Spacecraft Dynamics and Control

Matthew M. Peet
Arizona State University

Lecture 16: Euler’s Equations

Attitude Dynamics

In this Lecture we will cover:

The Problem of Attitude Stabilization
• Actuators

Newton’s Laws
P ~ d ~
• Mi = dt H
P~ d
• Fi = m dt ~v

Rotating Frames of Reference

• Equations of Motion in Body-Fixed Frame
• Often Confusing

M. Peet Lecture 16: 2 / 39

Review: Coordinate Rotations
Positive Directions

If in doubt, use the right-hand rules.

Figure: Positive Rotations

Figure: Positive Directions

M. Peet Lecture 16: 3 / 39

Review: Coordinate Rotations
Roll-Pitch-Yaw

There are 3 basic rotations a vehicle can make:

• Roll = Rotation about x-axis
• Pitch = Rotation about y-axis
• Yaw = Rotation about z-axis
• Each rotation is a one-dimensional transformation.
Any two coordinate systems can be related by a sequence of 3 rotations.
M. Peet Lecture 16: 4 / 39
Review: Forces and Moments
Forces

These forces and moments have standard labels. The Forces are:
X Axial Force Net Force in the positive x-direction
Y Side Force Net Force in the positive y-direction
Z Normal Force Net Force in the positive z-direction

M. Peet Lecture 16: 5 / 39

Review: Forces and Moments
Moments

The Moments are called, intuitively:

L Rolling Moment Net Moment in the positive ωx -direction
M Pitching Moment Net Moment in the positive ωy -direction
N Yawing Moment Net Moment in the positive ωz -direction

M. Peet Lecture 16: 6 / 39

6DOF: Newton’s Laws
Forces

Newton’s Second Law tells us that for a particle F = ma. In vector form:
X d~
F~ = F~i = m V
i
dt

That is, if F~ = [Fx Fy Fz ] and V

~ = [u v w], then

du dv dw
Fx = m Fx = m Fz = m
dt dt dt

Definition 1.
~ is referred to as Linear Momentum.
mV

Newton’s Second Law is only valid if F~ and V

~ are defined in an Inertial
coordinate system.

Definition 2.
A coordinate system is Inertial if it is not accelerating or rotating.
M. Peet Lecture 16: 7 / 39
 6DOF: Newton’s Laws
Lecture 16 Forces

Newton’s Second Law tells us that for a particle F = ma. In vector form:
X d~
F~ = F~i = m V
2018-04-19 That is, if F~ = [Fx Fy Fz ] and V
i
dt

~ = [u v w], then

du dv dw
Fx = m Fx = m Fz = m
dt dt dt

6DOF: Newton’s Laws Definition 1.

~ is referred to as Linear Momentum.
mV

Newton’s Second Law is only valid if F~ and V

~ are defined in an Inertial
coordinate system.

Definition 2.
A coordinate system is Inertial if it is not accelerating or rotating.

We are not in an inertial frame because the Earth is rotating

• ECEF vs. ECI
Newton’s Laws
Moments

Using Calculus, momentum can be extended to rigid bodies by integration over

all particles.
~i = d H
X
M~ = M ~
i
dt
Definition 3.
~ = (~rc × ~vc )dm is the angular momentum.
R
Where H

Angular momentum of a rigid body can be found as

~ = I~
H ωI

where ω~ I = [p, q, r]T is the angular rotation vector of the body about the
center of mass.
• p = ωx is rotation about the x-axis.
• q = ωy is rotation about the y-axis.
• r = ωz is rotation about the z-axis.
• ωI is defined in an Inertial Frame.
The matrix I is the Moment of Inertia Matrix (Here also in inertial frame!).
M. Peet Lecture 16: 8 / 39
 Newton’s Laws
Lecture 16 Moments

Using Calculus, momentum can be extended to rigid bodies by integration over

all particles.
~i = d H
2018-04-19
X
M~ = M ~
i
dt
Definition 3.
~ = (~rc × ~vc )dm is the angular momentum.
R
Where H

Angular momentum of a rigid body can be found as

Newton’s Laws where ω

~ = I~
H ωI

~ I = [p, q, r]T is the angular rotation vector of the body about the
center of mass.
• p = ωx is rotation about the x-axis.
• q = ωy is rotation about the y-axis.
• r = ωz is rotation about the z-axis.
• ωI is defined in an Inertial Frame.
The matrix I is the Moment of Inertia Matrix (Here also in inertial frame!).

~rc and ~vc are position and velocity vectors with respect to the centroid of the
body.
Newton’s Laws
Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia matrix is defined as

 
Ixx −Ixy −Ixz
I = −Iyx Iyy −Iyz 
−Izx −Izy Izz
Z Z Z Z Z Z
y 2 + z 2 dm


Ixy = Iyx = xydm Ixx =
Z Z Z Z Z Z
x2 + z 2 dm


Ixz = Izx = xzdm Iyy =
Z Z Z Z Z Z
x2 + y 2 dm


Iyz = Izy = yzdm Izz =

So     
Hx Ixx −Ixy −Ixz pI
Hy  = −Iyx Iyy −Iyz  qI 
Hz −Izx −Izy Izz rI
where pI , qI and rI are the rotation vectors as expressed in the inertial frame
corresponding to x-y-z.
M. Peet Lecture 16: 9 / 39
Moment of Inertia
Examples:

Homogeneous Sphere Ring

  1 
1 0 0 0 0
2 2
Isphere = mr2 0 1 0 Iring = mr2  0 1
2 0
5
0 0 1 0 0 1

M. Peet Lecture 16: 10 / 39

Moment of Inertia
Examples:

Homogeneous Disk F/A-18

1 + 13 rh2
   
0 0 23 0 2.97
1 2
Idisk = mr 0 1 + 13 rh2 0 I =  0 15.13 0  kslug − f t2
4 1
0 0 2
2.97 0 16.99

M. Peet Lecture 16: 11 / 39

Moment of Inertia
Examples:

Cube Box
 
  b2 +c2
1 0 0 3 0 0
2 2 a2 +c2
Icube = l 0 1 0 Ibox =  0 0 
 
3 3
0 0 1 a2 +b2
0 0 3

M. Peet Lecture 16: 12 / 39

Moment of Inertia
Examples:

Cassini NEAR Shoemaker 3

Figure 1: Sketch of NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft
   
8655.2 −144 132.1 473.924
[4] C.D. Hall, P. Tsiotras, 0 Rigid Body Motion
and H. Shen. Tracking 0 Using Thrusters and
I =  −144 7922.7 192.1  kg · m2 Momentum
I= 0 Journal of494.973
Wheels. The 0 50(3):311–323,
the Astronautical Sciences,  kg·m 2
2002.

132.1 192.1 4586.2 [5] C.D. Hall. Spacecraft 0Dynamics and 0

Control, AOE 269.83
4140 Class Notes.
http://www.aoe.vt.edu/c̃dhall/courses/aoe4140/, February 5, 2003.

[6] J.L. Meriam and L.G. Kraige. Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons
M. Peet inc., 4 edition, Lecture
1997. 16: 13 / 39
Problem:
The Body-Fixed Frame

The moment of inertia matrix, I, is fixed in the body-fixed frame. However,

Newton’s law only applies for an inertial frame:
~i = d H
X
~ =
M M ~
i
dt

Suppose the body-fixed frame is rotating with angular velocity vector ω

~ . Then
d
for any vector, ~a, dt ~a in the inertial frame is

d~a  d~a 
 = ω × ~a
 +~
dt I dt B

Specifically, for Newton’s Second Law

~ 
dV
F~ = m ~
ω×V
 + m~
dt B
and
~
~ = dH  + ω
M ~
~ ×H
dt B
M. Peet Lecture 16: 14 / 39
Equations of Motion
Displacement

The equation for acceleration (which we will ignore) is:

 
Fx ~
Fy  = m dV  +m~ ω×V ~
dt B
Fz
   
u̇ x̂ ŷ ẑ
= m  v̇  + m det ωx ωy ωz 
ẇ u v w
 
u̇ + ωy w − ωz v
= m v̇ + ωz u − ωx w 
ẇ + ωx v − ωy u

As we will see, displacement and rotation in space are decoupled.

• no aerodynamic forces.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 15 / 39

 Equations of Motion
The equations for rotation are:
 
L ~
M  = dH  +~ ω×H ~
dt B
N
     
Ixx −Ixy −Ixz ω̇x Ixx −Ixy −Ixz ωx
= −Iyx Iyy −Iyz  ω̇y  + ω ~ × −Iyx Iyy −Iyz  ωy 
−Izx −Izy Izz ω̇z −Izx −Izy Izz ωz
   
Ixx ω̇x − Ixy ω̇y − Ixz ω̇z ωx Ixx − ωy Ixy − ωz Ixz
= −Ixy ω̇x + Iyy ω̇y − Iyz ω̇z  + ω ~ × −ωx Ixy + ωy Iyy − ωz Iyz 
−Ixz ω̇x − Iyz ω̇y + Izz ω̇z −ωx Ixz − ωy Iyz + ωz Izz
 
Ixx ω̇x − Ixy ω̇y −Ixz ω̇z +ωy (ωz Izz −ωx Ixz −ωy Iyz )−ωz (ωy Iyy − ωx Ixy −ωz Iyz )
= Iyy ω̇y −Ixy ω̇x −Iyz ω̇z −ωx (ωz Izz −ωy Iyz −ωx Ixz )+ωz (ωx Ixx −ωy Ixy −ωz Ixz ) 
Izz ω̇z − Ixz ω̇x − Iyz ω̇y +ωx (ωy Iyy −ωx Ixy −ωz Iyz )−ωy (ωx Ixx −ωy Ixy −ωz Ixz )

Which is too much for any mortal. We simplify as:

• For spacecraft, we have Iyz = Ixy = Ixz = 0 (two planes of symmetry).
• For aircraft, we have Iyz = Ixy = 0 (one plane of symmetry).
M. Peet Lecture 16: 16 / 39
 Equations of Motion
Lecture 16 The equations for rotation are:
 
L ~
M  = dH  +~ ω×H ~
2018-04-19 N

dt B

Ixx −Ixy −Ixz

 
ω̇x

Ixx −Ixy −Ixz
 
ωx
= −Iyx Iyy −Iyz  ω̇y  + ω ~ × −Iyx Iyy −Iyz  ωy 
−Izx −Izy Izz ω̇z −Izx −Izy Izz ωz
   
Ixx ω̇x − Ixy ω̇y − Ixz ω̇z ωx Ixx − ωy Ixy − ωz Ixz
= −Ixy ω̇x + Iyy ω̇y − Iyz ω̇z  + ω ~ × −ωx Ixy + ωy Iyy − ωz Iyz 

Equations of Motion 
−Ixz ω̇x − Iyz ω̇y + Izz ω̇z −ωx Ixz − ωy Iyz + ωz Izz
Ixx ω̇x − Ixy ω̇y −Ixz ω̇z +ωy (ωz Izz −ωx Ixz −ωy Iyz )−ωz (ωy Iyy − ωx Ixy −ωz Iyz )


= Iyy ω̇y −Ixy ω̇x −Iyz ω̇z −ωx (ωz Izz −ωy Iyz −ωx Ixz )+ωz (ωx Ixx −ωy Ixy −ωz Ixz ) 

Izz ω̇z − Ixz ω̇x − Iyz ω̇y +ωx (ωy Iyy −ωx Ixy −ωz Iyz )−ωy (ωx Ixx −ωy Ixy −ωz Ixz )

Which is too much for any mortal. We simplify as:

• For spacecraft, we have Iyz = Ixy = Ixz = 0 (two planes of symmetry).
• For aircraft, we have Iyz = Ixy = 0 (one plane of symmetry).

If we use the matrix version of the cross-product, we can write

~ = I ω̇(t) + [ω(t)]× Iω(t)

M
Which is a much-simplified version of the dynamics!
Recall
   
x 0 −z y
y  =  z 0 −x
z × −y x 0
Equations of Motion
Euler Moment Equations

With Ixy = Iyz = Ixz = 0, we get: Euler’s Equations

   
L Ixx ω̇x + ωy ωz (Izz − Iyy )
M  = Iyy ω̇y + ωx ωz (Ixx − Izz )
N Izz ω̇z + ωx ωy (Iyy − Ixx )

Thus:
• Rotational variables (ωx , ωy , ωz ) do not depend on translational variables
(u,v,w).
I For spacecraft, Moment forces (L,M,N) do not depend on rotational and
translational variables.
I Can be decoupled
• However, translational variables (u,v,w) depend on rotation (ωx , ωy , ωz ).
I But we don’t care.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 17 / 39

Euler Equations
Torque-Free Motion

Notice that even in the absence of external moments, the dynamics are still
active:
   
0 Ix ω̇x + ωy ωz (Iz − Iy )
0 = Iy ω̇y + ωx ωz (Ix − Iz )
0 Iz ω̇z + ωx ωy (Iy − Ix )
which yield the 3-state nonlinear ODE:
Iz − Iy
ω̇x = − ωy (t)ωz (t)
Ix
Ix − Iz
ω̇y = − ωx (t)ωz (t)
Iy
Iy − Ix
ω̇z = − ωx (t)ωy (t)
Iz
Thus even in the absence of external moments
• The axis of rotation ω~ will evolve
• Although the angular momentum vector ~h will NOT.
I occurs because tensor I changes in inertial frame.
• This can be problematic for spin-stabilization!
M. Peet Lecture 16: 18 / 39
 Euler Equations
Spin Stabilization

introduce products of inertia in the spacecraft inertia axis is illustrated in Figure 5. Conversely
We can use Euler’s equation to study Spin Stabilization.
tensor. is spinning about its major axis, any nu
Angular Momentum coincides will simply decay.
There are twowith
important cases:
Nominal Spin Axis
ASMOS can be used to investiga
energy dissipation effects. With ASMO
introduce various rates of internal energy
the rigid body model by entering vi
coefficients and wheel inertias. The user
resulting motion. This motion can also
further analysis.

Angular Momentum
Vector & New Spin Ax
Figure 3. Spin Stabilized Spacecraft
Axisymmetric: Ix = Iy Non-Axisymmetric: Ix 6=spacecraft
Figure 1: Sketch of NEAR Shoemaker Iy 3

  [4] C.D. Hall,

 P. Tsiotras, and H. Shen. Tracking Rigid Body Motion Using Thrusters and
Ix 0 0 Momentum 473.924 0
Wheels. The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, 0
50(3):311–323, 2002.

I =  0 Angular
Ix 0 Momentum I[5] C.D.
= Hall. 0 Dynamics and
 Spacecraft 494.973 0  kg·m2
Control, AOE 4140 Class Notes.
Vector http://www.aoe.vt.edu/c̃dhall/courses/aoe4140/, February 5, 2003.
0 0 Iz 0 0 269.83
[6] J.L. Meriam and L.G. Kraige. Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons,
inc., 4 edition, 1997. Old Sp
M. Peet Lecture 16: 19 / 39
 Euler Equations
Lecture 16 Spin Stabilization

introduce products of inertia in the spacecraft inertia

tensor.
axis is illustrated in Figure 5. Conversely
We can use Euler’s equation to study Spin Stabilization.
is spinning about its major axis, any nu
Angular Momentum coincides will simply decay.
There are twowith
important cases:
2018-04-19 Nominal Spin Axis
ASMOS can be used to investiga
energy dissipation effects. With ASMO
introduce various rates of internal energy
the rigid body model by entering vi
coefficients and wheel inertias. The user
resulting motion. This motion can also
further analysis.

Euler Equations Figure 3. Spin Stabilized Spacecraft

Angular Momentum
Vector & New Spin Ax

Axisymmetric: Ix = Iy Non-Axisymmetric: Ix 6=spacecraft

Figure 1: Sketch of NEAR Shoemaker Iy 3

  [4] C.D. Hall,

 P. Tsiotras, and H. Shen. Tracking Rigid Body Motion Using Thrusters and
Ix 0 0 Momentum 473.924 0
Wheels. The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, 0
50(3):311–323, 2002.

I =  0 Angular
Ix 0 Momentum I[5] C.D.
= Hall. 0 Dynamics and
 Spacecraft 494.973 0  kg·m2
Control, AOE 4140 Class Notes.
Vector http://www.aoe.vt.edu/c̃dhall/courses/aoe4140/, February 5, 2003.
0 0 Iz 0 0 269.83
[6] J.L. Meriam and L.G. Kraige. Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons,
inc., 4 edition, 1997. Old Sp
Nominal Spin
Axis
Nutation Angle
Figure 5. Reorientation of the Sp

Note we say a body is axisymmetric if Ix = Iy . Conclusion

11

ASMOS is a simulation tool th

• We don’t need rotational symmetry...

animated 3-D computer graphics to visu
attitude motion. The program runs
personal computers and features pull do
dialog boxes making the program accessi
use. The program is capable of
Figure 4. Spacecraft Nutational Motion animating a wide range of rigid body a
The rigid body model includes an e
investigating stability and energy dissipat
In the absence of energy dissipation, nutational
motion is stable about the axis of either the maximum or References
minimum moment of inertia. This implies that the
amplitude of motion is bounded by initial conditions.
1. Hughes, P.C., "Spacecraft Attitude D
However, all real spacecraft experience some form of
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986.
energy dissipation. In this case, nutational motion is
2. Kaplan, M.H., "Modern Spacecraf
only stable about the axis of maximum moment of
Control," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986.
inertia. The axes of minimum and maximum moments
3. Wertz, J.R, "Spacecraft Attitude Det
of inertia are referred to as minor and major axes,
Control," D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1985.
respectively. Thus, if a spacecraft is spinning about its
4. Lampton, C., "Flights of Fantasy / Pr
minor axis, nutational motion will grow until the
Video Games in C++", Waite Group Pres
spacecraft tumbles and eventually reorients itself
spinning about its major axis. Reorientation of the spin
Spin Stabilization
Axisymmetric Case introduce products of inertia in th
tensor.
Angular Momentum coi
with Nominal Spin A

An important case is spin-stabilization of an axisymmetric

spacecraft.
• Assume symmetry about z-axis (Ix = Iy )
Then recall
Iy − Ix
ω̇z = − ωx (t)ωy (t) = 0
Iz
Thus ωz = constant.
The equations for ωx and ωy are now Figure 3. Spin Stabilized S

  " Iz −Iy
# 
ω̇x 0 − Ix ωz ωx (t)
=
ω̇y − IxI−I
y
z
ωz 0 ωy (t)
Angular M
Vec
Which is a linear ODE.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 20 / 39

Spin Stabilization
Axisymmetric Case

Fortunately, linear systems have closed-form solutions.

let λ = IzI−I
x
x
ωz . Then

ω̇x (t) = −λωy (t)

ω̇y (t) = λωx (t)
Combining, we get
ω̈x (t) = −λ2 ωx (t)
which has solution
ω̇x (0)
ωx (t) = ωx (0) cos(λt) + sin(λt)
λ
Differentiating, we get
ω̇x (t) ω̇x (0)
ωy (t) = − = ωx (0) sin(λt) − cos(λt)
λ λ
= ωx (0) sin(λt) + ωy (0) cos(λt)
ωx (t) = ωx (0) cos(λt) − ωy (0) sin(λt)

M. Peet Lecture 16: 21 / 39

Spin Stabilization
Axisymmetric Case
q
Define ωxy = ωx2 + ωy2 .

2
ωxy = (ωx (0) sin(λt) + ωy (0) cos(λt))2 + (ωx (0) cos(λt) − ωy (0) sin(λt))2
= ωx (0)2 sin2 (λt) + ωy (0)2 cos2 (λt) + 2ωx (0)ωy (0) cos(λt) sin(λt)
+ ωx (0)2 cos2 (λt) + ωy (0)2 sin2 (λt) − 2ωx (0)ωy (0) cos(λt) sin(λt)
= ωx (0)2 (sin2 (λt) + cos2 (λt)) + ωy (0)2 (cos2 (λt) + sin2 (λt))
= ωx (0)2 + ωy (0)2

Thus
• ωz is constant
I rotation about axis of symmetry
q
• ωx2 + ωy2 is constant
I rotation perpendicular to axis of symmetry
This type of motion is often called Precession!
M. Peet Lecture 16: 22 / 39
Circular Motion in the Body-Fixed Frame

Thus
      
ωx (t) cos(λt) − sin(λt) 0 ωx (0) ωx (0)
ω(t) = ωy (t) =  sin(λt) cos(λt) 0 ωy (0) = R3 (λt) ωy (0)
ωz (t) 0 0 1 ωz (0) ωz (0)

M. Peet Lecture 16: 23 / 39

 Circular Motion in the Body-Fixed Frame
Lecture 16
2018-04-19

Circular Motion in the Body-Fixed Frame

Thus
      
ωx (t) cos(λt) − sin(λt) 0 ωx (0) ωx (0)
ω(t) = ωy (t) =  sin(λt) cos(λt) 0 ωy (0) = R3 (λt) ωy (0)
ωz (t) 0 0 1 ωz (0) ωz (0)

• For λ > 0, this is a Positive (counterclockwise) rotation, about the z-axis, of the
angular velocity vector ω as expressed in the body-fixed coordinates!
Prolate vs. Oblate
The speed of the precession is given by the natural frequency:
Iz − Ix
λ= ωz
Ix
2π 2πIx −1
with period T = λ = Iz −Ix ωz .
Direction of Precession: There are two cases
Definition 4 (Direct).
An axisymmetric (about z-axis) rigid body is Prolate if Iz < Ix = Iy .

Definition 5 (Retrograde).
An axisymmetric (about z-axis) rigid body is Oblate if Iz > Ix = Iy .

Thus we have two cases:

• λ > 0 if object is Oblate (CCW rotation)
• λ < 0 if object is Prolate (CW rotation)
Note that these are rotations of ω, as expressed in the Body-Fixed Frame.
M. Peet Lecture 16: 24 / 39
Pay Attention to the Body-Fixed Axes

Figure: Prolate Precession Figure: Oblate Precession

The black arrow is ω
~.
• The body-fixed x and y axes are indicated with red and green dots.
• Notice the direction of rotation of ω with respect to these dots.
• The angular momentum vector is the inertial z axis.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 25 / 39

Motion in the Inertial Frame

As these videos illustrate, we are typically interested in motion in the

Inertial Frame.

• Use of Rotation Matrices is complicated.

I Which coordinate system to use???

• Lets consider motion relative to ~h.

I Which is fixed in inertial space.

We know that in Body-Fixed coordinates,

 
Ix ωx
~h = I~
ω = Iy ωy 
Iz ωz

Now lets find the orientation of ω and ẑ with respect to this fixed vector.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 26 / 39

Motion in the Inertial Frame

Let x̂, ŷ and ẑ define the body-fixed unit vectors.

We first note that since Ix = Iy and

~h = Ix ωx x̂ + Iy ωy ŷ + Iz ωz ẑ
= Ix (ωx x̂ + ωy ŷ + ωz ẑ) + (Iz − Ix )ωz ẑ
~ + (Iz − Ix )ωz ẑ
= Ix ω

we have that
1 ~ Ix − Iz
ω
~ = h+ ẑ
Ix Ix ωz

~ lies in the ẑ − ~h plane.

which implies that ω

M. Peet Lecture 16: 27 / 39

Motion in the Inertial Frame

We now focus on two constants of motion

• θ - The angle ~h makes with the body-fixed ẑ axis.
• γ - The angle ω
~ makes with the body-fixed ẑ axis.

Since    
hx Ix ωx
~h = hy  = Iy ωy 
hz Iz ωz
The angle θ is defined by
q q
h2x + h2y Ix ωx2 + ωy2 Ix ωxy
tan θ = = =
hz I z ωz Iz ωz
Since ωxy and ωz are fixed, θ is a constant of
motion.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 28 / 39

 Motion in the Inertial Frame
Lecture 16 We now focus on two constants of motion
• θ - The angle ~h makes with the body-fixed ẑ axis.

2018-04-19 • γ - The angle ω

~ makes with the body-fixed ẑ axis.

Since    
hx Ix ωx
~h = hy  = Iy ωy 
hz Iz ωz

Motion in the Inertial Frame The angle θ is defined by

q
h2x + h2y
q
Ix ωx2 + ωy2 Ix ωxy
tan θ = = =
hz I z ωz Iz ωz
Since ωxy and ωz are fixed, θ is a constant of
motion.

Again, ~h here is in the body-fixed frame

• This is why it changes over time.
Motion in the Inertial Frame
The second angle to consider is
• γ - The angle ω
~ makes with the body-fixed ẑ axis.
As before, the angle γ is defined by
q
ωx2 + ωy2 ωxy
tan γ = =
ωz ωz
Since ωxy and ωz are fixed, γ is a constant of
motion.
• We have the relationship

Ix ωxy Ix
tan θ = = tan γ
Iz ωz Iz
Thus we have two cases:
1. Ix > Iz - Then θ > γ
2. Ix < Iz - Then θ < γ (As Illustrated)

M. Peet Lecture 16: 29 / 39

Motion in the Inertial Frame

Figure: The case of Ix > Iz (θ > γ) Figure: The case of Iz > Ix (γ > θ)

M. Peet Lecture 16: 30 / 39

 Motion in the Inertial Frame
Lecture 16
2018-04-19

Motion in the Inertial Frame

Figure: The case of Ix > Iz (θ > γ) Figure: The case of Iz > Ix (γ > θ)

We illustrate the motion using the Space Cone and Body Cone
• The space cone is fixed in inertial space (doesn’t move)
• The space cone has width |ω − θ|
• The body cone is centered around the z-axis of the body.
• In body-fixed coordinates, the space cone rolls around the body cone (which is
fixed)
• In inertial coordinates, the body cone rolls around the space cone (which is fixed)
Motion in the Inertial Frame
The orientation of the body in the inertial frame is defined by the sequence of
Euler rotations

• ψ - R3 rotation about ~h.

I Aligns hx perpendicular to ẑ.

• θ - R1 rotation by angle θ about hx .

I Rotate hz -axis to body-fixed ẑ vector

I We have shown that this angle is fixed!

I θ̇ = 0.

• φ - R3 rotation about body-fixed ẑ vector.

I Aligns hx to x̂.

The Euler angles are related to the angular velocity vector as

   
ωx ψ̇ sin θ sin φ
ωy  =  ψ̇ sin θ cos φ 
ωz φ̇ + ψ̇ cos θ = constant

M. Peet Lecture 16: 31 / 39

 Motion in the Inertial Frame
Lecture 16 The orientation of the body in the inertial frame is defined by the sequence of
Euler rotations

2018-04-19 • ψ - R3 rotation about ~h.

I Aligns h
x perpendicular to ẑ.

• θ - R1 rotation by angle θ about hx .

I Rotate h -axis to body-fixed ẑ vector
z
I We have shown that this angle is fixed!

I θ̇ = 0.

Motion in the Inertial Frame • φ - R3 rotation about body-fixed ẑ vector.

I Aligns h
x to x̂.

The Euler angles are related to the angular velocity vector as

   
ωx ψ̇ sin θ sin φ
ωy  =  ψ̇ sin θ cos φ 
ωz φ̇ + ψ̇ cos θ = constant

This comes from

     
0 0 0
~ = R3 (φ)R1 (θ)R3 (ψ)  0  + R3 (φ)R1 (θ) θ̇  + R3 (φ)  0 
ω
ψ̇ 0 φ̇
     
ψ̇ sin θ sin φ 0 0
= ψ̇ sin θ cos φ + 0 +  0 
ψ̇ cos θ 0 φ̇
Motion in the Inertial Frame

To find the motion of ω, we differentiate

   
ω̇x ψ̇ φ̇ sin θ cos φ
ω̇y  = −ψ̇ φ̇ sin θ sin φ
ω̇z 0

Now, substituting into the Euler equations yields

Iz
ψ̇ = φ̇
(Ix − Iz ) cos θ

There are two cases here:

• Ix > Iz - Direct precession
I ψ̇ and φ̇ aligned.
• Iy > Ix - Retrograde precession
I ψ̇ and φ̇ are opposite.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 32 / 39

 Motion in the Inertial Frame
Lecture 16 To find the motion of ω, we differentiate

2018-04-19
   
ω̇x ψ̇ φ̇ sin θ cos φ
ω̇y  = −ψ̇ φ̇ sin θ sin φ
ω̇z 0

Now, substituting into the Euler equations yields

Iz
ψ̇ = φ̇
Motion in the Inertial Frame (Ix − Iz ) cos θ

There are two cases here:

• Ix > Iz - Direct precession
I ψ̇ and φ̇ aligned.
• Iy > Ix - Retrograde precession
I ψ̇ and φ̇ are opposite.

Recall ω̇x and ω̇y can be expressed in terms of ωx and ωy

Motion in the Inertial Frame

Figure: Direct Precession (Iz < Ix )

Figure: Retrograde Precession (Iz > Ix )

M. Peet Lecture 16: 33 / 39

Mathematica Demonstrations

Mathematica Precession Demonstration

M. Peet Lecture 16: 34 / 39

Prolate and Oblate Spinning Objects

Figure: Prolate Object: Ix = Iy = 4 and

Figure: Oblate Object: Vesta
Iz = 1

M. Peet Lecture 16: 35 / 39

Next Lecture

Note Bene: Precession of a spacecraft is often called nutation (θ is called the

nutation angle).
• By most common definitions, for torque-free motions, N = 0
I Free rotation has NO nutation.
I This is confusing
M. Peet Lecture 16: 36 / 39
Precession
Example: Chandler Wobble

Problem: The earth is 42.72 km wider than it is tall. How quickly will the
rotational axis of the earth precess due to this effect?
Solution: for an axisymmetric ellipsoid with height a and width b, we have
Ix = Iy = 15 m(a2 + b2 ) and Iz = 25 mb2 .
Thus b = 6378km, a = 6352km and we have
(me = 5.974 · 1024 kg)
2 2
Iz = 9.68 · 1037kg−m , Ix = Iy = 9.72 · 1037kg−m

If we take ωz = 2π ∼
= 2πday −1 , then we have
T

Iz − Ix
λ= ωz = .0041day −1
Ix
That gives a period of T = 2πλ = 243.5days. This motion of the earth is known
as the Chandler Wobble.

Note: This is only the Torque-free precession.

M. Peet Lecture 16: 37 / 39
Precession

• Actual period is 434 days

I Actual I = I = 8.008 · 1037 kg − m2 .
x y
I Actual I = 8.034 · 1037 kg − m2 .
z
I Which would predict T = 306days

M. Peet Lecture 16: 38 / 39

 Precession
Lecture 16
2018-04-19

Precession
• Actual period is 434 days
I Actual I = I = 8.008 · 1037 kg − m2 .
x y
I Actual I = 8.034 · 1037 kg − m2 .
z
I Which would predict T = 306days

• The precession of the earth was first notices by Euler, D’Alembert and Lagrange
as slight variations in lattitude.
• Error partially due to fact Earth is not a rigid body(Chandler + Newcomb).
• Magnitude of around 9m
• Previous plot scale is milli-arc-seconds (mas)
Next Lecture

In the next lecture we will cover

Non-Axisymmetric rotation
• Linearized Equations of Motion
• Stability

Energy Dissipation
• The effect on stability of rotation

M. Peet Lecture 16: 39 / 39