Working Papers

in the Humanities

The Translation of Identity: Subtitling the Vernacular of

the French cité

Pierre-Alexis Mével
University of Nottingham

Abstract
This paper looks at how the process of translation impacts on the relocation of identity in the
field of audiovisual translation, more specifically in that of subtitling. The language used by
the three protagonists in the French film La Haine1 is remarkable both linguistically and
culturally, and is clearly a means for them to assert their identity. In using such a variety of
French, the three young people in the film not only assert their belonging to a very specific
community of practice, but also exclude whoever does not belong to their group. This paper
looks at the particular case of La Haine, and comments on what is achieved – as well as what
is not achieved – by the English subtitles written by Alexander Whitelaw and Stephen O’Shea
in the Tartan Video version (1996). The paper will analyse the implications of using a variety
of English such as African American Vernacular English to translate a variety of French such
as the one spoken in the cités (projects). The use of a dialect-for-dialect approach means that
all cultural references in the original are transposed to the target culture. The implication of
this is that the original undergoes a displacement of identity in the process of translation. I
question whether the identity thus fabricated by the translators matches the images shown on
screen, and subsequently if this approach is, in this particular context, successful or not. This
paper draws on my MA dissertation, the wider purpose of which is to analyse the various
reasons why a dialect-for-dialect approach may not necessarily work when it comes to
audiovisual translation, through the study of the two sets of subtitles available for La Haine.

By studying the dialogue of the French film La Haine and its translation into English through
subtitling, this paper will examine how the process of translation impacts on the relocation of
identity. The paper will first focus on the analysis of the linguistic and social mechanisms of
the language used by the three protagonists in the film so as to have a better understanding of
the way in which the language works and of the ways in which its speakers are stigmatized.
French street culture appears to be connected to its American counterpart at various different

1
La Haine. Dir. Mathieu Kassovitz. Lazennec. 1995.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 49

levels, which may justify the translator’s strategy of translating banlieue French into African
American Vernacular English (henceforth AAVE). Finally, bearing in mind the constraints
related to subtitling, this paper will also explain the reasons for which the film La Haine did
not enjoy great commercial success in the United States, and why the subtitles were often
deemed responsible for the film’s relative commercial failure, despite the interesting – if
ambitious – subtitling strategy used by the translator.
La Haine revolves around three young people: Hubert, the calmest of the three, seeks
to support his single black mother with the money he earns as a drug dealer; Saïd is a lively
youth, who somehow always manages to get the other two in trouble; and finally Vinz is an
edgy and nervous character from a Jewish family, who has just found a gun lost by a police
officer during the riots in the housing estate. Kassovitz attempts to convey the situation of the
marginalized suburban immigrant population that is left at the outskirts of both the city and
society itself, and as such, the film carries an important political message. The film was very
successful when it was shown at the Cannes film festival in 1996, when English subtitles
were provided to cater for Anglophone journalists.
It should be noted that the most important features of the language used by the main
characters in the film are not only linguistic, but also social. Whilst sociolinguists have
disputed which term should be used to denote the type of language spoken by the
protagonists, experts such as Jean-Pierre Goudaillier agree that it is a distinguishable variety
of French. Goudaillier refers to this language as ‘banlieue French’, a term which I have
adopted here for the sake of simplicity.2 The term ‘banlieue’ is difficult to translate.
Geographically speaking, it is the space that surrounds the city, but by ‘banlieue French’,
Goudaillier refers to a variety of French spoken specifically in the economically deprived
areas that are usually located at the periphery of major cities. This terminology has social as
well as geographical connotations. Social networks appear to be a key to speaking and
understanding banlieue French, which arises in close-knit, dense networks such as those
found within the banlieue’s adolescent population. According to Mikaël Jamin, who draws on
Goudaillier’s work, banlieue French is distinguished by its threefold function.3 First, banlieue
French has a cryptic function. The extended use of slang and of features such as verlan makes
the language difficult to understand for outsiders.4 When La Haine was shown in Cannes,

2
Jean-Pierre Goudaillier, Comment tu tchatches! Dictionnaire du français contemporain des cités (Paris :
Maisonneuve et Larose, 1997).
3
Mikaël Jamin, forthcoming (Presses Universitaires de Pau).
4
Le verlan basically consists of inverting two syllables of a word (le verlan, for instance, comes from l’envers
which means backwards). Verlan is fairly widespread, and is used mostly by teenagers so as not to be

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 50

French people in the audience said they needed the English subtitles, as it helped them
understand the dialogue. Some of the scenes in the film even had to be post-synchronized due
to the extensive use of verlan in the original dialogue, and because they were too difficult to
understand. Second, counter to standard linguistic forms, banlieue French constitutes a
rejection of the dominant social model. It can even be argued that such a use of language
constitutes a political message in itself. Third, banlieue French is an alternative linguistic
variety that allows French young people to play with the dominant language, be it at the
morphological level (like le verlan) or at the interactional level, through language games, for
instance, of which David Lepoutre gives a fairly exhaustive account in his book Coeur de
Banlieue.5 Sociolinguists such as Suzanne Romaine6 and Dennis Ager have shown that young
people like those depicted in La Haine are the most likely to develop vernacular forms:
‘Adolescents are hence likely to have a wide active vocabulary, relating to the terms of their
interests, to develop new terms and expressions and thus be open to linguistic innovation.’7
Banlieue French is used as a means of asserting one’s membership in a community
or peer group at the expense of whoever does not belong in the group. A consequence of these
collective practices, involving mostly young people in poor areas, is that their language is
clearly recognizable. In La Haine, the protagonists employ a number of non-standard features
that linguists such as Bernard Conein and Françoise Gadet have shown to be characteristic of
banlieue French, the most prominent of which is probably verlan.8 When they are talking
amongst themselves, the protagonists make extensive use of it:

‘J’étais à téco [côté], ils m’ont même pas méfil [filmé]!’ (subtitled as ‘I was
over there, they missed me!’)

‘C’est de la demer [merde] ton truc là!’ (subtitled as ‘This TV sucks.’)

understood by outsiders, and also as a means of strengthening in-group bonds. Countless examples of verlan can
be heard in La Haine, and, needless to say, verlan represents a major challenge for translators, since no such
morphological process exists in English.
5
David Lepoutre, Cœur de banlieue: Codes, rites et langages (Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob, 1997), pp. 173-99. In
the second section of his book, Lepoutre describes not only the violence, but also the inventiveness of the verbal
prowess of a class of teenagers in La Courneuve, in the suburbs of Paris. He shows that l’argot (slang), le verlan,
insults and obscene language are used in a codified way, mostly to determine who belongs in the group and who
is a bouffon (lame).
6
Suzanne Romaine, Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (Oxford: OUP, 1994), p. 80.
7
Dennis Ager, Sociolinguistics and Contemporary French (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p.
117.
8
Bernard Conein and Françoise Gadet, ‘Français populaire? Français des banlieues?’, Black, blanc, beur: youth
language and identity in France, ed. by Farid Aitsiselmi (Bradford: University of Bradford Department of
Modern Languages, 2000), pp. 39-49.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 51

 ‘T’es relou [lourd] avec ces conneries!’ (subtitled as ‘You’re a fuckin’ pain!’)

The protagonists also use a lot of slang and insults, and rather imaginative
combinations of all of the above:

‘Pauvre petit reubeu en carton.’ (subtitled as ‘You bogus Arab’ – ‘reubeu’ is a

further example of verlan, standing for ‘Arabe’).

‘Ça t’arracherait les poils du cul de dire bonjour?’ (subtitled as ‘Can’t fuckin’
say hello?’)

The above examples demonstrate some of the distinctive linguistic expression of

banlieue French speakers. The vulgarity of the language they use, along with verlan itself,
stigmatizes them in the eyes of the viewer because they speak a variety of French that is so
clearly non-standard and so easily recognizable that they find themselves socially
marginalized by their unconventional use of the French language. Due to the very high
proportion of French people of African descent, a public perception of a multi-ethnic French
youth – more particularly in the cités – has developed, often referred to in the media as black-
blanc-beur.9 It is important to note that the language and culture of the French youth in the
cités are greatly influenced by African-American street culture, and this is true both in the
film and in reality.10
Examples of the influence of Anglo-American culture can be found throughout La
Haine. The film opens with Bob Marley’s song ‘Burning and A-Looting Tonight’, with
background images of riots, most likely in a French cité, in the background. Vinz replays a
classic scene from American director Martin Scorsese’s Taxi Driver, and the walls of
Hubert’s room are covered with posters of Muhammad Ali. There is a clip of break-dancing
about halfway through the film, improvised in a basement, and the dress code of the young
people living in French cités – and therefore in La Haine – is clearly influenced by the
African-American young people who live in ghettos, and who are represented on screen in
films such as those directed by Spike Lee. The parallel between French cités and American

9
The term black-blanc-beur was used particularly often during the Football World Cup in 1998 to refer to the
French team who included people from a variety of origins. It put the emphasis on the diversity of backgrounds
in the French population, and also on the possibility of a successful melting-pot.
10
Hervé Vieillard-Baron, Les Banlieues (Évreux: Flammarion, 1996), p. 46.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 52

projects – or housing estates as they are known in the UK – has often been drawn, particularly
with respect to Chicago. Indeed, some specialists of French banlieue history such as Hervé
Vieillard-Baron have shown that Chicago plays a particular, almost mythical role in the
imagination of French young people in the cités. Chicago embodies the American dream, a
paradoxical form of exoticism and ghettoisation, but also of crime and violence.11 In other
words, the identity of French youths living in the cités is defined partly in relation to their
African-American counterparts, the parallel culture in the US.
This connection has been clearly acknowledged and exploited by the translator-
subtitlers in La Haine, as illustrated by their decision to translate banlieue French into a form
of AAVE in the Tartan Video version of the film. The translators also chose to transpose
cultural references in the script in order to give the text an American feel. For instance, ‘kro’
(for Kronenbourg, a brand of beer) in the original dialogue is turned into ‘bud’ – note that the
morphological process, the truncation, is kept – ‘les schtroumpfs’ (although known in the
Anglophone world as the smurfs) become ‘Donald Duck’, ‘Darty’ becomes ‘Walmart’, and
even Malik Oussekine, a young male victim of police violence in France, is translated as
Rodney King. The overall strategy of the translators thus consisted in transforming French
references into American ones. This translation strategy can be seen to displace the identity of
the characters, since the language used for the subtitles is evocative of American street
culture, and puts the viewer under the impression that the action has been relocated.
This transposition confronts the American viewer with notions and cultural references
that he/she is familiar with, and as a result, the strategy of the translators can be called
domesticating. They domesticate the original by bringing it closer to the culture of the
language into which they translate. Friedrich Schleiermacher, a German theologian and
philosopher, argued in 1813 that there are only two methods of translation. In André
Lefevere’s words, ‘Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and
moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and
moves the author towards him.’12 In the case of La Haine, it is clearly the author, or the film
itself, that is moved towards the American viewer (although one may argue that as far as these
two strategies are concerned, it is not so much a matter of ‘either/or’, as a question of ‘more
or less’), and in the case of La Haine, the American viewer is confronted with a language that
he/she is familiar with, one that carries the same social stigma as banlieue French. The
translators have been very consistent in the use of a domesticating strategy for La Haine, and

11
Vieillard-Baron, p. 46.
12
Cited in Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 19-20.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 53

have, in fact, taken domestication to the extreme, opting for what is known as a dialect-for-
dialect approach. This approach consists of replacing a vernacular in the original with another
vernacular, and all cultural references in the original are subsequently transposed to the target
culture.
As a general rule, translators tend to reject the option of dialect-for-dialect
translation, given the relative impossibility of finding a vernacular form in the target language
with features identical to or even approximating those present in another, vernacular forms
being, by nature, geographically and socially idiosyncratic. In some respects, because of the
stress placed on the vernacular character of the language – both in the French film and in real
life in the French cités – and also because of the parallel that can be drawn between French
and American street cultures, we might reasonably argue that the translator’s decision to
translate banlieue French with AAVE was justified. However, the visual dissonance between
the subtitles and the pictures was not foreseen by the translators. In a very informative article
about the reception of La Haine by Anglophone audiences, Anne Jäckel suggests that ‘critics
usually attribute the French failure to penetrate the American market to the resistance of
American audiences to subtitling (and dubbing) and/or to the poor quality of language
transfer’. 13 She finds some support for blaming the subtitles in the words of a critic who
complained that ‘a sloppy pastiche of black American slang hinders rather than helps an
understanding […] of the film’.14 However, the subtitles’ failure has less to do with the
quality of the translation than with the limits of the dialect-for-dialect approach. The
translators have used many features of AAVE in the subtitles, such as the phonetic corruption
of words ending in –er (‘gangsta’, ‘motherfucka’) as well as that of pronouns (‘Whadda ya
mean?’), or the omission of the verb to be (‘You a movie star’). Rather than call it a ‘sloppy
pastiche’, one might find that they have been very consistent in the use of a dialect-for-dialect
strategy. However, the understanding of the film is definitely hindered by the use of AAVE,
and by the transposition of cultural references. In fact, the result of this
transposition/translation of the film to fit American culture is that the American viewer is
confronted with a language that belongs to his/her national culture, and yet is not given the
means to apprehend the specificity of the French situation. The American audience is
confronted with a recognizable language that is traditionally associated with African
American people, but which is superimposed onto pictures of the French black-blanc-beur

13
Anne Jäckel, ‘The subtitling of La Haine: A Case Study’, in (Multi) Media Translation: Concepts, Practices
and Research, ed. by Yves Gambier and Henrik Gottlieb (Philadelphia, PA: Benjamins, 2001), pp.223-35 (p.
233).
14
Cited in Jäckel, p. 227.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 54

trio of characters. This conceptual synthesis is rather incongruous. As a result, the American
audience failed to relate to the protagonists: as one critic has said, ‘The media hysteria about a
stray revolver in a housing project might appear touching to a society in which prepubescents
tote Uzis, but not to American youths for whom the young men’s inability to drive would be
“quaint”.’15 The clash between the pictures and the subtitles is explained by the fact that the
connotations of the variety of language used in the subtitles, namely AAVE, are not
compatible with what the viewer sees on screen. Hence, in this particular case, the relocation
of identity that was attempted by the translators was rather unsuccessful; whilst they
endeavoured to move the film towards the viewer – to recycle Schleiermacher’s metaphor –
by using the subtitles the viewer finds him/herself somewhat brutally moved back towards the
original by the images.
However interesting, bold, and even – to a certain extent – appropriate the dialect-
for-dialect approach used for subtitling La Haine may be, it does not work because of the
stark discrepancy that exists between what the viewer reads and the pictures he/she sees. For
example, during a scene in which some young people from the cités (mostly from North
Africa) have improvised a picnic on the roof of a building, Saïd steals a sausage from the
barbecue and the victim then tells Saïd’s brother: ‘Ton frère il vient de piquer une merguez!’.
This sentence is subtitled ‘Your bro stole a dog!’, which may seem incongruous to the
American viewer who would naturally picture an African-American person making such an
utterance. Although the translation is denotatively accurate, the Anglophone viewer is put
under the impression that the action is taking place in a Harlem project, because the language
used in the subtitles almost systematically bears a different connotation than the original
dialogue. There are a countless number of such examples in the subtitles: ‘une racaille’
becomes a ‘gangsta’ in the subtitles, ‘un enculé’ is turned into a ‘mothafucka’, and Vinz’s
‘amis’ become his ‘homeys’. Because of this process of relocation, the translation fails to
convey the film director’s symbolic resistance to the traditional notion of Frenchness, and the
film is not so much about French youngsters in their cité as it is about ‘bros in the hood’. The
specificity of the situation of the French cités does not survive the process of translation, and
Kassovitz’s political message about the exclusion of an entire strata of the population left
both at the periphery of the city and of French society, is definitely weakened if not altogether
lost.
To conclude, although the parallels between banlieue French and AAVE mean that
they are potentially viable equivalents for translation projects, in the case of La Haine, the

15
Cited in Jäckel, p. 233.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 55

match between the subtitles and the pictures should probably have been considered more
closely. Through the subtitles, the translators have created a new identity, one that does not
exist in the original. La Haine’s director Mathieu Kassovitz himself asked for new subtitles to
be written for the tenth anniversary DVD that came out in 2006. The dialect-for-dialect
approach was abandoned, and the new subtitles were written in a much less marked form of
English. By opting for a more neutral form of English, the translators for the tenth anniversary
edition avoided the visual dissonance of the original subtitles. As far as audiovisual
translation is concerned, a dialect-for-dialect approach appears rather ambitious, because it
presupposes not only linguistic, but also cultural, and certainly functional, equivalences.
Whether the dialect-for-dialect approach fails or succeeds, however, what remains true is that
translation – and particularly the translation of a specific vernacular – is but one way of trying
to apprehend the Other. This is particularly apparent when using a dialect-for-dialect
approach, in the attempt to make this ‘Otherness’ – that which is foreign or merely different –
resemble something known.

MHRA Working Papers in the Humanities, 2 (2007), ISSN: 1994-8662, 49-56 56