Kcse Form 3 Chemistry Notes

12.0.
0 GAS LAWS (15 LESSONS)

(a)Gas laws
1. Matter is made up of small particle in accordance to Kinetic Theory of matter:
Naturally, there are basically three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and gas:
(i)A solid is made up of particles which are very closely packed with a
definite/fixed shape and fixed/definite volume /occupies definite space. It has a
very high density.
(ii) A liquid is made up of particles which have some degree of freedom. It thus
has no definite/fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. A liquid has
fixed/definite volume/occupies definite space.
(iii)A gas is made up of particles free from each other. It thus has no definite
/fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container it is put. It has no fixed/definite
volume/occupies every space in a container.
2.Gases are affected by physical conditions. There are two physical conditions:
(i)Temperature
(ii)Pressure
3. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin(K).

Degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC) are also used.
The two units can be interconverted from the relationship:
o
C + 273= K
K -273 = oC
Practice examples
1. Convert the following into Kelvin.
(i) O oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : O oC + 273 = 273 K
(ii) -273 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : -273oC + 273 = 0 K
(iii) 25 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : 25 oC + 273 = 298 K
(iv) 100 oC
o
C + 273 = K substituting : 100 oC + 273 = 373 K
2. Convert the following into degrees Celsius/Centigrade(oC).
(i) 10 K
K -273 = oC substituting: 10 – 273 = -263 oC
(ii) (i) 1 K
(iii) 110 K
(iv) -24 K
K -273 = oC substituting: -24 – 273 = -297 oC
The standard temperature is 273K = 0 oC.

The room temperature is assumed to be 298K = 25oC
4. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal(Pa) / Newton per metre squared (Nm-2) .

Millimeters’ of mercury(mmHg) ,centimeters of mercury(cmHg) and
atmospheres are also commonly used.
The units are not interconvertible but Pascals(Pa) are equal to Newton per metre
squared(Nm-2).
The standard pressure is the atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is equal to about:
(i)101325 Pa
(ii)101325 Nm-2
(iii)760 mmHg
(iv)76 cmHg
(v)one atmosphere.
5. Molecules of gases are always in continuous random motion at high speed. This
motion is affected by the physical conditions of temperature and pressure.
Physical conditions change the volume occupied by gases in a closed system.
The effect of physical conditions of temperature and pressure was investigated and
expressed in both Boyles and Charles laws.
6. Boyles law states that

“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
at constant/fixed temperature ”
Mathematically:
Volume α 1 (Fixed /constant Temperature)
Pressure
V α 1 (Fixed /constant T) ie PV = Constant(k)
P
From Boyles law , an increase in pressure of a gas cause a decrease in volume. i.e
doubling the pressure cause the volume to be halved.
Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against pressure (P) produces a curve.
P
Graphically a plot of volume(V) against inverse/reciprocal of pressure (1/p)
produces a straight line
1
/P
For two gases then P1 V1 = P2 V2

P1 = Pressure of gas 1
V1 = Volume of gas 1
P2 = Pressure of gas 2
Practice examples:
1. A fixed mass of gas at 102300Pa pressure has a volume of 25cm3.Calculate
its volume if the pressure is doubled.
Working
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :102300 x 25 = (102300 x 2) x V2
V2 = 102300 x 25 = 12.5cm3
(102300 x 2)
2. Calculate the pressure which must be applied to a fixed mass of

100cm3 of Oxygen for its volume to triple at 100000Nm-2.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :100000 x 100 = P2 x (100 x 3)

V2 = 100000 x 100 = 33333.3333 Nm-2
(100 x 3)
3.A 60cm3 weather ballon full of Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure

of 101325Pa was released into the atmosphere. Will the ballon reach
stratosphere where the pressure is 90000Pa?
P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :101325 x 60 = 90000 x V2

V2 = 101325 x 60 = 67.55 cm3
90000
The new volume at 67.55 cm exceed ballon capacity of 60.00 cm3.It
3
will burst before reaching destination.
7.Charles law states that“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly

proportional to the absolute temperature at constant/fixed pressure ”
Mathematically:
Volume α Pressure (Fixed /constant pressure)
V α T (Fixed /constant P) ie V = Constant(k)

T
From Charles law , an increase in temperature of a gas cause an increase in
volume. i.e doubling the temperature cause the volume to be doubled.
Gases expand/increase by 1/273 by volume on heating.Gases contact/decrease by
1
/273 by volume on cooling at constant/fixed pressure.
The volume of a gas continue decreasing with decrease in temperature until at
-273oC /0 K the volume is zero. i.e. there is no gas.
This temperature is called absolute zero. It is the lowest temperature at which a
gas can exist.
Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against Temperature(T) in:

(i)oC produces a straight line that is extrapolated to the absolute zero of -273oC .
-273oC 0oC
T(oC)
(ii)Kelvin/K produces a straight line from absolute zero of O Kelvin
0 T(Kelvin)
For two gases then V1 = V2
T1 T2
T1 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 1
T2 = Temperature in Kelvin of gas 2
Practice examples:
1. 500cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide at 0oC was transfered into a cylinder at -4oC. If
the capacity of the cylinder is 450 cm3,explain what happened.
V1 = V2 substituting 500 = V2
T1 T2 (0 +273) (-4 +273)
= 500 x (-4 x 273) = 492.674cm3

(0 + 273)
The capacity of cylinder (500cm ) is less than new volume(492.674cm3).
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7.326cm3(500-492.674cm3)of carbon(IV)oxide gas did not fit into the cylinder.

2. A mechanic was filling a deflated tyre with air in his closed garage using a
hand pump. The capacity of the tyre was 40,000cm3 at room temperature. He
rolled the tyre into the car outside. The temperature outside was 30oC.Explain
what happens.
T1 T2 (25 +273) (30 +273)
= 40000 x (30 x 273) = 40671.1409cm3

(25 + 273)
The capacity of a tyre (40000cm3) is less than new volume(40671.1409cm3).
The tyre thus bursts.
3. A hydrogen gas balloon with 80cm3 was released from a research station at
room temperature. If the temperature of the highest point it rose is -30oC ,
explain what happened.
T1 T2 (25 +273) (-30 +273)
= 80 x (-30 x 273) = 65.2349cm3

(25 + 273)
The capacity of balloon (80cm3) is more than new volume (65.2349cm3).
The balloon thus remained intact.
8. The continuous random motion of gases differ from gas to the other.The
movement of molecules (of a gas) from region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration is called diffusion.
The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on its density. i.e. The higher the rate of
diffusion, the less dense the gas.
The density of a gas depends on its molar mass/relative molecular mass. i.e. The
higher the density the higher the molar mass/relative atomic mass and thus the
lower the rate of diffusion.
Examples
1.Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2) has a molar mass of 44g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass
of 28g. (N2)is thus lighter/less dense than Carbon (IV)oxide(CO2). N2 diffuses
faster than CO2.
2.Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Nitrogen(N2)has a molar mass of 28g.
(N2)is thus about twice lighter/less dense than Ammonia(NH3). Ammonia(NH3)
diffuses twice faster than N2.
3. Ammonia(NH3) has a molar mass of 17g.Hydrogen chloride gas has a molar
mass of 36.5g.Both gases on contact react to form white fumes of ammonium
chloride .When a glass/cotton wool dipped in ammonia and another glass/cotton
wool dipped in hydrochloric acid are placed at opposite ends of a glass tube, both
gases diffuse towards each other. A white disk appears near to glass/cotton wool
dipped in hydrochloric acid. This is because hydrogen chloride is heavier/denser
than Ammonia and thus its rate of diffusion is lower .
The rate of diffusion of a gas is in accordance to Grahams law of diffusion.
Grahams law states that:
“the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density, at the same/constant/fixed temperature and pressure”
Mathematically
R α 1 and since density is proportional to mass then Rα 1
√ p √ m
For two gases then:
R1 = R2 where: R1 and R2 is the rate of diffusion of 1st and 2nd gas.
√M2 √M1 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.
Since rate is inverse of time. i.e. the higher the rate the less the time:
For two gases then:

T1 = T2 where: T1 and T2 is the time taken for 1st and 2nd gas to diffuse.
√M1 √M2 M1 and M2 is the molar mass of 1st and 2nd gas.
Practice examples:
1. It takes 30 seconds for 100cm3 of carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across a
porous plate. How long will it take 150cm3 of nitrogen(IV)oxide to diffuse
across the same plate under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
(C=12.0,N=14.0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2=44.0 Molar mass NO2=46.0

Method 1
100cm3 CO2 takes 30seconds
150cm3 takes 150 x30 = 45seconds
100
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 45seconds = √ 44.0

T NO2 √ molar mass NO2 T NO2 √ 46.0
T NO2 =45seconds x √ 46.0 = 46.0114 seconds

√ 44.0
Method 2
1cm3 takes 100 x1 = 3.3333cm3sec-1
30
R CO2 = √ molar mass NO2 => 3.3333cm3sec-1 = √ 46.0
R NO2 √ molar mass CO2 R NO2 √ 44.0
R NO2 = 3.3333cm3sec-1 x √ 44.0 = 3.2601cm3sec-1

√ 46.0
3.2601cm3 takes 1seconds

150cm3 take 150cm3 = 46.0109seconds
3.2601cm3
2. How long would 200cm3 of Hydrogen chloride take to diffuse through a

porous plug if carbon(IV)oxide takes 200seconds to diffuse through.
Molar mass CO2 = 44g Molar mass HCl = 36.5g

T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 200 seconds = √ 44.0
T HCl √ molar mass HCl T HCl √ 36.5
T HCl = 200seconds x √ 36.5 = 182.1588 seconds

√ 44.0
3. Oxygen gas takes 250 seconds to diffuse through a porous diaphragm.
Calculate the molar mass of gas Z which takes 227 second to diffuse.
Molar mass O2 = 32g Molar mass Z = x g

T O2 = √ molar mass O2 => 250 seconds = √ 32.0
T Z √ molar mass Z 227seconds √ x
√ x = 227seconds x √ 32 = 26.3828 grams

250
4. 25cm3 of carbon(II)oxide diffuses across a porous plate in 25seconds. How
long will it take 75cm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide to diffuse across the same plate
under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. (C=12.0,0=16.0)
Molar mass CO2 = 44.0 Molar mass CO = 28.0

Method 1
25cm3 CO takes 25seconds
75cm3 takes 75 x25 = 75seconds
25
T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => T CO2seconds = √ 44.0
T CO √ molar mass CO 75 √ 28.0
T CO2 =75seconds x √ 44.0 = 94.0175 seconds

√ 28.0
Method 2
1cm3 takes 25 x1 = 1.0cm3sec-1
25
R CO2 = √ molar mass CO => x cm3sec-1 = √ 28.0
R CO √ molar mass CO2 1.0cm3sec-1 √ 44.0
R CO2 = 1.0cm3sec-1 x √ 28.0 = 0.7977cm3sec-1

√ 44.0
0.7977cm3 takes 1 seconds

75cm3 takes 75cm3 = 94.0203seconds
0.7977cm3
13.0.0 THE MOLE-FORMULAE AND
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (40 LESSONS)
Introduction to the mole, molar masses and Relative atomic masses
1. The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.

2. The number of particles e.g. atoms, ions, molecules, electrons, cows, cars are all
measured in terms of moles.
3. The number of particles in one mole is called the Avogadros Constant. It is
denoted “L”.
The Avogadros Constant contain 6.023 x10 23 particles. i.e.
1mole = 6.023 x10 23 particles = 6.023 x10 23
2 moles = 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 1.205 x10 24
0.2 moles = 0.2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 1.205 x10 22
0.0065 moles = 0.0065 x 6.023 x10 23 particles = 3.914 x10 21
3. The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass. The molar mass of:
(i)an element has mass equal to relative atomic mass /RAM(in grams)of the
element e.g.
Molar mass of carbon(C)= relative atomic mass = 12.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of carbon = 1 mole =12.0 g
Molar mass of sodium(Na) = relative atomic mass = 23.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium = 1 mole =23.0 g
Molar mass of Iron (Fe) = relative atomic mass = 56.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of iron = 1 mole =56.0 g
(ii)a molecule has mass equal to relative molecular mass /RMM (in grams)of the
molecule. Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements making the molecule.
The number of atoms making a molecule is called atomicity. Most gaseous
molecules are diatomic (e.g. O2, H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)noble gases are
monoatomic(e.g. He, Ar, Ne, Xe),Ozone gas(O3) is triatomic e.g.
Molar mass Oxygen molecule(O2) =relative molecular mass =(16.0x 2)g =32.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen molecule = 1 mole = 32.0 g
2
Molar mass chlorine molecule(Cl2) =relative molecular mass =(35.5x 2)g =71.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of chlorine molecule = 1 mole = 71.0 g
Molar mass Nitrogen molecule(N2) =relative molecular mass =(14.0x 2)g =28.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Nitrogen molecule = 1 mole = 28.0 g
(ii)a compound has mass equal to relative formular mass /RFM (in grams)of the
molecule. Relative formular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements making the compound. e.g.
(i)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass =[(1.0 x 2 ) + 16.0]g =18.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule = 1 mole = 18.0 g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Hydrogen atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Oxygen atoms
(ii)Molar mass sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = relative formular mass

=[(1.0 x 2 ) + 32.0 + (16.0 x 4)]g =98.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = 1 mole = 98.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) has:
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sulphur atoms
(iii)Molar mass sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = relative formular mass

=[(23.0 x 2 ) + 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =106.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = 1 mole = 106.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) has:
- 2 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Sodium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
(iv)Molar mass Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = relative formular mass

=[(40.0+ 12.0 + (16.0 x 3)]g =100.0g.
6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = 1 mole = 100.0g
2
3
6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) has:

- 1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium atoms
-1 x 6.023 x10 23 particles of Carbon atoms
(v)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass

=[(2 x 1.0 )+ 16.0 ]g =18.0g
6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) = 1 mole = 18.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) has:
Practice
1. Calculate the number of moles present in:

(i)0.23 g of Sodium atoms
Molar mass of Sodium atoms = 23g
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.01moles
Molar mass 23
(ii) 0.23 g of Chlorine atoms
Molar mass of Chlorine atoms = 35.5 g

Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0065moles /6.5 x 10-3 moles
Molar mass 35.5
(iii) 0.23 g of Chlorine molecules
Molar mass of Chlorine molecules =( 35.5 x 2) = 71.0 g

Molar mass 71
(iv) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid

Molar mass of H2SO4 = [(2 x 1) + 32 + (4 x14)] = 98.0g
Molar mass 98
2. Calculate the number of atoms present in:(Avogadros constant L = 6.0 x 10 23)

(i) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric (VI)acid
Method I
3
4

Molar mass 98
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
2.3 x 10-3 moles has (2.3 x 10-3 x 6.0 x 10 23) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
1
Method II
98.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 1.38 x 10 21 atoms
98
(ii)0.23 g of sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate
Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2 O=

[(2 x 23) + 12 + (3 x16) + (10 x 1.0) + (10 x 16)] = 276.0g
Method I
Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.00083moles /
Molar mass 276 8.3 x 10-4 moles
1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms

8.3 x 10-4 moles has (8.3 x 10-4 moles x 6.0 x 10 23) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
1
Method II
276.0g = 1 mole has 6.0 x 10 23 atoms
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 4.98 x 10 20 atoms
276.0
(iii)0.23 g of Oxygen gas
Molar mass of O2 = (2 x16) = 32.0 g
Method I
1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2

7.18 x 10-3moles has (7.18 x 10-3moles x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23) =8.616 x 10 21atoms
1
Method II
32.0g = 1 mole has 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in O2
4
5
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 2 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 8.616 x 10 21atoms

32.0
(iv)0.23 g of Carbon(IV)oxide gas
Molar mass of CO2 = [12 + (2 x16)] = 44.0 g

Method I
1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2

7.18 x 10-3moles has (5.22 x 10-3moles x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23) =9.396 x 10 21atoms
1
Method II
44.0g = 1 mole has 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 atoms in CO2
0.23 g therefore has (0.23 g x 3 x 6.0 x 10 23 ) = 9.409 x 10 21atoms
44.0
5
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(c)Empirical and molecular formula

1.The empirical formula of a compound is its simplest formula. It is the simplest
whole number ratios in which atoms of elements combine to form the compound.
2.It is mathematically the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the atoms of the
elements in the compound
3.Practically the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the
following examples.
To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide
(a)Method 1:From copper to copper(II)oxide

Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry covered crucible(M1).Put two spatula full of copper powder
into the crucible. Weigh again (M2).Heat the crucible on a strong Bunsen flame for
five minutes. Lift the lid, and swirl the crucible carefully using a pair of tong.
Cover the crucible and continue heating for another five minutes. Remove the lid
and stop heating. Allow the crucible to cool. When cool replace the lid and weigh
the contents again (M3).
Sample results
Mass of crucible(M1) 15.6g

Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) 18.4
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) 19.1
Sample questions
1. Calculate the mass of copper powder used.

Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = 18.4
Less Mass of crucible(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper 2.8 g
2. Calculate the mass of Oxygen used to react with copper.

Method I
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
6
7
Mass of crucible + copper before heating(M2) = - 18.4g

Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g
Method II
Mass of crucible + copper after heating(M3) = 19.1g
Mass of crucible = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide = 3.5 g

Mass of copper = - 2.8 g
Mass of Oxygen = 0.7 g
3. Calculate the number of moles of:

(i) copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5
(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)
number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0
4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants

Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1
5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.

CuO (copper(II)oxide
6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.

Observation
Colour change from brown to black
Explanation
Copper powder is brown. On heating it reacts with oxygen from the air to
form black copper(II)oxide
7. Explain why magnesium ribbon/shavings would be unsuitable in a similar

experiment as the one above.
Hot magnesium generates enough heat energy to react with both Oxygen and
Nitrogen in the air forming a white solid mixture of Magnesuin oxide and
magnesium nitride. This causes experimental mass errors.
(b)Method 2:From copper(II)oxide to copper
7
8
Procedure.
Weigh a clean dry porcelain boat (M1). Put two spatula full of copper(II)oxide
powder into the crucible. Reweigh the porcelain boat (M2).Put the porcelain boat
in a glass tube and set up the apparatus as below;
Determining empirical formula from copper(II)oxide to copper
Copper(II)oxide Excess hydrogen

burning
HEAT
Hydrogen /Laboratory gas /

Ammonia gas/Carbon(II)Oxide
gas from a generator
[email protected] 52
Pass slowly(to prevent copper(II)oxide from being blown away)a stream of either
dry Hydrogen /ammonia/laboratory gas/ carbon(II)oxide gas for about two minutes
from a suitable generator.
When all the in the apparatus set up is driven out ,heat the copper(II)oxide strongly
for about five minutes until there is no further change. Stop heating.
Continue passing the gases until the glass tube is cool.
Turn off the gas generator.
Carefully remove the porcelain boat form the combustion tube.
Reweigh (M3).
Sample results
Mass of boat(M1) 15.6g

Mass of boat before heating(M2) 19.1
Mass of boat after heating(M3) 18.4
Sample questions
8
9
1. Calculate the mass of copper(II)oxide used.

Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1
Mass of empty boat(M1) = - 15.6g
Mass of copper(II)Oxide 3.5 g
2. Calculate the mass of
(i) Oxygen.
Mass of boat before heating(M2) = 19.1
Mass of boat after heating (M3) = - 18.4g
Mass of oxygen = 0.7 g
(ii)Copper
3. Calculate the number of moles of:

(i) Copper used (Cu = 63.5)
number of moles of copper = mass used => 2.8 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 63.5
(ii) Oxygen used (O = 16.0)
number of moles of oxygen = mass used => 0.7 = 0.0441moles
Molar mass 16.0
4. Determine the mole ratio of the reactants

Moles of copper = 0.0441moles = 1 => Mole ratio Cu: O = 1:1
Moles of oxygen 0.0441moles 1
5.What is the empirical, formula of copper oxide formed.

CuO (copper(II)oxide
6. State and explain the observations made during the experiment.

Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Copper(II)oxide powder is black. On heating it is reduced by a suitable
reducing agent to brown copper metal.
7. Explain why magnesium oxide would be unsuitable in a similar experiment
as the one above.
Magnesium is high in the reactivity series. None of the above reducing agents is
strong enough to reduce the oxide to the metal.
9
10
8. Write the equation for the reaction that would take place when the
reducing agent is:
(i) Hydrogen
CuO(s) + H2(g) -> Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )
(ii)Carbon(II)oxide
CuO(s) + CO (g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(Black) (brown) (colourless gas, form
white ppt with lime water )
(iii)Ammonia
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) -> 3Cu(s) + N2 (g) + 3H2O(l)
(Black) (brown) (colourless liquid form
on cooler parts )
9. Explain why the following is necessary during the above experiment;
(i)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed before heating copper
(II) Oxide.
Air combine with hydrogen in presence of heat causing an explosion
(ii)A stream of dry hydrogen gas should be passed after heating copper
(II) Oxide has been stopped.
Hot metallic copper can be re-oxidized back to copper(II)oxide
(iii) A stream of excess carbon (II)oxide gas should be ignited to burn

Carbon (II)oxide is highly poisonous/toxic. On ignition it burns to form less toxic
carbon (IV)oxide gas.
10. State two sources of error in this experiment.

(i)All copper(II)oxide may not be reduced to copper.
(ii)Some copper(II)oxide may be blown out the boat by the reducing agent.
4.Theoreticaly the empirical formula of a compound can be determined as in the

following examples.
(a)A oxide of copper contain 80% by mass of copper. Determine its empirical
formula. (Cu = 63.5, 16.0)
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11
% of Oxygen = 100% - % of Copper => 100- 80 = 20% of Oxygen
Element Copper Oxygen

Symbol Cu O
Moles present = % composition 80 20
Molar mass 63.5 16
Divide by the smallest value 1.25 1.25
1.25 1.25
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is CuO
(b)1.60g of an oxide of Magnesium contain 0.84g by mass of Magnesium.

Determine its empirical formula(Mg = 24.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 1.60 – 0.84 => 0.56 g of Oxygen
Element Magnesium Oxygen
Symbol Mg O
Moles present = % composition 0.84 0.56
Molar mass 24 16
0.35 0.35
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is MgO
(c)An oxide of Silicon contain 47% by mass of Silicon. What is its empirical
formula(Si = 28.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen
Element Silicon Oxygen

Symbol Si O
Molar mass 28 16
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2
Empirical formula is SiO2
11
12
(d)A compound contain 70% by mass of Iron and 30% Oxygen. What is its
empirical formula(Fe = 56.0, 16.0)
Mass of Oxygen = 100 – 47 => 53% of Oxygen
Element Silicon Oxygen
Symbol Si O
Molar mass 28 16
1.68 1.68
Mole ratios 1 1.94 = 2
Empirical formula is SiO2

2.During heating of a hydrated copper (II)sulphate(VI) crystals, the following
readings were obtained:
Mass of evaporating dish =300.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + hydrated salt = 305.0g
Mass of evaporating dish + anhydrous salt = 303.2g
Calculate the number of water of crystallization molecules in hydrated copper
(II)sulphate(VI)
(Cu =64.5, S = 32.0,O=16.0, H = 1.0)
Working
Mass of Hydrated salt = 305.0g -300.0g = 5.0g
Mass of anhydrous salt = 303.2 g -300.0g = 3.2 g
Mass of water in hydrated salt = 5.0g -3.2 g = 1.8g
Molar mass of water(H2O) = 18.0g
Molar mass of anhydrous copper (II)sulphate(VI) (CuSO4) = 160.5g
Element/compound anhydrous copper (II) Oxygen
sulphate(VI)
Symbol Si O
Moles present = composition by mass 3,2 1.8
Molar mass 160.5 18
0.0199 18
Mole ratios 1 5
The empirical formula of hydrated salt = CuSO4.5H2O
12
13
Hydrated salt has five/5 molecules of water of crystallizations
4. The molecular formula is the actual number of each kind of atoms present in a
molecule of a compound.
The empirical formula of an ionic compound is the same as the chemical formula
but for simple molecular structured compounds, the empirical formula may not be
the same as the chemical formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula .It is determined from
the relationship:
(i) n = Relative formular mass

Relative empirical formula
where n is a whole number.
(ii) Relative empirical formula x n = Relative formular mass

where n is a whole number.
Practice sample examples

1. A hydrocarbon was found to contain 92.3% carbon and the remaining
Hydrogen.
If the molecular mass of the compound is 78, determine the molecular
formula(C=12.0, H =1.0)
Mass of Hydrogen = 100 – 92.3 => 7.7% of Oxygen
Element Carbon Hydrogen

Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 92.3 7.7
Molar mass 12 1
7.7 7.7
Mole ratios 1 1
Empirical formula is CH
The molecular formular is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 78 = 6
13
14
Relative empirical formula 13
The molecular formula is (C H ) x 6 = C6H6
2. A compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen contain 54.55% carbon,

9.09% and remaining 36.36% oxygen.
If its relative molecular mass is 88, determine its molecular formula(C=12.0,
H =1.0, O= 16.0)
Element Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol C H O
Moles present = % composition 54.55 9.09 36.36
Molar mass 12 1 16
Divide by the smallest value 4.5458 9.09 2.2725
2.2725 2.2725 2.2725
Mole ratios 2 4 1
Empirical formula is C2H4O

The molecular formula is thus determined :
n = Relative formular mass = 88 = 2
The molecular formula is (C2H4O ) x 2 = C4H8O2.
4.A hydrocarbon burns completely in excess air to form 5.28 g of carbon (IV)
oxide and 2,16g of water.
If the molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 84, draw and name its molecular
structure.
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:

Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 5.28 = 1.44g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 2.16 = 0.24g√
18
14
15
Symbol C H
Moles present = mass 1.44g 0.24g√
Molar mass 12 1
0.12 0.12
Mole ratios 1 2√
Empirical formula is CH2√
n = Relative formular mass = 84 = 6√
The molecular formula is (CH2 ) x 6 = C6H12. √

molecular name Hexene√/Hex-1-ene (or any position isomer of Hexene)
Molecular structure
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H√
H H H H
5. Compound A contain 5.2% by mass of Nitrogen .The other elements
present are Carbon, hydrogen and Oxygen. On combustion of 0.085g of A in
excess Oxygen,0.224g of carbon(IV)oxide and 0.0372g of water was formed.
Determine the empirical formula of A (N=14.0, O=16.0 , C=12.0 , H=1.0)
Mass of N in A = 5.2% x 0.085 = 0.00442 g
Mass of C in A = 12 x 0.224 = 0.0611g

44
Mass of H in A = 2 x 0.0372 = 0.0041g
18
Mass of O in A = 0.085g – 0.004442g = 0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)
=> 0.0611g + 0.0041g = 0.0652g (Mass of C,H)
0.0806g (Mass of C,H,O)- 0.0652g (Mass of C,H) = 0.0154 g
Element Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
Symbol N C H O
Moles present = mass 0.00442 g 0.0611g 0.0041g 0.0154 g
Molar mass 14 12 1 16
Divide by the smallest value 0.00032 0.00509 0.0041g 0.00096
15
16
0.00032 0.00032 0.00032 0.00032

Mole ratios 1 16 13 3
Empirical formula = C16H13NO3
(d)Molar gas volume
The volume occupied by one mole of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure is a constant.It is:
(i) 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at room temperature(25oC/298K)and pressure(r.t.p).
i.e. 1mole of all gases =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles = 24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles =24dm3/24litres/24000cm3 at r.t.p
(ii)22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at standard temperature(0oC/273K) and

pressure(s.t.p)
i.e. 1mole of all gases =22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
Examples
1mole of O2 = 32g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of H2 = 2g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CO2 = 44g = 6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of NH3 = 17g =6.0 x1023 particles= 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
1mole of CH4 = 16g =6.0 x1023 particles = 22.4dm3/22.4litres/22400cm3 at s.t.p
The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at r.t.p or s.t.p is commonly called the
molar gas volume. Whether the molar gas volume is at r.t.p or s.t.p must always
be specified.
From the above therefore a less or more volume can be determined as in the
examples below.
Practice examples
1. Calculate the number of particles present in:
(Avogadros constant =6.0 x1023mole-1 )
16
17
(i) 2.24dm3 of Oxygen.
22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023

2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023
22.4
=6.0 x1022 molecules = 2 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.2 x1023 atoms
(ii) 2.24dm3 of Carbon(IV)oxide.

22.4dm3 -> 6.0 x1023
2.24dm3 -> 2.24 x 6.0 x1023
22.4
=6.0 x10 molecules = (CO2) = 3 x 6.0 x1022. = 1.8 x1023 atoms
22
2. 0.135 g of a gaseous hydrocarbon X on complete combustion produces 0.41g

of carbon(IV)oxide and 0.209g of water.0.29g of X occupy 120cm3 at room
temperature and 1 atmosphere pressure .Name X and draw its molecular
structure.(C=12.0,O= 16.O,H=1.0,1 mole of gas occupies 24dm3 at r.t.p)
Molar mass CO2= 44 gmole-1√ Molar mass H2O = 18 gmole-1√
Molar mass X = 0.29 x (24 x 1000)cm3 = 58 gmole-1√
120cm3
Since a hydrocarbon is a compound containing Carbon and Hydrogen only. Then:
Mass of carbon in CO2 = Mass of C in CO2 x mass of CO2 =>
Molar mass of CO2
12 x 0.41 = 0.1118g√
44
Mass of Hydrogen in H2O = Mass of C in H2O x mass of H2O =>
Molar mass of H2O
2 x 0.209 = 0.0232g√
18

Symbol C H
Moles present = % composition 0.g118 0.0232g√
Molar mass 12 1
0.0093 0.0093√
Mole ratios 1 x2 2.5x2

17
18
2 5√
Empirical formula is C2H5√
n = Relative formular mass = 58 = 2√
The molecular formula is (C2H5 ) x 2 = C4H10.√

Molecule name Butane
Molecula structure
H H H H
H C C C C H√
H H H H
(e)Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis is the relationship between reacting masses and the volumes
and /or masses of products. All reactants are in mole ratios to their products in
accordance to their stoichiometric equation. Using the mole ration of reactants and
products any volume and/or mass can be determined as in the examples:
1. Calculate the volume of carbon(IV)oxide at r.t.p produced when 5.0 g of

calcium carbonate is strongly heated.(Ca=40.0, C= 12.0,O = 16.0,1 mole of gas
=22.4 at r.t.p)
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Mole ratios 1: 1: 1
Molar Mass CaCO3 =100g

Method 1
100g CaCO3(s) -> 24dm3 CO2(g) at r.t.p
5.0 g CaCO3(s) -> 5.0 g x 24dm3 = 1.2dm3/1200cm3
100g
Method 2
18
19
Moles of 5.0 g CaCO3(s) = 5.0 g = 0.05 moles

100 g
Mole ratio 1:1
Moles of CO2(g) = 0.05moles
Volume of CO2(g) = 0.05 x 24000cm3 =1200cm3 /1.2dm3
2. 1.0g of an alloy of aluminium and copper were reacted with excess

hydrochloric acid. If 840cm3 of hydrogen at s.t.p was produced, calculate the
% of copper in the alloy.(Al =27.0,one mole of a gas at s.t.p =22.4dm3 )
Chemical equation
Copper does not react with hydrochloric acid
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Method 1
3H2(g) = 3 moles x (22.4 x 1000)cm3 => 2 x 27 g Al

840cm3 => 840cm3 x 2 x 27 = 0.675g of Aluminium
3 x 22.4 x 1000
Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper
=> 1.0g - 0.675g =0.325g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%

Mass of alloy
Method 2
Mole ratio 2Al: 3H2 = 2:3
Moles of Hydrogen gas = volume of gas => 840cm3 = 0.0375moles
Molar gas volume 22400cm3
Moles of Al = 2/3 moles of H2 => 2

/3x 0.0375moles = 0.025moles
Mass of Al = moles x molar mass =>0.025moles x 27 = 0.675g
Total mass of alloy – mass of aluminium = mass of copper

=> 1.0g - 0.675g = 0.325 g of copper
% copper = mass of copper x100% = 32.5%

Mass of alloy
19
20
(f)Gay Lussac’s law
Gay Lussacs law states that “when gases combine/react they do so in simple
volume ratios to each other and to their gaseous products at constant/same
temperature and pressure”
Gay Lussacs law thus only apply to gases
Given the volume of one gas reactant, the other gaseous reactants can be deduced
thus:
Examples
1. Calculate the volume of Oxygen required to completely react with 50cm3 of
Hydrogen.
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)
Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used
2. Calculate the volume of air required to completely reacts with 50cm3 of

Hydrogen.(assume Oxygen is 21% by volume of air)
Chemical equation: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2H2O(l)

20
21
Volume ratios 2 : 1 : 0
Reacting volumes 50cm3 : 25cm3
50cm3 of Oxygen is used
21% = 25cm3
100% = 100 x 25 =
21
3.If 5cm3 of a hydrocarbon CxHy burn in 15cm3 of Oxygen to form 10cm3 of

Carbon(IV)oxide and 10cm3 of water vapour/steam, obtain the equation for the
reaction and hence find the value of x and y in CxHy.
Chemical equation: CxHy (g) + O2 (g) -> H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Volumes 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
Volume ratios 5cm3 : 15cm3 : 10cm3 : 10cm3
(divide by lowest volume) 5 5 5 5
Reacting volume ratios 1volume 3 volume 2 volume 2 volume
Balanced chemical equation: CxHy (g) + 3O2 (g) -> 2H2O(g) + 2CO2(g)
If “4H” are in 2H2O(g) the y=4
If “2C” are in 2CO2 (g) the x=2
Thus(i) chemical formula of hydrocarbon = C2H4
(ii) chemical name of hydrocarbon = Ethene
4.100cm3 of nitrogen (II)oxide NO combine with 50cm3 of Oxygen to form

100cm3 of a single gaseous compound of nitrogen. All volumes measured at
the same temperature and pressure. Obtain the equation for the reaction and
name the gaseous product.
Chemical equation: NO (g) + O2 (g) -> NOx

Volumes 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100
Volume ratios 100cm3 : 50cm3 : 100cm3
(divide by lowest volume) 50 50 50
Reacting volume ratios 2volume 1 volume 2 volume
Balanced chemical equation: 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2NO x(g)

Thus(i) chemical formula of the nitrogen compound = 2 NO2
(ii) chemical name of compound = Nitrogen(IV)oxide
5.When 15cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was burnt in 100cm3 of Oxygen ,the

resulting gaseous mixture occupied70cm3 at room temperature and pressure.
21
22
When the gaseous mixture was passed through, potassium hydroxide its volume
decreased to 25cm3.
(a)What volume of Oxygen was used during the reaction.(1mk)
Volume of Oxygen used =100-25 =75cm3√
(P was completely burnt)
(b)Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon(2mk)

CxHy + O2 -> xCO2 + yH2O
15cm3 : 75cm3
15 15
1 : 3√
=> 1 atom of C react with 6 (3x2)atoms of Oxygen
Thus x = 1 and y = 2 => P has molecula formula CH4√
(g) Ionic equations

An ionic equation is a chemical statement showing the movement of ions (cations
and anions ) from reactants to products.
Solids, gases and liquids do not ionize/dissociate into free ions. Only ionic
compounds in aqueous/solution or molten state ionize/dissociate into free cations
and anions (ions)
An ionic equation is usually derived from a stoichiometric equation by using the
following guidelines
Guidelines for writing ionic equations

1.Write the balanced stoichiometric equation
2.Indicate the state symbols of the reactants and products
3.Split into cations and anions all the reactants and products that exist in aqueous
state.
4.Cancel out any cation and anion that appear on both the product and reactant
side.
5. Rewrite the chemical equation. It is an ionic equation.
Practice
(a)Precipitation of an insoluble salt
22
23
All insoluble salts are prepared in the laboratory from double decomposition
/precipitation. This involves mixing two soluble salts to form one soluble and one
insoluble salt
1. When silver nitrate(V) solution is added to sodium chloride solution,sodium
nitrate(V) solution and a white precipitate of silver chloride are formed.
Balanced stoichiometric equation

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) -> AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Split reactants product existing in aqueous state as cation/anion

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)
Cancel out ions appearing on reactant and product side

Ag+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3- (aq)
Rewrite the equation

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) -> AgCl(s) (ionic equation)
2. When barium nitrate(V) solution is added to copper(II)sulphate(VI) solution,

copper(II) nitrate(V) solution and a white precipitate of barium sulphate(VI) are
formed.
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + CuSO4(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + Cu(NO3) 2 (aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ Cu2+(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) +Cu2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)-> BaSO4(s) + 2NO3- (aq) + Cu2+(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s) (ionic equation)
3.A yellow precipitate of Potassium Iodide is formed from the reaction of

Lead(II)nitrate(v) and potassium iodide.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
23
24

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K +(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) + 2NO3- (aq)+ 2K +(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2I - (aq) -> PbI2 (s) (ionic equation)
(b)Neutralization
Neutralization is the reaction of an acid with a soluble base/alkali or insoluble
base.
(i)Reaction of alkalis with acids
1.Reaction of nitric(V)acid with potassium hydroxide
HNO3(aq) + KOH (aq) -> H2O (l) + KNO3 (aq)

H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)

H+(aq) + NO3- (aq) + K +(aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) + NO3- (aq)+ K +(aq)

H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)
2.Reaction of sulphuric(VI)acid with ammonia solution
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) -> H2O (l) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq)

2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)

2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2NH4 +(aq)+ 2OH - (aq) ->2H2O (l) +SO42- (aq)+ 2NH4 + (aq)
24
25

2H+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq) -> 2H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH - (aq) -> H2O (l) (ionic equation)
3.Reaction of hydrochloric acid with Zinc hydroxide
2HCl(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) -> 2H2O (l) + ZnCl 2 (aq)

2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)

2H+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)+ Zn 2+ (aq)

2H+(aq) + Zn(OH)2 (s) ->2H2O (l) + Zn 2+ (aq) (ionic equation)
(h)Molar solutions
A molar solution is one whose concentration is known. The SI unit of

concentration is Molarity denoted M.
Molarity may be defined as the number of moles of solute present in one cubic
decimeter of solution.
One cubic decimeter is equal to one litre and also equal to 1000cm3.
The higher the molarity the higher the concentration and the higher/more solute
has been dissolved in the solvent to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3
solution.
Examples
2M sodium hydroxide means 2 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is dissolved in
enough water to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform solution
mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.
0.02M sodium hydroxide means 0.02 moles of sodium hydroxide solute is
dissolved in enough water to make one cubic decimeter/ litre/1000cm3 uniform
solution mixture of sodium hydroxide and water.
“2M” is more concentrated than“0.02M”.
Preparation of molar solution
25
26
Procedure
Weigh accurately 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide pellets into a 250cm3 volumetric
flask.
Using a wash bottle add about 200cm3 of distilled water.
Stopper the flask.
Shake vigorously for three minutes.
Remove the stopper for a second then continue to shake for about another two
minutes until all the solid has dissolved.
Add more water slowly upto exactly the 250 cm3 mark.
Sample questions
1.Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide pellets present in:
(i) 4.0 g.
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g
Moles = Mass => 4.0 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
Molar mass 40
(ii) 250 cm3 solution in the volumetric flask.

Moles in 250 cm3 = 0.1 / 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
(iii) one decimeter of solution

Method 1
Moles in decimeters = Molarity = Moles x 1000cm3/1dm3
Volume of solution
-1
=> 1.0 x 10 moles x 1000cm3 =
250cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3

Method 2
250cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
1000cm3 solution = Molarity contain 1000 x 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
250 cm3
= 0.4 M / 0.4 molesdm-3
Theoretical sample practice
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing:

26
27
(i) 4.0 g sodium hydroxide dissolved in 500cm3 solution
Molar mass of NaOH = (23 + 16 + 1) = 40g

Molar mass 40
Method 1
Volume of solution
-1
=> 1.0 x 10 moles x 1000cm3
500cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3

Method 2
500 cm3 solution contain 1.0 x 10 -1 moles
500 cm3
= 0.2 M / 0.2 molesdm-3
(ii) 5.3 g anhydrous sodium carbonate dissolved in 50cm3 solution
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3) = 106 g
Moles = Mass => 5.3 = 0.05 / 5. 0 x 10-2 moles

Molar mass 106
Method 1
Volume of solution
=> 1.0 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
=1.0 M
Method 2
50 cm3
-3
= 1.0M / 1.0 molesdm
27
28
(iii) 5.3 g hydrated sodium carbonate decahydrate dissolved in 50cm3

solution
Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3 + 20 x 1 + 10 x 16) =286g

Molar mass 286
Method 1
Volume of solution
=> 1.85 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3 =
50cm3
= 0.37 M/0.37 molesdm-3

Method 2
50 cm3
= 3.7 x 10 M / 3.7 x 10-1 molesdm-3
-1
(iv) 7.1 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate(VI)was dissolved in 20.0 cm3 solution.

Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Method 1
20.0cm3 solution ->7.1 g
1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 71 = 3550 g dm-3
20
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass 3550 = 2.5 M/ molesdm-3
Molar mass 142
Method 2
Molar mass Na2SO4 = 142 g
Molar mass 142
Method 2(a)
Volume of solution
=> 5.0 x 10 -2 moles x 1000cm3
20cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3
28
29
Method 2(b)
20 cm3
= 2.5 M/2.5 molesdm-3
(iv) The density of sulphuric(VI) is 1.84gcm-3 Calculate the molarity of the

acid.
Method 1
1.0cm3 solution ->1.84 g
1000cm3 solution -> 1000 x 1.84 = 1840 g dm-3
1
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g
Moles dm-3 = Molarity = Mass = 1840
Molar mass 98
= 18.7755 M/ molesdm-3
Method 2
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98 g

Molar mass 98
Method 2(a)
Volume of solution
-2
=> 1.88 x 10 moles x 1000cm3
1.0cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3
Method 2(b)
1.0 cm3
= 18.8M/18.8 molesdm-3
2. Calculate the mass of :

(i) 25 cm3 of 0.2M sodium hydroxide solution(Na =23.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass NaOH = 40g
29
30
Moles in 25 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 0.2 x 25 = 0.005/5.0 x 10-3moles

1000 1000
Mass of NaOH =Moles x molar mass = 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g
(ii) 20 cm3 of 0.625 M sulphuric(VI)acid (S =32.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass H2SO4 = 98g
Moles in 20 cm3 = Molarity x volume=> 0.625 x 20 = 0.0125/1.25.0 x 10-3moles

1000 1000
Mass of H2SO4 =Moles x molar mass => 5.0 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.2 g
(iii) 1.0 cm3 of 2.5 M Nitric(V)acid (N =14.0.O =16.0, H=1.0)
Molar mass HNO3 = 63 g
Moles in 1 cm3 = Molarity x volume => 2.5 x 1 = 0.0025 / 2.5. x 10-3moles

1000 1000
Mass of HNO3 =Moles x molar mass => 2.5 x 10-3 x 40 = 0.1 g
3. Calculate the volume required to dissolve :

(a)(i) 0.25moles of sodium hydroxide solution to form a 0.8M solution
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.25 x 1000 = 312.5cm3
Molarity 0.8
(ii) 100cm3 was added to the sodium hydroxide solution above. Calculate
the concentration of the solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = C2 x (312.5 + 100)
C2 = 0.8M x 312.5cm3 = 0.6061M
30
31
412.5
(b)(ii) 0.01M solution containing 0.01moles of sodium hydroxide solution .
Volume (in cm3) = moles x 1000 => 0.01 x 1000 = 1000 cm3
Molarity 0.01
(ii) Determine the quantity of water which must be added to the sodium
hydroxide solution above to form a 0.008M solution.
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2 where:
C1 = molarity/concentration before diluting/adding water
C2 = molarity/concentration after diluting/adding water
V1 = volume before diluting/adding water
V2 = volume after diluting/adding water
=> 0.01M x 1000 cm3 = 0.008 x V2
V2 = 0.01M x 1000cm3 = 1250cm3

0.008
Volume added = 1250 - 1000 = 250cm3
(c)Volumetric analysis/Titration
Volumetric analysis/Titration is the process of determining unknown concentration

of one reactant from a known concentration and volume of another.
Reactions take place in simple mole ratio of reactants and products.
Knowing the concentration/ volume of one reactant, the other can be determined
from the relationship:
M1V1 = M2V2 where:
n1 n2
M1 = Molarity of 1st reactant
M2 = Molarity of 2nd reactant
V1 = Volume of 1st reactant
V1 = Volume of 2nd reactant
n1 = number of moles of 1st reactant from stoichiometric equation
n2 = number of moles of 2nd reactant from stoichiometric equation
Examples
1.Calculate the molarity of MCO3 if 5.0cm3 of MCO3 react with 25.0cm3 of
0.5M hydrochloric acid.(C=12.0 ,O =16.0)
Stoichiometric equation: MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Method 1
31
32
M1V1 = M2V2 -> M1 x 5.0cm3 = 0.5M x 25.0cm3

n1 n2 1 2
=> M1 = 0.5 x 25.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
5.0 x 2
Method 2
Moles of HCl used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.5 x 25.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio MCO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles MCO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity MCO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
2. 2.0cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid react with 0.1M of M2CO3. Calculate the
volume of 0.1M M2CO3 used.
Stoichiometric equation: M2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2MCl (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 0.5 x 2.0cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3

n1 n2 2 1
=> V2 = 0.5 x 2.0 x1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3

0.1 x 2
Method 2
1000
=> 0.5 x 2.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
32
33
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
3. 5.0cm3 of 0.1M sodium iodide react with 0.1M of Lead(II)nitrate(V).

Calculate(i) the volume of Lead(II)nitrate(V) used.
(ii)the mass of Lead(II)Iodide formed
(Pb=207.0, I =127.0)
Stoichiometric equation: 2NaI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
(i)Volume of Lead(II)nitrate(V) used
Method 1
M1V1 = M2V2 -> 5 x 0.1cm3 = 0.1M x V2 cm3
n1 n2 2 1
=> V2 = 0.1 x 5.0 x 1 = 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3

0.1 x 2
Method 2
1000
=> 0.1 x 5.0 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles
1000
Mole ratio M2CO3 : HCl = 1:2
Moles M2CO3 = 0.0125 /1.25 x 10-2moles = 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 moles
2
Molarity M2CO3 = moles x 1000 => 0.00625 / 6.25 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 5
= 1.25M / 1.25 moledm-3
4. 0.388g of a monobasic organic acid B required 46.5 cm3 of 0.095M sodium

hydroxide for complete neutralization. Name and draw the structural formula
of B
Moles of NaOH used = molarity x volume
1000
=> 0.095 x 46.5 = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
1000
Mole ratio B : NaOH = 1:1
33
34
Moles B = 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
Molar mass B = mass => 0.388

moles 0.0044175 /4.4175 x 10-3moles
= 87.8324 gmole-1
X-COOH = 87.8324 where X is an alkyl group
X =87.8324- 42 = 42.8324=43
By elimination: CH3 = 15 CH3CH2 = 29 CH3CH2 CH2 = 43
Molecula formula : CH3CH2 CH2COOH
Molecule name : Butan-1-oic acid
Molecular structure
H H H O
H C C C C O H
H H H H
5. 10.5 g of an impure sample containing ammonium sulphate (VI) fertilizer

was warmed with 250cm3 of o.8M sodium hydroxide solution.The excess of
the alkali was neutralized by 85cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
% of impurities in the ammonium sulphate (VI)fertilizer.
(N=14.0,S=32.0,O=16.0, H=1.0)
Equation for neutralization

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaOH(aq) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq):HCl(aq)= 1:1
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.5 x 85 = 0.0425 moles
1000 1000
Excess moles of NaOH(aq)= 0.0425 moles
Equation for reaction with ammonium salt

2NaOH(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4(aq) -> Na 2SO4(aq) + 2NH3 (g)+ 2H2O(l)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq): (NH4) 2SO4(aq)= 2:1
Total moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume => 0.8 x 250 = 0.2 moles
1000 1000
Moles of NaOH that reacted with(NH4) 2SO4 = 0.2 - 0.0425 = 0.1575moles

Moles (NH4) 2SO4 = ½ x 0.1575moles = 0. 07875moles
Molar mass (NH4) 2SO4= 132 gmole-1
34
35
Mass of in impure sample = moles x molar mass =>0. 07875 x 132 = 10.395 g
Mass of impurities = 10.5 -10.395 = 0.105 g
% impurities = 0.105 x 100 = 1.0 %
10.5
Practically volumetric analysis involves titration.

Titration generally involves filling a burette with known/unknown concentration of
a solution then adding the solution to unknown/known concentration of another
solution in a conical flask until there is complete reaction. If the solutions used are
both colourless, an indicator is added to the conical flask. When the reaction is
over, a slight/little excess of burette contents change the colour of the indicator.
This is called the end point.
Set up of titration apparatus
The titration process involve involves determination of titre. The titre is the
volume of burette contents/reading before and after the end point. Burette
contents/reading before titration is usually called the Initial burette reading.
Burette contents/reading after titration is usually called the Final burette reading.
The titre value is thus a sum of the Final less Initial burette readings.
To reduce errors, titration process should be repeated at least once more.
The results of titration are recorded in a titration table as below
35
36
Sample titration table
Titration number 1 2 3
Final burette reading (cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
Volume of solution used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
As evidence of a titration actually done examining body requires the candidate to

record their burette readings before and after the titration.
For KCSE candidates burette readings must be recorded in a titration table in the
format provided by the Kenya National Examination Council.
As evidence of all titration actually done Kenya National Examination Council
require the candidate to record their burette readings before and after the titration
to complete the titration table in the format provided.
Calculate the average volume of solution used

24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0 cm3
3
As evidence of understanding the degree of accuracy of burettes , all readings must
be recorded to a decimal point.
As evidence of accuracy in carrying the out the titration , candidates value should
be within 0.2 of the school value .
The school value is the teachers readings presented to the examining body/council
based on the concentrations of the solutions s/he presented to her/his candidates.
Bonus mark is awarded for averaged reading within 0.1 school value as Final
answer.
Calculations involved after the titration require candidates thorough practical and
theoretical practice mastery on the:
(i)relationship among the mole, molar mass, mole ratios, concentration, molarity.
(ii) mathematical application of 1st principles.
Very useful information which candidates forget appears usually in the beginning
of the question paper as:
“You are provided with…”
All calculation must be to the 4th decimal point unless they divide fully to a lesser
decimal point.
Candidates are expected to use a non programmable scientific calculator.
36
37
(a)Sample Titration Practice 1 (Simple Titration)
You are provided with:

0.1M sodium hydroxide solution A
Hydrochloric acid solution B
You are required to determine the concentration of solution B in moles per litre.
Procedure
Fill the burette with solution B. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution A into a conical flask.
Titrate solution A with solution B using phenolphthalein indicator to complete the
titration table 1
Sample results Titration table 1

Volume of solution B used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0
Sample worked questions
1. Calculate the average volume of solution B used

Average titre = Titre 1 + Titre 2 +Titre 3 => ( 20.0 +20.0 +20.0 ) = 20.0cm3
3 3
2. How many moles of:
(i)solution A were present in 25cm3 solution.
Moles of solution A = Molarity x volume = 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 x 10-3 moles
1000 1000
(ii)solution B were present in the average volume.

Chemical equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio 1:1 => Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles
(iii) solution B in moles per litre.

Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000 = 0.1M
Volume 20
37
38
(b)Sample Titration Practice 2 (Redox Titration)

Acidified Potassium manganate(VII) solution A
0.1M of an iron (II)salt solution B
8.5g of ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) crystals(NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O
solid C
You are required to
(i)standardize acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(ii)determine the value of x in the formula (NH4)2 SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution A. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution B into a conical flask.
Titrate solution A with solution B until a pink colour just appears.
Record your results to complete table 1.
Table 1:Sample results
Volume of solution A used(cm3) 20.0 20.0 20.0

1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used
3 3
(i)solution B were present in 25cm3 solution.
1000 1000
(ii)solution A were present in the average volume. Assume one mole of B
react with five moles of B
Mole ratio A : B = 1:5

=> Moles of A = Moles of B = 2.5 x 10-3 moles = 5.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
38
39
(iii) solution B in moles per litre.

Moles of B per litre = moles x 1000 = 2.5 x 10-3 x 1000
Volume 20
= 0.025 M /moles per litre /moles l-1
Procedure 2
Place all the solid C into the 250cm3 volumetric flask carefully. Add about
200cm3 of distilled water. Shake to dissolve. Make up to the 250cm3 of solution
by adding more distilled water. Label this solution C. Pipette 25cm3 of solution C
into a conical flask, Titrate solution C with solution A until a permanent pink
colour just appears. Complete table 2.
Table 2:Sample results

1. Calculate the average volume of solution A used
3 3
(i)solution A were present inin the average titre.
1000 1000
(ii)solution C in 25cm3 solution given the equation for the reaction:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) -> Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+ (aq) = 1:5 =>
Moles of 5Fe2+ (aq) = Moles of MnO4- (aq) = 5.0 x 10-4 moles = 1.0 x 10 -4 moles
5 5
(iii) solution B in 250cm3.

Moles of B per litre = moles x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -4 x 250 = 1.0 x 10 -3 moles
Volume 25
3. Calculate the molar mass of solid C and hence the value of x in the chemical
formula (NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O.
39
40
(N=14.0, S=32.0, Fe=56.0, H=1.0 O=16.0)
Molar mass = mass perlitre = 8.5 = 8500 g

-3
Moles per litre 1.0 x 10 moles
NH4)2SO4FeSO4.xH2O = 8500
284 + 18x =8500
8500 - 284 = 8216 = 18x = 454.4444
18 18
x = 454 (whole number)
(c)Sample Titration Practice 3 (Back titration)

(i)an impure calcium carbonate labeled M
(ii)Hydrochloric acid labeled solution N
(iii)solution L containing 20g per litre sodium hydroxide.
You are required to determine the concentration of N in moles per litre and the %
of calcium carbonate in mixture M.
Procedure 1
Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate with dilute hydrochloric acid solution N and
record your results in table 1(4mark)
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Volume of N used (cm3) 6.5 6.5 6.5
Sample questions
(a) Calculate the average volume of solution N used
6.5 + 6.5 + 6.5 = 6.5 cm3
3
(b) How many moles of sodium hydroxide are contained in 25cm3of solution L
Molar mass NaOH =40g
Molarity of L = mass per litre => 20 = 0.5M
40
41
Molar mass NaOH 40
Moles NaOH in 25cm3 = molarity x volume => 0.5M x 25cm3 = 0.0125 moles
1000 1000
(c)Calculate:
(i)the number of moles of hydrochloric acidthat react with sodium hydroxide
in (b)above.
Mole ratio NaOH : HCl from stoichiometric equation= 1:1
Moles HCl =Moles NaOH => 0.0125 moles
(ii)the molarity of hydrochloric acid solution N.
Molarity = moles x 1000 => 0.0125 moles x 1000 =1.9231M/moledm-3
6.5 6.5
Procedure 2
Place the 4.0 g of M provided into a conical flask and add 25.0cm3 of the dilute
hydrochloric acid to it using a clean pipette. Swirl the contents of the flask
vigorously until effervescence stop.Using a 100ml measuring cylinder add 175cm3
distilled waterto make up the solution up to 200cm3.Label this solution K.Using a
clean pipettetransfer 25.0cm3 of the solution into a clean conical flask and titrate
with solution L from the burette using 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator.Record
your observations in table 2.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Sample calculations
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used(1mk)
24.5 + 24.5 + 24.5 = 24.5cm3
3
(b)How many moles of sodium hydroxide are present in the average volume of
solution L used?
Moles = molarity x average burette volume => 0.5 x 24.5

1000 1000
= 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2 moles

41
42
(c) How many moles of hydrochloric acid are present in the original 200cm3
of solution K?
Mole ratio NaOH: HCl = 1:1 => moles of HCl = 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2 moles
Moles in 200cm3 = 200cm3 x 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles

25cm3(volume pipetted)
=0.49 /4.9 x 10-1moles
(d)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were contained in original 25 cm3

solution N used
Original moles = Original molarity x pipetted volume =>

1000cm3
1.9231M/moledm-3 x 25 = 0.04807/4.807 x 10-2 moles

1000
(e)How many moles of hydrochloric acid were used to react with calcium
carbonate present?
Moles that reacted = original moles –moles in average titre =>
0.04807/4.807 x 10-2moles - 0.01225 /1.225 x 10-2moles
= 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles
(f)Write the equation for the reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(g)Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate that reacted with

hydrochloric acid.
From the equation CaCO3(s):2HCl(aq) = 1:2
=> Moles CaCO3(s) = 1/2moles HCl
= 1/2 x 0.03582/3.582 x 10 -2 moles
= 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles
42
43
(h)Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate in 4.0g of mixture M (Ca=40.0,O =

16.0,C=12.0)
Molar mass CaCO3 = 100g

Mass CaCO3 = moles x molar mass => 0.01791 /1.791 x 10-2moles x 100g
= 1.791g
(i)Determine the % of calcium carbonate present in the mixture
% CaCO3 = mass of pure x 100% => 1.791g x 100% = 44.775%

Mass of impure 4.0
(d)Sample titration practice 4 (Multiple titration)

(i)sodium L containing 5.0g per litre of a dibasic organic acid H2X.2H2O.
(ii)solution M which is acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(iii)solution N a mixture of sodium ethanedioate and ethanedioic acid
(iv)0.1M sodium hydroxide solution P
(v)1.0M sulphuric(VI)
You are required to:
(i)standardize solution M using solution L
(ii)use standardized solution M and solution P to determine the % of sodium
ethanedioate in the mixture.
Procedure 1
Fill the burette with solution M. Pipette 25.0cm3 of solution L into a conical flask.
Heat this solution to about 70oC(but not to boil).Titrate the hot solution L with
solution M until a permanent pink colour just appears .Shake thoroughly during the
titration. Repeat this procedure to complete table 1.
Sample Table 1
1 2 3
Sample calculations
43
44
(a)Calculate the average volume of solution L used (1mk)
24.0 + 24.0 + 24.0 = 24.0cm3

3
(b)Given that the concentration of the dibasic acid is 0.05molesdm-3.determine
the value of x in the formula H2X.2H2O (H=1.0,O=16.0)
Molar mass H2X.2H2O= mass per litre => 5.0g/litre = 100g

-3
Moles/litre 0.05molesdm
H2X.2H2O =100
X = 100 – ((2 x1) + 2 x (2 x1) + (2 x 16) => 100 – 34 = 66
(c) Calculate the number of moles of the dibasic acid H2X.2H2O.
Moles = molarity x pipette volume => 0.5 x 25 = 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles

1000 1000
(d)Given the mole ratio manganate(VII)(MnO4-): acid H2X is 2:5, calculate

the number of moles of manganate(VII) (MnO4-) in the average titre.
Moles H2X = 2/5 moles of MnO4-

=> 2/5 x 0.0125/1.25 x10 -2 moles
= 0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles
(e)Calculate the concentration of the manganate(VII)(MnO4-) in moles per

litre.
Moles per litre/molarity = moles x 1000
average burette volume
=>0.005/5.0 x 10 -3moles x 1000 = 0.2083 molesl-1/M
24.0
Procedure 2
With solution M still in the burette ,pipette 25.0cm3 of solution N into a conical
flask. Heat the conical flask containing solution N to about 70 oC.Titrate while hot
with solution M.Repeat the experiment to complete table 2.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
44
45

Sample calculations
12.5 + 12.5 + 12.5 =12.5cm3

3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of manganate(VII)ions are contained in the average
volume of solution M used?
Moles = molarity of solution M x average burette volume

1000
=> 0.2083 molesl-1/ M x 12.5 = 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
1000
(ii)The reaction between manganate(VII)ions and ethanedioate ions that

reacted with is as in the equation:
2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42- (aq) + 16H+ (aq) -> 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions that reacted with
manganate (VII) ions in the average volume of solution M.
From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio MnO4- (aq): C2O42- (aq) = 2:5
=> moles C2O42- = 5/2 moles MnO4- => 5/2 x 0.0026 / 2.5 x 10-3 moles
= 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles
(iii)Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioate ions contained in

250cm3 solution N.
25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles

250cm3 ->
0.0065 /6.5 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.065 / 6.5 x10-2 moles

25
Procedure 3
45
46
Remove solution M from the burette and rinse it with distilled water. Fill the
burette with sodium hydroxide solution P. Pipette 25cm3 of solution N into a
conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Titrate this solution N
with solution P from the burette. Repeat the procedure to complete table 3.
Sample Table 2
1 2 3
Sample calculations
24.9 + 24.9 + 24.9 = 24.9 cm3

3
(b)Calculations:
(i)How many moles of sodium hydroxide solution P were contained in
the average volume?
Moles = molarity of solution P x average burette volume

1000
=> 0.1 molesl x 24.9 = 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles
-1
1000
(ii)Given that NaOH solution P reacted with the ethanedioate ions from
the acid only and the equation for the reaction is:
2NaOH (aq) + H2C2O4 (aq) -> Na2C2O4(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of ethanedioic acid that were used in the
reaction
From the stoichiometric equation,mole ratio NaOH(aq): H2C2O4 (aq) = 2:1

=> moles H2C2O4 = 1/2 moles NaOH => 1/2 x 0.00249 / 2.49 x 10-3 moles
= 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles.
(iii)How many moles of ethanedioic acid were contained in 250cm3 of solution

N?
46
47
25cm3 pipette volume -> 0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles

250cm3 ->
0.001245/1.245 x10-3 moles x 250 = 0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles
25
(iii)Determine the % by mass of sodium ethanedioate in the micture
(H= 1.0,O=16.0,C=12.0 and total mass of mixture =2.0 g in 250cm3 solution)
Molar mass H2C2O4 = 90.0g

Mass of H2C2O4 in 250cm3 = moles in 250cm3 x molar mass H2C2O4
=>0.01245/1.245 x10-2 moles x 90.0
= 1.1205g
% by mass of sodium ethanedioate

=(Mass of mixture - mass of H2C2O4) x 100%
Mass of mixture
=> 2.0 - 1.1205 g = 43.975%

2.0
Note
(i) L is 0.05M Oxalic acid
(ii) M is 0.01M KMnO4
(iii) N is 0.03M oxalic acid(without sodium oxalate)
Practice example 5.(Determining equation for a reaction)

You are provided with
-0.1M hydrochloric acid solution A
-0.5M sodium hydroxide solution B
You are to determine the equation for thereaction between solution A and B
Procedure
Fill the burette with solution A.Using a pipette and pipette filler transfer 25.0cm3
of solution B into a conical flask.Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.Run
solution A into solution B until a permanent pink colour just appears.Record your
results in Table 1.Repeat the experiment to obtain three concordant results to
complete Table 1
Table 1(Sample results)
Titration 1 2 3
Final volume(cm3) 12.5 25.0 37.5
Initial volume(cm3) 0.0 12.5 25.0
47
48
Sample questions
Calculate the average volume of solution A used.
12.5+12.5+12.5 = 12.5cm3
3
Theoretical Practice examples
1. 1.0g of dibasic acid HOOC(CH2)xCOOH was dissolved in 250cm3 solution.

25.0 cm3 of this solution reacted with 30.0cm3 of 0.06M sodium hydroxide
solution. Calculate the value of x in HOOC(CH2)xCOOH.
(C=12.0,H=1.0,O=16.)
Chemical equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2X(aq) -> Na2X (aq) + 2H2O(aq)
Mole ratio NaOH(aq) :H2X(aq) = 2:1
Method 1
Ma Va = na => Ma x 25.0 = 1 => Ma =0.06 x 30.0 x1
Mb Vb = nb 0.06 x 30.0 2 25.0 x 2
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l-1
Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l

250
-1
0.036M/ Mole l -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)

14
Method 2
48
49
Moles of sodium hydroxide = Molarity x volume = 0.06 x 30 = 1.8 x 10 -3moles

1000
Moles of Hydrochloric acid = /2 x 1.8 x 10 -3moles = 9.0 x10 -4moles
1
Molarity of Hydrochloric acid = moles x 1000 = 9.0 x10 -4moles x1000

Volume 25
-1
Molarity of acid = 0.036M/Mole l
Mass of acid per lite = 1.0 x1000 = 4.0 g/l

250
-1
0.036M/ Mole l -> 4.0 g /l
1 mole= molar mass of HOOC(CH2)xCOOH = 4.0 x 1 = 111.1111 g
0.036
Molar mass (CH2)x = 111.1111 – (HOOCCOOH = 90.0) = 21.1111
(CH2)x = 14x = 21.1111 = 1.5 = 1 (whole number)

14
2. 20.0cm3 of 0.05 M acidified potassium manganate(VII)solution oxidized

25.0cm3 of Fe2+(aq) ions in 40.0g/l of impure Iron (II)sulphate(VI) to Fe3+(aq)
ions. Calculate the percentage impurities in the Iron (II)sulphate(VI).
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq)+ 5Fe2+(aq)-> 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(aq)

Fe=56.0,S= 32.0, O=16.0).
Moles of MnO4- (aq) = Molarity x volume = 0.05 x 20.0 = 0.001 Moles

1000 1000
Mole ratio MnO4- (aq): 5Fe2+(aq)= 1:5

Moles 5Fe2+(aq) = 5 x0.001 = 0.005 Moles
Moles of 5Fe2+(aq) per litre/molarity = Moles x 1000 = 0005 x 1000

Volume 25.0
= 0.2 M/ Moles/litre
Molar mass =FeSO4=152 g

Mass of in the mixture = Moles x molar mass => 0.2 x 152 = 30.4 g
Mass of impurity = 40.0 – 30.4 =9.6 g
49
50
% impurity = 9.6 g x100 = 24.0 % impurity

40.0
3.9.7 g of a mixture of Potassium hydroxide and Potassium chloride was
dissolved to make one litre solution.20.0cm3 of this solution required 25.0cm3
of 0.12M hydrochloric acid for completed neutralization. Calculate the
percentage by mass of Potassium chloride.(K=39.0,Cl= 35.5)
Chemical equation
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 0.12 x 25.0 = 0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio KOH(aq) : HCl(aq) -= 1:1
Moles KOH =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles
Method 1
Molar mass KOH =56.0g

Mass KOH in 25cm3 =0.003/3.0 x 10 -3 moles x56.0 = 0.168g
Mass KOH in 1000cm3/1 litre = 0.168 x1000= 8.4 g/l
20
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g
% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7
Method 2
Moles KOH in 1000cm3 /1 litre = Moles in 20cm3 x 1000 =>0.003 x 1000
20 20
=0.15M/Moles /litre
Molar mass KOH =56.0g
Mass KOH in 1000/1 litre = 0.15M/Moles /litre x 56.0 = 8.4g/l
Mass of KCl = 9.7g - 8.4g = 1.3 g

% of KCl = 1.3 x 100 = 13.4021%
9.7
4.A certain carbonate, GCO3, reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according
to the equation given below:
GCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> GCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
If 1 g of the carbonate reacts completely with 20 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid

,calculate the relative atomic mass of G (C = 12.0 = 16.0)
50
51
Moles of HCl = Molarity x volume=> 1 x20 = 0.02 moles

1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; GCO3 = 2:1
Moles of GCO3= 0.02 moles = 0.01moles
2
Molar mass of GCO3 = mass => 1 = 100 g
moles 0.01moles
G= GCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40(no units)
5. 46.0g of a metal carbonate MCO3 was dissolved 160cm3 of 0.1M excess

hydrochloric acid and the resultant solution diluted to one litre.25.0cm3 of
this solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.1M sodium hydroxide solution for
complete neutralization. Calculate the atomic mass of ‘M’
Equation
Chemical equation
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Moles of NaOH = Molarity x volume=> 0.1 x20 = 0.002 moles
1000 1000
Mole ratio HCl; NaOH = 1:1
Excess moles of HCl = 0.002 moles
25cm3 -> 0.002 moles

1000cm3 -> 1000 x 0.002 = 0.08moles
25cm3
Original moles of HCl = Molarity x volume => 1M x 1litre = 1.0 moles
Moles of HCl reacted with MCO3 = 1.0 - 0.08 moles = 0.92moles

Chemical equation
MCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
Mole ratio MCO3(s) : HCl(aq) =1:2
Moles of MCO3 = 0.92moles => 0.46moles

2
Molar mass of MCO3= mass => 46g = 100 g
moles 0.46moles
M= MCO3 - CO3 =>100g – (12+ 16 x3 = 60) = 40
51
52
6. 25.0cm3 of a mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in an aqueous salt was acidified
with sulphuric(VI)acid then titrated against potassium manganate(VI).The
salt required 15cm3 ofe0.02M potassium manganate(VI) for complete
reaction.
A second 25cm3 portion of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion salt was reduced by Zinc then
titrated against the same concentration of potassium manganate(VI).19.0cm3
of potassium manganate(VI)solution was used for complete reaction.
Calculate the concentration of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ion in the solution on moles per
litre.
Mole ratio Fe2+ :Mn04- = 5:1

Moles Mn04- used = 0.02 x 15 = 3.0 x 10-4 moles
1000
2+
Moles Fe = 3.0 x 10-4 moles = 6.0 x 10-5 moles
5
2+
Molarity of Fe = 6.0 x 10-4 moles x 1000 = 2.4 x 10-3 moles l-1
25
3+ 2+
Since Zinc reduces Fe to Fe in the mixture:
Moles Mn04- that reacted with all Fe2+= 0.02 x 19 = 3.8 x 10-4 moles
1000
2+ -4
Moles of all Fe = 3.8 x 10 moles = 7.6 x 10-5 moles
5
Moles of Fe 3+
= 3.8 x 10-4 - 6.0 x 10-5 = 1.6 x 10-5 moles
Molarity of Fe3+ = 1.6 x 10-5 moles x 1000 = 4.0 x 10-4 moles l-1
25
52
14.0.0 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
(HYDROCARBONS) (25 LESSONS)
Introduction to Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies carbon compounds present
in living things, once living things or synthetic/man-made.
Compounds that makes up living things whether alive or dead mainly contain
carbon. Carbon is tetravalent.
It is able to form stable covalent bonds with itself and many non-metals like
hydrogen, nitrogen ,oxygen and halogens to form a variety of compounds. This is
because:
(i) carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form four strong covalent bond.
(ii)carbon can covalently bond to form a single, double or triple covalent bond with
itself.
(iii)carbon atoms can covalently bond to form a very long chain or ring.
When carbon covalently bond with Hydrogen, it forms a group of organic
compounds called Hydrocarbons
A.HYDROCARBONS (HCs)
Hydrocarbons are a group of organic compounds containing /made up of hydrogen
and carbon atoms only.
Depending on the type of bond that exist between the individual carbon atoms,
hydrocarbon are classified as:
(i) Alkanes
(ii) Alkenes
(iii) Alkynes
(i) Alkanes
(a)Nomenclature/Naming
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n+2 where n is the number of
Carbon atoms in a molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by single bond to each other and to hydrogen atoms.
They include:
n General/ Structural formula Name

Molecular
formula
1 CH4 H Methane
H C H
2 C2H6 H H Ethane
H C C H
H H
3 C3H8 H H H Propane
H C C C H
H H H
4 C4H10 H H H H Butane
H C C C C H
H H H H
5 C5H12 H H H H H Pentane
H C C C C C H CH3 (CH2) 6CH3
H H H H H
6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexane
2
H C C C C C C H CH3 (CH2) 6CH3
H H H H H H
7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Heptane
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H
8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Octane
H C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H
9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonane
H C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decane
H C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
Note
1.The general formula/molecular formular of a compound shows the number of
each atoms of elements making the compound e.g.
Decane has a general/molecular formula C10H22 ;this means there are 10 carbon
atoms and 22 hydrogen atoms in a molecule of decane.
2.The structural formula shows the arrangement/bonding of atoms of each element
making the compound e.g
Decane has the structural formula as in the table above ;this means the 1st carbon
from left to right is bonded to three hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom.
The 2nd carbon atom is joined/bonded to two other carbon atoms and two Hydrogen
atoms.
3
3.Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkane MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons.
4.Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkane MUST
always be bonded using one covalent bond/one shared pair of electrons.
5.One member of the alkane differ from the next/previous by a CH2 group.
e.g
Propane differ from ethane by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms form ethane.
Ethane differ from methane also by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms
6.A group of compounds that differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous
consecutively is called a homologous series.
7.A homologous series:
(i) differ by a CH2 group from the next /previous consecutively
(ii)have similar chemical properties
(iii)have similar chemical formula that can be represented by a general
formula e.g alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.
(iv)the physical properties (e.g.melting/boiling points)show steady gradual
change)
8.The 1st four alkanes have the prefix meth_,eth_,prop_ and but_ to
represent 1,2,3 and 4 carbons in the compound. All other use the numeral
prefix pent_,Hex_,hept_ , etc to show also the number of carbon atoms.
9.If one hydrogen atom in an alkane is removed, an alkyl group is formed.e.g
Alkane name molecular structure Alkyl name Molecula structure

CnH2n+2 CnH2n+1
methane CH4 methyl CH3
ethane CH3CH3 ethyl CH3 CH2
propane CH3 CH2 CH3 propyl CH3 CH2 CH2
butane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 butyl CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2
(b)Isomers of alkanes
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular general formula but different
molecular structural formula.
Isomerism is the existence of a compounds having the same general/molecular
formula but different structural formula.
The 1st three alkanes do not form isomers.Isomers are named by using the
IUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
nomenclature/naming.
The IUPAC system of nomenclature uses the following basic rules/guidelines:
1.Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
4
2.Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as
the branch get the lowest number possible
3. Determine the position, number and type of branches. Name them as methyl,
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of carbon chains attached to the parent
alkane. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
4.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of branches attached to
the parent alkane.
Practice on IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes

(a)Draw the structure of:
(i)2-methylpentane
Procedure
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain to get/determine the parent alkane.
Butane is the parent name CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain that is near the branches so as
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”

Number of branches at carbon “1”
Type of the branch “methyl” hence
Molecular formula
CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH3 // CH3 CH (CH3 ) CH2CH3
Structural formula
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H
H C H
5
H
(ii)2,2-dimethylpentane
Procedure
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2”
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2”
Type of the branch two“methyl” hence
Molecular formular
CH3
CH3 C CH2 CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )2 CH2CH3
CH3
Structural formula
H
H C H
H H H
H C C C C H
H H H
H C H
H
6
(iii) 2,2,3-trimethylbutane
Procedure
The methyl group is attached to Carbon “2 and 3”
alkane i.e
Position of the branch at carbon “2 and 3”
Type of the branch three “methyl” hence
Molecular formular
CH3
CH3 C CH CH3 // CH3 C (CH3 )3 CH2CH3
CH3 CH3
Structural formula
H
H C H
H H
H C C C H
H H
H
H C C H
H
H C H
7
H
(iv) 1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane
Molecular formula
CBr3 CBr3
Structural formula
Br Br
Br C C Br
Br Br
(v) 1,1,1-tetrachloro-2,2-dimethylbutane
CH3
CCl 3 C CH3 // C Cl 3 C (CH3 )2 CH3
CH3
Structural formula
Cl
Cl C Cl
H H
H C C C H
H H
H C H
(c)Occurrence and extraction
Crude oil ,natural gas and biogas are the main sources of alkanes:
(i)Natural gas is found on top of crude oil deposits and consists mainly of methane.
8
(ii)Biogas is formed from the decay of waste organic products like animal dung and
cellulose. When the decay takes place in absence of oxygen , 60-75% by volume of
the gaseous mixture of methane gas is produced.
(iii)Crude oil is a mixture of many flammable hydrocarbons/substances. Using

fractional distillation, each hydrocarbon fraction can be separated from the other.
The hydrocarbon with lower /smaller number of carbon atoms in the chain have
lower boiling point and thus collected first.
As the carbon chain increase, the boiling point, viscosity (ease of flow) and colour
intensity increase as flammability decrease. Hydrocarbons in crude oil are not pure.
They thus have no sharp fixed boiling point.
Uses of different crude oil fractions

Carbon atoms in a molecule Common name of fraction Uses of fraction
1-4 Gas L.P.G gas for domestic
use
5-12 Petrol Fuel for petrol engines
9-16 Kerosene/Paraffin Jet fuel and domestic
lighting/cooking
15-18 Light diesel Heavy diesel engine
fuel
18-25 Diesel oil Light diesel engine fuel
20-70 Lubricating oil Lubricating oil to
reduce friction.
Over 70 Bitumen/Asphalt Tarmacking roads
(d)School laboratory preparation of alkanes
In a school laboratory, alkanes may be prepared from the reaction of a sodium

alkanoate with solid sodium hydroxide/soda lime.
Chemical equation:
Sodium alkanoate + soda lime -> alkane + Sodium carbonate

CnH2n+1COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C n H2n+2 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CnH2n+1 in CnH2n+1COONa(s) to form

C n H2n+2.
9
Examples
1. Methane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium ethanoate and soda
lime and collecting over water
Sodium ethanoate + soda lime -> methane + Sodium carbonate
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> C H4 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 in CH3COONa(s) to form CH4.
2. Ethane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium propanoate and soda
Sodium propanoate + soda lime -> ethane + Sodium carbonate

CH3 CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 in CH3 CH2COONa (s) to
form CH3 CH3
3. Propane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium butanoate and soda
Sodium butanoate + soda lime -> propane + Sodium carbonate

CH3 CH2CH2COONa(s) + NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3 CH2 CH2 in CH3 CH2CH2COONa
(s) to form CH3 CH2CH3
4. Butane is prepared from the heating of a mixture of sodium pentanoate and soda
Sodium pentanoate + soda lime -> butane + Sodium carbonate
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2COONa(s)+NaOH(s) -> CH3 CH2CH2CH3 + Na2CO3(s)
The “H” in NaOH is transferred/moves to the CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 in

CH3 CH2CH2 CH2COONa (s) to form CH3 CH2 CH2CH3
Laboratory set up for the preparation of alkanes
10
(d)Properties of alkanes
I. Physical properties
Alkanes are colourless gases, solids and liquids that are not poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water.
The solubility decrease as the carbon chain and thus the molar mass increase
The melting and boiling point increase as the carbon chain increase.
This is because of the increase in van-der-waals /intermolecular forces as the carbon
chain increase.
The 1st four straight chain alkanes (methane,ethane,propane and butane)are
therefore gases ,the nect six(pentane ,hexane, heptane,octane,nonane, and decane)
are liquids while the rest from unidecane(11 carbon atoms) are solids .
The density of straight chain alkanes increase with increasing carbon chain as the
intermolecular forces increases.
This reduces the volume occupied by a given mass of the compound.
Summary of physical properties of alkanes
Alkane General Melting Boiling Density State at room(298K)

formula point(K) point(K) gcm-3 temperature and pressure
atmosphere (101300Pa)
Methane CH4 90 112 0.424 gas
11
Ethane CH3CH3 91 184 0.546 gas
Propane CH3CH2CH3 105 231 0.501 gas
Butane CH3(CH2)2CH3 138 275 0.579 gas
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 143 309 0.626 liquid
Hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 178 342 0.657 liquid
Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 182 372 0.684 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)6CH3 216 399 0.703 liquid
Nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 219 424 0.708 liquid
Octane CH3(CH2)8CH3 243 447 0.730 liquid
II.Chemical properties
(i)Burning.
Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous non-sooty/non-smoky flame in excess air to

form carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
Alkanes burn with a blue/non-luminous no-sooty/non-smoky flame in limited air to

form carbon(II) oxide and water.
Alkane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air)
Examples
1.(a) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form
carbon(IV) oxide and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Methane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form
carbon(II) oxide and water.
Methane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form
Ethane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form
12
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H6(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
3.(a) Propane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in excess air to form
Propane + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) -> 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethane when ignited burns with a blue non sooty flame in limited air to form
Ethane + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) -> 6CO(g) + 8H2O(l/g)
ii)Substitution
Substitution reaction is one in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen in
presence of ultraviolet light.
Alkanes react with halogens in presence of ultraviolet light to form halogenoalkanes.
During substitution:
(i)the halogen molecule is split into free atom/radicals.
(ii)one free halogen radical/atoms knock /remove one hydrogen from the
alkane leaving an alkyl radical.
(iii) the alkyl radical combine with the other free halogen atom/radical to form
halogenoalkane.
(iv)the chlorine atoms substitute repeatedly in the alkane. Each substitution
removes a hydrogen atom from the alkane and form hydrogen halide.
(v)substitution stops when all the hydrogen in alkanes are replaced with
halogens.
Substitution reaction is a highly explosive reaction in presence of sunlight /

ultraviolet light that act as catalyst.
Examples of substitution reactions

Methane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark. In sunlight , a
mixture of chlorine and methane explode to form colourless mixture of
chloromethane and hydrogen chloride gas. The pale green colour of chlorine gas
fades.
Chemical equation
1.(a)Methane + chlorine -> Chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride
13
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) -> CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
H H
H C H + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl
H H
(b) Chloromethane + chlorine -> dichloromethane + Hydrogen chloride
CH3Cl (g) + Cl2(g) -> CH2Cl2 (g) + HCl (g)
H H
H C Cl + Cl Cl -> H C Cl + H Cl
H Cl
(c) dichloromethane + chlorine -> trichloromethane + Hydrogen

chloride
CH2Cl2 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CHCl3 (g) + HCl (g)
Cl H
H C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl + H Cl
H Cl
(c) trichloromethane + chlorine -> tetrachloromethane + Hydrogen chloride
CHCl3 (g) + Cl2(g) -> CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)

H Cl
Cl C Cl + Cl Cl -> Cl C Cl + H Cl
Cl Cl
14
Ethane has no effect on bromine or chlorine in diffused light/dark. In sunlight , a
mixture of bromine and ethane explode to form colourless mixture of bromoethane
and hydrogen chloride gas. The red/brown colour of bromine gas fades.
Chemical equation
(a)Ethane + chlorine -> Chloroethane + Hydrogen chloride
CH3CH3(g) + Br2(g) -> CH3CH2Br (g) + HBr (g)
H H H H
H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br
H H H Br
Bromoethane
H H H Br
H C C H + Br Br -> H C C H+H Br
H Br H Br
1,1-dibromoethane
H Br H Br
H C C H + Br Br -> H C C Br + H Br
H Br H Br
1,1,1-tribromoethane
H Br H Br
H C C Br + Br Br -> H C C Br + H Br
H Br Br Br
1,1,1,2-tetrabromoethane
H Br H Br
H C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H Br
15
Br Br Br Br
1,1,1,2,2-pentabromoethane
H Br Br Br
Br C C Br + Br Br -> Br C C Br + H Br
Br Br Br Br
1,1,1,2,2,2-hexabromoethane
Uses of alkanes
1.Most alkanes are used as fuel e.g. Methane is used as biogas in homes.Butane is
used as the Laboratory gas.
2.On cracking ,alkanes are a major source of Hydrogen for the manufacture of
ammonia/Haber process.
3.In manufacture of Carbon black which is a component in printers ink.
4.In manufacture of useful industrial chemicals like methanol, methanol, and
chloromethane.
(ii) Alkenes
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n and C C double

bond as the functional group . n is the number of Carbon atoms in the molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by at least one double bond to each other and single
bonds to hydrogen atoms.
They include:

Molecular
formula
1 Does not exist
2 C2H6 H H Ethene
H C C H
16
CH2 CH2
3 C3H8 H H H Propene
H C C C H
CH2 CH CH3
4 C4H10 H H H H Butene
H C C C C H
H H
CH2 CH CH2CH3
5 C5H12 H H H H H Pentene
H C C C C C H
H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)2CH3
6 C6H14 H H H H H H Hexene
H C C C C C C H
H H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)3CH3
7 C7H16 H H H H H H H Heptene
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H
17
CH2 CH (CH2)4CH3
8 C8H18 H H H H H H H H Octene
H C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)5CH3
9 C9H20 H H H H H H H H H Nonene
H H H H H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)6CH3
10 C10H22 H H H H H H H H H H decene
H H H H H H H H
CH2 CH (CH2)7CH3
Note
1.Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkene MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons including at the
double bond.
2.Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkene MUST
3.One member of the alkene ,like alkanes,differ from the next/previous by a CH2
group.They also form a homologous series.
e.g
Propene differ from ethene by one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms from ethene.
4.A homologous series of alkenes like that of alkanes:
(ii)have similar chemical properties
18
(iii)have similar chemical formula represented by the general formula CnH2n
(iv)the physical properties also show steady gradual change
5.The = C= C = double bond in alkene is the functional group. A functional group
is the reacting site of a molecule/compound.
6. The = C= C = double bond in alkene can easily be broken to accommodate more
two more monovalent atoms. The = C= C = double bond in alkenes make it thus
unsaturated.
7. An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one with a double =C=C= or triple – C C–
carbon bonds in their molecular structure. Unsaturated hydrocarbon easily reacts to
be saturated.
8.A saturated hydrocarbon is one without a double =C=C= or triple – C C–
carbon bonds in their molecular structure.
Most of the reactions of alkenes take place at the = C = C =bond.
(b)Isomers of alkenes
Isomers are alkenes lie alkanes have the same molecular general formula but
different molecular structural formula.
Ethene and propene do not form isomers. Isomers of alkenes are also named by
using the IUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
nomenclature/naming.
The IUPAC system of nomenclature of naming alkenes uses the following basic
rules/guidelines:
1.Identify the longest continuous/straight carbon chain which contains the =C = C=

double bond get/determine the parent alkene.
2.Number the longest chain form the end of the chain which contains the =C = C=
double bond so he =C = C= double bond lowest number possible.
3 Indicate the positions by splitting “alk-positions-ene” e.g. but-2-ene, pent-1,3-
diene.
4.The position indicated must be for the carbon atom at the lower position in the =C
= C= double bond.i.e
But-2-ene means the double =C = C= is between Carbon “2”and “3”
Pent-1,3-diene means there are two double bond one between carbon “1” and
“2”and another between carbon “3” and “4”
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of alkyl carbon chains attached to the
alkene. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
6.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of double C = C bonds
and branches attached to the alkene.
19
7.Position isomers can be formed when the=C = C= double bond is shifted between
carbon atoms e.g.
Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene are position isomers of Butene
8.Position isomers are molecules/compounds having the same general formular but
different position of the functional group.i.e.
Butene has the molecular/general formular C4H8 position but can form both But-1-
ene and But-2-ene as position isomers.
9. Like alkanes ,an alkyl group can be attached to the alkene. Chain/branch isomers
are thus formed.
10.Chain/branch isomers are molecules/compounds having the same general formula
but different structural formula e.g
Butene and 2-methyl propene both have the same general formualr but different
branching chain.
Practice on IUPAC nomenclature of alkenes

Name the following isomers of alkene
H H H H
H C C C C H But-1-ene
H H
H H H H
H C C C C H But-2-ene
H H
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H 4-methylhex-1-ene
H H H
H C H
20
H
H C H
H H H H H
H C C C C C C H 4,4-dimethylhex-1-ene
H H H
H C H
3. H
H C H
H H H H
H C C C C C H 4,4-dimethylpent -1- ene
H H
H C H
4. H
H C H
H H H H
H C C C C C H 5,5-dimethylhex-2- ene
H C H H H
H C H
H
H
21
5. H
H C H
H H H
H C C C C H 2,2-dimethylbut -2- ene
H H
H C H
8.H2C CHCH2 CH2 CH3 pent -1- ene
9.H2C C(CH3)CH2 CH2 CH3 2-methylpent -1- ene
10.H2C C(CH3)C(CH3)2 CH2 CH3 2,3,3-trimethylpent -1- ene
11.H2C C(CH3)C(CH3)2 C(CH3)2 CH3 2,3,3,4,4-pentamethylpent -1- ene
12.H3C C(CH3)C(CH3) C(CH3)2 CH3 2,3,4,4-tetramethylpent -2- ene
13. H2C C(CH3)C(CH3) C(CH3) CH3 2,3,4-trimethylpent -1,3- diene
14. H2C CBrCBr CBr CH3 2,3,4-tribromopent -1,3- diene
15. H2C CHCH CH2 But -1,3- diene
16. Br2C CBrCBr CBr2 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexabromobut -1,3- diene
17. I2C CICI CI2 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexaiodobut -1,3- diene
18. H2C C(CH3)C(CH3) CH2 2,3-dimethylbut -1,3- diene
(c)Occurrence and extraction
22
At indusrial level,alkenes are obtained from the cracking of alkanes.Cracking is the
process of breaking long chain alkanes to smaller/shorter alkanes, an alkene and
hydrogen gas at high temperatures.
Cracking is a major source of useful hydrogen gas for manufacture of
ammonia/nitric(V)acid/HCl i.e.
Long chain alkane -> smaller/shorter alkane + Alkene + Hydrogen gas
Examples
1.When irradiated with high energy radiation,Propane undergo cracking to form
methane gas, ethene and hydrogen gas.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2CH3 (g) -> CH4(g) + CH2=CH2(g) + H2(g)
2.Octane undergo cracking to form hydrogen gas, butene and butane gases
Chemical equation
CH3(CH2) 6 CH3 (g) -> CH3CH2CH2CH3(g) + CH3 CH2CH=CH2(g) + H2(g)
(d)School laboratory preparation of alkenes
In a school laboratory, alkenes may be prepared from dehydration of alkanols using:

(i) concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4).
(a) aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) i.e
Alkanol --Conc. H2SO4 --> Alkene + Water

Alkanol --Al2O3 --> Alkene + Water e.g.
1.(a)At about 180oC,concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid dehydrates/removes water from

ethanol to form ethene.
The gas produced contain traces of carbon(IV)oxide and sulphur(IV)oxide gas as
impurities.
It is thus passed through concentrated sodium/potassium hydroxide solution to
remove the impurities.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2OH (l) --conc H2SO4/180oC--> CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
(b)On heating strongly aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3),it dehydrates/removes water

from ethanol to form ethene.
23
Ethanol vapour passes through the hot aluminium (III) oxide which catalyses the
dehydration.
Activated aluminium(III)oxide has a very high affinity for water molecules/elements
of water and thus dehydrates/ removes water from ethanol to form ethene.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2OH (l) --(Al2O3/strong heat--> CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
2(a) Propan-1-ol and Propan-2-ol(position isomers of propanol) are dehydrated by

conc H2SO4 at about 180oC to propene(propene has no position isomers).
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Propan-1-ol Prop-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH3 (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)

(b) Propan-1-ol and Propan-2-ol(position isomers of propanol) are dehydrated by

heating strongly aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) form propene
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
CH3CHOH CH3 (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)

3(a) Butan-1-ol and Butan-2-ol(position isomers of butanol) are dehydrated by

conc H2SO4 at about 180oC to But-1-ene and But-2-ene respectively
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH (l) -- conc H2SO4/180oC -->CH3 CH2CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Butan-1-ol But-1-ene
CH3CHOH CH2CH3 (l)-- conc H2SO4/180oC -->CH3CH=CH CH2(g) + H2O(l)

(b) Butan-1-ol and Butan-2-ol are dehydrated by heating strongly aluminium (III)
oxide (Al2O3) form But-1-ene and But-2-ene respectively.
Chemical equation
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3 CH2CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
24
CH3CHOH CH2CH3 (l) -- Heat/Al2O3 --> CH3CH=CH CH2(g) + H2O(l)
Laboratory set up for the preparation of alkenes/ethene
Caution
(i)Ethanol is highly inflammable
(ii)Conc H2SO4 is highly corrosive on skin contact.
(iii)Common school thermometer has maximum calibration of 110oC and thus
cannot be used. It breaks/cracks.
(i)Using conentrated sulphuric(VI)acid
Some broken porcelain or sand should be put in the flask when heating to:
(i)prevent bumping which may break the flask.
(ii)ensure uniform and smooth boiling of the mixture
The temperatures should be maintained at above160oC.

At lower temperatures another compound -ether is predominantly formed instead of
ethene gas.
(ii)Using aluminium(III)oxide
25
(e)Properties of alkenes
Like alkanes, alkenes are colourles gases, solids and liquids that are not poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water.
The solubility in water decrease as the carbon chain and as the molar mass increase
but very soluble in organic solvents like tetrachloromethane and methylbenzene.
chain increase.
The 1st four straight chain alkenes (ethene,propane,but-1-ene and pent-1-ene)are
gases at room temperature and pressure.
The density of straight chain alkenes,like alkanes, increase with increasing carbon
chain as the intermolecular forces increases reducing the volume occupied by a
given mass of the alkene.
Summary of physical properties of the 1st five alkenes
Alkene General Melting Boiling State at room(298K)

formula point(oC) point(K) temperature and pressure
atmosphere (101300Pa)
26
Ethene CH2CH2 -169 -104 gas
Propene CH3 CHCH2 -145 -47 gas
Butene CH3CH2 -141 -26 gas
CHCH2
Pent-1- CH3(CH2 -138 30 liquid
ene CHCH2
Hex-1- CH3(CH2) -98 64 liquid
ene CHCH2
II. Chemical properties

(a)Burning/combustion
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame in excess air to form
Alkene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame in limited air to form
Alkene + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air)
Burning of alkenes with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame is a confirmatory

test for the presence of the =C=C= double bond because they have higher C:H
ratio.
A homologous series with C = C double or C C triple bond is said to be
unsaturated.
A homologous series with C C single bond is said to be saturated.Most of
the reactions of the unsaturated compound involve trying to be saturated to form a
C C single bond .
Examples of burning alkenes
1.(a) Ethene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
Ethene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
27
Ethene + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air )
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Propene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
Propene + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C3H6(g) + 9O2(g) -> 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l/g)
(a) Propene when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
C3H6(g) + 3O2(g) -> 3CO(g) + 3H2O(l/g)
(b)Addition reactions
An addition reaction is one which an unsaturated compound reacts to form a
saturated compound.Addition reactions of alkenes are named from the reagent used
to cause the addtion/convert the double =C=C= to single C-C bond.
(i)Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen in presence of
Palladium/Nickel catalyst at high temperatures react with alkenes to form alkanes.
Examples
1.When Hydrogen gas is passed through liquid vegetable and animal oil at about
180oC in presence of Nickel catalyst,solid fat is formed.
Hydrogenation is thus used to harden oils to solid fat especially margarine.
During hydrogenation, one hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule attach itself to
one carbon and the other hydrogen to the second carbon breaking the double bond to
single bond.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C - CH3
H H H H
C = C + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H-C–C-H
H H H H
2.Propene undergo hydrogenation to form Propane
28
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH - CH3
H H H H H H
H C C =C + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C – C - C- H
H H H H H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene undergo hydrogenation to form Butane

Chemical equation
But-1-ene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H H H
But-2-ene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane

H3C CH2 =CH CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C = C - C -H + H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H H
4. But-1,3-diene should undergo hydrogenation to form Butane. The reaction uses

two moles of hydrogen molecules/four hydrogen atoms to break the two double
bonds.
But-1,3-diene + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H2C CH CH=CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C - C = C -H + 2(H – H) - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H
29
H H H H
(ii) Halogenation.
Halogenation is an addition reaction in which a halogen (Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine) reacts with an alkene to form an alkane.
The double bond in the alkene break and form a single bond.
The colour of the halogen fades as the number of moles of the halogens remaining
unreacted decreases/reduces.
One bromine atom bond at the 1st carbon in the double bond while the other goes to
the 2nd carbon.
Examples
1Ethene reacts with bromine to form 1,2-dibromoethane.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + Br2 H2 Br C - CH2 Br
H H H H
C = C + Br – Br Br - C – C - Br
H H H H
Ethene + Bromine 1,2-dibromoethane
2.Propene reacts with chlorine to form 1,2-dichloropropane.

Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + Cl2 H3C CHCl - CH2Cl
Propene + Chlorine 1,2-dichloropropane
H H H H H H
H C C =C + Cl – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl
H H H Cl H
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + I–I H - C- C – C - C- I
30
H H H H H H H H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene undergo halogenation with iodine to form 1,2-
diiodobutane and 2,3-diiodobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + iodine 1,2 diiodobutane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + I2 H3C CH2CH I - CH2I
But-2-ene + Iodine 2,3-diiodobutane

H3C CH= CH-CH2 + F2 H3C CHICHI - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C = C - C -H + I – I H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H I I H
4. But-1,3-diene should undergo halogenation to form Butane. The reaction uses
two moles of iodine molecules/four iodine atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 1,2,3,4-tetraiodobutane
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2I2 H2CI CHICHI - CHI
H H H H H H H H
H C C - C = C -H + 2(I – I) H - C- C – C - C- H
I I I I
(iii) Reaction with hydrogen halides.

Hydrogen halides reacts with alkene to form a halogenoalkane. The double bond in
the alkene break and form a single bond.
The main compound is one which the hydrogen atom bond at the carbon with more
hydrogen .
Examples
1. Ethene reacts with hydrogen bromide to form bromoethane.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + HBr H3 C - CH2 Br
H H H H
31
C = C + H – Br H - C – C - Br
H H H H
Ethene + Bromine bromoethane
2. Propene reacts with hydrogen iodide to form 2-iodopropane.

Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 + HI H3C CHI - CH3
Propene + Chlorine 2-chloropropane
Carbon atom with
H H H H H H
more Hydrogen atoms
gets extra hydrogen
H C C =C + H – Cl H - C – C - C- H
H H H Cl H
3. Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene reacts with hydrogen bromide to form 2-

bromobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + hydrogen bromide 2-bromobutane
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + HBr H3C CH2CHBr -CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + H – Br H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H Br H
But-2-ene + Hydrogen bromide 2-bromobutane

H3C CH= CH-CH2 + HBr H3C CHBrCH2 - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C = C - C -H + Br – H H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H Br H H
4. But-1,3-diene react with hydrogen iodide to form 2,3- diiodobutane. The
reaction uses two moles of hydrogen iodide molecules/two iodine atoms and two
hydrogen atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 2,3-diiodobutane
32
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2HI2 H3CCHICHI - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C - C = C -H + 2(H – I) H - C- C – C - C- H
H I I H
(iv) Reaction with bromine/chlorine water.

Chlorine and bromine water is formed when the halogen is dissolved in distilled
water.Chlorine water has the formular HOCl(hypochlorous/chloric(I)acid) .Bromine
water has the formular HOBr(hydrobromic(I)acid).
During the addition reaction .the halogen move to one carbon and the OH to the
other carbon in the alkene at the =C=C= double bond to form a halogenoalkanol.
Bromine water + Alkene -> bromoalkanol

Chlorine water + Alkene -> bromoalkanol
Examples
1Ethene reacts with bromine water to form bromoethanol.

Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + HOBr H2 Br C - CH2 OH
H H H H
C = C + Br – OH Br - C – C - OH
H H H H
Ethene + Bromine water bromoethanol
2.Propene reacts with chlorine water to form chloropropan-2-ol / 2-chloropropan-1-

ol.
Chemical equation
I.H3C CH=CH2 + HOCl H3C CHCl - CH2OH

Propene + Chlorine water 2-chloropropane
H H H H H H
H C C =C + HO – Cl H - C – C - C- OH
33
H H H Cl H
II.H3C CH=CH2 + HOCl H3C CHOH - CH2Cl

Propene + Chlorine chloropropan-2-ol
H H H H H H
H C C =C + HO – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl
H H H OH H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene react with bromine water to form 2-bromobutan-1-
ol /3-bromobutan-2-ol respectively
Chemical equation
I.But-1-ene + bromine water 2-bromobutan-1-ol
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + HOBr H3C CH2CH Br - CH2OH
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + HO– Br H - C- C – C - C- OH
H H H H H Br H
II.But-2-ene + bromine water 3-bromobutan-2-ol

H3C CH= CHCH3 + HOBr H3C CH2OHCH Br CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + HO– Br H - C- C – C - C- OH
H H H H H Br H
4. But-1,3-diene reacts with bromine water to form Butan-1,3-diol.

The reaction uses two moles of bromine water molecules to break the two double
bonds.
But-1,3-diene + bromine water 2,4-dibromobutan-1,3-diol
H2C= CH CH=CH2 + 2HOBr H2COH CHBrCHOH CHBr

H H H H H H H H
34
H C C - C = C -H + 2(HO – Br) H - C- C – C - C- H
HO Br HO Br
(v) Oxidation.
Alkenes are oxidized to alkanols with duo/double functional groups by oxidizing
agents.
When an alkene is bubbled into orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate (VI)
solution,the colour of the oxidizing agent changes to green.
When an alkene is bubbled into purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII)
solution, the oxidizing agent is decolorized.
Examples
1Ethene is oxidized to ethan-1,2-diol by acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII)

solution/ acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution.
The purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII) solution is decolorized.
The orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution turns to green.
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 [O] in H+/K2Cr2O7 HO CH2 - CH2 OH
H H H H
C = C+ [O] in H+/KMnO4 H-C–C-H
H H OH OH
Ethene + [O] in H+/KMnO4 ethan-1,2-diol
2. Propene is oxidized to propan-1,2-diol by acidified potassium/sodium

manganate(VII) solution/ acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution.
The purple acidified potassium/sodium manganate(VII) solution is decolorized.
The orange acidified potassium/sodium dichromate(VI) solution turns to green.
Chemical equation
H3C CH=CH2 [O] in H+/KMnO4 H3C CHOH - CH2OH

Propene [O] in H+/KMnO4 propan-1,2-diol
H H H H H H
H C C =C [O] in H+/KMnO4 H - C – C - C- OH
35
H H H OH H
3.Both But-1-ene and But-2-ene react with bromine water to form butan-1,2-diol
and butan-2,3-diol
Chemical equation
I.But-1-ene + [O] in H+/KMnO4 butan-1,2-diol
H3C CH2 CH=CH2 + [O] H3C CH2CHOH - CH2OH
H H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + [O] H - C- C – C - C- OH
H H H H H OH H
(v) Hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a compound with water/addition of H-OH to a
compound.
Alkenes undergo hydrolysis to form alkanols .
This takes place in two steps:
(i)Alkenes react with concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid at room temperature and
pressure to form alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI).
Alkenes + concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid -> alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii)On adding water to alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI) then warming, an alkanol is

formed.
alkylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + water -warm-> Alkanol.
Examples
(i)Ethene reacts with cold concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form ethyl hydrogen
sulphate(VII)
Chemical equation
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3 - CH2OSO3H
H H H O-SO3H
C = C + H2SO4 H-C–C-H
36
H H H H
Ethene + H2SO4 ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii) Ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI) is hydrolysed by water to ethanol

Chemical equation
CH3 - CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 - CH2OH + H2SO4
H OSO3H H OH
H- C - C-H + H2O H - C – C - H + H2SO4
H H H H
ethylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + H2O Ethanol
2. Propene reacts with cold concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form propyl hydrogen

sulphate(VII)
Chemical equation
CH3H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3CH2 - CH2OSO3H
H H H H H O-SO3H
C = C - C - H + H2SO4 H- C-C–C-H
H H H H H H
Propene + H2SO4 propylhydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii) Propylhydrogen sulphate(VI) is hydrolysed by water to propanol

Chemical equation
CH3 - CH2OSO3H + H2O CH3 - CH2OH + H2SO4
H H OSO3H H H OH
H-C- C - C-H + H2O H - C - C – C - H + H2SO4
H H H H H H
propylhydrogen sulphate(VI) + H2O propanol
(vi) Polymerization/self addition
37
Addition polymerization is the process where a small unsaturated monomer (alkene )
molecule join together to form a large saturated molecule.
Only alkenes undergo addition polymerization.
Addition polymers are named from the alkene/monomer making the polymer and
adding the prefix “poly” before the name of monomer to form a polyalkene
During addition polymerization

(i)the double bond in alkenes break
(ii)free radicals are formed
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule.
The more collisions the larger the molecule.
Examples of addition polymerization
1.Formation of Polyethene
Polyethene is an addition polymer formed when ethene molecule/monomer join
together to form a large molecule/polymer at high temperatures and pressure.
During polymerization:
(i)many molecules are brought nearer to each other by the high pressure(which
reduces the volume occupied by reacting paticles)
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H H H H H H H H
Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the ethane molecule break to free readicals
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
H H H H H H H H
Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + …
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule
38
H H H H H H H H lone pair of electrons
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
H H H H H H H H
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer
polyethene.
Polyethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C-
H H H H H H H H
Since the molecule is a repetition of one monomer, then the polymer is:
H H
( C – C )n
H H
Where n is the number of monomers in the polymer. The number of monomers in
the polymer can be determined from the molar mass of the polymer and monomer
Number of monomers/repeating units in monomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
Examples
Polythene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of ethene molecules
in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in polyomer = Molar mass polymer

Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H4 )= 28 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 170 ethene molecules

28
The commercial name of polyethene is polythene.
39
It is an elastic, tough, transparent and durable plastic.
Polythene is used:
(i)in making plastic bag
(ii)bowls and plastic bags
(iii)packaging materials
2.Formation of Polychlorethene
Polychloroethene is an addition polymer formed when chloroethene
molecule/monomer join together to form a large molecule/polymer at high
temperatures and pressure.
reduces the volume occupied by reacting particles)
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the chloroethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
polychloroethene.
Polychloroethene molecule can be represented as:
40
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
H H
( C – C )n
H Cl
Examples
Polychlorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of chlorethene
molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0,Cl=35.5 )

Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H3Cl )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 77.16 => 77 polychloroethene molecules(whole number)

62.5
The commercial name of polychloroethene is polyvinylchloride(PVC). It is a
tough, non-transparent and durable plastic. PVC is used:
(i)in making plastic rope
(ii)water pipes
(iii)crates and boxes
3.Formation of Polyphenylethene
Polyphenylethene is an addition polymer formed when phenylethene
H H H H H H H H
41
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5
phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the phenylethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

polyphenylethene.
Polyphenylethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H
-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -
H H
( C – C )n
H C6H5
Examples
42
Polyphenylthene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
phenylethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )

Molar mass monomer
Substituting 4760 = 45.7692 =>45 polyphenylethene molecules(whole number)

104
The commercial name of polyphenylethene is polystyrene. It is a very light durable
plastic. Polystyrene is used:
(i)in making packaging material for carrying delicate items like computers,
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
4.Formation of Polypropene
Polypropene is an addition polymer formed when propene molecule/monomer join
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
propene + propene + propene + propene + …
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …

43
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …
Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer propene.
propene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H
-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -
H H
( C – C )n
H CH3
Examples
Polypropene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of propene
molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )

Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass propene (C3H8 )= 44 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 108.1818 =>108 propene molecules(whole number)

44
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
44
5.Formation of Polytetrafluorothene
Polytetrafluorothene is an addition polymer formed when tetrafluoroethene
F F F F F F F F
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene + tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the tetrafluoroethene molecule break to free radicals
F F F F F F F F
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F lone pair of electrons
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
F F F F F F F F
polytetrafluoroethene.
polytetrafluoroethene molecule can be represented as:
F F F F F F F F extension of
molecule/polymer
45
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …
F F F F F F F F
F F
( C – C )n
F F
Examples
Polytetrafluorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
tetrafluoroethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, ,F=19 )
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2F4 )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

62.5
The commercial name of polytetrafluorethene(P.T.F.E) is Teflon(P.T.F.E). It is a
(ii)water pipes
6.Formation of rubber from Latex

Natural rubber is obtained from rubber trees.
During harvesting an incision is made on the rubber tree to produce a milky white
substance called latex.
Latex is a mixture of rubber and lots of water.
The latex is then added an acid to coagulate the rubber.
Natural rubber is a polymer of 2-methylbut-1,3-diene ;
H CH3 H H
CH2=C (CH3) CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H
During natural polymerization to rubber, one double C=C bond break to self add to
another molecule.The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
46
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -
H H H H
Generally the structure of rubber is thus;
H CH3 H H
-(- C - C = C - C -)n-
H H
Pure rubber is soft and sticky.It is used to make erasers, car tyres. Most of it is
vulcanized.Vulcanization is the process of heating rubber with sulphur to make it
harder/tougher.
During vulcanization the sulphur atoms form a cross link between chains of rubber
molecules/polymers. This decreases the number of C=C double bonds in the
polymer.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sulphur atoms make
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - cross link between
polymers
H S H H S H
H CH3 S H H CH3 S H
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
H H H H H H
Vulcanized rubber is used to make tyres, shoes and valves.
7.Formation of synthetic rubber

Synthetic rubber is able to resist action of oil,abrasion and organic solvents which
rubber cannot.
Common synthetic rubber is a polymer of 2-chlorobut-1,3-diene ;
H Cl H H
47
CH2=C (Cl CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H
During polymerization to synthetic rubber, one double C=C bond is broken to self
add to another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
H Cl H H H Cl H H
- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -
H H H H
H Cl H H
-(- C - C = C - C -)n-
H H
Rubber is thus strengthened through vulcanization and manufacture of synthetic
rubber.
(c)Test for the presence of – C = C – double bond.
(i)Burning/combustion
All unsaturated hydrocarbons with a – C = C – or – C = C – bond burn with a

yellow sooty flame.
Experiment
Scoop a sample of the substance provided in a clean metallic spatula. Introduce it on
a Bunsen burner.
Observation Inference
Solid melt then burns with a – C = C –,
yellow sooty flame
– C = C – bond
(ii)Oxidation by acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7
Bromine water ,Chlorine water and Oxidizing agents acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7

change to unique colour in presence of – C = C –
48
or – C = C – bond.
Experiment
Scoop a sample of the substance provided into a clean test tube. Add 10cm3 of
distilled water. Shake. Take a portion of the solution mixture. Add three drops of
acidified KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 .
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized –C=C–
Orange colour of acidified K2Cr2O7 turns – C = C – bond

green
Bromine water is decolorized
Chlorine water is decolorized
(d)Some uses of Alkenes

1. In the manufacture of plastic
2. Hydrolysis of ethene is used in industrial manufacture of ethanol.
3. In ripening of fruits.
4. In the manufacture of detergents.
(iii) Alkynes
49
These are hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n-2 and C C double
bond as the functional group . n is the number of Carbon atoms in the molecule.
The carbon atoms are linked by at least one triple bond to each other and single
bonds to hydrogen atoms.
They include:
Molecular
formula
1 Does not exist -
2 C2H2 Ethyne
H C C H
CH CH
3 C3H4 H Propyne
H C C C H
H
CH C CH3
4 C4H6 H H Butyne
H C C C C H
H H
CH C CH2CH3
5 C5H8 H H H Pentyne
H C C C C C H
H H H
CH C (CH2)2CH3
6 C6H10 H H H H Hexyne
50
H C C C C C C H
H H H H
CH C (CH2)3CH3
7 C7H12 H H H H H Heptyne
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)4CH3
8 C8H14 H H H H H H Octyne
H C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)5CH3
9 C9H16 H H H H H H H Nonyne
H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)6CH3
10 C10H18 H H H H H H H H Decyne
H H H H H H H H
CH C (CH2)7CH3
Note
1. Since carbon is tetravalent ,each atom of carbon in the alkyne MUST always be
bonded using four covalent bond /four shared pairs of electrons including at the
triple bond.
2. Since Hydrogen is monovalent ,each atom of hydrogen in the alkyne MUST
51
3. One member of the alkyne ,like alkenes and alkanes, differ from the next/previous
by a CH2 group(molar mass of 14 atomic mass units).They thus form a homologous
series.
e.g
Propyne differ from ethyne by (14 a.m.u) one carbon and two Hydrogen atoms from
ethyne.
4.A homologous series of alkenes like that of alkanes:
(ii) have similar chemical properties
(iii)have similar chemical formula with general formula CnH2n-2
(iv)the physical properties also show steady gradual change
5.The - C = C - triple bond in alkyne is the functional group. The functional group
is the reacting site of the alkynes.
6. The - C = C - triple bond in alkyne can easily be broken to accommodate more
/four more monovalent atoms. The - C = C - triple bond in alkynes make it thus
unsaturated like alkenes.
7. Most of the reactions of alkynes like alkenes take place at the - C = C- triple
bond.
(b)Isomers of alkynes
Isomers of alkynes have the same molecular general formula but different
molecular structural formula.
Isomers of alkynes are also named by using the IUPAC(International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry) system of nomenclature/naming.
The IUPAC system of nomenclature of naming alkynes uses the following basic
rules/guidelines:
1.Identify the longest continuous/straight carbon chain which contains the - C = C-

triple bond to get/determine the parent alkene.
2. Number the longest chain form the end of the chain which contains the -C = C-
triple bond so as - C = C- triple bond get lowest number possible.
3 Indicate the positions by splitting “alk-positions-yne” e.g. but-2-yne, pent-1,3-

diyne.
4.The position indicated must be for the carbon atom at the lower position in the
-C = C- triple bond. i.e
But-2-yne means the triple -C = C- is between Carbon “2”and “3”
Pent-1,3-diyne means there are two triple bonds; one between carbon “1” and
“2”and another between carbon “3” and “4”
52
ethyl, propyl e.tc. according to the number of alkyl carbon chains attached to the
alkyne. Name them fluoro-,chloro-,bromo-,iodo- if they are halogens
6.Use prefix di-,tri-,tetra-,penta-,hexa- to show the number of triple - C = C-

bonds and branches attached to the alkyne.
7.Position isomers can be formed when the - C = C- triple bond is shifted between
carbon atoms e.g.
But-2-yne means the double - C = C- is between Carbon “2”and “3”
But-1-yne means the double - C = C- is between Carbon “1”and “2”
Both But-1-yne and But-2-yne are position isomers of Butyne.
9. Like alkanes and alkynes , an alkyl group can be attached to the alkyne.
Chain/branch isomers are thus formed.
Butyne and 2-methyl propyne both have the same general formular but different
branching chain.
(More on powerpoint)
(c)Preparation of Alkynes.
Ethyne is prepared from the reaction of water on calcium carbide. The reaction is
highly exothermic and thus a layer of sand should be put above the calcium carbide
to absorb excess heat to prevent the reaction flask from breaking.
Copper(II)sulphate(VI) is used to catalyze the reaction
Chemical equation
53
CaC2(s) + 2 H2O(l) -> Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + C2H2 (g)
(d)Properties of alkynes
Like alkanes and alkenes,alkynes are colourles gases, solids and liquids that are not
poisonous.
They are slightly soluble in water. The solubility in water decrease as the carbon
chain and as the molar mass increase but very soluble in organic solvents like
tetrachloromethane and methylbenzene. Ethyne has a pleasant taste when pure.
chain increase. The 1st three straight chain alkynes (ethyne,propyne and but-1-
yne)are gases at room temperature and pressure.
The density of straight chain alkynes increase with increasing carbon chain as the
intermolecular forces increases reducing the volume occupied by a given mass of the
alkyne.
Summary of physical properties of the 1st five alkenes

Alkyne General formula Melting Boiling State at room(298K)
o o
point( C) point( C) temperature and
pressure atmosphere
(101300Pa)
Ethyne CH CH -82 -84 gas
Propyne CH3 C CH -103 -23 gas
Butyne CH3CH2 CCH -122 8 gas
Pent-1-yne CH3(CH2) 2 CCH -119 39 liquid
Hex-1-yne CH3(CH2) 3C -132 71 liquid
CH
II. Chemical properties

(a)Burning/combustion
Alkynes burn with a yellow/ luminous very sooty/ smoky flame in excess air to form
Alkyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
Alkenes burn with a yellow/ luminous verysooty/ smoky flame in limited air to
form carbon(II) oxide/carbon and water.
54
Alkyne + Air -> carbon(II) oxide /carbon + water (limited air)
Burning of alkynes with a yellow/ luminous sooty/ smoky flame is a confirmatory
test for the presence of the - C = C – triple bond because they have very high
C:H ratio.
Examples of burning alkynes

1.(a) Ethyne when ignited burns with a yellow very sooty flame in excess air to form
Ethyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) -> 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(b) Ethyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form a
mixture of unburnt carbon and carbon(II) oxide and water.
Ethyne + Air -> carbon(II) oxide + water (limited air )
C2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + C + 2H2O(l/g)
2.(a) Propyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in excess air to form
Propyne + Air -> carbon(IV) oxide + water (excess air/oxygen)
C3H4(g) + 4O2(g) -> 3CO2(g) + 2H2O(l/g)
(a) Propyne when ignited burns with a yellow sooty flame in limited air to form
2C3H4(g) + 5O2(g) -> 6CO(g) + 4H2O(l/g)
(b)Addition reactions
An addition reaction is one which an unsaturated compound reacts to form a
saturated compound. Addition reactions of alkynes are also named from the reagent
used to cause the addition/convert the triple - C = C- to single C- C bond.
(i)Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen in presence of
Palladium/Nickel catalyst at 150oC temperatures react with alkynes to form alkenes
then alkanes.
Examples
1.During hydrogenation, two hydrogen atom in the hydrogen molecule attach itself
to one carbon and the other two hydrogen to the second carbon breaking the triple
bond to double the single.
Chemical equation
55
HC = CH + H2 -Ni/Pa -> H2C = CH2 + H2 -Ni/Pa -> H2C - CH2
H H H H H H
C = C + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H - C = C – H + H – H - Ni/Pa -> H - C - C – H
H H H H H H
2.Propyne undergo hydrogenation to form Propane
Chemical equation
H3C CH = CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH - CH3
H H H H H H
H C C =C + 2H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C – C - C- H
H H H H H
3(a) But-1-yne undergo hydrogenation to form Butane

Chemical equation
But-1-yne + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H H
H C C- C =C + 2H – H - Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H H
(b) But-2-yne undergo hydrogenation to form Butane
Chemical equation
But-2-yne + Hydrogen –Ni/Pa-> Butane
H3C C = C CH2 + 2H2 -Ni/Pa-> H3C CH2CH - CH3
H H H H H H
H C C = C - C H + 2H – H- Ni/Pa-> H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H H
56
(ii) Halogenation.
Halogenation is an addition reaction in which a halogen (Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine) reacts with an alkyne to form an alkene then alkane.
The reaction of alkynes with halogens with alkynes is faster than with alkenes. The
triple bond in the alkyne break and form a double then single bond.
The colour of the halogen fades as the number of moles of the halogens remaining
unreacted decreases.
Two bromine atoms bond at the 1st carbon in the triple bond while the other two
goes to the 2nd carbon.
Examples
1Ethyne reacts with brown bromine vapour to form 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane.
Chemical equation
HC = CH + 2Br2 H Br2 C - CH Br2
H H H H
C = C + 2Br – Br Br - C – C - Br
Br Br
Ethyne + Bromine 1,1,2,1-tetrabromoethane
2.Propyne reacts with chlorine to form 1,1,2,2-tetrachloropropane.

Chemical equation
H3C C = CH + 2Cl2 H3C CHCl2 - CHCl2
Propyne + Chlorine 1,1,2,2-tetrachloropropane
H H Cl H
H C C =C + 2Cl – Cl H - C – C - C- Cl
H H H Cl Cl
Propyne + Iodine 1,1,2,2-tetraiodopropane
H3C C = CH + 2I2 H3C CHI2 - CHI2
H H H H H I H
H C C- C =C + 2I – I H - C- C – C - C- I
H H H H I I
57
3(a)But-1-yne undergo halogenation to form 1,1,2,2-tetraiodobutane with iodine
Chemical equation
But-1-yne + iodine 1,1,2,2-tetrabromobutane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2I2 H3C CH2C I2 - CHI2
H H H H I I
H C C - C = C -H + 2I – I H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H I I
(b) But-2-yne undergo halogenation to form 2,2,3,3-tetrafluorobutane with fluorine
But-2-yne + Fluorine 2,2,3,3-tetrafluorobutane

H3C C = C -CH2 + 2F2 H3C CF2CF2 - CH3
H H H H H H H H
H C C = C - C -H + F – F H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H H
4. But-1,3-diyne should undergo halogenation to form 1,1,2,3,3,4,4 octaiodobutane.
The reaction uses four moles of iodine molecules/eight iodine atoms to break the
two(2) triple double bonds at carbon “1” and “2”.
But-1,3-diene + iodine 1,2,3,4-tetraiodobutane
H C = C C = C H + 4I2 H C I2 C I2 C I2 C H I2
I I I I
H C C - C = C -H + 4(I – I) H - C- C – C - C- H
I I I I
(iii) Reaction with hydrogen halides.

Hydrogen halides reacts with alkyne to form a halogenoalkene then
halogenoalkane. The triple bond in the alkyne break and form a double then single
bond.
58
The main compound is one which the hydrogen atom bond at the carbon with more
hydrogen .
Examples
1. Ethyne reacts with hydrogen bromide to form bromoethane.
Chemical equation
HC=CH + 2HBr H3 C - CH Br2
H H H H
C = C + 2H – Br H - C – C - Br
H Br
Ethyne + Bromine 1,1-dibromoethane
2. Propyne reacts with hydrogen iodide to form 2,2-diiodopropane (as the main
product )
Chemical equation
H3C C = CH + 2HI H3C CHI2 - CH3
Propene + Chlorine 2,2-dichloropropane
Carbon atom with
H H I H
more Hydrogen atoms
gets extra hydrogen
H C C =C + 2H – I H - C – C - C- H
H H H I H
3. Both But-1-yne and But-2-yne reacts with hydrogen bromide to form 2,2-
dibromobutane
Chemical equation
But-1-ene + hydrogen bromide 2,2-dibromobutane
H3C CH2 C = CH + 2HBr H3C CH2CHBr -CH3
H H H H Br H
H C C - C = C + 2H – Br H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H H H Br H
59
But-2-yne + Hydrogen bromide 2,2-dibromobutane
H3C C = C -CH3 + 2HBr H3C CBr2CH2 - CH3
H H H Br H H
H C C = C - C -H + 2Br – H H - C- C – C - C- H
H H H Br H H
4. But-1,3-diene react with hydrogen iodide to form 2,3- diiodobutane. The

reaction uses four moles of hydrogen iodide molecules/four iodine atoms and two
hydrogen atoms to break the two double bonds.
But-1,3-diyne + iodine 2,2,3,3-tetraiodobutane
H C = C C = C H + 4HI H3C C I2 C I2 CH3
H H H I I H
H C C - C = C -H + 4(H – I) H - C- C – C - C- H
H I I H
B.ALKANOLS(Alcohols)
60
(A) INTRODUCTION.
Alkanols belong to a homologous series of organic compounds with a general

formula CnH2n +1 OH and thus -OH as the functional group .The 1st ten alkanols
include
n General / Structural formula IUPAC
molecular name
formular
1 CH3OH
H – C –O - H Methanol
│
H
2 CH3 CH2OH H H Ethanol

C2H5 OH
H C – C –O - H
│
H H
3 CH3 (CH2)2OH H H H Propanol

C3H7 OH
H C – C - C –O - H
│
H H H
4 CH3 (CH2)3OH H H H H Butanol

C4H9 OH
H C – C - C - C –O - H
│
H H H H
5 CH3(CH2)4OH H H H H H Pentanol
C5H11 OH
H C – C - C- C- C –O - H
│
H H H H H
6 CH3(CH2)5OH H H H H H H Hexanol
C6H13 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C - O - H
│
61
H H H H H H
7 CH3(CH2)6OH H H H H H H H Heptanol
C7H15 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- O - H
│
H H H H H H H
8 CH3(CH2)7OH H H H H H H H H Octanol
C8H17 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C -O - H
│
H H H H H H H H
9 CH3(CH2)8OH H H H H H H H H H Nonanol
C9H19 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C –C- O - H
│
H H H H H H H H H
10 CH3(CH2)9OH H H H H H H H H H H Decanol
C10H21 OH
H C – C - C- C- C– C –C- C –C- C-O - H
│
H H H H H H H H H H
Alkanols like Hydrocarbons( alkanes/alkenes/alkynes) form a homologous series

where:
(i)general name is derived from the alkane name then ending with “-ol”
(ii)the members have –OH as the fuctional group
(iii)they have the same general formula represented by R-OH where R is an alkyl
group.
(iv) each member differ by –CH2 group from the next/previous.
(v)they show a similar and gradual change in their physical properties e.g. boiling
and melting points.
(vi)they show similar and gradual change in their chemical properties.
B. ISOMERS OF ALKANOLS.
62
Alkanols exhibit both structural and position isomerism. The isomers are named by
using the following basic guidelines:
(i)Like alkanes , identify the longest carbon chain to be the parent name.
(ii)Identify the position of the -OH functional group to give it the smallest /lowest
position.
(iii) Identify the type and position of the side branches.
Practice examples of isomers of alkanols
(i)Isomers of propanol C3H7OH

CH3CH2CH2OH - Propan-1-ol
OH
CH3CHCH3 - Propan-2-ol
Propan-2-ol and Propan-1-ol are position isomers because only the position of the –
OH functional group changes.
(ii)Isomers of Butanol C4H9OH
CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 OH Butan-1-ol
CH3 CH2 CH CH3
OH Butan-2-ol
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3
OH 2-methylpropan-2-ol
Butan-2-ol and Butan-1-ol are position isomers because only the position of the
-OH functional group changes.
2-methylpropan-2-ol is both a structural and position isomers because both the
position of the functional group and the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule
changes.
(iii)Isomers of Pentanol C5H11OH
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2CH2 OH Pentan-1-ol (Position isomer)

63
CH3 CH2 CH CH3
OH Pentan-2-ol (Position isomer)
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3
OH Pentan-3-ol (Position isomer)
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 C CH3
OH 2-methylbutan-2-ol (Position /structural isomer)
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 C CHOH
CH3 2,2-dimethylbutan-1-ol (Position /structural isomer)
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH C CH3
CH3 OH 2,3-dimethylbutan-1-ol (Position /structural isomer)
(iv)1,2-dichloropropan-2-ol
CClH2 CCl CH3
OH
(v)1,2-dichloropropan-1-ol
CClH2 CHCl CH2
OH
64
(vi) Ethan1,2-diol
H H
HOCH2CH2OH H-O - C - C – O-H
H H
(vii) Propan1,2,3-triol H OH H
HOCH2CHOHCH2OH H-O - C- C – C – O-H

H H H
C. LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ALKANOLS.
For decades the world over, people have been fermenting grapes juice, sugar,
carbohydrates and starch to produce ethanol as a social drug for relaxation.
In large amount, drinking of ethanol by mammals /human beings causes mental and
physical lack of coordination.
Prolonged intake of ethanol causes permanent mental and physical lack of
coordination because it damages vital organs like the liver.
Fermentation is the reaction where sugar is converted to alcohol/alkanol using
biological catalyst/enzymes in yeast.
It involves three processes:
(i)Conversion of starch to maltose using the enzyme diastase.
(C6H10O5)n (s) + H2O(l) --diastase enzyme --> C12H22O11(aq)

(Starch) (Maltose)
(ii)Hydrolysis of Maltose to glucose using the enzyme maltase.
C12H22O11(aq)+ H2O(l) -- maltase enzyme -->2 C6H12O6(aq)

(Maltose) (glucose)
(iii)Conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon(IV)oxide gas using the enzyme

zymase.
C6H12O6(aq) -- zymase enzyme --> 2 C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

(glucose) (Ethanol)
At concentration greater than 15% by volume, the ethanol produced kills the yeast
enzyme stopping the reaction.
65
To increases the concentration, fractional distillation is done to produce spirits (e.g.
Brandy=40% ethanol).
Methanol is much more poisonous /toxic than ethanol.
Taken large quantity in small quantity it causes instant blindness and liver, killing
the consumer victim within hours.
School laboratory preparation of ethanol from fermentation of glucose

Measure 100cm3 of pure water into a conical flask.
Add about five spatula end full of glucose.
Stir the mixture to dissolve.
Add about one spatula end full of yeast.
Set up the apparatus as below.
Preserve the mixture for about three days.
D.PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOLS

Use the prepared sample above for the following experiments that shows the
characteristic properties of alkanols
(a) Role of yeast
66
Yeast is a single cell fungus which contains the enzyme maltase and zymase that
catalyse the fermentation process.
(b) Observations in lime water.

A white precipitate is formed that dissolve to a colourless solution later. Lime
water/Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon(IV)0xide produced during the
fermentation to form insoluble calcium carbonate and water.
More carbon (IV)0xide produced during fermentation react with the insoluble
calcium carbonate and water to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s)

H2O(l) + CO2 (g) + CaCO3(s) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
(c)Effects on litmus paper

Experiment
Take the prepared sample and test with both blue and red litmus papers.
Repeat the same with pure ethanol and methylated spirit.
Sample Observation table
Substance/alkanol Effect on litmus paper

Prepared sample Blue litmus paper remain blue
Red litmus paper remain red
Absolute ethanol Blue litmus paper remain blue
Methylated spirit Blue litmus paper remain blue
Explanation
Alkanols are neutral compounds/solution that have characteristic sweet smell and
taste.
They have no effect on both blue and red litmus papers.
(d)Solubility in water.
Experiment
Place about 5cm3 of prepared sample into a clean test tube Add equal amount of
distilled water.
Repeat the same with pure ethanol and methylated spirit.
Observation
No layers formed between the two liquids.
Explanation
Ethanol is miscible in water.Both ethanol and water are polar compounds .
67
The solubility of alkanols decrease with increase in the alkyl chain/molecular mass.
The alkyl group is insoluble in water while –OH functional group is soluble in
water.
As the molecular chain becomes longer ,the effect of the alkyl group increases as
the effect of the functional group decreases.
e)Melting/boiling point.
Experiment
Place pure ethanol in a long boiling tube .Determine its boiling point.
Observation
Pure ethanol has a boiling point of 78oC at sea level/one atmosphere pressure.
Explanation
The melting and boiling point of alkanols increase with increase in molecular
chain/mass .
This is because the intermolecular/van-der-waals forces of attraction between the
molecules increase.
More heat energy is thus required to weaken the longer chain during melting and
break during boiling.
f)Density
Density of alkanols increase with increase in the intermolecular/van-der-waals forces
of attraction between the molecule, making it very close to each other.
This reduces the volume occupied by the molecule and thus increase the their mass
per unit volume (density).
Summary table showing the trend in physical properties of alkanols
Alkanol Melting point Boiling point Density Solubility in water

(oC) (oC) gcm-3
Methanol -98 65 0.791 soluble
Ethanol -117 78 0.789 soluble
Propanol -103 97 0.803 soluble
Butanol -89 117 0.810 Slightly soluble
Pentanol -78 138 0.814 Slightly soluble
Hexanol -52 157 0.815 Slightly soluble
Heptanol -34 176 0.822 Slightly soluble
Octanol -15 195 0.824 Slightly soluble
Nonanol -7 212 0.827 Slightly soluble
Decanol 6 228 0.827 Slightly soluble
68
g)Burning
Experiment
Place the prepared sample in a watch glass. Ignite. Repeat with pure ethanol and
methylated spirit.
Observation/Explanation
Fermentation produce ethanol with a lot of water(about a ratio of 1:3)which prevent
the alcohol from igniting.
Pure ethanol and methylated spirit easily catch fire / highly flammable.
They burn with an almost colourless non-sooty/non-smoky blue flame to form
carbon(IV) oxide (in excess air/oxygen)or carbon(II) oxide (limited air) and
water.
Ethanol is thus a saturated compound like alkanes.
Chemica equation
C2 H5OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 3H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g) ( excess air)
C2 H5OH(l) + 2O2 (g) -> 3H2O(l) + 2CO (g) ( limited air)
2CH3OH(l) + 3O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g) ( excess air)

2 CH3OH(l) + 2O2 (g) -> 4H2O(l) + 2CO (g) ( limited air)
2C3 H7OH(l) + 9O2 (g) -> 8H2O(l) + 6CO2 (g) ( excess air)
2C4 H9OH(l) + 13O2 (g) -> 20H2O(l) + 8CO2 (g) ( excess air)
Due to its flammability, ethanol is used;

(i) as a fuel in spirit lamps
(ii) as gasohol when blended with gasoline
(h)Formation of alkoxides
Experiment
Cut a very small piece of sodium. Put it in a beaker containing about 20cm3 of the
prepared sample in a beaker.
Test the products with litmus papers. Repeat with absolute ethanol and methylated
spirit.
Sample observations
Substance/alkanol Effect of adding sodium
Fermentation prepared sample (i)effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
69
(ii)colourless gas produced that
extinguish burning splint with explosion/
“Pop” sound
(iii)colourless solution formed
(iv)blue litmus papers remain blue
(v)red litmus papers turn blue
Pure/absolute ethanol/methylated spirit (i)slow effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
(ii)colourless gas slowly produced that
extinguish burning splint with explosion/
“Pop” sound
(iii)colourless solution formed
(iv)blue litmus papers remain blue
(v)red litmus papers turn blue
Explanations
Sodium/potassium reacts slowly with alkanols to form basic solution called
alkoxides and producing hydrogen gas.
If the alkanol has some water the metals react faster with the water to form soluble
hydroxides/alkalis i.e.
Sodium + Alkanol -> Sodium alkoxides + Hydrogen gas

Potassium + Alkanol -> Potassium alkoxides + Hydrogen gas
Sodium + Water -> Sodium hydroxides + Hydrogen gas

Potassium + Water -> Potassium hydroxides + Hydrogen gas
Examples
1.Sodium metal reacts with ethanol to form sodium ethoxide
Sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
2.Potassium metal reacts with ethanol to form Potassium ethoxide

Potassium metal reacts with water to form Potassium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2K(s) -> 2CH3CH2OK (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2K(s) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2 (s)
3.Sodium metal reacts with propanol to form sodium propoxide

2CH3CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
70
4.Potassium metal reacts with propanol to form Potassium propoxide
Potassium metal reacts with water to form Potassium Hydroxide
2CH3CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2K(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2OK (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2K(s) -> 2KOH (aq) + H2 (s)
5.Sodium metal reacts with butanol to form sodium butoxide

2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
6.Sodium metal reacts with pentanol to form sodium pentoxide

2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l)+2Na(s) -> 2CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2ONa (aq) + H2 (s)
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (s)
(i)Formation of Esters/Esterification
Experiment
Place 2cm3 of ethanol in a boiling tube.
Add equal amount of ethanoic acid.To the mixture add carefully 2drops of
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.
Warm/Heat gently.
Pour the mixture into a beaker containing about 50cm3 of cold water.
Smell the products.
Repeat with methanol
Sample observations
Substance/alkanol Effect on adding equal amount of

ethanol/concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid
Absolute ethanol Sweet fruity smell
Methanol Sweet fruity smell
Explanation
Alkanols react with alkanoic acids to form a group of homologous series of sweet
smelling compounds called esters and water. This reaction is catalyzed by
concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in the laboratory.
Alkanol + Alkanoic acid –Conc. H2SO4-> Ester + water
Naturally esterification is catalyzed by sunlight. Each ester has a characteristic smell

derived from the many possible combinations of alkanols and alkanoic acids that
71
create a variety of known natural(mostly in fruits) and synthetic(mostly in juices)
esters .
Esters derive their names from the alkanol first then alkanoic acids. The alkanol
“becomes” an alkyl group and the alkanoic acid “becomes” alkanoate hence
alkylalkanoate. e.g.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid -> Ethylethanoate + Water

Ethanol + Propanoic acid -> Ethylpropanoate + Water
Ethanol + Methanoic acid -> Ethylmethanoate + Water
Ethanol + butanoic acid -> Ethylbutanoate + Water
Propanol + Ethanoic acid -> Propylethanoate + Water
Methanol + Ethanoic acid -> Methyethanoate + Water
Methanol + Decanoic acid -> Methyldecanoate + Water
Decanol + Methanoic acid -> Decylmethanoate + Water
During the formation of the ester, the “O” joining the alkanol and alkanoic acid
comes from the alkanol.
R1 -COOH + R2 –OH -> R1 -COO –R2 + H2O
e.g.
1. Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester ethyl ethanoate and water.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO C2H5(aq) +H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
2. Ethanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester ethylpropanoate and water.
Ethanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->CH3CH2COO C2H5(aq) +H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->
CH3 CH2COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
3. Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester methyl ethanoate and water.
Methanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylethanoate + Water
CH3OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
4. Methanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester methyl propanoate and
water.
Methanol + propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylpropanoate + Water
CH3OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
5. Propanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester propylpropanoate and water.
72
Propanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->
CH3 CH2COOCH2 CH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
(j)Oxidation
Experiment
Place 5cm3 of absolute ethanol in a test tube.Add three drops of acidified potassium
manganate(VII).Shake thoroughly for one minute/warm.Test the solution mixture
using pH paper. Repeat by adding acidified potassium dichromate(VII).
Sample observation table
Substance/alkanol Adding acidified pH of resulting Nature of resulting
KMnO4/K2Cr2O7 solution/mixture solution/mixture
Pure ethanol (i)Purple colour of pH= 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
KMnO4decolorized
(ii) Orange colour pH = 4/5/6 Weakly acidic

of K2Cr2O7turns
green.
Explanation
Both acidified KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are oxidizing agents(add oxygen to other
compounds. They oxidize alkanols to a group of homologous series called alkanals
then further oxidize them to alkanoic acids.The oxidizing agents are themselves
reduced hence changing their colour:
(i) Purple KMnO4 is reduced to colourless Mn2+
(ii)Orange K2Cr2O7is reduced to green Cr3+
The pH of alkanoic acids show they have few H+ because they are weak acids i.e
Alkanol + [O] -> Alkanal + [O] -> alkanoic acid
NB The [O] comes from the oxidizing agents acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7
Examples
1.When ethanol is warmed with three drops of acidified KMnO4 there is
decolorization of KMnO4
Ethanol + [O] -> Ethanal + [O] -> Ethanoic acid

CH3CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH
2.When methanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange
colour of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
73
methanol + [O] -> methanal + [O] -> methanoic acid
CH3OH + [O] -> CH3O + [O] -> HCOOH
3.When propanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange colour
of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
Propanol + [O] -> Propanal + [O] -> Propanoic acid
CH3CH2 CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2 CH2O + [O] -> CH3 CH2COOH
4.When butanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange colour
of acidified K2Cr2O7 changes to green.
Butanol + [O] -> Butanal + [O] -> Butanoic acid
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH + [O] ->CH3CH2 CH2CH2O +[O] -> CH3 CH2COOH
Air slowly oxidizes ethanol to dilute ethanoic acid commonly called vinegar. If beer
is not tightly corked, a lot of carbon(IV)oxide escapes and there is slow oxidation of
the beer making it “flat”.
(k)Hydrolysis /Hydration and Dehydration

I. Hydrolysis/Hydration is the reaction of a compound/substance with water.
Alkenes react with water vapour/steam at high temperatures and high pressures in
presence of phosphoric acid catalyst to form alkanols.i.e.
Alkenes + Water - H3PO4 catalyst-> Alkanol
Examples
(i)Ethene is mixed with steam over a phosphoric acid catalyst at 300 oC temperature
and 60 atmosphere pressure to form ethanol
Ethene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Ethanol
H2C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2OH(l)
This is the main method of producing large quantities of ethanol instead of
fermentation
(ii) Propene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Propanol
CH3C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2 CH2OH(l)
(iii) Butene + water ---60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> Butanol
CH3 CH2 C=CH2 (g) + H2O(l) --60 atm/300oC/ H3PO4 --> CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l)
II. Dehydration is the process which concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid (dehydrating

agent) removes water from a compound/substances.
Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid dehydrates alkanols to the corresponding alkenes at
about 180oC. i.e
Alkanol --Conc. H2 SO4/180oC--> Alkene + Water
Examples
74
1. At 180oC and in presence of Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid, ethanol undergoes
dehydration to form ethene.
Ethanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Ethene + Water
o
CH3 CH2OH(l) --180 C/ H2SO4 --> H2C =CH2 (g) + H2O(l)
2. Propanol undergoes dehydration to form propene.
Propanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Propene + Water
o
CH3 CH2 CH2OH(l) --180 C/ H2SO4 --> CH3CH =CH2 (g) + H2O(l)
3. Butanol undergoes dehydration to form Butene.
Butanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Butene + Water
o
CH3 CH2 CH2CH2OH(l) --180 C/ H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2C =CH2 (g)
+ H2O(l)
3. Pentanol undergoes dehydration to form Pentene.
Pentanol ---180oC/ H2SO4 --> Pentene + Water
o
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2OH(l)--180 C/ H2SO4-->CH3 CH2 CH2C =CH2 (g)+H2O(l)
(l)Similarities of alkanols with Hydrocarbons

I. Similarity with alkanes
Both alkanols and alkanes burn with a blue non-sooty flame to form
carbon(IV)oxide(in excess air/oxygen)/carbon(II)oxide(in limited air) and water.
This shows they are saturated with high C:H ratio. e.g.
Both ethanol and ethane ignite and burns in air with a blue non-sooty flame to form
carbon(IV)oxide(in excess air/oxygen)/carbon(II)oxide(in limited air) and water.
CH2 CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) -Excess air-> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)

CH2 CH2OH(l) + 2O2(g) -Limited air-> 2CO (g) + 3H2 O(l)
CH3 CH3(g) + 3O2(g) -Excess air-> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)

2CH3 CH3(g) + 5O2(g) -Limited air-> 4CO (g) + 6H2 O(l)
II. Similarity with alkenes/alkynes

Both alkanols(R-OH) and alkenes/alkynes(with = C = C = double and – C = C-
triple ) bond:
(i)decolorize acidified KMnO4
(ii)turns Orange acidified K2Cr2O7 to green.
Alkanols(R-OH) are oxidized to alkanals(R-O) ant then alkanoic acids(R-OOH).
Alkenes are oxidized to alkanols with duo/double functional groups.
Examples
1.When ethanol is warmed with three drops of acidified K2Cr2O7 the orange of
acidified K2Cr2O7 turns to green. Ethanol is oxidized to ethanol and then to ethanoic
acid.
75
Ethanol + [O] -> Ethanal + [O] -> Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2OH + [O] -> CH3CH2O + [O] -> CH3COOH
2.When ethene is bubbled in a test tube containing acidified K2Cr2O7 ,the orange of
acidified K2Cr2O7 turns to green. Ethene is oxidized to ethan-1,2-diol.
Ethene + [O] -> Ethan-1,2-diol.
H2C=CH2 + [O] -> HOCH2 -CH2OH
III. Differences with alkenes/alkynes

Alkanols do not decolorize bromine and chlorine water.
Alkenes decolorizes bromine and chlorine water to form halogenoalkanols
Example
When ethene is bubbled in a test tube containing bromine water,the bromine water is
decolorized. Ethene is oxidized to bromoethanol.
Ethene + Bromine water -> Bromoethanol.
H2C=CH2 + HOBr -> BrCH2 -CH2OH
IV. Differences in melting and boiling point with Hydrocarbons

Alkanos have higher melting point than the corresponding hydrocarbon
(alkane/alkene/alkyne)
This is because most alkanols exist as dimer.A dimer is a molecule made up of two
other molecules joined usually by van-der-waals forces/hydrogen bond or dative
bonding.
Two alkanol molecules form a dimer joined by hydrogen bonding.
Example
In Ethanol the oxygen atom attracts/pulls the shared electrons in the covalent bond
more to itself than Hydrogen.
This creates a partial negative charge (δ-) on oxygen and partial positive charge(δ+)
on hydrogen.
Two ethanol molecules attract each other at the partial charges through Hydrogen
bonding forming a dimmer.
H H H Hydrogen bonds
H C C O H H Covalent bonds
H H H O C C H
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H H
Dimerization of alkanols means more energy is needed to break/weaken the
Hydrogen bonds before breaking/weakening the intermolecular forces joining the
molecules of all organic compounds during boiling/melting.
E.USES OF SOME ALKANOLS

(a)Methanol is used as industrial alcohol and making methylated spirit
(b)Ethanol is used:
1. as alcohol in alcoholic drinks e.g Beer, wines and spirits.
2.as antiseptic to wash woulds
3.in manufacture of vanishes, ink ,glue and paint because it is volatile and thus
easily evaporate
4.as a fuel when blended with petrol to make gasohol.
B.ALKANOIC ACIDS (Carboxylic acids)
(A) INTRODUCTION.
Alkanoic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds with a general

formula CnH2n +1 COOH and thus -COOH as the functional group .The 1st ten
alkanoic acids include:
77
Alkanoic acids like alkanols /alkanes/alkenes/alkynes form a homologous series
where:
(i)the general name of an alkanoic acids is derived from the alkane name then
ending with “–oic” acid as the table above shows.
(ii) the members have R-COOH/R C-O-H as the functional group.
n General /molecular Structural formula IUPAC

formular name
0 HCOOH Methanoic
H – C –O - H acid
│
O
1 CH3 COOH H Ethanoic
acid
H–C –C–O-H
│
H O
2 CH3 CH2 COOH H H Propanoic
C2 H5 COOH acid
H-C – C – C – O – H
H H O
3 CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH H H H Butanoic
C3 H7 COOH acid
H- C - C – C – C – O – H
H H H O
4 CH3CH2CH2CH2 H H H H Pentanoic
COOH acid
C4 H9 COOH H- C–C- C–C –C–O–H
H H H H O
5 CH3CH2 CH2CH2CH2 H H H H H Hexanoic
COOH acid
C5 H11 COOH H C- C–C- C–C –C–O–H
H H H H H O
6 CH3CH2 CH2 H H H H H H Pentanoic

CH2CH2CH2 COOH acid
C6 H13 COOH H C C-
78 C–C- C–C–C–O–H
H H H H H H O
O
(iii)they have the same general formula represented by R-COOH where R is
an alkyl group.
(iv)each member differ by –CH2- group from the next/previous.
(v)they show a similar and gradual change in their physical properties e.g.
boiling and melting point.
(vi)they show similar and gradual change in their chemical properties.
(vii) since they are acids they show similar properties with mineral acids.
(B) ISOMERS OF ALKANOIC ACIDS.
Alkanoic acids exhibit both structural and position isomerism. The isomers are
named by using the following basic guidelines
(i)Like alkanes. identify the longest carbon chain to be the parent name.
(ii)Identify the position of the -C-O-H functional group to give it the smallest
O
/lowest position.
(iii)Identify the type and position of the side group branches.
Practice examples on isomers of alkanoic acids

1.Isomers of butanoic acid C3H7COOH
CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH
Butan-1-oic acid
CH3
H2C C COOH 2-methylpropan-1-oic acid
2-methylpropan-1-oic acid and Butan-1-oic acid are structural isomers because the
position of the functional group does not change but the arrangement of the atoms in
the molecule does.
2.Isomers of pentanoic acid C4H9COOH
CH3CH2CH2CH2 COOH pentan-1-oic acid
CH3
CH3CH2CH COOH 2-methylbutan-1-oic acid
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CH3
H3C C COOH 2,2-dimethylpropan-1-oic acid
CH3
3.Ethan-1,2-dioic acid
O O
HOOC- COOH // H-O–C-C–O–H
4.Propan-1,3-dioic acid
O H O
HOOC- CH2COOH // H-O–C–C-C–O–H
5.Butan-1,4-dioic acid
O H H O
HOOC CH2 CH2 COOH H- O – C – C - C – C –O – H
H H
6.2,2-dichloroethan-1,2-dioic acid
HOOCCHCl2 Cl
H – O - C – C – Cl
O H
(C) LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATIONOF ALKANOIC

ACIDS.
In a school laboratory, alkanoic acids can be prepared by adding an oxidizing agent

(H+/KMnO4 or H+/K2Cr2O7)to the corresponding alkanol then warming.
80
The oxidation converts the alkanol first to an alkanal the alkanoic acid.
NB Acidified KMnO4 is a stronger oxidizing agent than acidified K2Cr2O7
General equation:
R- CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> R- CH –O + H2O(l)
(alkanol) (alkanal)
R- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> R- C –OOH

(alkanal) (alkanoic acid)
Examples
1.Ethanol on warming in acidified KMnO4 is oxidized to ethanal then ethanoic acid .
CH3- CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- CH –O + H2O(l)

(ethanol) (ethanal)
CH3- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- C –OOH

(ethanal) (ethanoic acid)
2Propanol on warming in acidified KMnO4 is oxidized to propanal then propanoic

acid
CH3- CH2 CH2 – OH + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- CH2 CH –O + H2O(l)
(propanol) (propanal)
CH3- CH – O + [O] --H+/KMnO4--> CH3- C –OOH

(propanal) (propanoic acid)
Industrially,large scale manufacture of alkanoic acid like ethanoic acid is obtained

from:
(a)Alkenes reacting with steam at high temperatures and pressure in presence of
phosphoric(V)acid catalyst and undergo hydrolysis to form alkanols. i.e.
Alkenes + Steam/water -- H2PO4 Catalyst--> Alkanol

The alkanol is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the alkanoic acid.
Alkanol + Air -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> Alkanoic acid
Example
Ethene is mixed with steam over a phosphoric(V)acid catalyst,300oC temperature
and 60 atmosphere pressure to form ethanol.
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CH2=CH2 + H2O -> CH3 CH2OH
(Ethene) (Ethanol)
This is the industrial large scale method of manufacturing ethanol

Ethanol is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the ethanoic acid.
CH3 CH2OH + [O] -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> CH3 COOH

(Ethanol) (Ethanoic acid)
(b)Alkynes react with liquid water at high temperatures and pressure in presence of
Mercury(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst and 30% concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form
alkanals.
Alkyne + Water -- Mercury(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst--> Alkanal
The alkanal is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese (II)
sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the alkanoic acid.
Alkanal + air/oxygen -- Manganese(II)sulphate(VI)catalyst--> Alkanoic acid
Example
Ethyne react with liquid water at high temperature and pressure with Mercury (II)
sulphate (VI)catalyst and 30% concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to form ethanal.
CH = CH + H2O --HgSO4--> CH3 CH2O

(Ethyne) (Ethanal)
This is another industrial large scale method of manufacturing ethanol from large
quantities of ethyne found in natural gas.
Ethanal is then oxidized by air at 5 atmosphere pressure with Manganese
(II)sulphate(VI) catalyst to form the ethanoic acid.
CH3 CH2O + [O] -- MnSO4 Catalyst/5 atm pressure--> CH3 COOH

(Ethanal) (Oxygen from air) (Ethanoic acid)
(D) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANOIC ACIDS.
I.Physical properties of alkanoic acids
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The table below shows some physical properties of alkanoic acids
Alkanol Melting Boiling Density(gcm-3) Solubility in
point(oC) point(oC) water
Methanoic acid 18.4 101 1.22 soluble
Ethanoic acid 16.6 118 1.05 soluble
Propanoic acid -2.8 141 0.992 soluble
Butanoic acid -8.0 164 0.964 soluble
Pentanoic acid -9.0 187 0.939 Slightly soluble
Hexanoic acid -11 205 0.927 Slightly soluble
Heptanoic acid -3 223 0.920 Slightly soluble
Octanoic acid 11 239 0.910 Slightly soluble
Nonanoic acid 16 253 0.907 Slightly soluble
Decanoic acid 31 269 0.905 Slightly soluble
From the table note the following:

(i) Melting and boiling point decrease as the carbon chain increases due to
increase in intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules
requiring more energy to separate the molecules.
(ii) The density decreases as the carbon chain increases as the intermolecular
forces of attraction increases between the molecules making the molecule
very close reducing their volume in unit mass.
(iii) Solubility decreases as the carbon chain increases as the soluble –COOH
end is shielded by increasing insoluble alkyl/hydrocarbon chain.
(iv) Like alkanols ,alkanoic acids exist as dimmers due to the hydrogen bonds
within the molecule. i.e..
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Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds
R1 C O δ-…….….…H δ+ O δ-
O δ- H δ+……..….O δ- C R2
R1 and 2 are extensions of the molecule.
For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of
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3 – to make the structure;
[email protected]
For ethanoic acid the extension is made up of

CH3 – to make the structure;
Hydrogen bonds covalent bonds
CH3 C O δ-…………… H δ+ O δ-
O δ- H δ+…………O δ- C CH3
Ethanoic acid has a higher melting/boiling point than
ethanol .This is because ethanoic acid has two/more
hydrogen bond than ethanol.
105 [email protected]
II Chemical properties of alkanoic acids

The following experiments shows the main chemical properties of ethanoic
(alkanoic) acid.
(a)Effect on litmus papers
Experiment
Dip both blue and red litmus papers in ethanoic acid. Repeat with a solution of
succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and dilute nitric(V)acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations/effect on litmus papers Inference
Ethanoic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
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Succinic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Citric acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Oxalic acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Tartaric acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Nitric(V)acid Blue litmus paper turn red H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Explanation
All acidic solutions contains H+/H3O+(aq) ions. The H+ /H3O+ (aq) ions is
responsible for turning blue litmus paper/solution to red
(b)pH
Experiment
Place 2cm3 of ethaoic acid in a test tube. Add 2 drops of universal indicator solution
and determine its pH. Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid,
tartaric acid and dilute sulphuric (VI)acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid pH Inference
Ethanoic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Succinic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Citric acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Oxalic acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Tartaric acid 4/5/6 Weakly acidic
Sulphuric(VI)acid 1/2/3 Strongly acidic
Explanations
Alkanoic acids are weak acids that partially/partly dissociate to release few H+ ions
in solution. The pH of their solution is thus 4/5/6 showing they form weakly acidic
solutions when dissolved in water.
All alkanoic acid dissociate to releases the “H” at the functional group in -COOH to
form the alkanoate ion; –COO-
Mineral acids(Sulphuric(VI)acid, Nitric(V)acid and Hydrochloric acid) are strong
acids that wholly/fully dissociate to release many H+ ions in solution. The pH of
their solution is thus 1/2/3 showing they form strongly acidic solutions when
dissolved in water.i.e
Examples
1. CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
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(ethanoic acid) (ethanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
2. CH3 CH2COOH(aq) CH3 CH2COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

(propanoic acid) (propanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
3. CH3 CH2 CH2COOH(aq) CH3 CH2 CH2COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

(Butanoic acid) (butanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
4. HOOH(aq) HOO-(aq) + H+(aq)

(methanoic acid) (methanoate ion) (few H+ ion)
5. H2 SO4 (aq) SO42- (aq) + 2H+(aq)

(sulphuric(VI) acid) (sulphate(VI) ion) (many H+ ion)
6. HNO3 (aq) NO3- (aq) + H+(aq)

(nitric(V) acid) (nitrate(V) ion) (many H+ ion)
(c)Reaction with metals

Experiment
Place about 4cm3 of ethanoic acid in a test tube. Put about 1cm length of polished
magnesium ribbon. Test any gas produced using a burning splint. Repeat with a
solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and dilute sulphuric
(VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations Inference
Ethanoic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that burn
with “pop” sound/explosion
Succinic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Citric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Oxalic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Tartaric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
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Nitric(V)acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Explanation
Metals higher in the reactivity series displace the hydrogen in all acids to
evolve/produce hydrogen gas and form a salt. Alkanoic acids react with metals with
metals to form alkanoates salt and produce/evolve hydrogen gas .Hydrogen
extinguishes a burning splint with a pop sound/explosion. Only the “H”in the
functional group -COOH is /are displaced and not in the alkyl hydrocarbon chain.
Alkanoic acid + Metal -> Alkanoate + Hydrogen gas. i.e.

Examples
1. For a monovalent metal with monobasic acid
2R – COOH + 2M -> 2R- COOM + 2H2(g)
2.For a divalent metal with monobasic acid

2R – COOH + M -> (R- COO) 2M + H2(g)
3.For a divalent metal with dibasic acid
HOOC-R-COOH+ M -> MOOC-R-COOM + H2(g)
4.For a monovalent metal with dibasic acid
HOOC-R-COOH+ 2M -> MOOC-R-COOM + H2(g)
5 For mineral acids
(i)Sulphuric(VI)acid is a dibasic acid
H2 SO4 (aq) + 2M -> M2 SO4 (aq) + H2(g)
H2 SO4 (aq) + M -> MSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Nitric(V) and hydrochloric acid are monobasic acid

HNO3 (aq) + 2M -> 2MNO3 (aq) + H2(g)
HNO3 (aq) + M -> M(NO3 ) 2 (aq) + H2(g)
Examples
1.Sodium reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate and produce.
hydrogen gas.
Caution: This reaction is explosive.
CH3COOH (aq) + Na(s) -> CH3COONa (aq) + H2(g)
(Ethanoic acid) (Sodium ethanoate)
2.Calcium reacts with ethanoic acid to form calcium ethanoate and produce.
hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Ca(s) -> (CH3COO) 2Ca (aq) + H2(g)
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(Ethanoic acid) (Calcium ethanoate)
3.Sodium reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium ethan-1,2-dioate and

produce. hydrogen gas.
HOOC-COOH+ 2Na -> NaOOC - COONa + H2(g)
(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (sodium ethan-1,2-dioate)
Commercial name of ethan-1,2-dioic acid is oxalic acid. The salt is sodium oxalate.
4.Magnesium reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form magnesium ethan-1,2-dioate

and produce. hydrogen gas.
HOOC-R-COOH+ Mg -> ( OOC - COO) Mg + H2(g)

(ethan-1,2-dioic acid) (magnesium ethan-1,2-dioate)
5.Magnesium reacts with

(i)Sulphuric(VI)acid to form Magnesium sulphate(VI)
H2 SO4 (aq) + Mg -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
(ii)Nitric(V) and hydrochloric acid are monobasic acid

2HNO3 (aq) + Mg -> M(NO3 ) 2 (aq) + H2(g)
(d)Reaction with hydrogen carbonates and carbonates

Experiment
Place about 3cm3 of ethanoic acid in a test tube. Add about 0.5g/ ½ spatula end full
of sodium hydrogen carbonate/sodium carbonate. Test the gas produced using lime
water. Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid
and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations Inference
Ethanoic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
(ii)colourless gas produced that forms a
white precipitate with lime water
Succinic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Citric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Oxalic acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
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Tartaric acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
Nitric(V)acid (i)effervescence, fizzing, bubbles H3O+/H+(aq)ion
All acids react with hydrogen carbonate/carbonate to form salt ,water and
evolve/produce bubbles of carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Carbon(IV)oxide forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water/extinguishes
a burning splint.
Alkanoic acids react with hydrogen carbonate/carbonate to form alkanoates ,water
and evolve/produce bubbles of carbon(IV)oxide and water.
Alkanoic acid + hydrogen carbonate -> alkanoate + water + carbon(IV)oxide
Alkanoic acid + carbonate -> alkanoate + water + carbon(IV)oxide

Examples
1. Sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium
ethanoate ,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) -> CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2.Sodium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid to form sodium ethanoate ,water
and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) -> 2CH3COONa (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
3.Sodium carbonate reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium ethanoate

,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
HOOC-COOH+ Na2CO3 (s) -> NaOOC - COONa + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
4.Sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with ethan-1,2-dioic acid to form sodium

ethanoate ,water and carbon(IV)oxide gas.
HOOC-COOH+ 2NaHCO3 (s) -> NaOOC - COONa + H2O(l) + 2CO2 (g)
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(e)Esterification
Experiment
Place 4cm3 of ethanol acid in a boiling tube.
Add equal volume of ethanoic acid. To the mixture, add 2 drops of concentrated
sulphuric(VI)acid carefully. Warm/heat gently on Bunsen flame.
Pour the mixture into a beaker containing 50cm3 of water. Smell the products.
Repeat with a solution of succinic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid and
dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
Sample observations
Solution/acid Observations
Ethanoic acid Sweet fruity smell
Succinic acid Sweet fruity smell
Citric acid Sweet fruity smell
Oxalic acid Sweet fruity smell
Tartaric acid Sweet fruity smell
Dilute sulphuric(VI)acid No sweet fruity smell
Explanation
Alkanols react with alkanoic acid to form the sweet smelling homologous series of
esters and water.The reaction is catalysed by concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in the
laboratory but naturally by sunlight /heat.Each ester has a characteristic smell
derived from the many possible combinations of alkanols and alkanoic acids.
Alkanol + Alkanoic acids -> Ester + water

Esters derive their names from the alkanol first then alkanoic acids. The alkanol
“becomes” an alkyl group and the alkanoic acid “becomes” alkanoate hence
alkylalkanoate. e.g.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid -> Ethylethanoate + Water

Ethanol + Propanoic acid -> Ethylpropanoate + Water
Ethanol + Methanoic acid -> Ethylmethanoate + Water
Ethanol + butanoic acid -> Ethylbutanoate + Water
Propanol + Ethanoic acid -> Propylethanoate + Water
Methanol + Ethanoic acid -> Methyethanoate + Water
Methanol + Decanoic acid -> Methyldecanoate + Water
Decanol + Methanoic acid -> Decylmethanoate + Water
90
During the formation of the ester, the “O” joining the alkanol and alkanoic acid
comes from the alkanol.
R1 -COOH + R2 –OH -> R1 -COO –R2 + H2O
Examples
1. Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester ethyl ethanoate and water.
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO C2H5(aq) +H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
2. Ethanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester ethylpropanoate and water.
Ethanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
CH3CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->
CH3 CH2COOCH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
3. Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form the ester methyl ethanoate and water.
Methanol + Ethanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylethanoate + Water
CH3OH (l) + CH3COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
4. Methanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester methyl propanoate and
water.
Methanol + propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Methylpropanoate + Water
CH3OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 --> CH3 CH2COO CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
5. Propanol reacts with propanoic acid to form the ester propylpropanoate and water.
Propanol + Propanoic acid --Conc. H2SO4 -->Ethylethanoate + Water
CH3CH2 CH2OH (l)+ CH3 CH2COOH(l) --Conc. H2SO4 -->
CH3 CH2COOCH2 CH2CH3(aq) +H2O(l)
91
C. DETERGENTS
Detergents are cleaning agents that improve the cleaning power /properties of
water.A detergent therefore should be able to:
(i)dissolve substances which water can not e.g grease ,oil, fat
(ii)be washed away after cleaning.
There are two types of detergents:
(a)Soapy detergents
(b)Soapless detergents
(a) SOAPY DETERGENTS

Soapy detergents usually called soap is long chain salt of organic alkanoic
acids.Common soap is sodium octadecanoate .It is derived from reacting
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution with octadecanoic acid(18 carbon alkanoic
acid) i.e.
Sodium hydroxide + octadecanoic acid -> Sodium octadecanoate + water
NaOH(aq) + CH3 (CH2) 16 COOH(aq) -> CH3 (CH2) 16 COO – Na+ (aq) +H2 O(l)
Commonly ,soap can thus be represented ;
R- COO – Na+ where;
R is a long chain alkyl group and -COO – Na+ is the alkanoate ion.
In a school laboratory and at industrial and domestic level,soap is made by reacting
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution with esters from (animal) fat and oil. The
process of making soap is called saponification. During saponification ,the ester is
hydrolyzed by the alkali to form sodium salt /soap and glycerol/propan-1,2,3-triol
is produced.
Fat/oil(ester)+sodium/potassium hydroxide->sodium/potassium salt(soap)+ glycerol
Fats/Oils are esters with fatty acids and glycerol parts in their structure;
C17H35COOCH2
C17H35COOCH
C17H35COOCH2
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When boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution NaOH;
(i)NaOH ionizes/dissociates into Na+ and OH- ions
(ii)fat/oil split into three C17H35COO- and one CH2 CH CH2
(iii) the three Na+ combine with the three C17H35COO- to form the salt
C17H35COO- Na+
(iv)the three OH-ions combine with the CH2 CH CH2 to form an alkanol with
three functional groups CH2 OH CH OH CH2 OH(propan-1,2,3-triol)
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
C17H35COOCH +NaOH -> 3 C17H35COO- Na+ + CHOH
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
Ester Alkali Soap glycerol
Generally:
CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH
CnH2n+1COOCH +NaOH -> 3 CnH2n+1COO- Na+ + CHOH
CnH2n+1COOCH2 CH2OH
R - COOCH2 CH2OH
R - COOCH +NaOH -> 3R-COO- Na+ + CHOH
R- COOCH2 CH2OH
During this process a little sodium chloride is added to precipitate the soap by
reducing its solubility. This is called salting out.
The soap is then added colouring agents ,perfumes and herbs of choice.
School laboratory preparation of soap

Place about 40 g of fatty (animal fat)beef/meat in 100cm3 beaker .Add about 15cm3
of 4.0M sodium hydroxide solution. Boil the mixture for about 15minutes.Stir the
mixture .Add about 5.0cm3 of distilled water as you boil to make up for evaporation.
Boil for about another 15minutes.Add about four spatula end full of pure sodium
chloride crystals. Continue stirring for another five minutes. Allow to cool. Filter of
93
/decant and wash off the residue with distilled water .Transfer the clean residue into
a dry beaker. Preserve.
The action of soap
Soapy detergents:
(i)act by reducing the surface tension of water by forming a thin layer on top
of the water.
(ii)is made of a non-polar alkyl /hydrocarbon tail and a polar -COO-Na+
head. The non-polar alkyl /hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic (water hating) and thus
does not dissolve in water .It dissolves in non-polar solvent like grease, oil and fat.
The polar -COO-Na+ head is hydrophilic (water loving)and thus dissolve in water.
When washing with soapy detergent, the non-polar tail of the soapy detergent
surround/dissolve in the dirt on the garment /grease/oil while the polar head dissolve
in water.
Through mechanical agitation/stirring/sqeezing/rubbing/beating/kneading, some
grease is dislodged/lifted of the surface of the garment. It is immediately surrounded
by more soap molecules It float and spread in the water as tiny droplets that scatter
light in form of emulsion making the water cloudy and shinny. It is removed from
the garment by rinsing with fresh water.The repulsion of the soap head prevent
/ensure the droplets do not mix.Once removed, the dirt molecules cannot be
redeposited back because it is surrounded by soap molecules.
Advantages and disadvantages of using soapy detergents

Soapy detergents are biodegradable. They are acted upon by bacteria and rot.They
thus do not cause environmental pollution.
Soapy detergents have the diadvatage in that:
(i)they are made from fat and oils which are better eaten as food than make
soap.
(ii)forms an insoluble precipitate with hard water called scum. Scum is
insoluble calcium octadecanoate and Magnesium octadecanoate formed when soap
reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in hard water.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- Na+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2Na+(aq)
(insoluble Calcium octadecanote/scum)
2C17H35COO Na (aq) + Mg (aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2Na+(aq)
- + 2+
(insoluble Magnesium octadecanote/scum)

This causes wastage of soap.
Potassium soaps are better than Sodium soap. Potassium is more expensive than
sodium and thus its soap is also more expensive.
(b)SOAPLESS DETERGENTS
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Soapless detergent usually called detergent is a long chain salt fromed from by-
products of fractional distillation of crude oil.Commonly used soaps include:
(i)washing agents
(ii)toothpaste
(iii)emulsifiers/wetting agents/shampoo
Soapless detergents are derived from reacting:
(i)concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid with a long chain alkanol e.g.
Octadecanol(18 carbon alkanol) to form alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
Alkanol + Conc sulphuric(VI)acid -> alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + Water
R –OH + H2SO4 -> R –O-SO3H + H2O
(ii)the alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) is then neutralized with sodium/potassium

hydroxide to form sodium/potassium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
Sodium/potassium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) is the soapless detergent.
alkyl hydrogen + Potassium/sodium -> Sodium/potassium + Water

sulphate(VI) hydroxide alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
R –O-SO3H + NaOH -> R –O-SO3- Na+ + H2O
Example
Step I : Reaction of Octadecanol with Conc.H2SO4
C17H35CH2OH (aq) + H2SO4 -> C17H35CH2-O- SO3- H+ (aq) + H2O (l)
octadecanol + sulphuric(VI)acid -> Octadecyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + water
Step II: Neutralization by an alkali

C17H35CH2-O- SO3- H+ (aq) + NaOH -> C17H35CH2-O- SO3- Na+ (aq) + H2O (l)
Octadecyl hydrogen + sodium/potassium -> sodium/potassium octadecyl+Water

sulphate(VI) hydroxide hydrogen sulphate(VI)
School laboratory preparation of soapless detergent

Place about 20g of olive oil in a 100cm3 beaker. Put it in a trough containing ice
cold water.
Add dropwise carefully 18M concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid stirring continuously
into the olive oil until the oil turns brown.Add 30cm3 of 6M sodium hydroxide
solution.Stir.This is a soapless detergent.
The action of soapless detergents
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The action of soapless detergents is similar to that of soapy detergents.The soapless
detergents contain the hydrophilic head and a long hydrophobic tail. i.e.
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv-COO-Na+
vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv-O-SO3- Na+
(long hydrophobic /non-polar alkyl tail) (hydrophilic/polar/ionic head)
The tail dissolves in fat/grease/oil while the ionic/polar/ionic head dissolves in

water.
The tail stick to the dirt which is removed by the attraction of water molecules and
the polar/ionic/hydrophilic head by mechanical agitation /squeezing/kneading/
beating/rubbing/scrubbing/scatching.
The suspended dirt is then surrounded by detergent molecules and repulsion of the
anion head preventing the dirt from sticking on the material garment.
The tiny droplets of dirt emulsion makes the water cloudy. On rinsing the cloudy
emulsion is washed away.
Advantages and disadvantages of using soapless detergents

Soapless detergents are non-biodegradable unlike soapy detergents.
They persist in water during sewage treatment by causing foaming in rivers ,lakes
and streams leading to marine /aquatic death.
Soapless detergents have the advantage in that they:
(i)do not form scum with hard water.
(ii)are cheap to manufacture/buying
(iii)are made from petroleum products but soapis made from fats/oil for
human consumption.
Sample revision questions
1. Study the scheme below

Fat/oil KOH
Boiling Sodium Chloride
Filtration 96
Filtrate Y
Residue X
(a)Identify the process
Saponification
(b)Fats and oils are esters. Write the formula of the a common structure of
ester
C17H35COOCH2
C17H35COOCH
C17H35COOCH2
(c)Write a balanced equation for the reaction taking place during boiling
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
C17H35COOCH +3NaOH -> 3 C17H35COO- Na+ + CHOH
C17H35COOCH2 CH2OH
(d)Give the IUPAC name of:

(i)Residue X
Potassium octadecanoate
(ii)Filtrate Y
Propan-1,2,3-triol
(e)Give one use of fitrate Y

Making paint
(f)What is the function of sodium chloride

To reduce the solubility of the soap hence helping in precipitating it out
(g)Explain how residue X helps in washing.

Has a non-polar hydrophobic tail that dissolves in dirt/grease /oil/fat
Has a polar /ionic hydrophilic head that dissolves in water.
97
From mechanical agitation,the dirt is plucked out of the garment and
surrounded by the tail end preventing it from being deposited back on the garment.
(h)State one:
(i)advantage of continued use of residue X on the environment
Is biodegradable and thus do not pollute the environment
(ii)disadvantage of using residue X
Uses fat/oil during preparation/manufacture which are better used for
human consumption.
(i)Residue X was added dropwise to some water.The number of drops used
before lather forms is as in the table below.
Water sample
A B C
Drops of residue X 15 2 15
Drops of residue X in boiled water 2 2 15
(i)State and explain which sample of water is:

I. Soft
Sample B .Very little soap is used and no effect on amount of soap even
on boiling/heating.
II. Permanent hard
Sample C . A lot of soap is used and no effect on amount of soap even
on boiling/heating. Boiling does not remove permanent hardness of
water.
III. Temporary hard
Sample A . A lot of soap is used before boiling. Very little soap is used
on boiling/heating. Boiling remove temporary hardness of water.
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction at water sample C.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + CaSO4(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + K2SO4(aq)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
98
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + MgSO4(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + K2SO4(aq)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(iii)Write the equation for the reaction at water sample A before boiling.
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca(HCO3)(aq) ->(C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2KHCO3 (aq)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Ca2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Ca2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
Chemical equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg(HCO3)(aq) ->(C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2KHCO3 (aq)
Ionic equation
2C17H35COO- K+ (aq) + Mg2+(aq) -> (C17H35COO- )Mg2+ (s) + 2K+(aq)
(iv)Explain how water becomes hard

Natural or rain water flowing /passing through rocks containing calcium (chalk,
gypsum, limestone)and magnesium compounds (dolomite)dissolve them to form
soluble Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions that causes water hardness.
(v)State two useful benefits of hard water

-Used in bone and teeth formation
-Coral polyps use hard water to form coral reefs
-Snails use hard water to make their shells
2.Study the scheme below and use it to answer the questions that follow.
Olive oil Conc. H2SO4
Ice cold water
6M sodium hydroxide
Brown solid
99 A
(a)Identify :
(i)brown solid A
Alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
(ii)substance B
Sodium alkyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
(b)Write a general formula of:
(i)Substance A.
O
R-O-S O3 H // R- O - S - O - H
O
(ii)Substance B O
R-O-S O3 - Na+ R- O - S - O - Na+
O
(c)State one
(i) advantage of continued use of substance B
-Does not form scum with hard water
-Is cheap to make
-Does not use food for human as a raw material.
(ii)disadvantage of continued use of substance B.

Is non-biodegradable therefore do not pollute the environment
(d)Explain the action of B during washing.

Has a non-polar hydrocarbon long tail that dissolves in dirt/grease/oil/fat.
Has a polar/ionic hydrophilic head that dissolves in water
Through mechanical agitation the dirt is plucked /removed from the garment
and surrounded by the tail end preventing it from being deposited back on the
garment.
(e) Ethene was substituted for olive oil in the above process. Write the equation
and name of the new products A and B.
100
Product A
Ethene + Sulphuric(VI)acid -> Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H2C=CH2 + H2SO4 –> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H
Product B
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + sodium hydroxide -> sodium Ethyl + Water
hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + NaOH -> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3-Na+ + H2O

(f)Ethanol can also undergo similar reactions forming new products A and B.Show
this using a chemical equation.
Product A
Ethanol + Sulphuric(VI)acid ->Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + water
H3C-CH2OH + H2SO4 –> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + H2O
Product B
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate(VI) + sodium hydroxide -> sodium Ethyl + Water
hydrogen sulphate(VI)
H3C – CH2 –O-SO3H + NaOH -> H3C – CH2 –O-SO3-Na+ + H2O
3.Below is part of a detergent

H3C – (CH2 )16 – O - SO3 - K +
(a)Write the formular of the polar and non-polar end
Polar end
H3C – (CH2 )16 –
Non-polar end
– O - SO3 - K +
(b)Is the molecule a soapy or saopless detergent?
Soapless detergent
(c)State one advantage of using the above detergent
-does not form scum with hard water
-is cheap to manufacture
4.The structure of a detergent is
H H H HH H H H H H H H H
101
H- C- C- C-C- C- C- C- C- C- C -C- C- -C- COO-Na+
H H H H H H H H H H H H H
a) Write the molecular formula of the detergent. (1mk)

CH3(CH2)12COO-Na+
b) What type of detergent is represented by the formula? (1mk)

Soapy detergent
c) When this type of detergent is used to wash linen in hard water, spots (marks)
are left on the linen. Write the formula of the substance responsible for the spots
(CH3(CH2)12COO-)2Ca2+ / CH3(CH2)12COO-)2Mg2+
D. POLYMERS AND FIBRES

Polymers and fibres are giant molecules of organic compounds. Polymers and fibres
are formed when small molecules called monomers join together to form large
molecules called polymers at high temperatures and pressures. This process is called
polymerization.
Polymers and fibres are either:
(a)Natural polymers and fibres
(b)Synthetic polymers and fibres
Natural polymers and fibres are found in living things(plants and animals) Natural
polymers/fibres include:
-proteins/polypeptides making amino acids in animals
-cellulose that make cotton,wool,paper and silk
-Starch that come from glucose
-Fats and oils
-Rubber from latex in rubber trees.
Synthetic polymers and fibres are man-made. They include:

-polyethene
102
-polychloroethene
-polyphenylethene(polystyrene)
-Terylene(Dacron)
-Nylon-6,6
-Perspex(artificial glass)
Synthetic polymers and fibres have the following characteristic advantages over
natural polymers
1. They are light and portable
2. They are easy to manufacture.
3. They can easily be molded into shape of choice.
4. They are resistant to corrosion, water, air , acids, bases and salts.
5. They are comparatively cheap, affordable, colourful and aesthetic
Synthetic polymers and fibres however have the following disadvantages over
natural polymers
1. They are non-biodegradable and hence cause environmental pollution during
disposal
2. They give out highly poisonous gases when burnt like
chlorine/carbon(II)oxide
3. Some on burning produce Carbon(IV)oxide. Carbon(IV)oxide is a green
house gas that cause global warming.
4. Compared to some metals, they are poor conductors of heat,electricity and
have lower tensile strength.
5.
To reduce environmental pollution from synthetic polymers and fibres, the followitn
methods of disposal should be used:
1.Recycling: Once produced all synthetic polymers and fibres should be recycled to
a new product. This prevents accumulation of the synthetic polymers and fibres in
the environment.
2.Production of biodegradable synthetic polymers and fibres that rot away.
There are two types of polymerization:

(a)addition polymerization
(b)condensation polymerization
(a)addition polymerization
Addition polymerization is the process where a small unsaturated monomer (alkene )
molecule join together to form a large saturated molecule. Only alkenes undergo
addition polymerization.
103
Addition polymers are named from the alkene/monomer making the polymer and
adding the prefix “poly” before the name of monomer to form a polyalkene
During addition polymerization

(i)the double bond in alkenes break
(ii)free radicals are formed
(iii)the free radicals collide with each other and join to form a larger molecule.
The more collisions the larger the molecule.
Examples of addition polymerization
1.Formation of Polyethene
Polyethene is an addition polymer formed when ethene molecule/monomer join
reduces the volume occupied by reacting paticles)
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H H H H H H H H
Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + Ethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the ethane molecule break to free readicals
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
H H H H H H H H
Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + Ethene radical + …
104
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
H H H H H H H H
polyethene.
Polyethene molecule can be represented as:
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …
H H H H H H H H
H H
( C – C )n
H H
Where n is the number of monomers in the polymer. The number of monomers in
the polymer can be determined from the molar mass of the polymer and monomer
Molar mass monomer
Examples
Polythene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of ethene molecules
in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0 )
Number of monomers/repeating units in polyomer = Molar mass polymer
Molar mass monomer
Substituting 4760 = 170 ethene molecules

28
The commercial name of polyethene is polythene. It is an elastic, tough, transparent
and durable plastic. Polythene is used:
(i)in making plastic bag
(ii)bowls and plastic bags
(iii)packaging materials
105
2.Formation of Polychlorethene
Polychloroethene is an addition polymer formed when chloroethene
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + chloroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the chloroethene molecule break to free radicals
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
polychloroethene.
Polychloroethene molecule can be represented as:
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …
106
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
H H
( C – C )n
H Cl
Examples
Polychlorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of chlorethene
molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0,Cl=35.5 )
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2H3Cl )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

62.5
The commercial name of polychloroethene is polyvinylchloride(PVC). It is a
(ii)water pipes
3.Formation of Polyphenylethene
Polyphenylethene is an addition polymer formed when phenylethene
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + phenylethene + …

107
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

polyphenylethene.
Polyphenylethene molecule can be represented as:
H H H H H H H H
-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -
H H
( C – C )n
H C6H5
Examples
Polyphenylthene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
phenylethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Molar mass monomer
Substituting 4760 = 45.7692 =>45 polyphenylethene molecules(whole number)

108
104
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
4.Formation of Polypropene
Polypropene is an addition polymer formed when propene molecule/monomer join
H H H H H H H H
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
propene + propene + propene + propene + …
H H H H H H H H
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C • + …

Lone pair of electrons can be used to join more monomers to form longer propene.
propene molecule can be represented as:
109
H H H H H H H H
-C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C -
H H
( C – C )n
H CH3
Examples
Polypropene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of propene
molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, H=1.0, )
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass propene (C3H8 )= 44 Molar mass polyethene = 4760
Substituting 4760 = 108.1818 =>108 propene molecules(whole number)

44
radion,calculators.
(ii)ceiling tiles
(iii)clothe linings
5.Formation of Polytetrafluorothene
Polytetrafluorothene is an addition polymer formed when tetrafluoroethene
F F F F F F F F
110
C=C + C=C + C=C + C=C + …
F F F F F F F F
tetrafluoroethene + tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene+ tetrafluoroethene + …
(ii)the double bond joining the tetrafluoroethene molecule break to free radicals
F F F F F F F F
•C – C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + •C - C• + …
F F F F F F F F
F F F F F F F F lone pair of electrons
•C – C - C – C - C – C - C - C• + …
F F F F F F F F
polytetrafluoroethene.
polytetrafluoroethene molecule can be represented as:
F F F F F F F F extension of
molecule/polymer
- C – C - C – C - C – C - C – C- + …
F F F F F F F F
F F
( C – C )n
F F
Examples
111
Polytetrafluorothene has a molar mass of 4760.Calculate the number of
tetrafluoroethene molecules in the polymer(C=12.0, ,F=19 )
Molar mass monomer
=> Molar mass ethene (C2F4 )= 62.5 Molar mass polyethene = 4760

62.5
The commercial name of polytetrafluorethene(P.T.F.E) is Teflon(P.T.F.E). It is a
(ii)water pipes
5.Formation of rubber from Latex

Natural rubber is obtained from rubber trees.
During harvesting an incision is made on the rubber tree to produce a milky white
substance called latex.
Latex is a mixture of rubber and lots of water.
The latex is then added an acid to coagulate the rubber.
Natural rubber is a polymer of 2-methylbut-1,3-diene ;
H CH3 H H
CH2=C (CH3) CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H
During natural polymerization to rubber, one double C=C bond break to self add to
another molecule.The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -
H H H H
H CH3 H H
-(- C - C = C - C -)n-
112
H H
Pure rubber is soft and sticky.It is used to make erasers, car tyres. Most of it is
vulcanized.Vulcanization is the process of heating rubber with sulphur to make it
harder/tougher.
During vulcanization the sulphur atoms form a cross link between chains of rubber
molecules/polymers. This decreases the number of C=C double bonds in the
polymer.
H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
Sulphur atoms make
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - cross link between
polymers
H S H H S H
H CH3 S H H CH3 S H
- C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
H H H H H H
Vulcanized rubber is used to make tyres, shoes and valves.
6.Formation of synthetic rubber

Synthetic rubber is able to resist action of oil,abrasion and organic solvents which
rubber cannot.
Common synthetic rubber is a polymer of 2-chlorobut-1,3-diene ;
H Cl H H
CH2=C (Cl CH = CH2 H - C = C – C = C - H
During polymerization to synthetic rubber, one double C=C bond is broken to self
add to another molecule. The double bond remaining move to carbon “2” thus;
H Cl H H H Cl H H
- C - C = C - C - C - C = C - C -
H H H H
113
H Cl H H
-(- C - C = C - C -)n-
H H
Rubber is thus strengthened through vulcanization and manufacture of synthetic
rubber.
(b)Condensation polymerization
Condensation polymerization is the process where two or more small monomers join
together to form a larger molecule by elimination/removal of a simple molecule.
(usually water).
Condensation polymers acquire a different name from the monomers because the
two monomers are two different compounds
During condensation polymerization:
(i)the two monomers are brought together by high pressure to reduce distance
between them.
(ii)monomers realign themselves at the functional group.
(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form simple
molecule (of usually H2O/HCl)
(iv)the two monomers join without the simple molecule of H2O/HCl
Examples of condensation polymerization
1.Formation of Nylon-6,6
Method 1: Nylon-6,6 can be made from the condensation polymerization of hexan-
1,6-dioic acid with hexan-1,6-diamine.Amines are a group of homologous series
with a general formula R-NH2 and thus -NH2 as the functional group.
During the formation of Nylon-6,6:
between them and realign themselves at the functional groups.
O O H H
H- O - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – O - H + H –N – (CH2) 6 – N – H
114
(iii)from each functional group an element is removed so as to form a
molecule of H2O and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O H H
H- O - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – N – (CH2) 6 – N – H + H 2O
.
Polymer bond linkage
Nylon-6,6 derive its name from the two monomers each with six carbon chain
Method 2: Nylon-6,6 can be made from the condensation polymerization of hexan-

1,6-dioyl dichloride with hexan-1,6-diamine.
Hexan-1,6-dioyl dichloride belong to a group of homologous series with a general
formula R-OCl and thus -OCl as the functional group.
The R-OCl is formed when the “OH” in R-OOH/alkanoic acid is replaced by
Cl/chlorine/Halogen
During the formation of Nylon-6,6:

O O H H
Cl - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – Cl + H –N – (CH2) 6 – N – H

molecule of HCl and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O H H
Cl - C – (CH2 ) 4 – C – N – (CH2) 6 – N – H + HCl
.
Polymer bond linkage
The two monomers each has six carbon chain hence the name “nylon-6,6”
The commercial name of Nylon-6,6 is Nylon It is a a tough, elastic and durable
plastic. It is used to make clothes, plastic ropes and carpets.
2.Formation of Terylene
115
Method 1: Terylene can be made from the condensation polymerization of ethan-
1,2-diol with benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid.
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid a group of homologous series with a general formula
R-COOH where R is a ring of six carbon atom called Benzene ring .The functional
group is -COOH.
During the formation of Terylene:
O O
H- O - C – C6H5 – C – O - H + H –O – CH2 CH2 – O – H

molecule of H2O and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O
H- O - C – C6H5 – C – O – (CH2) 6 – N – H + H 2O
.
Polymer bond linkage of terylene
116
Method 2: Terylene can be made from the condensation polymerization of
benzene-1,4-dioyl dichloride with ethan-1,2-diol.
Benzene-1,4-dioyl dichloride belong to a group of homologous series with a general
formula R-OCl and thus -OCl as the functional group and R as a benzene ring.
The R-OCl is formed when the “OH” in R-OOH is replaced by Cl/chlorine/Halogen
During the formation of Terylene

O O
Cl - C – C5H5 – C – Cl + H –O – CH2 CH2 – O - H

molecule of HCl and the two monomers join at the linkage .
O O
Cl - C – C5H5 – C – O – CH2 CH2 – O – H + HCl
.
Polymer bond linkage of terylene
117
The commercial name of terylene is Polyester /polyster It is a a tough, elastic and
durable plastic. It is used to make clothes, plastic ropes and sails and plastic
model kits.
118
Practice questions Organic chemistry
1. A student mixed equal volumes of Ethanol and butanoic acid. He added a

few drops of concentrated Sulphuric (VI) acid and warmed the mixture
(i) Name and write the formula of the main products
Name………………………………….
Formula……………………………………..
(ii) Which homologous series does the product named in (i) above belong?
2. The structure of the monomer phenyl ethene is given below:-

HC = CH2
a) Give the structure of the polymer formed when four of the monomers are
added together
b) Give the name of the polymer formed in (a) above
3. Explain the environmental effects of burning plastics in air as a disposal

method
4. Write chemical equation to represent the effect of heat on ammonium

carbonate
5. Sodium octadecanoate has a chemical formula CH3(CH2)6 COO-Na+, which is

used as soap.
119
Explain why a lot of soap is needed when washing with hard water
6. A natural polymer is made up of the monomer:

O
CH3CH2CH C OH
(a) Write the structural formula of the repeat unit of the polymer
(b) When 5.0 x 10-5 moles of the polymer were hydrolysed, 0.515g of the
monomer
were obtained.
Determine the number of the monomer molecules in this polymer.
(C = 12; H = 1; N = 14; O =16)
7. The formula below represents active ingredients of two cleansing agents A

and B
120
Which one of the cleansing agents would be suitable to be used in water
containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate? Explain
121
8. Study the polymer below and use it to answer the questions that follow:
H H H H
C C C C
(a) Give the name of the monomer and draw its structures
(b) Identify the type of polymerization that takes place
(c) State one advantage of synthetic polymers
9. Ethanol and Pentane are miscible liquids. Explain how water can be used to
separate a mixture
of ethanol and pentane
10. GLUCOSE G CRUDE H 95% ETHANOL ABSOLUTE

SOLUTION ETHANOL ETHANOL
(a) What is absolute ethanol?
122
(b) State two conditions required for process G to take place efficiently
11. (a) (i) The table below shows the volume of oxygen obtained per unit time
when hydrogen
peroxide was decomposed in the presence of manganese (IV) Oxide.

Use it to answer
the questions that follow:-
Time in seconds Volume of Oxygen

evolved (cm3)
0 0
30 10
60 19
90 27
120 34
150 38
180 43
210 45
240 45
270 45
300 45
(i) Plot a graph of volume of oxygen gas against time
123
(ii) Determine the rate of reaction at time 156 seconds
(iii) From the graph, find the time taken for 18cm3 of oxygen to be
produced
(iv) Write a chemical equation to show how hydrogen peroxide decomposes

in the presence
of manganese (IV) Oxide
(b) The diagram below shows how a Le’clanche (Dry cell) appears:-
(i) What is the function of MnO2 in the cell above?
(ii) Write the equation of a reaction that occurs at the cathode
124
(iii) Calculate the mass of Zinc that is consumed when a current of 0.1amperes
flows
through the above cell for 30minutes (1F =96500c Zn =65)
12. (a) Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
(i) CH3COOCH2CH3
*
CH2 = C – CHCH3
(ii)
(b) The structure below shows some reactions starting with ethanol. Study it
and answer
the questions that follow: Reagent R

NaOH(aq)
S CH3COOH CH3COONa Heat
Na Metal Step II
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH CH4

P
Step I Excess
Cl2 /U.V
CH2 CH2 CH2=CH2 Step III CH3CH3 T
n
Compound U
125
(i) Write the formula of the organic compounds P and S
*
(ii) Name the type of reaction, the reagent(s) and condition for the reactions
in the following steps :-
(I) Step I *
(II) Step II *
(III) Step III *
(iii) Name reagent R

…………………………………………………………… *
(iv) Draw the structural formula of T and give its name

*
(v) (I) Name compound

U………………………………………………………..
(II) If the relative molecular mass of U is 42000, determine the value of

n (C=12, H=1)
(c) State why C2H4 burns with a more smoky flame than C2H6
*
13. a) State two factors that affect the properties of a polymer
b) Name the compound with the formula below :
CH3CH2CH2ONa
c) Study the scheme below and use it to answer the questions that follow:-
H H
Step Step
CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH = CH2
P C– C n
K
126
CH3CH2CH2OH
Step R
i) Name the following compounds:-
I. Product T ………………………… II. K ………
ii) State one common physical property of substance G
iii) State the type of reaction that occurred in step J
127
iv) Give one use of substance K
v) Write an equation for the combustion of compound P
vi) Explain how compounds CH3CH2COOH and CH3CH2CH2OH can be

distinguished chemically
vii) If a polymer K has relative molecular mass of 12,600, calculate the value of
n (H=1 C =12)
14. Study the scheme given below and answer the questions that follow:-
Polymerization Step III

Polymer Q Compound P CH3CH2CH3
H2 (g) Ni
o
Conc. H2SO4 180 CHigh temp
Na(s) Step I
CH3CH2CH2ONa + H2 Propan-l-ol Propylethanoate
Step II
CH3CH2COOH
Na2CO3(aq)
Solution T + CO2 (g)
128
(a) (i) Name compound P
……………………………………………………………………
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction between CH3CH2COOH and Na2CO3
(b) State one use of polymer Q
(c) Name one oxidising agent that can be used in step II

…………………………………..
(d) A sample of polymer Q is found to have a molecular mass of 4200. Determine

the number of
monomers in the polymer (H = 1, C = 12)
(e) Name the type of reaction in step I

…………………………………………………………..
(f) State one industrial application of step III
(g)State how burning can be used to distinguish between propane and propyne.
Explain your
answer
(h) 1000cm3 of ethene (C2H4) burnt in oxygen to produce Carbon (II) Oxide and
water vapour.
129
Calculate the minimum volume of air needed for the complete combustion of
ethene
(Air contains 20% by volume of oxygen)
15. (a) Study the schematic diagram below and answer the questions that follow:-
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
X
Ni H2 Step 1 R
Step 3 CH3CH2CH2OH Na
CH3CHCH2 CH3CH2CH2ONa + Gas P
H+ MnO-4 Step2
HCl Step 5
V Step 4
Q + H2O
(i) Identify the following:
Substance Q
..............................................................................................................
Substance
R...............................................................................................................
Gas
P..........................................................................................................................
130
(ii) Name:
Step 1.................................................................................................
Step 4.................................................................................................
(iii) Draw the structural formula of the major product of step 5
(iv) State the condition and reagent in step 3
16. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow
CO2 (g)
KMnO4/H+
CH2CH2 Ni/H2(g) J
Step 4
Reagent P K
STEP 2
+
Ethyl CH2CH2OH KMnO4/H (aq)
Reagent Q
Ethanoate
Step 3 L
(a) (i) Name the following organic compounds:
M……………………………………………………………..……..
L…………………………………………………………………..
131
(ii) Name the process in step:
Step 2
………………………………………………………….….
Step 4 ………………………………………………………….…
(iii) Identify the reagent P and Q
(iv) Write an equation for the reaction between CH3CH2CH2OH and sodium
17. a) Give the names of the following compounds:
i) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
……………………………………………………………………
ii) CH3CH2COOH
…………………………………………………………………
iii) CH3C – O- CH2CH3

……………………………………………………………………
18. Study the scheme given below and answer the questions that follow;
Step I
Products Step V CH CH C2H5COONa
Complete combustion
Step II
Step IV + Heat
CH2 = CH2
C2H6
Step III
132= CHCl
CH
n
i) Name the reagents used in:
Step I:
………………………………………………………………………
Step II
……………………………………………………………………
Step III
………………………………………………………………………
ii) Write an equation to show products formed for the complete combustion of
CH = CH
iii) Explain one disadvantage of continued use of items made form the
compound formed
in step III
19. A hydrated salt has the following composition by mass. Iron 20.2 %, oxygen
23.0%,
sulphur 11.5%, water 45.3%
i) Determine the formula of the hydrated salt (Fe=56, S=32, O=16, H=11)
ii) 6.95g of the hydrated salt in c(i) above were dissolved in distilled water
and the total
volume made to 250cm3 of solution. Calculate the concentration of the

resulting salt solution
in moles per litre. (Given that the molecula mass of the salt is 278)
20. Write an equation to show products formed for the complete combustion of CH
= CH
133
iii) Explain one disadvantage of continued use of items made form the
compound formed
in step III
134
21. Give the IUPAC name for each of the following organic compounds;
i) CH3 - CH - CH2 - CH3
OH
ii)CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH2 - CH3
C2H5
iii)CH3COOCH2CH2CH3
22. The structure below represents a cleansing agent.
R – S – O-Na+
a) State the type of cleansing agent represented above
b) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using the above cleansing agent.
23. The structure below shows part of polymer .Use it to answer the questions
that follow.
CH3 CH3 CH3
  
135
― CH - CH2 – CH- CH2 - CH – CH2 ―
a) Derive the structure of the monomer
b) Name the type of polymerization represented above
24. The flow chart below represents a series of reactions starting with ethanoic
acid:-
Ethanol B Ethanoic Na2CO3 Salt A + CO2 + H2O

acid
process I
(a) Identify substances A and B
(b) Name the process I
25. a) Write an equation showing how ammonium nitrate may be prepared

starting with
ammonia gas
(b) Calculate the maximum mass of ammonium nitrate that can be prepared
using 5.3kg of
ammonia (H=1, N=14, O=16)
26. (a) What is meant by the term, esterification?
136
(b) Draw the structural formulae of two compounds that may be reacted to
form ethylpropanoate
27. (a) Draw the structure of pentanoic acid
(b) Draw the structure and give the name of the organic compound formed
when ethanol
reacts with pentanoic acid in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid
137
28. The scheme below shows some reactions starting with ethanol. Study it and
answer the questions
that follow:- Q
Step 4 CH3CH2OH/H2SO4
Step 3
P CH3COONa
2-
Step 2 Cr2O7(aq) / H+(aq)
H2SO4(l)
Ethanol C
Na(s)
CH3CH2ONa
(i) Name and draw the structure of substance Q
138
(ii) Give the names of the reactions that take place in steps 2 and 4
(iii) What reagent is necessary for reaction that takes place in step 3
29. Substances A and B are represented by the formulae ROH and RCOOH
respectively.
They belong to two different homologous series of organic compounds. If

both A and B
react with potassium metal:
(a) Name the common product produced by both
(b) State the observation made when each of the samples A and B are reacted
with sodium
hydrogen carbonate
(i) A
(ii) B
30. Below are structures of particles. Use it to answer questions that follow. In
each case only
electrons in the outermost energy level are shown
key
P = Proton
19P
N = Neutron
U V
X = Electron W
139
Y Z
(a) Identify the particle which is an anion
31. Plastics and rubber are extensively used to cover electrical wires.
(a) What term is used to describe plastic and rubbers used in this way?
(b) Explain why plastics and rubbers are used this way
140
32. The scheme below represents the manufacture of a cleaning agent X
R Conc. R Cleaning
SO H agent X
(a) Draw the structure of X and state the type of cleaning agent to which X
belong
(b) State one disadvantage of using X as a cleaning agent
33. Y grams of a radioactive isotope take 120days to decay to 3.5grams. The half-
life period
of the isotope is 20days
(a) Find the initial mass of the isotope
(b) Give one application of radioactivity in agriculture
34. The structure below represents a polymer. Study and answer the questions that
follow:- H H
-C – C - n
141
(i) Name the polymer
above..................................................................................
(ii) Determine the value of n if giant molecule had relative molecular mass of
4956
35. RCOO-Na+ and RCH2OSO3-Na+ are two types of cleansing agents;
i) Name the class of cleansing agents to which each belongs
ii) Which one of these agents in (i) above would be more suitable when
washing with water
from the Indian ocean. Explain
iii) Both sulphur (IV) oxide and chlorine are used bleaching agents. Explain
the difference
in their bleaching properties
36. The formula given below represents a portion of a polymer

H H H H
C C C C
n
O H O H
142
(a) Give the name of the polymer
(b) Draw the structure of the monomer used to manufacture the polymer
143
15.0.0 NITROGEN AND IT'S
COMPOUNDS (30 LESSONS)
Introduction to oxides of nitrogen
Nirogen has a position in second period of group V in the modern periodic table. It has
molecular formula N2. It has atomic number 7 and atomic weight 14.08 and its electronic
configuration of 2,5.
Besides combining with hydrogen and forming NH3 , nitrogen combines with oxygen in
different ratios and forms five different oxides.
The oxides of nitrogen and the details of the oxygen states of nitrogen and the N:O ratio
can be presented in a tabular form as:
Name Formula Oxidation state of N Ratio of N:O

1) Nitrogen Oxide or
NO +2 1:1
nitrous oxide
2) Nitrogen dioxide NO2 +4 1:2
3) Nitrous oxide
N2O +1 2:1
(also called laughing gas)
All of these oxides of nitrogen are gases, excepting NO and N2O the other oxides are
brownish gases. Except the oxides of NO and N2O all the other oxides are acidic. NO and
N2O are neutral.
The other oxides are prepared in the laboratory using different methods characteristic to
each oxide.
Example of Oxides of Nitrogen (nitric Oxide - NO)

Structure:
Laboratory Preparation: The oxide is prepared in the laboratory by treating the metallic
copper with a moderately concentarted nitric acid (1:1) at room temperature.
The reaction is given as :
2Cu + 8 HNO3 ------> Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
The gas is collected by downward displacement of water.The apparatus used is Wolfe's

apparatus. The purification is done by absorbing the NO gas in frashly prepared ferrous
sulphate solution. Ferrous sulphate absorbs all the NO gas and forms
Fe(H2O)5 NO and the solution becomes brown. On heating this solution pure Nitric
Oxide is obatined.
Physical Properties: NO is not a combustible gas. At high temperature around 1000°C

it decomposes into N2 and O2 .
2NO = N2 + O2 at high temperature
From the equation above we can see that once the decomposition starts 50% O2 gets
evolved and this O2 supports combustion thus making the reaction more violent.
Chemical properties:
1) NO acts as an oxidising agent, oxidising SO2 in presence of water to give H2SO4:
SO2 + 2NO + H2O → H2SO4 + N2O
2) NO acts as a reducing agent,
i) reducing an acidified solution of potassium permanganate (pink) to colorless

manganous salt.
3KMnO4 + 6H2SO4 + 5NO2 → 3KHSO4 + 3MnSO4 + 2H2O + 5NO3

ii) It can also reduce aqueous solution of I2 to HI
3I2 + 2NO + 4H2O → 2HNO3 + 6HI
3) With halogens NO can form addition compounds as
2NO + Cl2 → 2NOCl (NOCl is nitrosyl chloride)
It reacts in the same way with flourine and bromine.
4) With ferrous sulphate NO forms an addition compound as
FeSO4 + 5H2O + NO = [Fe(H2O)5NO]SO4
penta aqua nitrosyl iron (II) sulphate
This is the famous brown ring test used to identify the nitrate radical or the NO radical.
Uses: NO is used to prepare nitric acid.
Nitrogen Dioxide - NO2

Structure:
Laboratory Preparation: In the laboratory NO2 is prepared by thermal decomposition

of Pb(NO3)2. Thus
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
Care is taken to ensure the use of dried Pb(NO3)2 as hydrated nitrate salts on heating react
violently and explode.
Physical Properties: NO2 is a poisonous gas, main source being the exhaust of
automobiles.
1) At room temperature it is a deep brown gas.
2) It does not support combustion.
3) It is not combustible.
Chemical Properties:
1) With cold water NO2 reacts to give a mixture of HNO2 and HNO3 acid.
2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3
2) With hot water the reaction is
3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
3) Being acidic it reacts with bases as
2NO2 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O + KNO2
4) It is also a strong oxidising agent.
H2S + NO2 → NO + H2S + S
5) With excess oxygen and water NO2 gives HNO3.
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3
6) It reacts with concentrated H2SO4 to give nitrosyl hydrogen sulphate
2NO2 + H2SO4 → SO2(OH)ONO + HNO3
Uses: NO2 is used as a fuel in rockets besides being used to prepare HNO3 .
Nitrous Oxide - N2O (laughing Gas)

Structure:
Laboratory Preparation: N2O can be prepared in the laboratory by heating NH4NO3
below 200°C to avoid explosion. Sometimes as a safety measure instead of directly using
NH4NO3, a mixture of (NH4)2SO4 and NaNO3 are heated to give NH4NO3 which
decomposes further to give N2O.
NH4NO3 → N2O + H2O (endothermic reaction)
Physical Properties:
1) N2O has a faint sweet smell and produces a tickling sensation on the neck when
inhaled and makes people laugh hysterically. Excess of inhalation leads to
unconsiousness.
2) Unlike other oxides of nitrogen, N2O supports combustion though it does not burn
itself.
Chemical Properties:
1) At very high temperature N2O decomposes to N2 and O2
2N2O → 2N2 + O2
If a glowing piece of Mg, Cu, or P is introduced in such an environment, these pieces

burn brightly due to the O2 produced from decomposition of N2O.
2) With Sodium and potassium N2O reacts to give the corresponding peroxides liberating
N2 in the process.
2N2O + 2Na → Na2O + 2N2.
Na2O is sodium peroxide
Uses:
1) It is used as propellent gas.
2)Used in combination with oxygen in the ratio N2O : O2 = 1:10 as a mild anaesthetic.
16.0.0 SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
(25 LESSONS)
A.SULPHUR (S)
Sulphur is an element in Group VI Group 16)of the Periodic table . It has atomic
number 16 and electronic configuration 16 and valency 2 /divalent and thus
forms the ion S2-
A. Occurrence.
Sulphur mainly occurs :
(i) as free element in Texas and Louisiana in USA and Sicily in Italy.
(ii)Hydrogen sulphide gas in active volcanic areas e.g. Olkaria near
Naivasha in Kenya
(iii)as copper pyrites(CuFeS2) ,Galena (PbS,Zinc blende(ZnS))and iron
pyrites(FeS2) in other parts of the world.
B. Extraction of Sulphur from Fraschs process
Suphur occurs about 200 metres underground. The soil structure in these areas
is usually weak and can easily cave in.
Digging of tunnels is thus discouraged in trying to extract the mineral.

Sulphur is extracted by drilling three concentric /round pipes of diameter of
ratios 2:8: 18 centimeters.
Superheated water at 170oC and 10atmosphere pressure is forced through the

outermost pipe.
The high pressures ensure the water remains as liquid at high temperatures
instead of vapour of vapour /gas.
The superheated water melts the sulphur because the melting point of sulphur is
lower at about at about 115oC.
A compressed air at 15 atmospheres is forced /pumped through the innermost

pipe.
The hot air forces the molten sulphur up the middle pipe where it is collected
and solidifies in a large tank.
It is about 99% pure.
1
Diagram showing extraction of Sulphur from Fraschs Process
C. Allotropes of Sulphur.
1. Sulphur exist as two crystalline allotropic forms:
(i)Rhombic sulphur
(ii)Monoclinic sulphur
Rhombic sulphur Monoclinic sulphur

Bright yellow crystalline solid Pale yellow crystalline solid
Has a melting point of 113oC Has a melting point of 119oC
Has a density of 2.06gcm-3 Has a density of 1.96gcm-3
Stable below 96oC Stable above 96oC
Has octahedral structure Has a needle-like structure
Rhombic sulphur and Monoclinic sulphur have a transition temperature of

96oC.This is the temperature at which one allotrope changes to the other.
2
3
2. Sulphur exists in non-crystalline forms as:
(i)Plastic sulphur-
Plastic sulphur is prepared from heating powdered sulphur to boil
then pouring a thin continuous stream in a beaker with cold water. A long thin
elastic yellow thread of plastic sulphur is formed .If left for long it turn to bright
yellow crystalline rhombic sulphur.
(ii)Colloidal sulphur-
Colloidal sulphur is formed when sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is
added hydrochloric acid to form a yellow precipitate.
D. Heating Sulphur.
A molecule of sulphur exists as puckered ring of eight atoms joined by
covalent bonds as S8.
On heating the yellow sulphur powder melts at 113oC to clear amber liquid with
low viscosity and thus flows easily.
On further heating to 160oC the molten liquid darkens to a brown very viscous
liquid that does not flow easily.
This is because the S8 rings break into S8 chain that join together to form very
long chains made of over 100000 atoms of Sulphur.
The long chains entangle each other reducing their mobility /flow and hence
increases their viscosity.
On continued further heating to above 160oC, the viscous liquid darkens but
becomes more mobile/flows easily and thus less viscous.
This is because the long chains break to smaller/shorter chains.

At 444oC, the liquid boils and forms brown vapour of a mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2
molecules that solidifies to S8 ring of “flowers of sulphur” on the cooler parts.
Summary of changes on heating sulphur
4
Observation on heating Explanation/structure of Sulphur
Solid sulphur Puckered S8 ring
Heat to 113oC Puckered S8 ring in liquid form (low

Amber yellow liquid viscosity/flow easily)
Puckered S8 ring break/opens then join

o
Heat to 160 C to form long chains that entangle (very
Liquid darkens high viscosity/very low rate of flow)
Mixture of S8 ,S6 ,S2 vapour

o
Heat to 444 C
Liquid boils to brown vapour
Puckered S8 ring
Cool to room temperature

Yellow sublimate
(Flowers of Sulphur)
E. Physical and Chemical properties of Sulphur.(Questions)
1. State three physical properties unique to Sulphur

Sulphur is a yellow solid, insoluble in water, soluble in carbon
disulphide/tetrachloromethane/benzene, poor conductor of heat and electricity.
It has a melting point of 115oC and a boiling point of 444oC.
2. Moist/damp/wet blue and red litmus papers were put in a gas jar
containing air/oxygen. Burning sulphur was then lowered into the gas jar.
State and explain the observation made.
Observations
-Sulphur melts then burns with a blue flame
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent smell
Red litmus paper remains red. Blue litmus paper turns red.
Explanation
Sulphur burns in air and faster in Oxygen to form Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas
and traces/small amount of Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas. Both oxides react with water
to form the corresponding acidic solution i.e
(i) Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(IV)acid

(ii) Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas reacts with water to form sulphuric(VI)acid
Chemical equation
5
S(s) + O2(g) -> SO2(g) (Sulphur(IV)Oxide gas)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) -> 2SO3(g) (Sulphur(VI)Oxide gas traces)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq) ( sulphuric(IV)acid)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO4 (aq) ( sulphuric(VI)acid).
3. Iron filings were put in a test tube containing powdered sulphur then
heated on a Bunsen flame. Stop heating when reaction starts. State and
explain the observations made. Test the effects of a magnet on the mixture
before and after heating. Explain.
Observations
Before heating, the magnet attracts iron filings leaving sulphur
After heating, the magnet does not attract the mixture.
After heating, a red glow is observed that continues even when heating is
stopped..
Black solid is formed.
Explanation
Iron is attracted to a magnet because it is ferromagnetic.
When a mixture of iron and sulphur is heated, the reaction is exothermic giving
out heat energy that makes the mixture to continue glowing even after stopping
heating.
Black Iron(II)sulphide is formed which is a compound and thus not
ferromagnetic.
Chemical equation
Fe(s) + S(s) -> FeS(s) (Exothermic reaction/ -∆H)
Heated powdered heavy metals combine with sulphur to form black sulphides.
Cu(s) + S(s) -> CuS(s)
Zn(s) + S(s) -> ZnS(s)
Pb(s) + S(s) -> PbS(s)
4.The set up below show the reaction of sulphur on heated concentrated

sulphuric(VI)acid.
6
(i)State and explain the observation made.
Observation
Yellow colour of sulphur fades
Orange colour of potassium dichromate(VI)paper turns to green.
Explanation
Hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
The oxide is also reduced to water. Traces of sulphur (VI)oxide is formed.
Chemical equation
S(s) + 3H2 SO4 (l) -> 3SO2(g) + 3H2O(l) +SO3(g)
Sulphur (IV)oxide gas turns Orange potassium dichromate(VI)paper to green.
(ii)State and explain the observation made if concentrated sulphuric (VI)

acid is replaced with concentrated Nitric (V) acid in the above set up.
Observation
Yellow colour of sulphur fades
Colurless solution formed
Brown fumes/gas produced.
Explanation
Hot concentrated Nitric(V)acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphuric (VI)acid. The
Nitric (V) acid is reduced to brown nitrogen(IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
S(s) + 6HNO3 (l) -> 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) +H2SO4 (l)
NB:
Hydrochloric acid is a weaker oxidizing agent and thus cannot oxidize sulphur
like the other mineral acids.
5.State three main uses of sulphur .

Sulphur is mainly used in:
(i)Contact process for the manufacture/industrial/large scale production
of concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.
(ii)Vulcanization of rubber to make it harder, tougher, stronger, and more
durable.
(iii)Making gun powder and match stick heads
(iv) As ointments to treat fungal infections
7
6. Revision Practice
The diagram below represents the extraction of sulphur by Fraschs
process. Use it to answer the questions that follow.
M
L N
(a)Name the substances that passes through:

M Superheated water at 170oC and 10 atmosphere pressure
L Hot compressed air
N Molten sulphur
(b)What is the purpose of the substance that passes through L and M?

M- Superheated water at 170oC and 10 atmosphere pressure is used to
melt the sulphur
L- Hot compressed air is used to force up the molten sulphur.
(c) The properties of the two main allotropes of sulphur represented by

letters A and B are given in the table below. Use it to answer the questions
that follow.
A B
Appearance Bright yellow Pale yellow
Density(gcm-3) 1.93 2.08
Melting point(oC) 119 113
Stability Above 96oC Below 96oC
I.What are allotropes?
Different forms of the same element existing at the same temperature and
pressure without change of state.
II. Identify allotrope:
A. Monoclinic sulphur
B . Rhombic sulphur
III. State two main uses of sulphur.

-Manufacture of sulphuric(VI)acid
-as fungicide
-in vulcanization of rubber to make it harder/tougher/ stronger
-manufacture of dyes /fibres
8
(d)Calculate the volume of sulphur (IV)oxide produced when 0.4 g of
sulphur is completely burnt in excess air.(S = 32.0 ,I mole of a gas occupies
24 dm3 at room temperature)
Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) -> SO2(g)
Mole ratio S: SO2 = 1:1
Method 1
32.0 g of sulphur -> 24 dm3 of SO2(g)
0.4 g of sulphur -> 0.4 g x 24 dm3 = 0.3 dm3
32.0 g
Method 2
Moles of sulphur used = Mass of sulphur => 0.4 = 0.0125 moles
Molar mass of sulphur 32
Moles of sulphur used = Moles of sulphur(IV)oxide used=>0.0125 moles

Volume of sulphur(IV)oxide used = Moles of sulphur(IV)oxide x volume of one
mole of gas =>0.0125 moles x 24 dm3 = 0.3 dm3
9
B.COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR
The following are the main compounds of sulphur:
(i) Sulphur(IV)oxide
(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide .
(iii) Sulphuric(VI)acid
(iv) Hydrogen Sulphide
(v) Sulphate(IV)/SO32- and Sulphate(VI)/ SO42- salts
(i) Sulphur(IV)oxide(SO2)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphur (IV)oxide is found in volcanic areas as a gas or dissolved in water from
geysersand hot springs in active volcanic areas of the world e.g. Olkaria and
Hells gate near Naivasha in Kenya.
(b) School laboratory preparation
In a Chemistry school laboratory Sulphur (IV)oxide is prepared from the
reaction of
Method 1:Using Copper and Sulphuric(VI)acid.
Method 2:Using Sodium Sulphate(IV) and hydrochloric acid.
10
(c)Properties of Sulphur(IV)oxide(Questions)
1. Write the equations for the reaction for the formation of sulphur
(IV)oxide using:
(i)Method 1
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> MgSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Fe(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> FeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Calcium ,Lead and Barium will form insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that will cover
unreacted metals stopping further reaction thus producing very small
amount/quantity of sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
(ii)Method 2
Na2SO3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq ) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
K2SO3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq ) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
BaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> BaCl2(aq ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

CaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
PbSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> PbCl2(s ) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
11
Lead(II)chloride is soluble on heating thus reactants should be heated to
prevent it coating/covering unreacted PbSO3(s)
2.State the physical properties unique to sulphur (IV)oxide gas.

Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is a colourless gas with a pungent irritating and choking
smell which liquidifies easily. It is about two times denser than air.
3. The diagram below show the solubility of sulphur (IV)oxide gas. Explain.
Sulphur(IV) oxide is very soluble in water.

One drop of water dissolves all the Sulphur (IV) oxide in the flask leaving a
vacuum.
If the clip is removed, atmospheric pressure forces the water up through the
narrow tube to form a fountain to occupy the vacuum.
An acidic solution of sulphuric (IV)acid is formed which turns litmus solution
red.
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq) ( sulphuric(IV)acid turn litmus red)
12
4.Dry litmus papers and wet/damp/moist litmus papers were put in a gas
jar containing sulphur(IV) oxide gas. State and explain the observations
made.
Observations
(i)Dry Blue litmus paper remains blue.
Dry red litmus paper remains red.
(ii) Wet/damp/moist blue litmus paper turns red.
Moist/damp/wet red litmus paper remains red.
Both litmus papers are then bleached /decolorized.
Explanation
Dry sulphur(IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not
dissociate/ionize to release H+(aq)ions and thus has no effect on dry blue/red
litmus papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus papers contain water that dissolves /react with dry
sulphur(IV) oxide gas to form a solution of weak sulphuric(IV)acid (H2 SO3
(aq)).
Weak sulphuric(IV)acid(H2 SO3 (aq)) dissociates /ionizes into free H+(aq)ions:
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
The free H+(aq)ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper turns red
showing the gas is acidic.
The SO32- (aq) ions in wet/damp/moist sulphur(IV) oxide gas is responsible for
many reactions of the gas.
It is easily/readily oxidized to sulphate(VI) SO42- (aq) ions making sulphur(IV)
oxide gas act as a reducing agent as in the following examples:
(a)Bleaching agent
Wet/damp/moist coloured flowers/litmus papers are bleached/decolorized when
put in sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
This is because sulphur(IV) oxide removes atomic oxygen from the coloured
dye/ material to form sulphuric(VI)acid.
Chemical equations
(i)Formation of sulphuric(IV)acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Decolorization/bleaching of the dye/removal of atomic oxygen.
Method I. H2 SO3 (aq) + (dye + O) -> H2 SO4 (aq) + dye
(coloured) (colourless)
Method II. H2 SO3 (aq) + (dye) -> H2 SO4 (aq) + (dye - O)

(coloured) (colourless)
13
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas therefore bleaches by reduction /removing oxygen from a
dye unlike chlorine that bleaches by oxidation /adding oxygen.
The bleaching by removing oxygen from Sulphur(IV) oxide gas is temporary.
This is because the bleached dye regains the atomic oxygen from the
atmosphere/air in presence of sunlight as catalyst thus regaining/restoring its
original colour. e.g.
Old newspapers turn brown on exposure to air on regaining the atomic oxygen.
The bleaching through adding oxygen by chlorine gas is permanent.
(b)Turns Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to green
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium dichromate(VI) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium dichromate(VI) into a gas jar
containing Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Observation:
Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) turns to green.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from
SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
Chemical/ionic equation:
(i)Reaction of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas with water
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
(ii)Dissociation /ionization of Sulphuric(IV)acid.
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of Cr2O72-(aq)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
This is a confirmatory test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.

Hydrogen sulphide also reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from
orange Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions leaving a yellow residue.
(c)Decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII)
14
Experiment:
potassium manganate(VII) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) into a gas jar
containing Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Observation:
Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) turns to colourless/ acidified
potassium manganate(VII) is decolorized.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple
MnO4- ions to green Mn2+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from
SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of MnO4- (aq)
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
This is another test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving a yellow residue.
(d)Decolorizes bromine water
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing bromine
water . or;
(ii)Put three drops of bromine water into a gas jar containing Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow bromine water turns to colourless/ bromine water is decolorized.
Explanation:
15
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces yellow bromine water to colourless hydrobromic
acid (HBr) without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32- ions in sulphuric
(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of MnO4- (aq)
SO32-(aq) + Br2 (aq) + H2O(l) -> SO42-(aq) + 2HBr(aq)
(yellow) (colourless)
This can also be used as another test for the presence of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
Hydrogen sulphide also decolorizes yellow bromine water to colourless leaving
a yellow residue.
(e)Reduces Iron(III) Fe3+ salts to Iron(II) salts Fe2+

Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Sulphur(IV) oxide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3
of Iron (III)chloride solution. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of Iron (III)chloride solution into a gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas.Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow/brown Iron (III)chloride solution turns to green
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces Iron (III)chloride solution from yellow/brown
Fe3+ ions to green Fe2+ ions without leaving a residue itself oxidized from SO32-
ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2 SO3 (aq)
H2 SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)
(iii)Oxidation of SO32- (aq)and reduction of Fe3+ (aq)
SO32-(aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) +3H2O(l) -> SO42-(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
(yellow) (green)
16
(f)Reduces Nitric(V)acid to Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas
Experiment:
of concentrated nitric(V)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated nitric(V)acid into a gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Brown fumes of a gas evolved/produced.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces concentrated nitric(V)acid to brown
nitrogen(IV)oxide gas itself oxidized from SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to
SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI) acid.
SO2(g) + 2HNO3 (l) -> H2 SO4 (l) + NO2 (g)
(brown fumes/gas)
(g)Reduces Hydrogen peroxide to water

Experiment:
of 20 volume hydrogen peroxide. Add four drops of Barium nitrate(V)or
Barium chloride followed by five drops of 2M hydrochloric acid/ 2M nitric(V)
acid.
Observation:
A white precipitate is formed that persist /remains on adding 2M hydrochloric
acid/ 2M nitric(V) acid.
Explanation:
Sulphur(IV) oxide gas reduces 20 volume hydrogen peroxide and itself
oxidized from SO32- ions in sulphuric(IV) acid to SO42- ions in sulphuric(VI)
acid.
When Ba2+ ions in Barium Nitrate(V) or Barium chloride solution is added, a
white precipitate of insoluble Barium salts is formed showing the presence of of
either SO32- ,SO42- ,CO32- ions. i.e.
SO32-(aq) + Ba2+ (aq) -> BaSO3(s)
white precipitate
2- 2+
SO4 (aq) + Ba (aq) -> BaSO4(s)
white precipitate
2- 2+
CO3 (aq) + Ba (aq) -> BaCO3(s)
white precipitate
17
If nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid is added to the three suspected insoluble white
precipitates above, the white precipitate:
(i) persist/remains if SO42-(aq)ions (BaSO4(s)) is present.
(ii)dissolves if SO32-(aq)ions (BaSO3(s)) and CO32-(aq)ions (BaCO3(s))is
present. This is because:
I. BaSO3(s) reacts with Nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid to produce acidic SO2

gas that turns Orange moist filter paper dipped in acidified Potassium
dichromate to green.
Chemical equation
BaSO3(s) +2H+(aq) -> Ba2+ (aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
I. BaCO3(s) reacts with Nitric(V)/hydrochloric acid to produce acidic

CO2 gas that forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water.
Chemical equation
BaCO3(s) +2H+(aq) -> Ba2+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
5.Sulphur(IV)oxide also act as an oxidizing agent as in the following

examples.
(a)Reduction by burning Magnesium
Experiment
Lower a burning Magnesium ribbon into agas jar containing Sulphur(IV)oxide
gas
Observation
Magnesium ribbon continues to burn with difficulty.
White ash and yellow powder/speck
Explanation
Sulphur(IV)oxide does not support burning/combustion. Magnesium burns to
produce enough heat energy to decompose Sulphur(IV)oxide to sulphur and
oxygen.
The metal continues to burn on Oxygen forming white Magnesium oxide
solid/ash.
Yellow specks of sulphur residue form on the sides of reaction flask/gas jar.
During the reaction, Sulphur(IV)oxide is reduced(oxidizing agent)while the
metal is oxidized (reducing agent)
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + 2Mg(s) -> 2MgO(s) + S(s)
(white ash/solid) (yellow speck/powder)
18
(b)Reduction by Hydrogen sulphide gas
Experiment
Put two drops of water into a gas jar containing dry Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
Bubble hydrogen sulphide gas into the gas jar containing Sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Or
Put two drops of water into a gas jar containing dry Sulphur(IV)oxide gas
Invert a gas jar full of hydrogen sulphide gas over the gas jar containing
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas. Swirl
Observation
Yellow powder/speck
Explanation
Sulphur(IV)oxide oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to yellow specks of sulphur
residue and itself reduced to also sulphur that form on the sides of reaction
flask/gas jar.
A little moisture/water act as catalyst /speeds up the reaction.
Chemical equation
SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
(yellow speck/powder)
6.Sulphur(IV)oxide has many industrial uses. State three.

(i)In the contact process for the manufacture of Sulphuric(VI)acid
(ii)As a bleaching agent of pulp and paper.
(iii)As a fungicide to kill microbes’
(iv)As a preservative of jam, juices to prevent fermentation
(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide(SO3)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphur (VI)oxide is does not occur free in nature/atmosphere
(b) Preparation
In a Chemistry school laboratory Sulphur (VI)oxide may prepared from:
Method 1;Catalytic oxidation of sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas and oxygen mixture are first dried by being passed
through Concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid .
The dry mixture is then passed through platinised asbestos to catalyse/speed up
the combination to form Sulphur (VI)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI)oxide gas readily solidify as silky white needles if passed through a
freezing mixture /ice cold water.
19
The solid fumes out on heating to a highly acidic poisonous gas.
Chemical equation
2SO2(g) + O2(g) --platinised asbestos--> 2SO3 (g)
Method 2; Heating Iron(II)sulphate(VI) heptahydrate
When green hydrated Iron(II)sulphate(VI) heptahydrate crystals are heated in a
boiling tube ,it loses the water of crystallization and colour changes from green
to white.
Chemical equation
FeSO4.7H2O(s) -> FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
(green solid) (white solid)
On further heating ,the white anhydrous Iron(II)sulphate(VI) solid decomposes
to a mixture of Sulphur (VI)oxide and Sulphur (IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI) oxide readily / easily solidify as white silky needles when the
mixture is passed through a freezing mixture/ice cold water.
Iron(III)oxide is left as a brown residue/solid.
Chemical equation
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3(g)
(green solid) (brown solid)
Caution
On exposure to air Sulphur (VI)oxide gas produces highly corrosive poisonous
fumes of concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid and thus its preparation in a school
laboratory is very risky.
(c) Uses of sulphur(VI)oxide
One of the main uses of sulphur(VI)oxide gas is as an intermediate product in
the contact process for industrial/manufacture/large scale/production of
sulphuric(VI)acid.
(iii) Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4)
(a) Occurrence
Sulphuric (VI)acid(H2SO4) is one of the three mineral acids. There are three
mineral acids;
Nitric(V)acid
Sulphuric(VI)acid
Hydrochloric acid.
20
Mineral acids do not occur naturally but are prepared in a school laboratory and
manufactured at industrial level.
(b)The Contact process for industrial manufacture of H2SO4 .
I. Raw materials
The main raw materials for industrial preparation of Sulphuric(VI)acid include:

(i)Sulphur from Fraschs process or from heating metal sulphide ore like
Galena(PbS),Zinc blende(ZnS)
(ii)Oxygen from fractional distillation of air
(iii)Water from rivers/lakes
II. Chemical processes

The contact process involves four main chemical processes:
(i)Production of Sulphur (IV)oxide
As one of the raw materials, Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is got from the following
sources;
I. Burning/roasting sulphur in air.
Sulphur from Fraschs process is roasted/burnt in air to form Sulphur (IV)oxide

gas in the burners
Chemical equation
S(s) + O2(g) --> SO2 (g)
II. Burning/roasting sulphide ores in air.
Sulphur (IV)oxide gas is produced as a by product in extraction of some metals

like:
- Lead from Lead(II)sulphide/Galena,(PbS)
- Zinc from zinc(II)sulphide/Zinc blende, (ZnS)
- Copper from Copper iron sulphide/Copper pyrites, (CuFeS2)
On roasting/burning, large amount /quantity of sulphur(IV)oxide is
generated/produced.
Chemical equation
(i)2PbS (s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2PbO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

(ii)2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) -> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)
(ii)2CuFeS2 (s) + 4O2 (g) -> 2FeO(s) + 3SO2 (g) + Cu2O(s)
Sulphur(IV)oxide easily/readily liquefies and thus can be transported to a far
distance safely.
21
(ii)Purification of Sulphur(IV)oxide
Sulphur(IV)oxide gas contain dust particles and Arsenic(IV)oxide as impurities.

These impurities “poison”/impair the catalyst by adhering on/covering its
surface.
The impurities are removed by electrostatic precipitation method .
In the contact process Platinum or Vanadium(V)oxide may be used.
Vanadium(V)oxide is preferred because it is :
(i) cheaper/less expensive
(ii) less easily poisoned by impurities
(iii)Catalytic conversion of Sulphur(IV)oxide to Sulphur(VI)oxide
Pure and dry mixture of Sulphur (IV)oxide gas and Oxygen is heated to 450oC
in a heat exchanger.
The heated mixture is passed through long pipes coated with pellets of
Vanadium (V)oxide catalyst.
The close “contact” between the reacting gases and catalyst give the process its
name.
Vanadium (V)oxide catalyse the conversion/oxidation of Sulphur(IV)oxide to
Sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) -- V2O5 --> 2SO2 (g)
This reaction is exothermic (-∆H) and the temperatures need to be maintained at
around 450oC to ensure that:
(i)reaction rate/time taken for the formation of Sulphur(VI)oxide is not
too slow/long at lower temperatures below 450oC
(ii) Sulphur(VI)oxide gas does not decompose back to Sulphur(IV)oxide
gas and Oxygen gas at higher temperatures than 450oC.
(iv)Conversion of Sulphur(VI)oxide of Sulphuric(VI)acid
Sulphur(VI)oxide is the acid anhydride of concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid.

Sulphur(VI)oxide reacts with water to form thick mist of fine droplets of
very/highly corrosive concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid because the reaction is
highly exothermic.
To prevent this, Sulphur (VI)oxide is a passed up to meet downward flow of
98% Sulphuric(VI)acid in the absorption chamber/tower.
The reaction forms a very viscous oily liquid called Oleum/fuming Sulphuric
(VI) acid/ pyrosulphuric (VI) acid.
Chemical equation
H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) -> H2S2O7 (l)
22
Oleum/fuming Sulphuric (VI) acid/ pyrosulphuric (VI) acid is diluted carefully
with distilled water to give concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid .
Chemical equation
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) -> 2H2SO4 (l)
The acid is stored ready for market/sale.
III. Environmental effects of contact process
Sulphur(VI)oxide and Sulphur(IV)oxide gases are atmospheric pollutants that
form acid rain if they escape to the atmosphere.
In the Contact process, about 2% of these gases do not form sulphuric (VI)
acid.
The following precautions prevent/minimize pollution from Contact process:
(i)recycling back any unreacted Sulphur(IV)oxide gas back to the heat
exchangers.
(ii)dissolving Sulphur(VI)oxide gas in concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
instead of water.
This prevents the formation of fine droplets of the corrosive/
toxic/poisonous fumes of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
(iii)scrubbing-This involves passing the exhaust gases through very tall

chimneys lined with quicklime/calcium hydroxide solid.
This reacts with Sulphur (VI)oxide gas forming harmless calcium(II)sulphate
(IV) /CaSO3
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + SO2(g) --> CaSO3 (aq) + H2O (g)
IV. Uses of Sulphuric(VI)acid
Sulphuric (VI) acid is used:
(i) in making dyes and paint
(ii)as acid in Lead-acid accumulator/battery
(iii) for making soapless detergents
(iv) for making sulphate agricultural fertilizers
VI. Sketch chart diagram showing the Contact process
23
(c) Properties of Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid
(i)Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid is a colourless oily liquid with a density of
1.84gcm-3.It has a boiling point of 338oC.
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid is very soluble in water.
The solubility /dissolution of the acid very highly exothermic.
The concentrated acid should thus be diluted slowly in excess water.
Water should never be added to the acid because the hot acid scatters highly
corrosive fumes out of the container.
(iii) Concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid is a covalent compound. It has no free H+
ions.
Free H+ ions are responsible for turning the blue litmus paper red. Concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid thus do not change the blue litmus paper red.
(iv) Concentrated sulphuric (VI)acid is hygroscopic. It absorbs water from the
atmosphere and do not form a solution.
This makes concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid very suitable as drying agent
during preparation of gases.
(v)The following are some chemical properties of concentrated sulphuric (VI)
acid:
I. As a dehydrating agent
Experiment I;
Put about four spatula end fulls of brown sugar and glucose in separate 10cm3
beaker.
Carefully add about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid .Allow to stand
for about 10 minutes.
Observation;
Colour( in brown sugar )change from brown to black.
Colour (in glucose) change from white to black.
10cm3 beaker becomes very hot.
Explanation
24
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.
It removes chemically and physically combined elements of water(Hydrogen
and Oxygen in ratio 2:1)from compounds.
When added to sugar /glucose a vigorous reaction that is highly exothermic take
place.
The sugar/glucose is charred to black mass of carbon because the acid
dehydrates the sugar/glucose leaving carbon.
Caution
This reaction is highly exothermic that start slowly but produce fine particles of
carbon that if inhaled cause quick suffocation by blocking the lung villi.
Chemical equation
Glucose: C6H12O6(s) --conc.H2SO4--> 6C (s) + 6H2O(l)
(white) (black)
Sugar: C12H22O11(s) --conc.H2SO4--> 12C (s) +11H2O(l)

(brown) (black)
Experiment II;
Put about two spatula end full of hydrated copper(II)sulphate(VI)crystals in a
boiling tube .Carefully add about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid
.Warm .
Observation;
Colour change from blue to white.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent.It removes

physically combined elements of water(Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio 2:1)from
hydrated compounds.
The acid dehydrates blue copper(II)sulphate to white anhydrous
copper(II)sulphate .
Chemical equation
CuSO4.5H2O(s) --conc.H2SO4--> CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O(l)
(blue) (white)
Experiment III;
Put about 4cm3 of absolute ethanol in a boiling tube .Carefully add about
10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
Place moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate(VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube. Heat strongly.
Caution:
Absolute ethanol is highly flammable.
Observation;
Colourless gas produced.
25
Orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) paper turns to green.
Explanation
It removes chemically combined elements of water(Hydrogen and Oxygen in
ratio 2:1)from compounds.
The acid dehydrates ethanol to ethene gas at about 170oC.
Ethene with =C=C= double bond turns orange acidified potassium dichromate
(VI) paper turns to green.
Chemical equation
C2H5OH(l) --conc.H2SO4/170oC --> C2H4 (g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of ethene gas
Experiment IV;
Put about 4cm3 of methanoic acid in a boiling tube .Carefully add about 6 cm3
of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Heat gently
Caution:
This should be done in a fume chamber/open
Observation;
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong dehydrating agent. It removes
chemically combined elements of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio
2:1)from compounds.
The acid dehydrates methanoic acid to poisonous/toxic carbon(II)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
HCOOH(l) --conc.H2SO4 --> CO(g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount
carbon (II)oxide gas
Experiment V;
Put about 4cm3 of ethan-1,2-dioic/oxalic acid in a boiling tube .Carefully add
about 6 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Pass any gaseous product
through lime water.Heat gently
Caution:
This should be done in a fume chamber/open
Observation;
Gas produced forms a white precipitate with lime water.
Explanation
26
It removes chemically combined elements of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in
ratio 2:1)from compounds.
The acid dehydrates ethan-1,2-dioic/oxalic acid to a mixture of
poisonous/toxic carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases.
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(l) --conc.H2SO4 --> CO(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NB: This reaction is also used for the school laboratory preparation of small
amount carbon (II) oxide gas.
Carbon (IV) oxide gas is removed by passing the mixture through concentrated
sodium/potassium hydroxide solution.
II. As an Oxidizing agent
Experiment I
Put about 2cm3 of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into three separate boiling
tubes. Place a thin moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube. Put about 0.5g of
Copper turnings, Zinc granule and Iron filings to each boiling tube separately.
Observation;
Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
Blue solution formed with copper,
Green solution formed with Iron
Colourless solution formed with Zinc
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent irritating choking smell.
Gas produced turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong oxidizing agent.
It oxidizes metals to metallic sulphate(VI) salts and itself reduced to
sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in
acidified potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
CuSO4(aq) is a blue solution. ZnSO4(aq) is a colourless solution. FeSO4(aq) is a
green solution.
Chemical equation
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Fe(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Experiment II
27
Put about 2cm3 of Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into two separate boiling
tubes. Place a thin moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)solution on the mouth of the boiling tube.
Put about 0.5g of powdered charcoal and sulphur powder to each boiling tube
separately.
Warm.
Observation;
Black solid charcoal dissolves/decrease
Yellow solid sulphur dissolves/decrease
Colourless gas produced that has a pungent irritating choking smell.
Gas produced turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
Explanation
Concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes non-
metals to non metallic oxides and itself reduced to sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
Sulphur (IV) oxide gas turn orange moist/damp/wet filter paper dipped in
acidified potassium dichromate (VI)solution to green.
Charcoal is oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide. Sulphur is oxidized to
Sulphur(IV)oxide .
Chemical equation
C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> CO2(aq) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) --> 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
III. As the least volatile acid

Study the table below showing a comparison in boiling points of the three
mineral acids
Mineral acid Relative molecula mass Boiling point(oC)
Hydrochloric acid(HCl) 36.5 35.0
Nitric(V)acid(HNO3) 63.0 83.0
Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) 98.0 333
1.Which is the least volatile acid? Explain

Sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) because it has the largest molecule and joined by
Hydrogen bonds making it to have the highest boiling point/least volatile.
2. Using chemical equations, explain how sulphuric(VI)acid displaces the
less volatile mineral acids.
(i)Chemical equation
KNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> KHSO4(l) + HNO3(g)
NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> NaHSO4(l) + HNO3(g)
28
This reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Nitric(V) acid
(HNO3).
(ii)Chemical equation
KCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> KHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)
This reaction is used in the school laboratory preparation of Hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
(d) Properties of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.

Dilute sulphuric(VI)acid is made when about 10cm3 of concentrated sulphuric
(VI) acid is carefully added to about 90cm3 of distilled water.
Diluting concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid should be done carefully because the
reaction is highly exothermic.
Diluting concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid decreases the number of moles
present in a given volume of solution which makes the acid less corrosive.
On diluting concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid, water ionizes /dissociates the acid
fully/wholly into two(dibasic)free H+(aq) and SO42-(aq)ions:
H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
The presence of free H+(aq)ions is responsible for ;
(i)turn litmus red because of the presence of free H+(aq)ions
(ii)have pH 1/2/3 because of the presence of many free H+(aq)ions hence
a strongly acidic solution.
(iii)Reaction with metals
Experiment:
Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean test
tubes. Add about 0.1g of Magnesium ribbon to one test tube. Cover the mixture
with a finger as stopper. Introduce a burning splint on top of the finger and
release the finger “stopper”. Repeat by adding Zinc, Copper and Iron instead of
the Magnesium ribbon.
Observation:
No effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing with copper
Effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing with Iron ,Zinc and Magnesium
Colourless gas produced that extinguishes burning splint with a “pop”
sound.
Colourless solution formed with Zinc and Magnesium.
Green solution formed with Iron
Explanation:
When a metal higher than hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical
series is put in a test tube containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid,
29
effervescence/ bubbling/ fizzing takes place with evolution of Hydrogen
gas.
Impure hydrogen gas extinguishes burning splint with a “pop” sound.
A sulphate (VI) salts is formed. Iron, Zinc and Magnesium are higher
than hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical series.
They form Iron (II)sulphate(VI), Magnesium sulphate(VI) and Zinc
sulphate(VI).
. When a metal lower than hydrogen in the reactivity/electrochemical
series is put in a test tube containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, there is no
effervescence/ bubbling/ fizzing that take place.
Copper thus do not react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Chemical/ionic equation
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
+ 2+
Mg(s) + 2H (aq) --> Mg (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H+(aq) --> Fe2+ (aq) + H2(g)
NB:(i) Calcium,Lead and Barium forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that
cover/coat the unreacted metals.
(ii)Sodium and Potassium react explosively with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid
(iv)Reaction with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Experiment:
Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean
boiling tubes. Add about 0.1g of sodium carbonate to one boiling tube.
Introduce a burning splint on top of the boiling tube. Repeat by adding Zinc
carbonate, Copper (II)carbonate and Iron(II)Carbonate in place of the sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
Observation:
Effervescence/ bubbles/ fizzing.
Colourless gas produced that extinguishes burning splint.
Colourless solution formed with Zinc carbonate, sodium hydrogen
carbonate and sodium carbonate.
Green solution formed with Iron(II)Carbonate
Blue solution formed with Copper(II)Carbonate
Explanation:
When a metal carbonate or a hydrogen carbonates is put in a test tube
containing dilute sulphuric(VI)acid, effervescence/ bubbling/ fizzing
takes place with evolution of carbon(IV)oxide gas. carbon(IV)oxide gas
30
extinguishes a burning splint and forms a white precipitate when bubbled
in lime water.
A sulphate (VI) salts is formed.
ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Cu2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
FeCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> FeSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
FeCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Fe2+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

NaHCO3(s) + H+(aq) --> Na+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

NaHCO3(s) + H+(aq) --> Na+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(NH4)2CO3 (s) + H+(aq) --> NH4+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2NH4HCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

NH4HCO3(aq) + H+(aq) --> NH4+ (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NB:
Calcium, Lead and Barium carbonates forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that
cover/coat the unreacted metals.
(v)Neutralization-reaction of metal oxides and alkalis/bases
Experiment I:
Place 5cm3 of 0.2M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid into four separate clean
boiling tubes. Add about 0.1g of copper(II)oxide to one boiling tube. Stir.
Repeat by adding Zinc oxide, calcium carbonate and Sodium (II)Oxide in place
of the Copper(II)Oxide.
Observation:
Blue solution formed with Copper(II)Oxide
Colourless solution formed with other oxides
Explanation:
When a metal oxide is put in a test tube containing dilute
sulphuric(VI)acid, the oxide dissolves forming a sulphate (VI) salt.
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Zn2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
31
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Cu2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) --> Mg2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
Na2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Na2O(s) + 2H+(aq) --> 2Na+ (aq) + H2O(l)
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) --> K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

K2O(s) + H+(aq) --> 2K+ (aq) + H2O(l)
NB:
Calcium, Lead and Barium oxides forms insoluble sulphate(VI)salts that
cover/coat the unreacted metals oxides.
Experiment II:
Fill a burette wuth 0.1M dilute sulphuric(VI)acid. Pipette 20.0cm3 of
0.1Msodium hydroxide solution into a 250cm3 conical flask. Add three drops of
phenolphthalein indicator.Titrate the acid to get a permanent colour
change.Repeat with0.1M potassium hydroxide solution inplace of 0.1Msodium
hydroxide solution
Observation:
Colour of phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless at the end point.
Explanation
Like other (mineral) acids dilute sulphuric(VI)acid neutralizes bases/alkalis to a
sulphate salt and water only.
Colour of the indicator used changes when a slight excess of acid is added to
the base at the end point
Chemical equation:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)
2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) --> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

OH-(s) + H+(aq) --> H2O(l)
32
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide(H2S)
(a) Occurrence
Hydrogen sulphide is found in volcanic areas as a gas or dissolved in water
from geysers and hot springs in active volcanic areas of the world e.g. Olkaria
and Hells gate near Naivasha in Kenya.
It is present in rotten eggs and human excreta.
(b) Preparation
Hydrogen sulphide is prepared in a school laboratory by heating Iron (II)
sulphide with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(c) Properties of Hydrogen sulphide(Questions)

1. Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation
of Hydrogen sulphide.
33
Chemical equation: FeS (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> H2S (g) FeCl2 (aq)
2. State three physical properties unique to Hydrogen sulphide.

Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless gas with characteristic pungent poisonous
smell of rotten eggs. It is soluble in cold water but insoluble in warm water. It is
denser than water and turns blue litmus paper red.
3. Hydrogen sulphide exist as a dibasic acid when dissolved in water. Using
a chemical equation show how it ionizes in aqueous state.
H2S(aq) -> H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
H2S(aq) -> 2H+(aq) + S2- (aq)
Hydrogen sulphide therefore can form both normal and acid salts e.g
Sodium hydrogen sulphide and sodium sulphide both exist
4. State and explain one gaseous impurity likely to be present in the gas jar
containing hydrogen sulphide above.
Hydrogen/ H2
Iron(II)sulphide contains Iron as impurity .The iron will react with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form iron(II)chloride and produce hydrogen gas that mixes
with hydrogen sulphide gas.
5. State and explain the observations made when a filter paper dipped in
Lead(II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V) solution is put in a gas jar
containing hydrogen sulphide gas.
Observations
Moist Lead(II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V) paper turns black.
Explanation
When hydrogen sulphide is bubbled in a metallic salt solution, a metallic
sulphide is formed.
All sulphides are insoluble black salts except sodium sulphide, potassium
sulphide and ammonium sulphides.
Hydrogen sulphide gas blackens moist Lead (II) ethanoate /Lead (II) nitrate(V)
paper .
The gas reacts with Pb2+ in the paper to form black Lead(II)sulphide.
This is the chemical test for the presence of H2S other than the physical smell of
rotten eggs.
Chemical equations
Pb2+(aq) + H2S -> PbS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
2+
Fe (aq) + H2S -> FeS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
2+
Zn (aq) + H2S -> ZnS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
2+
Cu (aq) + H2S -> CuS + 2H+(aq)
(black)
34
2Cu+(aq) + H2S-> Cu2S + 2H+(aq)
(black)
6. Dry hydrogen sulphide was ignited as below.
Flame A
Dry Hydrogen sulphide gas
(i) State the observations made in flame A

Hydrogen sulphide burns in excess air with a blue flame to form
sulphur(IV)oxide gas and water.
Chemical equation: 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
Hydrogen sulphide burns in limited air with a blue flame to form sulphur solid
and water.
Chemical equation: 2H2S(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2S(s)
7. Hydrogen sulphide is a strong reducing agent that is oxidized to yellow

solid sulphur as precipitate. The following experiments illustrate the
reducing properties of Hydrogen sulphide.
(a)Turns Orange acidified potassium dichromate(VI) to green
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing acidified
potassium dichromate (VI) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium dichromate (VI) into a gas
jar containing Hydrogen sulphide gas.
Observation:
Orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) turns to green.
Yellow solid residue.
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions leaving a yellow solid residue as itself is
oxidized to sulphur.
4H2S(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +6H+(aq) -> 4S(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
This test is used for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur (IV)oxide
gas.
35
Sulphur(IV)oxide also reduces acidified potassium dichromate(VI) from orange
Cr2O72- ions to green Cr3+ ions without leaving a yellow residue.
(b)Decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII)
Experiment:
potassium manganate(VII) solution. or;
(ii)Dip a filter paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate(VII) into a gas jar
containing Hydrogen Sulphide gas.
Observation:
Purple acidified potassium manganate(VII) turns to colourless/ acidified
potassium manganate(VII) is decolorized.
Yellow solid residue.
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces acidified potassium manganate(VII) from purple
MnO4- ions to green Mn2+ ions leaving a residue as the gas itself is oxidized to
sulphur.
5H2S(g) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5S (s) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
This is another test for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas.
Sulphur(IV) oxide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving no yellow residue.
(c)Decolorizes bromine water
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing bromine
water . or;
(ii)Put three drops of bromine water into a gas jar containing Hydrogen sulphide
gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow bromine water turns to colourless/ bromine water is decolorized.
Yellow solid residue
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces yellow bromine water to colourless
hydrobromic acid (HBr) leaving a yellow residue as the gas itself is oxidized to
sulphur.
36
H2 S(g) + Br2 (aq) -> S (s) + 2HBr(aq)
(yellow solution) (yellow solid) (colourless)
This is another test for differentiating Hydrogen sulphide and Sulphur(IV) oxide
gas.
Sulphur(IV) oxide also decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII) from
purple MnO4- ions to colourless Mn2+ ions leaving no yellow residue.
(d)Reduces Iron(III) Fe3+ salts to Iron(II) salts Fe2+
Experiment:
(i)Pass a stream of Hydrogen sulphide gas in a test tube containing about 3 cm3
of Iron (III)chloride solution. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of Iron (III)chloride solution into a gas jar containing
Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Yellow/brown Iron (III)chloride solution turns to green.
Yellow solid solid
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces Iron (III)chloride solution from yellow/brown
Fe3+ ions to green Fe2+ ions leaving a yellow residue.The gas is itself oxidized
to sulphur.
H2S(aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) -> S (s) + Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
(yellow solution) (yellow residue) (green)
(e)Reduces Nitric(V)acid to Nitrogen(IV)oxide gas
Experiment:
of concentrated nitric(V)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated nitric(V)acid into a gas jar containing
Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Brown fumes of a gas evolved/produced.
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces concentrated nitric(V)acid to brown
nitrogen(IV)oxide gas itself oxidized to yellow sulphur.
H2S(g) + 2HNO3 (l) -> 2H2O(l) + S (s) + 2NO2 (g)
37
(yellow residue) (brown fumes)
(f)Reduces sulphuric(VI)acid to Sulphur

Experiment:
of concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid. or;
(ii)Place about 3cm3 of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid into a gas jar
containing Hydrogen sulphide gas. Swirl.
Observation:
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid to yellow
sulphur.
3H2S(g) + H2SO4 (l) -> 4H2O(l) + 4S (s)
(yellow residue)
(g)Reduces Hydrogen peroxide to water

Experiment:
of 20 volume hydrogen peroxide.
Observation:
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces 20 volume hydrogen peroxide to water and
itself oxidized to yellow sulphur
H2S(g) + H2O2 (l) -> 2H2O(l) + S (s)
(yellow residue)
8.Name the salt formed when:
(i)equal volumes of equimolar hydrogen sulphide neutralizes sodium
hydroxide solution:
Sodium hydrogen sulphide
H2S(g) + NaOH (l) -> H2O(l) + NaHS (aq)
(ii) hydrogen sulphide neutralizes excess concentrated sodium hydroxide

solution:
Sodium sulphide
38
H2S(g) + 2NaOH (l) -> 2H2O(l) + Na2S (aq)
Practice
Hydrogen sulphide gas was bubbled into a solution of metallic
nitrate(V)salts as in the flow chart below
Hydrogen sulphide
Brown solution
Blue solution
Green solution
(a)NameBlack
thesolid
black solid Copper(II)sulphide
(b)Identify the cation responsible for the formation of:
I. Blue solution Cu2+(aq)
II. Green solution Fe2+(aq)
III. Brown solution Fe3+(aq)
(c)Using acidified potassium dichromate(VI) describe how you would
differentiate between sulphur(IV)Oxide and hydrogen sulphide
-Bubble the gases in separate test tubes containing acidified Potassium
dichromate(VI) solution.
-Both changes the Orange colour of acidified Potassium dichromate(VI)
solution to green.
-Yellow solid residue/deposit is formed with Hydrogen sulphide
4H2S(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +6H+(aq) -> 4S(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
(d)State and explain the observations made if a burning splint is introduced

at the mouth of a hydrogen sulphide generator.
ObservationGas continues burning with a blue flame
Explanation: Hydrogen sulphide burns in excess air with a blue flame to
form sulphur(IV)oxide gas and water.
Chemical equation: 2H2S(g)+ 3O2(g) -> 2H2O(l) + 2SO2 (g)
39
(v)Sulphate (VI) (SO42-)and Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts
1. Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts are normal and acid salts derived from Sulphuric
(VI)acid H2SO4.
2. Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts are normal and acid salts derived from Sulphuric
(IV)acid H2SO3.
3. Sulphuric (VI)acid H2SO4 is formed when sulphur(VI)oxide gas is bubbled in
water.
The acid exist as a dibasic acid with two ionisable hydrogen. It forms therefore
the Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) and hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts.
i.e.
H2SO4 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2SO4 (aq) -> H+(aq) + HSO4 -(aq)
All Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts dissolve in water/are soluble except Calcium (II)
sulphate (VI) (CaSO4), Barium (II) sulphate (VI) (BaSO4) and Lead (II)
sulphate (VI) (PbSO4)
All Hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO3-) salts exist in solution/dissolved in water.
Sodium (I) hydrogen sulphate (VI) (NaHSO4), Potassium (I) hydrogen sulphate
(VI) (KHSO4) and Ammonium hydrogen sulphate (VI) (NH4HSO4) exist also as
solids.
Other Hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts do not exist except those of
Calcium (II) hydrogen sulphate (VI) (Ca (HSO4)2) and Magnesium (II)
hydrogen sulphate (VI) (Mg (HSO4)2).
4. Sulphuric (IV)acid H2SO3 is formed when sulphur(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in

water.
The acid exist as a dibasic acid with two ionisable hydrogen. It forms therefore
the Sulphate (IV) (SO32-) and hydrogen sulphate (VI) (HSO4-) salts.
i.e.
H2SO3 (aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
40
H2SO3 (aq) -> H+(aq) + HSO3 -(aq)
All Sulphate (IV) (SO32-) salts dissolve in water/are soluble except Calcium (II)
sulphate (IV) (CaSO3), Barium (II) sulphate (IV) (BaSO3) and Lead (II)
sulphate (IV) (PbSO3)
All Hydrogen sulphate (IV) (HSO3-) salts exist in solution/dissolved in water.
Sodium (I) hydrogen sulphate (IV) (NaHSO3), Potassium (I) hydrogen sulphate
(IV) (KHSO3) and Ammonium hydrogen sulphate (IV) (NH4HSO3) exist also as
solids.
Other Hydrogen sulphate (IV) (HSO3-) salts do not exist except those of
Calcium (II) hydrogen sulphate (IV) (Ca (HSO3)2) and Magnesium (II)
hydrogen sulphate (IV) (Mg (HSO3)2).
5.The following experiments show the effect of heat on sulphate(VI) (SO42-)and
sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts:
Experiment:
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0g of :
Zinc(II)sulphate (VI), Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Copper(II)sulphate(VI),Sodium (I)
sulphate (VI), Sodium (I) sulphate (IV).Heat gently then strongly. Test any
gases produced using litmus papers.
Observations:
-Colourless droplets of liquid forms on the cooler parts of the test tube in all
cases.
-White solid residue is left in case of Zinc (II)sulphate(VI),Sodium (I) sulphate
(VI) and Sodium (I) sulphate (IV).
-Colour changes from green to brown /yellow in case of Iron (II)sulphate(VI)
-Colour changes from blue to white then black in case of Copper (II) sulphate
(VI)
-Blue litmus paper remain and blue and red litmus paper remain red in case of
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI), Sodium (I) sulphate (VI) and Sodium (I) sulphate (IV)
-Blue litmus paper turns red and red litmus paper remain red in case of Iron
(II)sulphate(VI) and Copper (II) sulphate (VI).
Explanation
(i)All Sulphate (VI) (SO42-) salts exist as hydrated salts with water of
crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts of test tube as a
colourless liquid on gentle heating. e.g.
K2SO4.10H2O(s) -> K2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
Na2SO4.10H2O(s) -> Na2SO4(s) + 10H2O(l)
MgSO4.7H2O(s) -> MgSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
CaSO4.7H2O(s) -> CaSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
ZnSO4.7H2O(s) -> ZnSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
FeSO4.7H2O(s) -> FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
Al2(SO4)3.6H2O(s) -> Al2(SO4)3 (s) + 6H2O(l)
41
CuSO4.5H2O(s) -> CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
2-
All Sulphate (VI) (SO4 ) salts do not decompose on heating except Iron (II)
sulphate (VI) and Copper (II) sulphate (VI).
(i)Iron (II) sulphate (VI) decomposes on strong heating to produce acidic
sulphur (IV)oxide and sulphur(VI)oxide gases. Iron(III)oxide is formed as a
brown /yellow residue.
Chemical equation
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount of
sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
Sulphur (VI) oxide readily /easily solidifies as white silky needles when the
mixture is passed through freezing mixture/ice cold water.
Sulphur (IV) oxide does not.
(ii) Copper(II)sulphate(VI) decomposes on strong heating to black copper (II)
oxide and Sulphur (VI) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)
This reaction is used for the school laboratory preparation of small amount of
sulphur(VI)oxide gas.
6. The following experiments show the test for the presence of sulphate (VI)
(SO42-)and sulphate(IV) (SO32-) ions in a sample of a salt/compound:
Experiments/Observations:
(a)Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of
Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution. Preserve.
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- , Cl- ions
II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.
Observation 1
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , Cl- ions
Observation 2
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions
III.(a)To the preserved sample observation 1 in (II) above, Heat to boil.

Observation 1
42
White precipitate/ppt persists on boiling SO42- ions
Observation 2
White precipitate/ppt dissolves on boiling Cl - ions
.(b)To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII)decolorized SO32- ions
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green
Experiments/Observations:
(b)Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride
I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II)
nitrate (V) / Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- ions
II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid .
Preserve.
Observation 1
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions
Observation 2
43
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions
III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).
Observation 1
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII)decolorized SO32- ions
dichromate(VI) turns to green
Observation 2
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not CO32- ions
decolorized
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green
Explanations
Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl-), Sulphate (VI) salts
(SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble
white precipitate of Lead(II)chloride, Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate
(IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq) -> PbCl2(s)

Pb2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and
thus their white precipitates remain/ persists.
44
- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to
form soluble Lead(II) nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out
sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii)When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;
- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on

cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white

precipitate persists/remains on heating/boiling.
(iv)When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII)

and / or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to
green. Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:

(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium

carbonate if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when
effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride

(i)Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate
(VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the
insoluble white precipitate of Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV)
and Barium(II)carbonate(IV).
45
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)
(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,
- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its white
precipitates remain/ persists.
- Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the

acid to form soluble Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/
bubbles out sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
BaCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + CO2 (g)
(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII)

and / or Orange colour of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to
green. Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium
carbonate if three drops of lime water are added into the reaction test tube when
effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases
produced react with the oxidizing agents/lime water.
46
Summary test for Sulphate (VI) (SO42-)and Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) salts
Unknown salt
Lead(II)nitrate(V)
White precipitates of Cl-, SO42- ,

SO32- and CO32-
Dilute nitric(V) acid
white ppt dissolves in white ppt persist /remains

SO32- and CO32- in SO32- and CO32-
Acidified KMnO4 Heat to boil

K2Cr2O7 / Lime water
White ppt with Acidified KMnO4 White ppt dissolves White ppt persist
lime water in CO32- decolorized in SO32- on heating in Cl- on heating in SO42-
in CO 2-
Practice revision question
1. Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow
Sodium salt solution
Barium nitrate(VI)
(VI)(aq)
White precipitate
Acidified K2Cr2O7
Dilute HCl
Gas G and colour of solution

Colourless solution B changes orange to green
47
(a)Identify the:
I: Sodium salt solution
Sodium sulphate(IV)/Na2SO3
II: White precipitate

Barium sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
III: Gas G
Sulphur (IV)Oxide /SO2
IV: Colourless solution H

Barium chloride /BaCl2
(b)Write an ionic equation for the formation of:

I.White precipitate
Ionic equation Ba2+(aq) + SO32-(aq) -> BaSO3(s)
II.Gas G
Ionic equation BaSO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> SO2 (g) + H2O (l) + Ba2+(aq)
III. Green solution from the orange solution

(Orange) (green)
2. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.
48
(i)Write equation for the reaction taking place at:
I.The roasting furnace (1mk)
2FeS2 (s) + 5O2 (g) -> 2FeO(s) + 4SO2 (g)
II.The absorption tower (1mk)
H2SO4 (l) + SO3 (g) -> H2S2O7(l)
III.The diluter (1mk)
H2S2O7(l) + H2 O(l) -> 2H2SO4 (l)
(ii)The reaction taking place in chamber K is

SO2 (g) + 1/2O2 (g) SO3 (g)
I. Explain why it is necessary to use excess air in chamber K
To ensure all the SO2 reacts
II.Name another substance used in chamber K
Vanadium(V)oxide
3.(a)Describe a chemical test that can be used to differentiate between sodium

sulphate (IV) and sodium sulphate (VI).
Add acidified Barium nitrate(V)/chloride.

White precipitate formed with sodium sulphate (VI)
No white precipitate formed with sodium sulphate (IV)
(b)Calculate the volume of sulphur (IV) oxide formed when 120 kg of copper is
reacted with excess concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid.(Cu = 63.5 ,1 mole of a gas
at s.t.p =22.4dm3)
Chemical equation
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) -> CuSO4(aq)+ H2O(l) + SO2 (g)
Mole ratio Cu(s: SO2 (g) = 1:1
Method 1
1 Mole Cu =63.5 g -> 1 mole SO2 = 22.4dm3
(120 x 1000) g -> (120 x 1000) g x 22.4.dm3)
63.5 g
= 42330.7087
49
Method 2
Moles of Cu = ( 120 x 1000 ) g =1889.7639 moles
63.5
Moles SO2 = Moles of Cu = 1889.7639 moles
Volume of SO2 = Mole x molar gas volume = (1889.7639 moles x 22.4)
= 42330.7114
4.Use the reaction scheme below to answer the

questions that follow.
Barium nitrate(V)
Acidified Green White precipitate R

K2Cr2O7 solution T
Dilute nitric
(V) acid
Colourless gas
V
[email protected] 162
(a)Identify the:
(i)cation responsible for the green solution T
Cr3+
(ii)possible anions present in white precipitate R
CO32-, SO32-, SO42-
(b)Name gas V
Sulphur (IV)oxide
(c)Write a possible ionic equation for the formation of white precipitate R.
Ba2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) -> BaCO3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + SO32- (aq) -> BaSO3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) -> BaSO4(s)
50
51

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12.0.

0 GAS LAWS (15 LESSONS)

3. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin(K).

The standard temperature is 273K = 0 oC.

4. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal(Pa) / Newton per metre squared (Nm-2) .

6. Boyles law states that

For two gases then P1 V1 = P2 V2

2. Calculate the pressure which must be applied to a fixed mass of

P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :100000 x 100 = P2 x (100 x 3)

3.A 60cm3 weather ballon full of Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure

P1 V1 = P2 V2 Substituting :101325 x 60 = 90000 x V2

will burst before reaching destination.

7.Charles law states that“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly

V α T (Fixed /constant P) ie V = Constant(k)

Graphically therefore a plot of volume(V) against Temperature(T) in:

(ii)Kelvin/K produces a straight line from absolute zero of O Kelvin

= 500 x (-4 x 273) = 492.674cm3

7.326cm3(500-492.674cm3)of carbon(IV)oxide gas did not fit into the cylinder.

= 40000 x (30 x 273) = 40671.1409cm3

= 80 x (-30 x 273) = 65.2349cm3

For two gases then:

Molar mass CO2=44.0 Molar mass NO2=46.0

T CO2 = √ molar mass CO2 => 45seconds = √ 44.0

T NO2 =45seconds x √ 46.0 = 46.0114 seconds

R NO2 = 3.3333cm3sec-1 x √ 44.0 = 3.2601cm3sec-1

3.2601cm3 takes 1seconds

2. How long would 200cm3 of Hydrogen chloride take to diffuse through a

Molar mass CO2 = 44g Molar mass HCl = 36.5g

T HCl = 200seconds x √ 36.5 = 182.1588 seconds

Molar mass O2 = 32g Molar mass Z = x g

√ x = 227seconds x √ 32 = 26.3828 grams

Molar mass CO2 = 44.0 Molar mass CO = 28.0

T CO2 =75seconds x √ 44.0 = 94.0175 seconds

R CO2 = 1.0cm3sec-1 x √ 28.0 = 0.7977cm3sec-1

0.7977cm3 takes 1 seconds

Introduction to the mole, molar masses and Relative atomic masses

1. The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.

Molar mass of sodium(Na) = relative atomic mass = 23.0g

Molar mass of Iron (Fe) = relative atomic mass = 56.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water molecule = 1 mole = 18.0 g

(ii)Molar mass sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = relative formular mass

6.023 x10 23 particles of sulphuric(VI)acid(H2SO4) = 1 mole = 98.0g

(iii)Molar mass sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = relative formular mass

6.023 x10 23 particles of sodium carbonate(IV)(Na2CO3) = 1 mole = 106.0g

(iv)Molar mass Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = relative formular mass

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) = 1 mole = 100.0g

6.023 x10 23 particles of Calcium carbonate(IV)(CaCO3) has:

(v)Molar mass Water(H2O) = relative formular mass

6.023 x10 23 particles of Water(H2O) = 1 mole = 18.0g

1. Calculate the number of moles present in:

(ii) 0.23 g of Chlorine atoms

Molar mass of Chlorine atoms = 35.5 g

(iii) 0.23 g of Chlorine molecules

Molar mass of Chlorine molecules =( 35.5 x 2) = 71.0 g

(iv) 0.23 g of dilute sulphuric(VI)acid

2. Calculate the number of atoms present in:(Avogadros constant L = 6.0 x 10 23)

Moles = mass in grams = > 0.23g = 0.0023moles /2.3 x 10-3 moles

Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2 O=