CHAPTER THREE

REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURES

Chapter Outline

3.1 Purpose of the review of related literature 126-131

3.2 Review of some previous studies 131-157
References 157-161
 CHAPTER THREE

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

In Chapter One and Two, background of the study had been presented

through a brief overview of the concepts or notions of lifelong learning and

the emergence of the problem. The review in this section focuses on current

literature in regards to the topic of lifelong learning.

The purpose of literature review is three-fold: first, to inform the

reader; second, to report and comment on current literature; and third, to

“bridge” the literature and allow the reader to connect to examples and

situations, and various reports and studies associated with lifelong learning.

This chapter offers an in-depth analysis of previous literature

responding to the issue of Lifelong Learning. The chapter includes

information from research studies in published journals, and organizational

generated information as well as information from the internet as support

for the published literature. The literature review provides the wide outlook

of Lifelong Learning thus laying a foundation for the current study;

moreover, it identifies information gaps that will be relevant in the study.

Additionally, the review also offers insight into possible research methods

useful in conducting studies related to Lifelong Learning. In this study,

some previous empirical studies conducted are reviewed.

 3.1 PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED

The review of related literature is a key step in the research process. It is an

extensive, systematic and critical review of the most important published

scholarly literature on a particular topic. The major purpose of reviewing

the literature is to determine what has clearly been done that relates to one’s

problem. Another important function of review is that, it points out research

strategies and specific procedures and measuring instruments that have and

have not been found to be productive, in investigating one’s problem.

Familiarity with previous research also facilitates interpretation of the

results of the study. Finally, these reviews give information, which can

either support or challenge the conclusions of the investigator’s research

and therefore provide clues for later research.

The preliminary survey of previous studies, literature, discussions and

experience related to the problem under investigation may accomplish a

number of purposes. The search for related material is a time consuming but

fruitful phase of any research programme. Its specific purposes are:

(i) It is the foundation of any research study undertaken.

(ii) It gives an understanding of the previous work done in the

related area and to avoid the list duplication.

(iii) It furnishes indispensable suggestions about comparative data,

good procedures, likely methods and tried techniques.

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(iv) It develops the insight of the investigator.

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 (v) It provides a good opportunity to the investigator for gaining

insight into the methods, measures and approaches employed by

the earlier investigators.

(vi) It provides ideas, theories, explanations, hypotheses or methods

of research, valuable in formulating and studying the problem.

(vii) It makes researcher alert to research possibilities that have been

overlooked and research approaches that have proved to be

sterile.

(viii) It helps in locating comparative data useful in the interpretation

of results.

(ix) It contributes to the general scholarship of the investigator.

(x) It prevents pointless repetition of research.

In order to obtain a detailed insight on the theme, researcher

reviewed the existing literature from various journals (both print and

online). The journals, but not limited to, were as follows:

1. ACME International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research

2. ACADEMICIA International Multidisciplinary Research

Journal

3. Adult Basic Education

4. Adult Education and Development (www.iiz-dvv.de)

5. Adult Education Quarterly

6. Adults Learning (www.niace.org.uk)

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7. American Journal of Distance Education (www.ajde.com)

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8. Australian Journal of Adult Learning (www.ala.asn.au)

9. Bulletin of Education and Research

10. British Educational Research Journal

11. British Journal of Educational Studies

12. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling

13. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education

(http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/CASAE/maineng.html)

14. Comparative Education

15. Community Education Journal (www.ncea.com)

16. Convergence

17. Educational Researcher (www.aera.net/pubs/er/eronline.htm)

18. Educational Theory

19. European Journal of Education

20. Higher Education

21. Higher Education Research and Development

22. Indian Journal of Adult Education

23. International Journal of Lifelong Education

(www.tandf.co.uk)

24. International Journal of Scientific Research

25. International Review of Education

(www.wkap.nl/journals/review-education)

26. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning

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27. Journal of Educational Inquiry

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 28. Journal of Education Policy

29. Journal of Reading

30. Modern Language Association

31. Music Educators Journal

32. New Horizons in Adult Education

(www.nova.edu/naed/newhorizons.html)

33. Oxford Review of Education

34. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning

(http://www.coe.iup.edu/ace/New%20ACE%20we/PAACE.htm)

35. Studies in Education of Adults (www.niace.org.uk)

36. The Journal of General Education

37. Vignettes of Research

Study materials and publications of the various organizations were

also consulted. The lists of organizations are as follows:

1. CEC (Community of the European Communities), Luxemburg

2. European Union

3. Indian Adult Education Association (IAEA), New Delhi, India

4. NIACE (National Institute of Adult and Continuing Education),

Leicester

5. OECD, Paris, France.

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6. PRIA (Society for Participatory Research in Asia), New Delhi, India.

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 7. UGC, New Delhi, India

8. UNESCO Institute for Education, Hamburg

9. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, Hamburg

Further, thesis and dissertations were also consulted. Sources include

libraries of:

a. Various Indian Universities through SODHGANGA (from

Manipur University Library, India through UGC-INFLIBNET).

b. Manipur University, Manipur, India.

c. ACER (Australian Council for Educational Research).

d. Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand.

e. Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland.

f. Guwahati University, Assam, India.

g. Lifelong Learning Network, Faculty of Education, University of

Canberra.

h. Louisiana State University, LA, United States.

i. M. S. University, Baroda, India.

j. Massey University, New Zealand.

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k. Monash University, Australia.

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 l. Netherland Laboratory of Lifelong Learning (NeLL), Open

University of Netherland.

m. North-East Hill University (NEHU), Shillong, Meghalaya, India.

n. Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India.

o. University of Nottingham, United Kingdom.

p. University of Ottawa, Canada.

q. University of Pretoria, South Africa.

r. University of Surrey, United Kingdom, etc.

Research reports were also reviewed. Major report includes six

volumes of ‘Survey of Educational Research’ commonly known as ‘Buch

Volume’; previously published by M.S. University, Baroda (India) and later

on by NCERT, New Delhi. Online Research forum like Academia.edu and

Researchgate also helped in gaining a better insight of the research

problem.

3.2 REVIEW OF SOME PREVIOUS STUDIES

Patel (1980) made ‘An Investigation to Study the Attitude of Teacher-

educators towards the programmes of Non-formal Education leading to

Lifelong Education in the State of Gujarat’. The major objectives of the

study were: (i) to measure the attitude of the teacher-educators towards the
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programmes of non-formal education, (ii) to examine whether the attitude

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of teacher-educators had any relationship with their sex, age, qualifications

and professional experience, and (iii) to find out the relationship between

the semi-urban and urban teacher-educators.

The sample consisted of 400 teacher-educators from 40 colleges of

education selected by the stratified random sampling technique according to

sex, age, qualifications and experience. A Likert-type scale was constructed

to measure the attitude towards non-formal education. The scale consisted

of 100 items. For data analysis, descriptive statistics, t-test and product-

moment correlation were used.

The major findings of the study were: (i) There was significant

difference between the attitude of teacher-educators of Central Gujarat and

that of teacher-educators of North Gujarat, South Gujarat and Saurashtra

region towards non-formal education leading to lifelong education. (ii) Age

was an influencing factor in the attitude of teacher-educators towards non-

formal education. (iii) The male and female teachers did not differ in their

attitude towards non-formal education. (iv) There was no significant

difference in the attitude of teacher-educators having graduate, postgraduate

and doctoral degrees towards non-formal education. (v) Professional

experience did not influence the teacher-educators’ attitude towards non-

formal education. (vi) The income of teacher-educators influenced their

attitude towards non-formal education. As income increased, their attitude

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becomes more favourable. (vii) The teacher-educators from urban areas had
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more favourable attitude towards non-formal education than those from

semi-urban areas.

Bhingarkar (1981) studied on the ‘Implications of the Concept of

Lifelong Education for Social Education’. The main objectives of the

investigation were: (i) to study the causes of the prevalence of 70 per cent

illiterate in spite of several campaigns and programmes in the Five Year

Plans, (ii) to find out how the perspective of the present concept of social

(adult) education could be widened in relation to the broader concept of

lifelong education, (iii) to study the National Adult Education Programme

and to suggest ways and means to improve or modify it, (iv) to review the

work done by the universities in Maharashtra in respect of social (adult)

education, and (v) to find out how far the mass media of education could be

effectively used for the success of the National Adult Education

Programmme.

The questionnaire method, along with observation and interviews,

was used for collecting data. This was supplemented by library work and

visits to social education centres and continuing education classes. The

questionnaire was administered to some social education workers. Sixty-

three neoliterates were interviewed to find out what they did to avoid a

relapse into illiteracy. An opinionnaire was sent to forty-six eminent

educationists in India to know their opinion about different perspectives of

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social (adult) education and lifelong education.

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 The main findings of the investigation were: (i) The concept of

lifelong education appeared to be something new to many Indians. (ii) The

concept and content of social (adult) education had undergone several

changes. (iii) Social (adult) education was a part and parcel of lifelong

education and its scope would have to be widened so that it did not remain

adult education but really lifelong education. (iv) The National Adult

Education Programme was not going beyond literacy education and its

progress was not uniform throughout the country. (v) The methods used for

teaching adults resulted in wastage and drop-out. (vi) Failure to learn from

past experience was one of the main causes of the failure of social (adult)

education campaigns. (vii) Success of the National Adult Education

Programme required the active involvement of voluntary organizations,

trade unions and cooperatives. (viii) The universities in Maharashtra had

started recognizing their responsibilities towards the people as far as social

(adult) education was concerned. (ix) Awareness was the most essential

attribute of any social (adult) education programme. (x) The mass media

were very powerful media of instruction. (xi) Illiterate adults joined the

social education centres after they realized the importance of education.

(xii) The general effect of education received by the neoliterates was that

they were able to improve their employment prospects and raise their social

status. (xiv) The neoliterates were generally alive to the need for retaining

their literacy. (xv) The present concept of social (adult) education met
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mostly the first two needs [literacy and social needs] but not the third one,

viz., political need of the learners.

Pai (1981) conducted ‘Preparation and Tryout of Curriculum in

Environmental Studies leading to Lifelong Education for College Students’.

The main objectives of the study were: (i) to help students acquire an

awareness of the interrelationships, interaction and interdependence

existing between biological and physical aspects of the total environment

and sensitivity towards the environment and its applied problems, (ii) to

help

Livneh & Livneh (1988) explored, among human service

professionals, the characteristics which differentiated between lifelong

learners and low participants in learning. The Characteristics of Lifelong

Learners in the Professions (CLLP) Survey was administered to human

service professionals in Southern New England. The responses (n= 195) of

the study participants to the survey were factor analyzed, and the factors

orthogonally rotated. Factor scales corresponding to the seven CLLP

extracted factors and three selected demographic variables were, then,

submitted to stepwise discriminant function analysis. The two groups-

lifelong learners and low participants in learning-were found to differ

significantly on the discriminant function composed of the following five

CLLP factors: Educability, Readiness for Change, Future Orientation,

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Causation for Learning Participation, and Familial Educational

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Background. None of the demographic variables included contributed

significantly to group discrimination. The results are discussed regarding

their possible implications for identifying and encouraging potential

learners for pursuit of continuing education activities.

Tamkin & Hillage (1997) explored the issue of the commitment of

individuals to learning throughout lifetime. There is general belief that

learning processes produce positive benefits, especially for participants; for

this reason, the individuals are willing to invest in lifelong learning aimed at

their personal development, although there is no certainty that this

investment will actually have a positive effect. On the contrary, benefits for

employers are not clearly defined yet, but still they believe that learning

development is beneficial.

Brandt (2000) studied “Policies for Lifelong Learning and for

Higher Education in Norway: correspondence or contradiction?” and found

that in the 1980s and 1990s, universities and colleges became increasingly

important in Norwegian policy for lifelong learning. This has been

associated with a shift in focus from traditional `adult education' to

‘continuing education’ for employment and the economy. Expanding initial

education was the prime goal. Continuing education and distance education,

however, came more into focus in the 1990s. The lifelong learning

challenge to higher education has been more explicitly stated. Lifelong

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learning in higher education lies at the intersection of three policy fields:

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adult education, higher education and the labour market. The political
process included some ‘double work’. Representatives of these three fields

have participated in commissions on lifelong learning. Their proposals for

higher education institutions were generally transmitted to commissions on

higher education to be discussed in that context.

In the last 10 to 15 years, the market with paying customers has

played a greater role in Norwegian educational policies for lifelong learning

and for higher education. The state subsidies for traditional adult education

organisations were reduced and they had to satisfy the market demand for

vocational courses. Higher education institutions were allowed to charge

fees for commissioned courses, distance education and continuing

education but not for long-term courses bordering on initial education, as

this was to be offered free by public educational institutions. The

institutions and the commissions have been the driving force for greater

flexibility in the market, not the government.

Kember (2000) studied evidence from over 90 action research

projects on Asian university students exploring among others their

motivation to learning experiences. He concluded that they were incited by

extrinsic motivation, mainly by the prospect of a successful career, which is

commonly accompanied by an interest in the course content; nevertheless,

intrinsic motivation, albeit expresses indirectly, existed, too. These students

also showed high levels of achievement motivation, which had a less

individual and a more collective character, due to the cultural differences

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between Asian and Western civilization.

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 A comparative analysis by Schuetze & Slowey (2002) gave

emphasis to the institutional factors, which affected the participation of

lifelong learners in higher education in ten developed countries (Austria,

Australia, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Sweden, United

Kingdom and United States). Although the researchers acknowledge that

national differences on culture, tradition and structures differentiate the

degree of integration of individuals in the lifelong learning system, they

identified common factors that determine their motivation and participation.

The majority tended to enrol in non-university institutions and vocationally

oriented programs, while flexibility or open access to the programs, usually

based on specific personal characteristics and previous achievements,

seemed to exercise a positive influence. Practices removing institutional

barriers that associated to the mode of study, such as information and

communication technologies or flexible course programs, increased

students’ potential. The cost of the programs and the lack of financial

support also influenced motivation negatively, while the availability of

lifelong learning programs not only in higher education institutes, but also

to other education providers, broadened opportunities and facilitated

participation.

The General Directorate for Education and Culture of the European

Union commissioned a survey (CEDEFOP, 2003), in order to define the

learning preference of Europeans. The findings show that they recognize

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the benefits of lifelong learning for personal, social and economic purposes;
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it helps people both to cope with change and labour market demands and to

have an independent and satisfactory life. They deem it suitable for all ages

and more profitable in non-formal contexts; nevertheless, they prefer formal

settings for the improvement of their professional skills, obviously

emphasizing on official certification. The survey also confirms that those

with higher educational and occupational levels are more likely to

participate in various forms of lifelong learning. Although individuals

underline that money and lack of time due to job and family commitments

are major obstacles, they are willing to make a financial contribution, if

they believe the benefit to be an exclusively personal one; on the contrary,

they do not see work-related learning as solely their responsibility.

Crosthwaite (2003) explores the experiences of adult learners who

undertake programmes of higher education. The purpose of the study was to

uncover the extent to which higher education is responding to the recent

policy focus on lifelong learning by meeting learners' needs, and what if

any, changes are needed to help adults to continue as lifelong learners. The

proposition at the centre of my thesis is that the provision of lifelong

learning is problematic for higher education institutions. The study analyses

the experiences of a group of adult learners by drawing on a wide spectrum

of literature on the policy context for higher education, adult motivation and

learning processes, and previous studies of the student experience.

The study reveals that adult learners are drawn to higher education
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by a range of motives, most significantly for intrinsic and personal benefits

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rather than in response to economic and labour market changes. They have

differing needs and expectations to young students, and traditional notions

of the nature of the student experience do not apply. In a number of

respects, the higher education experience presents difficulties for adult

learners and changes to address their needs are identified in the areas of

admissions and entry to higher education, teaching and learning, learning

support, and assessment and feedback. Recommendations to assist higher

education to address the lifelong learning agenda are made at policy and

sector level and at the level of the institution and department.

Illeries (2003) analyzed data from the Danish Adult Education

Research Project (1997-2000), which referred to poorly educated or

unemployed adults. He found that their majority entered learning programs

because they were forced to do so and not because of their interest to learn;

he concluded that adults have little inclination to learn something they do

not perceive as meaningful for their goals and set themselves the limits of

their learning, if they are allowed. This finding shows that lifelong learning

should focus more on adult guidance and motivation.

Jenkins, et al. (2003) found that acquiring qualifications within the

school system increases the likelihood of undertaking lifelong learning, but

actual lifelong learning programs increases the probability for someone to

attend more lifelong learning in the future. Lifelong learning does not seem

to have an important effect on earning, but there is strong evidence that it is

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associated with a higher probability to enable or preserve someone’s

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presence in the labour market. At the same time, the authors acknowledged

that they did not investigate the individuals’ motivation to participate in

lifelong learning, yet they believe that we should expect different outcomes

and benefits from lifelong learning programs with differently oriented aims.

Field (2005) explores the question of the relationship between social

capital and lifelong learning through the analysis of people’s responses to

the 2001 Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey. The findings suggest a

clear association between positive attitudes towards lifelong learning and

positive attitudes towards a range of different forms of civic engagement;

there is also a mutually beneficial association between social capital and

lifelong learning with interesting implications for both the individuals and

policy-makers, but the extent to which one causes the other remains

undetermined.

Hojat, et al. (2006) assessed the validity and reliability of the

Jefferson Scale of Physician Lifelong Learning (JSPLL) on 721 physicians

affiliated with Thomas Jefferson University Hospital and Jefferson Medical

College in the Greater Delaware Valley region around Philadelphia, USA,

out of which 444 responded. The study showed internal consistency of the

scale as 0.89 and test-retest reliability was 0.91. Male as compared with

female were statistically significant with male physicians scoring higher on

the scale. Higher academic degree holders (M.D.-PhD) also reported to

score higher than those with M.D. and D.O. on the JSPLL. Other specialist
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also scored higher than the primary care physicians in family medicine,

general internal medicine, and general paediatrics.

Mihail & Elefterie (2006) investigated graduates’ perception on a

Greek MBA program as well as its impact on their careers through a

survey. The respondents revealed their belief that they benefitted from

continuing their learning activity; the specific program helped them pursue

managerial careers and increase their employability, because they were able

to negotiate successfully for new and challenging job positions.

Brahmi (2007) explored medical students’ perceptions of Lifelong

Learning at Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM). Semi-

structured interviews were conducted at the IUSM. Random number tables

and snowballing techniques were adopted for sampling. Results focused on

three areas: 1) what characterized LLL practices and attitudes of medical

students, 2) how these practices and attitudes differed across the four years

of medical school, and 3) how medical students use technology to help

them cope with information overload. Most often, differences between

students’ perceptions of LLL correlated to whether they were preclinical

(first- and second-year) or clinical (third- and fourth-year) students.

Preclinical students spoke more generally about LLL and its role in

their education, whereas clinical students related LLL to the practice of

medicine and patient care. Although most students agreed that LLL began

as an innate curiosity and that childhood influences were significant in their

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development of LLL, role models at all stages of their education were

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deemed extremely important. Medical students’ characterized the Internet

as a quick and easy way to access much information but were keenly aware

of its limitations, in terms of lack of peer review and reliability. Specific

sources were discussed by the students. Implications for information

fluency, medical and information science educators are discussed.

Jauhianen (2007) conducted a survey in Finland to analyze the

attitudes and experiences that ageing people attach to education and

learning and also examined aspects of lifelong learning. He demonstrated

that individuals with a higher educational background showed a more

positive and optimistic attitude towards learning than others; but when they

were asked to evaluate it in the case of more concrete issues, such as

solving social and employment problems, this highly positive attitude

diminished and the effectiveness of learning in human lives was implicitly

doubled.

Klamma, et al. (2007) reviews current work in pan-European

initiatives that impact upon life-long learning via views of professional

learning, learner competence and social networking. It seeks to provide an

overview of some of the critical research questions for the interdisciplinary

field of social software research.

Reinsch (2007) studied the relationship among lifelong learning,

emotional intelligence and life satisfaction for adults 55 years of age or

older. The purpose of the study was to determine what relationship exists
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between lifelong learning, emotional intelligence and life satisfaction for

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older adult learners 55 years of age and older. The hypothesis is that life

satisfaction increases with higher levels of emotional intelligence and more

involvement in lifelong learning. The study was conducted primarily in the

St. Louis metropolitan area. Two hundred and three adults 55 years of age

or older participated. The convenience sample was voluntary and gathered

from agencies and organization known to this researcher.

The study included three inventories: The Lifelong Learner

Perspectives Inventory, the Emotional Skills Assessment Process Inventory

and the Life Satisfaction Inventory. Collectively, these self-report

inventories contained 98 statements on interpersonal communication,

decision making, leadership, drive strength and self-esteem. They also

include statements on trust is it relates to a person's perception of self as a

learner, attitudes and beliefs related to involvement in educational activities,

and life satisfaction.

Regression analysis was used to determine the relationships of

lifelong learning perspective and emotional intelligence to life satisfaction.

The control variables of age and living arrangement explained only 3

percent of the variance in life satisfaction (not statistically significant). In

contrast, emotional intelligence and lifelong learning perspective accounted

for a significant amount of the variance in life satisfaction (R2 change =

0.26, p<0.000), after controlling for age and living arrangement. Upon

inspection of the regression coefficients for these variables, emotional

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intelligence was found to be the most significantly associated with life

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satisfaction (B=0.516, p<0.001). Lifelong learning perspective had a

significant bivariate relationship with life satisfaction, and was also

significantly related to life satisfaction, but not as significantly as emotional

intelligence.

Stenfors-Hayes, Griffiths & Ogunleye (2008) recognized lifelong

learning as an important tool to reduce social exclusion, but out of the many

investigations into the provision of lifelong learning in Europe none has yet

sought to examine the specific situation of mental health care service users.

This study examines the provision of lifelong learning for this

disadvantaged group; it identifies current policies and explores the access

to, and nature of, lifelong learning practices for mental health care service

users in eight European countries. Data have been collected through a

literature and policy review and through questionnaires completed by

mental health practitioners in the eight countries. The study found broad

compliance amongst the eight countries with the Lisbon policy goals on

lifelong learning, but evidence of specific lifelong learning provision for

mental health care service users is patchy and sporadic. The study identified

the main benefits of, and the barriers to, the participation in lifelong

learning for mental health care service users from the viewpoint of mental

health professionals and practitioners. The implications for practice were

described, and suggestions for actions were made for improving the lifelong

learning provision for the target group.

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 Hojat, Veloski & Gonnella (2009) mailed a survey in 2006 to a

national sample of 5,349 alumni of Jefferson Medical College who

graduated between 1975 to 2000 excluding 59 that were deceased during

the period of the survey; 3,195 responded. The respondents were classified

as full-time clinicians (n=1,127) and academic clinicians (n=1,612). The

other 456 respondents were involved in administration or research, and

were excluded from the analysis. No significant difference was observed

between scores of JeffSPLL (Revised Jefferson Scale of Physician Lifelong

Learning) on age and years after graduation. Also, difference between male

and female; and among ethnic minority groups compared with the rest of

the sample was not statistically significant. Physicians who also had

combined M.D.-PhD degrees obtained significantly higher mean score than

the rest of the sample. Similar pattern was also observed in both full-time

and academic clinicians.

Boutsiouki (2010) discussed the role of lifelong learning in the

personal and professional lives of an individual, as well as on the

socioeconomic trends and practices in the global context. Self-constructed

structured questionnaire was employed on students of six postgraduate

programs in Social and Economic Sciences at the University of Macedonia,

located at Thessaloniki, Greece. The study was conducted to ascertain how

the postgraduate students evaluate the role of lifelong learning in the

personal, social and economic life of individuals and how that affects their
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learning choices. Further, influence of personal characteristics, such as

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gender, sex, social origin, and professional status, on their assessment was

also addressed. Reasons that would lead to attend lifelong learning

programs and the obstacles involved in their participation were also

explored. Altogether 108 postgraduate students participated in the study.

The study reported that neither previous experience, originating from

various undergraduate studies, nor family status were an obstacle in their

choice to continue their studies. The study reports that individuals from

well-educated family of a higher professional status tend to continue their

studies at a higher level, with much more ease and determination; and those

from lower educational and professional status seem subconsciously

motivated to continue studying by their parents’ aspiration for higher

attainments, in order to validate their social and employment status.

Heiser (2010) undertook a research work to identify the attitudes of

two Northwest Ohio UAW locals regarding participation in lifelong

learning, and utilization of online learning strategies within a union

environment. The study was a quantitative descriptive study that utilized

cross sectional survey research design. The data collection instrument for

this study consisted of a 24-item survey that was posted online as a web

survey and also distributed in hard copy format to two UAW locals in Ohio.

The population included a wide range of workers who were diverse in terms

of race, gender, levels of education and skills. A sample of n = 74

responded to questions designed to investigate attitudes of union members

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towards lifelong learning, union-led learning, and online learning.

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Independent variables were age and education level, and dependent

variables consisted of responses to survey questions. A chi-square statistical

test was performed to determine if there were any associations between

responses and the independent variables. No statistical significance was

found, but there was a positive response over the range of ages and

education level demonstrating support for lifelong learning, union-led

learning and online learning.

Holdon (2010) showed that university students have positive

attitudes towards lifelong learning. The results of the study indicated that

students reported that lifelong learning is necessary for their individual and

professional development in their lives.

Kirby, et al. (2010) attempted to develop a generic lifelong learning

scale, conceptually underpinned by the constructs originally articulated by

Edgar Faure (1972) and those who further extended his work, in particular

the work of Candy et al., (1994) and Knapper & Cropley (2000). In

constructing items for the measure, five dimensions were considered: goal-

setting; application of knowledge and skills; self-direction and self-

evaluation; information location; and learning strategy adaptation. Fourteen

questions long “Lifelong Learning Questionnaire” was created with a

moderate level of reliability. The participants in the study were 309 final-

year students at Queen’s University (n=168) and Saint Lawrence College

(n=136), out of which 5 did not reported their institution. Both institutions
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are located at Kingston, Ontario, Canada. One way ANOVA was performed
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by the researchers to determine the relation of lifelong learning with the

variables considered for the study. It was found that chronological age,

gender and grade average did not show significant effects on lifelong

learning. College and university students differed for lifelong learning, with

university students scoring higher on the scale. The correlation was also

reported with study process questionnaire, lifelong learning is positively

related to deep and achieving learning and negatively related to surface

learning.

Sahin, Akbasli and Yelken (2010) conducted a study to determine

the level of prospective teachers in terms of lifelong learning key

competences. “The Scale of Key Competences for Lifelong Learning”

(SKCLLL) developed by the researchers having twenty-three items were

applied to 415 prospective teachers attending to the final grade of the

Faculty of Education of Selcuk University in Konya, Turkey. It has been

found that gender is not an effective factor in terms of the prospective

teachers’ lifelong learning key competences. No significant difference has

been found in terms of the sub-branches. The field where prospective

teachers feel that they are the least competent is communication in native

language.

Wetzel, et al. (2010) evaluates the Jefferson Scale of Physician

Lifelong Learning (JeffSPLL) adapted for administration to medical

students. The Jefferson Scale of Physician Lifelong Learning-Medical

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Students (JeffSPLL-MS) was administered to 732 medical students in four

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classes. Factor analysis and t-tests were performed to investigate its

construct validity.

Maximum likelihood factor analysis identified a three-factor solution

explaining 46% of total variance. Mean scores of clinical and preclinical

students were compared; clinical students scored significantly higher in

orientation toward lifelong learning (P < 0.001).

Arsal (2011) investigated the lifelong learning tendencies of the

prospective teachers in the light of the Bologna Process in Turkey. The

subject of the study were 210 fourth grade prospective teachers in the

education faculty of a university located in the city having about one

hundred thousand population in the north of Turkey. The results of the

study showed that the lifelong learning tendency of prospective teachers

were positive and high. Also, the results showed that the effects of gender

and department to lifelong learning tendencies were statistically not

significant.

Meerah, et al. (2011) conducted a study in the National University

of Malaysia (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM) to test the validity

and reliability of the Lifelong Learning Questionnaire developed by Kirby

et al., (2010) in the Malaysian context. Third year student from the faculty

of Education participated in the study. A total of 69 completed

questionnaires were returned, out of which 65 were included in the study, 5

were excluded as it had missing data. The translated version reported low
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validity and reliability; and hence not ready for use in the Malaysian
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population. Results from the study showed difference between male and

female students, with female showing a stronger tendency towards lifelong

learning. No significant differences were found between students of

different programs of study.

Muliira, et al. (2011) made a case-study of Uganda’s National

Hospital to assess the Nurses' Orientation Toward Lifelong Learning. The

quality of nursing care in developing countries is poor, and attempts to

improve it through continuing education programs are under way. Nurses'

orientation toward lifelong learning has not been explored, despite its

potential effect on the success of such programs. The Jefferson Scale of

Physician Lifelong Learning (JSPLL) was used to measure orientation

toward lifelong learning among 200 nurses at Uganda's national hospital.

Most participants had fair orientation (52%) toward lifelong learning

(JSPLL mean score = 36.8 ± 7.2) and rated their skills in self-directed

learning as good or excellent (44%). Reported barriers included patient

workload, lack of mentors, lack of library resources, and lack of computer

skills. Nurses' orientation toward lifelong learning was significantly

associated with professional experience (p < 0.05), age (p <0.05), and

education level (p < 0.01). In Uganda, nurses' orientation toward lifelong

learning remains low.

Rowland (2011) explored how high stakes testing and test

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preparation programs have influenced 12th-grade students’ attitudes about

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education and lifelong learning. The study was informed by Vygotsky’s

social constructivist theory which posits that shared experiences help shape

a person’s attitudes about the context of his or her environment. Data were

collected from three focus groups (total of 16 participants) and 9 in-depth

individual interviews conducted at 3 high schools. Data were audio taped,

transcribed, and then analyzed through three cycles of coding: initial

coding, focused coding, and establishing themes. Results indicated that

students reported negative attitudes about their formal education but were

optimistic about lifelong learning. Students perceived current test

preparation practices as ineffective, that high stakes tests are not an accurate

measure of students’ academic capabilities, high stakes tests have an

unjustifiable influence on students’ futures, real-world learning is more

likely to occur after high school and, external pressures to perform well on

high stakes tests are counter-productive. Understanding students’

expectations and ideals about education and lifelong learning can guide

educators and policy makers in providing learning experiences in high

school that better prepare students for their social responsibilities as college

students, workers, and citizens.

So & Shek (2011) conducted a study on ‘Elder lifelong learning,

intergenerational solidarity and positive youth development: the case of

Hong Kong’. Elder lifelong learning has been promoted worldwide under

different modes for upgrading quality of life of elders and actualizing

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successful aging. With multiple objectives, some modes of the elder

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lifelong learning program attempt to simultaneously address the social

issues of age-segregation and negative perceptions of older people by

adopting an intergenerational approach. Such an approach links the two

non-biological generations--the young and the old--together purposefully

for nurturing intergenerational solidarity and integration. Although program

evaluation studies demonstrate the positive impacts and effects of an

intergenerational approach on older people, its impact on young people is

not well-researched. This paper explores intergenerational solidarity

generated from the intergenerational-mode elder lifelong learning program

in Hong Kong and argues how it contributes to positive youth development.

Uzunboylu & Hursen (2011) conducted a study on 300 secondary

school teachers who were randomly selected from North Cyprus, Turkey. A

51-item long “Lifelong Learning Competence Scale (LLLCS)” was

developed by the authors through factor analysis and reported a high

reliability.

Witt & Lill (2012) described the study of learner perspectives on

lifelong learning and construction industry skills requirements in Estonia.

123 participants participated in the study, of which 118 students were from

Tallinn University of Technology while 5 were from Tallinn College of

Engineering. Most of the students reported that the extent to which they

acquire ‘awareness of ethical, cultural and ecological issues’ were

insufficient and were also insecure of their future employment. Mandarin

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Language skills were considered as likely to be more important in the

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future. Russian Language skills were valued significantly more highly by

employed respondents than those not employed.

Kiran Singh (2014) in a paper titled ‘A Study of Role of NGO’s in

Lifelong Learning in the Valley Districts of Manipur’ stated that Adult

Education in Manipur was started at the government level in the name of

social education since 1953-54. The beginnings of social education during

first plan period had been affected through social education. As such social

education in Manipur was introduced during 1956-57 in continuation of

opening of Thoubal Community Development Block.

Adult education being a basic human right aims at eradicating

illiteracy in the age group of 15-35 years so that there is development in the

economic, political and social spheres of life. Various programs and

policies are implementing to enhance literacy in the country from time to

time. Likewise, in Manipur also the implementing agencies of adult

education namely the Directorate of Adult Education, Government of

Manipur, NGO’s and the Department of Adult Continuing Education and

Extension, Manipur University are working to bring about Total Literacy in

the state. However, there are problems and difficulties which slow down the

progress of the adult learners in rural areas are one of the major hindrances

in the field of adult education. There arises the need and importance of

NGO’s to cater to the needs of the rural adults since the NGO’s, being
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organizations of local youths had direct contact with the adult learners

thereby helping in solving the problems faced by the adult learners.

Nine Non-Governmental Organizations took up the initiatives of

eradicating illiteracy in the age group of 15-35 year since 1973 in Manipur.

Those NGO’s were: The Manipur Rural Institute Society, (MRIS), Tera

Bazar Sapam Leirak, Imphal; The Manipur Vocational Institute (MVI),

Mekola Bazar; The Rural Development Organization (RDO), Lamsang

Bazar; The Manipur Adult Education Association (MAEA), Keisampat

LeimaramLeikai, Imphal; The Rural Development Society (RDS),

Wangjing; The Wangjing Women and Girl’s Society (WWAGS),

Wangjing; The Citizen Volunteer Training Centre (CVTC), Palace

Compound; The Manipur Schedule Caste Welfare Association (MSCWA)

Phayeng; The State Resource Centre (SRC), Hatta, New Checkon; The

South Eastern Rural Development Organisation (SERDO), Sangai

Yumpham.

Pype et al. (2014) in ‘Health care professionals’ perceptions towards

lifelong learning in palliative care for general practitioners: a focus group

study’ opines that there is a growing need for palliative care. The majority

of palliative patients prefer their general practitioner (GP) to organize their

palliative home care. General practitioners need a range of competences to

perform this task. However, there has been no general description so far of
155

how GPs keep these competences up-to-date.

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 The present study explores current experiences, views and

preferences towards training and education in palliative care among GPs,

palliative home-care professionals and professionals from organizations

who provide training and education.

Five focus groups were brought together in Belgium, with a total of

29 participants, including members of the three categories mentioned

above. They were analysed using a constant comparison method.

The analysis revealed that undergraduate education and continuing

medical education (CME) while in practice, is insufficient to prepare GPs

for their palliative work. Workplace learning (WPL) through collaboration

with specialized palliative home-care nurses seems to be a valuable

alternative. The effectiveness of undergraduate education might be

enhanced by adding practical experience. Providers of continuing medical

education should look to organize interactive, practice-based and

interprofessional sessions. Therefore, teachers need to be trained to run

small group discussions.

In order to optimize workplace learning, health care professionals

should be trained to monitor each other’s practice and to provide effective

feedback. Further research is needed to clarify which aspects of

interprofessional teamwork (e.g. professional hierarchy, agreements on

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tasks and responsibilities) influence the effectiveness of workplace learning.

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 Precisely, the researcher after extensive search could locate thirty six

studies from 1980 onwards till 2014. Review suggests that such a problem

seems to be new area of study among social scientists as little empirical

work on Lifelong Learning in general and attitude towards Lifelong

Learning in particular has been done so far both locally and globally. Only

five studies was found to be related to the present study viz., those by

Holdon (2010); Kirby et al. (2010); Boutsiouki (2010), Arsal (2011) and

Meerah et al. (2011). Few studies on lifelong learning have also been found

to be conducted on human service professionals (e.g. Livneh & Livneh,

1988), physicians (e.g. Hojat et al., 2006), prospective teachers (e.g. Sahin

et al., 2010; Arsal, 2011), secondary school teachers (e.g. Uzunboylu &

Hursden, 2011), nurses (e.g. Muliira et al., 2011) and medical students (e.g.

Brahmi, 2007; Hojat et al., 2009; Wetzel et al., 2010). No empirical study

was found at the national or state level in India. All the five relevant studies

mentioned above are done abroad. It is expected that the present study

would fill up the lacunae in this area of research.

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