STONEHENGE

Prepared by : Supervised :

Yousif shamsaddin yousif Mr .Rzgar osman

Stonehenge has been the subject of speculation and theory since the Middle Ages. Our
understanding of it is still changing as excavations and modern scientific techniques yield more
information. Yet there are many questions about the monument that we have still to answer.
Many of these questions are set out in the Stonehenge and Avebury World Heritage Site
Research Framework, which was published in 2016.

ANTIQUARIAN INTEREST

The first known excavation at Stonehenge, in the centre of the monument, was undertaken in the
1620s by the Duke of Buckingham, prompted by a visit by King James I.[1] The king
subsequently commissioned the architect Inigo Jones to conduct a survey and study of the
monument. Jones argued that Stonehenge was built by the Romans.[2]

The antiquary John Aubrey surveyed Stonehenge in the late 17th century, and was the first to
record the Aubrey Holes (hence their name).[3] His studies of stone circles in other parts of
Britain led him to conclude that they were built by the native inhabitants, rather than Romans or
Danes as others had proposed. As the Druids were the only prehistoric British priests mentioned
in the classical texts, he attributed Stonehenge to the Druids.

Aubrey’s idea was expanded by the 18th-century antiquary William Stukeley, who surveyed
Stonehenge and was the first to record the Avenue and the nearby Cursus. Among Stukeley’s
theories about Stonehenge, he too thought it was a Druid monument.[4]
EARLY EXCAVATIONS AND SURVEY

In 1874 and 1877 Flinders Petrie surveyed Stonehenge in detail, and devised the numbering
system for the stones that is still in use today.[5]

Concerns about the stability of the stones (especially after one of the sarsen stones and its lintel
had fallen down) led to the straightening of a large leaning trilithon in 1901. Professor William
Gowland directed excavations around the base of the stone, and based on the finds, he proposed
a late Neolithic or early Bronze Age date for Stonehenge.[6]

A further programme of restoration and excavation, led by Lieutenant-Colonel William Hawley,

MID-20TH CENTURY EXCAVATIONS

Between 1950 and 1964 Richard Atkinson, Stuart Piggott and JFS Stone undertook a new
campaign of excavations, partly to resolve some unanswered questions left by Hawley and partly
in response to a large programme of stabilisation and re-erection works at the
monument.[9] Atkinson proposed a three-stage chronology for Stonehenge.[10] No detailed
archaeological report was completed but the excavations were published in 1995.[11]

Excavations in 1966–7 in advance of new visitor facilities led to the discovery of Mesolithic
postholes,[12] the ‘Stonehenge Archer’ was discovered in 1978,[13] and a trench dug alongside the
old A344 revealed a new stone hole, for a ‘partner’ to the Heel Stone.[14]
RECENT DISCOVERIES

In 2008, two excavations within the stone circle took place – one with the aim of investigating
the early bluestone settings[15] and another to retrieve cremation burials from Aubrey Hole
7.[16] These targeted research excavations were both part of wider investigations into Stonehenge,
its stones and its landscape.

The bluestone circuit excavations were part of the SPACES project (Strumble–Preseli Ancient
Communities and Environmental Study) which has included fieldwork in the Preseli Hills and
geological analysis of the bluestones. The Aubrey Hole 7 excavations were part of the much
larger Stonehenge Riverside Project (2005–9) which included excavations at several monuments
in the Stonehenge landscape, including the Stonehenge Cursus, Durrington Walls, West
Amesbury and the Avenue.

The cremations from Aubrey Hole 7 have now been analysed, revealing that cremations of men,
women and children were deposited at Stonehenge over five centuries between 3000 and 2500
BC.[17] Analysis of the animal bones and pottery excavated at Durrington Walls during the
Stonehenge Riverside Project has given new insights into the diet, cooking practices, religious
beliefs and movements of the people who built Stonehenge.[18]

Other discoveries at Stonehenge in recent years have included many more Bronze Age carvings
on the stones, and new information about the way the stones were shaped and worked, through
analysis of the 2011 laser scan of the monument.[19] Parchmarks spotted in the grass during a hot
spell in the summer of 2013 have led to renewed discussions about the completion of the sarsen
stone circle.[20] Excavations took place at Stonehenge in 2013 when the old A344 road bed was
removed, revealing traces of the avenue ditches and a small part of the Heel Stone ditch.

Excavation in 2008 by the SPACES project led to the discovery of evidence for Roman activity
at Stonehenge, in the form of a large pit, seen here in the centre of the trench.
FUTURE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There are many research questions about Stonehenge that we have yet to answer. Those listed
here are just a selection. A set of research questions for the wider World Heritage Site is set out
in the Stonehenge WHS archaeological research framework.

 Understanding previous excavations: The mid-20th-century excavations at Stonehenge,

 Why was Stonehenge built here? Natural features known as periglacial stripes run
parallel with the line of the Avenue, which we need to investigate further to understand
whether they influenced its location. Geophysical surveys, which have discovered what
may be earlier monuments in the landscape, and analysis of earthworks that may pre-date
the earthwork enclosure, such as ‘North Barrow’, have the potential to shed light on why
this location was chosen.[22]

 What was the sequence of construction? The revised sequence for Stonehenge was
published in 2012,[23] and a simplified version of this schema has been adopted in the
visitor centre exhibition and current guidebook. New dates from the cremations at
Stonehenge have added to our understanding of the use of the monument in this first
phase.[24] Further radiocarbon dating of material from Stonehenge might add more
information to the debate.

 Was the sarsen circle ever complete? The south-west side of the sarsen circle lacks
several stones and has some irregular uprights. Although recent geophysical survey failed
to identify stone holes in this area, parchmarks revealed in dry weather in 2013 suggest
that further survey work might answer questions about the archaeology in this area.[25]

 Who built and used Stonehenge? We now know a huge amount about the settlement at
Durrington Walls two miles away, where the builders of Stonehenge may have lived. Full
 publication of this site, including the 2016 excavations there, will tell us much more
about the people who may have built Stonehenge.

 Where were the stones brought from? Ongoing geological analysis of the bluestones
and their possible sources in south-west Wales should enable us to pinpoint their origin
more accurately.[26] But questions remain about where the sarsens came from: the Stones
of Stonehenge project, and future developments in geological analysis, may shed light on
this.

An air of mystery and intrigue will always surround Stonehenge. Over the last ten years,
however, our understanding has moved on dramatically – each new piece of evidence has
brought answers and established further questions. The story of Stonehenge continues to evolve
and change.
Reference

1. C Chippindale, Stonehenge Complete, 4th edn (London, 2012), 47.

2. I Jones and J Webb, The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain, Vulgarly Called Stone-Heng, on Salisbury
Plain, Restored (London, 1655).

3. Aubrey noted cavities in the ground close to the inner edge of the bank, which he assumed were the holes for
missing stones. Two hundred and fifty years later, the 56 pits were named after him.

4. W Stukeley, Stonehenge, a Temple Restor'd to the British Druids (London, 1740) (accessed 18 Nov 2013).

5. WM Flinders-Petrie, Stonehenge: Plans, Description and Theories (London, 1880).

6. W Gowland, ‘Recent excavations at Stonehenge’, Archaeologia 58 (1902), 37–118.

7. Stabilisation works were carried out on Stones 1, 2, 6, 7, 29 and 30.

8. Reported regularly by W Hawley in Antiquaries Journal 1–6 and 8 (1921–6 and 1928) (subscription
required; accessed 14 Feb 2018).

9. Trilithon 57, 58 and 158 re-erected; stone 21 straightened, stone 22 re-erected and lintel 122 replaced on top;
stone 23 re-erected; stones 4, 5, 27, 28, 60, and trilithon stones 53 and 54 straightened; stones 19, 41, 42, 43, 45,
69, 70 and 120 removed and replaced.

10.R Atkinson, Stonehenge (London, 1956).

11. R Cleal, K Walker and R Montague, Stonehenge in Its Landscape: Twentieth-century Excavations, English
Heritage Archaeological Report 10 (English Heritage, 1995), 94–114.
12. G Vatcher and F de M Vatcher, ‘Excavation of three post-holes in Stonehenge car park’, Wiltshire
Archaeological and History Magazine 68 (1973), 57–63.