JMEPEG (2014) 23:1515–1523 ÓASM International

DOI: 10.1007/s11665-014-0962-3 1059-9495/$19.00

Innovative and Highly Productive Joining Technologies

for Multi-Material Lightweight Car Body Structures
G. Meschut, V. Janzen, and T. Olfermann

(Submitted August 16, 2013; in revised form March 8, 2014; published online April 8, 2014)

Driven by increasing costs for energy and raw material and especially by the European CO2-emission laws,
automotive industry faces the challenge to develop more lightweight and at the same time still rigid and
crash-stable car bodies, that are affordable for large-scale production. The implementation of weight-
reduced constructions depends not only on the availability of lightweight materials and related forming
technologies, but also on cost-efficient and reliable joining technologies suitable for multi-material design.
This article discusses the challenges and requirements for these technologies, based on the example of
joining aluminium with press-hardened boron steels, what is considered as a very important material
combination for affordable future lightweight mobility. Besides a presentation of recent developments for
extending the process limits of conventional mechanical joining methods, new promising technologies such
as resistance element welding are introduced. In addition, the performance, advantages, and disadvantages
of the presented technologies are compared and discussed.

reduction while improving car body stiffness and crash

Keywords boron steels, car body engineering, friction element
welding, joining technology, lightweight design, performance, at reasonable costs. Therefore, an intelligent,
mechanical joining, multi-material design, resistance load-oriented multi-material design is often the optimal design
element welding, self-pierce riveting solution. The choice of specific materials and material combi-
nations strongly depends on the cost target and therefore on the
targeted market segment of the vehicle. In order to achieve the
CO2 reduction goals in the automotive industry, it is necessary
to implement affordable lightweight design also in cars with
1. Introduction high-production volumes, like small cars and mid-class cars.
Ultra-high-strength hot-stamped boron steels (UHSS) with
All kind of European producing industries face the chal- tensile strengths of usually up to 1.650 MPa offer a great
lenge of increasing costs for raw materials and energy as well as weight reduction potential at moderate costs and therefore can
the European environmental legislation for greenhouse gas be found in almost every car of European car manufacturers
emissions. For strongly affected sectors like the automotive today (Ref 3, 4). For further weight reduction, panels made of
industry, the development of innovative, competitive, and mild steels like floor parts, roof, hood, or doors can be
energy-efficient products is crucial for the success on the global substituted by aluminium sheet alloy panels (see Fig. 1).
markets. Besides the development of improved or new One prerequisite for multi-material structures in car bodies is
powertrain concepts, a significant reduction of the vehicle the availability of material-capable and cost-efficient joining
weight is necessary to fulfill the strict European CO2 emission technologies (Ref 6, 7). Due to the dissimilar properties of the
laws for new cars from 2015 on (Ref 1, 2) materials in such composite designs, classic automotive high-
Since the car body structure has a significant share of the productive welding technologies like gas metal arc welding or
total vehicle mass, weight reduction measures often focus on resistance spot welding (RSW) quickly reach their process
the implementation of various lightweight materials like limitations. In case of welding (uncoated) steel to aluminium,
advanced high-strength steels, aluminium sheet, cast and brittle intermetallic compounds are formed due to the limited
extruded profiles, or fiber-reinforced plastics into the body solubility of the materials in solid state (Ref 7-9). Recent
structure (Ref 2). The challenge is to realize a significant weight developments in RSW allow controlling the size of these phases
by asymmetric heat input during a resistance welding process
(Ref 8). Other technologies like gas metal arc welding and
This article is an invited submission to JMEP selected from brazing with reduced heat input or friction-stir welding
presentations at the Symposia ‘‘Wetting,’’ ‘‘Interface Design,’’ and technologies are also utilized and investigated for joining steel
‘‘Joining TechnologiesÕÕ belonging to the Topic ‘‘Joining and Interface to aluminium (Ref 8, 9). However, these processes do not work
Design’’ at the European Congress and Exhibition on Advanced with all coatings of 22MnB5 and require further improvement
Materials and Processes (EUROMAT 2013), held September 8-13,
to reach sufficient reliability and process capability for an
2013, in Sevilla, Spain, and has been expanded from the original
presentation. automotive series production environment.
Hybrid joining in terms of adhesive bonding in combination
G. Meschut, V. Janzen, and T. Olfermann, Laboratory for Materials with a spot-joint, e.g., a resistance spot-weld or a clinched joint,
and Joining Technology (LWF), University of Paderborn, Paderborn,
Germany. Contact e-mail: [email protected]. is already state-of-the-art since several years in car body

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(5) May 2014—1515

 The demand for special applications, lower cycle times, or
more material and thickness flexibility lead to the development
of new or improved mechanical joining technologies like flow-
drill screwing and high-speed bolt joining for joints with one-
sided accessibility, e.g., in profile-intensive designs (Fig. 2c).
These joining processes can be categorized as ‘‘joining by
forming’’ (Ref 6). A common fundamental characteristic of
joining by forming is the realization of positive and force fits by
forming or punching at least one of the thin-walled parts to be
joined (Ref 6). Consequentially follows that the application
range of those joining methods is generally limited by the yield
Fig. 1 Porsche 970 ‘‘Panamera’’ as an example of multi-material or tensile strength and/or the ductility of the part materials (Ref
design using aluminium and boron steels (Ref 5) 6, 11).
Steel sheet materials with tensile strengths of up to approx.
700 MPa and a sufficient ductility of at least 8% can be
manufacturing. By using heat-curing epoxy-based structural clinched, clinch-bonded, and clinch-riveted with satisfying
adhesives, the joint strength can be increased significantly (Ref results regarding load capacity, as many recently published
10). Moreover, the adhesive layer also isolates and seals the investigations on joining mild and high-strength steels show
joint area, what is a very important aspect for multi-material (Ref 12-15). With increasing tensile strengths and decreasing
design as the difference in electrochemical potential of the ductility, the formation of acceptable neck thicknesses and
dissimilar materials can result in accelerated corrosion effects interlocks becomes more and more difficult (Ref 16, 17). The
(Ref 7). Another advantage of hybrid joining is, that the relatively high forming grades, which occur during the
disadvantages of adhesive bonding, like aging effects, poor clinching process, can lead to local defects in the joint.
performance under peel load, creep effects or long curing times, Therefore, an adaption of the clinching tools is required (Ref
can be compensated by adding a spot-joint after applying the 17). Busse et al. (Ref 11) present a new development to join
uncured adhesive. boron steels with aluminium by a shear clinching process. The
Today, mechanical joining technologies like clinching and boron steel is pierced during the process and not formed and
self-pierce riveting are established in many automotive pro- therefore requires relatively high process forces. Another
duction lines for joining multi-material or light-metal car bodies possible solution to clinch low-ductile high-strength materials
and are often combined with adhesive bonding (Ref 7, 10). like boron steels with ductile materials such as typical
However, these processes reach their process limits, when the automotive aluminium alloys is to use a punched or laser-cut
above mentioned ultra-high strength boron steels need to be pre-hole in the high-strength part. For good results, an exact
joined. concentric positioning of the pre-hole and the clinching tools is
In order to utilize the weight reduction potential of boron required. The exact positioning requires additional cycle time
steels combined with aluminium alloys and thus enable further and positioning equipment. Therefore, processes which require
affordable weight reduction in mass vehicle production, suitable pre-holes are only sub-optimal solutions for automotive series
and cost-efficient mechanical joining technologies must be productions (Ref 7).
developed. This article introduces new developments for extend- Semi-tubular self-pierce rivets need to spread in order to
ing the process limits of three selected conventional mechanical create the interlock with the die-sided part (see Fig. 2b, step
joining methods and presents new promising approaches (Chap- No. 3). This limits the rivet material portfolio to steels with a
ter 3), which combine thermal and mechanical joining principles. certain ductility. At the same time, the rivet should not buckle
The last chapter shows the mechanical properties of the or deform when piercing the punch-sided sheet. Based on this
optimized joints, based on an exemplary material combination two requirements follows, that there also exists a limitation to
(6000 series aluminium alloy and 22MnB5 steel). the tensile strength of punch-sided materials joinable with SPR.
For example, investigations from Mori et al. (Ref 18) on SPR of
a steel with a tensile strength of 980 MPa and an 5000 series
2. Extending the Application Range of Established aluminium alloy showed that even with an optimized die, the
rivetÕs feets are strongly deformed and compressed. Currently,
Mechanical Joining Technologies available rivets enable the joining of punch-sided steels up to
1000 MPa, while recent rivet developments in Germany allow
Mechanical joining methods have a long tradition in car body joining even boron steels (Ref 7). However, the joinability of
manufacturing. In the early days of the auto industry, different ultra-high-strength steels with semi-tubular SPRs is limited due
materials such as metals and wood were used. These were joined to the joining principle.
usually mainly by manual processes such as solid riveting and High-speed bolt joining (also known as RIVTACÒ technol-
screwing. Later, vehicle generations were exclusively steel-based ogy), illustrated in Fig. 2c, is a relatively new process for car
and mechanical joining methods were replaced by highly body manufacturing. The first series application was realized by
productive welding processes. Driven by the trend to utilize DAIMLER in the Mercedes-Benz SL (R231) (Ref 19). An
aluminium and other non-iron materials in car bodies, several auxiliary joining element, comparable to a nail, is driven by a
innovations in the field of mechanical joining technologies were pneumatic-accelerated piston into the workpieces at speeds
made during the last three decades. Most worth to mention are between 20 and 40 m/s. Mass inertia effects allow joining of
self-piece riveting (SPR) and clinching, which are standard even relatively thin-walled components without causing any
processes in most car body manufacturing companies today (see significant global part deformation. In addition, the high
Fig. 2a and b) (Ref 6, 7, 10) deformation rates, in combination with friction between the

1516—Volume 23(5) May 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 2 Illustration of selected mechanical joining processes for automotive applications. (a) Clinching with static die (b) Self-pierce riveting
(SPR) (c) High-speed bolt joining (Ref 7)

bolt and the workpieces, cause a quasi-adiabatic local temper- due to the high strength of the boron steel. The bolt joint shows
ature increase, improving the flow properties of the metal cracks around the formed hole (low ductility of 22MnB5) and a
workpiece and also enabling the joining of high-strength strongly deformed bolt tip (high-strength of 22MnB5). It is
materials (Ref 20). The bolt joint is a result of bolt anchoring in obvious, that without any modification, boron steels cannot
the base sheet, according to the principles of positive fit by the be joined with these technologies. One possible solution to over-
use of a profiled shaft. In addition, a force fit is achieved by an come the lack of suitable joining methods is a modification
elastic deformation of the parts in the joining area, resulting in the mechanical properties of the brittle, martensitic boron steel
radial holding forces around the bolt. Similar to the semi- A recent, public-funded research project performed in a
tubular self-pierce rivets, the tensile strength of the bolt material cooperation of three German research institutes investigated the
cannot be increased limitless. Due to the intense loads during potential of ‘‘local conditioning’’ of boron steels (Ref 22). In
joining process, micro-cracks can be initiated at the profiled addition to the conventional hot-stamping process, a separate
shaft when using too brittle bolt material. These cracks result in process step is required in order to enable the use of
very poor performance under fatigue loads (Ref 20). A conventional mechanical joining processes in the subsequent
comparable process principle called punch-nailing is presented assembly process (see Fig. 4).
by Wiethop et al. (Ref 21). In contrast the high-speed bolt During this process step, a short-cycle, controlled, and
shown in Fig. 2c, the punch-nail has a flat tip, which punches process-capable local heat treatment by induction or laser
out a plug during joining process. This plug must be collected heating is performed. In order to preserve the crash-relevant
somehow after joining, what limits the application for punch- part properties and to avoid global part deformation, the heat
nailing to joints with two-sided accessibility. treatment is only applied locally to the areas where mechanical
In order to demonstrate the process limitations of the above joining is necessary in the subsequent assembly process.
mentioned methods, Fig. 3a shows microsections of multi-mate- Despite mechanical joining elements usually require only
rial joints with a ductile micro-alloyed steel (HC340 + Z100), diameters from 3 to approx. 6 mm, investigations were done
which mechanical properties are within the application range of the with a conditioned area of 12 mm diameter in order to
joining methods. In contrast to this, joining attempts with press- compensate the positioning tolerances of robot-integrated
hardened boron steel are displayed in Fig. 3b. As expected, the joining equipment in series production.
clinched sample failed by cracks in the boron part due to the low By annealing the martensite or by a controlled transforma-
ductility of 22MnB5. The SPR joint failed by buckling of the rivet, tion of martensite to a mainly ferrite-perlite structure via

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(5) May 2014—1517

Fig. 3 Selected microsections of multi-material joints with varied steel grades. Microsections in (c) were etched

Fig. 4 Process concept for local conditioning of hot-stamped parts, enabling the application of conventional mechanical joining methods [illus-
tration based on (Ref 25)]

different heat treatment profiles, the mechanical properties hardness, tensile strength and yield strength can be reduced
(tensile strength, hardness, ductility) of the joining zone can be significantly in a defined area and elongation at crack can be
adjusted to the individual process limits of the mechanical increased. Investigations on the mechanical properties of the
joining methods. Several temperature profiles with different locally conditioned zone showed a tensile strength of approx.
cycle times were investigated. In contrast to already known 650 MPa and elongation at crack of about 25% (Ref 22),
principles of heat-assisted joining like presented in (Ref 23), the enabling clinching. These properties required a local condi-
modification of mechanical properties is permanently. There- tioning process time of 25 s. Further investigations showed
fore, the joining equipment does not contact materials with high further process time reduction potential.
temperatures and the lifetime of the joining tools can be A much shorter temperature profile was applied, when the
increased. Another advantage is, that the part can be locally parts should be joined with self-pierce riveting or high-speed
conditioned outside the car body assembly shop and handled bolt joining, as these processes only require a slightly reduction
and processed in subassemblies and later in the final assembly of the hardness of the boron steel. This was be realized by
(Ref 22). annealing the martensite microstructure at 700 °C for 4 s. The
Exemplary results are shown in Fig. 5 and 6. It can be cycle time is within acceptable ranges for a series production.
observed, that the microstructure can be transformed into more Figure 3c shows that the developed local conditioning pro-
ductile microstructures like ferrite-perlite. Therewith, the cess extends the application range of the above mentioned

1518—Volume 23(5) May 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 5 Microstructure of press-hardened 22MnB5 steel after local conditioning process (Ref 22)

Fig. 6 Illustration of measurement results of a Vickers hardness scan on surface after local conditioning (Ref 22)

mechanical joining technologies to ultra-high-strength boron Very promising approaches for joining low-ductile and high-
steels. In Chapter 4, selected results on mechanical testing strength materials in multi-material joints are the so-called
under tensile shear loads of the joints are shown. thermal-mechanical joining processes (Ref 7). These processes
are based on an intelligent combination of thermal and
mechanical joining principles (Ref 26-28). In addition, these
processes can be combined with adhesive bonding (Ref 28-30).
3. Development of New Joining Technologies Figure 7b shows the resistance element welding (REW)
for Joining UHSS to Aluminium process. Figure 7c shows the friction element welding (FEW)
process. Miles et al. (Ref 26) present a comparable process
Another option to solve the challenges when joining boron called friction bit welding. A common characteristic of these
steels with aluminium is the development of new joining processes is the use of an auxiliary joining element made of
principles. Figure 7 shows the process steps of three selected steel, which is joined by RSW or friction welding with the
methods. boron steel part, while the non-ferrous cover sheet is joined
Figure 7a shows a self-pierce riveting process with solid with a positive and a force lock to the auxiliary element (Ref 7).
rivets. As illustrated, the joint is based mainly on a positive lock The use of an additional steel joining element allows evading
created by forming the die-sided aluminium sheet into a ring the welding incompatibility of dissimilar material joints (Ref
groove at the rivet (Ref 25). In addition, force fits between the 28). As there is no forming or punching of the boron steel sheet
joined sheets and rivet shaft as well as an axial force caused by required, these processes are highly suitable for all kind of
axial tensile stress in the rivet (transmitted by countersunk head advanced high-strength steels with relatively low ductility, for
to the joined parts) can be observed. In contrast to the classic instance martensitic steels with tensile strength of more than
SPR process with semi-hollow rivets, the solid rivet is not 1800 MPa (Ref 30). Nevertheless, the occurring process
formed in order to create interlock. As already explained above, temperatures have an effect on the microstructure in the joining
this allows the use of ultra-high-strength materials for the rivet zone, comparable with the effects when applying classic RSW.
(Ref 7, 24, 25). There are different rivet types with more than The heat-affected zones can be observed on etched microsec-
one ring groove available (Ref 25). tions, displayed in Fig. 8b and c.

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(5) May 2014—1519

Fig. 7 Illustration of selected innovative joining methods for UHSS-aluminium combinations. (a) Self-pierce riveting with solid rivets (SSPR);
(b) Resistance element welding (REW); (c) Friction element welding (FEW) (Ref 7)

Fig. 8 Etched microsections of aluminium-to-boron-steel joints. (a) Self-pierce riveting with solid high-strength rivets; (b) Resistance element
welding; (c) Friction element welding (Ref 30)

4. Comparison of Load-Bearing Capability a heat-treatable aluminium alloy (AA6016) with a sheet

thickness of 2.0 mm and a boron steel (22MnB5) with a sheet
In order to measure and optimize the performance of the thickness of 1.5 mm. The press-hardened boron steel was
joining methods, experimental destructive testing is one of the conditioned locally for joints produced by clinching, by self-
most common methods. Within this article, exemplary results pierce riveting with semi-hollow rivets (SPR) and by high-
from lap-shear tensile tests are shown. speed bolt joining (RIVTACÒ). The boron steel was not
The specimen parts have the dimension 45 9 105 mm2 with conditioned for self-pierce riveting with solid rivets (SSPR), for
an overlapping length of 16 mm, according to the German REW, for FEW and for adhesive bonding. The produced
standard DVS/EFB 3480-1, which is the established standard specimen were heat-treated at 180 °C for 30 min in an electric
for testing of mechanical joints for automotive car body furnace in order to simulate the automotive cataphoresic paint
structures in Germany (Ref 31). The multi-material joints used bake process, which leads to an aging and increase of

1520—Volume 23(5) May 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 9 Exemplary force-displacement plots of tested lap-shear specimens joined with different technologies

auxiliary elements and joining-process-related effects. From

the displayed plots, the maximum testing force of 8.94 kN
was achieved from a friction-element-welded specimen. The
reason for this is the aluminium material, which is displaced
and collected in the ring groove under the joining elementÕs
head during the joining process (see Fig. 8c). This local
increase of sheet thickness results in higher maximum shear
loads.
As discussed during the introduction, adhesive bonding,
combined with a punctual mechanical or thermal-mechanical
joining process is highly suitable for multi-material joints
(hybrid joining). Figure 11 shows results of both elementary
and hybrid-joined lap-shear specimen. The adhesive used is an
automotive-typical heat-curing high-strength 1 K epoxy (DOW
BETAMATETM 1496 V) [see also (Ref 10)]. After application
of the adhesive to the parts, the specific punctual joining
method was applied. Subsequently, the adhesive was cured in a
furnace at 180 °C for 30 min, what corresponds with the
typical paint bake process in automotive production after
electrophoretic coating of the car body. For reference reasons,
bonded-only specimens (without punctual joint) were tested as
well. It can be observed, that the maximum forces could be
increased significantly, compared to the elementary joints (see
Fig. 10 Failure modes of different joints after lap-shear test Figs. 11, 12).
The highest mean maximum force of 19.59 kN is achieved
mechanical properties of the 6000 series aluminium. Five by the adhesive-bonded-only specimens. The punctual joining
specimens per joining method were tested at a speed of 10 mm methods reduce the size of the effective load-transmitting
per minute, while the displacement was measured locally on the adhesive layer area resulting in a lower maximum shear load,
specimens with an extensometer. In addition five specimens what is also characteristic for hybrid joints (Ref 7). The
created by RSW of two aluminium alloy specimen parts, were difference in maximum force of the hybrid joints results from
tested for reference reasons. the different influences on the adhesive layer. Heat-intensive
A representative force-displacement plot for each joining processes, like RSW or the thermal-mechanical methods, burn a
technology is displayed in Fig. 9. Except for the RIVTACÒ certain area of the adhesive layer, while mechanical joining
specimen, a failure in the aluminium part can be observed (see processes squeeze out the adhesive due to high processes
Fig. 10). Therefore the maximum shear load is limited by the forces. It is worth to mention here, that the presence of uncured
aluminium part, not by the joining elements. The differences adhesive also can have negative effects on the formation of
in maximum shear load result in the different diameters of the mechanical joints, e.g., by filling interlock areas and therewith

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(5) May 2014—1521

Fig. 11 Comparison of mean maximum force under shear tensile load for elementary and hybrid joints made of AA6016 and 22MnB5 with
different joining techniques

Several other tests were performed, e.g., under high strain

rates and peel loads. One goal of these investigations was to
verify, if joints would fail through cracks in the heat-affected
zones caused by the local conditioning of the boron steels. As
the failure always occurred in the aluminium part or the
joining element, the local conditioning technology proved to
be applicable for joints in crash-critical areas of a vehicle (Ref
25).

5. Summary and Conclusions

Cost-efficient joining technology is the key to the realization

of innovative lightweight car bodies in multi-material design.
Increasing material diversity, as well as increasing demand for
process reliability, flexibility and cost-efficiency result in a high
level of innovation pressure in the field of joining technology.
In general, it can be summarized, that classic mechanical
joining combined with local conditioning as well as the
presented new approaches show sufficient load-bearing capa-
bilities for automotive applications. As all of these methods
have individual advantages and disadvantages, a general
Fig. 12 Failure modes of different (hybrid) joints after lap-shear
recommendation for one technology is not possible. The
test decision to apply one or more technologies for a series
production depends on the boundaries (e.g., production vol-
inhibiting the accurate forming of the joint (Ref 7, 27). ume, required strength, material flexibility, costs). However,
Therefore, the development of punctual and hybrid joining further development steps are necessary to reach maturity for
technologies is complex. series application.

1522—Volume 23(5) May 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

 The continuous development and qualification of new 13. J. Mucha and W. Witkowski, The Experimental Analysis of the Double
joining technology processes represents an important contribu- Joint Type Change Effect on the Joint Destruction Process in Uniaxial
Shearing Test, J. Thin-Walled Struct., 2013, 66, p 39–49
tion to the realization of future mobility. The Laboratory of
14. X. He, L. Zaho, H. Yang, B. Xing, Y. Wang, C. Deng, F. Gu, and A.
Materials and Joining Technology (LWF) at the University of Ball, Investigations of Strength and Energy Absorption of Clinched
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