Section 1: Weather and Climate: Chapter Summary

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Section 1: Weather and Climate

UNDERSTANDING WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a certain time and place. Climate is a region’s
average weather over a long time. Climate is affected mostly by two factors: sun and latitude.
Energy from the sun falls more directly on the equator, so the hottest temperatures are near the
equator. In general it gets colder as you move away from the equator to a higher latitude.
SUN AND LOCATION

Heat from the sun moves around the Earth, partly through winds. Wind is caused by the rising
and sinking of air. Cold air sinks, and warm air rises. At different latitudes winds tend to blow in
the same direction. These prevailing winds can be from the west or east. Near the poles and in
the subtropics, prevailing winds are easterlies. In the middle latitudes are the westerlies.
Prevailing winds control an area’s climate.
WIND AND WATER

Winds pick up moisture over oceans and dry out passing over land. At about 30° North and South
latitude, dry winds cause many of the world’s deserts.
Ocean currents—large streams of surface water—also move heat around. The Gulf Stream is a
warm current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean to western Europe.
Water heats and cools more slowly than land. Therefore, water helps to moderate the
temperature of nearby land, keeping it from getting very hot or very cold.
A front is a place where two different air masses meet. In the United States and other regions,
warm and cold air masses meet often, causing severe weather. These can include
thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. Tornadoes are twisting funnels of air that touch the
ground. Hurricanes are large tropical storms that form over water. They bring destructive high
winds and heavy rain.
MOUNTAINS
Mountains also affect climate. Warm air blowing against a mountainside rises and cools. Clouds
form, and precipitation falls on the side facing the wind. However, the air is dry by the time it goes
over the mountain. This effect creates a rain shadow, a dry area on the side of the mountain
facing land.
Section 2: World Climates

MAJOR CLIMATE ZONES
We can divide Earth into five climate zones: tropical, temperate, polar, dry, and highland. Tropical
climates appear near the equator, temperate climates are found in the middle latitudes, and polar
climates occur near the poles. Dry and highland climates can appear at different latitudes.
TROPICAL AND DRY CLIMATES

Humid tropical climates occur near the equator. Some are warm and rainy throughout the year.
Others have monsoons—winds that shift directions and create wet and dry seasons. Rain
forests need a humid climate to thrive and support thousands of species.
Moving away from the equator, we find tropical savanna climates. A savanna is an area of tall
grasses and scattered trees and shrubs. A long, hot dry season is followed by short periods of
rain.
Deserts are hot and dry. At night, the dry air cools quickly; desert nights can be cold. Only a few
living things survive in a desert. Sometimes steppes—dry grasslands—are found near deserts.
TEMPERATE CLIMATES
Away from the ocean in the middle latitudes are humid continental climates. Most have four
distinct seasons, with hot summers and cold winters. In this climate, weather often changes
quickly when cold and warm air masses meet.
A Mediterranean climate has hot, sunny summers and mild, wet winters. They occur near the
ocean, and the climate is mostly pleasant. People like to vacation in these climates. Only small,
scattered trees survive in these areas.
East coasts near the tropics have humid subtropical climates, because of winds bringing in
moisture from the ocean. They have hot, wet summers and mild winters. Marine west coast
climates occur farther north and also get moisture from prevailing winds coming in from the
ocean.
POLAR AND HIGHLAND CLIMATES

Subarctic climate occurs south of the Arctic Ocean. Winters are long and cold, and summers are
cool. There is enough precipitation to support forests. At the same latitude near the coasts, tundra
climate is also cold, but too dry for trees to survive. In parts of the tundra, soil is frozen as
permafrost.
Ice cap climates are the coldest on Earth. There is little precipitation and little vegetation.
Highland, or mountain climate changes with elevation. As you go up a mountain, the climate may
go from tropical to polar.
Section 3: Natural Environments

THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE
Plants and animals cannot live just anywhere. They must have the right surroundings, or
environment. Climate, land features, and water are all part of a living thing’s environment. If an
area has everything a living thing needs, it can be a habitat for that species.
Many plants and animals usually share a habitat. Small animals eat plants, and then large
animals eat the small animals. Species are connected in many ways. A community of connected
species is called an ecosystem. Ecosystems can be as small as a pond or as large as the entire
Earth.
Geographers study how changes in environments affect living things. Natural events and human
actions change environments. Natural events include forest fires, disease, and climate changes.
Human actions include clearing land and polluting.
If a change to the environment is extreme, a species might become extinct, or die out
completely.
SOILS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Without soil, much of our food would not exist. Soil forms in layers over hundreds or thousands of
years. The most fertile layer, the topsoil, has the most humus. Humus is decayed plant or animal
matter.
The next layer, the subsoil, has less humus and more material from rocks. Soil gets minerals from
these rocks. Below the subsoil is mostly rock.
An environment’s soil affects which plants can grow there. Fertile soils have lots of humus and
minerals. Fertile soils also need to contain water and small air spaces.
Soils can lose fertility from erosion by wind or water. Soil can also lose fertility from planting the
same crops repeatedly. If soil becomes worn out and can no longer support plants,
desertification can occur.
Section 4: Natural Resources

EARTH’S VALUABLE RESOURCES
Anything in nature that people use and value is a natural resource. These include such ordinary
things as air, water, and soil. Resources such as trees are called renewable resources because
the Earth replaces them naturally. Those that cannot replaced, such as oil, are called
nonrenewable resources.
Air and water are renewable resources, but pollution can damage both. Some people get their
water from underground wells, which can run out if too many people use them.
Soil is needed for all plant growth, including trees in forests. We get lumber, medicine, nuts, and
rubber from forests. Soil and trees are renewable, but must be protected. The loss of forests is
called deforestation. When we plant trees to replace lost forests, we call it reforestation.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Most of our energy comes from fossil fuels, which are formed from the remains of ancient living
things. These include coal, oil, and natural gas.
We use coal mostly for electricity, but it causes air pollution. An advantage of coal is that Earth
still has a large supply. Another fossil fuel is petroleum, or oil. It is used to make gasoline and
heating oil. Oil can be turned into plastics and other products. Oil also causes pollution, but we
depend on it for much of our energy. The cleanest fossil fuel is natural gas, which is used mainly
for cooking and heating.
Renewable energy resources include hydroelectric power—the creation of electricity by moving

water. This is accomplished mainly by building dams on rivers. Other renewable energy sources
are wind, solar, and nuclear energy. Nuclear energy produces dangerous waste material that
must be stored for thousands of years.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are solid substances in the Earth’s crust formed from nonliving matter. Like fossil fuels,
minerals are nonrenewable. Types of minerals include metals, rocks and gemstones, and salt.
Mineral uses include making steel from iron, making window glass from quartz, and using stone
as a building material. We also use minerals to make jewelry, coins, and many other common
objects.
RESOURCES AND PEOPLE

Some places are rich in natural resources. Resources such as fertile farmland, forests, and oil
have helped the United States become a powerful country with a strong economy.

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Section 1: Weather and Climate: Chapter Summary

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CHAPTER SUMMARY

Section 1: Weather and Climate

SUN AND LOCATION

WIND AND WATER

Section 2: World Climates

TROPICAL AND DRY CLIMATES

POLAR AND HIGHLAND CLIMATES

Section 3: Natural Environments

SOILS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Section 4: Natural Resources

Renewable energy resources include hydroelectric power—the creation of electricity by moving

RESOURCES AND PEOPLE

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