IRC SP 59

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS

AND ASSOCIATED WORKS

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 Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. Scope
1.2. Raw Materials and Classification of geosynthetics
1.3. Functions of geosynthetics
1.4. Separation/Filtration
1.5. Reinforcement
1.6. Filtration/Drainage
1.7. Moisture Barrier
1.8. Erosion Control
1.9. Applicability and Benefits of Geosynthetics in Roadways

Chapter 2 Properties and Test Methods For Different Geosynthetic Materials

2.1. Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geosynthetics
2.2. Geotextile
2.3.Geogrid
2.4.Geomembrane
2.5.Geonet/Geospacer
2.6.Geocell
2.7.Geomat
2.8.Asphalt Reinforcement
2.9.Geocomposite

Chapter 3 Design methodologies

3.1. Design for Stabilization and Reinforcement of unbound Pavement
Layers
3.2. Designing for Separation
3.3. Design for Filtration
3.4. Design for Drainage Applications
3.5. Geosynthetic Capillary Barrier Drain
3.6 .Design for Asphalt reinforcement
3.7. Subgrade Stabilization
3.8. Performance Evaluation of Reinforced Flexible Pavements

Chapter 4 Property Requirements& Selection Criteria of Geosynthetics Based

on Function
4.1. General
4.2. Construction Survivability
4.3.Ultraviolet Stability

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 4.4.Certificate
4.5.Separation/Filtration requirements
4.6.Base/Subbase Reinforcement requirements
4.7 Subsurface Drainage requirements
4.7. Erosion Control Requirements
4.8.Asphalt reinforcement requirement
4.9. Base/Subbase Reinforcement requirements
4.10. Capillary Cut-off

Chapter 5 Construction Guidelines For Use of Geosynthetics in Road Works

5.1.General
5.2.Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage
5.3.Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration
subgrade/base/Subbase Reinforcement Function
5.4.Geosynthetic Overlaps
5.5.Seams
5.6.Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control
5.7.Construction Guidelines for Use of Asphalt reinforcement

Chapter 6 Handling and Storage of Geosynthetics

6.1 & 6.2. General
6.3.Site Unloading
6.4.Site Handling
6.5.Site Storage

Annexure I Determination of Layer coefficients

Annexure II Development of the Layer Coefficient Ratio & Modulus
Improvement Factor
Annexure III Various design considerations for different Asphalt reinforcements
Annexure IV Worked-out Example Illustrating the Design Methods

References

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 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction

Geosynthetic is defined as a planar product manufactured from a polymeric material that

is used with soil, rock, or other geotechnical-related material as an integral part of a civil
engineering project, structure, or system. Synthetic materials in the form of strong flexible sheets
either woven or nonwoven, permeable or water tight, 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional have been
used for several years to improve soil quality and performance in different pavement related
facets of geotechnical engineering, e.g. base and sub base stabilization, reinforcement, drainage,
protection of slopes and embankments. Specific products such as, geotextiles, geogrids, geocell,
geomembranes, geocomposite etc., have been progressively developed for various applications. A
common generic name ‘Geosynthetics’ is being used to refer the different materials mentioned
above.

Several detrimental factors affect the service life of roads and pavements including
environmental factors, subgrade conditions, traffic loading, utility cuts, road widening, and
ageing. Pavement distresses such as surface cracks, joints, and subgrade failures cause the rapid
reflection/propagation of cracks up through the pavement layers and increase the maintenance
cost. Therefore, the preferred strategy for long term road and pavement performance is to build in
safeguards during initial construction. These performance safeguards include stabilizing the
subgrade against moisture intrusion and associated weakening, strengthening the road base and
sub-base by allowing the efficient drainage of infiltrated water, and as a last resort, enhancing the
stress absorption and moisture proofing capabilities. Geosynthetics are the most cost effective
tools for safeguarding roads and pavements in these ways.

1.1Scope

This publication contains information on Geosynthetics made from polymeric materials

and their use in road pavements and other associated works. This document provides detailed
design methodology, specifications, construction guidelines, standard test methods, handling and
storage of all the geosynthetics for road pavement applications. The applications addressed in the
document include:

 Stabilization and Reinforcing of pavement layers

 Separation and filtration
 Subsurface and Surface drainage
 Erosion control of road embankments

The document however excludes other possible applications of geosynthetics such as,
reinforced soil walls and slopes and containment of landslides.

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 These guidelines may require revision from time-to-time based on future developments
and experience in the field. Towards this end, it is suggested to all the organizations using the
guidelines to keep a detailed record of the year of construction, subgrade CBR, soil characteristics
including resilient modulus, pavement composition and specifications, reinforcement details,
traffic, pavement performance, type and thickness of overlay performance, climatic condition,
periodical measurements (both before and after strengthening) etc. and provide feedback to the
Indian Roads Congress for further revision.

Chapters in this publication are organized in a way that followed sequence gives a better
understanding of the objective of the publication.

Chapter-1 “Introduction” provides details of different geosynthetic materials, their composition,

functions and applications in road pavement works.

Chapter-2 “Properties and Test methods” addresses all the required tests to be performed to
evaluate the Geosynthetic function and applications. It gives detailed testing procedures and the
properties required as per the available ISO, IRC, BIS, ASTM and BS.

Chapter-3 “Design methodology” explains the mechanism, design methodology using different
geosynthetic materials and analysis for different applications.

Chapter-4 “Geosynthetic Selection Criteria” provides guidance and helps design engineers and
specification writers with the selection of geosynthetics based on the required function,
application, site conditions, and other economical technical feasibilities.

Chapter-5 “Construction guidelines” brings out the installation aspects and methodologies to be
practiced while executing and installing geosynthetics.

Chapter-6 “Handling, storage and Installation” gives information on safe handling and
transportation of geosynthetics without any damage before installation.

This document also includes the solved numerical example in Annexure IV for easy
understanding of the design methodologies explained in chapter-3.

1.2 Raw Materials and Classification of geosynthetics

1.2.1 Raw materials

Polymers are the major raw materials for manufacturing geosynthetics. The most widely
used polymers are polypropylene, polyester, Polyethylene, polyamides, polystyrene, polyvinyl
chloride, glass, carbon and natural fibres are used only sometimes since their natural resistance to
various aggressive environments is generally less than that of polypropylene and polyester.
Characteristics and properties of basic raw materials are presented in the Fig 1.1

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 Fig1.1 Characteristics and properties of basic raw materials

1.2.2 Classification of geosynthetics

Geosynthetics are synthetic products used in various geotechnical applications.

Geosynthetics can be classified in many ways based on manufacturing process, materials used or
function. General classification of geosynthetics for the applications in pavements is given in Fig
1.2. The classification is based on the spatial aspects of the geosynthetic material. For example,
one dimensional material will have only one spatial character as length compared to other
dimensions (ropes, straps and cables). Two dimensional materials will have only two spatial
characteristics either length or width or height (Geogrids, Geotextiles, Geocomposites and
Geomembranes), whereas three dimensional materials will possess the spatial characteristics in all
three dimensions i.e. length, width and height (geocell, geomats, geonets, geospacers and three
dimensional geogrids).

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 Fig 1.2 Classification of geosynthetics for pavement applications

1.2.3 Types of geosynthetics for pavement applications

1.2.3.1 Geotextile: Geotextiles can be defined as any permeable synthetic textile used with
foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related material as an integral
part of an infrastructure project, structure, or system. The geotextiles are generally classified by
the manufacturing process and are often separated into two sub-categories, namely, woven and
non-woven. Another type of geotextile includes (i) Knitted geotextiles and (ii) Composite
geotextiles (Figure 1.3).

Woven geotextiles are manufactured by weaving weft threads through warp threads.
Strength of geotextile in machine direction is usually larger than cross machine direction.

Non-woven geotextiles are produced from randomly distributed continuous filaments or

staple fibres, which are bonded together chemically, thermally or mechanically.

Knitted geotextiles consists of a single strand systematically intertwined with itself and is
manufactured with a knitting machine, instead of a weaving loom.

Composite geotextiles (Multi-layered geotextiles) are manufactured by combining layers

of different types of geotextiles. The components can be combined by needling, stitching,
chemical bonding or heat bonding. (IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, ‘State-of-the-Art:
Application of Geotextiles in Highway Engineering’).

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 Fig 1.3 Geotextile

1.2.3.2 Geogrid: Geogrids are polymers formed into a very open, grid like configuration, i.e., they
have apertures between individual ribs in the transverse and longitudinal directions. Geogrids are
mainly made from polymeric materials, typically polypropylene (PP), high density polyethylene
(HDPE) and polyester (PET).Geogrids can be classified according to (a) manufacturing
process(woven, knitted, bonded, welded, extruded), (b) directional behaviour (uniaxial, biaxial,
triaxial), (c) bonding between ribs and (d) Polymer(polypropylene, polyester, PVC etc).Biaxial
geogrids have significant strength in both the machine and cross machine directions while
uniaxial geogrids exhibit the primary strength in the machine direction with minimal strength,
enough to maintain the aperture structure, in the cross machine direction.

Geostrips is another form of geosynthetic reinforcement primarily made of synthetic

material in strips and is made from high tenacity polyester yarn, contained in a suitable polymer
sheath.

Fig 1.4 Geogrids

1.2.3.3 Geomembranes: Geomembrane is a very low permeability/impervious synthetic

membrane liner or barrier used to control fluid migration across the plane. These are made from
relatively thin continuous polymeric sheets, but they can also be made from the impregnation of
geotextiles with bitumen, polymer sprays or as multilayered bitumen geocomposites. Continuous
polymer sheet geomembranes are by far the most common.

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 Fig1.5Geomembranes

1.2.3.4 Geonets: Geosynthetic material consisting of integrally connected parallel sets of ribs
overlying similar sets at various angles formed by a continuous extrusion into a netlike
configuration for in plane drainage of liquids. Geonets are often laminated with geotextiles on one
or both surfaces and are referred to as drainage composites. There are three categories of geonets.

 Bi-planar geonets: These are the original and most common types and consist of two sets of
intersecting ribs at different angles and spacing’s. The ribs themselves are of different sizes
and shapes for different styles.

 Tri-planar geonets: These have parallel central ribs with smaller sets of ribs above and beneath
mainly for geometric stability.

 Other geonets: These newer geonet structures have either box shaped channels or protruding
columns from an underlying support network.

Fig 1.6Geonet

1.2.3.5 Geospacer: Geospacer is a three-dimensional geosynthetic extruded from polymeric

materials such as HDPE. It provides separation and a void between layers to provide in-plane
drainage. Typical geospacers are formed in continuous sheets which can be used as an
impermeable layer or perforated to allow water migration. The material is UV stabilised with
carbon black. Geonets are increasingly being used to replace traditional gravel drainage layers.

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Geospacers are often laminated with geotextiles on one or both sides and are referred to as
drainage geocomposites behind retaining walls, plaza decks or green roofs.

Fig 1.7Geospacers

1.2.3.6Geocell: Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-dimensional

honeycombed cellular structures that form a confinement system when in-filled with compacted
soil or aggregate. Extruded from polymeric materials such as HDPE, into strips welded together
ultrasonically in series or in continuous process capable to create the cells without any subsequent
welding, the geocell structures, the strips are expanded to form the stiff (and typically textured
and perforated) walls of a flexible 3D cellular mattress. The material is UV stabilised with carbon
black.

(a) (b)
Fig 1.8Geocell (a) closed form, (b) open form

1.2.3.7 Geomats: These are two dimensional or three dimensional mats with specified thickness,
made of multi-filaments, layers of geogrids folded and knitted or bonded together with apertures
to allow vegetation growth for erosion control application. Geosynthetic mat consists of UV
stabilized non-degradable polypropylene/ polyethylene or similar polymer fibres that are extruded
or heat bonded to provide a dimensionally stable matrix. A tension element like steel wire mesh

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or geogrid shall be included in these mats as reinforcement, where these mats are required to
possess more strength against erosive forces, like in steep slopes or in heavy rainfall areas.

Fig 1.9Geomat: (a) Unreinforced geomats, (b) Reinforced geomats

1.2.3.8 Asphalt Reinforcement: There are three products for strengthening of asphaltic layer for
pavement, which are described below:

1. Paving Fabric: Paving Fabric is made from the fibres with Non-weaving process (Needle
punch and heat bonded) and applied by providing tack coat with asphaltic layer.

2. Paving Grids/Glass-Fibre Grid: The paving grid used with this specification shall be
manufactured from a glass fibre roving or polymeric grid pattern; resistant to chemical attack
(from flux oils, paraffin’s or any other solvents used in bituminous binders), mildew and rot, and
shall meet the physical requirements listed in chapter 4 of this guidelines.

3. Asphalt Interlayer Composites (AIC)/Composite Paving gird: A Grid combined with a Paving
Fabric it is called a Composite. AIC is made from Nonwoven Geotextile knitted with Fibre Glass
yarn, will provide dual functions.

Fig 1.10a Paving Fabric Fig 1.10b Paving grid

1.2.3.9 Geocomposite: Drainage Composites are formed by combining geotextiles or

geomembranes with a core of geonet. Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)/Band Drains and Fin
Drains also come under the category of geocomposite.

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 a. Drainage Composite b. Reinforced c. Prefabricated vertical drain
geocomposite

Fig 1.11Geocomposite
1.3 Functions of Geosynthetics

In a given application, a geosynthetic can perform one or several functions to improve the
mechanical and/or hydraulic behaviour of the structure in which it is incorporated. The basic
functions performed by a geosynthetic are as follows:

1. Separation/Filtration
2. Reinforcement
3. Drainage
4. Moisture Barrier
5. Erosion Control
Each of these functions can be defined in terms of the role they fulfil in the installation.
Definitions and description of each of these functions are explained below.

Properties, testing methods and the selection guidelines for each geosynthetic material for
various functions listed above are given in Chapters 2 and 4 respectively.

1.4 Separation/Filtration

The separation function refers prevention of intermixing of the two layers of dissimilar
materials throughout the design life of the material. Normally, geotextiles provide for separation
between layers in pavement. It prevents intrusion/pumping of soil particles into the base/sub-base
course. Simultaneously, it performs the function of filtration by dissipating the pore water
pressure and allowing the passage of fluids into or across the plane of the geotextiles while
preventing the uncontrolled passage of soil particles.

1.5 Reinforcement

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 Reinforcement function of geosynthetics is defined as use of the stress-strain behaviour of
a geosynthetic material to improve the mechanical properties of soil or other construction
materials. Different types of geogrids and woven geotextiles are having high tensile strength can
be used as reinforcing materials in pavements. The combined use of soil (good in compression
and poor in tension) and geotextiles/geogrids (good in tension and poor in compression) suggests
a number of situations in which they have made existing design work better or developed entirely
new applications. In base reinforcement applications, geogrids are placed within or at the bottom
of unbound layers of a flexible pavement system and improve the load-carrying capacity of the
pavement under repeated traffic.

Asphalt reinforcement reduces the reflective cracking and improves moisture retention by
impregnating with tack coat. In general paving fabric, paving grids and Asphalt Interlayer
Composite (AIC) or composite paving grids are used for asphalt reinforcement in pavements.

With moisture barrier function of paving fabric, it will not allow moisture to reach
granular layers and which also prevents propagation of crack and also acts as (Stress Absorbing
Membrane Interlayer) SAMI layer.

Paving grids are with square apertures (12.5mm to 25mm) and lay with minimum 40mm
thickness of bituminous layers. Paving Grid strengths are decided, considering the stresses to be
absorbed.

Considering above two products, for combined benefit of moisture barrier and stress
absorbing functions, composites are needed. A Grid combined with a Paving Fabric it is called a
Composite (Geocomposite). Composites provide the membrane and also high strength
reinforcement. Asphalt Interlayer composite is made from Nonwoven Geotextile knitted with
Fibre Glass yarn, will provide dual functions. Composites are stiffer materials with less or
minimal elongation and require slower installation speeds.

Table 1.1 Comparison between Paving Fabric, Fibre-Glass grid and AIC
Sr. Property Paving Fibre-Glass AIC
No. Fabric grid
1 Moisture Barrier High Less High
2 Stress Absorbing Less High High
Member Interlayer
(SAMI)
3 Bitumen Retention High Less High

1.6 Drainage

Drainage is collecting and transporting of precipitation, ground water, and/or other fluids
in the plane of a geosynthetic material. A suitable permeable geosynthetic material provides a

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filtration function which servers the same role in soil structures as the various gradation of
granular material.

1.7 Moisture Barrier

The barrier function refers to the prevention or limits the migration of fluid across the
plane of the geosynthetic material. This geosynthetic function has wide application in asphalt
pavement overlays and encapsulation of swelling soils. A nonwoven geotextile provides a barrier
function when saturated with an impermeable material like, bitumen. In this application, the
geotextile is saturated with a bitumen-based material (tack coat) and the new overlay is placed
directly onto the geotextile. The geotextile-tack coat combination prevents the movement of water
from the surface of the overlay into the pavement layers and vice-versa.
1.8 Erosion Control

Use of a geosynthetic material is to prevent or limit soil or other particle movements at the
surface of a slope due to water run-off and/or wind forces. Various geosynthetics materials such
as geotextiles, geogrids, geocells and geomats shall be considered as erosion control measures.

In addition to the primary function, Geosynthetics usually perform one or more secondary
functions. The primary and secondary functions of geosynthetic make up the total contribution
material in better way to a particular application. It is important to consider both the primary and
secondary functions in the design computations and specifications.

Table 1.2Primary Functions of Geosynthetics

Primary Functions of Geosynthetics
Type of
geosynthetic Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage Impermeable Erosion
Barrier control
Geotextile     
Geogrid  
Geo
membrane  
Geonets  
Geospacer   
Geocell  
Geomat  
Paving
fabric 
Paving grid 
Geo
composite      

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Note: The given matrix of primary functions is indicative only; each product can have multiple functions
as per site conditions.

Use and selection of geosynthetics in pavements has to be analysed based on site conditions,
applicability and project specific requirements with judgement of Engineer in Charge. However,
before actually begin with design, a designer must give due consideration to “engineering” and
“economic” factors involved in design.

1.9 Applicability and Benefits of Geosynthetics in Roadways

1.9.1 Areas of Application of Geosynthetics in Roads and Pavements

The four main applications for geosynthetics in roads are subgrade separation,
stabilization, base or subbase reinforcement, and overlay stabilization. Subgrade stabilization and
base or subbase reinforcement involve improving the road structure as it is constructed by
inserting an appropriate geosynthetic material.

Conventional construction material like aggregates is becoming progressively scarce on

account of environmental concerns as well as legal restrictions on quarrying while the
construction activity has expanded phenomenally. This has shifted focus from large scale use of
conventional aggregates to use of local, recycled and engineered marginal aggregates in
construction. Geosynthetics can enhance the properties of such recycled and engineered marginal
aggregates in construction.

Geosynthetics are also helpful in rehabilitating the distressed road surfaces. The
application of a layer of bituminous concrete called an overlay is often the solution for damaged
pavement. Geosynthetics can be used as inter-layers by placing them below or within the overlay.
Some geosynthetics relieve stress and others are able to reinforce the overlay. The products may
also provide a moisture barrier. The following are the applications of geosynthetics in roadways
and pavements in brief:

• Subgrade separation and stabilization

• Base or subbase Reinforcement
• Overlay Stress Absorption and Reinforcement
 In Subsurface Drainage:
• Subgrade dewatering
• Base or subbase drainage
 In Erosion and Sediment Control
• Beneath the Hard Armor Systems, Revetments
 In Seepage control systems

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 • Structure water proofing
• Environmental Protection
Table1.3 Application areas of Geosynthetics
S. No. Application Description
Pavement Pavement stabilization and reinforcement involves stabilizing and reinforcing
stabilization different layers of the pavement to provide subgrade restraint, to stabilize the
1 and base and/or sub base, to reinforce the bound layers i.e. surface course to increase
reinforcement the service life of the pavement by preventing fatigue and reflective cracks.

Drainage Draining out of water ingressed through the pavement structure and prevention
2
of capillary action and moisture control need to be taken care
Moisture It is related to enhance and lengthen pavement performance by reducing the
3
Control influence of moisture on pavement materials
4 Erosion control It refers to the protection of the top surface of the exposed slopes, Surfaces.

1.9.2 Temporary roads, Diversions and Working platforms in roadway and pavement
systems

Geosynthetics are used in temporary roads to reduce rutting of the gravel surface and/or to
decrease the amount of gravel required to support the anticipated traffic. Furthermore, the
geosynthetic helps to maintain the aggregate thickness over the life of the temporary road. Where
the soils are normally too weak to support the initial construction work, geosynthetics in
combination with gravel provide a working platform to allow construction equipments access to
sites. This is one of the most important uses of geosynthetics. Even if the finished roadway can be
supported by the subgrade, it may be virtually impossible to begin construction of the
embankment or roadway. Such sites require stabilization by dewatering, de-mucking, excavation
and replacement with selected granular materials, utilization of stabilization aggregate, chemical
stabilization, etc. Geosynthetics can often be a cost effective alternate to these expensive
foundation treatment procedures.

1.9.3 Permanent Paved and Unpaved Roads

For permanent road construction, a temporary working platform can be constructed to

provide an improved roadbed using geogrid reinforcements with an aggregate layer to provide a
form of mechanical stabilization. This mechanically stabilized aggregate layer enables contractors
to meet minimum compaction specifications for the first two or three aggregate lifts. This is
especially true on very soft, wet subgrade, where the use of ordinary compaction equipment is
very difficult or even impossible. Long term, a geogrid or, in some cases, a geocomposite acts to
maintain the roadway design section and the base course material integrity. Thus, the geosynthetic
will ultimately increase the life of the roadway.

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 Another geogrid application in roadways is to place the geogrid or geocomposite at the
bottom or within the base course to provide reinforcement through lateral confinement of the
aggregate layer. Lateral confinement arises from the development of interface shear stresses
between the aggregate and the reinforcement and occurs during placement, compaction, and
traffic loading. A small residual restraint remains after each load application, thus increasing the
lateral confinement of the aggregate with increasing load applications. Base reinforcement thus
improves the long-term structural support for the base materials and reduces permanent
deformation in the roadway section and has been found under certain conditions to provide
significant improvement in pavement performance.

Fig 1.12 Potential applications and typical location of geosynthetics in layered pavement system
Note: The location of Geosynthetics would depend on other factors such as terrain, its application and type
of geotextile material.

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 CHAPTER - 2

PROPERTIES AND TEST METHODS FOR DIFFERENT GEOSYNTHETIC

MATERIALS
2.0 Geosynthetic Materials shall be Tested and Certified in the following manner.

1. The manufacturer shall have ISO or CE certification for manufacturing process and
quality control.
2. The manufacturer shall provide manufacturer’s test certificate for every lots applied from
the factory.
3. The supplier shall provide third party test reports from an independent laboratory with
valid accreditation for all the test values in Manufacturer’s test certificate.

Geosynthetics shall be tested in accordance with tests prescribed by relevant BIS, ISO, ASTM,
EN or BS shall be conducted.

2.1 Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geosynthetics

2.1.1 The term ‘Typical Value’ and Minimum Average Roll Value; both relate to the variability
inherent in geosynthetic material properties. This variability stems from the manufacturing
process and is similar to that which occurs with all construction materials, including concrete and
steel. Geosynthetics manufacturers continuously perform Quality Control (QC) testing to monitor
the physical properties of their products. Using the result of this testing, manufacturer can
represent physical properties statistically in normal distribution curves as shown in Fig.2.1.

2.1.2 The “typical” value refers to the average or mean value and is valid for any geosynthetic
material. As shown in Fig.2.1 (a) 50 percent of the test results can be expected to exceed this
value and 50 percent can be expected to fall below this value. The ‘minimum average roll value”
(MARV) is the value, which is exceeded by 97.72 percent of the test data as shown in Fig.2.1 (b).
The MARV is derived statistically as the average value minus two standard deviations.

Fig 2.1 Statistical distribution of the geosynthetic material properties

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2.1.3 Specification sheet of a geosynthetic material should list the physical properties required
to serve its intended function. The civil engineering community has adopted standards for
verifying the physical properties of geosynthetic material in accordance with the MARV. A
specification based on the MARV means that 97.72 percent of the product is required to meet or
exceed the specified values. In contrast, if a manufacturer certifies to higher “typical” values only
lesser percentage of the product would meet the specified values.

2.1.4 Designers must rely on a statistical basis for assuring that the geosynthetic materials
delivered to the job meet the specifications. On any given project, the minimum average roll value
must meet or exceed the designer’s specified value for the product to be acceptable.

2.2 Geotextile

This section gives an insight into various properties of geotextiles and test methods in use
or currently favoured for testing of geotextiles as per existing worldwide standards. This section
has been subdivided into following three major categories:

 Physical properties
 Mechanical properties
 Hydraulic properties

2.2.1 Physical properties: The properties, discussed in the subsection, refer to fabric in its
manufactured or as received condition. Physical properties are considered to be index properties
of geotextiles.

2.2.1.1 Specific gravity: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of material’s unit volume weight
(without any voids) to that of distilled, de-aired water at 27°C. The specific gravity of fibres from
which geotextiles are made is actually the specific gravity of the polymer raw material (ISO 1183,
ASTM D 792 or ASTM D 1505). Some typical values of specific gravity of commonly used
polymeric materials made into geotextiles are as follows:

Polypropylene : 0.91
Polyester : 1.22 to 1.38
Nylon : 1.05 to 1.14
Polyethylene : 0.90 to 0.96
Polyvinyl chloride : 1.69

2.2.1.2 Mass per unit area (weight): Mass per unit area governs the fabric cost and normally
mechanical properties are directly related to it. Test wise, the mass (weight) should be measured
to the nearest 0.01 percent of the total specimen mass. Length and width should be measured
under zero tension induced in geotextile. Methods for this test are based on ISO 9864, IS 14716
and ASTM D 5261. The geotextiles mass per unit area is given in grams per square meter. The
range of typical values for most geotextiles is from 100 to 1000 gm/m2.

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2.2.1.3 Thickness: Thickness is measured as the distance between the upper and the lower surface
of the fabric, measured at a specified pressure. ISO 9863-1:2001, IS 13162 (Part 3)and ASTM
D5199 stipulates that thickness is to be measured to an accuracy of at least 0.01mm under a
pressure of 2 kPa. According to ISO the thickness should be measured after 30 seconds of
application of full force, where as ATSM says the duration is 5 seconds only. Generally used
geotextiles thickness varied in a range from 0.25 to 7.5 mm.

2.2.2 Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties to be discussed here indicate the
geotextiles resistance to tensile stresses mobilized under applied loads and/or installation
conditions. The index tests such as wide width tensile strength, grab strength, puncture strength
and sewn seam strength are used for determining the mechanical properties of the geotextiles.

2.2.2.1 Tensile strength: ISO 10319:2008 or IS 13325 or ASTM D 4595 gives test method for the
determination of the tensile properties of geotextile and related products, using a wide-width strip.
This test is applicable to most of the geotextile families including woven, non woven, geo
composites, knitted fabrics and felts. The reason wide-width specimens are necessary that
geotextiles when tensioned tend to have a severe necking effect under increasing stress and they
rope up, giving artificially high values. Thus, the tendency for design-related tests is to use wide-
width specimens.

Grab strength test will also be applicable for the determination of tensile properties of
geotextiles.ISO 13934 or IS 16342 or ASTM D 4632 shall be used to evaluate the grab strength of
geotextiles. Narrow Strip Test as per ASTM D 751 is another tensile test method.

2.2.2.2 Puncture strength: This test is conducted to make an assessment of geotextile resistance
to objects, such as, rocks or pieces of wood under quasi-static conditions and reported as N or kN
Such a test described under ISO 12236, IS: 13162 (Part 4) and ASTM D 6241, ISO 12236.

2.2.2.3 Sewn seam strength: Seam strength is typically evaluated in the laboratory using ISO
10321:2008 “Geosynthetics- Tensile test for joints/seams by wide-width strip method” or IS
15060 or ASTM D4884, "Test Method for Seam Strength of Sewn or Thermally Bonded Seams
of Geotextiles". This method tests an 8 inch wide specimen and the results have been shown to
correlate accurately to anticipated field seam strength.

2.2.3 Hydraulic properties

Filter system flow capacity or flow rate, q is the quantity of water, which will pass through the
system in a given period of time. Flow capacity is usually expressed in cm 3/sec or
cm3/sec/m2.Properties of both the soil and geotextile influence the hydraulic characteristics of the
soil/geotextile system. Two important properties are soil permeability and geotextile permittivity.
Other properties are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Soil/Geotextile Filter System Properties (IRC SP 59: 2002, Table 3.1)

20
 Soil Geotextile
Permeability Permittivity
Grain size distribution Apparent opening size
Plasticity Percent open area
Dispersivity Structure
Compaction and confinement Durability

2.2.3.1 Apparent opening size (AOS): The apparent opening size (AOS) or the Equivalent Size
(EOS) is a measure of the largest effective opening in a geotextile. It can be measured using the
procedure described below:

Standard Test Method for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile are ISO
12956 (using the wet sieving principle), IS: 14294 and ASTM D4751 (using the dry sieving
principle). This test method covers the determination the apparent opening size (AOS) of a
geotextile by sieving glass beads through a geotextile.

Table 2.2 Geotextile Properties and Testing methods (IRC SP: 59-2002)
Property Test Method
Specific Gravity ASTM D792 or ASTM D1505
Mass per unit area ISO 9864, IS: 14716, ASTM D5261
Thickness ISO 9863, IS: 13162 (Part 3), ASTM D5199
Tensile strength ISO 10319:2008 or ASTM D4595
Puncture strength ISO 12236, IS: 13162 (Part 4), ASTM D6241
Sewn seam strength ASTM D4884
Apparent opening size (AOS) ISO 12956, IS: 14294, ASTM D4751
Permittivity ISO 12956, IS: 14294, ASTM D4751

2.2.3.2 Geotextile permittivity: Permittivity ψ is laboratory measured characteristic of the

geotextile. Permittivity is measured using the index test method ISO 11058, IS: 14324 and ASTM
D 4491.

2.2.3.3 Determination of clogging potential of geotextile: IS 16389:2015 “Geosynthetics -

Method of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or Soil/Geotextile Filters” shall be used to
determine clogging potential of geotextiles. There are two test methods available to evaluate flow
capacity of a soil/geotextile system: first one by ASTM D 5101, the “Gradient Ratio” and the
other by “Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR) Test”. In this test, the soil is compacted and is
placed under a confining pressure to simulate field conditions. The HCR testing of soil/geotextile
systems can be conducted using ASTM D 5567 method.
2.3 Geogrid

21
 The primary function of geogrid is improving the geotechnical material property by
reinforcing and stabilizing. Based on the function and applications of geogrid, its properties are
classified generally into three categories like, physical, mechanical and endurance properties.

2.3.1 Physical Properties: Many of the physical properties of geogrids-including the type of
structure, rib dimensions, junction type, aperture size and thickness can be measured directly and
are relatively straightforward.

2.3.2 Mechanical Properties: As reinforcing is the main function of geogrid, the tensile strength
of single rib or at junction of geogrid is considered as mechanical properties of geogrid. The
tensile strength is the maximum resistance to tensile stresses mobilized under applied loads and/or
installation conditions. Nodal strength test and wide width strength tests are general tests to be
conducted to determine the tensile strength of geogrids.

2.3.2.1 Single Rib and Junction (Nodal Strength): The initial tendency when assessing a
geogrid’s tensile strength is to pull a single rib in tension until failure and then to note its
behaviour. A single rib tension strength test merely uses a constant rate-of-extension testing
machine to pull a single rib to failure, as described in ASTM D6637. For unidirectional geogrids,
this would most likely be a longitudinal rib. For bidirectional geogrids, both longitudinal and
transverse ribs require evaluation. By knowing the repeat pattern of the ribs, equivalent wide-
width strength can be calculated. Alternatively, a number of ribs can be tested simultaneously to
obtain a more statistically accurate value for the wide-width strength. Geogrid for use as
reinforcement of base and sub-base layers of flexible pavements shall be tested according to the
references mentioned in Table 2.3.

Table: 2.3 Test methods of Geogrid for Base stabilization of Flexible Pavement
Property Test Method
Tensile strength and/or stiffness @ 0.5 ISO 10319:2015
% strain
Tensile strength@2% strain ISO 10319:2015
Tensile strength@5% strain ISO 10319:2015
Junction strength ASTM D7737
Geogrid aperture MD/CMD

2.3.2.2 Wide-Width Tensile Strength: Clearly the wide-width tensile strength of a geogrid, in its
machine direction for unidirectional geogrids and in both machine and cross-machine directions
for bidirectional geogrids, is of prime importance. ISO 10319 or IS 13325 or ASTM D 6637wide-
width strength testing of geogrids can be referred to determine the tensile strength of geogrids.

2.3.3 Endurance Properties: As geogrids are used in critical reinforcement applications, some of
which require long service lifetime; it is generally necessary to evaluate selected endurance

22
properties. Installation damage, creep and accelerated test methods will be addressed in this
section.

2.3.3.1 Installation Damage: As with all geosynthetic, the placement of geogrids in the field
requires a considerable degree of planning and care. As happens all too often with careless field
construction crews and heavy machinery, installation damage of the geogrid can occur. Other
uncertainties in this same area are coarse soil impingement, falling objects and other accidents
that may occur before the geogrid is covered. There is a formalized procedure available to assess
installation damage as per ISO 10722. ASTMD5818-06 may be referred for exposure and
retrieval of sample to evaluate installation damage of geosynthetics.

Generally, the higher strength-loss values come about where large, poorly graded,
quarried aggregate is used and heavy construction equipment performs the placement and
compaction. If it is necessary to use such materials and methods; it is prudent to first place a
cushioning layer of sand above and sometimes below the geogrid.

2.3.3.2 Tensile Creep Behaviour: Sustained-load deformation or tensioned creep is one of the
major endurance properties of geogrid. Since geogrids are manufactured from polymers
consisting of long-molecules arranged in crystalline regions with interspersed amorphous regions,
the creep response reflects upon the percent crystallinity.

Creep is predominantly a function of stress level, time, temperature and a number of

environmental factors. The tensile creep test has been adopted from ISO 13431, ASTM D6992and
ASTM D5262. Consideration of creep reduction factor for reinforcement application of
geosynthetics in reinforced soil systems reference may be made to IRC SP 102, MoRTH section
3100.

2.3.4 Degradation Issues: For all types of geogrids being used in permanent reinforcement
applications, it is generally necessary to evaluate selected degradation considerations. This section
briefly discusses some of these issues.

2.3.4.1 Temperature effects: Given the temperature ranges of typical environments, temperature
extremes (hot or cold) should have no serious adverse effects on geogrids. The one caution is that
high temperature can exhibit strains arising from tension creep, creep rupture, and/or stress
relaxation.

2.3.4.2 Oxidation Effects: EN ISO 13438 test method can be used for determining the resistance
to oxidation (ISO 13438).This method for screening the resistance to oxidation, in particular
applicable to polypropylene and polyethylene based products.

2.4 Geomembrane

23
2.4.1 Physical properties: Physical properties have to do with the geomembranes in an as-
manufactured and/or as-received state. They are important for quality control, quality assurance
and proper identification.

2.4.1.1 Thickness: Depending on the type of geomembranes, there are three types of thickness to
be considered: (1) Thickness of smooth sheet, (2) The core thickness of textured sheet, and (3)
Thickness (or height) of the asperities of textured sheet.

Smooth Sheet: The determination of the thickness of a smooth geomembranes is

performed by a straightforward measurement. The test uses an enlarged-area micrometer under a
specified pressure, resulting in the desired value. ISO 09863 and ASTM D5199 is the test
methods generally used for measuring geomembranes thickness. Textured sheet: The roughened
surface of a textured geomembranes results in a significant increase in its interface friction with
adjacent materials versus the same geomembranes with a smooth surface. The thickness of such
textured sheets is measured as the minimum core thickness between the roughened peaks or
asperities. To measure the core thickness, a tapered-point micrometer for measuring machine
screw threads is recommended. The tapered point dimensions as per ASTM D5994 are a 60°
angle with the extreme tip at 0.08mm diameter. The normal load on tapered point is 0.56N.

Asperity Height: For textured geomembranes, the height of the asperity is of interest in so
far as it relates to mobilizing the desired amount of interface shear strength with the opposing
surface. Less involved, but still useful as a quality control and quality assurance method, is to
merely measure the height of the asperities per ASTM D7466.

2.4.1.2 Melt (Flow) Index: The melt-flow index or melt index (MI) test should be used by
geomembranes manufacturers as a method of controlling polymer uniformity and process ability.
The test method often used for geomembranes polymers is ASTM D1238.

2.4.1.3 Mass per Unit Area (Weight): This test is straightforward to perform and usually follows
ISO 9864 or ASTM D3776 procedures.

2.4.2 Mechanical properties

2.4.2.1 Tensile Behaviour: The test procedures generally used are covered in ISO 527-3,ASTM
D 6693 or as well as ASTM D6392, D882, D751, and D413.

2.4.2.2 Tear Resistance: The measurement of tear resistance of a geomembrane can be done
using ASTM D1004. ASTM D1004 uses a template to form a test specimen shaped such as to
have a 90˚ angle where tear can begin to propagate.

2.4.2.3 Puncture Resistance: To measure puncture resistance ASTM D4833 is often used since it
is the test method used by manufacturers for quality control purposes.

2.4.3 Endurance Properties:

24
2.4.3.1 Oxidation: There are two related test methods that are used to track the amount and/or
depletion of antioxidants. They are called oxidative induction time (OIT) tests.

Standard OIT (ISO 11357 or ASTM D3895): The oxidation is conducted at 35 kPa and
200°C. This test appears to misrepresent antioxidant packages containing thiosynergists and/or
hindered amines due to the relatively high test temperature.

High Pressure OIT (ASTM D5885): The oxidation is conducted at 3500 kPa and 150°C.
This test can be used for all types of antioxidant packages and is the preferred test.

A summary of properties of geomembranes and testing procedure is listed in Table 2.4 below:

Table 2.4 Properties and test method standards for geomembranes

Test Test Method
Density ASTM D792
Melt flow index ASTM D 1238
Carbon black content ASTM D 1603
Carbon black dispersion ASTM D 5596
Oxidative Induction Time
(OIT)
Standard OIT ISO 11357, ASTM D 3895,
High Pressure OIT ASTM D 5855
Low temperature brittleness UNE 104302
Water absorption EN ISO 62
Asperity height GRI GM 12
Thickness ISO 9863, ASTM D 5199
Puncture resistance ASTM D 4833 / ASTM D5494
Tear Resistance ASTM D1004
Dimensional stability ASTM D 1204
Tensile strength and elongation ISO 527-3, ASTM D 6693 /
ASTM D638
Tensile strength ASTM D4885
(Wide Width Strip Method)
Integrity ASTM D4437 / ASTM D6392

2.5 Geonet/Geospacer:

The primary function of a geonet/geospacer is to convey liquid within the plane of its
structure. The inplaneflow rate or Transitivity is an important design parameter. However, other
features, which may influence this value over the service lifetime of the geonet, are also of
importance. Thus a number of physical, mechanical, endurance, and environmental properties will
also be presented in this section.

2.5.1 Physical Properties

25
2.5.1.1 Density: The density or specific gravity of the polymer is an important property and it can
be evaluated either by ASTM D1505 or D792.

2.5.1.2 Thickness: Thickness can be determined using ISO 9863/IS 13162 Part-3, ASTM D 5199.

2.5.1.3 Mass per unit area: This can be determined using ISO 9864/ ASTM D 3776.Other
physical properties such as rib dimensions, planar angles made by the intersecting ribs, cross-
planar angles made at the juncture locations, aperture size and shape can be measured directly.

2.5.2 Mechanical Properties

2.5.2.1 Tensile Strength and Elongation: ISO 10319:2015 or IS 13325 or ASTM D 4595 gives
index test method for the determination of the tensile properties of geonet/geospacer, using a
wide-width strip.

2.5.2.2 Compressive Strength and Deformation: ASTM D6364, “Standard method for
determining the short-term compressive strength of geosynthetic” is used to evaluate the short-
term compressive strength parameters of geonet.

2.5.2.3 Shear Strength: The appropriate interface shear test method is ISO 12957-1 or ASTM
D5321, and it is obviously a product-specific and site-specific test that must be performed for
each set of conditions that arise.

2.5.3 Hydraulic Properties

The in-plane hydraulic test to determine planar flow rate, or transmissivity, of geonets
should be performed using ISO 12958 and ASTM D 4716. Both test methods use a planar
transmissivity device and not the radial transmissivity device this is necessary because the flow
regime in a geonet is surely turbulent (consisting of irregular flow paths and eddies).

2.5.4 Endurance Properties: The major endurance properties of concern when using geonets
have to do with the long-term sustained deformation of the material and its ability to continue to
transmit the required in-plane flow rate.

Type of polyethylene resin: Depending upon the type of polyethylene resin, primarily
characterized by its density, the geonet will have different mechanical and endurance properties.
The high density resins (e.g., greater than 0.950 mg/l), will result in relatively high modulus, high
strength and high creep resistance. Conversely, lower density resins (e.g., less than 0.945 mg/l)
will be more flexible and can deform under high compressive stresses more easily.

Intrusion of adjacent materials into the geonet’s apertures: All geospacers or geonets will
necessarily be covered on their upper and lower surfaces with geotextiles, geomembranes,
concrete wall surface, or some other material. If the geonet’s surfaces are not covered, the
adjacent soil will invade its apertures, rendering flow impossible. For this reason all flow tests
should be conducted with soft foam rubber platens on both sides to simulate soil intrusion, unless
26
the designer can demonstrate that hard platens on one or both sides are representative of the
conditions that the drainage core will encounter during operations. Intrusion refers to the
deformation of the flexible covering materials, primarily geotextiles, occupying some of the
geonet’s void space.

Table 2.5 Geonet properties and test methods

Test Test Method
Density (g/cm3) ASTM D 792
Mass per Unit Area ASTM D 3776
Wide width Tensile Strength ISO 10319/ASTM D 4595
(MD)
Flow capacity ISO 12958/ASTM D 4716
Thickness at 20Kpa EN ISO 9863-1
2.6 Geocell:

Geocell is the three dimensional structure element with interconnected cells made of
polyester/polypropylene/high density polyethylene stabilized with carbon black. Stabilization by
providing lateral confinement is the main function of Geocell. It has various properties classified
as physical, mechanical and chemical properties. Table 2.6 represents the different properties and
test methods for the Geocell.

Table 2.6 Material test methods for Geocell (GRI Standard GS-15)
Test Properties Test Method
Wall Thickness Nominal ASTM D 5199
Seam Efficiency (min. avg ) GRI-GS13
Density (min. avg.) ASTM D 1505/D 792
Tensile Properties (min. avg.) (1)
yield strength
break strength ASTM D 6693
yield elongation
break elongation
Seam Peel Strength
i. Method A US – ACE GL -86 –
19 ISO 13426-1
ii. Method B (Method B)
Seam Hang Strength (Pass on temperature variation from ASTM D 751
23°C-54°C with dead weight of 72.5kg for 7 days)
Tear Resistance (min. avg.) ASTM D 1004
Puncture Resistance (min. avg.) ASTM D 4833
Carbon Black Content (range) (2) ASTM D 4218
Carbon Black Dispersion (3) ASTM D 5596
Direct Shear Friction Angle (4) ASTM D5321

27
 Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) (min. avg.) (5)
(2) Standard OIT ASTM D 3895
— or — or
(b) High Pressure OIT ASTM D 5885
Oven Aging at 85°C (5) ASTM D 5721
(a) Standard OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 90 days ASTM D 3895
(b) High Pressure OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 90 days ASTM D 5885
UV Resistance (6) ASTM D 7238
(2) Standard OIT (min. avg.) ASTM D 3895
— or —
(b) High Pressure OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 1600 ASTM D 5885
hrs (8)
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance ASTM D 1693
NCTL stress crack resistance ASTM D 5397
Resistance to weathering (Min. 95% retained strength) EN ISO 12224
Resistance to oxidation (min. 28 days) EN ISO 13438
Note: (1) Machine direction (MD) and Cross Machine Direction (CMD) average values should be on the basis of
five test specimens each direction. Yield elongation is calculated using a gauge length of 33 mm Break
elongation is calculated using a gauge length of 50 mm

(2) Other methods such as D1603 (tube furnace) or D 6370 (TGA) are acceptable if an appropriate correlation to
D 4218 (muffle furnace) can be established.

(3) Carbon black dispersion (only near spherical agglomerates) for 10 different views: 9 in Categories 1 or 2 and
1 in Category 3

(4) Actual geocell strip against well graded sand

(5) The manufacturer has the option to select either one of the OIT (oxidative induction time) methods listed to
evaluate the antioxidant content in the geomembranes.

(6) The condition of the test should be 20 hr. UV cycle at 75C followed by 4 hr. condensation at 60C.

(7) Not recommended since the high temperature of the Std-OIT test produces an unrealistic result for some of
the antioxidants in the UV exposed samples.

(8) UV resistance is based on percent retained value regardless of the original HP-OIT value.

2.7 Geomat:

Geomats are permeable material made of bonded filaments, layers of geogrids (folded and knitted
or bonded together). They can be used for permanent erosion control problems. The roots of grass
and small plants act as reinforcement for vegetation. These are two dimensional or three
dimensional mats with specified thickness, made of multi-filaments, layers of geogrids (folded
and knitted or bonded together), with apertures to allow vegetation growth for erosion control
application

28
2.7.1. Physical Properties

2.7.1.1 Thickness: The thickness of geosynthetic mats can be determined using ISO 9863 or
ASTM D5261, “Standard method for measuring nominal thickness of permanent rolled erosion
control products”.

2.7.1.2 Mass per unit area: This can be determined using ISO 9864/ ASTM D 3776.

2.7.2. Mechanical Properties

2.7.2.1 Tensile Strength: Tensile strength of geosynthetic mats can be determined using ISO
10319 or ASTM D4595, for wide width tensile test. In this method, a test specimen is clamped in
a tensile testing machine and a force applied to the specimen until it breaks.

2.8Asphalt Reinforcement:

2.8.1 Physical Properties

2.8.1.1 Thickness: The thickness of paving fabric can be determined using ISO 09863, ASTM
D5199.

2.8.1.2 Weight: Methods for the determination of weight are ISO 9864 and ASTM D 5261. The
paving fabric’s mass per unit area is given in grams per square meter.

2.8.2 Mechanical Properties

2.8.2.1 Tensile Strength: Wide width tensile tests as per EN ISO 10319 or ASTM D4595 or are
used to determine the tensile strength of paving fabric. Other properties of paving fabric are
represented in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7 Different properties and test methods of paving fabric

Property Test Standard Unit
Static Puncture (CBR-test) EN ISO 12236/ ASTM D6241 N
Dynamic Perforation (Cone Drop) EN ISO 13433 mm
Bitumen Retention ASTM D6140 kg/m3
Melting point EN ISO 3146/ ASTM D276 °C

2.8.2.2 Tensile Properties: The tensile properties of asphalt reinforcing geogrid’s shall be
determined as per ISO 10319 or ASTM D4595, “Standard test method for determining tensile
properties of geogrids by the single or multi-rib tensile method”.

2.8.2.3 Melting Point: Melting point can be determined as per ASTM D276, “Standard Test
Methods for Identification of Fibres in Textiles”.

Table 2.8 Different properties and test methods of Asphalt reinforcing geogrid

29
 Property Units Code
Tensile strength kN/m ISO 10319:2008/ASTM D 6637
% Elongation at break % ISO 10319:2008/ASTM D 6637
o
Melting Point C ISO 3146 / ASTM D276
Tensile Resistance @ 2% kN/m ASTM D6637/ISO 10319:2008
Strain

Secant Stiffness EA @1% N/mm ASTM D 6637/ EN ISO

strain 10319:2008

Young Modulus E (Mpa) Mpa

(For Glass Fibre)

2.9Geocomposite:

As geocomposite is a combination of two or more different geosynthetic materials, the

properties confirming to the individual geosynthetic constituting a geocomposite will be valid for
geocomposite also. Table 2.9 presents the different properties and corresponding test methods of
Geocomposites.
Table 2.9 Different properties and test methods of Geocomposite for drainage
Unit of
Properties Reference Standard
Measurement
Geotextile Properties
EN ISO 12956/ASTM D4751/ IS
Pore Size O90/ AOS Mm
14294
EN ISO 11058/ASTM D4491/IS
Permeability/ Permittivity l/m2.sec
14324
Tensile Strength EN ISO 10319/ASTM D4595 kN/m
Thickness at 2kPa EN ISO 9863-1 Mm
CBR puncture resistance EN IS0 12236 N
Dynamic perforation cone drop EN ISO 13433 Mm
Property of Drainage Core
Mass per Unit Area EN ISO 9864/ASTM D3776 g/m2
Long Term Creep ASTM D7361 %
Thickness at 20Kpa EN ISO 9863-1
Mm
Property of composite material
Wide width Tensile Strength EN ISO 10319/ASTM D4595 kN/m
EN ISO 12236/ASTM D6241/IS
CBR Puncture Resistance 13162 kN

30
Mass per Unit Area EN ISO 9864/ASTM D3776 g/m2
Inplane flow capacity (i=1)
@ 20 kPa l/m.sec
@ 50 kPa l/m.sec
EN ISO 12958
@ 100 kPa l/m.sec
@ 200 kPa l/m.sec
@ 400 kPa l/m.sec
Thickness at 20 kpa EN ISO 9863/ASTM D5199 Mm
In-plane flow capacity (i=0.1)
@ 20 kPa l/m.sec
EN ISO 12958
@50 KPa l/m.sec
@ 100 kPa l/m.sec
@ 200 kPa l/m.sec
@ 400 kPa l/m.sec

31
 CHAPTER - 3

DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
General

The performance of reinforced road structures relies heavily on the condition of

surrounding materials and on the traffic loads and therefore each design requires specific analysis
and calculations.

Proposed design methods for different functions of geosynthetics such as reinforcement,

separation, drainage, filtration in pavement section are either based on empirical and analytical
considerations or analytical models modified by experimental data. To date, a general analytical
design solution has not been found that addresses all of the many variables that impact
performance. All empirical design methods are limited by the conditions associated with the
experiments of the study. Several methods are based on obtaining a performance level (Traffic
Benefit Ratio [TBR] or Base Course Reduction [BCR]) from a laboratory model test. The lab test
results must be extrapolated to field conditions for application to design. For a given set of
conditions, many of the methods produce reliable results. This chapter provides the currently
available and generally used design methodologies for several functions described in these
guidelines. Material properties and requirements of each pavement layer will remain same as
specified in other relevant codes, guidelines for pavement construction.

3.1 Design for Reinforcement of unbound Pavement Layers

Pavement reinforcement involves reinforcing different layers of the pavement.

Geosynthetics are incorporated into base and subbase section for following reasons:

1. To provide subgrade restraint for construction of the road over weak subgrade conditions.
2. To reinforce the base and/or sub base

3.1.1 Basic Mechanism

Basic mechanism of reinforcement can be identified as (a) lateral restraint, (b) improved
bearing capacity, and (c) tensioned membrane effect.

Lateral restraint (Fig 3.1(a)) refers to the confinement of the aggregate material during
loading, which restricts lateral flow of the material from beneath the load. Since most aggregates
used in pavement systems are stress-dependent materials, improved lateral confinement results in
an increase in the modulus of the base course material. The effect of increasing the modulus of the
base course is an improved vertical stress distribution applied to the subgrade and a corresponding
reduction in the vertical strain on the top of the subgrade. Improved bearing capacity is achieved
by shifting the failure envelope of the pavement system from the relatively weak subgrade to the
relatively strong base course material (Fig 3.1(b)). The third fundamental reinforcement
32
mechanism has been termed the “tensioned membrane effect.” The tensioned membrane effect
(Fig 3.1(c)) is based upon the concept of an improved vertical stress distribution resulting from
tensile stress in a deformed membrane.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 3.1 Mechanism of reinforcement: (a) Lateral restrain effect, (b) Improved bearing
capacity, (c) tension membrane effect.

3.1.2 Design of Geogrid Reinforced Flexible Pavements

Geogrid reinforced flexible pavement section can be designed based on two design
approaches i.e. MEPDG method following MIF (Modulus Improvement Factor) and Modified
AASHTO method following LCR (Layer Coefficient Ratio).

The approach to flexible pavement design according to modified AASHTO method is

similar for reinforced and unreinforced pavements and can be divided into two steps:

1. Determination of structural number for a given traffic load, project conditions and arriving
unreinforced section thickness for individual pavement layers.
2. Determination of reduced thickness by incorporating the effect of geosynthetic in the form of
improvement factor in the obtained SN.

3.1.2.1 AASTHO Design Method

The basic design equation for flexible pavements according to AASHTO 1993 design
guide has the following form:

 PSI 
log 10  
 4.2  1.5 
log 10 W18   Z R  S o  9.36  log 10 SN  1  0.20   2.32  log 10 M R   8.07
1094
0.40 
SN  15.19
(1)

where: W18 = predicted number of 80 kN ESALs

33
 ZR = standard normal deviate (example: ZR = -1.645 for 95 % reliability)

So = combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance

prediction

SN = Structural Number (an index that is indicative of the total pavement

thickness required) [inches]

ΔPSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the
design terminal serviceability index, pt

MR = subgrade resilient modulus (in psi)

The AASHTO method utilizes the term structural Number (SN) to quantify the structural strength
of a pavement required for a given combination of soil support, total traffic, reliability, and
serviceability level. The required SN is converted to actual thickness of surfacing, base and sub
base, by means of appropriate layer coefficients representing the relative strength of the
construction materials. The design equation used is as follows:

SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3+... (2)

Where: ai= ith layer coefficient

Di=ith layer thickness (inches), and
mi= ith layer drainage coefficient (drainage effect on the asphalt layer is not
considered in the AASHTO 93 guide)
The subscripts 1, 2 and 3 refer to the bituminous concrete course, aggregate base course and sub
base course (if applicable) respectively. For detailed design methodologies refer AASHTO 1993.

3.1.2.2 Modified AASTHO Method with Geogrids for Base/Sub Base stabilization
The structural contribution of a geogrid on a flexible pavement system can be quantified
by an empirical term defined as layer coefficient ratio (LCR). Hence the equation 2 is modified as
below.

SN = a1 x D1 + LCR2 x a2 x D2 x m2 + LCR3 x a3 D3 m3 + ... (3)

Where: LCR is the Layer Coefficient Ratio, with a value higher than one

Layer coefficient ratio represents the improvement/enhancement provided by a specific

geogrid to the layer coefficient of the layer in which the geogrid is placed (most commonly a base
course and subbase course or both).

This value is back-calculated, based upon the number of load cycles on a reinforced
section to the number of load cycles on an unreinforced section, with the same geometry to reach
the defined failure state. Appropriate empirical value of LCR may be used. Such values are
normally provided by the manufacturer based on their filed and laboratory testing for various

34
materials. These factors may differ from product to product. Agency- Specific evaluation to select
appropriate empirical ratio is recommended. Such evaluation shall be tailored to local materials,
practice, costs. Furthermore, agency specific evaluation should provide the designers with
guidance on value of reliability for reinforced pavement. A general procedure for the
determination of LCR by extensive laboratory and filed testing is provided in Annexure II.

According to FHWA NHI-07-092, based on the AASHTO, 1993 design guide, the overall
structural contribution of geosynthetic reinforcement is considered in the design through either of
the following factors that are derived from empirical product specific data:

− Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR) - the ratio of the number of load applications necessary to
reach a specific failure state in a geosynthetic-reinforced pavement to the number of load
applications required to reach the same failure state in an unreinforced section (i.e., the same
pavement section but without reinforcement).

− Base Course Reduction Factor (BCR) - the percent reduction in the thickness of base or
subbase material in a reinforced pavement compared to an unreinforced one, given that the traffic
capacity for a defined failure state remains the same.

3.1.2.3 Design procedure for Geogrid Reinforced Flexible Pavement

IRC: 37-2012 provides design procedure for unreinforced section. As many of the
parameters used are still empirical, the equation requires modification to include the benefit of
reinforcement in the pavement layers. Hence to take the advantage of empirical and mechanistic
empirical methodologies, reinforced pavement design shall be done in the following procedure.
Design for geogrid reinforced pavement design procedure shall be done in two parts:

a) Determine the conventional unreinforced pavement section as

per IRC: 37-2012 for given sub grade CBR, design traffic.
b) Determine the improved layer parameters by inclusion of geogrid in different layers. Using
these improved parameters, reinforced section shall be designed with same methodology as
per IRC: 37-2012 and calculation of fatigue and rutting resistance of geogrid reinforced
pavement section.

The detailed design procedure for geogrid reinforced pavement section.

1. Determine the sub grade CBR and design traffic load for which the flexible pavement is to
be designed. Unreinforced section thickness shall be determined according to the IRC: 37-
2012for specified sub grade CBR and Design Traffic.

2. Resilient moduli MR_GB and MR_GSB are evaluated for the base and sub-base.

3. The tensile horizontal and vertical strains are evaluated for the conventional section at
Points A and B for the given subgrade and traffic / pavement life.

35
4. Structural layer coefficients a2, a3for granular base and subbase layer o unreinforced
section shall be determined from its resilient modulus using following equations from
AASHTO 1993.

(4)

(5)

Where MR_GB and MR_GSB are resilient modulus of base and subbase layers

5. Benefit of inclusion of geogrid reinforcement in the pavement layers will be represented in

improvement of resilient modulus of respective layer.Consider the layer within which the
geogrid is placed, base, or sub-base, or both. Accordingly the corresponding structural
layer coefficient(s) is / are modified by multiplying by the corresponding linear coefficient
ratios.

(6)

(7)

Where M1R_GBand M1R_GSB are modified resilient modulus of base and subbase layers

6. From equation (6) and / or (7), M1R_GBand / or M1R_GSB are evaluated.

7. M1R_GBand / or M1R_GSB are then used to determine the reduced thicknesses of the
pavement components.
8. Further, these values are imposed in the IRC recommended IITPAVE software and
evaluated for the strain values as shown in below Fig. 3.2.

36
 Fig 3.2Critical points for evaluation of horizontal and vertical strains

9. By using critical tensile strain and compressive strain induced at the bottom of the
bituminous course and top of the sub grade respectively, the allowable traffic should be
determined for fatigue and rutting failures using equations from IRC: 37-2012.

10. If obtained strain values are less than the permissible strain values the section is safe for
pavement life in rutting and fatigue and may be adopted for the construction.

In this way the advantages of both, Mechanist Empirical method from IRC: 37-2012 (for
unreinforced road design) and modified AASHTO 1993 method (for reinforced road design) are
taken into consideration in designing geogrid reinforced section. This design procedure for
geogrid reinforced flexible pavements can be adopted for any subgrade CBR values and any
traffic values.

Value of LCR depends on stiffness of geogrid, CBR of subgrade, and depth of placement of
reinforcement. Table 3.1 below gives recommended range of LCR values that may be adopted in
design. In the absence of LCR value for a particular geogrid reinforced pavement system, LCR
equal to 1.2 may be taken as a default value for design. If the manufacturer intends to use higher
value of LCR, the value recommended in the Table may be used. However actual certified values
shall be used in the design. Relevant test data in support of these factors has to be provided by
the manufacturer/ supplier. The manufacturer should support using such value through extensive
testing and certified by an independent third party testing/evaluations. Annexure I provide
procedure for determination of layer coefficients from Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and
CBR values.

Table 3.1 Indicative Range of LCR values

37
 S.No. CBR Indicative Range
of LCR* for
geogrid

1 3% 1.2-1.8

2 5%& above 1.2-1.6

Note:* These values are the indicative range of improvement ratios. Recommended LCR is based
on extensive review of studies available in the literature. These values may differ from product to
product, subgrade and granular layer properties. However actual certified values shall be used in
the design.

* It may be noted for CBR <3, geogrids of higher strengths and stiffness higher LCR may be
considered.

Default minimum values are applicable for the stabilized layer using geogrid i.e. base, subbase
and subgrade layers of the pavement section. For properties of geogrid and test methods, Section
4.6.2 and Table 2.3 shall be referred to.

Haas et al. (1988) after performing laboratory experiments concluded that the importance of
variables such as geogrid placement position, base course thickness, and subgrade strength. The
optimum geogrids location for lower thicknesses (< 150 mm) shall be at the bottom of the layer
and for the higher thicknesses (> 150 mm) it shall be at 1/3rd to half of thickness from top. For
very soft subgrades, optimum performance occurs with two layers of geogrid, where in excess of
three times the number of load cycles could be carried.

Drainage coefficients: The drainage characteristics of the pavement are accounted for the
use of modified layer coefficients. AASHTO 1993 (Pg. No. II- 22) presents the definitions of
suggested drainage levels. The drainage characteristic of the bituminous layer (Layer 1) is not
considered in design. For accounting the mi values in the design of pavement, ASSHTO 1993
(Table 2.4, Pg. No. II-25) presents the recommended mi values as a function of the drainage
quality and the percentage of time during the year the pavement structure would normally be
exposed to moisture levels approaching saturation.

3.1.3 Design of Geosynthetic (Geocell/Geogrid) Reinforced Flexible Pavement using

Modulus improvement factor (MIF)

Geocell/Geogrid reinforced/ stabilised flexible pavement design isbased on Mechanistic

Empirical approach as given in IRC 37.This design procedure can be adopted for any subgrade
CBR values and any traffic values.

38
Step wise design procedure for geocell/geogrid reinforced flexible pavement is as follows

1. Determine the soaked subgrade CBR as per IS 2720, Design Traffic Load from traffic
survey.
2. Selection of Conventional pavement as per IRC 37 for specific subgrade CBR and Design
traffic.
3. Since geocell/geogrid can be used in base/subbase layer and so the elastic modulus of
corresponding layer shall increase due to confinement action of Geocell and confinement,
tension membrane action and bearing capacity improvement action of geogrid. This
increased modulus of confined Base/Subbase layers may be computed by applying a
Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) to the unconfined modulus of Base material.
E reinforced base/subbase layer= MIF × E unreinforced base/subbase layer

4. Based on this
increased modulus of base layer the strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer shall be again
calculated. By trial and error method thickness of surface layer shall be reduced in a
manner that the tensile strain at the bottom of surface layer s less or equal to that of
conventional section.

5. For this reinforced section with reduced surface layer thickness, determine the
compressive strain at the top of subgrade.

6. Based on tensile strain and compressive strain calculate the fatigue and rutting resistance
(NF and NR respectively) from equations given in IRC 37-2012. The fatigue and rutting
resistance must be greater or equal to design traffic load.

This MIF has a very crucial role in design and must be evaluated from field and laboratory
testing. MIF depends on geosynthetic material type and their properties and stiffness and shear
strength of different fill soil. Precise MIF can be taken from manufacturer based on their field and
laboratory testing for specific size and material. However it is recommended to ensure correct
MIF for proper optimized design and MIF must be verified by appropriate testing for some trial
patch before full fledge execution of the work. Only third party validated MIF values must be
used for the design.

Table 3.2 Indicative Range of MIF values

S.No. CBR Indicative Range of MIF* for

geocell

1 <3 2 to 2.75

2 >3 1.4 to 2

39
Note:* These values are the indicative range of improvement ratios. Recommended MIF is based
on extensive review of studies available in the literature.
These values may differ from product to product, subgrade and granular layer properties. Higher
MIF values may also be considered subjected to actual certified values as per test results.
Design of geosynthetic reinforced flexible pavement can be followed by either LCR
approach or MIF approach, based on the availability of coefficient values which represents the
benefit of geosynthetics in pavement layers.

3.1.4 Material Properties

Regardless of the design procedure, it is essential that the material properties are adopted
only after conducting relevant tests on the materials. Where all test facilities are not available, at
least those tests must be carried out, which can validate the assumed design properties. The values
as suggested may be adopted for pavement design as default but not without validation by
subjecting the materials to such tests which can be easily carried out in any laboratory (e.g.
Unconfined Compressive Strength) to validate the assumed design values. Grade of bitumen and
recommended modulus values, poison ratios, minimum thickness requirements, reliability
specified in IRC 37 shall also be applicable for geosynthetic reinforced pavement design.

3.2 Designing for Separation

Separation is the major function of geotextile. In the pavement applications, the best use
of geotextile as separators illustrates when it is placed between a reasonably firm soil subgrade
(beneath) and a stone base course, or aggregate, or ballast above the geotextile. Subgrade shall be
“reasonably firm” because it is assumed that the subgrade deformation is not sufficiently large to
mobilize uniformly high-tensile stress in the geotextile. Thus, for a separation function to occur,
the geotextile has to be placed on the soil subgrade and then have aggregate Base/Subbase course
spread over the geotextile and compacted on top of it (as shown in Fig 3.3).

Fig 3.3 Separation function of Geotextile

40
 For separation design, the base and subbase course thickness required to adequately carry
the design traffic loads for the design life of the pavement and these thickness not reduced due to
the use of a geosynthetic. Recall that geotextile separators help prevent pavement failures due to
the intrusion of finer subgrade soil fractions into the granular base layer(s). Geotextiles separation
layers may also be used between dense and open graded base layers. Mostly any geotextile will
work in this application as long as it is strong enough to survive construction. As indicated earlier,
filtration is a secondary function in this application. Therefore the geotextile should have small
enough openings to prevent contamination of the base and subbase pavement layers from the
subgrade materials and be sufficiently permeable (i.e., more permeable than the subgrade) to
prevent the development of pore water pressure in the subgrade. AASHTO M288, table 4
explains the degree of survivability of geotextile for different subgrade conditions.

3.3 Design for Filtration

The geotextile must prevent in-situ soil from being washed into the system without
clogging over time. FHWANHI-070-092 Section 2.3 presents the basic principles, geotextile filter
design and selection.

3.4 Design for Drainage Applications

Water in pavement systems is one of the principal causes of pavement distress. It is well
known that improved roadway drainage extends the life of a roadway system. Modern roadways
incorporating good drainage are predicted to have a design life of up to two to three times over
that of undrained pavement sections. This section provides design guidance for a new alternative
drainage method, which incorporates a Geo Composite drainage layer tied directly and
continuously into an edge drain system. This Geo Composite drainage layer can be used to
directly replace drainable aggregate layers in modern rigid or flexible pavement systems. The
layer can also be used to significantly enhance the drainage of dense graded aggregate layers.

3.4.1 Design Requirements

In order to perform in this application, the geocomposite must have the stiffness required
to withstand compaction and support traffic without experiencing significant damage due to
compaction and deformation under cyclic traffic loading. At the same time, the geocomposite
must have the flow capacity required to rapidly drain the pavement section and prevent saturation
of the base. As discussed in the previous section, in order to provide optimum drainage, the
outflow capacity of the drainage layer must be sufficient to drain the pavement section within a
few hours of a moisture event. The geocomposite must have a high crush resistance to withstand
construction loading and compaction stresses. A factor of safety of 5 between the anticipated load
and geocomposite crush resistance as determined by quick load tests is recommended by the
FHWA to resist creep in geocomposite drains (Christopher et al., 2001). Considering the high cost
of pavement replacement, it is prudent to consider only high modulus, high compressive
resistance materials such as geonet drainage composites.

41
The design of a geocomposite drainage system is carried out as follows:

Identify/set all the design conditions, including (but not limited to):

 Types of soil involved (stones, gravel, clay etc.) and their grading curves
 Environment (aggressive for landfill bottom, medium for landfill capping, ordinary for roof
gardens etc.)
 Chemical and physical properties of the materials in contact with the geocomposite (pH,
chemical and biological content, hardness, stiffness etc.) and of the liquid to be drained (pH,
chemical and biological content, density, viscosity, turbidity etc.)
 Set the boundary conditions (that is the type of materials in contact with the two faces of the
geocomposite)
 Calculate the maximum applied pressure, the hydraulic gradient and the design input flow rate
for the geocomposite
 Select one or more geo composites and for each of them calculate the available flow rate for
the design conditions of materials in contact with the two faces, maximum applied pressure,
and hydraulic gradient
 Compare the available flow rate with the design input flow rate and consider only the geo
composites for which the former is larger than the latter
 Make the final selection of the geocomposite
 Provide design specifications and details, in particular the method for fixing the geo
composites on the supporting surface and the connections/overlaps between geocomposite
rolls and between the geo composites and other elements of the drainage system (manholes,
perforated pipes etc.)

3.4.2 Calculation of Input Flow Rate

The calculation of the input flow rate is project specific.

The generalized equation for input flow rate in the geocomposite is:

Q D = FSQ · [(QF / L) + QS]

Where:
QF = Total rainfall flow on the catchment zone (m3/s or l/s)
A = Horizontal area of the catchment zone (m2)
L = Running length of the geocomposite drain (m)
QS = Input flow rate due to additional surficial flow (m³/s/m or l/s/m)
FSQ = Factor of Safety on input flow rate

QD = Input flow rate in the geocomposite (m³/s/m or l/s/m)

3.4.3 Calculation of Available Flow Rate

42
 The flow velocity inside a geocomposite is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i) which
is defined as:

i = δh / L

Where: δh = Hydraulic head loss along the distance L for the fluid flow in the geosynthetic (m)

L = Distance between two points along the average direction of flow in the geosynthetic (m)

Since the design of the drainage system ensures that the available flow rate of the
geocomposite is always larger than the design input flow rate, pressure flow will never occur and
the flow will always occur at atmospheric pressure.

The available flow rate of a geocomposite will depend on the types of material in contact
with its two faces.

It is evident that a very rigid material (concrete slabs in case of rigid pavements etc.) will
compress and deform the geocomposite evenly, imparting a homogeneous decrease in its
thickness, but without pushing the geotextile into the channels of the draining core; rigid materials
produce negligible geotextile intrusion into the core. Conversely, a soft material (like a soil,
gravel, ballast) in contact with the geocomposite will deform the geotextile, forcing the textile to
intrude into the draining core with a resulting reduction in the cross-sectional area of the draining
core and commensurate decrease of the draining capacity. Therefore the available flow rate of a
geocomposite with a given structure will be a function of:

• Thickness of the geocomposite (H)

• Distance (L) between the support points of the geotextile filter
• Pressure (P) on the filter
• Strength, modulus and tensile creep of the geotextile filter
• Deformability of the material in contact with the geocomposite
• Roughness of the geotextile filter
For all applications, the available flow rate of the geocomposite shall be obtained by
applying a set of reduction factors which take into account all the phenomena that may decrease
the flow rate over the entire design life compared to the short term flow rate measured in the tests
according to EN ISO 12958:2010 or ASTM D4716 - 08(2013) standard:

43
 Where:
Qa = available long term flow rate for the geocomposite
QL = short term flow rate obtained from laboratory tests
RFin= Reduction Factor for the intrusion of filter geotextiles into the
draining core
RFcr = Reduction Factor for the compressive creep of the geocomposite
RFcc= Reduction Factor for chemical clogging of the draining core
RFbc = Reduction Factor for biological clogging of the draining core

Table 3.3 Suggested range of values of the different RFs for geo composites
Term Description Suggested range
for geocomposites
RFin Reduction Factor for intrusion of the filter geotextile into 1.0 – 1.5
the drainage core
RFcr Reduction Factor for thickness change due to compressive 1.2 – 1.5
creep of the core
RFcc Reduction Factor for pore/volume reduction due to 1.0 – 1.3
chemical clogging*
RFbc Reduction Factor for pore/volume reduction due to 1.0 – 1.3
biological clogging**
Π RF Product of all Reduction Factors for the site-specific 1.20 – 4.0
conditions
* values can change according to the type of the core and also according to the type of filtering geotextile used
** values are related to the type of the liquid/fluid to be drained and to its nature (clean water, polluted water,
leachate, etc)

Once the design input flow QD has been calculated, the available input flow Qa shall be
calculated for one or more geocomposite.

The final Factor of Safety of Geocomposite FSG afforded by the design with each geocomposite is
given by:

FSG = Qa / QD

The final selection of the geocomposite shall be done among the geocomposite for which:

FSG ≥ 1.00 taking into consideration also costs and availability

44
 Once the core is designed to carry the required flow, geotextiles on either side of the core
shall be designed for separation and filtration as per the requirements. Geotextile separation
design as per section 3.2 and filter design shall be same as explained in section 3.3. This method
of drainage is applicable to all types of road construction (whether rigid or flexible) and should be
preferred wherever economically feasible based on the site conditions.

3.5 Geosynthetic Capillary Barrier Drain

Water can travel up to 10m vertically in silty soils because of capillary action. Two forces
affect water movement through soils, gravity and capillary action. A capillary barrier forms and
restricts water flow when two porous materials with differing hydraulic conductivities are in
contact.

Subbase / Embankment Fill

Filtration/Separation geotextile
(laminated to capillary barrier/drainage layer)

Geocomposite Capillary Capillary barrier/drainage layer

Barrier Drain (GCBD) (geospacer or geonet)

Subgrade Protection/Separation geotextile

(laminated to capillary barrier/drainage layer)

Fig 3.4 GCBD between base course and subgrade illustrating how water laterally drains in transport
layer

Utilizing a GCBD for pavement drainage explicitly accounts for unsaturated flow, and
will result in greater drainage efficiency compared to conventional drainage system. With a
GCBD, the base and subgrade will contain less water than a pavement without a GCBD at any
point of time. This is important because the strength of both the base course and subgrade
degrades with increased moisture content and ultimately reduces pavement structural durability.
Thus, a GCBD will result in increased longevity of the pavement. Expected benefits of the GCBD
include:

• Reduced equilibrium water content in base

• Prevent positive pressures in base
• Prevent wetting of underlying subgrade due to infiltration
• Prevent capillary rise of water from subgrade into base
• Provide complementary separation and stabilization

45
 Design of geocomposite barrier drain is similar to the design of drainage composite that is
outlined in the above section 3.4. IRC: 34-2011 and IRC SP 42 shall be referred for detailed
design procedure and specifications/ properties of geocomposite for capillary barrier drain.

3.6 Design for asphalt Reinforcement

Reinforcement in asphalt layers such as fabrics, grids or composites can enhance cracking
and rutting resistance of the asphalt layers significantly if properly applied. This has lead to
increased use of reinforcement in asphalt layers over the past years throughout the world. Asphalt
reinforcement prevents reflective cracking, by acting as a barrier against crack propagation.

Fig 3.5 Reinforcement action

The crack starts to propagate (due to thermal and traffic loading or uneven soil
movements) from its original position upward until it reaches the stabilized layer; If the interlayer
is stiff enough (stiffer than the surrounding materials), the crack will turn laterally and move
along the interface until its energy is exhausted. Based on this mechanism, a stabilized interlayer
may contribute to the structural capacity of the pavement.

Design Guidelines:

Detailed pavement overlay reinforcement design can be carried out by means of the
spreadsheet-based design programs OLCRACK and THERMCR and the practical design
guidelines of “Technical Guidelines for Asphalt Reinforcement” shall be adopted.

OLCRACK and THERMCR are predictive programs for overlay design and have been
developed by Nottingham University in conjunction with a number of pavement reinforcement
product manufacturers. They are capable of replicating test results from beams on semi-
continuous support and from the pilot scale pavement at Nottingham University. The input data is
determined primarily from the results from FWD testing and is based on the thickness, stiffness
and condition of the various layers in the existing pavement and on the thickness and stiffness of a
proposed asphalt overlay.

46
3.7 Subgrade Stabilization
The purpose of subgrade modification is to enhance the strength of the subgrade, create a working
platform for construction equipment. This increased strength is then taken into account in the
pavement design process. Soil properties such as strength, compressibility, hydraulic
conductivity, workability, swelling potential, and volume change tendencies may be altered by
various soil modification or stabilization methods.
The methods of subgrade modification or stabilization include Physical processes such as
soil densification, blending with granular material, use of reinforcements (geosynthetic
inclusions), undercutting and replacement etc.

Chemical processes such as mixing with cement, fly ash, lime, lime byproducts, and
blends of any one of these materials. Details of cement stabilization are covered in IRC: SP 89
“Guidelines for Soil and Granular Material Using Cement, Lime and Fly Ash.

For improving the subgrade, several ground improvement methods may also be adopted
based on available subgrade CBR and the required CBR to be achieved and as per the site
feasibilities and project requirement. Suitable type of ground improvement shall be chosen
accordingly. For details regarding several Ground improvement methods reference may be made
to the documents mentioned thereinIRC-75, IRC-113, IRC-HRB: SR-13, SR-14.

State of art reports IRC-HRB: SR-13, SR-14deal with different ground improvements SR-
14- deals with various ground improvement methods including vertical drains (PVDs), lime
columns, stone columns, geosynthetics and dynamic consolidation

The purpose of this section is to assist pavement design engineers in the selection and
design of a subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetic (SEG).

SEG is a geosynthetic placed between the pavement structure and the subgrade (the
subgrade is usually untreated). The placement of SEG below the pavement will provide subgrade
enhancement by bridging soft areas.

Different types of geosynthetics that are used in subgrade stabilization are geotextiles,
geogrids and geocell. Geocell, geotextile, geogrid and geosynthetic composites achieve
mechanical stabilization through slightly different mechanisms.

Subgrade Enhancement Geocell (SEGC): Geocell serves as load spreader when loads are
imposed upon the system. This 3D mattress reduces vertical differential settlement into soft
subgrades, improves shear strength, and enhances load-bearing capacity, while reducing the
amount of aggregate material required extending the service life of roads. As a composite system,
cellular confinement strengthens the aggregate infill, thereby simultaneously enabling the use of
poorly graded inferior material (e.g. local native soils, quarry waste or recycled materials) for
infill as well as reducing the structural support layer thickness.

47
 Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEGT): A geotextile's primary stabilization
mechanism is filtration and separation of a soft subgrade and the subbase or base materials. The
sheet-like structure provides a physical barrier between these materials to prevent the aggregate
and subgrade from mixing. It can also reduce excess pore water pressure through a mechanism of
filtration and drainage. Secondary mechanisms of a geotextile are lateral restraint and
reinforcement. Lateral restraint is achieved through friction between the surface of the geotextile
and the subbase or base materials. Reinforcement mechanism requires deformation of the
subgrade and stretching of the geotextile to engage the tensile strength and create a "tensioned
membrane."

Subgrade Enhancement Geogrid (SEGG): A geogrid's primary stabilization mechanism is

lateral restraint of the subbase or base materials through a process of interlocking the aggregate
and the apertures of the geogrid. The level of lateral restraint that is achieved is a function of the
type of geogrid and the quality and gradation of the base or subbase material placed on the
geogrid. To maximize performance of the geogrid, a well-graded granular base or subbase
material should be selected that is sized appropriately for the aperture size of the geogrid. When
aggregate is placed over geogrid, it quickly becomes confined within the apertures and is
restrained from punching into the soft subgrade and shoving laterally. This results in a "stiffened"
aggregate platform over the geogrid. Very little deformation of the geogrid is needed to achieve
the lateral restraint and reinforcement. For longer life, a separator geotextile should be used.

3.8 Performance Evaluation of Reinforced Flexible Pavements

Performance of reinforced flexible pavements more than 50 MSA can be evaluated by

applying loads on the pavements that simulate the traffic loading by measuring the elastic
deflection under such loads, and analysing these data duly considering the factors influencing the
performance such as subgrade strength, thickness and quality of each of the pavement layers,
drainage conditions, pavement surface temperature etc.

Among the equipment’s available for structural evaluation of pavements, the Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD) is extensively used world-wide because it simulates, to a large extent, the
actual loading conditions of the pavement. IRC 115-2014 explains the structural evaluation of
flexible road pavements using deflection data from Falling Weight Deflectometer.

48
 CHAPTER - 4

PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS& SELECTION CRITERIA OF

GEOSYNTHETICS BASED ON FUNCTION
4.1 General

4.1.1This section of the document covers the criteria for selection of a particular type of
geosynthetic material and its property requirement based on its function and application in road
works for different project conditions. Specific design and site conditions often require individual
geosynthetic properties and construction recommendations to be taken care to ensure that the
chosen geosynthetics are consistent with project needs.

4.2 Construction survivability

This section talks about the necessity of provision of geosynthetic and selection of
geosynthetic material according to the site condition and application of intended.AASHTO 1990
(After Taskforce 25) provides different cover thicknesses adopted for different site soil CBR and
different ground contact pressures.

4.3 Ultraviolet Stability

4.3.1 Ultraviolet light degradation is a process where a particular property of a geosynthetic is

damaged or reduced through its exposure to U-V Rays (sunlight). Typical reductions can be seen
in the physical properties of geosynthetic material after exposure for a certain period of time to
sunlight. The rate of deterioration varies with the product, the exposure environment and the time
of exposure. Atmospheric exposure of geosynthetic material following lay down shall be a
maximum of 14 days to minimize the damage potential. Table 700-2 MORTH reprint five gives
specifications for ultraviolet light degradation.

4.4 Certificate

4.4.1 The supplier of any geosynthetic material should provide a certificate to the engineer stating
the name of the manufacturer, product name, style number, roll number, chemical composition of
the filaments or yarns and other pertinent information regarding property values of individual roll
to fully describe the specific geosynthetic material.

4.4.2 The manufacturer is responsible for establishing and maintaining a quality control program
to assure compliance with the requirements of the specifications. Documentation describing the
quality control program shall be made available upon request. The manufacturer’s certificate shall
state that the furnished geosynthetic material meets MARV requirements of the specifications as
evaluated under the Manufacturer’s quality control program and are in conformance as per ASTM

49
D 4759 or equivalent standards/procedures. The certificate shall be attested by a person having
legal authority to bind the manufacturer.

4.4.3 Any misrepresentation or mislabelling of materials shall become a sufficient reason to reject
the geosynthetic products.

4.5 Separation/Filtration requirements

In roads and pavements works geotextile is the most preferred geosynthetic material which
satisfies the function of separation/filtration which prevents intermixing of subgrade soil and
aggregate cover material (Base/Subbase) with sufficient filtration. MoRTH 700, table 700-4 and
table 700-5 and AASHTO M288, table 3 explains the geotextile property requirements for
separation function.

4.6 Base/Subbase Reinforcement requirements

Geosynthetics have been found to be a cost effective alternative to improve poor sub-soils in
adverse locations, in almost all geotechnical engineering projects such as airport and highway
pavements. For pavement application geotextile, geogrids and geocells will perform this function
primarily.
4.6.1 Geotextile requirements: In some installations, the geotextile can also provide the function
of reinforcement along with separation and filtration. The geotextile shall meet the requirements
of AASHTO M288 (Table 1) and MORTH Section 700 (Table 700-1).
4.6.2 Geogrid requirements: Reinforcement is the primary function of geogrids. It performs
better than geotextiles in base layer reinforcement mainly because of grid interlock with aggregate
particles. Poor friction properties of geotextiles do not allow good interlock with aggregate
particles. The geogrid shall meet the requirements of MORTH Section700 (Table 700-7).

4.6.3 Geocell Requirement: Geocell is a honey comb shaped cellular structure made of polymers
such as high density polyethylene, polypropylene or alloy material to suit the harsh environmental
conditions, especially increased temperate in case of flexible pavements where the asphalt layers
are subjected to very elevated temperatures during installation. Geocell property requirements
would remain same as given in MoRTH 700, table 700-12 and GRI Standard (GS-15), except for
the cell wall thickness. Minimum 1.5mm cell thickness is recommended considering the load
bearing application of geocell in base &subbase reinforcement.

4.7 Subsurface Drainage Requirements

4.7.1 Geotextile property requirements: Geotextiles will become integral part of any structure,
wherever they are being used. So, it is necessary that the geotextile should possess sufficient
strength to withstand the construction and other stresses which a fabric is likely to bear during its
life span. MoRTH 700 (Table 700-3) provides the geotextile property requirements for
subsurface drainage. The specifications are applicable for placing a geotextile against the soil to

50
allow long term passage of water into a subsurface drain system retaining the in-situ soil. For
drainage purpose, woven slit film geotextiles (i.e. geotextiles made from yarns of a flat, tape like
character) should not be allowed.

4.7.2 Geocomposite property requirement: Geocomposite shall be able to meet the drainage
and protection requirements in
structurally demanding water draining application. It should be able to effectively eliminate
hydrostatic pressure against below grade structures and aid in dewatering saturated soil by
collecting and conveying groundwater to a drain pipe for discharge. Geosynthetic drainage
composite (drainage composite/Geonet/Geospacer between one or two Geotextile layers) shall
also satisfy the requirements of subsurface drainage as per the site requirement.

Geotextile used in drainage composite shall meet the requirements as specified in MoRTH
700, table 700-9.The properties of the core material shall meet the requirements as indicated in
MoRTH 700, table 700-10.

4.8 Erosion Control Requirements:

Geotextile, geocell, geogrids and geosynthetic mats are different geosynthetics which will
perform erosion control function effectively in different applications in roads and pavement
works. Engineer can select any product based on the project requirement and experience.

4.8.1 Geotextile requirement: This specification is applicable to the use of a geo-textile between
energy absorbing armor systems and the in-situ soil to prevent soil loss resulting in excessive
scour and to prevent hydraulic uplift pressures causing instability of the permanent erosion
control system. The primary function of the geotextile in erosion control application is filtration.
Geotextile filtration properties are a function of site hydraulic conditions, in-situ soil gradation,
density and plasticity. The geotextile requirements for the above applications are given in
MoRTH 700 (Table 700-9).

4.8.2 Geocell requirement: For the steep slope vegetation may be difficult to establish and it also
may not be possible to mitigate potential erosive forces that are likely to overcome the strength of
the root system. In that cases geocells are effective solution by preventing soil slippage and
thereby encourage vegetation. Geocell forms a 3 dimensional honey comb structure with geocell
height of 75 mm to 150 mm when it expanded. Geocells placed on the slope are secured to
adjoining cell at suitable intervals by using a clip arrangement and these expanded cells should be
secured to the slope using steel staples typically 300 mm long and 9.5 mm diameter. The geocell
requirements for erosion control are given in MoRTH 700, table 700-12 and GRI Standard (GS-15).

4.8.3 Geogrid requirement: With the provision of polymer geogrid mesh for root reinforcement,
extremely high density of grass growth can be achieved. Geogrid reinforcement slope protection
has been shown to provide erosion protection equivalent to 250 mm thick revetment and is treated
as an attractive cost-effective alternative solution.

51
 The peak tensile strength or tensile strength at 10 percent strain, whichever is lower of the
polymeric geogrid is to be used for erosion control, should not be less than 4 kN/m when tested as
per ASTM D 5035 (minimum average roll value in machine direction). Geogrid mesh shall be
stabilized against ultraviolet ray degradation using finely divided carbon black (ASTM D 4355-
500 hours exposure).

4.8.4 Geomat requirement: Vegetation growth for slope protection is very unpredictable and
unreliable as it may be extremely difficult to achieve 100 percent vegetation coverage. Reinforced
vegetation (or reinforced grass) is a better alternative for enhancing slope stability and erosion
control. The synthetic materials can be of two dimensional polymeric meshes or three
dimensional mats. Three dimensional geosynthetic materials with multi filaments, layers of
geogrids folded and knitted or bonded together, with specific thickness are effective in this
application which also known as Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECPs). These geomats (3-D
mats) are made exclusively from UV stabilized synthetic fibres and filaments processed into
permanent, high strength, three dimensional matrices. A tension element, i.e., a reinforcing
element like geogrid or steel wire mesh shall be included along with the three dimensional
polymeric mats to provide strength against erosive forces, if specified in the contract in case of
severe environmental conditions.

MORTH 700, table 700-13provides the property requirements of geosynthetic mats for erosion
control applications.

4.8.5 Selection criteria for erosion control:

4.8.5.1 The primary function of geotextile used for permanent erosion control is to protect the soil
beneath it from erosion due to water flowing over the protected soil. The need for a permanent
erosion control geotextile depends on the type and magnitude of water flow over the soil being
considered for protection, the soil type in terms of its erodability, and the type and amount of
vegetative cover present

4.8.5.2 Geocells can be used where heavy runoff or channel scouring is anticipated. Geocells
filled with concrete can be used to protect bridge aprons, guide bunds and pier areas, abutting
waterfront as revetment as an alternative to conventional stone/boulder pitching. Geocells can be
adopted, for the steep slopes where vegetation growth may be difficult and mitigation of potential
erosive forces to overcome the strength of root system is not possible.

4.8.5.3 Under erratic weather conditions, successful vegetation growth and its maintenance
depends on unseasonal rainfall and hence longer life of reinforcing material would be required for
ensuring vegetation growth apart from contribution of the mesh towards reduction in velocity of
surface runoff. Use of polymer geogrid mesh provides a permanent protection as it is not
biodegradable. Because of its longer life and almost unfailing success rate for vegetation growth
rate per year, polymer geogrid mesh is very favourable over other reinforcing concepts by using
natural fibres.

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4.8.5.4 Vegetation along with reinforcement is a better method for enhancing slope stability and
erosion control where unreliable vegetation growth with 100 percent coverage is extremely
difficult. Geosynthetic mats with specific thickness are required to hold the seed mix and polymer
mat to last for long time. Steel wire mesh is also included in these mats sometimes optionally
when high strength against erosive forces is required such as in steeper slopes and heavy rainfall
areas.

4.9Asphalt reinforcement requirement:

Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids and geocomposites provide the widest range of
products used for asphalt reinforcement as they are able to withstand high stiffness demand,
installation damage and loadings.

4.9.1 Paving fabric requirements: The paving fabric shall be specifically designed for asphalt
pavement applications and be non-woven, heat bonded on one side. The fabric shall satisfy the
requirements given MoRTH 700, table 700-16. These specifications are applicable to the use of
paving fabric, saturated with bitumen, between two bituminous pavement layers. The function of
the paving fabric is to act as a water barrier and stress relieving membrane within the pavement
structure.

4.9.2 Glass fibre geo-grid requirements: Glass fibre geogrid are a flexible reinforcement made
of high modulus Glass fibre yearns which are connected to each other by a special knitting
process so that an open mesh structure results. These grids are coated with a special PVC
material/ modified polymer that is compatible with bitumen and should be self-adhesive and these
are generally are supplied with a pressure sensitive adhesive backing. These Glass fibre geogrid
acts as stress relieving interlayer for the purpose of reinforcing asphalt overlay. Table 4.9
provides the typical specification of Glass fibre geogrid which shall be manufactured from a glass
fibre roving (MORTH Section 700 (Table 700-17 and Table 700-18)), resistant to chemical attack
(from flux oils, paraffin’s or any other solvents used in bituminous binders), mildew and rot.

4.9.3 Composite paving grids: This composites combine the positive effects of paving grid such
as high strength, high modulus, low creep which affects longevity and performance and positive
effects of a nonwoven paving fabric. The stabilizing effect of the high strength, low strain
component in combination with the sealing, stress relieving and uniform adhesive bonding
properties of the nonwoven paving fabric fleece leads to a dramatic reduction of reflective
cracking. Specifications for composite paving grid shall meet the requirements given in Technical
Guideline: Asphalt Reinforcement for Road Construction, table 6.3.

4.9.4 Selection criteria for asphalt reinforcement: Three main types of asphalt reinforcements
with variations thereof are covered in this section, namely, paving fabrics, paving grids (glass
fibre and polymeric) and composites. Their benefit in the use of joint and localized (spot)
pavement repairs; full width (curb-to-curb) coverage to provide a moisture barrier for the
pavement structure and retard reflective cracking in asphalt overlays. Selection of specific asphalt

53
reinforcement is particular conditions are based on several design considerations given in
annexure III.
4.10 Capillary Cut-off

A capillary cut-off could be provided to arrest the capillary rise of water in embankment.
Drainage composite can be considered as suitable alternatives for capillary cut-off over
conventional sand/granular material.

The drainage composite for capillary cut-off (plastic spacer encased between impermeable
layer of low density polyethylene geomembrane and Non-woven geotextile) of adequate thickness
over the full width of embankment is recommended as a capillary cut off. By using this drainage
composite, use of sand blanket can be avoided as generally provided in any other method of
capillary cut off mentioned as per clause 4.1 to 4.6 of IRC-34-2011. The specifications mentioned
as in clause 7.2.2.1, IRC-34-2011 are suitable for capillary cut off applications as an alternative
for drainage and other conventional measures of capillary cut off.

4.10.1 Geocomposite requirements: Geocomposite capillary break is comprised of a tri-planar

geonet core/Geospacer consisting of thick supporting ribs with diagonally placed top and bottom
ribs and with thermally bonded nonwoven geotextiles on both sides for Geonet and one side for
Geospacer. This product is capable of quickly remove surface water infiltrating or ground water
seeping into the soil base. The product provides a void-maintaining system under high normal
loads to work as a capillary break; it also works as a separation and sub-base reinforcement layer
and will have properties conforming to the values and test methods listed in IRC 34-2011 (Section
7.2.2.1).

4.10.2 Geosynthetic clay liners: Furnish reinforced geosynthetic clay liners that consist of a
layer of natural sodium bentonite clay encapsulated between two geotextiles. A GCL material is
hydraulic barrier consisting of clay bonded to a layer or layers of geosynthetics. Prior to using a
GCL, provide to the CO manufacturer’s quality control independent test results demonstrating
that the proposed material meets all requirements of this specification. Furnish reinforced GCL
that have the properties conforming to the values and test methods listed in GRI GCL 3 (Table
1a).

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 CHAPTER - 5

CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES FOR USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN

ROAD WORKS
5.1 General

The material properties are only one factor in a successful installation using geosynthetics.
Proper construction and installation techniques are essential in order to ensure that the intended
function of geosynthetics is fulfilled. Though, the installation techniques appear fairly simple,
most geosynthetic problems in roadways occur as a result of improper construction techniques. If
the geosynthetic is ripped or punctured or tore during construction activities, it will not perform as
desired. If the geosynthetic is placed with lot of wrinkles or folds, it will not be in tension and,
therefore, cannot provide a reinforcing effect. The following step-by-step procedure should be
followed in different construction activities with geosynthetics.

The geosynthetics shall not be placed when weather conditions, in the opinion of the
engineer, are not suitable to allow placement or installation. This will normally be at times of wet
conditions, heavy rainfall, extreme cold or frost conditions, or extreme heat.

These are general guidelines for the construction and installation; however manufacturer
specific installation guidelines and quality control shall be followed subject to the concurrence of
Engineer-in charge and project specific requirements

5.2 Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage

5.2.1 Trench excavation shall be done in accordance with details of the project plans. In all
instances, excavation shall be done in such a way so as to prevent large voids from occurring in
the sides and bottom of the trench. The graded surfaces shall be smooth and free of debris,
depression or obstructions.

5.2.2 The geosynthetic material shall be placed loosely with no wrinkles or folds, and with no
void spaces between the geosynthetic and the ground surface. Successive sheets of geosynthetics
shall be overlapped a minimum of 300 mm with the upstream sheet overlapping the downstream
sheet.

5.2.3 In trenches equal to or greater than 300 mm in width, after placing the design filter material,
the geosynthetic shall be folded over the top of the backfill material in a manner to produce a
minimum overlap of 300 mm. In trenches less than 300mm but greater than 100 mm wide, the
overlap shall be equal to the width of the trench. Where the trench is less than 100 mm, the
geosynthetic overlap shall be sewn or otherwise bonded. All seems shall be subject to the
approval of the Engineer. In case the geosynthetic gets damaged during installation or drainage

55
aggregate placement, a geosynthetic patch shall be placed over the damaged area with minimum
300 mm overlap all around or the specified seam overlap, whichever is greater.

5.2.4 Placement of design filter material should proceed immediately after placement of the
geosynthetic material. The geosynthetic should be covered with a minimum of 300 mm of loosely
placed aggregate prior to compaction. If a perforated collector pipe is to be installed in the trench,
a bedding layer of drainage aggregate should be placed below the pipe, with the remainder of the
aggregate placed to the minimum required construction depth.

5.2.5 The aggregate should be compacted to a minimum of 90 percent of standard proctor density.
Figs. 5.1 to 5.3 illustrate various geosynthetic drainage application details.

Fig 5.1 Various arrangements for trench drains

56
 Fig 5.2 Trench and toe interceptor drain for cut slope seepage

Fig 5.3 Sequence of construction procedure for drains

5.3 Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration/ subgrade/base/Subbase

Reinforcement Function

These construction guidelines are related to placing a geosynthetic material between base
or subbase and subgrade for any of the following applications:

• Base or Subbase Separation

• Base or Subbase Stabilization
• Base or Subbase Capillary Barrier
• Base or Subbase Reinforcement

57
5.3.1 The site should be cleared, grubbed and excavated to design grade, stripping all topsoil, or
any other unsuitable materials. If moderate site conditions exist, i.e., CBR greater than 1,
lightweight profiling operations should be considered to locate unsuitable materials. Isolated
pockets where additional excavation is required should be backfilled.

5.3.2 During stripping operations, care should be taken not to excessively disturb the subgrade.
This may require the use of lightweight dozers or graders for low strength, saturated, non-
cohesive and low-cohesive soils. In this case, all vegetation should be cut at the ground surface.
Sawdust or sand can be placed over stumps or roots that extend above the ground surface to
cushion the geosynthetic. The subgrade preparation must correspond to the survivability
properties of the geosynthetic.

5.3.3 Once the subgrade along a particular segment of the road alignment has been prepared, the
geosynthetic should be rolled in line with the placement of the aggregate. Field operations can be
expedited if the geosynthetic is pre-sewn to design widths in the factory or on firm ground so it
can be unrolled on site in one continuous sheet. The geosynthetic should not be dragged across
the subgrade. The entire roll should be placed and rolled out as smoothly as possible. Wrinkles
and folds in the fabric should be removed by stretching and stacking as required.

5.3.4 Adjacent rolls of geosynthetic should be overlapped. For curves, the geosynthetic should be
folded or cut and overlapped in the direction of construction. For separation, drainage and
capillary barrier applications, geosynthetics shall be sewn or joined as required. Folds in the
geosynthetic should be stapled or pinned approximately 0.6 m centre-to-centre as shown in Fig.
5.4 (a) and (b).

Fig 5.4 Folding of Geosynthetics

5.3.5 Before covering, the condition of the geosynthetic should be checked for damage (i.e.,
holes, nips, tears, etc.) by an Engineer experienced in the use of these materials. If excessive
defects are observed, the section of the geosynthetic material containing the defect should be
repaired by placing a new layer of geosynthetic over the damaged area in case of geotextiles and
geomembrane for separation, drainage and capillary barrier applications. The minimum required
58
overlap for adjacent rolls should extend beyond the defect in all directions. Alternatively, the
entire defective section can be replaced. In case of geogrids and geocells for reinforcement and
stabilization function, if the material is damaged, placing a new layer over damaged portion won’t
provide membrane effect and intended function may not fulfil. In those cases replacing with a
new material for entire design role length of geosynthetic material in transverse direction is
advisable.

5.3.6 The first lift of aggregate should be spread and graded to 300 mm, or to design thickness if
less than 300 mm prior to compaction. At no time should traffic be allowed on a soft roadway
with less than 200 mm of aggregate over the geosynthetic.

5.3.7 Any ruts that form during construction should be filled to maintain adequate cover over the
geosynthetic. In no case should ruts be bladed down, as this would decrease the amount of
aggregate cover over the geosynthetic.

5.3.8 All remaining base aggregates should be placed in lifts not exceeding 250 mm in loose
thickness and compacted to the specified density. Different operation sequences for construction
are shown in Fig. 5.5.

59
 Fig 5.5 Construction sequence

5.4 Geosynthetic Overlaps

5.4.1 When geosynthetic material is used the overlaps can be used to provide continuity between
adjacent geosynthetic rolls through frictional resistance between the overlaps. Also, a sufficient
overlap is required to prevent soil from squeezing into the aggregate at the joint. The amount and

60
type of overlap depends primarily on the soil conditions, type of geosynthetics their function and
application. If the subgrade does not rut under construction activities, only a minimum overlap is
required to provide some pull-out resistance. As the potential for rutting and squeezing of soil
increases, the required overlap increases. Since rutting potential can be related to CBR, it can be
used as a guideline for the minimum overlap required.

Table 5.1 Overlap Requirement of Geosynthetic for Different CBR Values

Soil CBR Minimum Overlap
Greater than 3 300-450 mm
1-3 0.6-1 m
0.5-1 1 m or sewn
Less than 0.5 Sewn
All Roll Ends 1 m or sewn

5.4.2 The geosynthetic can be stapled or pinned at the overlaps to maintain their positions during
construction activities. For the separation and filtration applications using geotextiles the overlap
requirements are given in Fig. 5.6. For underwater applications, 5 mm dia and 450 mm long steel
pins should be placed at a maximum of 1.0 m centre-to-centre.

Fig 5.6 Overlap requirement of geosynthetics

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5.4.3 Since manufactured rolls of geocomposite drainage materials must cover large areas, field
constructed connections along their sides and ends are necessary. This guide addresses such
connections. Even further, the ends of the geocomposite must eventually terminate by attachment
to pipes, sumps or swales. These are also made in the field by construction personnel. The
following situations are presented in this section illustrating various connections.

Connection of Overlapping Geocomposite on their ends and sides: Figure 5.7 shows an
overlapped geocomposite with the up-gradient end overlapping the down gradient end. For the
sides of the rolls which is placed, upper or lower, is not important. The recommended lengths of
overlap (“L”) are 300-450 mm for ends and 100-150 mm for sides. One other consideration has to
do with the roll ends being factory supplied or cut in the field. The manufacturers of
geocomposite usually leave an excess of 300 mm of un-bonded geotextile for complete coverage
purposes. Field cut geocomposite have no such excess geotextile.

(a) (b)

Fig5.7 (a) Field cut geocomposite, (b) Factory ends with excess geotextile

Geocomposite to Horizontal Pipe Connection: Geocomposite drainage core should wrap

around the entire pipe with no intervening geotextile in the flow transfer area (Figure 5.8a) The
geocomposites upper geotextile must be stripped off the drainage core, greatly trimmed, and then
bonded to the reverse side of the geocomposite with its geotextile intact after wrapping around the
pipe. The overlap distance “L” should be approximately three times the encapsulated drainage
pipe diameter. Also note that plastic electrical ties are necessary to hold the geonet together
particularly for thick bi-planar and all tri-planar geonet composites. Generally, two ties are
necessary to minimize the air space around the encapsulated pipe. This same detail can also be
followed if the drainage pipe is located in a trench at a lower elevation than the exiting
geocomposite drain; see Figure 5.8b.

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 (a) (b)
Fig 5.8 (a) Drainage pipe on a slope, (b) Drainage pipe in a trench

5.5 Seams

5.5.1 When seams are required for separation applications using geotextile, there should be
minimum of 90 percent of the material’s tensile strength requirements of survivability (Table 5.1).
All factory or field seams should be sewn with thread as strong and durable as the material in the
fabric.

5.5.2 When field-sewing geotextiles, a number of details must be addressed. They are:

Thread type: The choices are polyester, polypropylene and polyamides. Consideration should be
given to using the same thread type as geotextile fibre.

Thread tension: This is usually adjusted in the field so as to be sufficiently tight without cutting
the geotextiles.

Stitch density: Two, three or four stitches per 25 mm are customary.

Stitch type: The choices are prayer, J-type, or butterfly. Fig. 5.9 shows typical seams for
geotextiles. The strongest being the butterfly type.

Number of rows: One, two or three are customary; generally two are recommended.

63
 Fig 5.9 Typical seams for Geotextiles

5.6 Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control

5.6.1 The geosynthetic shall be placed in intimate contact with the soils under slight tension,
without wrinkles or folds and anchored on a smooth graded surface approved by the Engineer.
The geosynthetic shall be placed in such a manner that placement of the overlying materials will
not excessively stretch so as to tear the geosynthetic. Using geotextiles, geomats, biodegradable
mats anchoring of the terminal ends shall be accomplished through the use of key trenches or
aprons at the crest and toe of slope.

The following anchoring recommendations are provided as a guide and needs to be adjusted
based on specific site conditions and manufacturer’s instructions.

Anchoring the edges of the erosion control mat in a trench approximately 150-200 mm deep by
150 mm wide prevents water flowing under the mat and provides maximum erosion protection.
When installing mat down a slope, it is recommended, the upstream edge is anchored in a trench
to provide better protection from stream flow. Mat should have good contact with the soil surface
and be secured with an appropriate number of pins for degree of slope. As a general rule, mat
should be secured with pins at 0.5-1 m intervals along the length of the mat and staggering pins
400-600 mm across the mat. Pins should be driven flush with the soil surface and be long enough
to ensure sufficient ground penetration to resist pullout. If the degree of slope is greater than
1V:3H it is recommended the anchor trench be installed at least 1 m from the crest of the slope.

64
Type of slope Gradient Minimum Pins/sq.m
Steep slopes 1:1 – 1:2 or greater 6 to 8
Moderate slopes 1:2 – 1:3 4 to 6
Gentle slopes 1:4 or less

5.10 (a) Erosion control using geotextiles

Fig 5.10 (b) Anchoring details of erosion control mats

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5.6.2 The geosynthetic shall be placed with the machine direction parallel to the direction of water
flow which is normally parallel to the slope for erosion control runoff and wave action and
parallel to the stream or channel in the case of stream bank and channel protection. Adjacent
geosynthetic sheets shall be joined by either sewing or overlapping or joining. Overlap at roll
ends and at adjacent sheets shall be minimum of 300 mm, except when placed under water. In
such instances, the overlap shall be minimum of 1 m.

Fig 5.10 (c) Orientation of matting on slopes and channels

5.6.3 In cases where wave action or multi-directional flow is anticipated, all seams perpendicular
to the direction of flow shall be sewn.

5.6.4 Care shall be taken during installation so as to avoid damage occurring to the geosynthetics
as a result of the installation process. Should the geosynthetic be damaged during installation, a
geosynthetic patch shall be placed over the damaged area extending 1 m beyond the perimeter of
the damage.

5.6.5 The armour system placement shall begin at the toe and proceed up the slope. Placement
shall take place so as to avoid stretching and subsequent tearing of the geosynthetic. Riprap and
heavy stone filling shall not be dropped from a height of more than 300 mm. Stone with a mass of
more than 100 kg shall not be allowed to roll down the slope.

5.6.6 Slope protection and smaller sizes of stone filling shall not be dropped from a height
exceeding 1 m, or a field trial should be undertaken to verify that the placement procedures will
not damage the geosynthetic. In underwater applications, the geosynthetic and backfill material

66
shall be placed the same day. All void spaces in the armour stone shall be backfilled with small
stone to ensure full coverage.

5.6.7 Following placement of the armour stone, grading of the slope shall not be permitted if the
grading results in movement of the stone directly above the geosynthetic.

5.6.8 Field monitoring shall be performed to verify that the armour system placement does not
damage the geosynthetic. Any geotextile damaged during backfill placement shall be replaced as
directed by the Engineer in charge.

5.7 Construction Guidelines for Use of Asphalt reinforcement

5.7.1 General Preparation Work Prior to Paving: The existing pavement must show no
significant signs of pumping, movement or structural instability. All patches, pothole repairs and
crack sealing should be done prior to paving. Bituminous reinforcement adheres best to a smooth,
flat bituminous surface.

5.7.2 Therefore a bituminous levelling layer may be necessary:

• On a coarsely milled or very rough surface
• On a very uneven (rutted) surface
A levelling layer is not normally necessary:
• For an overlay on an old surface that is smooth and flat
• On a finely milled surface

5.7.3 The surface must be clean and dry before placing the BRI
• Clean for good adhesion
• Dry (of moisture) also for adhesion
• Dry bitumen (tack or fresh bituminous) to avoid pick-up on construction vehicle tyres
that may in turn lift the BRI

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 Fig 5.11 Glass fibre grid placed on levelling layer prior paving

5.7.4 Repair of Defects Prior to Paving: The degree and extent of surfacing defects and failures
necessitate certain methods of repair to render the road surface serviceable again. Bituminous
Reinforcement is an alternative to the reworking of pavement layers and usually applied before a
road surface is resealed or overlaid with bituminous

5.7.4.1 Pothole patching: All loose materials of the damaged surfacing and base layers must be
removed to the full depth and backfilled with approved bituminous mixtures as described in
various handbooks or as specified. The shape of the repair area should be square or rectangular
and the surfacing cut 75 to 100mm wider than the cleaned - out area.

5.7.4.2 Seal cracks: Only 3mm and wider cracks are sealed as specified. Modified binder types to
be used are CH-E1, CC-E1 and CH-R1 for cracks up to 15mm wide. Cracks wider than 15 mm
are filled with sand/ lime slurry to a depth 20mm below the surrounding surface and then with a
rubber crumb/crusher dust slurry to final level after which a seal bandage is applied.

5.7 5 Certain types of bituminous Reinforcement do not require cracks to be sealed beforehand.

5.7.5.1 Levelling course: When required to remove unacceptable irregularities, bumps or slacks,
a screed of densely graded bituminous should be placed. It is also possible to remove high spots
and ridges by planning, in which case it is recommended that the milled surface be left rough.

5.7.5.2 Rut filling: Rut depths of up to 15mm, or as specified, can be filled with coarse slurry. It
is recommended that rapid setting slurry be used. Rut depths up to 25mm can be filled with hot,

68
densely graded bituminous. Ruts deeper than 25mm should be removed by surface patching
methods.

5.7.6 This work shall consist of lying of geotextile (paving fabric) between two bituminous layers
as part of pavement strengthening to provide a water resistant membrane and crack retarding
layer. Fig. 5.9 shows layer arrangement for using paving fabric. It is recommended that paving
fabric should be used over the entire pavement area affected by cracking and not in the form of
strips over the pavement cracks.

5.7.7 On existing cement concrete pavements, a layer of DBM/Bituminous Concrete should be

provided before laying the paving fabric.

5.7.8 The tack coat used to impregnate the fabric and bond the fabric to the pavement shall be
paving grade bitumen being used at site for bituminous work. Cationic and anionic emulsions
may be used, provided (a) the paving fabric is laid only after allowing the specified time for
curing of emulsion and (b) the contractor should ensure that no traffic is allowed over the area
where tack coat has been applied. Cut backs and emulsions which contain solvents shall not be
used.

Fig 5.12 Applying tack coat prior to paving

5.7.9 Minimum air and pavement temperature shall be at least 10oC or more for placement of tack
coat. Neither tack coat nor paving fabric shall be placed when weather conditions, in the opinion
of the Engineer, are not suitable.

5.7.10 The pavement surface shall be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, water and oil to the
satisfaction of the Engineer. Cracks wider than 3 mm shall be cleaned and filled with suitable
bituminous material by a method approved by the Engineer. Crack filling material shall be
allowed to cure prior to application of tack coat. Potholes and other pavement distress shall be
repaired. Repairs shall be performed as directed by the Engineer. A profile correction course shall
be laid, wherever required, before placing the paving fabric.

69
5.7.11 The tack coat shall be sprayed preferably by means of a calibrated distributor spray bar.
Hand spraying and brush application may be used in locations of fabric overlap. Every effort shall
be made to keep hand spraying to a minimum. The tack coat shall be applied uniformly to the
prepared dry pavement surface at the rate governed by the following equation:

Qd = 0.36 + Qs + Qc

Where,

Qd = Design tack coat quantity

Qs = Saturation content of the geotextile being used (kg/m2) to be provided by the

manufacturer

Qc = Correction based on tack coat demand of the existing pavement surface (kg/m2)

Table 5.2 gives typical values of tack coat demand of existing bituminous pavement surfaces.
Within street intersections, on steep grades or in other zones where vehicle speed changes, the
normal application rate shall be reduced by about 20 percent or as directed by the Engineer.

Table 5.2 Tack Coat Demand of Existing Bituminous Pavement Surfaces

Quantity of liquid bituminous
Type of surface
material in kg/sq.m area
Normal bituminous surface 0.20 to 0.25
Dry and hungry bituminous surface 0.25 to 0.30

5.7.12 The temperature of the tack coat shall be sufficiently high (140oC) to permit a uniform
spray pattern. To avoid damage to the fabric, distributor tank temperature shall not exceed 160oC.

5.7.13 The target width of tack coat application shall be equal to the paving fabric width
application plus 150 mm. The tack coat shall be applied only as far in advance of paving fabric
installation as is appropriate to ensure a tacky surface at the time of paving fabric placement.
Traffic shall not be allowed on the tack coat. Any spillage or excess tack coat should either be
removed or sand be sprayed over it.

5.7.14 Paving fabric shall be placed on a dry surface. In case it rains after installing the paving
fabric, but before placing the overlay over it, all excess water should be removed and the fabric
should be allowed to dry up sufficiently before placing the overlay.

5.7.15 The paving fabric shall be placed with heat set side facing up, onto the tack coat using
mechanical or manual lay down equipment capable of providing a smooth installation with a
minimum amount of wrinkling or folding. The paving fabric shall be placed prior to the tack coat
cooling and losing tackiness. Paving fabric shall not be installed in areas where the overlay
bituminous layer tapers to a thickness of less than 40 mm. Excess paving fabric, which extends

70
beyond the edge of existing pavement or areas of tack coat applications shall be trimmed and
removed. Wrinkles or folds in excess of 25 mm shall be slit and laid flat. Brooming and/or
pneumatic rolling will be required to maximize paving fabric contact with the pavement surface.
All areas with paving fabrics placed will be paved the same day. No traffic except necessary
construction equipment will be allowed to drive on the paving fabric. Additional tack coat shall
be placed between the overlap to satisfy saturation requirements of the fabric. Overlap shall be
sufficient to ensure full closure of the joint but not exceed 150 mm. Overlaps of adjacent rolls
shall be staggered by a minimum of one meter.

5.7.16 After laying the paving fabric, some loose bituminous concrete should be sprinkled on it
in the wheel path of the paver and the tipper to ensure that the fabric is not picked up between the
wheels.

5.7.17 Turning of the paver and other vehicles shall be done gradually and kept to a minimum to
avoid movement and damage to the paving fabric. Abrupt starts and stops shall also be avoided.
Damaged fabric shall be removed and replaced with the same type of fabric.

5.7.18 Bituminous overlay construction shall closely follow fabric placement. All areas in which
paving fabric has been placed will be paved the same day. Excess bitumen, which bleeds through
the paving fabric, shall be removed by spreading hot mix or sand on the paving fabric. The hot
mix should be placed between a temperature range of 130oC to 145oC so as to given enough heat
to the bitumen in the tack coat to rise up into the fabric.

5.7.19 The introduction of paving fabrics have been reported to reduce the required design
overlay thickness. However, these guidelines do not recommend any reduction in design overlay
thickness; rather its introduction is to enhance the performance of the pavement.

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 CHAPTER - 6

HANDLING AND STORAGE OF GEOSYNTHETICS

6.1 & 6.2 General

6.1 Geosynthetics are durable products, which provide cost-effective solutions to a variety of civil
engineering design/construction related problems. As with any construction material,
geosynthetics must be handled and stored properly to ensure that the specified physical properties
are retained to serve project needs. The damages caused on this account can significantly reduce
the geosynthetic ability to perform its intended function in some applications.

6.2 The objective of geosynthetic handling and storage is to safely transport and store the
geosynthetic rolls or panels at the project site without damaging the geosynthetic or unduly
exposing it to sunlight (ultraviolet light), moisture or other contamination. The following are
some of the general recommendations to be followed while working with geosynthetic materials
at site. Handling and storage of geosynthetics can be as per product manufacturer’s suggestions
and instructions.

6.3 Site Unloading

6.3.1 A fork-lift or front-end loader fitted with a long, tapered pole is recommended for
unloading of geosynthetic rolls. The pole, shown in Fig. 6.1, is often referred to as a ‘carpet pole’
or ‘stinger’. The carpet pole is inserted into the geosynthetic roll core and the roll is lifted off the
truck bed. The pole should be long enough to extend at least two third of the way into the
geosynthetic roll core to avoid the possibility of breaking or damaging the roll core.

Fig 6.1 Hydro crane shifting the geosynthetic roll to the location

6.3.2 Geosynthetic rolls may also be lifted from flatbed trailers using nylon straps or rope and a
crane, backhoe, or bulldozer. Not more than three geosynthetic rolls should be lifted at a time.

72
Exceeding this number may cause damage to the roll core and hamper while geosynthetic
deployment. Chains and cables should not be used to lift geosynthetic rolls. The equipment
recommended to unload geosynthetic rolls may not be always available at construction sites. In
such cases, Unloading and handling is invariably done by other locally available methods or with
labours. If unloaded with care, the geosynthetic will remain suitable for easy laying. A roll puller,
nylon strap, or rope can be used to unload geosynthetic rolls from an enclosed trailer if a carpet
pole is not available. Roll pullers are devices, which are inserted into the roll core and attached
via a chain or strap to a loader, bulldozer, or other vehicle as shown in Fig. 6.2. As the vehicle
pulls, the roll puller expands against the inside of the roll core and drags the roll to the edge of the
truck bed and down to the ground surface. Nylon straps or ropes may also be wrapped around the
geosynthetic roll using a slip knot. Again the roll is dragged to the edge of the truck and down to
the ground surface. A tarpaulin, sheet of plastic or fabric should be placed on the ground where
the geosynthetic rolls are to be unloaded.

Fig 6.2 Unrolling of geosynthetic roll

Fig 6.3 Geocell panels readied for placement

73
6.4 Site Handling

Rolls of geosynthetic should always be lifted off the ground surface prior to moving. Dragging
the geosynthetic and operating equipment on the geosynthetic, which results in physical damage,
should be avoided at all times. Geocell panels are packed in a collapsed form [Fig.6.4].

(a) (b)
Fig 6.4 (a) Folded geocell panels on fork lift pallet, (b) Packaged geocell panels in the factory on fork
lift pallet

6.5 Site Storage

6.5.1 The geosynthetic rolls should be adequately protected from ultraviolet light exposure during
storage at site. A protective wrapping should be kept on rolls until the geosynthetics are installed.
If stored outside, the geosynthetic should be elevated from the ground surface and adequately
covered to protect them from the following; site construction damage, precipitation, ultraviolet
radiation including sun light, chemicals that are strong acid/bases, flames including welding
sparks, temperature in excess of 71oC and any other environmental condition that may damage the
geosynthetic. Fig 6.5 illustrates the mode of covering of geotextile before use at site.

74
 Fig 6.5 Covering of geosynthetic rolls before use at site

To the extent possible, geocells shall be stored with the packaging intact. This is essential for the
following reasons:
a) Easy identification of the material type, Batch No. and other details;
b) Protection against any damage during storage;
c) Protection against damage during onward handling
Heavy equipment may be moved on the panels only after infilling as may be seen in the Fig. 6.6.

(a) (b)
Fig 6.6 (a) Infilling from side, (b) Equipment run on geocell filled with soil
6.5.2 Steps to be taken if geosynthetic roll or protective wrapping is damaged

6.5.2.1 In most cases, damage to a roll of geosynthetics is limited to the protective wrapping. If
the wrapping is damaged, proper storage of the geosynthetic is particularly critical. The rolls must
be elevated off the ground surface and securely covered with a tarpaulin or opaque plastic sheet.
If the outer layer of the geosynthetic itself is damaged, it is necessary during installations to
remove the outermost wraps of the roll and discard the damaged material. The remaining
undamaged material is suitable for use. Removing the outermost wrap of geosynthetic is called

75
for when a roll is exposed to sunlight for a period beyond that permitted by the project
specifications. The remaining unexposed material is suitable for construction.

6.5.2.2 Exposing geosynthetic rolls to moisture or water prior to installation can lead to serious
handling problems. Non-woven geosynthetics in particular can absorb water up to three times
their weight. In addition, the cores on which the geosynthetic rolls are wound are manufactured
from laminated paper. When wet, the strength of these cores is seriously diminished to the point
where the core will not support the weight of the geosynthetic. Consequently, it can be extremely
difficult to install wet rolls of geosynthetic. In addition, it is nearly impossible to unroll wet,
frozen geosynthetic without first allowing it to thaw.

6.5.3 Steps to be taken if geosynthetic rolls become wet

If geosynthetic rolls become wet, it is permissible to remove the waterproof cover to allow
for a few days of exposure to wind in order to dry the geosynthetic material. It is essential that the
rolls be elevated during the process. It is also permissible to remove the protective wrapping from
one end of the roll and elevate the opposite end of the roll. Then the majority of excess water will
flow out of the geosynthetic. In most cases, these procedures will not allow the geosynthetic
material to dry completely. Once unrolled during installation, the geosynthetic will dry very
quickly in the sun and wind. However, it should be noted that non-woven geosynthetics used in
conjunction with asphalt overlays of existing pavements must be completely dry prior to
installation.

6.5.4 Protection from sunlight (ultraviolet light) degradation

6.5.4.1 Geosynthetic materials slowly degrade in the presence of ultraviolet light. Though some
geosynthetics contain ultraviolet stabilizing chemicals to keep this degradation to a minimum, it is
advisable to limit geosynthetic exposure to sunlight until just before installation. Acceptable
limits of exposure to ultraviolet light depend upon site environmental conditions (temperature,
latitude, time of year, wind, etc.) and the assumptions used by the Engineer during design.

6.5.4.2 The geosynthetic material should always be installed within the period required by the
project specifications. If no time requirements are specified, it is generally recommended that
geosynthetic exposure to ultraviolet light be limited to a period of approximately two weeks.
Excessive cold temperatures normally found at construction sites, even in the coldest climates, do
not pose a threat to geosynthetics.

76
 Annexure I

Determination of Layer coefficients

Layer coefficients are empirical relationships between structural number (SN) and layer
thicknesses which expresses the relative ability of a material to function as a structural component
of the pavement. They are typically determined empirically based on the performance of the
material. Clear information on determining of the layer coefficients are provided in 2.3.5 of Part
II, AASHTO 1993. Determination of layer coefficients from FWD and CBR values shall be as
follows.

Determination of layer coefficient from FWD data

Rohde (1994) developed a method for determining the SN of a pavement structure using
the FWD measurements. The SN equation used is the one modified by TRL in 1975 and used in
the World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance pavement performance model (HDM-111
model). The modified structural number (SNC) is defined as

Where, SNSG is that portion of the structural number contributed by the subgrade. The
following relationship for SNSG in terms of CBR has been used:
SNSG = 3.51 log10 CBR – 0.85 (log10 CBR)2 – 1.43

Where CBR=in-situ California bearing ratio of the subgrade (%)

Based on Irwin’s (1983), “ two thirds rule” of stress distribution under pavement structure,
Rohde assumed that the deflection (D1.5h) measured at a distance on the surface equal to 1.5 times
the structural section thickness (h) is due to the subgrade only. He then developed the Structural
Index of the Pavement (SIP). SIP is associated with the deflection above the subgrade only:
SIP=D0-D1.5h
The hypothesis is that SIP should be strongly correlated with stiffness of the pavement
structure and thus to SN. Based on the regression analysis, Rohde developed a relationship
between SN and SIP:
SN = k1 SIPk2 hk3
The following values, 0.1165, -0.3248 and 0.8241 were used for K1, K2 and K3 for all the
base courses with the exception of the bitumen concrete layer. For the AC layer, 0.4728,-0.4810
and 0.7581 were used as recommended by Rohde, respectively. For a two-layer system, the layer
coefficient was calculated using

He developed another index called structural index of subgrade (SIS):

77
 SIS=D1.5h-Ds

Where Ds is the deflection measured at a distance of 30 inches from the center plate. The
subgrade modulus is
Esg = 10k4 SISk5 hk6
The following recommended values of 23138,-1.236 and -1.903(Rohde 1994) were used
for k4, k5 and k6. The CBR% of the subgrade was back calculated from

Esg = [1500 × CBR0.73] / 6.9, (kPa)

The subgrade moduli obtained from the modified Boussinesq equation were also used in
place of Esg and layer coefficient can be back calculated.

Determination of layer coefficients using CBR results

Field CBR data were obtained from the Clegg hammer and in-situ CBR testing. Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (DCP) data also can be converted to CBR. The DCP data are converted to
penetration per blow rate. The Corps of Engineers use the following relationship to convert the
DCP rate to CBR:

where DCP = millimetres/blow

The World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance (HDM-111) pavement performance
model, provided a correlation between CBR and ai as given below

ai = (29.14 × CBR – 0.1977 CBR2 + 0.00045 CBR3) 10-4

78
 Annexure II

Development of the Layer Coefficient Ratio & Modulus Improvement Factor

1. Layer Coefficient Ratio

General

Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR) represents impact provided by a specific geogrid provides
to the layer coefficient of the layer in which the geogrid is placed. The LCR approach applies and
limits the geosynthetic benefit derived from trials to the specific layer improved by inclusion of
reinforcement (granular layers). Using the LCR approach, a designer may quantify the benefits of
geogrid reinforcement either through increased pavement life or reduced layer thickness or a
combination of both.
Typical LCR determination procedure through full scale traffic tests and laboratory tests
on geogrid reinforced and unreinforced flexible pavements are as follows.

1.1 Full scale traffic tests

1.1.1 Test Section Layout and Design

The full scale traffic tests shall be performed outdoors and subject to local environmental
conditions just as any other road or pavement with the following features:
 Full scale highway construction equipment and practices
 Extended exposure to weather over multiple seasons
 Incorporation of local subgrade soils, aggregate and paving material
 A driven traffic vehicle capable of applying 80 kN standard axle loads to eliminate
the steering axle effect; “super-single” tires
 Channelized traffic with minimal wander
 Laser profiling of the rutting pattern

The test tracks are usually laid out as an oval as shown in Fig II-1, to provide a one-
directional wheel loading pattern during continuous traffic. Straight sections used for testing
should be sufficiently long to accommodate multiple, full lane width test sections. A typical test
cross section accommodating two wheel paths is shown in Fig II-2.

79
 Fig II-1 Test Track Layout

Fig II-2 Typical Cross Section of Test Area

Test sections shall be constructed in groups having different target subgrade CBR values
indicating different subgrade strength. All test sections shall be designed to reach at least 25 mm
of permanent centreline deflection before reaching target traffic load in terms of equivalent single
axle loads (ESALs). All sections shall be subjected to identical compactive effort on all the
surface, base and subbase layers. Fig II-3 illustrates construction of a typical set of test sections.

80
 Fig II-3 Construction of Typical Test Sections

In order to maintain realistic conditions, pavement sections shall be prepared with standard
local pavement materials (BC, DBM, WMM, GSB, and subgrade soils). High quality control
standards and a rigorous quality assurance regimen must be applied to the construction process.
Measured as-constructed section properties for several tests shall be taken note.

1.1.2 Traffic

A commercial truck may be modified for use as the loading vehicle for test sections.
Modifications include adding carefully distributed weight to the vehicle such that each axle
applied a load of 80-kNIn addition, all tires with tyre pressure of 0.56MPa should be used during
testing. The tires shall be aligned from front to rear such that each travelled in the same path when
the vehicle is driving straight.
These modifications ensure that each passage of the loading vehicle applies two identical
loads to the test sections thereby negating the complicating effects of a steering/load axle
combination often associated with full scale testing. A loading vehicle used for traffic is shown in
Fig II-4. The truck shall be made to run along the test sections for a predetermined number of
passes before stopping for surface rut depth measurements.
Wheel path centreline and transverse profile rut data shall be collected at the centre point
of each test section using a stiff beam placed on the measurement posts which shown in Fig II-4.
A laser distance measuring device, accurate to one mm, shall be placed at predetermined points
along the measurement beam to gather these measurements as illustrated in Fig II-4 and II-5. A
full transverse surface profile shall be collected on each test section before allowing traffic and at
various intervals during traffic. Centreline deflection data are collected more frequently to assess
ongoing deformation.
FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer) technique can be used to evaluate the layer moduli
of pavement test sections. This FWD deflection data from unreinforced and reinforced pavement

81
sections shall be used to analyse the pavement for critical strains which are indicators of
pavement performance in terms of rutting and fatigue cracking. Difference in modulus values
obtained from FWD test data may be used to determine improvement by using geogrid in
pavement layers.

Fig II-4 Loading Vehicle and Beam for Surface Rut Measurements during Traffic

Fig II-5 Positioning of Laser Distance Measuring Device for Profiling

Traffic is applied to the test sections until each of the individual test paved sections
reaches 25 mm of permanent centreline deflection before reaching target traffic load in terms of
equivalent single axle loads (ESALs).
Test sections that fail early are repaired to maintain traffic ability of the vehicle and limit
carryover damage to adjacent test sections. This repair is accomplished by adding extra base
course aggregate in the rutted areas and smoothing the area out with a light weight skid steer
loader.
Standard axle passages (ESALs) for each test section to reach predetermined levels of
permanent deformation are determined, followed by application of a normalization procedure to
the data, which is required to eliminate the section to section variability in full scale, realistic test
sections. All values are interpolated using a best fit line of data near the25 mm threshold.

82
1.2 Laboratory Tests

Large scale experimental program in lab can be conducted to evaluate and understand the
structural contribution of geogrid to flexible pavement systems under simulated traffic conditions.
Geogrid shall be placed in one half of the box section, while the other half may be left
unreinforced to be used as control section for comparison. Geogrid shall be placed in flat prepared
bed as per the requirements and then folded at 90o at the box sides. Geogrid is folded to metal box
sides to model the anchorage effect in a typical wide road base. Load in the form of sinusoidal
cycles shall be applied through circular loading plate having 300mm diameter. Loading may
range from 0 to 40KN with an equivalent applied pressure of 560KPa. Vertical settlements (ruts)
have to be recorded as a function of number of cycles together with the permanent deformation in
the road section. Test sections may be constructed and loaded in either a test-box facility or a
facility allowing for the construction of a test-track. Minimum dimensions for the geometry of a
test-box are given in Figure II-6.

Fig II-6 Typical schematic of laboratory test-box pavement test facility/set up showing minimum box
dimensions, plate load and plate dimensions (GMA White Paper-II)

Settlements and elastic rebounds of the asphalt layers shall also be measured during the
tests, under the loading plate for every 100 cycles but not limited to, interval may be chosen based
on the requirements. Distribution of the permanent deformation on the aggregate during the tests
determined by measuring the displacements of the asphalt surface in several locations, and of the
bitumen aggregate and aggregate/subgrade interfaces at the end of each test. Series of tests should
be done with several subgrade shear strengths with different CBR values for different densities.
Rut geometry for reinforced and unreinforced sections shall be analyzed to determine differences
in depth and shape of the deformed sections.

LCR can be determined using the equation below, by results obtained from tests on
flexible pavement system with and without reinforcement.

83
 Where αr/ αu = layer coefficient ratio LCR
SNr and SNu are the structural numbers for reinforced and
unreinforced pavement systems.

2. Modulus Improvement Factor for Geogrid and Geocell

Modulus of the system with or without geosynthetic material is essentially the slope of the
stress versus strain curve. The Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) is the ratio of improvement
of the modulus of a system where geosynthetic materials are incorporated, as compared to the
system without geosynthetic materials. This factor is evaluated by conducting plate load tests on
soil subgrade and evaluating the respective moduli without and with geosynthetic materials and
comparing the two moduli to estimate the MIF.

Determination of MIF for Geocell:

Two sections, viz. unreinforced section and geosynthetic reinforced section are considered
for analysis. Schematics of both sections are shown in Fig II-7 below. Strain gauges are placed in
position to monitor deformations. Earth pressure cells are placed in position below the
geosynthetic materials to monitor pressures. This is highlighted in the section view in Fig. II-7.

Fig II-7 Schematic of unreinforced and reinforced section

84
MIF is defined as:

For future enhancement of the design procedure, Research has started focus on mechanistic-
empirical (ME) design procedures—specifically, how to incorporate the AASHTO Mechanical-
Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) procedures (AASHTO 2008). Discrete element
modelling of geogrid and aggregate, mechanistic response modelling with finite element method
analyses, full scale testing, and laboratory testing are being employed to develop/refine an M-E
design procedure.

MIF for geogrid can also be determined in the similar procedure.

85
 Annexure - III
Table III-1Various design considerations for different asphalt reinforcements
Issues to Paving Fabric Paving Grids Composite Paving Grids
consider
a) Polyester or a) Glass fibre b) Polyester grids 3) a) Stitched or Wrap b) Bonded 5)
Polypropylene 1) grids 2)
knitted 4)
Photos of
Typical
Products

Overlay 1. Act as stress 1. Modulus 1. Increases tensile 1. High stiffness 1. Increase fatigue life
Stress absorbing ratio of upto 20;1 strength of asphalt redirects crack of pavement with
Absorption interlayers over Asphalt layer energy weak foundations
2. Prevent ingress of 2. High 2. Reduces tensile 2. Reduces peak 2. Used in above
water into stiffness redirects peak stress tensile stress application, reduces
pavement layers crack energy 3. Assists with 3. Improve asphalt rutting and control
3. Bridge shrinkage Asphalt fatigue fatigue cracking
cracks 4. Reduces 3. Susceptible to creep
4. Provides increased formation of ruts
overlay
performance by 20
to 40 %
Overlay 1. Generally 35mm 1. Minimum 1. 50mm with paver 1. 40 mm minimum 1. Stiff bi-axial grids
Thickness but can be as little overlay thickness 2. 40mm manual 2. 25mm used used in 70 mm
as 25mm of 40mm installation successfully in overlays
2. 25mm light trafficked 2. Thinner composite
overlay thickness areas with low polyester grids used
achieved under loadings in 60mm overlays
controlled
conditions
Compatibil 1. Paving fabrics 1. Melting point 1. Polyester heat 1. No pre-dressing or 1. No pre-

86
ity Bond resistant to 10000C resistance upto tensioning require dressing or
with shrinkage 2. Polymer modified 2100C 2. Fabric tensioning require
Asphalt 2. Polyester heat bitumen coat of 2. Good impregnated with 2. Fabric
0
resistance at 210 C grid has good compatibility with bitumen impregnated with
and perform better compatibility with tack coat and 3. Impregnated layer bitumen
than tack coat and asphalt provides moisture 3. Impregnated
polypropylenes asphalt proofing layer provides
which are sensitive 4. Non woven fleece moisture proofing
at temperature good compatibility 4. May increase
>1450C with tack coat and pavement life by a
3. Rough texture asphalt factor of 3
provides interlock 5. Check stability of
adhesion reinforcement
4. Robustness which when subjected to
withstands high operation heat.
installation Glass 10000C,
damage Polyester 2600C ,
Polypropylene
1650C
Durability 1. Polyester or 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible
and polypropylene are 2. Resistance to oil 2. Resistance to oil 2. Resistance to oil 2. Resistance to oil and
corrosion non corrodible and and fuel spillage, and fuel spillage and fuel spillage fuel spillage
resistant to most biological attack, 3. Thermally stable 3. Thermally stable
chemicals UV light, weather upto 1650C upto 1650C
Melting 1. Hot milling and 1. Fibre broken 1. Easily milled 1. Cold milling does 1. Strong plastic grids
and heat scarification down during (including hot not present may interfere with
Recycling can cause milling process milling) by chisel problems milling operations
problems and easily teeth and recycled 2. Hot milling and 2. Aggressive milling
2. Cold milling does recycled heat scarification require due to thick
not usually present may cause problem and hard extruded
problems where geosynthetic polymer strands
3. Fabrics in excess is present 3. Nonwoven milled as
of 150 g/m2 may 3. Cognisance mentioned in woven
interfere with should be taken of paving fabrics

87
 milling process the different 4. Recycling unlikely
4. Polyester fabrics behaviour of the as contamination of
less susceptible to paving fabric as mix is high
hot milling opposed to the gird
5. Chisel teeth or mesh
preferred over component
conical teeth 4. Chisel teeth
6. Milling speed preferred
range 3-6m/min 5. Milling speeds of
3-6m/min
6. Glass fibre strands
easily mixed into
new asphalt fabric
will determine
mixed design
which may contain
up to 0.5% paving
fabric pieces by
weight
Boundary De-lamination of the 1. Glass grids 1. Tack coat De-lamination of the De-lamination of the
Operating fabric could occur if: with adhesive applied to clean grid could occur due to: fabric could occur if:
Conditions/ 1. Presence of water surface cannot be dry sub-structure 1. Presence of 1. Presence of
Limitations in base applied in wet 2. Poor water in base water in base
and 2. Insufficient tack- 2. Insufficient 2. Insufficient
conditions resistance to creep
Constrains coat or saturation tack coat or tack coat or
2. Tack coat
of the fabric must be cured saturation of the saturation of the
3. Fabric load in rain 3. Glass fibre is fabric fabric
or wet conditions skin irritant, 3. Fabric laid in 3. Fabric laid in
4. Fuel leakage or worker must wear rain or wet rain or wet
contamination PPE conditions conditions
between fabric and 4. Laid glass 4. Fuel leakage 4. Fuel leakage or
overlay fibre paved same or contamination contamination
day between fabric and between fabric and
5. Sensitive to overlay overlay

88
 mechanical
abrasion when
exposed
Shoving or heaving
could occur; due Shoving or heaving
slippage on an old, rich could occur; due
Shoving or heaving surface slippage on an old, rich
could occur; due surface
slippage on an old, rich Bleeding could occur
surface if: Bleeding could occur if:
1. Too much 1. Too much binder
Bleeding could occur binder applied as a applied as a tack or
if: tack or saturation saturation coat
1. Too much binder coat 2. Volatiles from
applied as a tack or 2. Volatiles from cutback or winter
saturation coat cutback or winter grade bitumens
2. Volatiles from grade bitumens cannot applying
cutback or winter cannot applying overlay.
grade bitumens overlay. 3. If cut or winter
cannot applying 3. If cut or grades have to be
overlay. winter grades have used. Avoid using
3. If cut or winter to be used. Avoid them in the tack
grades have to be using them in the coat.
used. Avoid using tack coat.
them in the tack
coat.
Boundary Mechanical failure if;
Operating 1. Crack movement is
Conditions/ excessive and tears
Limitations fabric
and 2. Insufficient or no
Constrains overlap of fabric
(Continued
3. Laid in areas of
)
extreme shear
stress conditions

89
 4. Patholes not
repeated
5. Cracks>7 mm not
pre-filled

Notes:
1) Nonwoven polyester or polypropylene filaments either needle-punched or thermally bonded
2) Coated multi filament woven or warp knit glass fibre grids
3) Coated multi filament woven or warp knit polyester grids
4) Double twist hexagonal woven steel mesh galvanized (Class A), reinforced transversally with steel rods
5) A glass fibre or polymeric grid structure stitched or knitted to a nonwoven paving fabric
6) An extruded or woven polymer grid bonded to a light nonwoven fabric

90
 ANNEXURE-IV

Worked-out Examples Illustrating the Design Methods

Example 1: Design the pavement for construction of a new flexible pavement with the following data:

Input data:

Design traffic: 50 msa

Subgrade CBR = 6%

Solution:

I. Design resilient modulus of the compacted subgrade

MR (MPa) = 10 × CBR ; for CBR 5
= 17.6 × (CBR) 0.64 ; for CBR > 5
Where MR = Resilient modulus of subgrade soil
MR subgrade =17.6 × 60.64= 55.4 MPa
ii. Thickness of unreinforced granular layers: For design traffic of 10 msa and obtained CBR of
2 percent, the thickness values are taken as below with reference to design plates (Assume
Plate 1) from IRC: 37-2012.
Thickness of granular base (D2) = 250 mm,
Thickness of granular sub-base (D3) = 260 mm

Where h= thickness of granular base and sub-base layers, mm

Therefore, resilient modulus of granular layer = 0.2 × (510)0.45 × 55.4= 183.20MPa.
Thickness of proposed bituminous layer with VG 40 bitumen with bottom DBM layer
having air void of 3 per cent (0.5 per cent to 0.6 per cent additional bitumen over OBC) over
WMM and GSB mm at reliability of 90 percent.
a) Design calculations of bitumen pavement with geogrid reinforced granular base and
subbase layers using LCR of geogrid
Reducing thickness of pavement section
In this case the effect of reinforcement is shown as the reduction in the pavement section
thickness.
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 (i). Design Traffic = 50msa
(ii). Subgrade CBR = 6 percent
(iii). Reliability = 90 percent
(iv). Resilient Modulus of Subgrade (MR):
MR (MPa) = 17.6 × 60.64 = 55.40 MPa
Resilient modulus of Subbase and Base layers:
Granular sub-base thickness (MR_GSB) = 260 mm

Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm

MR of unreinforced subbase layer = 0.2 × (260)0.45 × 55.4 = 136 MPa = 19724.624Psi
Granular Base thickness = 250 mm

Where h= thickness of granular base layer, mm

MR of unreinforced base layer = 0.2 × (250)0.45 × 136 = 327MPa = 47426.118Psi
Resilient modulus of Bituminous Mixes = 3000 MPa=435102 Psi
(v). Structural layer coefficient of each layer:
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (a1) = 0.171 x (LN (MR))-1.784
0.171 x (LN (435102))-1.784=0.436
(a) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from b equations given
in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a2 = 0.249× (log10MR_BC) – 0.977 = 0.249 × (log10 47426.118)-0.977 =0.188
(b) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer
a3 = 0.227(log10MR_SB) – 0.839 = 0.227 × (log1019724.624)-0.839 = 0.136
Therefore,
Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.188
Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) = 0.136
(vi). Layer Coefficient Ratio: Layer coefficient for geogrid is taken on the basis on the
laboratory tests/filed tests; or it can be provided by the manufacturer.

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 (LCRbase) for geogrid used in base layer = 1.288
(LCRSubbase) for geogrid used in sub base layer = 1.61
b) Modified layer thickness values for reinforced sections by IITPAVE:
Thickness of sub base layer=180 mm
Thickness of base layer= 170 mm
Resilient modulus of reinforced Subbase and Base layers:
Granular sub-base thickness = 180 mm

Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm

MR of reinforced subbase layer = 0.2 × (180)0.45 × 55.40 = 115MPa = 16678.91Psi
Granular Base thickness = 170 mm

Where h= thickness of granular base layer, mm

MR of reinforced base layer = 0.2 × (170)0.45 × 115= 232MPa = 33647.888Psi
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (a1) = 0.436
(c) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from b equations given
in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a2 = 0.249× (log10MR_GB) – 0.977 = 0.249 × (log10 33647.888)-0.977 =00.151
(d) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer
a3 = 0.227(log10MR_GSB) – 0.839 = 0.227 × (log10 16678.91)-0.839 = 0.120
Therefore,
Modified Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.151
Modified Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) = 0.120
Modified layer coefficient for base layer (a2’) = LCRbase × a2
= 1.288*0.151= 0.1945
Modified layer coefficient for sub-base layer (a3’) = LCRSubbase × a3
= 1.61*0.120= 0.1932

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 With the improved layer coefficients, improved elastic modulus of respective layers
shall be back calculated using below equations.
a21 = 0.249× (log10MR_GB) – 0.977
MR_GB1 = 350MPa
a31 = 0.227(log10MR_GSB) – 0.839
MR_GSB1= 244MPa
Using above improved elastic modulus corresponding improved layer coefficients, reinforced layer
thickness shall be determined.

Reinforced base layer thickness = 170 mm

Reinforced subbase layer thickness = 180 mm
Surface layer (BC+DBM) =150mm
This reinforced pavement section shall be designed as per IRC: 37-2012 i.e. section shall be checked
for fatigue and rutting failure criterion by inputting this improved elastic modulus into IITPAVE.
Figure IV-3, shows the input parameters in IITPAVE, in which improved E values are used. Figure
IV-4 represents the vertical and tensile strains induced in the pavement layers. Obtained vertical strain
at subgrade level is 355.2×10-6which is less than the permissible vertical strain 372×10-6 obtained as
per Eq 6.5 in IRC 37 and obtained tensile strain at bottom of bitumen layer is 152.8×10-6 is less than
permissible 155×10-6 tensile strain obtained as per Eq 6.2 of IRC 37. Hence the reduced section with
geogrid reinforcement in base and subbase layers is acceptable for design traffic 10msa.

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 Fig.IV-1. Input parameters in IITPAVE for unreinforced section

Fig.IV-2. Vertical and tensile strains induced in the pavement layers for unreinforced section

95
 F
ig.IV-3.Input parameters in IITPAVE for unreinforced section

Fig.IV-4. Vertical and tensile strains induced in the pavement layers for unreinforced section

96
References
Indian Codes
1. IRC 34: 2011 “Recommendations for Road Construction in Areas Affected by water Logging
Flooding and/or Salts Infestation”.
2. IRC 37: 2012 “Guidelines for Design of flexible Pavements”.
3. IRC 115: “Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements
Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Technique”.
4. IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, “State-of-the-Art: Application of Geotextiles in Highway
Engineering”.
5. IS: 2720: Part-7 “Methods of test for soils-Determination of water content-dry density relation
using light compaction”.
6. IS 13162 (Part 3) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Thickness at Specified
Pressures”.
7. IS 13162 (Part 4) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Puncture Resistance by Falling
Cone Method”.
8. IS 13325 “Determination of Tensile Properties of Extruded Polymer Geogrids Using the Wide
Strip-Test Method”.
9. IS 14294 “Geotextiles - Method for determination of apparent opening size by dry sieving
technique”.
10. IS 14324 “Geotextiles-Methods for Test for Determination of Water Permeability-Permittivity”.
11. IS 14716 “Geotextiles-Determination of Mass per Unit Area”.
12. IS 16389:2015 “Geosynthetics - Method of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or
Soil/Geotextile Filters”.

International Codes
1. AASHTO M288 “Standard Specification for Geotextiles Specification for Highway Applications”.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1993,“AASHTO Guide for
design of pavement structures”, Washington, DC, USA.
3. ASTM D276 “Standard Test Methods for Identification of Fibers in Textiles”.
4. ASTM D 413-98 (2013) “Standard Test Methods for Rubber Property—Adhesion to Flexible
Substrate”.
5. ASTM D521-92 (2009) “Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass per Unit Area of Geotextiles”.
6. ASTM D638 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics”.
7. ASTM D751-06 (2011) “Standard Test Methods for Coated Fabrics”.
8. ASTM D792 “Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative Density) of
Plastics by Displacement”
9. ASTM D882 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting”.
10. ASTM D1004 “Standard Test Method for Tear Resistance (Graves Tear) of Plastic Film and
Sheeting”.

97
11. ASTM D1204 “Standard Test Method for Linear Dimensional Changes of Nonrigid Thermoplastic
Sheeting or Film at Elevated Temperature”.
12. ASTM D1238 “Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion
Plastometer”.
13. ASTM D1505 “Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique”.
14. ASTM D1603 “Standard Test Method for Carbon Black Content in Olefin Plastics”.
15. ASTM D1693 “Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene Plastics”.
16. ASTM D3776 “Standard Test Methods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric”.
17. ASTM D3895 “Standard Test Method for Oxidative-Induction Time of Polyolefins by Differential
Scanning Calorimetry”.
18. ASTM D4218 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Carbon Black Content in Polyethylene
Compounds By the Muffle-Furnace Technique”.
19. ASTM D4355 “Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposure to Light,
Moisture and Heat in a Xenon Arc Type Apparatus”.
20. ASTM D4437 “Standard Practice for Non-destructive Testing (NDT) for Determining the Integrity
of Seams Used in Joining Flexible Polymeric Sheet Geomembranes”.
21. ASTM D4491 “Standard Test Methods for Water Permeability of Geotextiles by Permittivity”.
22. ASTM D4595 “Standard Test Method for Tensile properties of Geotextiles by the Wide-Width
Strip Method”.
23. ASTM D4632 “Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of Geotextiles”.
24. ASTM D4643 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Water Content of Soil and Rock by
Microwave Oven Heating”.
25. ASTM D 4716 “Standard Test Method for Determining the (In-plane) Flow Rate per Unit Width
and Hydraulic Transmissivity of a Geosynthetic Using a Constant Head”.
26. ASTM D4751 “Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile”.
27. ASTM D4833 “Standard Test Method for Index Puncture Resistance of Geomembranes and
Related Products”.
28. ASTM D4884 “Standard Test Method for Strength of Sewn or Bonded Seams of Geotextiles”.
29. ASTM D4885 “Standard Test Method for Determining Performance Strength of Geomembranes by
the Wide Strip Tensile Method”.
30. ASTM D5035 “Standard Test Method for Breaking Force and Elongation of Textile Fabrics (Strip
Method)”.
31. ASTM D5101“Standard Test Methods for Measuring the Filtration Compatibility of Soil-Geotextile
Systems”.
32. ASTM D5101 “Standard Test Method for Determining tensile Properties of Geogrids by the Single
or Multi-Rib tensile Method”.
33. ASTM D5199 “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Nominal Thickness of Geosynthetics”.
34. ASTM D5261 “Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile”.
35. ASTM D5262 “Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Unconfined Tension Creep and Creep
Rupture Behavior of Geosynthetics”.

98
36. ASTM D5321 “Standard Test Method for Determining the Shear Strength of Soil-Geosynthetic and
Geosynthetic-Geosynthetic Interfaces by Direct Shear”.
37. ASTM D 5397 “Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Stress Crack Resistance of Polyolefin
Geomembranes Using Notched Constant Tensile Load Test”.
38. ASTM D5567-94 (2011) “Standard test Method for Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR)-Testing
of Soil/Geotextile Systems”.
39. ASTM D5596 “Standard Test Method for Microscopic Evaluation of the Dispersion of Carbon
Black in Polyolefin Geosynthetics”.
40. ASTM D5494 “Standard Test Method for the Determination of Pyramid Puncture Resistance of
Unprotected and Protected Geomembranes”.
41. ASTM D 5721 “Standard Practice for Air-Oven Aging of Polyolefin Geomembranes”.
42. ASTM D5885 “Standard Test Method for Oxidative Induction Time of Polyolefin Geosynthetics by
High-Pressure Differential Scanning Calorimetry”.
43. ASTM D5887 “Standard Test Method for Measurement of Index Flux through Saturated
Geosynthetic Clay Liner Specimens Using a Flexible Wall Permeameter”.
44. ASTM D5993 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass Per Unit of Geosynthetic Clay Liners”.
45. ASTM D5994 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Core Thickness of Textured Geomembranes”.
46. ASTM D6140 “Standard Test Method to Determine Asphalt Retention of Paving Fabrics Used in
Asphalt Paving for Full-Width Applications”.
47. ASTM D6241-14 “Standard Test Method for Static Puncture Strength of Geotextiles and Geotextile
Related Products Using a 50 mm Probe”.
48. ASTM D 6525 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Nominal Thickness of Rolled Erosion
Control Products”.
49. ASTM D6637 “Standard Test method for Determining tensile Properties of Geogrids by Single or
Multi-Rib tensile Method”.
50. ASTM D6392 “Standard Test Method for Determining the Integrity of Nonreinforced
Geomembrane Seams Produced Using Thermo-Fusion Methods”.
51. ASTM D 6693 “Standard Test Method for Determining Tensile Properties of Nonreinforced
Polyethylene and Nonreinforced Flexible Polypropylene Geomembranes”.
52. ASTM D6766 “Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Hydraulic Properties of Geosynthetic Clay
Liners Permeated with Potentially Incompatible Aqueous Solutions”.
53. ASTM D6992 “Standard Test Method for Accelerated Tensile Creep-Creep Rupture of
Geosynthetic Materials Based on Time-Temperature Superposition Using the Stepped isothermal
Method”.
54. ASTM D 7238 “Standard Test Method for Effect of Exposure of Unreinforced Polyolefin
Geomembrane Using Fluorescent UV Condensation Apparatus”.
55. ASTM D7466“Standard Test Method for Measuring Asperity Height of Textured Geomembranes”.
56. ASTM D7737 “Standard Test Method for Individual Geogrid Junction Strength”.
57. ISO 527-3: 1995 “plastics- Determination of Tensile Properties-Test Conditions for Films and
Sheets.

99
58. ISO 1183-1 “Plastics-Methods for Determining the Density of Non- Cellular Plastics”.
59. ISO 3146 “Plastics-Determination of Melting Behavior of Semi crystalline Polymers by capillary
tube and polarizing-microscope methods”.
60. ISO 9864 “Geosynthetics-Test Method for the Determination of Mass per Unit Area of Geotextiles
and Geotextile Related Products”.
61. ISO 9863-1: 2001 “Geosynthetics-Determination of Thickness at Specified Pressures-Part 1: Single
Layers”.
62. ISO 9863-1: 2005 “Geosynthetics-Determination of Thickness at Specified Pressures-Single
Layers”.
63. ISO 10319: 2008 “Geosynthetics-Wide Width Tensile Test”.
64. ISO 10321: 2008 “Geosynthetic-Tensile Test for Joints/seams by Wide-Width Strip Method”.
65. ISO 10722: 2007 “Geosynthetics-Index Test Procedure for the Evaluation of Mechanical Damage
under Repeated Loading-Damage caused by Granular Material”.
66. ISO 11058: 2010 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related products-Determination of Water
permeability Characteristics Normal to the Plane, without load”.
67. ISO 11357-1: 2016 “Plastics- Differential Scanning Calorimetry-General principles”.
68. ISO 12236: 2006 “Geosynthetics-Static Puncture Strength”.
69. ISO 12956: 2010 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related products-Determination of Characteristic
Opening Size”.
70. ISO 12958: 2010 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related products-Determination of Water Flow
Capacity in Their Plane”.
71. ISO 13438: 2004 “Geotextile-Geotextile Related Products-Screening Test Method for Determining
the Resistance to Oxidation”.
72. ISO 13934-1: 2013 “Textiles-Tensile properties of Fabrics-Determination of Maximum Force and
Elongation at Maximum Force Using the Strip Method”.

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