t = 0); it is thus related
to the age of the Universe from the Big-Bang to today. For the above
value of Ho, tH = 1/Ho ∼14 billion years.
BIG BANG COSMOLOGY
“Spend some time in this picture and realize the beauty how we came into existence”

Big
Bang

s
BIG BANG COSMOLOGY
 The Big Bang Model is a broadly accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our
universe.
 The model describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of very high
density and high temperature into the vast and much cooler cosmos we currently inhabit.
 If the observed conditions are extrapolated backwards in time using the known laws of
physics, the prediction is that just before a period of very high density there was a
singularity. Current knowledge is insufficient to determine if anything existed prior to
the singularity.
 Singularity is a location in spacetime (four dimension space, as studied in special
theory of relativity with coordinates x,y,z,t) where gravitational field becomes infinite.
 The Big Bang Model rests on two theoretical pillars:
 General Theory of Relativity-
 Einstein developed his General Theory of Relativity in 1916.
 He explained that gravity is no longer described by a gravitational “field” as
proposed by Newton but rather it is supposed to be a distortion of space and
time itself.
 Universe is just a spacetime fabric (Explained in next slide).
 Cosmological Principle-
 On the largest scales, universe is homogeneous and isotropic.
SPACETIME CURVATURE AND GRAVITATIONAL LENSING

Marble
Ball ball

Rubber sheet

Fig: 1 Fig: 2
 Imagine a large piece of rubber sheet (Fig:1) holding on the four corner and stretched uniformly then
it will be a flat space.
 Now place a heavy object say a ball, then that portion of the rubber sheet will bend.
 If you place a marble near the curve it will keep on circling round the ball and finally fall into the
center. This force experienced by the marble is the gravitational force.
 This is how gravity come into play in our universe according to Einstein’s General Theory of
Relativity.
 In this curvature of spacetime, light also gets bend. Look at the Fig:2, it is a real image of a
gravitational lens. Here, the gravity of a luminous red galaxy (at center of the ring) has gravitationally
distorted the light from a much more distant blue galaxy (in the background). It appeared as a perfect
ring as the source, lens, and observer(telescope) being perfectly aligned.
 This gravitational lensing was theoretically predicted by Einstein in 1912 and first it was observed
using NASA’s Hubble’s Space Telescope in 1998.
OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCES OF BIG
BANG THEORY
 The observational proof that supports the Big Bang theory are-
1. Hubble's law.
2. Cosmic microwave background radiation.
3. Big Bang nucleosynthesis.
4. Galaxy formation and evolution and Structure formation.
5. Primordial gas clouds.
 Hubble’s law –
 The universal expansion was first predicted from general relativity by
Friedmann in 1922 and Lemaître in 1927, well before Hubble made his analysis
and observations in1929.
 Hubble law tells that the further away a galaxy is, the larger its recessional
velocity.
 We are not in a special location in the universe. Every galaxy is receding from
each other.
 Universe is expanding
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
RADIATION
The Big Bang theory predicts that the early universe was a very hot place
and that as it expands, the gas within it cools. Thus the universe should be
filled with radiation that is literally the remnant heat left over from the Big
Bang, called the “cosmic microwave background", or CMB.

Explained in next slide

Fig: 1 The above image is the Cosmic Microwave Background temperature fluctuations from the 7-
year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) data seen over the full sky. The average
temperature is 2.725 Kelvin degrees above absolute zero (absolute zero is equivalent to -273.15 ºC or -
459 ºF), and the colors represent the tiny temperature fluctuations, as in a weather map. Red regions are
warmer and blue regions are colder by about 0.0002 degrees.
CMB continues...
 The cosmic microwave background was first predicted
in 1948 by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman.
 In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey were
building a radio receiver (Fig:1) and while recording
radio signal they had recorded some excess noise.
 Coincidentally, researchers at Princeton University,
Robert Dicke and Dave Wilkinson were working on Fig: 1

devising a satellite named Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), an


experiment to find the CMB. When they heard about the Bell Labs result, they
immediately realized that the CMB had been found.
 Penzias and Wilson shared the 1978 Nobel prize in physics for their discovery of CMB.
 The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), originally known as the
Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010
which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) – the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang.
 Go to the previous slide and look at the WMAP image of the universe mapped by the
spacecraft.
CMB continues...
 Today, the CMB radiation is very cold, only 2.725°K above absolute zero, thus
this radiation shines primarily in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, and is invisible to the naked eye.

 CMB fills the universe and can be detected everywhere we look. Also the
temperature difference in colder and warmer regions are by about 0.0002 degrees.
Thus the radiation is so uniform over the universe.

 This uniformity is one compelling reason to interpret the radiation as remnant heat
from the Big Bang; it would be very difficult to imagine a local source of radiation
that was this uniform. In fact, many scientists have tried to devise alternative
explanations for the source of this radiation, but none have succeeded.
WHY TO STUDY THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND?

Light travels at a finite speed, astronomers observing distant objects are looking
into the past. Most of the stars that are visible to the naked eye in the night sky
are 10 to 100 light years away. Thus, we see them as they were 10 to 100 years
ago. We observe Andromeda, the nearest big galaxy, as it was about 2.5 million
years ago. Astronomers observing distant galaxies with the Hubble Space
Telescope can see them as they were only a few billion years after the Big Bang.

The CMB radiation was emitted 13.7 billion years ago, only a few hundred
thousand years after the Big Bang, long before stars or galaxies ever existed.
Thus, by studying the detailed physical properties of the radiation, we can learn
about conditions in the universe on very large scales at very early times, since the
radiation we see today has travelled over such a large distance.
Thank you
Observational evidences of Big
Bang and fate of the universe

Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,


Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
THE ORIGIN OF THE COSMIC MICROWAVE
BACKGROUND (CMB)

 One of the profound observations of the 20th century is that the universe is
expanding.
 This expansion implies the universe was smaller, denser and hotter in the distant
past.
 When the visible universe was half its present size, the density of matter was eight
times higher and the cosmic microwave background was twice as hot.
 In addition to this cosmic microwave background radiation, the early universe was
filled with hot hydrogen gas with a density of about 1000 atoms per cubic
centimeter.
 Since the universe was so very hot through most of its early history, there were no
atoms in the early universe, only free electrons and nuclei (Nuclei are made of
neutrons and protons).
 So, the cosmic microwave background photons are easily scattered by electrons. This
process of multiple scattering produces what is called a “thermal” or “blackbody”
spectrum of photons.
 According to the Big Bang theory, the frequency spectrum of the CMB should
have this blackbody form. This was indeed measured with tremendous accuracy
(figure in next slide) by the FIRAS experiment on NASA's COBE (Cosmic
Background Explorer) satellite.
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
 The term nucleosynthesis refers to the formation of heavier elements, atomic nuclei
with many protons and neutrons, from the fusion of lighter elements.
 The Big Bang theory predicts that the early universe was a very hot place.
 One second after the Big Bang, the temperature of the universe was roughly 10 billion
degrees and was filled with a sea of neutrons, protons, electrons, anti-electrons
(positrons), photons and neutrinos.
 As the universe cooled, the neutrons either decayed into protons and electrons or
combined with protons to make deuterium (an isotope of
hydrogen).
 During the first three minutes of the universe, most of the
deuterium combined to make helium. Trace amounts of
lithium were also produced at this time. This process of
light element formation in the early universe is called
“Big Bang nucleosynthesis” (BBN).
 The WMAP satellite is able to directly measure the
ordinary matter density indicated by the vertical red line
in the graph (right) and the data matches with the
prediction.
 This is a support of Big Bang theory.
GALAXY FORMATION, EVOLUTION AND STRUCTURE FORMATION
 A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed
about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then, larger structures have been
forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters.
 Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are
observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies
(observed in a more recent state).
 The observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures,
agree well with Big Bang prediction of the formation of structure in the universe.
PRIMORDIAL GAS CLOUDS
 Astronomers have observed clouds of primordial gas by analyzing absorption lines
in the spectra of distant quasars*. Before this discovery, all other astronomical
objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars.
 These two clouds of gas contain no elements heavier than hydrogen and deuterium.
 Since the clouds of gas have no heavy elements, they likely formed in the first few
minutes after the Big Bang, during Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.

* A quasar is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus, in which a supermassive black hole
with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun is surrounded by a
gaseous accretion disk.
THE FUTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

 Till now we had an overview of the different aspects of the universe, its
evolution, size and age.
 We started this journey by raising a few questions. So, now we know where
we came from and how vast is the universe.

 Questions arises at this point -


 What will happen to this universe?
 Where we are heading into?

 There can be two possibilities as per the cosmologists to the future of our
universe -
 Endless expansion
 The “Big Crunch”, means everything will again come to a point from
where it has started.
 The evolution of the universe is determined by a struggle between the momentum of
expansion and the pull of gravity. So, who will win?
 The current rate of expansion is measured by the Hubble Constant, while the
strength of gravity depends on the density and pressure of the matter in the universe.
 If the pressure of the matter is low, as is the case with most forms of matter we
know of, then the fate of the universe is governed by the density.

 Critical density (ρc) - It is the average density of matter required for the Universe to
just halt its expansion, but only after an infinite time.
 Density parameter(Ω) – It is defined as the ratio of the actual (or observed)
density ρ to the critical density ρc .
 The density parameter determines the overall geometry of the universe.
 If Ω=1, then the current density equals to critical density and the universe is a flat.
 If Ω<1, then the current density of universe is less than critical density so the
universe will expand forever and is called open universe. This is also known as the
“Big Chill” or “Big Freeze” because the universe will slowly cool as it expands
until eventually it is unable to sustain any life.
 If Ω>1, then density of the universe is greater than the critical density, then gravity
will eventually win and the universe will collapse back on itself, the so called “Big
Crunch”
WHAT IS OUR UNIVERSE FLAT, OPEN OR CLOSED?
 Recent observations of distant supernova have suggested that the expansion of the
universe is actually accelerating or speeding up, like the graph's red curve, which
implies the existence of a form of matter with a strong negative pressure. This
strange form of matter is also sometimes referred to as the “dark energy”. Unlike
gravity which works to slow the expansion down, dark energy works to speed the
expansion up. If dark energy in fact plays a significant role in the evolution of the
universe, then in all likelihood the universe will continue to expand forever.
 As per the current knowledge of the universe, it is open.
Image: Timeline of the metric expansion of space starting from the Big Bang.
(Source: Dept. of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University)
Thank you
Numerical Problems
Modern Physics, PI/PD -218,
Int.MSc, BSc Bed IV sem

By
Dr.Rizwin Khanam
Tezpur University
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Q. Consider a photon that scatters from an electron at rest, if the Compton
wavelength shift is observed to be triple the wavelength of the incident photons and
if the photon scatters at600, then calculate
(i) The wavelength of the incident photon
(ii) The energy given to the recoiling electron
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Thank you

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