Fuel cells

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and
efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, electricity, water, and heat
are the only products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential
applications; they can provide power for systems as large as a utility power station
and as small as a laptop computer.

Why Study Fuel Cells

Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including transportation,

material handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup power applications.
Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies
currently used in many power plants and passenger vehicles. Fuel cells can operate
at higher efficiencies than combustion engines, and can convert the chemical
energy in the fuel to electrical energy with efficiencies of up to 60%. Fuel cells
have lower emissions than combustion engines. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only
water, so there are no carbon dioxide emissions and no air pollutants that create
smog and cause health problems at the point of operation. Also, fuel cells are quiet
during operation as they have fewer moving parts.

How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They
produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—
sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode,
and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode
separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons, which take different
paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow
of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where
they unite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat. Learn more
about:

 Parts of a fuel cell

 Fuel cell systems
 Types of fuel cells.

View the Fuel Cell Technologies Office's fuel cell animation to see how a fuel cell
operates.

Research and Development Goals

 The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working closely with its national
laboratories, universities, and industry partners to overcome critical technical
barriers to fuel cell development. Cost, performance, and durability are still key
challenges in the fuel cell industry. View related links that provide details about
DOE-funded fuel cell activities.

 Cost—Platinum represents one of the largest cost components of a fuel cell,

so much of the R&D focuses on approaches that will increase activity and
utilization of current platinum group metal (PGM) and PGM-alloy catalysts, as
well as non-PGM catalyst approaches for long-term applications.
 Performance—To improve fuel cell performance, R&D focuses on
developing ion-exchange membrane electrolytes with enhanced efficiency and
durability at reduced cost; improving membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs)
through integration of state-of-the-art MEA components; developing transport
models and in-situ and ex-situ experiments to provide data for model validation;
identifying degradation mechanisms and developing approaches to mitigate their
effects; and maintaining core activities on components, sub-systems, and systems
specifically tailored for stationary and portable power applications.
 Durability—A key performance factor is durability, in terms of a fuel cell
system lifetime that will meet application expectations. DOE durability targets for
stationary and transportation fuel cells are 40,000 hours and 5,000 hours,
respectively, under realistic operating conditions. In the most demanding
applications, realistic operating conditions include impurities in the fuel and air,
starting and stopping, freezing and thawing, and humidity and load cycles that
result in stresses on the chemical and mechanical stability of the fuel cell system
materials and components. R&D focuses on understanding the fuel cell
degradation mechanisms and developing materials and strategies that will mitigate
them.

Parts of a fuel cell

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research
for fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of
different materials. The main parts of a PEM fuel cell are described below.

The heart of a PEM fuel cell is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which
includes the membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs).

Hardware components used to incorporate an MEA into a fuel cell include gaskets,

which provide a seal around the MEA to prevent leakage of gases, and bipolar
plates, which are used to assemble individual PEM fuel cells into a fuel cell stack
and provide channels for the gaseous fuel and air.

Membrane Electrode Assembly

The membrane, catalyst layers (anode and cathode), and diffusion media together
form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.

POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE

The polymer electrolyte membrane, or PEM (also called a proton exchange

membrane)—a specially treated material that looks something like ordinary
kitchen plastic wrap—conducts only positively charged ions and blocks the
electrons. The PEM is the key to the fuel cell technology; it must permit only the
necessary ions to pass between the anode and cathode. Other substances passing
through the electrolyte would disrupt the chemical reaction. For transportation
applications, the membrane is very thin—in some cases under 20 microns.

CATALYST LAYERS

A layer of catalyst is added on both sides of the membrane—the anode layer on

one side and the cathode layer on the other. Conventional catalyst layers include
nanometer-sized particles of platinum dispersed on a high-surface-area carbon
support. This supported platinum catalyst is mixed with an ion-conducting polymer
(ionomer) and sandwiched between the membrane and the GDLs. On the anode
side, the platinum catalyst enables hydrogen molecules to be split into protons and
electrons. On the cathode side, the platinum catalyst enables oxygen reduction by
reacting with the protons generated by the anode, producing water. The ionomer
mixed into the catalyst layers allows the protons to travel through these layers.

GAS DIFFUSION LAYERS

The GDLs sit outside the catalyst layers and facilitate transport of reactants into the
catalyst layer, as well as removal of product water. Each GDL is typically
composed of a sheet of carbon paper in which the carbon fibers are partially coated
with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Gases diffuse rapidly through the pores in the
GDL. These pores are kept open by the hydrophobic PTFE, which prevents
excessive water buildup. In many cases, the inner surface of the GDL is coated
with a thin layer of high-surface-area carbon mixed with PTFE, called the
microporous layer. The microporous layer can help adjust the balance between
water retention (needed to maintain membrane conductivity) and water release
(needed to keep the pores open so hydrogen and oxygen can diffuse into the
electrodes).

Hardware
 The MEA is the part of the fuel cell where power is produced, but hardware
components are required to enable effective MEA operation.

BIPOLAR PLATES

Each individual MEA produces less than 1 V under typical operating conditions,
but most applications require higher voltages. Therefore, multiple MEAs are
usually connected in series by stacking them on top of each other to provide a
usable output voltage. Each cell in the stack is sandwiched between two bipolar
plates to separate it from neighboring cells. These plates, which may be made of
metal, carbon, or composites, provide electrical conduction between cells, as well
as providing physical strength to the stack. The surfaces of the plates typically
contain a “flow field,” which is a set of channels machined or stamped into the
plate to allow gases to flow over the MEA. Additional channels inside each plate
may be used to circulate a liquid coolant.

GASKETS

Each MEA in a fuel cell stack is sandwiched between two bipolar plates, but
gaskets must be added around the edges of the MEA to make a gas-tight seal.
These gaskets are usually made of a rubbery polymer.

Fuel cell systems

The design of fuel cell systems is complex, and can vary significantly depending
upon fuel cell type and application. However, several basic components are found
in many fuel cell systems:

 Fuel cell stack

 Fuel processor
 Power conditioners
 Air compressors
 Humidifiers

FUEL CELL STACK

The fuel cell stack is the heart of a fuel cell power system. It generates electricity
in the form of direct current (DC) from electro-chemical reactions that take place
in the fuel cell. A single fuel cell produces less than 1 V, which is insufficient for
most applications. Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically combined in series
into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of fuel cells.
The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several factors, such as
fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the pressure of the
gases supplied to the cell. Learn more about the parts of a fuel cell.

FUEL PROCESSOR

The fuel processor converts fuel into a form usable by the fuel cell.  Depending on
the fuel and type of fuel cell, the fuel processor can be a simple sorbent bed to
remove impurities, or a combination of multiple reactors and sorbents.

If the system is powered by a hydrogen-rich, conventional fuel, such as methanol,

gasoline, diesel, or gasified coal, a reformer is typically used to convert
hydrocarbons into a gas mixture of hydrogen and carbon compounds called
"reformate." In many cases, the reformate is then sent to a set of reactors to convert
carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and remove any trace amounts of carbon
monoxide remaining and a sorbent bed to remove other impurities, such as sulfur
compounds, before it is sent to the fuel cell stack. This process prevents impurities
in the gas from binding with the fuel cell catalysts. This binding process is also
called "poisoning" because it reduces the efficiency and life expectancy of the fuel
cell.

Some fuel cells, such as molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, operate at
temperatures high enough that the fuel can be reformed in the fuel cell itself. This
process is called internal reforming. Fuel cells that use internal reforming still need
traps to remove impurities from the unreformed fuel before it reaches the fuel cell.
Both internal and external reforming release carbon dioxide, but due to the fuel
cells’ high efficiency, less carbon dioxide is emitted than by internal-combustion
engines, such as those used in gasoline-powered vehicles.

POWER CONDITIONERS

Power conditioning includes controlling current (amperes), voltage, frequency, and

other characteristics of the electrical current to meet the needs of the application.
Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of direct current (DC). In a DC circuit,
electrons flow in only one direction. The electricity in your home and workplace is
in the form of alternating current (AC), which flows in both directions on
alternating cycles. If the fuel cell is used to power equipment that uses AC, the
direct current will have to be converted to alternating current.

Both AC and DC power must be conditioned. Current inverters and conditioners

adapt the electrical current from the fuel cell to suit the electrical needs of the
application, whether it is a simple electrical motor or a complex utility power grid.
Conversion and conditioning reduce system efficiency only slightly, around 2%–
6%.
AIR COMPRESSORS

Fuel cell performance improves as the pressure of the reactant gases increases;
therefore many fuel cell systems include an air compressor, which raises the
pressure of the inlet air to 2–4 times the ambient atmospheric pressure. For
transportation applications, air compressors should have an efficiency of at least
75%. In some cases, an expander is also included to recover power from the high
pressure exhaust gases. Expander efficiency should be at least 80%.

HUMIDIFIERS

The polymer electrolyte membrane at the heart of a PEM fuel cell does not work
well when dry, so many fuel cell systems include a humidifier for the inlet air.
Humidifiers usually consist of a thin membrane, which may be made of the same
material as the PEM. By flowing dry inlet air on one side of the humidifier and wet
exhaust air on the other side, the water produced by the fuel cell may be recycled
to keep the PEM well hydrated.

Types of fuel cell

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
classification determines the kind of electro-chemical reactions that take place in
the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell
operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect
the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of
fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations,
and potential applications. Learn more about the following types of fuel cells.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called proton exchange

membrane fuel cells—deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low
weight and volume compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid
polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum or
platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water
to operate. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage
tanks or reformers.

PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low-
temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results
in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it
requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the
hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is
also extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce carbon monoxide in the fuel gas if the
hydrogen is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor also adds cost.

PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some
stationary applications. Due to their fast startup time and favorable power-to-
weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles,
such as cars and buses.

Direct methanol fuel cells

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system
directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich
fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells
(DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is usually mixed with
water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of
some fuel cell systems because methanol has a higher energy density than
hydrogen—though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to
transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure because it is a
liquid, like gasoline. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable fuel cell
applications such as cell phones or laptop computers.

Alkaline fuel cells

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed,
and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce
electrical energy and water on-board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of
potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-
precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years, novel AFCs
that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte have been developed. These fuel
cells are closely related to conventional PEM fuel cells, except that they use an
alkaline membrane instead of an acid membrane. The high performance of AFCs is
due to the rate at which electro-chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have
also demonstrated efficiencies above 60% in space applications.

A key challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by
carbon dioxide (CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can
dramatically affect cell performance and durability due to carbonate formation.
Alkaline cells with liquid electrolytes can be run in a recirculating mode, which
allows for electrolyte regeneration to help reduce the effects of carbonate
formation in the electrolyte, but the recirculating mode introduces issues with
shunt currents. The liquid electrolyte systems also suffer from additional concerns
including wettability, increased corrosion, and difficulties handling differential
pressures. Alkaline membrane fuel cells (AMFCs) address these concerns and have
lower susceptibility to CO2 poisoning than liquid-electrolyte AFCs do. However,
CO2 still affects performance, and performance and durability of the AMFCs still
lag that of PEMFCs. AMFCs are being considered for applications in the W to kW
scale. Challenges for AMFCs include tolerance to carbon dioxide, membrane
conductivity and durability, higher temperature operation, water management,
power density, and anode electrocatalysis.

Phosphoric acid fuel cells

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte—
the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous
carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The electro-chemical reactions
that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The PAFC is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the
most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This type of fuel cell
is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used
to power large vehicles such as city buses.

PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into
hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide
because carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing
the fuel cell's efficiency. PAFCs are more than 85% efficient when used for the co-
generation of electricity and heat but they are less efficient at generating electricity
alone (37%–42%). PAFC efficiency is only slightly more than that of combustion-
based power plants, which typically operate at around 33% efficiency. PAFCs are
also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a
result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive.
They require much higher loadings of expensive platinum catalyst than other types
of fuel cells do, which raises the cost.

Molten carbonate fuel cells

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas
and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military
applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte
composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically
inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide matrix. Because they operate at high
temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F), non-precious metals can be used as
catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions

over phosphoric acid fuel cells. Molten carbonate fuel cells, when coupled with a
turbine, can reach efficiencies approaching 65%, considerably higher than the
37%–42% efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is
captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be over 85%.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs do not require an
external reformer to convert fuels such as natural gas and biogas to hydrogen. At
the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, methane and other light
hydrocarbons in these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by
a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high

temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used
accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are
currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell
designs that double cell life from the current 40,000 hours (~5 years) without
decreasing performance.

Solid oxide fuel cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte. SOFCs are around 60% efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In
applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-
generation), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 85%.

SOFCs operate at very high temperatures—as high as 1,000°C (1,830°F). High-

temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby
reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the
use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to
the system.

SOFCs are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several
orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types can. In addition, they are not
poisoned by carbon monoxide, which can even be used as fuel. This
property allows SOFCs to use natural gas, biogas, and gases made from coal.
High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and
requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which
may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation. The high
operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials.
The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell operating
temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature

SOFCs operating at or below 700°C that have fewer durability problems and cost
less. Lower-temperature SOFCs have not yet matched the performance of the
higher temperature systems, however, and stack materials that will function in this
lower temperature range are still under development.
Reversible fuel cells

Reversible fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate
heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However, reversible fuel
cell systems can also use electricity from solar power, wind power, or other
sources to split water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel through a process
called electrolysis. Reversible fuel cells can provide power when needed, but
during times of high power production from other technologies (such as when high
winds lead to an excess of available wind power), reversible fuel cells can store the
excess energy in the form of hydrogen. This energy storage capability could be a
key enabler for intermittent renewable energy technologies.