6/5/2020 Chapter 92 - Ship and Boat Building and Repair

Judi Baldwin

The completed larger units are then moved to the graving dock, shipway or final assembly area. Here, the
larger units are joined together to form the vessel (see figure 92.8). Again, much welding and fitting occur.
Once the hull is structurally complete and watertight, the vessel is launched. This may involve sliding it into
the water from the shipway on which it was constructed, flooding of the dock in which it was constructed or
lowering the vessel into the water. Launchings are almost always accompanied by great celebration and
fanfare.

Figure 92.8 Adding ship’s bow to the rest of a vessel

Newport News Shipbuilding

After the ship is launched, it enters the outfitting phase. A large amount of time and equipment are required.
The work includes the fitting of cabling and piping, the furnishing of galleys and accommodations, insulation
work, installation of electronic equipment and navigation aids and installation of propulsion and ancillary
machinery. This work is performed by a wide variety of skilled trades.

After completion of the outfitting phase, the ship undergoes both dock and sea trials, during which all the
ship’s systems are proved to be fully functional and operational. Finally, after all testing and associated repair
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work is performed, the ship is delivered to the customer.

Steel fabrication

A detailed discussion of the steel fabrication process follows. It is discussed in the context of cutting,
welding and painting.

Cutting

The “assembly line” of the shipyard starts in the steel storage area. Here, large steel plates of various
strengths, sizes, and thicknesses are stored and readied for fabrication. The steel is then blasted with abrasive
and primed with a construction primer that preserves the steel during the various phases of construction. The
steel plate then is transported to a fabrication facility. Here the steel plate is cut by automatic burners to the
desired size (see figure 92.2). The resulting strips are then welded together to form the structural components
of the vessel (figure 92.4).

Welding

The structural framework of most ships is constructed of various grades of mild and high-strength steel. Steel
provides the formability, machinability and weldability required, combined with the strength needed for
ocean-going vessels. Various grades of steel predominate in the construction of most ships, although
aluminium and other nonferrous materials are used for some superstructures (e.g., deck-houses) and other
specific areas within the ship. Other materials found on ships, like stainless steel, galvanized steel and
copper-nickel alloy, are used for a variety of corrosion-resistance purposes and to improve structural
integrity. However, nonferrous materials are used in far less quantity than steel. Shipboard systems (e.g.,
ventilation, combat, navigational and piping) are usually where the more “exotic” materials are used. These
materials are required to perform a wide variety of functions, including the ship propulsion systems, back-up
power, kitchens, pump stations for fuel transfer and combat systems.

Steel used for construction can be subdivided into three types: mild, high-strength and high-alloy steel. Mild
steels have valuable properties and are easy to produce, purchase, form and weld. On the other hand, high-
strength steels are mildly alloyed to provide mechanical properties that are superior to the mild steels.
Extremely high-strength steels have been developed specifically for use in naval construction. In general, the
high-strength and high-yield steels are called HY-80, HY-100 and HY-130. They have strength properties in
excess of the commercial-grade high-strength steels. More complicated welding processes are necessary for
high-strength steels in order to prevent deterioration of their properties. Specific weld rods are needed for
high-strength steel, and weld joint heating (preheating) is usually required. A third general class of steels, the
high-alloy steels, are made by including relatively large amounts of alloying elements such as nickel,
chromium and manganese. These steels, which include stainless steels, have valuable corrosion-resistance
properties and also require special welding processes.

Steel is an excellent material for shipbuilding purposes, and the choice of welding electrode is critical in all
welding applications during construction. The standard goal is to obtain a weld with equivalent strength
characteristics to that of the base metal. Since minor flaws are likely to occur in production welding, welds
are often designed and welding electrodes chosen to produce welds with properties in excess of those of the
base metal.

Aluminium has found increased application as a shipbuilding metal due to its high strength-to-weight ratio
compared to steel. Although the use of aluminium for hulls has been limited, aluminium superstructures are
becoming more common for both military and merchant ship construction. Vessels made solely from
aluminium are primarily smaller-sized boats, such as fishing boats, pleasure boats, small passenger boats,
gunboats and hydrofoils. The aluminium used for shipbuilding and repair is generally alloyed with
manganese, magnesium, silicon and/or zinc. These alloys offer good strength, corrosion resistance and
weldability.

Shipyard welding processes, or more specifically fusion welding, is performed at nearly every location in the
shipyard environment. The process involves joining metals by bringing adjoining surfaces to extremely high
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temperatures to be fused together with a molten filler material. A heat source is used to heat the edges of the
joint, permitting them to fuse with molten weld fill metal (electrode, wire or rod). The required heat is
usually generated by an electric arc or a gas flame. Shipyards choose the type of welding process based on
customer specifications, production rates and a variety of operating constraints including government
regulations. Standards for military vessels are usually more stringent than commercial vessels.

An important factor with respect to the fusion-welding processes is arc shielding to protect the weld pool.
The temperature of the weld pool is substantially higher than the adjoining metal’s melting point. At
extremely high temperatures, a reaction with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere is rapid and has
negative effects on the weld strength. Should oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere become trapped
within the weld metal and molten rod, embrittlement of the weld area will occur. To protect against this weld
impurity and ensure weld quality, shielding from the atmosphere is required. In most welding processes,
shielding is accomplished by addition of a flux, a gas or a combination of the two. Where a flux material is
used, gases generated by vaporization and chemical reaction at the electrode tip result in a combination of
flux and gas shielding that protect the weld from nitrogen and oxygen entrapment. Shielding is discussed in
the following sections, where specific welding processes are described.

In electric arc welding, a circuit is created between the work-piece and an electrode or wire. When the
electrode or wire is held a short distance away from the work-piece, a high-temperature arc is created. This
arc generates sufficient heat to melt the edges of the work-piece and the tip of the electrode or wire to
produce a fusion-welding system. There are a number of electric arc welding processes suitable for use in
shipbuilding. All processes require shielding of the weld area from the atmosphere. They may be subdivided
into flux-shielded and gas-shielded processes.

Manufacturers of welding equipment and associated consumable and non-consumable products report that
arc welding with consumable electrodes is the most universal welding process.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Flux-shielded electric arc welding processes are distinguished
primarily by their manual or semi-automatic nature and the type of consumable electrode used. The SMAW
process utilizes a consumable electrode (30.5 to 46 cm in length) with a dry flux coating, held in a holder and
fed to the work-piece by the welder. The electrode consists of the solid metal filler rod core, made from
either drawn or cast material covered with a sheath of metal powders. SMAW is also frequently referred to as
“stick welding” and “arc welding”. The electrode metal is surrounded by flux that melts as welding
progresses, covering the deposited molten metal with slag and enveloping the immediate area in an
atmosphere of protective gas. Manual SMAW may be used for down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical and
overhead welding. SMAW processes may also be used semi-automatically through the use of a gravity
welding machine. Gravity machines use the weight of the electrode and holder to produce travel along the
work-piece.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is another flux-shielded electric arc welding process used in many shipyards.
In this process, a blanket of granulated flux is deposited on the work-piece, followed by a consumable bare
metal wire electrode. Generally, the electrode serves as the filler material, although in some cases metal
granules are added to the flux. The arc, submerged in the blanket of flux, melts the flux to produce a
protective insulated molten shield in the weld zone. High heat concentration permits heavy weld deposits at
relatively high speeds. After welding, the molten metal is protected by a layer of fused flux, which is
subsequently removed and may be recovered. Submerged arc welding must be performed down hand and is
ideally suited to butt welding plates together on panel lines, platen areas and erection areas. The SAW
process is generally fully automatic, with equipment mounted on a moving carriage or self-propelled
platform on top of the work-piece. Since the SAW process is primarily automatic, a good portion of time is
spent aligning the weld joint with the machine. Similarly, since the SAW arc operates under a covering of
granulated flux, the fume generation rate (FGR) or fume formation rate (FFR) is low and will remain
constant under various operating conditions provided that there is adequate flux cover.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Another major category of electric arc welding comprises the gas-shielded
processes. These processes generally use bare wire electrodes with an externally supplied shielding gas
which may be inert, active or a combination of the two. GMAW, also commonly referred to as metal inert
gas (MIG) welding, uses a consumable, automatically fed, small-diameter wire electrode and gas shielding.
GMAW is the answer to a long-sought method of being able to weld continuously without the interruption of

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changing electrodes. An automatic wire feeder is required. A wire spooling system provides an
electrode/wire filler rate that is at a constant speed, or the speed fluctuates with a voltage sensor. At the point
where the electrode meets the weld arc, argon or helium being used as the shielding gas is supplied by the
welding gun. It was found that for welding steel, a combination of CO2 and/or an inert gas could be used.
Often, a combination of the gases is used to optimize cost and weld quality.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Another type of gas-shielded welding process is gas tungsten arc
welding, sometimes referred to as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or the trade name Heliarc, because
helium was initially used as the shielding gas. This was the first of the “new” welding processes, following
stick welding by about 25 years. The arc is generated between the work-piece and a tungsten electrode,
which is not consumed. An inert gas, usually argon or helium, provides the shielding and provides for a
clean, low-fume process. Also, the GTAW process arc does not transfer the filler metal, but simply melts the
material and the wire, resulting in a cleaner weld. GTAW is most often employed in shipyards for welding
aluminium, sheet metal and small-diameter pipes and tubes, or to deposit the first pass on a multi-pass weld
in larger pipe and fittings.

Flux core arc welding (FCAW) uses equipment similar to GMAW in that the wire is fed continuously to the
arc. The main difference is that the FCAW electrode is a tubular electrode wire with a flux core centre that
helps with localized shielding in the welding environment. Some flux cored wire provides adequate shielding
with the flux core alone. However, many FCAW processes used in the shipbuilding environment require the
addition of gas shielding for the quality requirements of the shipbuilding industry.

The FCAW process provides a high-quality weld with higher production rates and welder efficiency than the
traditional SMAW process. The FCAW process allows for a full range of production requirements, such as
overhead and vertical welding. FCAW electrodes tend to be a little more expensive than SMAW materials,
although in many cases increased quality and productivity are worth the investment.

Plasma-arc welding (PAW). The last of the shielded gas welding processes is plasma-metal inert-gas
welding. PAW is very similar to the GTAW process except that the arc is forced to pass through a restriction
before reaching the work-piece. The result is a jet stream of intensely hot and fast-moving plasma. The
plasma is an ionizing stream of gas that carries the arc, which is generated by constricting the arc to pass
through a small orifice in the torch. PAW results in a more concentrated, high-temperature arc, and this
permits faster welding. Aside from the use of the orifice to accelerate the gas, PAW is identical to GTAW,
using a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas shield. PAW is generally manual and has
minimal use in shipbuilding, although it is sometimes used for flame spraying applications. It is used
primarily for steel cutting in the shipbuilding environment (see figure 92.9).

Figure 92.9 Underwater plasma-arc cutting of steel plate

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Caroline Kiehner

Gas welding, brazing and soldering. Gas welding employs heat generated by the burning of a gas fuel and
generally uses a filler rod for the metal deposited. The most common fuel is acetylene, used in combination
with oxygen (oxyacetylene gas welding). A hand-held torch directs the flame to the work-piece while
simultaneously melting filler metal which is deposited on the joint. The surface of the work-piece melts to
form a molten puddle, with filler material used to fill gaps or grooves. The molten metal, mainly filler metal,
solidifies as the torch progresses along the work-piece. Gas welding is comparatively slow and not suitable
for use with automatic or semiautomatic equipment. Consequently, it is rarely used for normal production
welding in shipyards. The equipment is small and portable, and it can be useful for welding thin plate (up to
about 7 mm), as well as for small-diameter pipe, heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) trunks
(sheet metal), electrical cable ways and for brazing or soldering. Identical or similar equipment is used for
cutting.

Soldering and brazing are techniques for bonding two metal surfaces without melting the parent metal. A
liquid is made to flow into and fill the space between the two surfaces and then solidify. If the temperature of
the filler metal is below 450ºC, the process is called soldering; if it is above 450ºC, the process is called
brazing. Soldering is commonly done using heat from a soldering iron, flame, electrical resistance or
induction. Brazing uses the heat from a flame, resistance or induction. Brazing may also be done by dipping
parts in a bath. Soldered and brazed joints do not have the strength properties of welded joints. Consequently,
brazing and soldering find limited application in shipbuilding and repair, except for primarily small-diameter
pipe joints, sheet metal fabrication, small and infrequent joiner work and maintenance functions.

Other welding processes. There are additional types of welding that may be used in the shipyard environment
in small quantities for a variety of reasons. Electroslag welding transfers heat through molten slag, which
melts the work-piece and the filler metal. Although the equipment used is similar to that used for electric arc
welding, the slag is maintained in a molten state by its resistance to the current passing between the electrode
and the work-piece. Therefore, it is a form of electric resistance welding. Often a cooled backing plate is
used behind the work-piece to contain the molten pool. Electrogas welding employs a similar setup but uses
a flux-coated electrode and CO2 gas shielding. Both of these processes are very efficient for automatically
making vertical butt welds and are highly advantageous for thicker plate. These techniques are expected to
receive considerably wider application in shipbuilding.

Thermite welding is a process that uses superheated liquid metal to melt the work-piece and provided filler
metal. The liquid metal results from a chemical reaction between a melt oxide and aluminium. The liquid
metal is poured into the cavity to be welded, and the cavity is surrounded by a sand mould. Thermite welding
is somewhat similar to casting and is primarily used to repair castings and forgings or to weld large structural
sections such as a stern frame.

Laser welding is a new technology which uses a laser beam to melt and join the work-piece. Although the
feasibility of laser welding has been proven, cost has prevented its commercial application to date. The
potential for efficient, high-quality welding may make laser welding an important technique for shipbuilding
in the future.

Another relatively new welding technique is called electron beam welding. The weld is made by firing a
stream of electrons through an orifice to the work-piece, which is surrounded by an inert gas. Electron beam
welding does not depend on thermal conductivity of the material to melt the metal. Consequently, both lower
energy requirements and reduced metallurgical effects on the steel are significant benefits of this technique.
As with laser welding, high cost is a major problem.

Stud welding is a form of electric arc welding in which the stud itself is the electrode. A stud welding gun
holds the stud while the arc is formed and the plate and stud end become molten. The gun then forces the
stud against the plate and the stud is welded to the plate. Shielding is obtained by the use of a ceramic ferrule
surrounding the stud. Stud welding is a semi-automatic process commonly used in shipbuilding to facilitate
installation of non-metallic materials, such as insulation, to steel surfaces.

Painting and finish coating

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