Principles of Fiber Optic Transmission PDF

Huawei DWDM
Chapter 1
Principles of
Fiber Optic Transmission
Huawei DWDM Contents

Chapter 1
Principles of Fiber Optic Transmission
a. Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber
b. Fiber Types
1. Multi Mode Fiber
2. Single Mode Fiber
c. Losses
d. Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
e. Dispersion
1. Fiber Modal Dispersion
2. Chromatic Dispersion
3. Polarization Mode Dispersion
2
Huawei DWDM Contents
Chapter 1
Principles of Fiber Optic Transmission
f. Nonlinearities
1. Self-phase Modulation (SPM)
2. Cross-phase Modulation (XPM)
3. Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
4. Effects of FWM , XPM , and SPM on
Long Haul Design
5. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
6. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
g. Summary of Transmission Effects
h. Terms and Definitions
Huawei DWDM Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber

Chapter 1
Fiber Design
4
Chapter 1
Velocity of Light

Chapter 1
Refraction
n=𝑉𝐶
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑙 − 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝛼1
𝑛1 Sin(𝛼1) = 𝑛2𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛼2)
𝑛1
𝑛2
𝛼2
6
Chapter 1
Transmission Principles
𝛼0
𝛼1
𝑛1
𝑛1 Sin(𝛼1) = 𝑛2 𝑛=1
Sin(𝛼0) = 𝑛1𝑆𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝛼1) 𝑛2
Sin(𝛼0) = 𝑛1𝐶𝑜𝑠( 𝛼1)
𝛼2
Sin(𝛼0) = 𝑛1 1 − Sin2 (𝛼 1)
Sin(𝛼0) = (n2 1 − n2 2))

Chapter 1
Reflection
8
Chapter 1
Numerical Aperture
Huawei DWDM Fiber Types

Chapter 1
10
Chapter 1
Multimode Fiber
11

Chapter 1
Step-Index Multimode Fiber
12
Chapter 1
Graded-Index Multimode Fiber
13

Chapter 1
Single-mode Fiber
14
Chapter 1
Bandwidth (MHz.Km)
15
Huawei DWDM Losses

Chapter 1
Attenuation (dB/Km)
1. Light Absorption
Light is absorbed in the fiber material as its energy is converted
to heat due to molecular resonance and wavelength impurities.
For example, hydrogen and hydroxide resonance occurs at
approximately 1244 and 1383 nm.
2. Rayleigh Scattering
Scattering, primarily Rayleigh scattering, also contributes to
attenuation. Scattering causes dispersion of the light energy in
all directions, with some of the light escaping the fiber core. A
small portion of this light energy is returned down the core and
is termed backscattering.
16
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
Scattered Light
Attenuation depends on the fiber type and the wavelength. For example,
Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength. If the absorption spectrum of a fiber is plotted against the
wavelength of the laser, certain characteristics of the fiber can be
identified. 17
Huawei DWDM Losses

Chapter 1
18
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
Attenuation Graph
19
Huawei DWDM Losses

Chapter 1
Link Loss Mechanisms
20
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
Micro Bends and Macro Bends
21
Huawei DWDM Losses

Chapter 1
Micro Bends and Macro Bends
22
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
Optical Return Loss
Where Pe is the emitted power and Pr the reflected power, expressed in

Watt (W)
• Increased transmitter noise reducing optical signal-to-noise

ratio (OSNR) in analog video transmission (CATV) systems
and increasing BER in digital transmission systems
• Increase light source interference changing the laser’s

central wavelength and varying the output power
• Higher incidence of transmitter damage

23
ORL represents the total accumulated light power reflected back to the source
from the complete optical span, which includes the backscattering light from
the fiber itself as well as the reflected light from all of the joints and
terminations. ORL, expressed in decibels (dB), is defined as the logarithmic
ratio of the incident power to the reflected power at the fiber origin.
A high level of ORL will decrease the performance of some transmission

systems. For example, high back reflection can dramatically affect the quality
of an analog video signal, resulting in the degradation of the video image
quality.
The higher the ORL value the lower the reflected power and, subsequently, the
smaller the effect of the reflection. Therefore, an ORL value of 40 dB is more
desirable than an ORL value of 30 dB. It is important to note that ORL is
expressed as a positive decibel value whereas the reflectance of a connector is
expressed as negative value.
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
The Distance or Attenuation Effect
24
The reflectance value of the event as well as its distance from the transmitter
terminal both affect the total ORL value.
As the length of the fiber increases, the amount of total backscattered light by
the fiber also increases, and the fiber end reflection decreases. Therefore, for a
short fiber link without intermediate reflective events, fiber end reflection is
the predominate contribution to the total ORL as the amount of reflected light
is not highly attenuated by the fiber.
On the other hand, end reflection of a long fiber length or a highly attenuated
link is attenuated by absorption and scatter effects. In this case, the
backscattered light becomes the major contribution to the total ORL, limiting
the effect of end reflection.
The following graph shows the total ORL (reflectance and backscatter) for both
terminated fiber (with no end reflection) and non-terminated fiber (with a
glass-to-air back reflection of 4 percent or –14 dB). For distances shorter than
40 km, the difference in ORL between the terminated and non-terminated
fiber is significant.
But for longer distances (higher losses), the total ORL is nearly equal.
The importance of reflective events on total ORL depends, not only on their
location along the fiber link, but also on the distance between the reflection
and the active transmission equipment.
Huawei DWDM Losses
Chapter 1
Solutions for a reduction in ORL
25
Solutions are available that allow for a reduction in ORL value or that limit the
undesirable effects associated with a high ORL value include:
• Use of low-reflection connectors, such as 8° angled polished contacts (APC);

high return loss (HRL) connectors; or ultra polished contacts (UPC)
• Use of optical isolators near the laser in order to reduce back- reflection
levels
Huawei DWDM Light as an Electromagnetic Wave
Chapter 1
26
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to infinity.

Chapter 1
Mode Field Diameter
27

Chapter 1
Effective Area
Effective Area is a function of:
Source Wavelength
Fiber Core Radius
Fiber Refractive Index Profile
The effective area (or mode field diameter) directly influences

nonlinear effects, which depend directly on the power density of the
light injected into the fiber. The higher power density , the higher
incidence of nonlinear effects.
The Effective Area=95~104% MFA

28
Huawei DWDM Dispersion
Chapter 1
29
Another factor that affects the signal during transmission is dispersion, which
reduces the effective bandwidth available for transmission. Tree main types of
dispersion exist: modal dispersion, chromatic dispersion, and polarization
mode dispersion.
Chapter 1
Modal Dispersion
30
Modal dispersion typically occurs with multimode fiber. When a very short
light pulse is injected into the fiber within the numerical aperture, all of the
energy does not reach the end of the fiber simultaneously. Different modes of
oscillation carry the energy down the fiber using paths of differing lengths. For
example, multimode fiber with a 50 µm core may have several hundred
modes. This pulse spreading by virtue of different light path lengths is called
modal dispersion, or more simply, multimode dispersion.
Chapter 1
Chromatic Dispersion
31
Chromatic dispersion (CD) occurs because a light pulse is made up of different

wavelengths, each traveling at different speeds down the fiber. These different
propagation speeds broaden the light pulse when it arrives at the receiver,
reducing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and increasing bit errors.
Chapter 1
Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Material Dispersion
32
The IOR for the material that makes up the fiber core, such as glass or/and
dopants, depends upon wavelength. Consequently, the speed (group velocity)
of each wavelength component can vary with wavelength.
Chapter 1
Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Waveguide Dispersion
33
Waveguide dispersion is the variation in group velocity of different wavelength

components of light caused primarily by the mode field diameter (MFD), or the
diameter of the light beam within the wavelength of a single-mode fiber.
Engineering differences in the IOR between the fiber core and cladding regions
cause light to propagate faster in the cladding than in the core. The
propagation velocity difference is largely independent of wavelength.
Therefore, as the MFD increases, a greater percentage of the light propagates
within the cladding region resulting in a faster propagation.
Longer wavelengths exhibit larger MFD and, therefore, faster propagation .

Chapter 1
Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Waveguide Dispersion
34
The fiber index profile (variation of the IOR in the fiber) and the MFD (light
surface of the wavelength) together define the waveguide dispersion.
The waveguide dispersion (per unit length) depends on many parameters:

––∆n, the difference between the core IOR and the cladding IOR, or index
profile
––core diameter, as core diameter decreases, dispersion generally increases
––fabrication of the fiber (determines core and cladding shape as well as radial
index profile).
Fiber manufacturers typically adjust the waveguide dispersion to achieve

certain CD characteristics.
Chapter 1
Combined Chromatic Dispersion
35
Combined CD refers to the value for both material and waveguide dispersions
together. The total combined CD for a fiber link depends on distance (km).
Chapter 1
Chromatic Dispersion Parameters
• CD value of a given wavelength
expressed in ps/nm (CD may change as a function of
wavelength)
• CD coefficient (referred as D)
the value is normalized to the distance of typically one
kilometer expressed in ps/(nm x km)
• CD slope (S)
represents the amount of CD change as a function of
wavelength expressed in ps/nm²
• CD slope coefficient
the value is normalized to the distance of typically one
kilometer expressed in ps/(nm² x km).
36
The CD of a given fiber represents the relative arrival delay (in ps) of two
wavelength components separated by one nanometer (nm).
Consider these four parameters:
––CD value of a given wavelength—expressed in ps/nm (CD may change as a

function of wavelength)
––CD coefficient (referred as D)—the value is normalized to the distance of

typically one kilometer expressed in ps/(nm x km)
––CD slope (S)—represents the amount of CD change as a function of

wavelength expressed in ps/nm²
––CD slope coefficient—the value is normalized to the distance of typically one

kilometer expressed in ps/(nm² x km).
Chapter 1
Dispersion Slope
37
The dispersion slope (S) describes the amount of change in CD as a function of

wavelength.
Expressed in units of ps/(nm2 x km) slope at 𝞴0 shown as S0 and expressed in
ps/(nm2 x km)
Chapter 1
Negative and Positive Chromatic Dispersion
38
Short wavelengths travel faster than long ones when CD is positive.
When CD is negative, short wavelengths travel slower. The opposite is true for
long wavelengths, which travel slower when CD is positive and faster when CD
is negative.
Negative dispersion is frequently used to compensate for excessive positive

dispersion in a fiber transmission network.
Chapter 1
39
Lower dispersion slopes result in fewer dispersion changes throughout the

wavelength and thus CD remains constant as a function of wavelength. For
high-speed, multichannel DWDM networks, lower dispersion slopes enable
more uniform, optimal performance across the DWDM wavelength.
Dispersion compensation modules offset both the fiber dispersion as well as

the dispersion slope thus balancing CD across the full DWDM wavelength. This
capability is critical for Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Module (ROADM)-
enabled networks as necessary broadband dispersion compensation is typically
inserted at each ROADM node.
Chapter 1
Fiber Types (The CD History)

Non-Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
40
ITU-T G.652 fiber, often referred to as standard single-mode fiber (SSMF), was
the first type of single-mode fiber manufactured. It was originally developed
for optimized transmission around 1310 nm, with an abrupt index profile
change between the core and the cladding .Today, the SSMF is well suited for
DWDM transmission in the C and L bands.
Chapter 1

Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
41
Dispersion-shifted fibers were designed with the zero dispersion wavelength

moved within the 1550 nm region to increase the reach of long-distance
transmission systems as well as to take advantage of the lower fiber
attenuation. Classified as ITU-T G.653 fiber, it is ideal for single wavelength
transmission in very long haul networks.
Chapter 1

Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
42
With the advent of DWDM applications, a slightly positive or negative CD is

desirable for wavelengths around 1550 nm as it eliminates nonlinear
interactions between multiple DWDM channels, known as four-wave mixing.
Typically, fiber classified as ITU-T G.655 has a CD magnitude one-third that of
NDSF of positive or negative dispersion.
Chapter 1
Dispersion Slope
43

Chapter 1
Graphical Summary
44
Each of the fiber types described has its own dispersion properties. The
amount of dispersion versus wavelength and the dispersion slope and the zero
dispersion wavelength vary according to the fiber type. Also, note that each
fiber type and the specified dispersion properties provide a range of
acceptable values and, therefore, actual dispersion properties may vary from
one fiber segment to the next.
A newly standardized fiber type known as ITU-T G.656 offers a wider WDM
transmission capability that extends beyond the conventionally defined C- and
L-bands (nominally 1530 to1565 nm and 1570 to1610 nm, respectively). It
offers a moderate dispersion (2 to 14 ps/[nm x km]) between 1460 and 1625
nm wavelengths.

Chapter 1
Chromatic-Dispersion-Induced Pulse Spreading
Example of a return-to-zero (RZ) 10-Gbps transmission signal through 2x40

km of G.652 fiber, where dispersion causes the pulses to spread and clearly
overlap into adjacent bit periods
45
With a higher data rate input, the pulses are shorter and closer together.
When dispersion occurs, pulse spreading into adjacent bit periods makes it
difficult to discern whether a pulse led to the occurrence of bit errors. This
overlap into adjacent bit periods is referred to as inter-symbol interference
(ISI), because it interferes with the proper reception of a neighboring bit.

Chapter 1
Signal Bandwidth and Modulation Format
Effect of bit rate increase on pulse width and

intervals
46
The modulation format used to encode the digital information onto the optical
signal can significantly impact the tolerance of the signal to CD experienced
during transmission. With the conventional encoding of digital information
onto the amplitude of the optical signal (example of non-return-to-zero [NRZ]),
both the optical bandwidth of the signal and the width of the optical pulses are
directly related to the data rate of the signal. For higher data rates, the pulses
are shorter and spaced closer together with a wider optical spectrum.
These two effects, closer pulses and wider optical spectrum, decrease the
optical signal’s tolerance for CD by a factor of 4 when the data rate is doubled
(assuming a constant modulation format). One factor of 2x less tolerance is
due to half the spacing of half as many pulses. The other factor of 2x comes
from the spectrum being twice as wide, due to the pulses being shortened by a
factor of two.
Increasing the bit rate by a factor of 4 reduces tolerance to CD by a factor of

16.

Chapter 1
Signal Bandwidth and Modulation Format
Optical bandwidth of a NRZ and 50 percent RZ

amplitude modulated signal (both operating at the
same data rate) 47
Conventionally, amplitude modulation formats, such as NRZ and return-to-zero
(RZ), have been used at 2.5 and 10 Gbps data rates. Modulation formats, such
as duobinary and differential quadrature phase shift keying (DQPSK), are more
robust against the impact of CD and are used at 10 and 40 Gbps data rates to
overcome the dispersion impairments.

Chapter 1
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
48
Polarization mode dispersion, or PMD, is defined as the temporal spreading of
the transmission signal pulses due to birefringence. PMD is generally
conceptualized and mathematically modeled as the resulting differential time
delay between signal components that is transmitted in two well-defined
orthogonal polarization states, or principal states of polarization (PSPs) of the
fiber. The two PSPs propagate at different speeds through the fiber. This
creates two time-delayed copies of the launched signal that may cause severe
distortion in the optical receiver at the end of the fiber. Furthermore, PMD
may vary with time and with optical frequency due to higher-order PMD
effects. Therefore, signals transmitted over different wavelength channels of a
given fiber usually experience different amounts of distortion.

Chapter 1
Differential Group Delay
49
The difference in arrival time between the two principal modes of polarization
(known as Eigen modes of the fiber) is known as birefringence. Fibers always
exhibit two orthogonally polarized modes that traverse the fiber at largely
different speeds. They introduce a differential time delay between optical
signal components that are transmitted in these two modes. The magnitude of
PMD in a fiber is usually expressed as this difference that is known as the DGD
and is usually denoted as ∆t (delta tau).

Chapter 1
Differential Group Delay
50
Therefore, a short signal pulse transmitted through a highly birefringent fiber
may be decomposed into two orthogonally polarized pulses that travel at
different speeds through the fiber.

Chapter 1
Causes of Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
51
Chapter 1
52

Chapter 1
Polarization Maintaining Fibers (PMFs)
53
PMD is caused by local birefringence (or double refraction) in the fiber, which
may arise from a combination of material and waveguide birefringence. If a
fiber exhibits different indexes of refraction (IOR) based on the polarization
state (rotational orientation with respect to the fiber axis) of the transmission
signal, then this fiber is said to be birefringent. The differing IORs lead to
differing velocities of propagation of the modes.
In silica optical fibers, material birefringence is typically the result of internal or

external stress in the fiber core, introduced in the fiber manufacturing process
or in the fiber cabling process through bending and twisting.
Waveguide birefringence, on the other hand, results from imperfections in the

geometry of the fiber core and/or cladding, usually introduced in the
manufacturing process.
Note that some fibers, such as polarization maintaining fibers (PMFs), are
intentionally designed to be highly birefringent. In such fibers, the velocity of
propagation (speed of light) varies substantially with the polarization state of
the launched signal.
Chapter 1
Wavelength Dependence of the DGD
54
In fibers with strong polarization mode coupling, the DGD and the PSPs vary
randomly with optical frequency, as shown in the example of Figure. Similar
random variations can be observed with changes in the temperature of the
fiber. Often, the wavelength dependence of the DGD changes dramatically
with just a few degrees of temperature variation. Similarly, manual handling of
the fiber may also change the DGD and its frequency dependence. As a result,
the DGD at any given wavelength is not constant with time and may change
randomly.

Chapter 1
PMD-Induced System Outages
55
Excessive PMD in a fiber optic link generally causes pulse broadening or jitter in
the received electrical signal. As a result, errors may occur in the decoding of
the signals. These transmission impairments increase with the magnitude of
the instantaneous DGD ∆τ. If the mean DGD exceeds certain known limits by a
small amount, sometimes it is sufficient for additional margins to be allocated
in the system design to cope with signal distortions caused by PMD. Typically,
an extra margin of 1 to 3 dB may be added to the optical signal-to-noise ratio
(OSNR) at which the system operates reliably. However, no matter how large
this margin is, there always exists a finite probability that the randomly
fluctuating DGD in the fiber becomes larger than the maximal value at which
the system operates error free, in which case the system has to be taken out of
service.
The likelihood of such an outage to occur is called the outage probability that
may be calculated for any given transmission system based on the mean DGD
in the fiber, the allocated OSNR margin, and the sensitivity of the signal to
instantaneous DGD. Conversely, given a maximal tolerable outage probability
(typically in the range between 10–5 and 10–7), one may calculate the maximal
tolerable average DGD in the transmission link, as shown schematically in the
Figure.
Chapter 1
Distance Limitations
56
This table lists the maximal PMD coefficient for NRZ-formatted SONET and SDH
signals that are transmitted over a distance of 400 km for three different bit
rates.
As a rule of thumb, most digital transmission systems can tolerate mean DGD
of up to one tenth of the bit period Tb of the digital information signal.
This rule was originally derived for NRZ-formatted on-off-keyed signals and
assumes an OSNR margin of 1 dB as well as an outage probability of 10–6. RZ-
formatted signals, on the other hand, are substantially more tolerant to first-
order PMD and, hence, exhibit higher values for .
For example, 10 Gbps SONET/SDH transmission exhibits a bit length 100 ps

which derives to a 10 ps maximum delay.
Chapter 1
Distance Limitations
57
The maximal allowable PMD coefficient decreases linearly with increasing bit
rate. This can be clearly seen in Figure , which displays the maximal PMD
cofficient as a function of transmission distance for the three different bit
rates.
Chapter 1
PMD in 10-Gigabit Ethernet Systems
58
Deployment of 10 Gbps Ethernet technology is showing up widely in high-

performance Local Area Networks (LANs) as well as in Metropolitan Area
Networks (MANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs). Ethernet technology
supports many types of traffic, such as data, voice, and video over IP, and can
be interfaced with conventional SONET/SDH or ATM networks. In general,
optical Ethernet signals are affected by the same dispersion phenomena as
discussed above. However, there are some small but important differences in
the PMD tolerance of Ethernet signals when compared to standard
SDH/SONET transmission.
Ethernet systems do not allow outage probabilities larger than 10–7.
If we compare 10-Gbps Ethernet to 10-Gbps SDH/SONET transmission limits,

we see a tighter dispersion tolerance for 10 GigE as defined by the IEEE
802.3ae-2002 standard. There are two main reasons for that, reasons which
apply for the CD as well:
––Forward error correction (FEC) is not robust compared with the one applied
to 10-Gbps SDH/SONET
––Acceptable outage probability is lower: 1E-7 for 10 GigE vs 1E-5 for

SDH/SONET

Chapter 1
PMD in 40 Gbps Transmission Systems
59
As described above, the sensitivity of digital optical information signals to PMD
increases linearly with bit rate. Therefore, 40 Gbps signals are 4 times more
sensitive to PMD than 10 Gbps signals and 16 times more sensitive than 2.5
Gbps signals.
Hence, PMD tolerance is an important parameter to be specified in 40 Gbps
systems. However, the PMD tolerance also depends on the modulation format.
This can be seen in Figure which displays the OSNR penalty as a function of
instantaneous DGD for three different on-off-keyed (OOK) modulation formats.
The figure shows that RZ-formatted OOK signals are more tolerant to DGD than
NRZ-formatted signals.
Furthermore, RZ signals having a narrow pulse width of 33% of the bit period
(FWHM) are substantially more tolerant to DGD than carrier-suppressed RZ
(CS-RZ) signals with a pulse width of 67% of the bit.
In general, the shorter the transmitted pulses are, the more instantaneous
DGD a signal can tolerate. However, the above results were obtained with a
first-order PMD emulator that generates pure DGD but no second-order PMD,
just like a highly birefringent fiber. The sensitivities to real fiber PMD may
deviate significantly from the above results, because CS-RZ-formatted signals
are more tolerant to second- and higher-order PMD than RZ-formatted signals.
Similarly , NRZ-formatted signals are more tolerant than CS-RZ-formatted
signals.
Huawei DWDM Nonlinearities
Chapter 1
From Linear to Non-Linear Propagation

• As long as optical power within an optical fiber is small,
the fiber can be treated as a linear medium
Loss and refractive index are independent of the signal
power
• When optical power levels gets fairly high, the fiber
becomes a nonlinear medium
Loss and refractive index depend on the optical power
60
Non linear phenomena are viewed as both advantageous and as degrading.
•Advantageous because lasers , optical amplifiers , modulators , dispersion

compensation , frequency doublers and wavelength converters are based on
them.
•Degrading because signal loss , noise , jitter , cross-talk , and pulse broadening
are caused by them .
Chapter 1
Nonlinear Effects
1. Refractive index phenomena
• Self-phase modulation (SPM)
• Cross-phase modulation (XPM)
• Four-wave mixing (FWM)
2. Stimulated scattering phenomena

• Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
• Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
61
High power level and small effective area of the fiber mainly cause nonlinear
effects. With an increase in the power level and the number of optical
channels, nonlinear effects can become problematic factors in transmission
systems. These analog effects can be divided into two categories:
1. Refractive index phenomena causes phase modulation through

variations in the refractive indexes:
• Self-phase modulation (SPM)
• Cross-phase modulation (XPM)
• Four-wave mixing (FWM)
2. Stimulated scattering phenomena leads to power loss:
• Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
• Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
Chapter 1
Refractive Index Phenomena:

Self-Phase Modulation
62
SPM is the effect that a signal has on its own phase, resulting in signal
spreading. With high signal intensities, the light itself induces local variable
changes in the refractive index of the fiber known as the Kerr effect. This
phenomenon produces a time-varying phase in the same channel. The time-
varying refractive index modulates the phase of the transmitted wavelength(s),
broadening the wavelength spectrum of the transmitted optical pulse.
Where L is the link distance, S is the fiber section, and P is the optical power.
2Π𝐿
∆ϕ =
λ𝑆𝑃
The result is a shifted toward shorter wavelengths at the trailing edge of the
signal (blue shifted) as well as a shifted toward longer wavelengths at the
leading edge of the signal (red shifted).
The wavelength shifts that SPM causes are the exact opposite of positive CD. In
advanced network designs, SPM can be used to partly compensate for the
effects of CD.
Chapter 1
Single Channel’s Pulses Are Self-Distorted as They Travel

(SPM)
63

Chapter 1

Cross Phase Modulation
Multiple Channels Interact as They Travel (XPM)
64
XPM is the effect that a signal in one channel has on the phase of another
signal. Similar to SPM, XPM occurs as a result of the Kerr effect. However, XPM
effects only arise when transmitting multiple channels on the same fiber. In
XPM, the same frequency shifts at the edges of the signal in the modulated
channel occur as in SPM, spectrally broadening the signal pulse.

Chapter 1

Four-Wave Mixing
65
Nonlinear effects are dependent upon the nonlinear portion of the refractive
index n and cause the refractive index to increase for high signal power levels.
Behind an erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), the high output can create
nonlinear effects, such as FWM, SPM, and XPM.
FWM is an interference phenomenon that produces unwanted signals from

three signal frequencies (λ123 = λ1 + λ2 – λ3) known as ghost channels that
occur when three different channels induce a fourth channel.
A number of ways exist in which channels can combine to form a new channel
according to the above formula. In addition, note that just two channels alone
can also induce a third channel.
Due to high power levels, FWM effects produce a number of ghost channels
(some of which overlap actual signal channels), depending on the number of
actual signal channels. For example, a 4-channel system will produce 24
unwanted ghost channels and a 16-channel system will produce 1920
unwanted ghost channels. Therefore, FWM is one of the most adverse
nonlinear effects in DWDM systems.
In systems using dispersion-shifted fiber, FWM becomes a tremendous

problem when transmitting around 1550 nm or the zero dispersion
wavelength. Different wavelengths traveling at the same speed, or group
velocity, and at a constant phase over a long period of time will increase the
effects of FWM. In standard fiber (non-dispersion-shifted fiber), a certain
amount of CD occurs around 1550 nm, leading to different wavelengths having
different group velocities, reducing the FWM effects. Using irregular channel
spacing can also achieve a reduction in FWM effects.
Chapter 1
Dispersion Washes out FWM Effects

66

Chapter 1
Scattering Phenomena:
Stimulated Raman Scattering
67
Scattering phenomena can be categorized according to the processes that
occur when the laser signal is scattered by fiber molecular vibrations (optical
photons) or by induced virtual grating.
SRS is an effect that transfers power from a signal at a shorter wavelength to a

signal at a longer wavelength. The interaction of signal light waves with
vibrating molecules (optical photons) within the silica fiber causes SRS, thus
scattering light in all directions. Wavelength differences between two signals of
about 100 nm (13.2 THz), 1550 to 1650 nm for example, show maximum SRS
effects.

Chapter 1
Scattering Phenomena
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
68
SBS is a backscattering phenomenon that causes loss of power. With high-
power signals, the light waves induce periodic changes in the refractive index
of the fiber, which can be described as induced virtual grating that travels away
from the signal as an acoustic wave. The signal itself is then scattered, but it is
mostly reflected off this induced virtual grating. SBS effects occur when
transmitting only a few channels.
Huawei DWDM Summary of Transmission Effects

Chapter 1
69
Huawei DWDM Summary of Transmission Effects
Chapter 1
70
Huawei DWDM Terms and Definitions

Chapter 1
Absorption
A power loss mechanism occurring in an optical fiber , due to
molecular resonance and impurities which convert optical power
to heat.
71
Chapter 1
Acceptance Angle
The maximum angle to the axis of the fiber allowing light to be
reflected and consequently propagated through the fiber. Light
entering with a larger angle is refracted.
Angular Misalignment Loss
Power loss caused by the deviation from optimum alignment of
source to fiber , fiber to fiber , or fiber to detector.
Attenuation
Reduction in optical signal (amplitude and intensity) as it
propagates along a fiber . Attenuation is due to absorption ,
scattering and other loss mechanisms (such as impurities ,
bending , and coupling).Usually expressed in dB or as a rate of loss
per unit distance (dB/km).
72

Chapter 1
Attenuation Coefficient
A coefficient characterizing the attenuation of an optical fiber per unit
of length (dB/km).This coefficient corresponds to the rate of optical
power loss with respect to distance along the fiber.
Attenuator
A passive device that induces power loss to reduce the amplitude of
a signal without generating distortion.
Back Reflection (BR)

The power reflected back toward the source from any event or
device in the optical link (fiber ends , fiber deformations , and
connectors).Also called Fresnel reflection.
73
Chapter 1
Backscattering
Scattered light that returns back toward the source.
Bandwidth (BW)
Range of frequencies , expressed in hertz (Hz) within which the
fiber can carry information.
Bend Radius (minimum)
The radius a fiber can bend before increased loss or mechanical
damage occurs.
74

Chapter 1
Birefringent
Having a refractive index that is light polarization-dependent.
Birefringence
The decomposition of a light beam into two diverging beams
(ordinary and extraordinary) when passing through a material with
a refractive index depending on the light polarization (such as
fibers).Also called double refraction.
Buffer
In optical fiber , a protective coating applied directly to the fiber.
Buffer Tube
A thermoplastic tube that holds a bundle of fibers and that
contributes to the decrease of the mechanical constraints applied to
fibers.
75
Chapter 1
Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
A phenomenon that causes a spread of light pulses traveling into
the fiber. CD is due to the fact that the refractive index of the
material constituting a fiber is wavelength - dependant . Thus ,
shorter wavelengths travel faster than longer ones . As a light pulse
is never perfectly monochromatic , pulses spread in time and may
overlap with their neighbors until they become indistinguishable ,
which is when bit errors may occur.
76

Chapter 1
Cladding
A glass layer surrounding the core of an optical fiber . The lower
refraction index of the cladding as compared to the core allows the
transmitted light to be reflected and guided along the core.
Cladding Mode
A undesired light ray (mode) that propagates in the cladding.
Coating
A plastic overcoat covering the cladding layer of a fiber to protect
the glass surface.
77
Chapter 1
Concentricity
The measurement of how well-centered the core is within the
cladding.
Connector
A junction allowing two sections of optical fiber to be connected
together or to an optical device such as a source or a receiver. These
connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC ,SC ,ST ,LC ,
or DIN . Each type comes with particular characteristics ,
advantages and disadvantages , and different performance
parameters.
78

Chapter 1
Conventional Band (C-Band)
A transmission band for wavelength from 1530 to 1565 nm . Also
called third window.
Core
A transparent central region of an optical fiber , made of nearly pure
silicon dioxide (SiO2) ,through which the light travels . The core is
surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light , guiding the light
along the core . A plastic coating covers the cladding to protect the
glass surface.
Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
Cross-phase modulation is the change of the phase of a signal
caused by the interaction with another signal . This phenomenon
is due to nonlinear optical effect occurring in fiber (called Kerr
effect) and causing a change of refractive index.
79
Chapter 1
Cutoff Wavelength
The wavelength beyond which a single-mode fiber carries only one
mode.
Decibel (dB)
Unit used to express values of power level on a logarithmic scale.
The power level is always relative to a reference power P0:
𝐿𝑃/𝑃0 =10 • 𝐿𝑜𝑔10 (P/P0) dB where P and P0 are expressed in the
same linear units.
Also commonly found:
dBc: decibel relative to a carrier level
dBµ: decibel relative to microwatt
dBm: decibel relative to milli watt
80

Chapter 1
Diameter-Mismatch Loss
Power loss occurring when the transmitting fiber diameter is
greater than the receiving fiber diameter . This loss may occur
when coupling a source to fiber , fiber to fiber , or fiber to detector.
Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (DSF)

A type of single-mode fiber designed to have zero dispersion near
1550 nm. This fiber type is not suitable for DWDM applications ,
due to its high nonlinearity at the zero-dispersion wavelength .
These fibers have been normalized by the ITU as G.653.
81
Chapter 1
Dominant Mode
In a waveguide that can support more than one propagation mode
, the mode that propagates with minimal degradation , or the
mode with the most power.
Effective Area
In a single-mode fiber , the area that carries the light.
Ellipticity
Describes the fact that the core or cladding is elliptical instead of
being circular.
82

Chapter 1
Equilibrium Mode Distribution (EMD)

In multimode fibers , a steady state mode distribution. When
achieved , the relative power in modes is stabilized and the
distribution of light travels in the medium without any disturbance
or leakage/gain.
Equilibrium Length
The length of multimode fiber necessary to reach the equilibrium
mode distribution for a specific excitation condition . Also called
equilibrium coupling length and equilibrium mode distribution
length.
83
Chapter 1
Evanescent Wave
Part of light that penetrates into the cladding and propagates
through it instead of the core.
Extinction Ratio
The ratio of the low/OFF optical power to the high/ON optical
power , expressed as a percentage.
84

Chapter 1
Extrinsic Loss
In a fiber inter connection , the portion of loss due to imperfect
joining of a connector or splice.
FC Connector
It is fixed by way of a threaded barrel housing . FC connectors are
typical in test environments and for single-mode applications . FC
connectors were designed for use in high-vibration environments.
85
Chapter 1
Fiber Fuse
A mechanism that may occur at high optical intensity
(>2 MW/cm2) ,when the fiber is shocked or suddenly damaged .
The reflection from the damage vaporizes the fiber immediately
before its destruction . While this new defect remains reflective ,
part of the signal propagates back toward the transmitter . In case of
undersea cables , where high power levels might be used without the
need for open fiber control , a "fiber fuse" protection device at the
transmitter can break the circuit to prevent damage.
86

Chapter 1
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
A common interference phenomenon in DWDM systems , where
multiple wavelengths mix together to form new unwanted
wavelengths.
FWM depends on many factors as dispersion , effective area , and

channel spacing:
87
Chapter 1
Fresnel Reflection Loss
Reflection loss at fiber ends due to the difference between glass and
air refractive index.
Fusion Splice
A permanent joint of two fibers made by heating and fusing them
together.
Insertion Loss
Optical power loss that results from a splice or from inserting a
device (such as a connector or a coupler) into a previously
continuous transmission path .
Insertion Loss = Power entering the device (in dB) – Power exiting the device (in dB)
88

Chapter 1
Intermodulation (Mixing)
A fiber nonlinearity mechanism that occurs because the refractive
index of glass is power- dependant . Signals hit each other and
generate interferences at different frequencies . Similar to Four Wave
Mixing.
Intrinsic Loss
Loss due to differences in the fibers being spliced.
Large Effective Area Fiber (LEAF)
An optical fiber designed to have a large area carrying the light in
the core . Corning has developed such fibers.
Link (Optical)
Part of an optical fiber communications system that links two
points . It basically consists of a data transmitter , a transmission
fiber (possibly with built-in fiber amplifiers) , and a receiver.
89
Chapter 1
Macrobend
A macroscopic bend causing light leakage out of the fiber , and
consequently signal attenuation.
Material Dispersion
Dispersion due to the wavelength dependency of the velocity of
propagation on the material from which the fiber is made.
Mechanical Splice
A technique used to join two fibers
permanently using fixtures or
materials (unlike thermal fusion).
90

Chapter 1
Microbend
Sharp and microscopic curvature of a fiber caused by external
factors such as cabling . This creates spatial wavelength
displacements of a few milli meters , and thereby disturbances.
Minimum Bend Radius

The smallest radius an optical fiber or fiber cable can be bent before
increased attenuation or damage occurs.
Modal Dispersion
Dispersion that occurs in multimode fibers , because light travels in
multiple modes (reflective paths) , and each path results in a
different travel distance.
91
Chapter 1
Modal Noise
Signal disturbances occurring when the signal propagates through
mode-selective devices . Usually related to laser light sources.
Mode Coupling
In a fiber , the exchange of power from one mode to another.
Mode Field Diameter (MFD)
A measure of the spot size or beam
width of light propagating in a
single-mode fiber . MFD is a
function of source wavelength , fiber
core radius , and fiber refractive
index profile.
92

Chapter 1
Mode Stripper
A device used to remove cladding modes.
Multiple Reflection Noise (MRN)
A phenomenon whereby a signal travels through several paths ,
whereby components of the signal interfer with one another
together.
Open Optical Interface (OOI)
An interface that permits an optical signal to pass without
conversion from the optical signal to an electrical signal and ,
therefore , does not limit the signal to a specific protocol.
Optical Link Loss Budget
The amount of power lost along the link . Often used in terms of the
maximum amount of loss that can be tolerated by a given link.
93
Chapter 1
Optical Path Power Penalty
The extra loss budget required to account for losses caused by
reflections , dispersion , mode partition noise , and laser chirp.
Optical Return Loss (ORL)

The ratio (expressed in dB) of the reflected power to the incident
power from a fiber optic system or link . ORL = 10 log (Pi/Pr)
Patchcord
A cable assembly permanently assembled at both ends with
connector components (principally for cross-connection within a
patching facility).
94

Chapter 1
Pigtail
A short optical fiber cable permanently placed between an optical
device (such as a source or detector) and an optical connector . This
allows easy connection to another optical component.
Polarization
Light consists of oscillating electrical fields that are said to be
polarized when oscillating in a particular way . Horizontally
polarized light corresponds to the electric field oscillating along
the X axis , where as vertically polarized light is related to the
electric field oscillating along the Y axis.
95
Chapter 1
Polarization Maintaining Fiber (PFM)
Type of fiber that propagates only one polarization of light.
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
A basic property of single-mode fibers . PMD affects the magnitude
of the transmission rate and results from the difference in
propagation times of the energy of a given wavelength , which is split
into two polarization axes that are at right angles to each other(see
below).Main causes of PMD are non circularities of the fiber design
and external applied stress (macro-bending , micro-bending , twist
and temperature variations).
96

Chapter 1
Pulse Spreading
The separation (or spreading) of the signal input characteristics
that appear along the length of the fiber and limit the useful
transmission bandwidth of the fiber . Three basic mechanisms are
the material dispersion , the waveguide dispersion , and the
multimode effect.
Rayleigh Scattering
The scattering of light that occurs when light travels in the fiber as
are sult of small in homogeneities of the core.
97
Chapter 1
Reflectance
The ratio of reflected power (Pr) to incident power (Pi) of an
event (such as a connector).
R = 10 log (Pr/Pi).
Refraction
The deviation of light wave it passes between two materials having
different refraction index.
Refractive Index
The index of refraction is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in a transparent material . The index
of refraction can be used to calculate the bend angle of a beam of
light as it passes from one transparent medium to another . Thus,
the index of refraction is used as a quality control check of
transparent plastics. 98

Chapter 1
Refractive Index Gradient
The variation in refractive index as a function of distance from the
longitudinal axis of a graded index optical fiber.
Scattering
A phenomenon causing the direction change of light rays after
striking discontinuities in the medium , or interacting with the
material at the atomic or molecular level.
99
Chapter 1
Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
A nonlinear effect caused by a refractive index variation (Kerr
effect) . This variation induces a phase shift in the light pulse ,
leading to a change of the pulse frequency.
Simplex Cable
A single-fiber cable suitable for simplex transmission.
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)
A small-core optical wave guide through which only one mode
propagates . The typical core diameter is 8-12 microns.
100

Chapter 1
Span (Optical)
An optical fiber/cable terminated at both ends . Such cables
sometimes include additional devices to add , extract , or
attenuate optical signals.
Splice
A permanent connection of two optical fibers . Main splice
techniques consist of thermal fusion or mechanical fixtures.
Splice Loss
Any loss of optical power at a splice . Such losses are caused by
various mechanisms , either intrinsic to the fibers , or intrinsic to
the method or device being used to join them.
101
Chapter 1
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
A phenomenon that occurs when intense beams , such as laser light ,
travel in an optical fiber , causing variations in the electric field of
the beam itself . Acoustic vibrations are produced in the medium .
This may involve wave propagating in the opposite direction of the
incoming beams.
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

A nonlinearity similar to SBS but with a much higher threshold .
This phenomenon may rob power from shorter wavelength signals
and add gain to longer wavelength signals.
102

Chapter 1
Total Internal Reflection
A phenomenon that occurs when the incidence angle of light striking

an interface is greater than the critical angle . If the refractive index is
lower on the other side of the boundary no light can pass through ,
and then all of the light is reflected.
This can only occur where light travels from a medium with a higher
refractive index to one with a lower refractive index . For example ,
when passing from glass to air.
103
Chapter 1
Transmission Bands
Optical transmissions are not transmitted continuously over the
whole electromagnetic spectrum.
The spectrum for transmission in single-mode optical fibers has
been broken into the following wavelength ranges , or bands:
 O-band (Original) from 1260 to 1360 nm

 E-band (Extended) from 1360 to 1460 nm
 S-band (Short wavelength) from 1460 to 1530 nm
 C-band (Conventional) from 1530 to 1565 nm
 L-band (Long wavelength) from 1565 to 1625 nm
 U-band (Ultra-long wavelength) from 1625 to 1675 nm
104

Chapter 1
Waveguide
Synonymous with optical fiber.
Wavelength
The distance between two consecutive cycles of a wave . The

wavelength in meters is computed by dividing the propagation
speed by the frequency . Wavelength is related to a color of light
and is usually expressed in nanometers (nm).
105

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Huawei DWDM

Huawei DWDM Contents

d. Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

g. Summary of Transmission Effects

h. Terms and Definitions

Huawei DWDM Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber

Huawei DWDM Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber

Huawei DWDM Principles of Light Transmission on a Fiber

Huawei DWDM Fiber Types

Huawei DWDM Fiber Types

Step-Index Multimode Fiber

Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Huawei DWDM Fiber Types

Huawei DWDM Losses

Huawei DWDM Losses

Huawei DWDM Losses

Link Loss Mechanisms

Micro Bends and Macro Bends

Huawei DWDM Losses

Micro Bends and Macro Bends

Optical Return Loss

Where Pe is the emitted power and Pr the reflected power, expressed in

• Increased transmitter noise reducing optical signal-to-noise

• Increase light source interference changing the laser’s

• Higher incidence of transmitter damage

A high level of ORL will decrease the performance of some transmission

The Distance or Attenuation Effect

Solutions for a reduction in ORL

• Use of low-reflection connectors, such as 8° angled polished contacts (APC);

The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to infinity.

Mode Field Diameter

Huawei DWDM Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

The effective area (or mode field diameter) directly influences

The Effective Area=95~104% MFA

Chromatic dispersion (CD) occurs because a light pulse is made up of different

Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Material Dispersion

Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Waveguide Dispersion

Waveguide dispersion is the variation in group velocity of different wavelength

Longer wavelengths exhibit larger MFD and, therefore, faster propagation .

Causes of Chromatic Dispersion: Waveguide Dispersion

The waveguide dispersion (per unit length) depends on many parameters:

Fiber manufacturers typically adjust the waveguide dispersion to achieve

Combined Chromatic Dispersion

Consider these four parameters:

––CD value of a given wavelength—expressed in ps/nm (CD may change as a

––CD coefficient (referred as D)—the value is normalized to the distance of

––CD slope (S)—represents the amount of CD change as a function of

––CD slope coefficient—the value is normalized to the distance of typically one

The dispersion slope (S) describes the amount of change in CD as a function of

Negative and Positive Chromatic Dispersion

Short wavelengths travel faster than long ones when CD is positive.

Negative dispersion is frequently used to compensate for excessive positive

Lower dispersion slopes result in fewer dispersion changes throughout the

Dispersion compensation modules offset both the fiber dispersion as well as

Fiber Types (The CD History)

Fiber Types (The CD History)

Dispersion-shifted fibers were designed with the zero dispersion wavelength

Fiber Types (The CD History)

With the advent of DWDM applications, a slightly positive or negative CD is