Aircraft Structures DJpeery PDF

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Second Edition
David J. Pecry, p i .. d .
' [.ate Professor o f Aeronautical Engineering

The Pennsylvania S ta te University
J. J. Azar, P h.D .
Professor o f Petroleum anti M echanical Engineering '

University o f Tulsa
McGraw-Hill Book Company

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TO T H E M EM O R Y O F
D r. D a v id P e e ry
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A IR C R A FT ST R U C T U R E S 2 o S O ^
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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 H D IID 89876543
is b n n -D T -D in n k -a
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Peery. David J.
Aircraft structures.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Airframes. I. Azar, Jamal J., d;ite
II. Title
TL67I.6.P4 1982 629.134’3I 81-17196
ISBN 0-07-049196-8 AACR2
CONTENTS ’
Preface ix
Chapter 1 Static Analysis o f Structures I

1.1 In tro d u c tio n I
1.2 S tru c tu ra l System 1
1.3 .- L o ad C lassification 2
./\.4 S u p p o rts an d R eactio n s 3
1.5 E q u a tio n s o f S tatic E quilibrium , 5
1.6 S tatically D eterm in ate an d In d e te rm in a te S tru c tu re s 6
1.7 A p p licatio n s 7
P ro b lem s 21
Chapter 2 Flight-Vehicle Imposed L oad s 26

2.1 In tro d u c tio n 26
2.2 G en eral C o n sid e ra tio n s 26
,2 .3 Basic F lig h t L o ad in g C o n d itio n s 27
2 .4 F light-V chiclc A ero d y n am ic L o a d s 31
y 2 .5 F light-V ehicle In ertia L o ad s 34
'2 .6 L o a d F a c to rs fo r T ra n s la tio n a l A c c e le ra tio n 37
2 .7 V e lo c ity -L o a d F a c to r D iag ram 41
2.8 G u s t L o ad F a c to rs 43
2.9 E x am p les 46
P ro b le m s 58
Chapter 3 Elasticity of'Structures 62

3.2 S tresses 62
3.3 S tress E quilibrium E q u atio n s in a N o n u n ifo rm S tre ss F ield 65
3 .4 S tra in s a n d S tra in -D isp la cem en t R e la tio n s h ip s 66
3.5 C o m p a tib ility E q u a tio n s fo r P ian e-S tress an d
P la n e -S tra in P ro b le m s 69
3 .6 B o u n d a ry C o n d itio n s 70
v
r i CONTENTS
3.7 Stress-Strain Relationships 71

3.8 T ra n s fo rm a tio n o f S tresses a n d S tra in s 73
P ro b le m s 75
Chapter 4 Behavior and Evaluation o f Vehicle Material 78

4.2 M e ch an ical P ro p e rties o f M a te ria ls 79
4.3 E q u a tio n s fo r S tre ss-S tra in C u rv e Id e a liz a tio n 82
4 .4 F a tig u e 84
• 4 .5 S tre n g th -W eig h t C o m p a riso n s o f M a te ria ls 89
4 .6 S an d w ich C o n s tru c tio n 92
4.7 T ypical D esign D a ta fo r M a te ria ls 94
P ro b le m s 95
Chapter 5 Stress Analysis 97

5.2 F o rce-S tress R e la tio n sh ip s 97
5.3 N o rm a l S tresses in B eam s 99
5.4 S h e a r Stresses in B eam s 101
5.5 S h ear F lo w in T h in W eb s 107
5.6 S h e a r C e n te r 109
5.7 T o rsio n o f C losed-S eclion Box B eam s 112
5.8 S h e a r F lo w in C losed-S ection Box B eam s 113
5.9 S panw ise T a p e r Effect 118
5.10 B eam s w ith V ariable S trin g e r A reas 122
5.11 A iry Stress F u n c tio n 126
P ro b le m s 130
Chapter 6 Deflection Analysis o f Structural Systems 139

6.1 I n tro d u c tio n 139
6.2 W o rk a n d C o m p le m e n ta ry W o r k : S tra in an d C o m p lem en tary
S tra in E nergies 140
6.3 P rinciple o f V irtu al D isp la cem en ts a n d R elated T h eo rem s 140
6.4 P rin cip le o f V irtual F o rc e s a n d R e la te d T h eo rem s 144
6.5 L in e ar E lastic S tru c tu ra l S ystem s 147
6 .6 C a stig lia n o 's S econd T h e o re m in D eflection A nalysis o f S tru c tu res 150
6.7 R a y le ig h -R itz M e th o d in D eflection A nalysis o f S tru c tu re s 156
6.8 F in ite D ifference M e th o d in D eflection A nalysis o f S tru c tu re s 158
6.9 R e d u n d a n t S tru c tu re s a n d the U n it-L o a d M e th o d 165
6.10 S tru c tu re s w ith Single R e d u n d a n c y 167
6.11 S tru c tu re s w ith M ultiple R e d u n d a n c y 173
6.12 S h e a r L ag
P ro b le m s ' 86
Chapter 7 Finite Element Stiffness Method in

Structural Analysis 190
7.2 M a th em atic al M odel o f th e S tru c tu re 191
CONTENTS vii
7.3 E lem ent D isc retizatio n 191

7.4 A p p licatio n s o f F in ite E lem en t M a trix M eth o d 192
7.5 C o o rd in a te System 192
7.6 F orces, D isp lacem en ts, a n d T h e ir Sign C o n v e n tio n 194
7.7 Stiffness M e th o d C o n c ep t 197
7.8 F o rm u la tio n P ro ced u res fo r E lem en t S tru c tu ra l R ela tio n sh ip s 202
7.9 E lem ent S h ap e F u n ctio n s 207
7.10 F.lemont Stiffness M atrices 209
7.11 F ro m E lem ent to System F o rm u la tio n s 211
7.12 G lo b al Stiffness M a trices fo r S pecial Beam E lem ents 214
P ro b lem s 226
Chapter 8 Analysis o f Typical Members o f

Semimonocoque Structures 233
8.2 D istrib u tio n o r C o n c e n tra te d L o a d s to T h in W ebs 233
8.3 L o ad s o n F uselage B ulkheads 238
8 .4 A nalysis o f W ing R ibs 243
8.5 S h ear F lo w in T a p e re d W ebs 246
8.6 C u to u ts in S em im o n o co q u e S tru c tu re s 2-51
8.7 S hearing D e fo rm a tio n s 260
8.8 T o rsio n o f Box B eam s 26!
8.9 E lastic A xis o r S h e a r C e n te r 263
8.10 W arp in g o f Beam C ro ss S ections 266
8.11 R e d u n d an cy o f Box Beam s 269
8.12 T o rsio n o f M ul ticell Box B eam s 270
8.13 Beam S h e a r in M ulticell S tru c tu re s 272
P roblem s 275
Chapter 9 Thermal Stresses 279

9.2 T h e rm a l S tress P ro b le m : P h ilo so p h y 279
9.3 F o rm u la tio n o f E q u a tio n s fo r T h e rm a l Stress A nalysis 281
9 .4 S o lu tio n M e th o d s fo r T h e rm o e la stic P roblem s 284
9.5 T h e rm a l S tresses in U n re stra in e d Beam s w ith T e m p e ra tu re
V a ria tio n th ro u g h th e D epth O n ly 289
9.6 T h erm al S tresses in B uilt-up S tru c tu re s 291
P ro b lem s 295
Chapter 10 Design o f Members in Tension, Bending,

or Torsion 299
10.1 T en sio n M em b ers 299
10.2 P lastic B ending 300
10.3 C o n s ta n t B ending S tress 302
. 10.4 T ra p e z o id a l D istrib u tio n o f B ending Stress 304
10.5 C u rv ed Beam s 307
10.6 T o rsio n o f C irc u la r Shafts 310
10.7 T o rsio n o f a N o n c irc u la r S h aft 311
¥111 CONTENTS
10.8 E n d R e stra in t o f T o rsio n M em b ers 316

10.9 T o rsio n a l S tresses a b o v e th e E lastic L im it 317
10.10 C o m b in ed S tresses a n d S tre ss R a tio s 320
10.11 F ailu re T h eo ries in S tru c tu ra l D esign 325
P roblem s 327
Chapter 11 Buckling Design o f Structural Members 328

11.1 B eam -D eflection E q u a tio n s 328
11.2 L o n g C o lu m n s 330
11.3 E ccentrically L o ad ed C o lu m n s 331
11.4 S h o rt C o lu m n s 332
11.5 C o lu m n E nd F ixity 334
11.6 E m pirical F o rm u la s fo r S h o rt C o lu m n s 339
1 1.7 D im en sio n less F o rm o f T a n g e n t M o d u lu s C urves 342
11.8 B uckling o f Iso tro p ic F la t P lates in C o m p ressio n 344
11.9 U ltim ate C o m p ressiv e S tre n g th o f Iso tro p ic F la t S heet 349
11.10 P lastic B uckling o f F la t S heet 353
1.1 i N o n d im en sio n a l B uckling C urves 357
1.12 C o lu m n s S u b ject to L ocal C rip p lin g F ailure 358
1.13 N eed h a m a n d G e ra rd M e th o d s fo r D eterm in in g
C rip p lin g S tresses 362
1 .14 C u rv ed S h eet in C o m p ressio n 364
1.15 E lastic S h ear B u ckling o f F la t P lates 368
1.16 E lastic B uckling o f C u rv e d R e c ta n g u la r P lates 370
1.17 P u re T e n sio n F ield B eam s 373
1.18 A ngle o f D iag o n al T e n sio n in W eb 377
1.19 Sem itension F ield Hearns 380
P ro b lem s 387
Chapter 12 Joints and Fittings 389

12.2 B olted o r R iveted Jo in ts 390
12.3 A ccu racy o f F ittin g A n aly sis .3 9 5
12.4 E ccentrically L o ad ed C o n n e c tio n s 401
12.5 W elded Jo in ts 404
P ro b lem s 408
Appendixes
A M o m e n ts o f In ertia a n d M o h r's C ircle 409
B M a trix A lgebra 434
References 446
Index 450
PREFACE
T h e p u rp o se of this book is tw ofold: ( 1 ) to p rovide the reader with fundam ental

concepts in the analysis a n d design o f flight stru ctu res, an d ( 2 ) to develop unified
analytical tools for the prediction an d assessm ent o f stru ctu ra l b eh av io r re
gardless o f field application.
T h e text is w ritten in a m an n er w hich allow s th e re ad er to develop a w o rk
ing know ledge in both the classical an d the m o d ern co m p u ter techniques of
stru ctu ral analysis. In a d d itio n , it helps the read er develop a th o ro u g h u n d e r
stan d in g o f the im p o rta n t factors w hich m u st be considered in the design o f
stru ctu ral com ponents.
T h e scope covers areas th a t the a u th o rs feel are essential fu n d am en tals from
w hich the reader m ay progress to the analysis a n d design o f m o re com plex an d
larger stru c tu ra l systems. T h e definitions o f stru c tu ra l system s a n d its c o n
stituents, loads, su p p o rts and reactions, the concepts in statics, an d the fu n d a
m ental principles of m echanics are covered in the first p o rtio n of th e b o o k . T h e
basic elasticity relations (stress-strain, strain displacem ents, etc.), a n d m aterial
b eh av io r a n d selection’ are discussed. L o ad analysis o f flight vehicles a n d th e
analysis an d design o f specific flight-vehicle stru c tu ra l co m p o n en ts are presented.
F atig u e analysis, therm al stress analysis, a n d in stab ility analysis of stru c tu re s are
also included. Energy m ethods, finite-difference m eth o d s, and the stiffness m atrix
m ethods in the defiection analysis of stru ctu res a rc provided. N u m ero u s exam ples
a re solved in every section o f the b o o k to close the g ap betw een th e theo retical
developm ents and its ap p licatio n in solving practical problem s.
T he b o o k is w ritten for a first course in stru c tu ral analysis an d design. It is
intended for senior-level students. T he essential prerequisites a re stren g th o f m a
terials a n d a basic course in calculus. T h e b o o k also serves as an excellent
reference for the practicing engineer.
J. J. A za r
ix
CHAPTER
ONE
STATIC ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
T h e fu ll u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b o th th e te r m in o lo g y in s t a ti c s a n d t h e f u n d a m e n ta l
p r in c ip le s o f m e c h a n ic s is a n e s s e n tia l p r e r e q u is i te to th e a n a ly s is a n d d e s ig n o f
s tr u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e , th is c h a p t e r is d e v o t e d t o th e p r e s e n t a ti o n a n d th e a p p li
c a t i o n o f th e s e f u n d a m e n ta ls .
1.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
A n y d e f o r m a b l e s o lid b o d y w h ic h is c a p a b l e o f c a r r y in g l o a d s a n d t r a n s m it ti n g
th e s e l o a d s t o o t h e r p a r ts o r th e b o d y is r e fe rr e d to a s a structural system. T h e
c o n s t it u e n t s o f s u c h s y s te m s a r e b e a m s , p l a te s , s h e lls , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f th e
th re e .
Bar elements , s u c h a s s h o w n in F ig . 1.1, a r e o n e - d im e n s io n a l s t r u c t u r a l m e m
b e rs w h ic h a r e c a p a b le o f c a r r y in g a n d t r a n s m i t t i n g b e n d in g , s h e a r in g , t o r s io n a l,
a n d a x ia l l o a d s o r a c o m b in a t io n o f a ll f o u r.
B a r s w h ic h a r c c a p a b lc o f c a r r y in g o n ly a x ia l lo a d s a r e r e fe rr e d to a s axial
rods o r two-force m e m b e r s . S t r u c tu r a l s y s te m s c o n s tr u c te d e n tir e ly o u t o f a x ia l
r o d s a r c c a lle d trusses a n d f r e q u e n tly a r e u s e d in m a n y a t m o s p h e r i c , s e a , a n d
l a n d - b a s e d s t r u c t u r e s , s in c e s im p le t e n s io n o r c o m p r e s s io n m e m b e r s a r e u s u a lly
th e lig h te s t f o r t r a n s m i tt i n g fo rc e s.
Plate elements, s u c h a s s h o w n in F ig . 1.2, a r e tw o - d im e n s io n a l e x te n s io n s o f
b a r e le m e n ts . P l a t e s m a d e t o c a r r y o n ly in - p la n e a x ia l lo a d s a r e c a lle d mem-
1
2 AIHCRAI-T STRUCTURKS
(«)
Figure 1.1 Bar elements, (a) G en

eral bar; (/)) axial rod; u'} tor
sional rod.
braues. T h o se w hich a re c a p a b le o f c a rry in g o n ly in -p lan e sh ea rin g lo ad s a re

referred to as shear panels; freq u en tly these a re found in m issile fins, aircraft
w ings, a n d tail surfaces.
Shells a re cu rv e d p la te d e m e n ts w hich o c c u p y a space. Fuselages, bu ild in g
d om es, p re ssu re vessels, etc., a re typical ex am p les o f shells.
1.3 LOAD CLASSIFICATION
L o ad s w hich a c t on a stru c tu ra l system m a y be generally classified in a c co rd an ce

w ith th e ir causes. T h o se w hich a re p ro d u c e d b y surface c o n ta c t a re called surface
loads. D y n a m ic a n d /o r sta tic pressu res a re ex am p les o f surface loads. If th e a re a
o f c o n ta c t is very sm all, th en th e lo ad is said to be concentrated; otherw ise, it is
called a distributed load. (Sec Fig. 1.3.)
L o ad s w hich d e p en d on b o d y v o lu m e a re called body loads. Inertial, m ag
netic, a n d g ra v ita tio n a l forces a re typical exam ples. G en erally , these lo a d s a re
assu m ed to be d is trib u te d o v er th e e n tire v olum e o f th e body.
L o ad s a lso m a y be categ o rized as d y n am ic, static, o r therm al. Dynamic loads
arc tim e -d e p e n d e n t, w hereas static loads a re in d e p e n d e n t o f time. Therm al loads
a rc created on a re stra in e d stru c tu re b y a u n ifo rm a n d /o r n o n u n ifo rm te m p e r
a tu re ch an g e.
R egardless o f th e classification o f th e ex tern ally im posed loads, a stru c tu ra l
m em b er, in g e n eral, resists these lo ad s in te rn a lly in th e form o f bending, axial,
sh ear, an d to rsio n a l ac tio n s o r a c o m b in a tio n o f th e four.
In o rd e r to p rese n t d efin itio n s for in te rn a l lo ad s, p ass a h y p o th etical p lan e so
STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 3
Figure 1.2 Plate elements, (a)

General plate element; (b) mem
U) brane elem ent; (r) shear panel.
th a t it c u ts th e face o f a stru c tu ra l m em b er p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e m e m b er axis, as

show n in Fig. 1.4. T h u s, a bending moment m a y be defined as a force w h o se vector
re p re se n ta tio n lies in a n d p a ra lle l to the p la n e o f th e cut, w hile a torque is a force
w hose v ecto r re p re sen ta tio n is n o rm a l to th a t cut. O n th e o th e r h a n d , shear load
is a force w hich lies in a n d is p arallel to th e p la n e o f th e cut, w hile axia l load is a
force w hich acts n o rm a l to th e p la n e o f th e cu t.
1.4 SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS
T h e p rim a ry function of supports is to p ro v id e , a t som e p o in ts o f a stru c tu ral

system , physical re stra in ts th a t lim it th e freedom o f m o v em en t to o n ly th a t
4 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
1*': Di.slribufed
Ccm cent ruled] II’2/<:
r
(*)
Figure 1 3 Concentrated and distributed loads. (<i) Actual loads: (/>) idealised loads; (r) wing pressure
load.
in ten d ed in the design. T h e types o f s u p p o rts th a t o c c u r in o rd in a ry p ractice are

show n in Fig. 1.5.
T h e forces in du ccd a t p o in ts o f su p p o rt a re callcd reactions. F o r exam ple, a
hinge support is designed to allow on ly ro ta tio n at the point of co n n e ctio n , a n d
Figure 1.4 S = axial load, lb; M x - T — torque, lb - in ; M x. M. = bending moment(s), Ib -in ; Vx ,

V — shear loads, lb.
\ K
N \ V
\ \ N
I
1 ^ kt -
\ \J
\
id)
(r)
Figure 1*5 S upport types;, (n) Hinge support; {/>) hinge-roller support; (c) fixed support; (</) fixed-roller
support.
th u s reactiv e forces (reactions) a re d ev elo p ed in th e o th e r d irectio n s w here m o v e

m en ts a re n o t allow ed.
Likew ise, a hinge-roller support allow s ro ta tio n an d a tra n sla tio n in o n ly the
.v d irectio n , a n d hcnce there exists o n e re a ctiv c force (reaction) in th e y d irectio n .
A f i x e d su p p o rt n o rm ally is designed to p ro v id e re stra in ts a g a in st ro ta tio n a n d
aIl* tran slatio n s; therefore, reactive forces a n d m o m e n ts (reactions) a re d eveloped
a lo n g the d irectio n s w here m o v em en ts a re n o t p erm itted .
1.5 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
O n e o f the first step s in the design o f a stru c tu ra l system is (he d e te rm in a tio n

o f in tern al loads actin g on each system m em b er. A ny solid b o d y in sp ace o r an y
p a r t c u t o u t o f the b o d y is said to be in a sta te o f stable static equilibrium if it
sim u ltan eo u sly satisfies:
ZFi = 0
- ., n (i= x ,y ,z) (1 .1)
IM j = 0
w here I F , = 0 im plies th a t th e v ec to r sum o f all forces acting o n the system o r

o n p a rt o f it m ust a d d to zero in an y o n e d ire c tio n a lo n g a ch o sen set o f system
axes x, y, a n d z; likewise, E M , = 0 m ean s th a t th e v ecto r sum o f all m o m e n ts at
a n y preselected po in t m ust ad d to zero a ro u n d an y one o f the ch o sen set o f ax es

x, y, an d z.
W hile F.q. (1.1) ap p lies for gen eral space stru c tu res, for th e case o f p la n a r-
type stru c tu re s it reduces to
ZFi = 0
( 1.2)
£ M, = 0
N o te th a t o n ly six in d ep en d e n t e q u a tio n s exist for any free b o d y in space an d

three in d e p e n d e n t eq u a tio n s exist fo r a c o p la n a r free body. If, for ex am ple, an
a tte m p t is m ad e to find four u n k n o w n forces in a c o p la n a r free b o d y by using the
tw o forcc e q u a tio n s a n d m o m en t e q u a tio n s at tw o sclectcd p o in ts, th e fo u r
e q u a tio n s c a n n o t be solved because th e y are n o t in d ep en d e n t (i.e., o n e of the
eq u a tio n s can be derived from the o th e r three). T h e follow ing e q u a tio n s c a n n o t
be solved fo r the n um erical values o f th e th ree u n k n o w n s because th ey are n o t
in d e p en d e n t:
f , + F 2 + F3 = 3
F , + F 2 + 2F y = 4
2 F, + 2F 2 + 3 F 3 = 7
In m atrix form these are as follow s.
■1 1 1
Fi = ”3”
1 1 2 f2 = 4
2 2 3_ F}_ = _7_
T he th ird eq u a tio n m ay be o b ta in e d by a d d in g th e first two e q u a tio n s, a n d

co n seq u en tly it do es n o t rep resen t an in d e p en d e n t co n d itio n . T h e d ep en d en ce of
these e q u a tio n s is m o re readily esta b lish e d if an a tte m p t is m ad e to find th e
inverse o f the 3 x 3 m atrix o f coefficients. It can be show n easily th a t th e d e te r
m in an t o f the m atrix is z ero ; hence e q u a tio n d ep en d en ce does, in fact, exist. A
m atrix w hose d e te rm in a n t is zero is said to be singular an d th erefo re c a n n o t be
inverted.
1.6 S T A T I C A L L Y D E T E R M I N A T E A N D
IN D E T E R M IN A T E S T R U C T U R E S
A stru c tu re is said to be determinate if all its ex tern al rea c tio n s a n d th e

in tern al lo ad s on its m em bers c a n be o b ta in e d by utilizing only th e sta tic e q u a
tions o f equilibrium . O th erw ise th e stru c tu re is said to be statically indeterminate.
In the la tte r, o r w h a t is c o m m o n ly referred to as a redundant stru ctu re , th ere a re
m ore u n k n o w n forces th a n th e n u m b e r o f in d ep en d e n t e q u a tio n s o f statics w hich
can be utilized. T h e a d d itio n a l e q u a tio n s req u ired for th e analysis o f re d u n d a n t
stru ctu res can b e o b ta in e d by co n sid e rin g the d efo rm a tio n s (displacem ents) in th e
Figure 1.6 Indeterm inate structures.
stru ctu re. T h is is stu d ied in d etail in late r ch ap te rs. E x tern al reactio n s, in te rn a l
loads, or a co m b in a tio n o f b o th m ay cause a stru c tu ra l system to be sta tic a lly
re d u n d a n t. T h e n u m b e r o f red u n d an cies in a stru c tu re is g o v ern ed by th e n u m b e r
o f external reactions a n d /o r th e n u m b e r o f m em b ers th a t m ay be ta k e n o u t
w ith o u t th e stability o f the stru c tu re b eing affected. F o r exam ple, in Fig. 1.6a if
m em ber 1-3 a n d /o r reactio n R l x is rem o v ed , th en th e stru c tu re b eco m es s ta ti
cally d ete rm in a te an d m a in ta in s its stab ility . Likew ise, in Fig. 1.6b if m em b e rs
2 -4 and 2 -6 an d e ith e r re a c tio n R 2y. o r R 3y are rem oved, th e n th e s tru c tu re
bccom es d eterm in ate a n d stable. If, o n the o th e r h an d , ad d itio n a l m em b ers su ch
as 3 -5 a n d 1-5 are rem oved, th en the s tru c tu re becom es a m ec h a n ism o r u n
stable. M echanism s c a n n o t resist lo ad s a n d th erefo re a re n o t used as stru c tu ra l
system s.
1.7 APPLICATIONS
W hile the set o f [E q s. (1.1) and (1.2)] is sim p le an d well k n o w n , it is very

im p o rta n t for a stu d e n t to a cq u ire proficiency in the a p p licatio n o f th e se e q u a
tio n s to v a rio u s types o f stru c tu ra l system s. S everal typical s tru c tu ra l sy stem s a re
analyzed as illustrative exam ples.
E xam ple 1.1 F ind th e in te rn al lo ad s a c tin g o n each m em b er o f th e stru c tu re

show n in Fig. 1.7.
S o l u t i o n First, d isassem ble th e stru c tu re as sh ow n in Fig. 1.8 a n d m a k e a

free-body diag ram for each m em ber. Since m em b ers 1-2 a n d 4—6 a re tw o -
force m em bers (axial rods), the forces a c tin g o n th em a re alo n g th e lin e
jo in in g th e pin jo in ts o f these m em bers. All d irectio n s of forces a re ch o se n
a rb itra rily an d m u st be reversed if a n e g ativ e value is o b ta in e d ; th a t is, F 3x is
assum ed to act to th e rig h t o n the h o riz o n ta l m em b er a n d th erefo re m u s t act
to the left since its m a g n itu d e cam e to b e negative.
M jjiirc 1.7
F o r the pulley
im 7 = o (+ r v )
1 0 0 0 x 2 - 27 = 0
T = 10001b
Z F y = 0 ( -+->)
« s,
\ \ \ V \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \W \ \ \ \ ^ . \ \ \ ST*
lify
A ,
Kigurt* J-8 D is a s se m b le d s tru c tu re .

STATIC a n a l y s is o f s t r u c t u r e s 9
F 7 x - 1000 = 0
F7v= 1 0 0 0 lb
XF, = 0( + T)
F 7>. - 1000 = 0
F 7j, = 1000 lb
F o r m em b er 3-6-7,
IA f3 = 0 ( + ^ )
, 1000 x 7 - 2 .4 F 4 = 0
F* = 2915 lb
E F , = 0 ( *>)
F , t + 2915 co s 36.9° - 1000 = 0
F 3 x = - 1 3 3 5 lb
I F ,. = 0 ( + T)
F iy + 2915 sin 36.9° - 1000 = 0
F i y = - 7 5 0 lb
Since th e m a g n itu d e s o f F 3x an d F 3). c a m e to b e n egative, the assu m ed d irec
tion m u st be reversed. A c o m m o n p ra c tic e is to cro ss o u t (ra th e r th a n erase)
the orig in al arrow s.
F o r m em b er 2-3-4-5,
ZMS= 0 ( + r> )
1335 x 5 — 2915 x 2 c o s 36.9° — 4 F ] = 0
F , = 500 lb
2 F X= 0 ( ±*)
F 5, - 2915 cos 36.9" + 1335 - 500 cos 60° = 0
F Sx - 1250 lb
Z F , = 0 ( + T)
F Sv - 2915 sin 36.9" + 750 - 500 sin 60" = 0
F s, = 1433 lb
N ow a ll in te rn a l lo a d s h a v e been o b ta in e d w i t h o u t th e u s e o f t h e e n tir e
s t r u c t u r e a s a f re e b o d y . T h e s o l u t i o n is c h e c k e d b y a p p ly i n g t h e th r e e
e q u atio n s o f e q u ilib riu m to th e e n tire s tru c tu re :
Z F* = 0 ( ± .)
1250 - 1000 - 500 co s 60° = 0
ZF, = 0 ( + T)
1433 - 1000 - 500 sin 60° :0
— 0 ( + (~v )
1000 x 9 - 1000 x 7 - 500 x 4 = 0
T his eq u ilib riu m check sh o u ld be m a d e w h erev er p o ssib le to detect an y

e rro rs th a t m ig h t have o ccu rred d u rin g th e analysis.
E xam ple 1 . 2 F in d th e in te rn a l lo a d in m e m b er 5 o f th e c o p la n a r tru ss stru c

tu re show n in Fig. 1.9.
S o l u t i o n Several m e th o d s are av a ila b le for an aly zin g tru ss stru c tu re s; tw o

are discussed a n d ap p lied in so lv in g this exam ple.
(a) M etho d o f joints. In the an aly sis o f a tru ss by th e m e th o d o f jo in ts, th e
tw o eq u a tio n s o f sta tic eq u ilib riu m , I .F X = 0 a n d ~LFy = 0, a re a p p lied for
each jo in t as a free body. T w o u n k n o w n forces m ay be o b ta in e d for each
jo in t. Since each m e m b e r is a n axial rod (tw o-force m em ber), it exerts
equal an d o p p o site forces o n th e jo in ts a t its ends. T h e jo in ts o f a truss
m u st be an aly z ed in seq u en ce by sta rtin g a t a jo in t w hich has on ly tw o
m em bers m ee tin g w ith u n k n o w n forces. T h en the jo in ts a re an aly zed in
the p ro p e r sequence u n til all jo in ts h a v e been considered, if necessary.
T o find th e u n k n o w n rea c tio n s, c o n sid e r th e en tire stru c tu re as a free
body.
£M 4 = 0 (+ o - )
2000 x 10 + 4000 x 10 + 1000 x 30 - 20R 6>. = 0
R 6f = 4500 lb
4000 lb
2000 lb © ' ■2 © 3
( N. 1000
10 in © © \ ©
- l ",
© \ ©\ 6 (Q) V
— 10 in— ►{-»— 10 in— *4-*---- 10 in.....-j

R f»’| J.! Truss structure.
Figure 1.9
STATIC ANALYSIS Ol STRUCTUR1S I 1
2000 - R 4x
R ix = 2000 lb
I F ,. = 0 ( + t)
R 4v - 4000 - 1000 + 4500 = 0
R±y = 500 lb
T h e d irectio n s o f u n k n o w n forces in each m em b er are assum ed, as in
th e previous ex am ple, a n d v ecto rs a re ch an g ed on the skctch w hen they
a re found to be negative. (Sec F ig. 1.10.)
Iso latin g jo in t 4, wc have
IF , = 0 ( Hr )
F 2 - 2000 = 0
2000
F 2 = 2000 lb
IF ,- = 0 ( + t)
500
500 - F , = 0
F , = 500 lb
Isolating jo in t 1 gives
I F ,. = 0 ( + T)
500 - F 4 sin 45° = 0
F 4 = 707 lb
IF , = 0( + ± 0
2000 + 707 cos 45° - F , = 0
F 3 = 2500 lb
4000
2000
1000
2000
500 4500 Figure 1,10

4000 lb
20001b 1 2 3
1000 lb
2000 lb
500 lb 4500 lb
Figure l.II
F in ally , isolatin g jo in t 5 to o b ta in th e load in m em b er 5, we get
ZF, = 0( + T) 707
707 sin 45° - F s = 0
200C
F s = 500 lb
A rrow s a c tin g to w a rd a jo in t in d icate th a t a m em b er is in co m

pression, an d a rro w s actin g a w a y from a jo in t in d icate tension.
(/>) M e th o d o f sections. A s in th is exam ple, often it is d esirab le to find th e
in tern al lo ad s in ce rta in selected m em b ers o f a tru ss w ith o u t an aly z in g
th e en tire truss. U su ally th e m e th o d o f jo in ts is c u m b erso m e in this case,
since th e lo ad s in all the m e m b ers to th e left o r right o f a n y m em b er m u st
be o b tain ed before the force is found in th a t p a rtic u la r m em b er. A n
a n aly sis by th e m e th o d o f sectio n s will yield the in tern al lo ad in an y
preselected m em b er by a single o p e ra tio n , w ith o u t th e necessity o f finding
lo a d s in th e o th e r m em bers. In ste ad o f co n sid erin g th e jo in ts as free
bodies, a cro ss section is ta k e n th ro u g h th e tru ss a n d the p a rt o f the tru ss
o n eith er side is co n sid ered as a free body. T h e cross section is ch o sen so
th a t it c u ts th e m em b ers for w h ich th e forces a re desired a n d p referably
o nly th ree m em bers.
In o u r exam ple, th e in te rn a! lo a d in m em b er 5 is d esired ; th e free
b o d y is as show n in Fig. 1.11. T h e lo ad in m em b er 5 m ay b e fo u n d by
su m m in g forces in th e y d ire c tio n o n e ith e r p a rt o f th e c u t truss. C o n
sidering th e left p a rt as a free b o d y , we get
= 0 ( + T)
500 - F s = 0
F s = 500 lb
E x am p le 1.3 A nalyze th e stru c tu ra l system sh o w n in Fig. 1.12.
S o i.u tio n Q u ite often, stru c tu ra l system s a re m a d e u p largely o f axial ro d s

b u t c o n ta in som e m em b ers w hich are lo ad ed laterally, as sh o w n in Fig. 1.12.
|x---------- 20 in--------- ►{-«--------- 20. in-
T h ese stru ctu re s usually a re classified as trusses, since th e a n aly sis is sim ilar
to th a t used for trusses. As sh o w n in Fig. 1.12, m em b ers 1-2 a n d 2-3 a re not
axial ro d s, and se p a ra te free-body d ia g ra m s fo r th ese m em b ers, a s sh o w n in
Fig. 1.13a and b, are req u ired . Since each of th ese m em b ers h as fo u r u n
k n o w n reactions, th e e q u a tio n s o f sta tic eq u ilib riu m a re n o t sufficient to find
all fo u r unknow ns. It is possible, th o u g h , to find th e vertical reactio n s
Ri>- — R-zr = = 100 lb a n d to o b ta in the re la tio n s R , x = R 2x and
R 2,x = R i x from th e eq u a tio n s o f eq u ilib riu m .
W hen the u n k n o w n re a ctio n s o b ta in e d from m em b ers 1-2 an d 2-3 are
ap p lied to the rem ain in g p a rt o f th e stru c tu re as a free b o d y (Fig. 1.13b), it is
a p p a re n t th at the rest o f th e an aly sis is sim ilar to th a t o f th e prev io u s
exam ples. All m em b ers ex cep t 1-2 a n d 2-3 m ay n o w be designed a s sim ple
te n sio n o r com p ressio n m em bers. T h e h o riz o n ta l m em b ers (1-2 a n d 2-3) m ust
be designed for b en d in g c o m b in ed w ith axial a n d sh e a r loads.
E x am p le 1—4 F in d the re a ctio n s a t s u p p o rts A, B, a n d C, for th e lan d in g gear

o f Fig. 1.14. M em b ers O B a n d O C a re tw o-force m em b ers. M e m b e r OA
resists b ending an d to rsio n , b u t p o in t A is hinged by a univ ersal jo in t so th at
th e m em b er can c a rry to rsio n but n o b e n d in g in an y d ire c tio n a t this point.
SOI.UTION First c o n sid e r th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e to rsio n a l reactio n at p o in t A.

T h e resu ltan t to rsio n a l v e c to r TA , sh o w n in Fig. 1.15ft, m u st be a lo n g the
m em b er, and it has c o m p o n e n ts TAX a n d TAY.
A ny v ecto r force Q a ctin g in sp ace m ay be resolved in to co m p o n en ts
a lo n g th e chosen set o f ax es b y th e m e th o d o f d ire c tio n cosines.
QX = Q cos a
Qx = Q cos P
Q2 = Q cos y (1.3)
10 lb /in 10 lb/in
Kl'x '<x>
— — ►< >"•------
*1, Rly ■ l ily **

(a)
Figure 1.13
H ere a, /?, a n d y a re the angles betw een th e .x, y, a n d z axes a n d the line o f
a c tio n o f th e force v ecto r Q, respectively.
T h u s, from Fig. 1.15ft, u tilizing E q. (1.3), w e have
TAy = Ta cos ft = Ta (f§) = 0.87^,
Tax = Ta cos a = TA { ^ ) = 0 .6 7^
TAZ = T j COS y = Ta (3 5 ) = 0
In the free-b o d y d ia g ram for th e en tire stru c tu re, show n in Fig. 1.15a,
th ere a re six u n k n o w n reactio n forces. T h e six e q u a tio n s o f sta tic eq u ilib riu m
a re ju s t sufficient to d eterm in e th ese u n k n o w n forces. T a k in g m o m e n ts a b o u t
an ax is th ro u g h p o in ts A a n d B gives
£ M A]I = 4000 x 36 - 0.8F c x 30 = 0
F c = 6000 lb
u iv ro ij
Figure !.I4
T h e t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t TA m a y b e f o u n d b y t a k i n g m o m e n t s a b o u t lin e
CM. N o t e t h a t a ll u n k n o w n f o r c e s a c t t h r o u g h th is lin e .
X M a0 = 1 0 0 0 x 4 .8 ~ T a = 0
T a = 4 8 0 0 in ■ lb
T h e o th e r forces are o b tain ed from th e follow ing eq u a tio n s, w hich are

chosen so th a t o n ly o n e u n k n o w n a p p e a rs in each e q u atio n .
X M o;f = 2880 - 4 0 F az = 0
F ax = 72 lb
T h e su b s c rip t “ 0X” designates a n ax is th ro u g h p o in t 0 in th e ,v d irection.
I M , = 1000 + 12 - 6000 x 0.6 + 0 .3 7 IF # = 0
F B = 6820 lb
I F * = F ax - 6820 x 0.557 = 0
F ax = 3800 lb
Z FV = 4000 + 6820 x 0.743 - 6000 x 0.8 - F AY = 0
F AY = 4270 lb
C h e c k : Z M AY = - 1 0 0 0 x 36 + 6000 x 0.6 x 30 - 6820 x 0.557
x 20 + 3840 = 0
E x am p le 1.5 F in d the in tern al lo a d s o n all m em b ers o f the lan d in g g ear

sh o w n in Fig. 1.16.
S o l u t i o n F o r convenience, the reference axes V, D, a n d S a re tak en as

sh o w n in Fig. 1.16 with th e V ax is p a ra lle l to th e oleo stru t. F ree-b o d y
d ia g ra m s for the o leo stru t an d the th e h o riz o n ta l m em b er a re sh o w n in Fig.
1.17. F o rces perp e n d ic u la r to th e p la n o f th e p a p e r a re sh o w n by a circled
d o t for forces to w a rd the o b se rv e r a n d a circled cross for forces aw ay from
Figure 1*16
/•:,•= 19,790 lb Uv = 1.9,790 lb

t:s = 6300 Ih
= (,300 lb t ' » = 4740 ib _ // = 4740 Ib
- “V -
T,: = 4 1:720 in -lb 0 f i 3 2 c r , = q .4 4 0 r K - 4 1 . 7 2 0 in-lb
0.707611 - I 99.10
' ' V lb
li
= 9.930 lb 9440 lb HII = 14,050 Ib
0.555 CC. 6300 lb IB
0.707811 {1 7 -<*3«K)Ih lb
«-V/J3U lb '
"L 5190 lb
"L 51^0 Ib
1 l b 19,300 lb
fa) (/>)
41.720 in-lb
19,7901b vvCr'
/,. = 17.130 lb ' I
4740 lb
/,- = 17.130 lh 474011, | 7, =12,100 lb
In = 6 1 1 5 Ib C
r Cb
47,7 20 in:l*lli
•lb j lA^l 9440 lb
19,7901b (i300 lb
Figure 1.17
th e o b serv er. T h e V co m p o n e n t o f th e 20,000-ib forcc is
20,000 cos 15° = 19,300 lb
T h e D c o m p o n e n t is
20,000 sin 15” = 5190 lb
T h e angle o f the sidc-brace m em b er C G w ith the V axis is
ta n - 1 i f = 33.7°
T h e V and S c o m p o n e n ts o f th e force in m em b er CG are
CG cos 33.7° = 0.832CG CG sin 33.7" = 0.555CG
T h e d ra g -b ra c e m em b e r B H is at an angle o f 45° w ith th e V axis, a n d the

co m p o n en ts o f the force in this m em b er a lo n g th e V a n d D axes are
B H co s 45° = 0.707B H B H sin 45° = 0.1 07B H
T h e six u n k n o w n forces a c tin g on (he oleo stru t a re now o b tain ed from

the follow ing e q u a tio n s:
Z M EV = 51§0 x 8 -T ( = 0
Te = 41,720 in • lb
E M j j = 5190 x 44 - 0.707B H x 20 - 0.707B H x 3 = 0
B H = 14,050 lb
0.707B H = 9930 lb
JLMed = 0.555CG x 20 + 0.832CG x 3 - 19,300 x 8 = 0
CG = 11,350 lb
0.555C G = 6300 lb
0.832C G = 9440 lb
I F „ = 19,300 + 9930 - 9440 - E e = 0
E v = 19,700 lb
= E , - 6300 = 0
Es = 6300 lb
Z F d = - 5 1 9 0 + 9930 - £,, = 0 *
E< = 4 7 4 0 lb
T h e h o riz o n ta l m e m b e r I J is now co n sid ered a s a free body. T h e forces
o b ta in e d abo v e a re ap p lie d to this m em ber, as sh o w n in Fig. 1.17c a n d d, a n d
th e five u n k n o w n re ac tio n s are o b ta in e d as follow s:
I F , = /, = 0
Y .M iD = 19,790 x 3 + 9440 x 18 + 6300 2 - 20J r = 0
J v = 12,100 lb
I F ,. = 19,790 + 9440 - 12,100 - /„ = 0
/ „ = 17,130 lb
STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE 19
Z M ' V = 41,720 - 4740 x 3 + 20J d = 0
J d = - 1 3 7 5 lb
S F j = 4740 + 1375 - I d = 0
/ j = 6 l ! 5 lb
T he re a ctio n s a re n o w checked by c o n sid erin g th e en tire stru ctu re as a

free body, as sh o w n in Fig. 1.17e.
E F „ = 19,300 - 17,130 - 12,100 + 9930 = 0
Z F d = - 5 1 9 0 + 1375 - 6115 + 9930 = 0
ZFS= 0
S A V = 5190 x 11 - 1375 x 20 - 9930 x 3 = 0
Y .M id = 19,300 x M - 12,100 x 20 + 9930 x 3 = 0

Z M U = 5190 x 44 - 9930 x 23 = 0
E xam ple 1.6 F in d Ihe lo ad s on the lift a n d d ra g -tru s s m em b ers ol the e x te r

nally braccd m o n o p la n e w ing show n in Fig. 1.18. T h e a ir load is assum ed to
be uniform ly d is trib u te d a lo n g the sp an o f th e wing. T h e d ia g o n a l d rag -tru ss
m em bers a re w ires, w ith th e tension d ia g o n a l effective a n d the o th e r d iag o n al
carry in g no load.
So l u t io n T h e vertical lo ad of 2 0 lb/in is d is trib u te d to the sp ars in inverse

p ro p o rtio n to th e d ista n c e betw een th e c e n te r o f p ressu re a n d the spars. T h e
c c
If’) (r)
Figure 1.18
load o n th e front sp a r is therefore 16 Ib/in, a n d th a t o n th e re a r sp a r is 4

Ib/in. If th e fro n t s p a r is co n sid ered a s a free body, as sh o w n in Fig. 1.19a, th e
vertical forces a t A an d G m ay be o b tain ed .
I . M a = - 16 x 180 x 90 + 100G. = 0
Gz = 2590 lb
Gr 2590
1 0 0 “ 60
G / = 4320 lb
= 16 x 180 — 2590 — A . = 0
A s = 290 lb
F o rce A y c a n n o t b e fo u n d at this p o in t in th e an aly sis, since th e d ra g -tru ss

m em bers exert forces o n th e fro n t sp a r w hich a re n o t sh o w n in Fig. 1.19a.
If th e re a r s p a r is co n sid ered as a free body, as sh o w n in Fig. 1.196, the
16 Ib/in (2880 lb)

t 1 1 * » » * * * »
0'z = 2590 lb
1
, ^
290 1b G r =
c
VC) / 4320 lb
s'
/
s
(o)
4 Ib/in (720 lb)
4 4 4 4S if
J T ' 4 4 4 .,
I-:,. = 1080 lb r X !■:, = J 2 4 lb

B; = 72 lb T
N K, = 648 lb
(*)
10801b
(c) F igure 1.19

vertical forces a t B an d E m ay be o b ta in e d :
SM 8 = -4 x 180 x 90 + 1 0 0 £ j = 0
E . = 648 lb
Ex Ey 648
30 “ 100 “ 60
E x = 324 lb E„ = 1080 lb
E F . = 4 x 180 - 648 - B z = 0
Br = 72 lb
T h e lo ad s in th e p lan e o f th e d ra g tru ss c an be O btained now. T h e

forw ard lo a d o f 5 lb /in is ap p lied as c o n c e n tra te d lo a d s a t th e panel points,
as show n in Fig. 1.19c. T h e co m p o n e n ts o f th e forces a t G a n d E which lie in
the p lan e o f th e tru ss also m u st be co n sid ered . T h e re m a in in g reactio n s a t A
an d B a n d th e forces in all d ra g -tru ss m em b ers n o w c a n be o b ta in e d by th e
m e th o d s o f an aly sis fo r c o p la n a r trusses, sh o w n in Fig. 1.19c.
PROBLEMS
1.1 A 5000-lb airplane is in a steady glide wilh Ihc flight palh al an angle 0 below Ihe huri/on!:il (see
Mg. I’ I.l). The drag force in the dircclion or the llight palh is 750 lb. Kind the lift force L normal to
the flight path and the angle 0.
1.2 A jet-propelled airplane in steady flight has forces acting as shown in l-'ig. P I.2. l'ind the jet
thrust T. lift L, and the lail load P.
I P
— 150 in — -*
6 in-
FT C ? 1 2 i00 lb
10 in
40,000 in-lb
8000 lb Figure P I .2
2 2 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
1.3 A wind-tunnel model of an airplane wing is suspended as shown in l'ig. P I.3 and PI.4. Find the
toads in members 8, C, and £ if the forces at A are L = 43.8 i b , I) - 3.42 lb, and M = -2 0 .6 in • lb
1.4 For (he load of Prob. 1.3, find the forces I.. D, and M at a point A if the measured forces are
S = 40.2, C = 4.16, and £ = 3.74 Ib.
B C
1.5 Find the forces at points A and R of the landing gear shown in Fig. PL5.
Figure P I .5
1.6 Find the forces at points A, /?, and C of (he structure of the braced-wing monoplane sh('\vr. in
F it PI.6 .
Figure P I.6
1.7 Find the forces I' and M at the cut cross section of the beam shown in Fig. P I.7.
STATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 2 3
200 lb
— 30 in - • 20 in-
10 Ib/in
i n i ili
4000 ( M
in-lb I
300 )b 3 TP Figure P I,7
1.8 Find the internal loads in all members of the truss structure shown in Fig. P I.8.
10 in
(a) (h)
1000 lb 2000 H-
Figure P t.8
1.9 Find the internal loads on all members of the fuselage truss structure shown in Fig. P I.9.
Figure P1.9
1.10 All members o f the structure shown in Fig. P I. 10 are two-force members, except m ember ABC.
Find the reactions on member ABC and the loads in o ther members of the structure.
F ig ure P1.10
1.11 The bunding m om ents about the x and i axes in a plane perpendicular lo the spanwise axis or a
wing are 400,000 and 100,000 in-lb, as shown in Fig. P I.II, Find the bending moments about the
.v, and 2 , axes which are in the same plane but rotated 10" counterclockwise.
Figure P I.1 1
1.12 The main beam o f the wing shown in Fig. P I .12 has a swcephack angle of 30°. Firsl the
moments of 300,000 and 180,000 in ■lb are com puted about the x and y axes which are parallel and
perpendicular to the centerline of the airplane. Find the m om ents about the x' and y' axes.
1.13 Find the forces acting on all members of the nose-wheel structure shown in Fig. P1.13. Assume
the V axis is parallel lo the oleo strpt.
A. C
Figure P I .13
STATIC ANALYSIS Oh STRUCTURES Z3
1.14 Analyze ihe landing gear structure of Example 1.5 for a 15,000-lb load up parallel to the V axis
and a 5000-lb load aft parallel to the D axis. The loads are applied at the sam e point of the axle as the
ioad in Example 1.5.
1.15 Write a com puter program to calculate the reactions of the beam structure shown in Fig. P I.15.
I', ''I ..... /•'
I I I I
L x~*-
Figure P1.15
1.16 Write a com puter program to calculate the internal shear and bending moments at every station
of the cantilevered wing show n in Fig. P I .16. Assume the center of pressure is at 25 percent of the
chord length measured from the .x axis.
Figure P I .16
CHA PTER
TWO
FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Before the final selection o f m em ber sizes o n flight vehicles can be m ade, all lo ad
c o n d itio n s im posed o n th e stru c tu re m u st b e know n. T h e lo ad co n d itio n s are
th o se w hich a re e n co u n te red b o th in flight a n d on th e g ro u n d . Since it is im pos
sible to investigate every lo ad in g co n d itio n w hich a flight vehicle m ight en c o u n te r
in its service lifetim e, it is n o rm al p ractice to select o n ly th o se c o n d itio n s th a t will
be critical for every s tru c tu ra l m em b er o f th e vehicle. T h ese co n d itio n s usually
a re d eterm in ed from p a st investig atio n a n d ex p erien ce a n d a re definitely specified
by the licensing o r p ro c u rin g agencies.
A lth o u g h the c a lc u la tio n s of lo ad s im p o sed o n flight-vehicle stru c tu re s a re
th e p rim e resp o n sib ility o f a special g ro u p in an engifiSeririg o rg a n iz a tio n called
th e lo a d s g ro u p , a basic general ov erall k n o w led g e o f th e lo ad s o n vehicles is
essential to stress an aly sts. T herefore, in I his c h a p te r we p resen t the fu n d am en tals
a n d term in o lo g y p e rta in in g to flight-vehicle loads.
2.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
E very flight vehicle is d esigned to safely c a rry o u t specific m issions. T his results in
a w ide v ariety o f vehicles relative lo size, co n fig u ratio n , a n d perform ance. C o m
m ercial tra n s p o rt a irc ra ft a re specifically d esigned to tra n s p o rt passengers from
one a irp o rt to a n o th e r. T hese types o f a ircraft a rc never subjected to violent
in tentional m aneu v e rs. M ilitary aircraft, how ever, used in fighter o r d iv e-b o m b er
o p eratio n s, a re d esigned to resist v io len t m an euv e rs. T h e design co n d itio n s u
26
FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 2 7
sually are d eterm in ed fro m th e m ax im u m acce le ra tio n w h ich th e h u m an body

can w ith stan d , a n d th e p ilo t will lose co n scio u sn ess befo re reaching the lo ad
factor (load facto r is re la te d to acceleration) w hich w o u ld ca u se stru c tu ral failure
o f the aircraft.
T o ensure safety, stru c tu ra l integrity, a n d reliab ility o f flight vehicles a lon g
w ith th e o p tim a lity o f design, g o v ern m en t agencics, b o th civil a n d m ilitary, have
established definite specificatio n s a n d req u ire m e n ts in 're g a rd to th e m agnitude of
loads to be used in stru c tu ra l design o f th e v a rio u s flight vehicles. T erm s are
defined below w hich a rc generally used in th e sp ecification o f lo ad s on flight
vehicles.
T he limit loads used by civil agencies o r applied loads used by m ilitary
agencies a re th e m ax im u m an tic ip a ted lo ad s in th e e n tire service life-span o f the
vehicle. T h e ultimate loads, co m m o n ly referred to as design loads, are the lim it
loads m ultiplied by a fac to r o f safety (FS):
u ltim a te lo a d
FS = ^ ——
lim it lo a d
G enerally, a fac to r o f safety w hich varies from 1.25 for m issile stru c tu re s to 1.5 for
aircraft stru c tu re s is used in p ractically every design b ecau se o f the uncertainties
involving
1. T he sim plifying assu m p tio n used in the th eo retical an aly ses

2. T h e v ariatio n s in m a te rial p ro p ertie s a n d in th e sta n d a rd s o f q u a lity con tro l
3. T he em ergency a c tio n s w hich m ight have to be ta k e n by th e pilot, resulting in
loads on th e vehicle la rg e r th a n th e specified lim it loads.
T h e lim it lo ad s a n d u ltim ate lo ad s q u ite often a re p rescrib ed by specifying

certain lo ad factors. T h e limit-load fa c to r is a fa cto r by w hich basic loads o n a
vehicle a re m u ltip lied to o b ta in the lim it lo a d s. L ikew ise, th e ultimate load fa cto r
is a factor by w hich b asic vehicle loads a re m u ltip lie d to o b ta in the u ltim ate
lo ad s; in o th e r w ords, it is th e p ro d u c t o f th e lim it lo a d fa c to r a n d the facto r o f
safety.
2.3 BASIC FLIGHT LOADING CONDITIONS
One_Qf four .basic c o n d itio n s will p ro b ab ly p ro d n c c th e hig h est load in any p a rt

o f the a irp la n e fo r.a a v flight co n d itio n . U sually these c o n d itio n s arc called p osi
tive high an g le o f a tta c k , positive low an g le o f a tta c k , n eg ativ e high angle o f
a ttack , an d negative low angle o f a ttack . All th ese c o n d itio n s rep resen t sym m etri
cal flight m a n e u v e rs; i.e., th ere is n o m o tio n n o rm a l to the p la n e o f sym m etry o f
the airplane.
T h e positive high an g le o f a tta c k (P H A A ) co n d itio n is o b ta in e d in a p u lio u t
a t the h ighest possible an g le o f a tta ck o n th e w ing. T h e lift a n d d rag forces a re
p e rp e n d ic u la r a n d p ara lle l respectively, to th e relative w in d , w hich is sh o w n as
h o riz o n ta l in Fig. 2.1a. T he resu lta n t R o f th ese forces alw ays h as an aft co m
p o n e n t w ith resp ect to th e relative w ind, b u t will usu ally have a fo rw ard co m
p o n e n t C w ith resp ect to the w ing c h o rd line, because o f (he high angle o f a tta ck
a. T h e m ax im u m fo rw a rd c o m p o n e n t C will be o b ta in e d w hen o h a s a m ax im u m
value. In o rd e r to a c c o u n t for u n certain ties in o b ta in in g th e stallin g angle o f
a tta c k u n d e r u n ste a d y flow c o n d itio n s, m o st specifications a rb itra rily req u ire th a t
a valu e o r a be u sed w hich is h ig h er th a n th e w ing sta llin g angle u n d er stead y
llow co n d itio n s. A n an g le o f a tta c k c o rre sp o n d in g to a coefficient o f lift o f 1.25
tim es th e m ax im u m c o d fic ie n t of lift for stead y flow c o n d itio n s is often .u sed ,.an d .
' acroclynam ic d a ta a re e x tra p o la ted from d a ta m e asu red for stea d y flow co n d i
tions. E x p erim e n ts sh o w th a t these high angles o f a tta c k an d high lift coefficients
m ay b e o b ta in e d m o m e n ta rily in a su d d en p u ll-u p b efo re the airflow reaches a
stead y c o n d itio n , b u t it is difficult to o b ta in a c c u ra te lift m easu rem en ts d u rin g the
u n ste a d y co n d itio n s.
In th e P H A A c o n d itio n , the b en d in g m o m e n ts from the n o rm al forces N,
show n in Fig. 2 .In, p ro d u c e co m pressive stresses o n th e u p p e r side o f th e wing,
a n d th e m o m e n ts fro m the ch o rd w ise forces C p ro d u c e com pressive stresses on
the lea d in g edge o f th e wing. T hese co m pressive stresses will be ad d itiv e in th e
u p p e r flange o f th e fro n t sp a r an d (he strin g ers a d ja c e n t to it. T h e PF1AA co n d i-
tion, therefore, will b e critical for co m pressive stresses in the u p p e r forw ard
(<■) NIIAA
Figure 2.1
region of th e w ing cro ss sectio n a n d for tensile stresses in th e lo w er aft region of

the w ing cross sectio n . F o r n o rm a l w ings, in w hich th e a e ro d y n a m ic p itch in g -
m o m en t coefficient is negative, th e line o f a c tio n o f th e re s u lta n t force R is fa rth e r
fo rw ard on th e w ing in th e P H A A co n d itio n th a n in a n y o th e r possible flight
a ttitu d e p ro d u c in g a n u p lo a d o n the w ing. T h e u p lo a d o n th e h o riz o n ta l tail in
this c o n d itio n u sually will be larg e r th a n for a n y o th e r positive flight a ttitu d e,
since p itch in g acceleratio n s a re n o rm ally neglected a n d th e lo ad o n th e h o r
izontal tail m u st b alan c e th e m o m en ts o f o th e r a e ro d y n a m ic forces a b o u t th e
cen te r o f grav ity o f th e a irp lan e.
In the p ositive low an g le o f a tta c k (P L A A ) c o n d itio n , th e w ing has the
sm allest possible angle o f a tta c k a t w hich th e lift c o rre sp o n d in g to th e lim it-load
facto r m a y be developed. F o r a given lift o n th e w ing, the angle o f a tta c k
decreases as th e in d ica ted airsp eed increases, a n d c o n seq u e n tly the P L A A c o n d i
tion co rre sp o n d s to th e m ax im u m in d icated airsp eed a t w h ich th e airp la n e will
dive. T h is lim it o n th e perm issible diving sp eed d ep e n d s o n th e ty p e o f aircraft,
b u t usually is specified as 1.2 to 1.5 tim es th e m ax im u m in d ica ted speed in level
flight, acco rd in g to th e fu n ctio n o f th e aircraft. S om e specificatio n s req u ire th a t
the term in al velocity o f th e aircraft— th e velocity o b ta in e d in a vertical dive
su stain ed u n til th e d ra g eq u als th e a irp la n e w eight— be c a lc u lated a n d th e lim it
o n th e d iv in g speed b e d eterm in ed as a fu n c tio n o f the term in al velocity. E ven
fighter a irc ra ft a re seld o m designed for a d iv in g speed e q u a l to th e term inal
velocity, since the te rm in a l velocity o f su ch a irp la n e s is so g re at th a t difficult
a ero d y n am ic a n d s tru c tu ra l p roblem s are en co u n te red . A ircraft a re p laca rd ed so
th a t th e p ilo t will n o t exceed th e div in g speed lim it.
In the P L A A co n d itio n , sh o w n in Fig. 2.16, th e ch o rd w ise force C is th e
largest force a ctin g aft o n th e w ing for a n y p o sitiv e flight a ttitu d e J h e w ing
b ending m o m en ts in th is co n d itio n p ro d u c e th e m ax im u m co.m pcessLve—s trftssss
o n the u p p e r re a r s p a r flange a n d a d jac en t.strm g ers_ ..an d jn a x im u m ^ tensile^
stresses o n th e low er fro n t sp a r flange a n d ad ja c e n t strin g e rs. In this co n d itio n ,
th e T m e ^ T a c tio n o f th e re su lta n t w ing force R is farth e r a ft th a n fo r any o th e r
positive flight c o n d itio n . T h e m o m e n t o f th is force a b o u t th e c e n te r o f gravity o f
the a irp lan e h as th e m a x im u m n eg ative (pitching) v alu e; co n seq u en tly , the d o w n -
lo ad o n th e h o riz o n ta r tail req u ired to b a la n c e th e m o m en ts o f o th e r a e ro d y
nam ic forces will be la rg e r th a n for an y positive flight co n d itio n .
T h e negative hig h an g le o f a tta c k (N H A A ) co n d itio n , sh o w n in Fig. 2.1c,
occurs in in te n tio n a l flight m an eu v e rs in w h ich th e a ir lo a d s o n th e w ing are
dow n o r w hen th e a irp la n e strik es su d d e n d o w n d ra fts w hile in level flight. T h e
lo ad facto rs for in te n tio n a l negative flight a ttitu d e s are co n sid erab ly sm aller th an
fo r positive flight a ttitu d e s, because c o n v e n tio n al airc raft engines c a n n o t be o p e r
ated u n d e r a negativ e lo a d facto r for very lo n g a n d becau se the p ilo t is in the
u n co m fo rtab le p o sitio n o f b eing su spended from Lhe safety belt o r harness. G u st
lo ad facto rs a re also sm aller for n egative flight a ttitu d e s, since in level flight th e
w eight o f th e airp la n e a d d s to th e in e rtia forces fo r p o sitiv e g u sts b u t su b tra c ts
from th e in ertia forces fo r neg ativ e gusts.
In the N H A A c o n d itio n , usually the w ing isâssum ed to be at the negative
30 A IR C R A F T STRUCTURES
stallin g angle o f a tta c k for steady flow co n d itio n s. T h e a ssu m p tio n used in the
P H A A c o n d itio n — th e m axim um lift coefficient m o m e n ta rily exceeds th a t for
stead y (low— is seld o m used because it is im p ro b a b le th a t negative m an eu v ers
will be en tered suddenly. T h e w ing b en d in g m o m e n ts in th e negative high angle
o f a tta c k c o n d itio n p ro d u c e the highest co m p ressive stresses in the lo w er fo rw ard
region o f th e w ing cro ss section an d th e h ig h est tensile stresses in the u p p e r aft
regio n o f th e w ing cro ss section. T h e line o f a c tio n o f th e re su lta n t force R is
fa rth e r aft th a n fo r a n y o th e r negative flight a ttitu d e , a n d it will p ro b a b ly p ro
d u ce Ihe g reatest b alan c in g u pload on Ihc h o riz o n ta l tail fo r an y neg ativ e flight
a ttitu d e.
T h e negative low angle of a tta c k (N L A A ) c o n d itio n , show n in Fig. 2Ad,
o ccurs al the divin g -sp eed lim it o f the a irp lan e . T h is c o n d itio n m ay o cc u r in an
in te n tio n a l m an e u v e r p ro d u c in g a neg ativ e lo a d fa c to r o r in a n egative g ust
co n d itio n . T h e aft lo a d C is a m axim um fo r an y n egativ e flight a ttitu d e , the
com pressive b en d in g stresses have a m ax im u m value in th e low er aft region of
the w ing cross sectio n , a n d th e tensile b en d in g stresses h a v e a maxim.um value in
the u p p er fo rw ard reg io n o f the w ing cro ss section. T h e resu lta n t force R is
fa rth e r forw ard th a n in an y o th e r flight a ttitu d e , a n d th e d o w n lo ad o n the h o r
izo n tal tail will p ro b a b ly be larg er th a n in an y o th e r n eg ativ e flight a ttitu d e .
In su m m ary , o n e o f the fo u r basic sy m m etrical flight co n d itio n s is critical for
th e design o f a lm o st every p a rt o f th e a irp la n e stru c tu re . Xn th e stress analy sis o f a
c.omiCflXianaLwin g, it is necessary to investig a te each c ro ss section for e a ch o f the
fo u r CQ-adbUans^ T h e n each strin g er o r spaFTTangeT is d esig n ed for th e m ax im u m
tension an d the m ax im u m co m p ressio n o b tain ed in a n y o f the co n d itio n s. T he
p ro b a b le critical c o n d itio n s for each reg io n o f th e cro ss section are show n in
Fig. 2.2.
S om e specificatio n s req u ire th e in v estig atio n o f a d d itio n a l co n d itio n s o f
m edium -high an g le o f a tta c k an d m ed iu m -lo w an g le o f a tta c k w hich m ay be
critical for strin g e rs m id w ay betw een th e sp a rs, b u t u su ally these c o n d itio n s are
n o t co n sid ered o f sufficient im p o rta n c e to ju stify th e a d d itio n a l w o rk re q u ire d for
the analysis. T h e w ing, o f course, m u st b e stro n g en o u g h to resist lo ad s a t
m edium angles o f a tta c k , b u t n o rm ally th e w in g will h av e a d e q u a te stre n g th if it
m eets the req u irem e n ts for th e four lim itin g co n d itio n s.
/
Figure 2.2
FLIGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 31
F o r aircrafts su ch as tra n s p o rt o r c a rg o a ircrafts, in w hich th e load m ay be

placed in v ario u s p o sitio n s in the g ross-w eight c o n d itio n ,J t is n ecessary to d e te r
m ine --------------------
the b alan c in g tail lo ad s for| the.........._________________
- n r ------------- --------— . - 1|. ,-II— ... . . . .
m o st fo rw............................................................................................................r-nr-iiiru
a rd a n d m o s tT e a rw a rd' center-of- m mu
gravity p ositions at w h ic f i t h e a irp ia ^ c ’m a y 'p e flow n a t the g ro ss w eight. Each of
t B r i ^ 'H r g H t 'c o ^ f r t i o n s m u st be in v e s tig a le d 1 o r^ a c E * e x fre rn e * T ^ itfo n o f the
center of g ra v ity .)F o r sm aller aircraft, in w h ich th e useful lo a d c a n n o t be shifted
ap preciably, there m ay be only o n e p o sitio n of th e c e n te r o f grav ity a t the
gross-w eight co n d flio n ~ T o " lic c o u n t~ !o r “ g?eateT "Emlanc m g T aiT T oaas^W K ich
m a y ^ c a T r ^ ^ a n o T H e r lo c a tio n of the c e n te r o f g ravity, it m a y be possible to
m a ke som e c o n servative a ssumpTTorf^n<T still c o m p u te baTS i c m g 't a i r i b a d r i o r '
only one location.
T h e gust load facto rs o n a n aircraft a re g re a te r w h en it is flying a t the
m inim um flying w eight th a n they are at th e g ro ss-w eig h t c o n d itio n . W hile this is
seldom critical for th e w ings, since they h av e less w eight to c a rry , it is critical for
a stru c tu re such as the eng in e m o u n t w hich carrics the sam e w eight a t a h igher
load factor. It is th erefo re necessary to c a lc u la te g u st load fa c to rs a t the m inim um
w eight at w hich the a irc ra ft will be flown.
F o r aircraft e q u ip p e d w ith w ing flaps, o th e r high lift devices, o r dive brakes,
ad d itio n al flight lo ad in g c o n d itio n s m ust be investigated fo r th e flaps extended.
T hese co n d itio n s usu ally are n o t critical for w ing b en d in g stresses, since the
specified load facto rs a re n o t large, blit m a y b e critical for w in g to rsio n ,'s h e a r in
the rear sp ar, o r d o w n tail loads, since th e n eg ativ e p itc h in g m o m en ts m ay be
q uite high. T h e aft p o rtio n o f the wing, w hich fo rm s the flap su p p o rtin g stru ctu re,
will be critical for th e c o n d itio n w ith flaps exten d ed .
U n sy m m etrical lo a d in g co n d itio n s a n d p itch in g -a cc e le ra tio n c o n d itio n s for
com m ercial aircraft a re seld o m o f sufficient im p o rta n c e to ju stify extensive a n a ly
sis. C onservative sim plifying a ssu m p tio n s u su ally are specified b y th e licensing
agency for use in th e stru c tu ra l design o f m em b e rs w hich w ill be critical for these
co n d itio n s. T h e a d d itio n a l stru c tu ra l w eight req u ired to m e et co n serv ativ e design
assu m p tio n s is n o t sufficient to ju stify a m o re a c c u ra te a n aly sis. S om e m ilitary
a ircraft m ust perform v io len t ev asiv e.m an eu v ers such as s n a p rolls, a b ru p t rolling
pu llouts, an d a b ru p t p itc h in g m otions. T h e p u rc h a sin g ag en cy for su ch airp lan es
specifies the c o n d itio n s w hich sh o u ld be in v estig ated . Such in v estig atio n s req u ire
the calc u latio n o f th e m ass m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f th e a irp la n e a b o u t the pitching,
rolling, an d yaw ing axes. T h e a e ro d y n a m ic forccs o n the a irp la n e a rc calculated
a n d set in eq uilibriu m by in ertial forccs o n th e a irp lan e.
2.4 FLIGHT-VEIIICLE AERODYNAMIC LOADS
E xtensive ae ro d y n a m ic in fo rm atio n is re q u ired to in v estig ate th e p e r

form ance, c o n tro l, a n d stab ility of a p ro p o se d aircraft. O n ly th e in fo rm atio n
w hich is req u ired fo r th e stru c tu ra l analysis is co n sid ered h ere, a lth o u g h no rm ally
this w ould be o b ta in e d as p a rt o f a m u ch m o re extensive p ro g ra m . T h e first
aero d y n am ic d a ta re q u ire d for th e stru c tu ra l analysis a re th e lift, drag, an d
p itch in g -m o n ien t force d istrib u tio n s for th e co m p lete a irc ra ft w ith th e h o riz o n ta l
tail rem oved, th r o u g h th e ran g e o f angles o f a tta c k from th e negativ e stallin g
angle lo th e p ositiv e stallin g angle. W hile these d a ta can b e calc u lated accu rately
for a w ing w ith a co n v en tio n a l airfoil section, sim ilar d a ta fo r th e c o m b in a tio n o f
the w ing a n d fuselage o r th e w ing, fuselage, a n d nacelles a re m o re difficult to
ca lc u la te a c c u ra te ly from p u b lish ed in fo rm atio n b ecau se o f th e u n c erta in effects
o f th e a e ro d y n a m ic in terferen ce o f v ario u s c o m p o n en ts. It is th erefore d esirab le
to o b ta in w ind tu n n e l d a ta o n a m odel o f th e c o m p lete a irp la n e less h o riz o n ta l
tail. It is often necessary, o f co u rse, to calc u late th ese d a ta from pub lish ed in fo r
m a tio n in o rd e r to o b ta in a p p ro x im a te a ir lo a d s for p re lim in a ry design pu rp o ses.
W ind tu n n el tests o f a m odel o f the co m p lete airp la n e w ith the h o riz o n tal tail
rem oved p ro v id e v alu es o f th e lift, d rag , a n d p itc h in g m o m e n t fo r all angles o f
atta c k . T h en c o m p o n e n ts o f th e lift and d ra g forces w ith respect to a irp lan e
reference axes a re d eterm in ed . T h e aircraft reference axes m ay be ch o sen as
sh ow n in Fig. 2.3. T h e force co m p o n e n ts a re Cz q S a n d Cx q S a lo n g these axes,
w here q = p V 2/ 2 is th e d y n a m ic p ressu re a n d S is th e su rface w ing area. T h e
n o n d im en sio n al force coefficients C . an d C x a re o b ta in e d b y p ro jectin g th e lift
a n d d ra g coefficients, respectively, for the a irp la n e less h o riz o n ta l tail a lo n g the
reference axes by th e follow ing e q u a tio n s:
C = = C,. cos 0 + C„ sin 0 (2.1)
C v = C n cos 0 — CL sin 0 (2.2)
T h e an g le 0 is m ea su red from th e flight p a th to th e x axis, a s sh o w n in Fig. 2.3,

a n d is eq u a l lo the difference betw een th e an g le o r a tta c k a a n d Ihe angle o f w ing
incidence i.
T h e p itch in g m o m e n t a b o u t th e airp la n e ’s c e n te r o f g ra v ity is o b tain ed from
w ind tu n n el d a ta a n d is C ^ ^ c q S , w here C m„_, is th e d im ensionless pitch in g -
m o m e n t coefficient o f th e a irp la n e less tail a n d c is th e m ea n ae ro d y n am ic c h o rd
o f th e w ing. T h e m ean a e ro d y n a m ic c h o rd (M A C ) is a w in g reference ch o rd
w hich u su ally is c a lc u la ted from th e w ing p lan fo rm . If every, airfoil section a lo n g
the w ing sp a n h as th e sam e p itch in g -m o m en t coefficient cm, th e M A C is d e te r

m ined so th a t the to ta l w ing p itching m o m e n t is cmcqS. F o r a rec tan g u lar w ing
p lan fo rm th e value o f c (the M A C) is e q u a l to th e w in g c h o rd ; fo r a tra p e z o id a l
p lan fo rm o f the sem iw ing, the value o f c is eq u a l to th e c h o rd at the cen tro id o f
the trap ezo id . T h e M A C is actu a lly an a rb itra ry len g th , a n d an y reference len g th
w ould be satisfacfo ry if it w ere used co n sisten tly in all w ind tunnel tests a n d
calcu latio n s. F o r irre g u la r shapes o f p lan fo rm s, so m e p ro c u rin g o r licensing
agencies req u ire th a t th e m ean ch o rd (w ing a re a divided b y w ing span) b e used as
th e reference ch o rd .
T h e b alan c in g a ir lo ad o n th e h o riz o n ta l tail, C ,q S , is o b ta in e d from th e
a ssu m p tio n th a t th e re is n o an g u la r ac celeratio n o f th e airp lan e . T h e m o m e n ts o f
the forces show n in Fig. 2.3 a b o u t th e c en te r o f g ra v ity a re therefore in eq u ilib
rium : , .
C ,q S L , = C ^ ' C q S
or C, = f C m_ (2.3)
‘-t
w here C, is a dim ensionless fail force coefficient expressed in term s o f th e w ing
area a n d L, is th e d ista n c e from th e a irp la n e ’s c e n te r o f g rav ity to the re su lta n t
a ir lo ad o n the h o riz o n ta l tail, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.3. Since th e pressure d is
trib u tio n on the h o riz o n ta l tail varies ac c o rd in g to the a ttitu d e o f the airp lan e, L,
theo retically varies fo r different lo ad in g co n d itio n s. T h is v aria tio n is n o t g reat,
a n d it is c u sto m a ry to assum e L, c o n ta n t, b y using a co n serv ativ e forw ard p o s
ition o f th e cen ter o f p ressu re on the h o riz o n ta l tail. T h e to ta l aero d y n am ic force
on the a irp la n e in th e z direction, C.a qS, is eq u al to th e su m o f th e force C 2 q S o n
the a irp la n e less tail a n d th e b alancing tail lo a d C ,q S:
Cz. q S = C z q S + C ,q S
or C ., = C t + C, (2.4)
F o r pow cr-on flight cond itio n s, th e m o m e n t o f th e p ro p eller or je t th ru st

a b o u t the cen te r o f g rav ity o f th e a irp la n e sh o u ld also be considered. T his a d d s
a n o th e r term to th e E q. (2.3).
N o w th e a ero d y n a m ic coefficients can be p lo tted a g a in st th e angle o f a tta c k
a, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.4. If m ore th a n o n e p o sitio n o f the c en te r of grav ity is
consid ered in the analysis, it is necessary to calc u late th e curves for C„,n r, C ,, a n d
C-„ fo r each ccntcr-o f-g rav ity position. T h e rig h t-h a n d p o rtio n s of the solid
curves show n in Fig. 2.4 represent the a e ro d y n a m ic ch a racteristics after stallih g
of the w ing. Since stallin g reduces the a ir lo a d s on th e w ing, these p o rtio n s o f th e
curves a re n o t used. In stead , the curves a re e x tra p o la te d , as show n by the d o tte d
lines, in o rd e r to a p p ro x im a te the co n d itio n s o f a su d d en pull-u p , in w hich high
lift coefficients m ay exist for a sh o rt tim e. F o r th e P H A A c o n d itio n , the angle o f
a ttack c o rre sp o n d in g to th e force coefficient o f 1.25 tim es th e m axim um v alu e o f
C .o is used, an d the cu rv es a re ex trap o la te d to this value, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.4.
2.5 FLIGHT-VEHICLE INERTIA LOADS
T h e m axim um lo a d o n an y p a rt o f a flight-vehicle stru c tu re o ccu rs when the

vehicle is being a c c e le ra ted . T h e lo ad s p ro d u c e d by la n d in g im p act, m aneuvering,
gusts, b o o st an d sta g in g o p e ra tio n s, lau n ch es, a n d d o c k in g s are alw ays g reater
th a n the lo ad s o c c u rrin g w hen all the forces on th e vehicle are in equilibrium .
Before an y s tru c tu ra l c o m p o n e n t can be designed, it is n ecessary to determ ine th e
in ertia lo ad s a c tin g o n th e vehicle.
In m a n y o f th e lo a d in g co n d itio n s, a flight vehicle m a y be considered as
being in p u re tra n sla tio n o r p u re ro ta tio n . T h e in ertia fo rce on an y elem ent o f
m ass is eq u a l to th e p ro d u c t o f th e m ass a n d th e a cceleratio n a n d acts in the
d irection o p p o site to th e acceleration. If th e ap p lied lo a d s an d in e rtia forces act
o n an elem ent as a free b o d y , these forces are in e q u ilib riu m . F o r exam ple, a b o d y
o f m ass m u n d e r th e a c tio n o f a force v e c to r F m oves so a s to satisfy the e q u a tio n
F = ma (2.5)
w here m is the m ass a n d a is th e acceleratio n relativ e to a n ew to n ian fram e o f

reference. If a c a rte sia n system of x, y, a n d z axes is ch o se n in this fram e, then Eq.
(2.5) gives, u p o n reso lv in g in to co m p o n en ts,
F x = m.v, Fy — my, F . = m'z (2.6)

•
w here Fx , F r , a n d F . a re th e c o m p o n e n ts o f F a lo n g th e x, y, a n d z axes,
respectively, an d y, a n d z are th e c o m p o n e n ts o f a c celeratio n a lo n g th e x, y,
and z axes. In the p reced in g discussion, all p a rts o f th e rigid b o d y w ere m oving in
straig h t, p arallel lines a n d h ad eq u ai velocities an d acceleratio n s. In m any en g in
eering p ro b lem s, it is necessary to co n sid er th e in e rtia forces actin g o n a rigid
body w hich h as o th e r types o f m o tio n . In m a n y cases w h ere the elem ents o f a
rigid b od y a re m ov in g in curved p ath s, they a re m o v in g in such a w ay th a t each
FI.IGHT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 3 5
elem ent m oves in o n ly one p lan e an d all elem en ts m ove in p arallel planes. T his
type of m o tio n is called plane motion, an d it occu rs, for ex am p le, w hen a vehicle is
p itching an d yet h a s no ro llin g o r y aw ing m o tio n . All elem en ts o f th e vehicle
m ove in p lanes p arallel to the plane o f sy m m etry. A ny ty p e o f p lan e m o tio n can
be considered as a ro ta tio n a b o u t som e in s ta n ta n e o u s axis p e rp en d icu lar to the
planes o f m o tio n , an d the follow ing e q u a tio n s for in e rtia forces are derived on the
assu m p tio n th a t th e rigid b o d y is ro ta tin g a b o u t an in sta n ta n e o u s axis p erp en
dicular to a plane o f sym m etry o f the body. T h e in e rtia forces o b ta in e d m ay be
used for the p itch in g m o tio n of a vehicle, b u t w hen they a re utilized for rolling or
yaw ing m o tio n s, it is necessary to first o b ta in th e p rin cip al axes a n d m o m en ts of
inertia o f th e vehicle.
T h e rigid m ass sh o w n in Fig. 2.5 is ro ta tin g a b o u t p o in t O w ith a c o n sta n t t
an g u lar velocity o>. T h e acceleratio n o f a n y p o in t a d istan c e r from the c e n ter of
ro ta tio n is w 2r an d is directed to w ard th e c e n te r o f ro ta tio n . T h e in ertia force
acting on an elem en t o f m ass d M is th e p ro d u c t of th e m ass an d the acceleration,
or io2r d M , an d is directed aw ay from th e axis o f ro ta tio n . T h is in ertia force has
co m p o n en ts u>2x d M parallel to the x axis a n d a>2y d M p arallel to the y axis. If
the x axis is chosen th ro u g h the cen ter o f g ra v ity C, the forces a re simplified. T h e
resu ltan t in ertia force in th e y d irection for th e e n tire b o d y is fo u n d as follow s:
Fy = o)2y d M = co2 y dM = 0
T he a n g u la r velocity w is c o n sta n t for all elem en ts o f th e b o d y , a n d the integral is

zero because th e .x axis w as chosen th ro u g h th e c e n te r o f g ravity. T h e in ertia
force in the x d irectio n is found in the sam e m a n n e r:
(2.7)
T h e term .x is the d ista n c e from the axis o f ro ta tio n O to th e c en te r o f gravity C,

as show n in Fig. 2.5.
If the b o d y has an a n g u la r acceleratio n a, th e elem en t o f m ass d M h as an
oj- r ch\l .IM
z F ig u re 2.5
I
ad d itio n a l in ertia force a r d M a c tin g p erp e n d ic u la r to r an d o p p o site to th e

d irectio n o f acceleratio n . T h is fo rce h as c o m p o n e n ts a x d M in the y d irectio n a n d
ay d M in the x d irec tio n , as sh ow n in Fig. 2.6. T h e re s u lta n t in e rtia force o n th e
en tire b o d y in th e x d irec tio n is
= J ay dM = a j dM = 0
T h e re s u lta n t in ertia force in th e y d irectio n is
F , = Jo x < fM = a j dM = ax M (2 .8 )
T h e re s u lta n t in e rtia to rq u e a b o u t th e axis o f ro ta tio n is fo u n d by in teg ra tin g th e

term s rep resen tin g the p ro d u c t o f th e tan g en tial force o n each elem ent ar d M a n d
its m o m e n t arm r:
To ar2 d M = a r1 d M — a I 0 (2.9)
T h e term / 0 rep resen ts th e m o m e n t o f in ertia o f th e m ass a b o u t the axis o f

ro liitio n . It ca n b e sh o w n th a t th is m o m en t of in e rtia c a n be tran sferred to a
parallel axis th ro u g h th e c e n te r o f g rav ity by use o f th e follow ing re latio n sh ip :
l0 = M x2 + JC ( 2. 10)
w here / r is the m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f th e m ass a b o u t a n axis th ro u g h the cen te r o f

gravity, o b tain ed as th e su m o f th e p ro d u c ts o f m ass e lem en ts d M an d the sq u a re
o f th eir distances rc from th e c e n te r o f grav ity :
r2 d M
By su b s titu tin g th e v alu e o f I Q from F.q. (2.10) in F.q. (2.9), th e follow ing ex
pression for the in ertia to rq u e is o b ta in e d :
T0 = M x 2a + I col (2.11)
Figure 2.6
T h e in e rtia forces o b ta in e d in Eqs. (2.7), (2.8), a n d (2.11) m a y b e rep resen ted as

forces a c tin g a t th e c e n te r o f grav ity a n d th e c o u p le Ic a, a s sh o w n in Fig. 2.7. T h e
force ccxM an d th e c o u p le / r a m u st b o th p ro d u c e m o m en ts a b o u t p o in t 0 w hich
a rc o p p o site lo the d irectio n o f a. T h e forcc io2x M m u st a c t aw a y from p o in t O.
It is seen from F ig. 2.7 th a t th e forces a t th e c e n tro id re p re se n t the p ro d u c t o f
the m ass o f th e b o d y a n d th e c o m p o n e n ts o f a c celeratio n o f th e c en te r o f grav ity .
In m a n y cases, th e axis o f ro ta tio n is n o t k n o w n , b u t th e c o m p o n e n ts o f acceler
a tio n o f the c e n te r o f g rav ity can b e o b ta in e d . In o th e r cases, th e acceleration o f
o ne p o in t o f the b o d y a n d th e a n g u la r velocity a n d a n g u la r acceleration a re
k n o w n . If th e p o in t 0 in Fig. 2.8 has an a c celeratio n a 0 , a n in e rtia force a t th e
cen ter o f g rav ity o f M a 0 , o p p o site to th e d ire c tio n o f a 0 , m u s t b e considered in
ad d itio n to th o se prev io u sly ta k en in to acco u n t.
2.6 LOAD FACTORS FOR TRANSLATIONAL ACCELERATION
F o r flight o r lan d in g c o n d itio n s in w hich th e vehicle h as o n ly tra n sla tio n a l accel

era tio n , every p a rt o f th e vehicle is acte d o n by p arallel in e rtia forces w hich a re
p ro p o rtio n a l to the w eight o f th e p a rt. F o r p u rp o se s o f an aly sis, it is con v en ien t
to co m b in e these in e rtia forces w ith th e forces o f g rav ity , by m ultiplying th e
w eight o f each p a rt by a lo a d fa c to r n, an d th u s to co n sid er th e com bined w eight
an d in ertia forces. W hen th e vehicle is b ein g accelerated u p w a rd , the w eight a n d
in ertia forces a d d directly. T h e w eight o f w o f a n y p a rt a n d th e in e rtia force wa/g
have a sum nw:
a
nw = w + vv —
9 '— -
or n= 1 + - (2 . 1 2 )
9
T h e co m b in ed in ertia an d grav ity forces a re co n sid ered in the analysis in th e
sam e m a n n e r as w eights w hich are m ultip lied b y th e lo a d fa c to r n.
In th e case o f an a irp la n e in flight w ith n o h o riz o n ta l acceleratio n , as sh o w n
in Fig. 2.9, th e eng in e th ru st is equal to th e a irp la n e d ra g , a n d the h o rizo n tal
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e in e rtia and g rav ity forces arc zero. T h e w eight a n d the in ertia
force on the a irp la n e act d o w n an d will be eq u al to th e lift. T he a irp la n e lift L is
the re su ltan t o f th e w ing a n d tail lift forces. T h e lo ad fac to r is defined as follow s:
t o a d fra c t o r = •—lift
L — -
w e ig h t
or « = -£ (2 .1 3 )
T h is value for th e lo ad fa cto r can be sh o w n to be the sa m e as th a t given b y Eq.

(2 . 1 2 ) by e q u a tin g the lift n W to th e sum o f the w eight a n d in ertia forces:
L = nW = W + W -
(J
a
or n = 1 4- -
9
w hich c o rre sp o n d s to Eq. (2.12).
F lig h t vehicles freq u en tly have h o riz o n ta l ac c ele ra tio n as well as vertical
acceleration. T h e a irp lan e show n in Fig. 2.10 is being accelerated fo rw ard , since
the engine th ru st T is g rea ter th a n th e a irp la n e d ra g D. E v ery elem ent of m ass in
th e airp la n e is th u s u n d e r th e a c tio n o f a h o riz o n tal in e rtia force eq u a l to the
p ro d u c t o f its m ass an d th e h o riz o n ta l acceleratio n . It is also convejrifent to
c o n sid er the h o riz o n ta l in ertia loads as eq u al lo the p ro d u c t o f a lo ad fa c to r nx
Figure 2.9
c W
T
I »'
Figure 2.10
a n d the w eights. T h is h o riz o n ta l load factor, often called th e thrust h a d fa ctor, is

o b tain ed from the eq u ilib riu m o f the h o riz o n ta l forces sh o w n in Fig. 2.10:
„x W = — W = T - D
(I
T - D
or (2.14)
A m ore general case of tra n sla tio n a l a cceleratio n is sh o w n in Fig. 2.11, in

w hich the airp la n e th ru s t line is n o t h o riz o n tal. It is u su ally con v en ien t to o b ta in
co m p o n en ts of forces a lo n g x a n d z axes w hich a re p a ra lle l a n d p erp en d icu lar to
the airp lan e th ru s t line. T he co m b in ed w eight a n d in e rtia lo ad o n an y elem ent
has a c o m p o n e n t alo n g th e 2 axis o f th e follow ing m a g n itu d e :
nw = w cos 0 + w —
&
or n = cos 0 + (2.15)
g
F r o m s u m m a t i o n o f a ll fo rc e s a l o n g th e z a x is ,
(2.16)
Figure 2.11
By co m bining Eqs. (2.15) a n d (2.16),

L = Wn
or
W
w hich co rre sp o n d s w ith th e value used in Eq. (2.13) fo r a level a ttitu d e o f th e
airplane.
T he th ru st lo a d facto r for th e c o n d itio n sh o w n in Fig. 2.11 is also sim ilar to
th a t o b ta in e d fo r th e a irp la n e in level a ttitu d e . Since th e th ru s t a n d d ra g forces
m u st be in eq u ilib riu m w ith th e c o m p o n e n ts o f w eight a n d inertia forces a lo n g
th e x axes, th e th r u s t lo ad fa c to r is o b ta in e d a s follow s:
W
n W — — a — W sin 0 = T — D
9
T -D
or
W
T h is value is th e sam e a s th a t o b tain ed in Eq. (2.14) for a level a ttitu d e o f th e
airplane.
In the case o f th e a irp la n e lan d in g as sh o w n in F ig. 2.12, th e lan d in g lo a d
fac to r is defined as th e vertical g ro u n d reactio n d iv id ed b y th e a irp lan e w eight.
T h e lo a d facto r in th e h o riz o n ta l directio n is sim ilarly defined as the h o riz o n ta l
g ro u n d reactio n divided by th e a irp la n e w eight:
n. = (2.17)
and (2.18)
In the a irp la n e analysis, it is necessary to o b ta in th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e lo a d

facto r alo n g axes p arallel an d p e rp en d ic u la r to th e p ro p e lle r th ru st line. H o w ev er,
a e ro d y n am ic forces a re u su ally o b tain ed first as lift a n d d ra g forces p e rp e n d icu la r
a n d p arallel to the d irectio n o f flight. If lo a d facto rs a re o b ta in e d first a lo n g lift
a n d d ra g axes, they m ay be resolved in to c o m p o n e n ts a lo n g o th e r axes, in ,th e
sam e m a n n e r as forces a re resolved in to co m p o n e n ts. T h e force actin g o n any
Figure 2.12
w eight vv is wn, a n d the co m p o n e n t o f this fo rce a lo n g a n y axis at an angle 0 to

th e force is wn co s 6. T h e co m p o n en t o f th e lo a d fa c to r is th en n cos 9.
A s a general definition, the lo ad fac to r n a lo n g a n y axis i is such th a t th e
p ro d u c t o f the lo a d fa c to r an d the w eight o f a n e lem en t is eq u al to th e sum o f th e
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e w eight a n d in e rtia forces a lo n g th a t axis. T h e w eight a n d
in e rtia forces a re alw ays in eq u ilib riu m w ith th e ex te rn a l forces acting on the
a irp la n e , a n d th e su m o f the co m p o n e n ts o f th e w eight a n d in ertia forces a lo n g
an y axis m u st be eq u al a n d o p p o site to th e su m o f th e co m p o n en ts o f th e
ex tern al forces a lo n g the axis 2 F ; . T h e lo a d fa c to r is th e re fo re defined as
TF.
« .= 1 F (2-19)
w here ZF,- includes all forces except w eight a n d in e rtia forces.
2.7 VELOCITY-LOAD-FACTOR DIAGRAM
T h e v a rio u s lo a d in g co n d itio n s for an a irp la n e u su ally a re represented o n a

g ra p h o f the lim it-lo ad facto r n p lo tte d a g a in s t th e in d ic a te d airspeed V. T h is
d ia g ra m is often called a V-n diagram, since th e lo ad fa c to r n is related to th e
acceleratio n o f g ra v ity g. In all such d ia g ra m s, the in d icated airspeed is used,
since all a ir lo ad s a re p ro p o rtio n a l to q o r p V 1/ ! . T h e value o f q is the sam e fo r .
the a ir d en sity p a n d th e actual airsp eed a t a ltitu d e as it is for the s ta n d a rd
sea-level d ensity p 0 a n d the ind icated a irsp eed , since th e in d icated airspeed is
defined by this relatio n sh ip . T h e V-n d ia g ra m is th erefo re th e sam e for all a lti
tu d es if in d icated airsp eed s are used. W h ere c o m p ressib ility effects are considered,
they d ep en d o n a c tu a l airspeed ra th e r th a n in d ic a te d a irsp eed an d co n seq u en tly
a re m o re p ro n o u n c e d a t altitu d e. C o m p ressib ility effects a re n o t considered here.
T h e a e ro d y n a m ic forces on an a irp la n e a re in e q u ilib riu m w ith the forces o f
grav ity a n d in ertia. If th e airp lan e h as n o a n g u la r ac celeratio n , both the in e rtia
an d g rav ity forces will be d istrib u ted in th e sa m e m a n n e r a s th e w eight o f v a rio u s
item s o f the a ircraft a n d will have re su lta n ts a c tin g th ro u g h th e ccnter o f grav ity
o f th e aircraft. It is con v en ien t to co m b in e th e in e rtia a n d grav ity forces as th e
p ro d u c t o f a lo ad facto r n a n d th e w eight W , as d escrib ed previously. T h e z
c o m p o n e n t o f th e re su lta n t gravity a n d in e rtia force is th e force n W acting a t th e
c en te r o f g rav ity o f th e airplane, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.13. T h e load facto r n is
o b ta in e d from a su m m a tio n o f forces a lo n g th e z axis:
C .aqS = nw
or n = C --Ps
2 W v- 2 (r2 .2-m
0 )
T h e m ax im u m value o f th e n o rm a l force coefficient C .a m ay be o b ta in e d at

v ario u s airp la n e speeds. F o r level flight a t a u n it-lo a d factor, the value o f V
c o rre sp o n d in g to C -, m w ould be th e stallin g speed o f th e airplane. In acceler-
atcd flight, the m ax im u m coefficient m ight b e o b ta in e d at h igher speeds. F o r

to be o b ta in e d a t tw ice th e stalling speed, a lo ad facto r n = 4 w ould be
d eveloped a s show n by E q. (2.20). F o r a force coefficient o f 1.25CJo mas rep resen t
ing the h ig h est an g le o f a tta c k for w hich the w ing is an aly z ed , the value o f th e
lo ad facto r n is o b ta in e d from Eq. (2.20) a n d m ay be p lo tte d a g a in st the airp lan e
velocity V, as sh o w n by line OA in Fig. 2.13..T h is line O A rep resen ts a lim iting
co n d itio n , since it is p ossible to m an eu v e r th e airp la n e a t sp eed s a n d lo ad factors
c o rre sp o n d in g to p o in ts below o r to th e rig h t o f line O A , b u t it is im possible to
m an eu v e r a t speeds a n d lo a d factors co rre sp o n d in g to p o in ts ab o v e o r to the left
o f line O A because th is w o u ld rep resen t angles o f a tta c k m u ch h ig h er th a n th e
stalling angle.
T he line A C in Fig. 2.13 rep resen ts the lim it on th e m ax im u m m an eu v erin g
load facto r fo r w hich th e a irp la n e is designed. T h is lo a d fa c to r is d eterm in ed from
the specifications fo r w hich th e a irp la n e is designed, a n d th e pilo t m ust restrict
m aneuvers so as n o t to exceed this load factor. A t sp eed s b elow th a t c o rresp o n d
ing to p o in t A, it is im p o ssib le for the p ilo t to exceed th e lim it load facto r in any
sym m etrical m an eu v er, becau se th e w ing will stall a t a lo w e r lo ad factor. ^F o r
airspeeds betw een th o se c o rresp o n d in g to p o in ts A a n d C, it is n o t practical to
design jh e a irp la n e stru c tu re so th a t it c o u ld n o t b e o v erstressed b y violent
m aneuvers. Som e ty p es o f airp la n es m ay be designed so th a t th e p ilo t w o u ld have
to exert larg e forces on th e c o n tro ls in o rd e r to exceed th e lim it-lo ad factor.
Line C D in Fig. 2.13 rep resen ts th e lim it o n th e perm issible diving speed fo r
the airp lan e. T h is v alu e is usually specified as 1.2 to 1.5 tim es the m axim um
indicated airspeed in level flight. L ine OB co rre sp o n d s to line O A, except th a t th e
w ing is a t th e negative sta llin g angle o f a tta c k , a n d th e a ir lo ad is dow n o n th e
wing. T h e e q u a tio n for line O B is o b ta in e d by su b stitu tin g th e m axim um negative
value o f C i n t o E q. (2.20). Sim ilarly, line BD c o rre sp o n d s to line A C , except th a t
the lim it-load fac to r specified for negative m an eu v e rs is c o n sid erab ly less th a n for
positive m an eu v ers.
T h e aircraft m a y therefore be m an eu v e red in such a m a n n e r th a t velocities

an d lo a d facto rs co rresp o n d in g to th e c o o rd in a te s o f p o in ts w ithin th e area
O A C D B m ay be o b tain ed . T h e m o st severe stru c tu ra l lo a d ng co n d itio n s w ill be
represented by the co rn ers of th e d ia g ra m , p o in ts A, B , C, a n d D. P oints A a n d B
rep resen t P H A A an d N H A A co n d itio n s. P o in t C re p rese n ts th e PL A A c o n d itio n
in m o st cases, alth o u g h th e positive g u st lo a d c o n d itio n , rep resen ted by p o in t F,
m ay o ccasionally be m o re severe. T h e N L A A co n d itio n is rep resen ted by p o in t D
o r by th e negative g ust co n d itio n , p o in t E, d e p e n d in g o n w hich co n d itio n p ro
duces th e g reatest negative load factor. T h e m e th o d o f o b ta in in g the g u st lo ad
factors, represented by p o in ts E a n d F , is ex plained in th e follow ing section.
2.8 GUST LOAD FACTORS
W hen an a irp la n e is in level flight in calm air, th e angle o f a ttac k a is

m easu red from th e w ing c h o rd line to th e h o riz o n ta l. If th e a irp lan e su d d en ly
strik es an ascen d in g air c u rren t w hich h a s a vertical velocity K U , the a n g le of
a tta c k is increased by th e angle Aa, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.14. T h e angle Aa is sm all,
an d th e angle in ra d ia n s m a y be co n sid ered as eq u a l to its ta n g e n t:
Aa = (2 .2 1 )
T h e ch an g e in th e airp lan e no rm al force coefficient C s„, resulting from a ch an g e

in angle o f a tta c k Act, m ay be o b tain ed from th e cu rv e o f C ,n versus a of F ig. 2.4.
T his cu rv e is ap p ro x im ate ly a stra ig h t line, a n d it h as a slo p e ji w hich m a y be
considered c o n sta n t:
P= (2 -2 2 )
Aa ■
A fter strik in g th e gust, th e a irp lan e n o rm a l force coefficient increases b y an

a m o u n t d eterm in e d from Eqs. (2.21) a n d (2.22):
AQ. = ^ (2.23)
T h e increase in th e a irp la n e load fa cto r A n m a y be o b ta in e d by su b stitu tin g the

value o f A C .o from F.q. (2.23) into Eq. (2.20):
ACL p S K 2
An =
2W
Chord line
Figure 2.14
* pSPKUV
or n=~ w (2-24)
w here p = s ta n d a rd sea-level a ir density, 0.002378 slu g /ft 3
S = w ing are a , ft 2
P = slo p e o f th e c u rv e o f C .o v ersu s a, ra d
KU = effective g u st velocity, ft/s
V = in d icated airsp eed , ft/s
W = gross w eight o f a irp lan e, lb
F o r p u rp o ses o f calc u la tio n , it is m o re co n v en ie n t to d eterm in e the slo p e /?

per degree a n d th e a irsp eed V in m iles p e r h o u r. In tro d u c in g th e necessary
c o n sta n ts in E q. (2.24) yields
w here p is the slope o f C , mversus a p e r degree, V is th e in d ica ted airsp eed in m iles
p er h o u r, a n d o th e r term s c o rre sp o n d to th o se in Eq. (2.24).
W h en the a irp la n e is in level flight, th e lo a d facto r is u n ity before the p lan e
strik es the gust. T h e c h a n g e in lo a d fac to r A n fro m Eq. (2.25) m u st be co m b in ed
w ith th e u n it-lo ad fa cto r in o rd e r to o b ta in th e to ta l g u st lo a d facto r:
. - . ± 0
E q u a tio n (2.26) m ay be p lo tted on th e V-n d iag ram , a s sh o w n by th e inclined

stra ig h t lines th ro u g h p o in ts F a n d H o f Fig. 2.13. T h e se lines rep re sen t lo a d
factors o b tain ed w hen th e airp la n e is in a h o riz o n ta l a ttitu d e and strik es p o sitiv e
o r n eg ativ e gusts. E q u a tio n (2.25) is sim ilarly p lo tte d , a s sh o w n by the inclined
lines th ro u g h p o in ts G a n d E o f Fig. 2.13. T hese lines rep resen t load facto rs
o b ta in e d w hen the a irp la n e is in a vertical a ttitu d e a n d strik e s positive o r n eg a
tive g u sts in d irectio n s n o rm a l to the th ru st line.
T h e g u st lo ad fa c to r rep resen ted b y p o in t F o f Fig. 2.13 m ay be m ore severe
th an th e m an eu v e rin g lo ad facto r rep resen ted by p o in t C. In th e case shpw n,
how ever, the m an eu v e rin g load facto r is obvio u sly g re a te r a n d will represent the
PL A A c o n d itio n . T h e neg ativ e g u st lo a d facto r re p re se n te d by p o in t E is g re a ter
th a n th e negative m an eu v e rin g lo ad fa c to r re p re sen te d b y p o in t D a n d will
d eterm in e th e N L A A c o n d itio n . It m ig h t seem th a t th e g u st load factors sh o u ld
be ad d ed to the m an eu v erin g load factors, in o rd e r to p ro v id e for the possibility
o f the a irp lan e’s strik in g a severe g ust d u rin g a v iolent m aneuver. W hile this
c o n d itio n is possible, it is im p ro b ab le becau se th e m an eu v e rin g lo ad factors are
u n d er th e pilot’s c o n tro l, an d the pilo t will restrict m an e u v e rs in g u sty w eath er.
B oth th e m aneu v e rin g a n d g ust lo a d facto rs c o rre sp o n d to th e m ost severe c o n d i
tions exp ected d u rin g th e life o f the airp la n e , a n d th ere is little p ro b ab ility o f a
com bined g u st an d m a n e u v e r p ro d u cin g a co n d itio n w h ich w ould exceed th e
lim it-load fa c to r for th e design co n d itio n .
FLIG HT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 4 5
T h e “ eflectivc, sh arp -ed g ed g u s t” velocity K U is th e velocity o f a th eoretical

gu st w hich, if e n co u n te red in sta n ta n eo u sly , w o u ld give th e sam e load factor as
th e actu a l gust. A ctually, it is im possible fo r th e u p w a rd a ir velocity to ch an g e
su d d en ly from zero to its m ax im u m value. T h e re is alw ay s a finite d istan ce in
w hich th e a ir velocity ch an g es g ra d u a lly from ze ro to th e m ax im u m g ust velocity,
an d a sh o rt tim e is re q u ired for th e a irp la n e to m o v e th r o u g h this tran sitio n
region. M o st specificatio n s re q u ire th a t th e a irp la n e b e d esig n ed for a g u st ve
locity U o f 30 ft/s w ith th e g u st effectiveness fac to r K o f 0.8 to 1.2, dep en d in g on
the w ing lo ad in g W / S . A irplanes w ith h ig h er w ing lo ad in g s usu ally are faster and
pass th ro u g h th e tra n sitio n reg io n fro m calm a ir to a ir w ith th e m axim um gust
velocity in a sh o rte r tim e, a n d hence th ey m u st b e d esig n ed fo r la rg e r values o f K .
T h e design values o f K U a re o b ta in e d from acce le ro m ete r rea d in g s for airp lan es
flying in tu rb u le n t a ir a n d rep resen t th e m a x im u m effective g u st velocities w hich
will ever be en co u n te re d d u rin g th e service life of th e a irp la n e . Som e specifi
catio n s re q u ire g u st velocities o f 50 ft/s, w ith c o rre sp o n d in g g u st red u ctio n factors
K o f a b o u t 0.6. Since th e v alues o f K U in th is case a re a lso a b o u t 30 ft/s, th e net
efTect is eq u iv alen t to a g u st velocity U o f 30 ft/s w ith a K o f 1.0. T he a ctu a l
m ax im um vertical a ir velocities p ro b a b ly exceed 50 ft/s, b u t th e tran sitio n is
g rad u al, c o rre sp o n d in g to th e values o f K = 0.6. H igh g u st lo a d factors exist for
o nly a fraction o f a seco n d , a n d th e a irp la n e c a n n o t m ove far in th is time.
In o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d th e effcct o f gusts, it is n ecessary to stu d y the m o tio n
of the a irp la n e after it e n c o u n te rs a gust. If th e g u st is en c o u n te re d in sta n ta
neously, th e facto r K is 1.0, an d th e effective g u st velo city is U. T he airp la n e is.
accelerated u p w a rd w ith a n initial a cceleratio n a0 a n d a tta in s a v ariab le vertical
velocity v. T h e g u st angle o f a tta c k (Aa o f Fig. 2.14) h a s a m a x im u m value o f U / V
a t the tim e th e gu st is e n c o u n te red (f = 0 ), b u t th is an g le o f a tta c k is decreased to
(U — v)/V after th e a irp la n e a tta in s a n u p w a rd velocity. W h e n th e u p w ard ve
locity v is eq u al to U, th e relative w ind is ag ain h o riz o n ta l, a n d th e a irp lan e is n o
lo n g er accelerated. T h e v ariab le vertical acc ele ra tio n a is th erefo re
dv U -v
" - 7 , - “° — ( 2 '2 7 )
S e p aratin g th e v ariab les a n d in teg ratin g , we have
du a0
dl
o -U -v U o
U —v a0 l
log
U V
By using th e ex p o n en tial form an d su b s titu tin g th e v alu e o f a from Eq. (2.27), the
follow ing expression for th e acceleratio n a a t lim e t is o b ta in e d :
— = e - ao,lu (2.28)
ao
As a n um erical ex am ple, c o n sid er a g u st velocity U o f 30 ft/s and an initial

Time, s
Figure 2.15
a cceleratio n a0 o f 5g, c o rre sp o n d in g to a g u st load fac to r o f 6.0. By su b stitu tin g

these values into Eq. (2.28) a n d p lo ttin g a versus t, th e curve o f Fig. 2.15 is
o b tain ed . T h e g u st ac celeratio n is seen to a p p ro a c h zero a sy m p to tically in an
infinite tim e, b u t it decreases g reatly in th e first 0.1 s. T h u s, if the a irp la n e had a
forw ard speed o f 500 ft/s (340 m i/h) it w o u ld m ove fo rw a rd only 50 ft in 0.1 s. It
seem s logical to ex p ect th a t a tm o sp h e ric c o n d itio n s a re su ch th a t it is m o re th a n
50 ft from a n y region o f calm a ir to a reg io n -in w hich th e g u st velocity is 30 ft/s.
T h e a c tu a l gust acce le ra tio n p ro b a b ly is rep resen ted m o re accu rately by th e
d o tte d line o f Fig. 2.15, w hich w ould in d ic a te an effectiveness facto r K o f a b o u t
0.6. H ow ever, since airp la n e accelero m eter read in g s h av e sh o w n effective g u st
velocities K U o f 30 ft/s, th e tru e co n d itio n s p ro b a b ly a re rep resen ted by g u st
velocities U of m o re th a n 50 ft/s w ith effectiveness facto rs K less th a n 0.6.
2.9 EXAMPLES
E xam ple 2.1 W hen lan d in g on a carrie r, a 10,000-lb airp la n e is given a

d eceleratio n o f 3g (96.6 ft/s2) by m eans o f a cab le en g ag ed by an arrestin g
h o o k as show n in Fig. 2.16.
FLIGHT-VUH1CLF. IMPOSED LOADS 47
(a) F in d th e ten sio n in the cable, th e w heel reactio n R , a n d the d istan c e e

from th e c e n te r of grav ity to the line o f a c tio n o f th e cable.
(b) F in d th e ten sio n in the fuselage a t vertical sectio n s A A a n d B B if th e
p o rtio n o f th e airp la n e fo rw ard sectio n A A w eighs 3000 lb and the p o r
tio n aft o f section B B weighs 1000 lb.
(c) F in d th e lan d in g ru n if the lan d in g speed is 80 ft/s.
S o l u t io n
(a) F irst c o n sid e r th e en tire a irp lan e as a free body.
W
Ma = a —
a
I F t = T cos 10° - 30,000 = 0
T = 30,500 lb
ZFj, — R — 10,000 - 30,500 sin 10" = 0
R = 15,3001b
Y M cg = 20 x 15,300 - 30,500e = 0
e = 1 0 in
(b) C o n sid e r the aft section o f the fuselage as a free b o d y , as show n in Fig.
2.17. It is acted o n b y an in ertia force o f
1000
M a = -------3g = 3000 lb
9
T h e ten sio n o n section B B is found as follow s:
I F , = 30,000 - 3000 - 71 = 0
= 27,000 lb
Since th e re is n o vertical acceleratio n , th ere is n o v ertical inertia force.

S ection B B h as a sh ear force Vt o f 6300 lb, w hich is eq u al to the su m of
the w eight a n d th e vertical c o m p o n e n t o f th e cab le force.
C o n sid e r th e p o rtio n of the a irp la n e fo rw ard o f sectio n A A as a free
<«tO A W l . K A r I M K U C IU K h S
^ 2 = 30001b
T2 = 9000 Ib
Figure 2.18
bo d y , as sh o w n in Fig. 2.18. T h e in ertia force is th e follow ing.
3000
M a = -------3g = 9000 lb
9
T.FX = T 2 - 9000 = 0
T2 = 9000 lb
T h e sectio n A A m u st also resist a sh e a rin g force V2 of 3000 lb a n d a

b ending m o m e n t o b ta in e d by ta k in g m o m e n ts o f th e forces show n in Fig.
2.18.
T h e forces Tt, T2 , Vt, a n d V2 m ay b e ch cc k ed by considering the
eq u ilib riu m o f th e ce n ter p o rtio n o f th e a irp la n e , as sh o w n in Fig. 2.19.
6000
M a = -------3g = 18,000 lb
g
Z F X = 27,000 - 18,000 - 9000 = 0
Z F , = 15,300 - 3000 - 6000 - 6300 = 0
(c) F ro m elem en tary d y n am ics, th e lan d in g ru n s is o b ta in e d as follow s:
v2 — i’jj = l a s
0 - (802) = 2 (—96.6)s
s = 33 ft
E xam ple 2.2 A 30,000-lb a irp la n e is sh o w n in Fig. 2.20a a t th e tim e, o f
lan d in g im pact, w hen th e g ro u n d reactio n o n each m a in w heel is 45,000 V6.
(a) If o ne w heel a n d tire weighs 500 lb, find th e co m p re ssio n C a n d bending
6000 m
T, = 27.0 0 0 ib
K, -= 630C Ib
Figure 2.19
I Ma = 60,000 lb
I
(«)
C
6 in |« »-j
M, a=
1000 lh
W, = 500 Ib il M
T
45,000 lh
(h)
Figure 2.20
m o m e n t m in th e oleo stru t if th e s tru t is vertical a n d is 6 in from th e

cen terlin e o f th e w heel, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.206.
(b) F in d the sh e a r a n d b ending m o m e n t a t section A A o f th e w ing if th e w ing
o u tb o a r d o f th is section w eighs 1500 lb a n d h as its c e n te r o f gravity 1 2 0
in o u tb o a rd o f sectio n A A .
(c) F in d th e re q u ire d sh o ck s tru t deflection if th e a irp la n e strik es the g ro u n d
w ith a vertical velocity o f 1 2 ft/s a n d h as a c o n sta n t vertical deceleration
until the v ertical velocity is zero. T h is neglects th e en erg y a b so rb ed by th e
tire deflection, w h ich m ay be larg e in so m e cases.
(d) F in d the tim e req u ire d for th e vertical velocity to b eco m c zero.
S o l u t io n
(a) C o n sid erin g th e e n tire airp lan e a s a free b o d y a n d ta k in g a su m m atio n o f
vertical forces yield
Z F y = 45,000 + 45,000 - 30,000 - M a = 0
M a = 60,000 lb
60,000 60,000g
Cl ~ ' M ~ 30,000 " 9
C o n sid e r th e lan d in g g ear as a free body, as sh o w n in Fig. 2.206. T h e

inertia force is
w, 500
M i a — — a — ----- 2 g = 1000 lb
9 9
T h e co m p ressio n lo ad C in the o leo s tru t is fo u n d from a su m m a tio n o f
vertical forces:
T F y = 45,000 - 500 - 1000 - C = 0
C = 43,500 lb
T h e b e n d in g m o m e n t m is found as follow s:
m = 45,000 x 6 - 1000 x 6 - 500 x 6 = 261,000 in • lb
(b) T h e in ertia force a c tin g on the p o rtio n o f the w ing sh o w n in Fig. 2.20c is
tv, 1500
M 2 a = — a = -------2g = 3000 lb
9 9
T h e w ing sh e a r a t sectio n A A is fo u n d from a su m m a tio n of vertical
f° rCeS‘ S F j . = V - 3 0 0 0 - 1500 = 0
V = 4500 lb
T h e w ing b e n d in g m o m en t is fo u n d by ta k in g m o m e n ts a b o u t scction
AA
m K = 3000 x 120 + 1500 x 120 = 540,000 in • lb
(c) T h e sh o ck s tru t deflection is fo u n d by assu m in g a c o n s ta n t vertical accel

e ra tio n o f —2g, o r —64.4 ft/s2, from a n initial v ertical velocity o f 12 ft/s
to a final zero v ertical velocity.
v2 — Vq = 2 a s
0 — (12z) = 2 (—64.4 )s
s = 1 .1 2 ft
(d) T h e tim e req u ire d to a b so rb the la n d in g sh o ck is fo u n d based on el

em e n ta ry dyn am ics. /
v — t>o = at
0 — 12 = — 64.4f
. f = 0.186 s
Since th e lan d in g sh o ck occurs fo r su ch a s h o rt tim e, it m ay be less
in ju rio u s to th e stru c tu re a n d less disag reeab le to th e passengers th a n
w ould a su sta in e d lo ad .
E xam ple 2-3 A 60,000-lb airp la n e w ith a tricycle la n d in g g ear m akes a h a rd

tw o-w heel la n d in g in soft g ro u n d so th a t th e v ertical g ro u n d reactio n is
fL K jti 1-VBMlLU: IMIVSI'-U LUALKi J i
270,000 lb a n d the h o riz o n ta l g ro u n d re a c tio n is 90,000 lb. T he m om ent o f

in ertia a b o u t the c e n lc r o f gravity is 5,000,000 lb ■ s 2 • in, a n d the d im ensions
are sho w n in Fig. 2.21.
(«) Find the in e rtia forccs on the airp lan e.
(/;) F in d the in ertia forces on a 400-lb g u n tu rre t in the tail w hich is 500 in aft
o f the c en te r o f g ravity. N eglect th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f the tu rret a b o u t
its ow n c e n te r o f gravity.
(c) If the n o se w heel is 40 in from th e g ro u n d w hen th e m ain wheels to u c h
the g ro u n d , find the an g u la r velocity o r th e a irp la n e and the vertical
velocity o f th e nose wheel w hen the nose w heel reaches the g ro u n d ,
assu m in g n o ap p rec ia b le change in th e m o m e n t arm s. T h e airp la n e 's
c en te r o f g rav ity h as a vertical velocity o f 1 2 ft/s a t the m om ent o f
im pact, a n d th e g ro u n d reactio n s a re assu m ed c o n sta n t until the vertical
velocity reach es zero, at w hich tim e th e vertical g ro u n d reaction becom es
60,000 lb a n d th e h o riz o n ta l g ro u n d reactio n becom es 2 0 , 0 0 0 lb.
So l u t io n
(a) T h e in ertia forccs o n the en tire a irp la n e m ay be co n sid ered as h o rizo n tal
an d vertical forces M a x an d M u y , respectively, a t th e ccn tc r o f g ravity
a n d a co u p le a,, as show n in Fig. 2.21. T h ese co rre sp o n d to the in ertia
forces sho w n o n the m ass o f Fig. 2.7, since th e forccs at the center o f
g rav ity re p re se n t the p ro d u ct o f th e m ass a n d th e acceleration c o m
p o n e n ts o f the c e n te r o f gravity.
E F X = 90,000 - M a x = 0
M a x = 90,000 lb
£ F y = 270,000 - 60,000 - M a y = 0
M ay = 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 lb
I M cg = -2 7 0 ,0 0 0 x 40 - 90,000 x 100 + I c a = 0
l c a = 19,800,000 in • Ib
Mlly I
I
H ------------------ 500 in--------------------
t
11 = (>0.000 Ib /~ \
40 in
1 f s u i o i in r —
J t u
W.OflO 111 ■ 2 7 0,000 Ib
•*-----2(JU in — *- -*—40 in
Figure 2.21
90.000 90,000
M “ 60,000 9 ~ L5CJ
210.000 210,000
.9 = 3.5 g
M 60,000
/,« 19,800,000 _ ,,,

a = — -= - ■ ■ - 3.96 ra d /s
lc 5,000,000 '
(h) T h e acceleratio n o f the c e n te r o f grav ity o f th e a irp la n e is now k n o w n ,

a n d th e ac celeratio n a n d in ertia forces for th e tu r r e t can be o b tain ed by
th e m e th o d sh o w n in Fig. 2.8, w here th e c e n te r o f g ra v ity o f th e a irp la n e
c o rre sp o n d s to p o in t 0 o f Fig. 2.8 a n d th e c e n te r o f g rav ity o f th e tu rre t
c o rre sp o n d s to p o in t C. T h ese forces a re sh o w n in F ig. 2.22 a n d have th e
follow ing valu es:
400
M a x = ----- 1.5^ = 600 lb
9
M a , = ----- 3.5g = 1400 Ib

9
400
olxM = 3.96 x 500 x —— = 2050 lb
386
In c a lc u la tin g th e term a x M , x is in inches a n d g is used as 3 8 6 in /s2. Ific

is in feet, g will b e 32.2 ft/s2. T h e to tal force on th e tu rre t is 600 lb
fo rw ard a n d 3850 Ib dow n. T h is to ta l force is seen to be alm o st 10 tim es
th e w eight o f th e tu rret.
(<) T h e c e n te r o f g ra v ity o f the a irp la n e is d ecelerated vertically a t 3.5g, o r
112.7 ft/s 2. T h e tim e o f deceleratio n fro m an initial velocity of 12 ft/s to a
z e ro vertical velocity is found from th e follow ing.
v = v0 = at
0 - 12 = 1 12.7f
/ = 0.106 s
f M a y = 1400 lb
I
I
} a x M - 2050 lb Figure 2.22
FLIG HT-VEHICLE IMPOSED LOADS 5 3
D u rin g this tim e, th e c e n te r o f grav ity m oves th r o u g h a d istan ce found

from
s = v0 t + ? a t2
= 12 x 0.10(5 — 2 x 112.7 x 0.1062
— 0.636 ft, o r 7.64 in
T h e a n g u la r velocity o f the a irp la n e a t th e en d o r 0.106 s a fter th e lan d in g

is found from
co — (o 0 — a t
w - 0 = 3.96 x 0.106
w = 0.42 ra d /s
T h e angle o f ro ta tio n d u rin g th is tim e is fo u n d from
0 1 = v)0 t + ^ a t 1
0 t = 0 + |(3.96X 0.1062) = 0.0222 ra d
T h e vertical m o tio n o f th e nose w heel resu ltin g from this ro ta tio n , show n
in Fig. 2.23, is
s, = 0 , x = 0.0222(200) = 4.44 in
T h e distan ce o f th e n o se w heel from th e g ro u n d , a fte r th e vertical velocity

o f the cen ter o f g ra v ity o f th e a irp la n e h a s b eco m e zero, is
s 2 = 40 - 7.64 - 4.44 = 27.92 in
T h e rem ain in g an g le o f ro ta tio n 0 Z, sh o w n in Fig. 2.23, is
e 2 = ^ = ?— =, 0.1396 ra d
2 x 200
Since the g ro u n d re a ctio n decreases by th e ra tio o f after the
vertical accelera tio n o f th e a irp la n e becom es zero , th e a n g u la r acceler
a tio n decreases in th e sam e p ro p o rtio n , as fo u n d by e q u a tin g m o m en ts
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
a b o u t th e c e n te r o f g ra v ity :
60,000 _
“ 2 = 270000 = ° rad/S
T h e a n g u la r velocity o f (he a irp la n e a t th e tim e the nose w heel strik es the

g ro u n d is fo u n d from the follow ing eq u atio n .
o j 2 — c o l = 2 a 2 0 2
w 2 - (0.422) = 2 x 0.88 x 0.1396
co = 0.65 ra d /s
Since a t this tim e the m o tio n is ro ta tio n , w ith no vertical m o tio n o f the
cen ter o f grav ity , th e vertical velocity o f the nose wheel is found as
follow s:
V = cox
v = 0.65 X ^ = 10.8 ft/s
T his velocity is sm aller th an th e initial sin k in g velocity o f the airplane.

C o n seq u en tly , !he n o se wheel w ould strik e the g ro u n d w ith a higher
velocity in a three-w heel level landing.
It is o f in te re st to find th e centrifugal force o n th e tu rre t uj2x M a t the
tim e the nose w heel strik es th e g ro u n d . T h is force w as zero w hen the
m ain w heels h it becau se the a n g u la r velocity co w as zero. F o r th e final
value o f a>, th e follow ing value is o b ta in e d :
cj2x M = (0.652) x 500 x = 219 lb
T his force is m u ch sm aller th a n o th e r forces a c tin g o n the tu rre t, and

u sually it is neglected. In p a rt c, certain sim plifying assu m p tio n s are m ade
w hich d o n o t q u ite c o rre sp o n d w ith a c tu a l la n d in g co n d itio n s. A erody
n am ic forces are neglected, a n d th e g ro u n d re a c tio n s on the lan d in g gear
a re assu m ed c o n sta n t w hile the lan d in g g e a r is a co m b in a tio n of th e tire
deflection, in w hich th e lo ad is a p p ro x im a te ly p ro p o rtio n a l to the defor
m a tio n , an d th e o le o s tru t d eflection, in w h ich th e lo a d is alm o st co n sta n t
d u rin g th e en tire d e fo rm a tio n , a s assu m ed . T he tire deflection m ay be as
m uch as o n e -th ird to o n e -h a lf th e to ta l d e fk e tio n . T h e aero d y n am ic
forces, w hich have been neglected, w o u ld p ro b a b ly reduce the m axim um
a n g u la r velocity o f th e airp lan e , since th e h o riz o n ta l tail m oves u pw ard
as th e a irp la n e p itches, an d th e c o m b in a tio n o f u p w ard a n d fo rw ard
m o tio n s w o u ld give a d o w n w a rd a e ro d y n a m ic force on the tail, tending
to red u ce th e p itch in g acceleratio n .
T h e aero d y n a m ic effccts o f th e lift o n the w ing an d tail surfaces are
n o t show n in Fig. 2.21, b u t they will n o t affect the p itch in g acceleration
a p p reciab ly if the g ro u n d reactio n s rem ain th e sam e. Ju st before the
a irp la n e strik e s the g ro u n d , th e lift forces o n th e w in g an d tail a re in
eq u ilib riu m w ith th e g rav ity force o f 60,000 lb. Since the h o rizo n tal ve
locity o f the a irp la n e an d the angle o f a tta c k a re n o t ap p re c iab ly ch an g ed
tflj — 0.0222 rad = 1.27°), the lift forces c o n tin u e to b a lan c e th e w eight o f
the airp lan e w hen th e c c n tc r o f g rav ity is being d ecelerated . In stead o f the
w eight o f 60,000 Ib sh o w n in Fig. 2.21, th ere sh o u ld be an ad d itio n a l
in ertia force o f 60,000 lb dow n a t th e c e n te r o f g ravity. T h e m o m en ts
a b o u t the c en ter o f g ra v ity an d the p itc h in g a ccclcralio n a re not ch an g ed ,
but the vertical d eceleratio n is increased. A t the end o f th e deceleration
o f the c en te r o f g rav ity , the g ro u n d re a c tio n s are a lm o st zero, since m ost
o f the airp la n e w eight is carried by th e lift o n the w ings. T h e airp la n e
then pilches fo rw ard th ro u g h the angle 0 2 , w hich a p p re c ia b ly changes
the angle o f a tta c k (02 = 0.1396 rad = 8 °). T h e w ing lift is th e n decreased,
an d m ost o f th e w eig h t is su p p o rte d by th e g ro u n d reactio n s o n th e
wheels. F o r the stru c tu ra l design o f th e airp la n e , u su ally only the lo ad s
d u rin g the initial im p a ct arc .significant.
E xam ple 2-4 C o n stru c t th e V-n d iag ram a n d d eterm in e th e w ing in tern al
load resulting from a e ro d y n a m ic forces for the a irp la n e (Fig. 2.24) w hose
wing p lanform is sh o w n .in Fig. 2.25. T he follow ing c o n d itio n s a re specified:
W = a irp la n e g ro ss w eight = 8000 Ib
S = a irp la n e wing a re a = 266 ft 2

K L ' = effective gust velocity = ?4 ft 's
I 'j =■ design diving speed = 400 mi 'h
n = lim it-lo ad facto r = + 6 .0 a n d —3.0
T he aero d y n a m ic ch arac te ristic s o f th e a irp la n e w ith th e h o riz o n ta l tail

rem oved have been o b ta in e d from co rrected w ind tu n n el d a ta a n d a re given
in T ab le 2.1. T h e m o m e n t coefficient C Jf is a b o u t th e c e n te r o f g rav ity o f the
airp lan e an d is ex p ressed in term s o f th e w ing a re a a n d th e m ean a ero d y
nam ic c h o rd for the w ing, c = 8 6 in. T h e stallin g angle o f th e w ing is 20°,
co rre sp o n d in g to a m ax im u m lift coefficient o f 1.67. T h e a e ro d y n a m ic d a ta
Figure 2.24
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
j q-jO 2.049 j ofi 2.087 2 qqj2.085-} Qyj 2.0532 ^.972 j ^q^1.R59 Oj (total normal
|~ | | | '| | [ [ ~| ~ | ‘| ' | | force coefficient I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -200 220 240
f---------------------------------------- 240 in
Figure 2.25
a re e x tra p o la te d to th e angle o f a tta c k o f 26°. T h e n egative stallin g angle is

-1 7 °.
T h e force coefficients a ctin g n o rm a l to th e th ru s t line are calcu lated in
T a b le 2.2. T h e c o m p o n e n ts o f C a n d C D a re c a lc u late d in co lu m n s 2 an d 3.
T h e tail lo ad coefficient C, is calc u lated in co lu m n 4 b y m eans o f Eq. (2.3).
T h e final v alu es o f C..a, th e n o rm al force coefficient fo r th e en tire a irp lan e, a re
o b ta in e d in c o lu m n 5 a s th e sum o f values from c o lu m n s 2, 3, a n d 4.
T h e V-n d ia g ra m is co n stru c te d from the c a lc u la ted d a ta for C .c. F o r th e
OA p o rtio n o f th e c u rv e o f Fig. 2.13, th e value o f C-.a is assum ed to be 1.25
tim es the v alu e a t th e stallin g angle for th e w ing, o r
C Za = 1.25(1.656) = 2.070
T h is c o rre sp o n d s w ith the angle o f a tta c k o f 26”, w ith in the accu racy o f the
d a ta , an d th is an g le is assum ed. T h e e q u a tio n for the cu rv c O A o f Fig. 2.13 is
Table 2.1
. a - 0, (leg Q cn c„
26 2.132 0.324 0.0400
20 1.670 0.207 0.0350
15 1.285 0.131 0.0280
10 0.900 0.076 0.0185
5 0.515 0.040 0.0070
0 0.130 0.023 -0 .0 1 0 5
-5 -0 .2 5 5 0.026 -0 .0 3 1 6
-10 -0 .6 4 0 0.049 -0 .0 5 2 5
-1 5 -1 .0 2 5 0.092 -0 .0 7 7 0
-1 7 -1 .1 8 0 0.115 -0 .0 8 6 0
T ab le 2.2
0, deg C'„ sin 0 CL cos 0 C, C,

(1) 12) 13) (4) (5)
26 0.143 1,918 0.017 2.078

20 0.071 1.570 0.015 1.656
15 0.034 1.240 0.012 1.286
10 0.013 O.X87 0.008 0.908
5 0.004 0.512 0.003 0.519
0 0 0.130 -0 .0 0 4 0.126
-5 -0 .0 0 2 -0 .2 5 4 -0 .0 1 3 -0 .2 6 9
-1 0 -0 .0 0 8 -0 .6 3 0 -0 .0 2 2 -0 .6 6 0
-1 5 -0 .0 2 4 - 0 .9 9 0 -0 .0 3 2 -1 .0 4 6
-1 7 -0 .0 3 4 -1 .1 3 0 -0 .0 3 6 -1 .2 0 0
foun d as follow s:
pSV2
11 = 1078 = 2.078 x 0.00256 ( 2 Z - V >)
2W \8 0 0 0 J
= 0.0001.772 V 2
F o r p o in t A, it = 6 a n d V — 184 m i/h. T h e e q u a tio n for th e c u rv e O B of Fig,

2.13 is found as follow s:
aSV2
n = - 1.200 = —0.0001024 F 2
F o r p o in t B, n = —3 a n d V = 172 m i/h . P o in ts C a n d D a re p lo tted w ith

co o rd in ates (400, 6 ), a n d (400, — 3). T h e d ia g ra m is sh o w n in F ig . 2.26.
T he gust lo ad facto rs are now o b ta in e d from Eqs. (2.25) a n d (2.26). T h e
slope fi m ay be o b ta in e d from the ex trem e c o o rd in a te s o f th e cu rv e for C .o if
wc assum e a stra ig h t-lin e v a ria tio n :
„ 2.078 + 1.200
P = — = °-0763 p e r degree
iO + 1 /
Figure 2.26
Table 2.3
C h o rd
Slalion length Force coefficient Shear Bending momcnl
no. >; C) Vi M J I(XX)
0 240 0 0 0
1 220 50 1.859 560 5
2 200 66 1.903 1.880 29
3 ISO 73.2 1.972 3.510 83
4 160 76.4 2.035 5,310 171
5 140 79.6 2.053 7.230 296
6 120 82.8 2.077 9.250 461
7 100 86.0 2.085 11.370 667
8 80 89.2 2.095 13.580 917
9 60 92.4 2.087 15.870 1.212
to 40 95.6 2.06 18,220 1.553
11 20 98.8 2.049 20,630 1.942
12 0 102 2.02 23,090 2,379
F ro m Eq. (2.26),
„ /iK U V 0.1 (0 .0 7 6 3 X 3 4 ),,

An = 0 .1 ---------- ----------------------- V
W /S 30
= 0.00865 V
F o r V = 400 m i/h , An = 3.46. P o in ts F and E re p rese n t gust lo ad factors of

4.46 a n d —3.46, respectively.
T h e w ing in te rn a l b en d in g a n d sh e a r lo a d s a re n o w calculated for the
P H A A co n d itio n , w hich is rep resen ted b y p o in t A o n th e V-n d iag ram . T he
w ing h as a n an g le o f atta c k o f 26° at an in d ic a te d airspeed o f 184 m i/h.
T h e to ta l force coefficients n o rm al to th e w ing c h o rd a re given in Fig. 2,25.
T h e s h e a r a n d b en d in g lo ad s a re calc u lated b ased o n
V — V 4- ~‘ ' ~1 (Y — Y)
ti _Ki 1 + 144 2 1
y
an d M , = M, , + h ± A j . {Yi , - Yi)
w here i in d icates the sta tio n n u m b e r a n d q is th e d y n a m ic pressure in p o u n d s

per sq u a re foot. All results are su m m arized in T a b le 2.3.
PROBLEMS
2.1 An airpliinc weighing 5000 Ib strikes an upward gust o f air which produces a wing lift of 25,000 Ib
(see l-ig. I’2.1). W hat tail load P is required to prevent a pitching acceleration if the dimensions are as
shown? W hat will be the vertical acceleration of the airplane? If this lift force acts until the airplane
obtains a vertical velocity of 20 ft/s, how much time is required?
25,000 lb
Figure P2.1
2.2 An airplane weighing 8000 lh has an upward acceleration of 3</ when landing. If the dimensions
are as shown in Fig. P2.2, whal are the wheel reactions R x and f?2? W hat time is required to
decelerate the airplane from a vertical velocity of 12 ft/s? What is the vertical compression of the
landing gear during this deceleration? What is the shear and bending m om ent on a vertical section
A A if the weight forward of this section is 2000 lb and has a ccnter of gravity 40 in from this cross
section?
M a = 2 4 ,0 0 0 lh
1
Figure P2.2
2.3 The airplane shown in Fig. P2.3 is making an arrested landing on a carrier deck. Find the load
factors /! and n x, perpendicular and parallel to the dcck, for a point at the center of gravity, a point
200 in aft of the center of gravity, and a point I(K) in forward of the ccnter of gravity. Find the relative
U' = 10,000 Ib
30.000 lh Figure P2.3

vertical velocity w ith which the nose wheel strikes the deck if the vertical velocity of the center of
gravity is 12 ft/s and the angular velocity is 0.5 rad/s counterclockwise for lhe position shown. The
radius of gyration for the m ass of the airplane about Ihe center of gravity is 60 in. Assume no change
in the dimensions o r loads shown.
2.4 An airplane is flying at 550 mi/h in level flight when it is suddenly pulled upward into a curved
palh of 2000-ft radius. (See Fig. P2.4.) Find Ihe load factor of the airplane.
Figure P2.4
2J.> If ihe airplane in Prob. 2.4 is given a pitching acceleration of 2 rad/s2, find its load factor,
assuming that the change in lift due to pitching may be neglectcd.
2.6 A large transport aircraft is m aking a level landing, as shown in Fig. P2.6. The gross weight of the
aircraft is 150,000 lb, and its pitching mass m oment of inertia is 50 x 10* lb • in • s2 about the center
o f gravity. The landing rear-wheel reaction is 350,000 Ib at an angle of 15" with the vertical. Deter
mine whether passenger A or B will receive the most load. Assume that each passenger weights 170 lb
and neglect the airplane lift.
Figure P2.6
2.7 Assume that the center of gravity of the airplane in Example 2.4 is moved forward 8 in without
changing the external aerodynam ic configuration. T he distance L, is now 208 in, and the values o f the
aerodynam ic pitching moments about the center of gravity a r e C M — 8C./86, where values of C M are
given in Table 2.1.
(a) Calculate curves for C, and C._.
(/>) Construct a l ’-n diagram , using the conditions specified in Sec. 2.7.
(c) Calculate the wing bending-momciit diagram for air loads norm al to the wing chord for the
PHAA condition.
(i/) C alcu la te the wing hciiding-im im ciit d ia g ra m fo r cliunlwi.sc a ir loads.
(<•) Calculate the air-load torsional moments about the wing’s leading edge if the leading edge is
straight and perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the airplane. Assume the airfoil a t any section
to have an aerodynam ic ccnter at the quarter-chord point and to have a negligible pitching m oment
about this point.
2.8 Calculate the wing norm al and chordwise bending-moment diagram s for the PLAA condition for
the airplane analyzed in Sec. 2.7.
2.9 If the airplane wing of F.xamplc 2.4 weighs 4 .0lb/ft2, which is assumed distributed uniformly over
the area, calculate the wing bending moments resulting from gravity and inertia forces normal to the
wing chord for the four primary loading conditions.
CH A PTER
THREE_________________
ELASTICITY OF STRUCTURES
3.1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
T his c h a p te r defines stresses an d stra in s an d th e ir fu n d a m e n tal relationships. T h e

stress b eh av io r o f stru c tu re s u n d erg o in g elastic d e fo rm a tio n th a t is d u e to the
a c tio n o f ex tern al ap p lied lo ad s is also discussed. T h e te rm elasticity o r elastic
behavior is used here to im ply a recovery p ro p e rty o f an o rig in al size a n d shape.
3.2 STRESSES
C o n sid er the solid b o d y sh o w n in Fig. 3.1 w hich is acted o n by a set o f external

forces Qi, as in dicated . If we assum e th a t rig id -b o d y m o tio n is prevented, the
solid will deform in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e ex te rn a l ap p lie d forces; as a result,
in tern al lo a d s betw een all p a rts of th e b o d y will b e p ro d u ced .
If th e solid is se p a ra te d in to tw o p a rts b y p assin g a h y p o th etical plane, as
show n in Fig. 3.1/j, th en th e re exist in te rn al forces w h o se re su lta n ts a re indicated
by Q, an d Q„ a c tin g o n p a rts I an d II, respectively. y
T h e forccs w hich h o ld to g eth er th e tw o p a rts o f th e body a re n o fm ally
d istrib u te d o v er th e en tire surface o f th e c u t plane. If w e c o n sid er o n ly an infi
nitesim al a re a 3 A acted o n by a re su lta n t force <5Q, th en a n av erag e force per u n it
m ay be expressed as
In the lim it as rM a p p ro a c h e s zero, F.q. (3.1) bccom es

ELASTICITY OF STRUCTURES 63
w here a now is the lim itin g value o f th e av erag e force p e r u n it a re a an d , by

definition, the stress at th a t point. A stress is co m p letely d efined if its m ag n itu d e
a n d d irection an d th e p la n e on w hich it acts a re all k n o w n . F o r instance, it is n o t
a p p ro p ria te to ask a b o u t th e stress at p o in t 0 o f th e solid sh o w n in Fig. 3.2 unless
the p lan e on w hich th e stress is a ctin g is specified. A n infin ite n u m b e r o f p lan es
m ay be passed th ro u g h p o in t 0 , thus resu ltin g in an infinite n u m b e r of d ifferent
stresses.
In th e m ost general th ree-d im en sio n al s ta te o f stress, n in e stress co m p o n e n ts
m ay e x is t:
6 4 A IRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Figure 3.2
w here <tH (i = x, >\ z) a re th e n o rm a l stresses an d <r0- = <7 j7 (i j± j - x . y , r) a re the

slic;iring slresses. T h e lirst su b scrip t o n n u (i, j = x, y, :) d en o tes t h e p lane a t a
c o n s ta n t i on w hich th e stress is actin g , a n d th e seco n d su b scrip t d e n o tes the
positive d irectio n o f th e stress. F ig u re 3.3 illu strates th e stress n o tatio n .
In th e case o f th e tw o -d im en sio n al s ta te o f stress, o r w hat is co m m o n ly
referred to as the p la n e stress p ro b lem (azz = a , x = <r.y = 0), F.q. (3.3) becom es
ELASTICITY OF STRUCTURES 6 5
3.3 STRESS EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS IN A

NONUNIFORM STRESS FIELD
In general, a solid w hich is acted on by a set o f ex tern a l ap p lied lo ad s cxpcricnccs

a sta te o f stress th a t is n o t uniform th ro u g h o u t th e body. T h is con d itio n gives rise
to a set o f e q u a tio n s w hich are referred to a s th e e q u a tio n s o f equilib riu m .
C o n sid er the th ree-d im en sio n al solid sh o w n in Fig. 3.4.
U sin g the eq u ilib riu m eq u atio n s o f sta tic s yields th e follow ing:
XFx = 0
X d x d y d : + (rrxx + oxx x dx)dy dz — crxx d y dz + {<rxy + crxyi y dy)dx dz
— a VJ. d x dz + (azx 4- o .x . dz)dx d y — a zx d x dy = 0
or a x.x. A + a xv. y + a :x . z + % = 0 (3.5)
Sim ilarly,
2 h\. = 0 rrxy x + a yy y + tr.j. . + Y = 0 (3.6)
£ F_ = 0 (7-a a + <T=V>y + (7,2t . + Z = 0 (3.7)
Ozx+
n
J "
\ L
X
a.
w hore X , Y, a n d Z a re b o d y forces. T h e c o m m a d e n o te s p a rtia l d ifferen tiatio n

w ith rcspect to the follow ing su b sc rip t:
d ayy
zx' x ox dy
In a cy lin d rical c o o rd in a te set of axes, the e q u ilib riu m eq u a tio n s m ay be
easily derived from Fig. 3.5:
<7„ir + ~ f f rll_„ + ^ ~ ^ + fyr!_z + R = , Q (3.8)
I 2$
~ <T0 0 . 0 + a rB. r H----- -- + ^zK - + © = 0 (3.9)
r r
1 <7r.
°zz, z + r °0z. e + arit r + + Z = 0 (3.10)
w here ag ain R , ©, a n d 7. a re b o d y forces.

F o r p lan e stress p ro b lem s, the e q u ilib riu m e q u a tio n s sim plify to the follow
ing:
a xx. X + a x f . }• + X = 0
(3.11)
a xy. x + <?yy. y + Y = U
or, in cylindrical co o rd in a te s.
_tt. r +, A_ffrB, t>4.--------------
r~ ff8B+. R„ = 0«
r r
». 29 a rti (3 '2)
~ ^00, 0 + G r0, r + -------- - 4 - 0 = 0
3.4 STRAINS AND STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIPS
S train s are n o n d im e n sio n a l q u a n tities a sso ciate d w ith th e d efo rm a tio n s (displace
m ents) o f an elem en t in a solid body u n d e r th e actio n o f ex tern a l ap p lied loads.
<10
Figure 3.5
T o arrive a t a m a th e m a tic al definition o f th e stra in co m p o n e n ts, tak e th e solid

body show n in Fig. 3.6 a n d consider o n ly the infin itesim al elem ents OA, OB, an d
OC.
If, after d efo rm a tio n s tak e place, the d isp lacem en ts o f p o in t 0 are d e n o ted by
qx , qy , and q. in the .x, j \ an d z d irectio n s, respectively, th en the d isplacem ents
of p o in ts A, B, and C w hich are dx, dy, a n d dz aw ay from p o in t O will be qx -f
qx x dx, qy + q v r dy, a n d q. 4- q . . dz, respectively. F ig u re 3.7 show s all the
displacem ents resu ltin g from the a p p lic a tio n o f e x te rn a l ap p lied loads. W hen
these relative d isp lacem en ts o ccur in a so lid b o dy , th e b o d y is said to be in a sta te
o f strain. T h e stra in s asso ciate d w ith th e relative ch an g e in len g th a re referred to
as normal strains, a n d those related to relative c h a n g e in angles are called shear
ing strains.
T h e n o rm al stra in is defined as
w here A L is the c h a n g e in length o f a n clem en t w h o se orig in al length w as L

before d efo rm atio n lo o k place. O n the b asis o f E q. (3.13), th e n o rm a l strain in the
.v d irection, for in stan ce, is o b tain ed as follow s:
A (0.-1) O'A' - OA
S" = ~ 0 A ~ ~ OA
OA = d x
O'A' = l( d x + qx, x d x)2 + (qy, x d x )2 + (q:, x d x ) 2 ] 1' 2
T h e no rm al strain in th e .v d irection is th en
= [(I + Q x.x)2 + U lr.x )2 + ( 9 z , x ) 2 ] 1 /2 — 1
F igure 3.6
w hich reduces to the follow ing by using th e b in o m ial e x p a n sio n technique:
= <7.r. r + J 2 + k y .J2 + (<7z. * ) 2] + ' "
F o r sm all disp lacem en ts, the term s in v o lv in g th e sq u a res o f derivatives m ay

be neglected in co m p a riso n w ith th e d eriv ativ e in th e first term . T herefore, the
x -d irectio n lin ear n o rm a l stra in bccom es
(3.14a)
In sim ilar m a n n er, th e linearized no rm al s tra in s in th e y a n d z directions m ay be
derived a n d are given by
= <ly. y (3.f4/i)
an d ' ezz = q . z (3.14c)
T h e sh earin g stra in s m ay be derived by finding the relative change in the

angle betw een a given p a ir o f the three line segm ents sh o w n in Fig. 3.7.
= q.r. y + qy. x
€*z = clx.z + (lz.x (3-15)
= ‘I,.-. + Q z.y
T he d eriv atio n o f F.q. (3.15) m ay be found in Refs. 11, 12, a n d 13.

T hus, in a three-d im en sio n al state of stra in , the stra in field co m p o n en ts m ay
be co m p ac ted in a m a trix form :
e.vx *xz
w = ^yx (3.16)
€*y <L-z
w here e;j = e ;i for / / / is a sh earin g stra in a n d fo r i = j is th e n o rm al strain.

In th e case o f tw o -d im en sio n al s ta te o f s tra in (p la n e -stra in p roblem ),
€zz = = e .T = 0, Eq. (3.16) reduces to
[<Q (3.17)
= [:
In cylindrical c o o rd in a te s, Eqs. (3.14) a n d (3.15) m a y be w ritte n as
<7=.o
^rr (lr. r
Qn, a Or
6(1 0 + — e =r ~ Q z, r + <?r. 2
(3.18)
r r
‘i r . O . Qo
= <1 e r0 — I" r —
r r
w here qr , c/„, an d q. a re the d isp lacem en ts in the r, 0, a n d r directions, respec

tively.
3.5 COMPATIBILITY EQUATIONS FOR PLANE-STRESS

AND PLANE-STRAIN PROBLEMS
T h e stra in -d isp la c em en t relatio n sh ip s for p la n e -stra in p ro b le m s are given b y the

following.
e xx - 9 .v, X
e yy = 1y, y
(3.19)
^xy ~ tfx . y tfy . x
By ex am in in g Eq. (3.19), it is a p p a re n t th a t th ere exist th ree co m p o n e n ts of

strain w hich arc expressed in term s o f o n ly tw o c o m p o n e n ts o f displacem ents.
T hus, it m ay be co n clu d ed th a t n o t all th ese stra in c o m p o n e n ts are in d ep en d e n t
o f one a n o th e r. T h is m ay be easily verified by d iffe re n tia tin g twice the first an d
the second e q u a tio n s o f (3.19) w ith resp ect to y a n d x, respectively, and the last
e q u a tio n w ith respcct to x only.
e jc.\. y y ~ el x . x y y
xx ^/v. y x x
€ jc>\ x y ~ tfx , x y y xxy

S u b stitu tin g the first tw o eq u a tio n s in to the th ird yields
e.v.v. xy = e.w. vv + e vy. « (3.20)

w hich is the c o m p atib ility e q u a tio n o f d efo rm atio n .
Thus, the ch o ice o f th e th ree stra in co m p o n e n ts c a n n o t be a rb itra ry , b u t
m ust be such th a t th e c o m p a tib ility e q u a tio n is satisfied. T h is c o m p atib ility
eq u atio n en su res th e existence o f single-valued disp lacem en t functions qx and qy
for a solid. In fact, w hen F q. (3.20) is expressed in term s o f stresses, it en su res th e
existence o f a u n iq u e so lu tio n for a stress p ro b lem , as is illu strated in later
chapters.
F o r th ree-d im en sio n al sta te o f stress, the co m p a tib ility e q u a tio n s m ay be
derived in sim ilar m a n n e r lo th a t o f Fq. (3.20) a n d are given by the follow ing.
^.tv. xy ^xx, yy “1“ ^vv. xx
^.vr. x: ^xx, zr + ezz.xx
er--. r= ~ € yy. =r 1 f-rr. vv
2 e „ . = e.v,.. A. ”1“ e.vr, .tv ^yr. v.v

2 e vv. T- exz, yy e.v:. vy
^ ~r. .vv ^w. e.vr. yz + e vr, xz
3 .6 B O U N D A R Y C O N D IT IO N S
B o u n d ary c o n d itio n s a rc th o s e co n d itio n s for w hich th e d isp lacem en ts a n d /o r th e

surface forces a re p rescrib ed a t the b o u n d a ry o f a given solid. F o r instance, if the
d isplacem ents qx , qy , an d q z a re p rescrib ed a t th e b o u n d a ry , th e n c o n d itio n s are
referred lo as displacement boundary conditions a n d m ay b e w ritten as
= '/a M ‘Iy = '/,-('/) </= = <?.-('/) (3.22)

w here </A. qy , an d q. a rc k n o w n fu n ctio n s o f d isp lacem en ts a t th e b o u n d a ry .
O n the o th e r h a n d , if <rx x , a,.,., an d <rvv a re p rescrib ed a t th e b o u n d a ry .JJie n
the co n d itio n s are called f o r c e boundary conditions an d a re n o rm a lly expressed as
X. " *xx °xy “ zx

N rr =
“ xy a T, (3.23)
_NZ. _ J*zx "yz (7Zz
w here th e /V;/ (i = .v, v, z) a re th e surface b o u n d a ry forces, th e <t;j (i, j = x, y, z) are

the prescribed stresses a t th e b o u n d a ry , an d //v, t]y . are the d irectio n cosines.
F o r the d e riv atio n o r F.q. (3.23) see Ref. 14.
It is a p p ro p ria te lo n o te a t this p o in t th a t in o rd e r to o b ta in the ex act stress
field in any given solid u n d e r the a c tio n o f ex tern al lo ad s, the e q u a tio n s o f
equilibrium , c o m p a tib ility e q u a tio n s, an d th e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s m u st all b e
satisfied.
ELASTICITY 01-' STRUCTURES 7 1
3.7 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
S tru c tu ra l b e h a v io r m ay be classified in to th ree b asic cate g o ries based o n th e

functional rela tio n sh ip betw een stresses an d stra in s :
1. Inelastic n o n lin e a r
2. E lastic n o n lin ea r
3. L in ear elastic
C o n sid er a steadily lo ad ed b a r as show n in Fig. 3.8. Tf u p o n lo ad in g th e fu n c

tio n al re la tio n sh ip betw een the stress a n d its c o rre sp o n d in g stra in takes o n a
curved p a th , an d u p o n u n lo a d in g it lak es a d ifferen t cu rv ed p a th , as in Fig. 3.9a,
th en Ihe stru c tu ra l b e h av io r is referred to a s in ela stic n o n lin e a r behavior. If su ch
re latio n sh ip follow s th e sam e curved p a th u p o n b o th lo a d in g a n d u n lo a d in g th e
b a r as in Fig. 2.9/;, then the b eh av io r is said to b e e la stic n o n lin e a r b ehavior. L ast,
if such re la tio n sh ip tak es on the sam e s tra ig h t p a th a s in Fig. 2.9c, th en the
b eh av io r is term ed lin e a r e la stic b ehavior.
In the m ost g en eral ease for a lin ear clastic a n iso tro p ic solid, H o o k e ’s law,
w hich relates stresses to strain s, m ay be w ritte n in a m a trix form as follow s, in
w hich e = stra in , a = stress, an d Ay (i, j -- x, v, z) are th e m a teria l elastic c o n
sta n ts (a{j = ajj).
V x/ an «12 fl|3 a \A a iS a if,

e rr “ 21 a 2i a 23 a 24 «25 a 26 a y.y
e :: «3 1 032 a 33 a 34 «35 a 36
(3.24)
e .vr °4I aA2 a 43 a 44 a45 a 4b a rz
6,. «SI «S2 a 53 a 54 «55 as 6
e ,,_ J 1r, l a (i2 fl(, 3 a (,4 «65 J x y .
If there exist th ree o rlh o g o n al p lanes o f elastic sy m m etry th ro u g h every p o in t

o f the solid body, th en Eq. (3.24) becom es
"12 «13 0 0 O'

e .v.r a 2i «22 «23 0 0 0
a 31 a 32 033 0 0 0 <jz.
(3.25)
0 0 0 a 14. 0 0 <iyz
C~\7 0 0 0 0 «5S 0 <7a.-
0 0 0 0 0 J 7*.i_
J
T h e eiaslic c o n sta n ts a n in Eq. (3.25) m a y be defined in term s o f th e '
en g in eerin g -m aterial c o n sta n ts as follow s:
Figure 3.8
to) to
Figure 3.9 (a) Inelastic nonlinear: (h) elastic nonlinear; (f) linear elastic
J33
a 12 = "2 1 =
E„
V V
032= ~ f - = ~ f - (3.26)
Lj vv i-'-T
E ..
1 1 1
a 44 — ,, 055 — „ °6 6 —n
w here Eu . G:J, an d t’i; (/, / = .v, i\ z) a re th e m o d u lu s o f elasticity, sh e a r m odulus,

an d P oisson's ratio , respectively.
A b o d y w hich ob ey s Eq. (3.25)—i.e., a t each p o in t th e re exist th ree m u tu ally
p e rp en d icu lar p lan es o f elastic sy m m etry — is c o m m o n ly referred to as an ortho
tropic body. P lyw o o d , fo r in stan ce, a n d m o st reinforced plastics m ay be des
ignated as o rlh o tro p ic m aterials.
If all d irectio n s in a solid a re elastically e q u iv alen t a n d any plane wjrich
passes th ro u g h an y p o in t o f the b o d y is a p lan e o f elastic sym m etry, th en it is
called a n isotropic body. In th is case, th e elastic c o n sta n ts in E q. (3.25) sim plify to
1
° l 1 — a 22 ~ a i3 ~ £
a 44 = fl5 5
(3 .2 7 )
a l2 ~ a 2l — (l23 ~ a 32 ~ a l i = --
E
G =
2 (1 + v)
ELASTICITY OF STRUCTURES 7 3
w here E = Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s, G = sh ear m o d u lu s, a n d v = P o isso n ’s ratio.

M ost m etals, such as a lu m in u m , steel, a n d tita n iu m , a re iso tro p ic m aterials.
It is im p o rta n t to n o te here th a t in an a n is tro p ic b o d y , n o rm a l strain s will
induce n o t only n o rm a l stresses b u t also sh e a rin g stresses; likewise, sh earin g
strain s will p ro d u c e n o rm a l stresses, as m ay easily be seen from Eq. (3.24). H o w
ever, n o rm al stra in s in a n iso tro p ic o r o rth o tro p ic b o d y will cau se only n o rm al
stresses, w hile sh e a rin g stra in s will cause sh e a rin g stresses. T h is m ay be verified
by ex am in in g E q. (3.25).
F o r plan c-slress p ro b le m s w here a . . , iry :, a n d ax: a rc zero , if wc assum e
iso tro p ic m aterial, Eq. (3.25) becom es
1 -v 0 ~<7.va
1
e vv -v 1 0 (T„ (3.28)
= E
[° ° 2 (1 + v)J <*xr_
By su b s titu tin g E q. (3.28) in to Eq. (3.20) a n d utilizin g E q. (3.11), th e co m p atibility

eq u a tio n in term s o f stresses alo n e becom es
^ X X , XX yy 0
(3.29)
T he b o d v forccs arc assu m ed lo be zero.
3.8 TRANSFORMATION OF STRESSES AND STRAINS
A stress field {<rKXl <r,r . rr%y), such as show n in Fig. 3.10, w hich is know n in one set
of system s axes m ay be tran sfo rm ed to an y o th e r a rb itra ry set o f axes such as t]ji.
y /
a„. /
fm4-W
-f
/
/
' v
1 I i \ 1 l./l
V /
/
\
\
N^-----
mttm
— ► \
N.
F o r instance, assu m e th a t a t a given p o in t in a solid, th e stresses (axx, <tvj, ,

an d a xy) a re k n o w n in reference to th e x a n d v axes, as sh o w n in Fig. 3 .11. T h e
object is to lind th e set o f stresses in reference to a new set o f axes, ijjl, which are
ro ta te d th ro u g h a n an g le 0 as show n. T h e stress <rm m ay b e found by considering
the free-body d ia g ra m w hich is cu t by a p la n e a lo n g the P axis at a n angle 0 from
the vertical, as sh o w n in Fig. 3.116. If side O B is assu m ed to have area A , th en
sides O C a n d C B will each have an a re a o f A cos 0 an d A sin 0, respectively.
Since eq u ilib riu m co n d itio n s prevail, th e su m m a tio n o f forces alo n g each o f the >/
a n d ft d irectio n s m u st be zero, o r
a nn A — <ixx A cos 0 cos 6 — a yy A sin 0 sin 6 — u xy A cos 0 sin 0
— ayx A sin 0 cos 0 = 0
By sim plifying a n d n o tin g th a t r xy = a yx, th e follow ing is o b ta in e d :
er,;/f A + <rxx A c o s 0(sin 0) — <rvy A sin 0(cos 0) + oxy A cos 0(cos 0)

— a yx A sin (7(sin 0) — 0 (3.30«)
or
axx sin 20 a rr sin 20

+ (1 - 2 co s 2 0)axy (3.30b)
2 + 2
In a sim ilar m an n e r, m ay be o b tain ed a n d is given by
p = a xx s in 2 0 + ayy c o s 2 0 + a xy sin 20 (3.30c)
3 0
a'xx
a.
to)
Figure 3.11
ELASTIC ITY OF STRUCTURES 75
E q u a tio n s (3.30a). (3.30/j), a n d (3.30c-) m ay be assem b led in a m atrix form as
— 1
' J
cos2fl s in 2fl —sin 20
JLj
,TIH sin 2fl cos2 0 sin 20 t ,,. (3.31«)
sin 20 sin 20 , ,
1—
- —-— —-— 1 — 2 cos 0
w h e r e 0 is (h e a n g l e o f r o t a t i o n a n d is p o s i ti v e in t h e c l o c k w i s e d ir e c tio n .
In co m p ac t m atrix form , Eq. (3.28) becom es
/VI. (3.316)
w here [ T ] is referred to as the tra n sfo rm a tio n m atrix .
_________ >
In a sim ilar m a n n e r, the strain s m ay be tra n sfo rm e d as follow s:
” €* l" e*.r
i—i
i_-3
e„. (3.32)
ii
e ///(
I
.2 ' nfl_
w here (ten so r sh e a rin g strain) = 2 e ,7 (engineering sh e a rin g strain) a n d the
m atrix [ T ] is the sam e as th a t in Eq. (3.31).
PROBLEM S
3.1 Derive the com patibility equation in cylindrical coordinates for a two-dimensional state of stress.
3.2 Find the direction along which a hole may be drilled in the solid shown in Fig. P3.2 such that no
shearing stresses exist along the hole direction.
Figure P3.2
3.3 Find the maximum and minimum normal stresses and the planes on which they act for ihe block
.shown in Fig. 1*3.2. Also, determine the maximum shear stress and the plane on which it acts in
Proh. 3.Z
3.4 Derive Pq. (3.30c*).
3.5 F or a two-dimensional state of stress, show' that the stress-strain relationship is
” A « V,, s , . 0 ■
fT = St 2 S 22 0 k
0 0 ■V U -.
where S,y are the stiffness constants, defined ns follows.

76 AIRCRAFT SIRUCTURHS
S44 ~ a h„ A = a ,, a 22 - a f2
3.6 Find Ihe m atrix of the stiffness constants if a new. arbitrary set of chosen axes is taken as shown
in Hg. P3.6. Assume that the stillness constants with rcspcct lo the x and y axes are as given in
Prob. 3.5.
11 Figure P3.6
3.7 A narrow cantilever beam has unit width and is loaded with a force Q, as shown in Fig. P3.7. The
deformations in the x and y directions are
<!, - i m - Q x 2y - b Q f H Q l:y) + - Qczy)
‘h - i EUvQ.xy2 + iQ x ' - QL2.x + jQ l?)

(«) If n rt = 0, find the stress fields for the beam under consideration at any point (,v, y).
(/>) Show that the stress fields in part (n) are the stress fields for the given beam.
(<•) If Q = 1000 lb, c = 2 in, L = 100 in, El — I08, and » = 0.25 and by utilizing the stress fields
in part («), find the principal norm al stresses and the maximum shear stress a t a point on the beam
given by x — l.jl. y = —c/2.
(</) Could the following stress fields he possible stress fields for the given beam?
- Q[.v2 + Wx2 - y 2)J
= Q l* 2 + >1r - .v2)]
n = - 2 Qr.vv
y
|
s
1 1
Figure P3.7
3.8 You are given a rectangular plate wilh positive applied stresses (<T„ and n!t). What must be the
magnitude o r <rv in order for the contraction in the x direction lo be prevented? If this plate is
subjected to the positive stresses Z7,t ■ trvv. and 17^., in what direction should the plate be drawn in
order to preserve its angles during stretching?
3.9 A plate of unit thickness is subjected to a set of loads l \ and Pt uniformly distributed over the
sides a and />, respectively. (See Fig. P3.9.) W hal must be the ratio o f magnitudes of P , and Pf in
order for the contraction of the plate in the x direction to be prevented?
Figure P3.9
i
CHAPTER
FOUR
BEHAVIOR A N D EVALUATION
OF VEHICLE M ATERIAL
It is o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e for the stru c tu ra l a n a ly st to have a full u n d e rsta n d in g

o f the b e h a v io r o f vehicle m ate ria ls a n d b e able to intelligently ev alu a te an d
selcct the m ateria l best suited to th e c o n stra in ts a n d o p e ra tio n a l req u irem en ts of
the design.
T h e m aterials used in v ario u s p a rts o f vehicle stru c tu re s generally a re selec
ted by different criteria. T h e crite ria a re p red icated on th e c o n strain ts a n d o p e r
a tio n a l req u irem e n ts o f th e vehicle a n d its v ario u s stru c tu ra l m em bers. S om e o f
these m o re im p o rta n t req u irem en ts involve
1. E n v iro n m en t S
2. F atig u e
3. T e m p e ra tu re
4. C o rro sio n
5. C reep
6 . S tren g th an d stiffness
7. W eight lim itatio n
8 . C o st
9. H u m an facto r
T h is c h a p te r fam iliarizes th e re a d e r w ith the roles (h a t som e of these req u ire

m ents play in the final selection a n d e v a lu a tio n o f m a te ria ls to be used in vehicle
structures.
78
BEHAVIOR AND EVALUATION OF VEHICLE MATERIAL 7 9
4.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
M aterials, in general, m ay be classified a cc o rd in g to th e ir c o n stitu e n t co m

position as single-ph ase o r m u ltip h ase. All m etals, su ch as alu m in u m , steel, an d
titanium , a re referred to as single-phase materials. All co m p o site s, w hich a re m ad e
o u t o f filam ents (libers) em b ed d e d in a m atrix (binder), a re called multiphase
materials. P lyw ood a n d reinforced fiber glass a rc ex am p les o f m ultiphase
m aterials.
A lm ost all im p o rta n t stru c tu ra l p ro p e rtie s o f single- o r m u ltip h a se m aterials
are o b tain ed by three basic tests: tensile test, c o m p ressio n test, a n d sh ear test.
T h e A m erican Society for T estin g M a te ria ls (A S T M ) sets all th e specifications
and test p ro c e d u re s for m ateria ls testing.
Tensile Test
Figure 4.1 sh o w s the basic c o n fig u ratio n o f a tensile test specim en. T h e load 11 is
applied g rad u ally th ro u g h th e use o f a tensile testin g m ach in e. T h e norm al strain
€„ usually is m easu re d c ith e r by u tilizing electrical s tra in g a g e techniques o r by
m easu rin g the to ta l e lo n g a tio n <5 in an effective gage le n g th L for v ario u s values
o f the ten sio n io ad P. F o r sm all loads, th e e lo n g a tio n is a ssu m ed to be uniform
o v er the en tire gag e length /, a n d th erefo re th e n o rm a l stra in m ay be m a th e m a t
ically expressed in th e form
€" = z (41)
w here <5 a n d L a re b o th m easu red in the sam e u n its o f length. T h e c o rresp o n d in g
no rm al stress <r„ is also assu m ed to be un ifo rm ly d is trib u te d over the cross-
sectional area A o f the test specim en a n d is o b ta in e d as follow s:
(4-2)
F o r c o m m o n en g in e e rin g units, the lo a d P is in p o u n d s, th e area A is in

sq u are inches, a n d th e stress <r is in p o u n d s p e r sq u a re in ch . T h e stress-strain
diag ram fo r a m ate rial is o b ta in e d by p lo ttin g values o f th e stress a ag ain st
c o rre sp o n d in g v alues o f th e strain e, as sh o w n in Fig. 4.2. F o r sm all values o f the
(a)
DC
ib ) F ig u re 4.1
80 a ir c r a f t structures
Stress G Ultimate strength

*"*N ^»)
V
o It
o u Strain,e
a G
v *
e
Figure 4.2
stress, th e stress-stra in cu rv e is a stra ig h t line, as sh o w n b y line OA o f Fig. 4.2.

T h e c o n sta n t ra tio o f stress to stra in for th is p o rtio n o f th e curve is called th e
modulus o f elasticity E, a s defined in th e follow ing e q u a tio n :
(4.3)
w here E h as u nits o f p o u n d s p er sq u a re inch.

A m aterial su ch as p lain lo w -carb o n steel, w hich is co m m o n ly used for bridge
a n d b u ild in g stru c tu re s, has a stress-strain d ia g ra m su ch as th a t sh o w n in Fig.
4.2a. A t p o in t B, th e e lo n g a tio n increases w ith n o in crease in load. T h is stress a t
th is p o in t is called th e yield point, o r yield stress, alf a n d is very easy to detect
w hen such m a te ria ls a re tested.
T h e stress a t p o in t A, w here th e stress-strain c u rv e first deviates from a
stra ig h t line, is called th e proportional limit a,p a n d is m u ch m o re difficult to
m easu re w hile a test is b eing co n d u cte d . Specifications fo r stru c tu ra l steel usually
are b ased on the yield stress ra th e r th a n th e p ro p o rtio n a l lim it, because o f the
ease in o b ta in in g th is value.
F light-vehicle stru c tu re s a rc m a d e o f m ateria ls su ch as alu m in u m alloys,
h ig h -carb o n steels, a n d c o m p o sites w hich d o n o t have a definite yield p o in t, b u t
w hich d o ex h ib it stre ss-strain b e h a v io r sim ilar to th a t sh o w n in Fig. 4.2b. It is
convenient to specify a rb itra rily the yield stress fo r su ch m ateria ls as th e stress a t
which a p e rm a n e n t stra in o f 0.002 in /in is o b ta in e d . P o in t B o f Fig. 4.2b rep
resents this yield stress a n d is o b ta in e d by d ra w in g line BD parallel to OA
BEHAVIOR AND EVALUATION OF VEHICLE MATERIAL 81
th ro u g h p o in t D, rep re se n tin g zero stress a n d 0.002-in/in stra in , as show n. W h en

th e load is rem o v ed from a test specim en w hich h a s passed th e p ro p o rtio n a l lim it,
th e specim en d o es n o t re tu rn to its o rig in al length, b u t retain s a p e rm a n en t
strain . F o r th e m a te rial represented b y F ig. 4.2a, th e lo a d m ight be rem oved
g rad u ally at p o in t C. T h e stress-strain c u rv e w o u ld th en follow line CD, p arallel
to O A, until a t p o in t D a p e rm a n en t stra in e q u a l to OD w ere o b tain ed fo r n o
stress, U p o n a su b se q u e n t ap p lica tio n o f lo a d , th e stress-stra in curvc w o u ld
follow lines D C a n d ('(<’. Sim ilarly, if the sp ecim en rep resen ted by Fig. 4.2b w ere
u n lo a d e d a t p o in t B, the stress-strain c u rv e w o u ld follow line BD until a p e r
m a n e n t s tra in o f 0 . 0 0 2 in /in w ere o b ta in e d fo r n o stress.
It is c u sto m a ry to u se th e initial a re a A o f th e te n sio n test specim en ra th e r
th a n th e a c tu a l a re a o f th e necked-dow n sp ecim en in c o m p u tin g th e u n it stress a.
W hile th e tru e stress, c a lc u lated from th e re d u c e d area , c o n tin u e s to increase u n til
failure occurs, th e a p p a re n t stress, calc u la te d fro m th e in itia l area, decreases, as
show n by th e d o tte d lines G H o f Fig. 4.2. T h e a c tu a l failu re occurs at p o in t H ,
but th e m ax im u m a p p a re n t stress, rep resen ted by p o in t C>, is the m o re im p o rta n t
stress to use in design calcu latio n s. T h is v alu e is defined a s th e ultimate strength
alu. In th e design o f ten sio n m em b ers fo r vehicle stru c tu re s, it is ac c u rate to
em p loy the initial a re a o f the m em ber a n d th e a p p a re n t u ltim a te tensile stre n g th
In using th e stre ss-stra in curve to c a lc u la te th e u ltim a te bend in g stren g th o f
beam s, as sh o w n in a la te r c h ap te r, th e resu lts a re slightly conservative because
the b eam s d o n o t neck d o w n in the sam e m a n n e r as ten sio n m em bers.
Compression Test
T h e com pressiv e stre n g th o f m aterials is m o re difficult to identify from stress-
strain curves th a n th e c o rresp o n d in g tensile stre n g th . C o m p ressiv e failures for
m o st s tru c tu ra l designs in en gineering a p p lic a tio n s a re asso c ia te d w ith in sta b il
ities w hich a re related to yield stress ra th e r th a n u ltim a te stress. Y ield-stress
values w hich a re o b ta in e d based o n th e 0 . 2 p ercen t offset m e th o d (0 .0 0 2 -in /in
p e rm an en t stra in ) h ave been pro v ed to be relatively successful for c o rre latin g
instabilities in m o st m etals; how ever, the co rre la tio n is less satisfactory for n o n -
m etals, specifically co m p o sites. Specim en g e o m etry a n d m e an s o f su p p o rts seem
to have co n sid e ra b le clfect on co m p ressio n test results. T h e com pressive stress-
strain d ia g ra m s for m o st m aterials arc sim ilar to the tensile stress-strain curves.
Shear Test
In-p lan e sh e a r p ro p e rtie s are the m ost difficult to o b ta in a n d have the least
sta n d a rd iz e d testin g p ro ced u res of all m a jo r m ech a n ical p ro p erties. T h e design o f
a sh ear-test specim en h av in g a test sectio n su b jected to a un ifo rm shearing stress
is im possible. T h e closest p ractical a p p ro a c h is p ro b ab ly a thin-w allcd c irc u la r
cylinder lo ad ed in to rsio n , as show n in F ig. 4.3. F o r sm all displacem ents, th e
sh ear stra in is ex p ressed as
AS
Figure -1.3
w here e, = sh ear stra in '

AS = change in a rc length
L = effective gage len g th
T h e sh e a r stress m a y be calc u lated from th e w ell-k n o w n stren g th -o f-m aterial

torsion al e q u a tio n as
Tr
(4.5)
w here a , = sh ear stress

r = cylinder rad iu s
J — cro ss-sectio n al p o la r m o m en t o f in e rtia
F o r very thin-w allcd cy lin d rical test specim ens, Hq. (4.5) m a y be w ritten as
TRm
o* = —r ~ (4.6)
w here R m = m ean ra d iu s = (R„ + /?,)/2 a n d J m = 2 n R * l .

T h e sh ear m o d u lu s o f elasticity m ay be o b ta in e d fro m th e sh e a r stress-sh ear
strain d iag ram as
G -* (4.7)
4.3 EQUATIONS FOR STRESS-STRAIN CURVE IDEALIZATION'
in th e design o f vehicle stru c tu ra l m em bers, it is n ccessary to co n sid e r the p ro p e r

ties o f the stress-strain c u rv e a t stresses higher th a n th e ela stic limit. In o th er
types of stru c tu ra l a n d m a c h in e designs, it is c u sto m a ry to c o n sid er only stresses
below the elastic lim it; b u t w eight c o n sid e ra tio n s a re so im p o rta n t in flight
vehicle design th a t it is n ecessary to calc u late th e u ltim a te stre n g th o f each
m em ber an d to p ro v id e th e sam e factor o f safety ag ain st failu re for each p a rt of
the en tire stru ctu re. T h e u ltim ate b en d in g o r c o m p ressiv e stre n g th s o f m any
m em bers a re difficult to calc u late, and it is n ecessary to o b ta in in fo rm atio n from
d estruction tests o f c o m p lete m em bers. In o rd e r to ap p ly th e resu lts o n tests of
m em bers o f on e m aterial to sim ilar m em bers o f a n o th e r m a te ria l, it is desirable to
B BIA VIO R AND EVALUATION OF VEHICLE MATERIAL 83
o b tain an idealized a n aly tical expression for th e stre ss-strain d ia g ra m s of v arious

m aterials.
R om berg an d O s g o o d '" have d eveloped a m eth o d o f ex p ressin g any stress-
strain curve in term s o f the m o d u lu s of elasticity E , a stress (w hich is a p p ro x i
m ately equal to the yield stress), a n d a m a te rial sh a p e fac to r n. T h e eq u atio n for
the stress-strain d iag ram is
€ = IT + 7 <j" (4.8)
w here e an d a a re d im en sio n less term s defined as follow s:
Ee
i = — (4.9)
an d a = — (4.10)
T he curves expressed by F.q. (4.8) a re p lo tte d in Fig. 4.4 for v a rio u s values o f
n. A m aterial such as m ild steel, in w hich the stress re m a in s a lm o st c o n sta n t
above the yield p o in t, is rep resen ted by th e c u rv e fo r n = oo. O th e r m aterials,
with v ario u s types of stress-strain d iag ram s, m ay b e re p re se n te d by the curves for
o th e r values o f n. In o rd e r to represent the stre ss-stra in d ia g ra m s for all m aterials
by the single e q u a tio n , it is n ecessary to use the reference stress v alu e o f a, ra th e r
than the yield stress. T h e value o rrr, is o b ta in e d as sh o w n in Fig. 4.5 by d raw in g
the line a = 0.7Ee. from th e origin to the stre ss-stra in c u rv e a n d o b ta in in g th e
stress c o o rd in a te cr, or this p o in t of in tersec tio n . T h e stress <rl is a p p ro x im ately
equal to the yield stress for typical flight vehicle m ateria ls. T h e v alu e o f n m ay b e
determ ined so th a t Eq. (4.8) fits th e ex p erim en tal stre ss-stra in c u rv e in the desired
region. R o m b erg a n d O sg o o d show th a t for m o s t m a te ria ls th e v a lu e o f n m ay be
accurately d eterm in e d from th e stress Cj a n d a sim ila r stre ss tr2 o n the line
a = 0.85£e.
_ /.c
( = •-
Figure 4.4
It is a p p ro p ria te to n o te here th a t sim ilar e q u a tio n s for idealizing sh ea r

stre ss -sh e a r stra in cu rv es m ay be fo rm u lated a n d fitted in to v ario u s m aterials’
sh ear test d a ta .
4.4 FATIGUE
Fatigue is a d y n am ic p h e n o m e n o n w hich m ay be defined as the initiatio n a n d

p ro p a g a tio n o f m icro cra ck s in to m a cro c ra c k s a;s a result o f rep eated a p p licatio n s
o f stresses. I t is a p ro cess o f localized progressive stru c tu ra l fractu re in m aterial
u n d er the a ctio n o f d y n am ic stresses. A stru c tu re w hich m ay n o t ever fail u n d e r a
single a p p lic a tio n o f lo a d m a y very easily fail u n d e r the sam e lo ad if it is ap p lied
repeatedly. T his failure u n d e r rep eated a p p lic a tio n o f lo a d s is term ed fa tig u e
failure.
In spite o f the m an y stu d ies an d vast a m o u n t o f ex p erim en tal d a ta accu m u
lated over th e years, fatigue is still th e m ost co m m o n cause o f failure in m ach in
ery an d v ario u s stru c tu re s as well as th e least u n d e rsto o d o f all o th e r stru ctu ra l
b ehavior. T h is lack o f u n d e rsta n d in g is a ttrib u te d to the fact th a t the in itiatio n
a n d the p ro p a g a tio n o f m icro sco p ic crack in g arc inherently statistical in n atu re.
In fact, the a n a ly st often is co n fro n ted w ith th e w ide v a ria tio n s in the statistics"of
w h at m ay be e stim a te d as ( 1 ) type o f service a n d e n v iro n m e n t, (2 ) m ag n itu d e o f
service lo ad s a n d frequency o f occurrence, (3) th e q u ality c o n tro l d u rin g th e
fabrication o p e ra tio n s, (4) th e extent a n d accu racy o f th e an aly ses in d eterm in in g
stresses, a n d (5) th e ap p lic a b ility o r the m aterial stre n g th d a ta .
T h e m ain objective o f all fatigue an aly ses a n d testin g is the pred ictio n of
fatigue life o f a given stru c tu re o r m ach in e p a rt subjected to repeated loading.
Such lo ad s m ay have c o n sta n t am p litu d e, as ind icated in Fig. 4.6; how ever, in
llight vehicle stru c tu re s, th e load h isto ry is usually ra n d o m in n a tu re, as show n in
Fig. 4.7.
Fatigue-life prediction M o st o f the fatigue-life p red ictio n m e th o d s used in the

design o f stru c tu re s h av e been based o n fatigue allo w ab le d a ta generated by sine
w ave cx cilatio n . O n ly recently clo sed -lo o p , se rv o -co n tro lled h y d ra u lic m achines
hav e b ecom e av ailab le for tru e ra n d o m lo a d in g testing. F a tig u e test d a ta usu ally
a re p resented grap h ically (Fig. 4.8) a n d th e cu rv es a re referred to as th e
allo w ab le S - N curves. T h e curves in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e "c u m u la tiv e d a m a g e ”
conccpt form the b asis for m o st o f th e m e th o d s used in th e p red ictio n o f fatigue
life.
A m o n g th e several th eo ries p ro p o se d for fatigue-life pred ictio n , th e
P a lm g rc n -M in c r th e o ry ,2*’ because o f its sim plicity, seem s to be th e m o st w idely
used. T h e m eth o d hyp o th esizes th a t the useful life e x p en d ed m a y be expressed as
th e ra tio o f the n u m b e r o f ap p lied cycles ij/ to th e n u m b e r o f cycles Af,- to failure
a t a given c o n sta n t stress level a-,. W hen th e sum o f all th e fractio n s reaches 1,
failure sh o u ld occur. M ath em atically th is failure c riterio n is w ritte n as
= ]
i = 1 V ’ i/ <7i = co n st
It is im p o rta n t to no te th a t in P a lm g re n -M in er th e o ry n o p ro v isio n s a re m ade to

ta k e in to acco u n t th e v ario u s effects o n fatigue life, su ch a s n o tc h sensitivity
effect, lo ad in g sequence effect (high-low o r low -high), a n d th e co n sequences o f
I imc
Figure 4.7 R an d o m stress loading.

Figure 4.8 S -N fatigue curves.
diffcrcn! levels o f m ean stress. Tn fact, the th e o ry has been sh o w n to yield un-
conscrvative results in som e test case stu d ies c o n d u c te d by G a ssn e r , 2 0
K ow alew ski , 2 1 a n d C o rte n an d D o la n . 2 2
T o illu strate the use o f Eq. (4.11), co n sid er a b ra c k e t w hich su p p o rts an
electronic box in the a irc ra ft cockpit. In a typical m ission, th e b ra c k e t en co u n te rs
a stress h isto ry sp ectru m idealized as sh o w n in F ig. 4.9. T h e faligue allo w ab le of
the b rack et m aterial is given in Fig. 4.10. T h e p ro b lem is to find th e n u m b e r o f
m issions the aircraft m ay acco m p lish before th e b ra c k e t fails.
F ro m Figs. 4.9 a n d 4.10, T ab le 4.1 m ay be easily c o n stru c te d . T h erefo re, in
one m ission 0.433 p e rcen t o f the useful life o f the b ra c k e t is ex p en d ed . T h is m eans
Time, s
Figure 4.9 B racket stress history spectrum per mission.

m:iIAVIOR AND EVALUATION OF VlilllCLl- MATERIAL 8 7
/V cycles to failure
Figure 4.10 S -\’ curves.
th a t tiic aircraft m ight acco m p lish a b o u t 2 0 0 m issions w ith o u t b ra c k e t failure,

based on Eq. (4.6).
F atigue test d a ta : S-!\r curves F atig u e tests a rc c o n d u c te d for a w ide variety o f

reasons, one o f w hich is to establish m a te rials’ fatigue allow ables, o r w h a t is
co m m o n ly referred to as th e S - N curves. C o n tra ry to resu lts o f sta tic tests, it has
been observed th a t the sc a tte r in fatigue test resu lts c a n b e q u ite large. T h is
inherent sc atter c h aracteristic leaves no ch o ice b u t to tre a t th e resu lts statistically.
O ne of th e m o re w idely used statistical d is trib u tio n fu n ctio n s is th e lo g -n o rm al
d istrib u tio n , w h o se m ean value is tak en as
M = - i log N , (4.12)
n i= i
w here n — to ta l n u m b er o f specim ens tested a t th e sam e stress level an d AT, =
n u m b er o f cycles to failure for specim en i.
T able 4.1
Hi
ij, , cycles n ,. kip s'in 7 /V,. cycles N,
200 6 y. 0
141 20 50.000 0.00282
105 10 X 0
260 14 10" 0.00026
25 22 2 x I0J 0.00125
240 4 j. 0
V 1' 0.00433
^N ,
I
T h e u n b iased sta n d a rd d ev iatio n o f M is defined by

a
<5 = (4.13)
[' ■]
In o rd e r to calc u la te th e n u m b e r o f cycles to failure, b a sed on so m e confidence
level, the sta n d a rd v ariab le ( is tak en as
_ log N — M
(4.14)
5
or lo g N = M + £5 (4.15)
T h e p ro b a b ility o f su rviving lo g N cycles is
E q u a tio n (4.16) m a y be used to ta b u la te th e p ro b a b ilitie s o f survival for v a rio u s

v alues o f th e sta n d a rd v ariab le f, as sh o w n in T a b le 4.2.
T o illu stra te th e p ro c ed u re , co n sid er th e follow ing a c tu a l fatigue te st resu lts
fo r seven tested specim ens:
Specimen no., i Cycles to failure N t
1 61,318
2 39,695
3 62,803
4 51,039
5 83,910
6 35,631
7 96,500
F ro m E q. (4.12) th e m ean value is

n 7
M = - £ log N j = - £ lo g Ni
n i= l ' i= l
= 4(log 61,318 + log 39,695 + • • ■+ lo g 96,500)
= 4.76463
'['able 4.2
C Probability of survival, %
-1 .2 8 0 90.0
-1 .6 4 5 95.0
—2.330 99.0
BKHAVIOK AND KVALUATION OF VEHICLE MATERIAL 8 9
F ro m Eq. (4.13) th e u n b ia se d sta n d a rd d ev iatio n is
g = |~ £ (log N , - M ) 2J /2
as-wi (log 9 6 ,5 0 0 - 4 .7 6 4 6 3 ) 2~|1/2

= (log 61,318 - 4.76463) + • • • + — — 1----- ----------------
= 0.0503
F ro m Eq. (4.15), if we assu m e a p ro b a b ility o f su rvival o f 95 p ercen t,
log N = M + = 4.76463 + (-1 .6 4 5 X 0 .0 5 0 3 ) = 4.68189
T herefore the n u m b e r o f cyelcs to failure for a 95 p e rc en t p ro b a b ility o f survival

is
N = a n tilo g 4.68189 = 48,100 cycles
4.5 STRENGTII-WEIGIIT COMPARISONS OF MATERIALS

T h e criterio n com m o n ly used i.n the sclcction o f s tru c tu ra l m a teria ls for aero
space vehicle ap p lic a tio n is th a t w hich yields minim um weight. T h is involves
selecting the p ro p e r c o m b in a tio n o f m aterial an d s tru c tu ra l p ro p o rtio n s w ith the
w eight as the objective fu n ctio n to be m inim ized to yield a n o p tim u m design.
A lthough weight co m p a riso n s o f m aterials m ay b e b ased o n several factors, such
as resistance to c o rro sio n , fatigue b ehavior, creep c h arac te ristic s, stre n g th , an d so
o n, the only tre a tm e n t given here is w ith respect to stre n g th .
As an illu stratio n , let us co n sid er th e th ree lo ad e d m e m b ers sh o w n in Fig.
4.11; for sim plicity, it is assu m ed th a t th ere exists o n ly o n e free v aria b le (the
thickness t, in this ease) to be chosen in th e design. T h e c rite ria w hich g overn the
design o f m em bers in Fig. 4.1 la , h, an d c a re u ltim a te u n iax ial ten sio n , ultim ate
in) (M U')
1‘igure 4.11 J.ondcd mcnibcis. {</} Pure tension; {h) pure com pression; (c) pure bending.
9 0 AIRCRA1T STRUCTURES
uniaxial co m p ressio n o r b uckling, an d u ltim ate b en d in g . T h e expressions relatin g

the applied ex te rn a l lo ad s to the induced actu a l stresses are
P
T en sio n : a, = — (A = hi) (4.17)
7t 2E ! ( ht v
C om pression (buckling): a = - - —7 - ( 1 = — -) (4.18)
T /7 ( ' = 72
„ Aff
B ending: __ ^ = 2 T (4' 19^
w here <r,, a c , a h = u ltim a te tensile, co m p ressio n , a n d flexural stresses, respectively

A = cross-sectional area
I = m o m en t o f inertia o f m em b er
T h e w eight o f the m em ber m ay be expressed in term s o f the m aterial den sity

(f> p o u n d s p er cu b ic inch) a n d the fixed a n d free g e o m etric d im en sio n s as
I V -= L h t p (4.20)
Solving for th e free v ariab le t from Eqs. (4.17) th ro u g h (4.19) an d su b stitu tin g in to
Eq. (4.20) yields th e m aterial w eight req u ired to m eet each specified design c ri
terion. T h u s
W = —— (tension) (4.21)
",
l3bp ( 1 2 0 l/2
W = ------ ( j (co m p ressio n ) (4.22)
6 M b \ tl2
W = Lp ( — —j (bending) (4.23)
Vb
W ith Eqs. (4.21) to (4.23) av ailab le, weight c o m p a riso n s o f different m aterials m ay
be co n d u cte d . T h u s th e w eights o f tw o d ifferent m a te ria ls req u ired to c arry th e
axial load P m ay be readily o b tain ed from Eq. (4.21) as
Wi = 0l£± yy2 = Lldll S

ffl l fft2
w here the su b scrip ts 1 an d 2 refer to m aterials 1 a n d 2 , respectively, an d a ,, an d

a ,2 arc the u ltim a te tensile stresses o f m aterials i an d 2 , respectively.
I*!' _ P± (4 74 )
W2 Pz
Sim ilarly, th e ra tio o f w eights o f tw o m em bers o f tw o d ifferent m ate ria ls resisting
the sam e b en d in g m o m en t m ay be easily o b tain ed by u tilizing Eq. (4.23):
BhllAVIOK AND KVALUATION OF VEHICLE MATERIAL 91
Likewise, the ra tio o f w eights for tw o m em b ers o f tw o differen t m a te ria ls resisting

the sam e com pressive (buckling) load m ay be w ritte n im m ed iately by using Eq.
(4.22):
W\ P ifE iV 3
w r k k ) «“ >
T ypical aero sp ace vehiclc s h e d m aterials a rc co m p a re d in T ab le 4.3 by
m eans o f liqs. (4.24) th ro u g h (4.26). T h e w eights o f th e v a rio u s m aterials are
co m p ared w ith the alu m in u m alloy 2024-T3. T h e w eight ra tio s for ten sio n m em
bers, show n in colum n 5. d o n o t vary g reatly fo r th e differen t m aterials. F o r
m em bers in bending, how ever, th e low er-density m a te ria ls h av e a d istin ct ad v an
tage, as show n in colu m n 6 . Sim ilarly, the lo w er-d en sity m a te ria ls have an even
g reater a d v an ta g e in co m p ressio n buckling, as in d icated in c o lu m n 7. V alues o f a
vary w ith sheet thickness, a n d those show n a re used only for co m p a riso n .
T he c o m p u tatio n s o f T ab le 4.3 in d icate th a t th e last th ree m ateria ls, having
low er densities, a re su p e rio r to th e alu m in u m alloys. H o w ev er, it is im p o rta n t to
n o te th a t m agnesium alloys a rc m ore subject to c o rro sio n th a n a lu m in u m alloys,
while w ood an d plastic m a te ria ls are less ductile. B rittle m a teria ls a re undesirable
for stru ctu res w ith n u m ero u s b olted c o n n ectio n s a n d c u to u ts w hich p ro d u ce local
high-stress co n cen tratio n s. D uctile m aterials, w hich have a larg e u n it elo n g atio n
a t th e ultim ate tensile stre n g th , will yield slightly a t p o in ts o f high local stress a n d
will th u s relieve the stress, w hereas b rittle m ate ria ls m ay fail u n d e r the sam e
conditions. Fibcr-roinforccd plastics have been used successfully for aerospace
vehicle stru ctu res as long ago as the late 1940s a n d early 1950s. In th o se days, the
m ain reinforcem ent w as glass fiber in fabric form w ith p o ly e ste r resin as the
b o n d in g agent. Since th e n a n d prim arily in th e la st few years, d ev elo p m en t o f
new h igh-m odulus fibers (such a s b o ro n , silicon carb id e , g ra p h ite , a n d beryllium )
in co m b in atio n w ith h ig h -m o d u lu s, h ig h -te m p e ra tu re -re sista n t resin s (such as
cycloaliphatic epoxies, p o ly m eric an d p o ly b en zim id azo le resins) h a s ad d ed a new
dim ension to m aterials Tor ap p lic atio n s in a e ro sp a c e a n d m a rin e - a n d land-based
structures. T hese new fibers a n d resins arc b eing co m b in ed in a unidirectio n al,
T ab le 4.3 Strengtli-vreight com parisons o f m a te ria ls
Ratio of weight to weight

of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy
Tension: Bending: Duckling:
rt. kips in ' /'i n i / "2 P\ jK 2

Sheet material average p. l b i n J kips/in2 P i «■, Pz V ff,
tl) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) O)
Stainless slecl 1X5 0.2X6 26 1.23 1.72 2.12

Aluminum alloy 2024-T3 66 n.ioo 10.5 1.00 1.00 1.00
Aluminum alloy 7075-T6 77 U.I0 I 10.4 0.87 0.93 1.01
Magnesium alloy 40 0.065 .5 1.07 0.83 0.77
Laminated plastic 30 0.050 2.5 1.10 0.74 0.83
Spruce wood 9.4 O.OI56 1.3 1,09 0.42 0.31
p re im p re g n ated form w hich gives the a n a ly st co m p lete Freedom to ta ilo r th e

co m p o site (a co m p o site is m ad e o f a ce rta in n u m b e r o f u n id irectio n al plies) to
m eet th e im po sed lo ad req u irem en ts in b o th m a g n itu d e a n d d irectio n . S tudies
have in d icated th a t th ro u g h th e use o f co m p o site m aterials, th e to ta l w eight o f an
acro sp ace vehicle co u ld be reduced by m o re th a n 35 percent.
4.6 SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION
T h e p ro b lem o f increasfng w eight w hich acco m p an ies in creasing m aterial th ic k

ness is being m et freq u en tly by the use o f san d w ich c o n stru c tio n in a p p lic a tio n to
a ero sp ace vehicles. T h is type o f co n stru c tio n co n sists o f th in , o u te r- a n d in n er-
facing layers o f high-d en sily m ate rial sep a rate d by a low -density, thick co re
m aterial.
In a e ro sp a c e a p p licatio n s, d e p en d in g on th e specific m ission req u irem en ts o f
th e vehicle, th e m ate rial o f th e san d w ich facings m ay be reinforced co m p o silcs,
titan iu m , a lu m in u m , steel, clc. Several ty p es o f co rc sh ap es an d co rc m aterials
m ay be utilized in th e c o n stru c tio n o f th e sandw ich. T h e m o st p o p u la r co re has
been th e “ h o n e y c o m b ” core, w hich co n sists o f very th in foils in th e form o f
h ex ag o n al cells p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e facings.
A lth o u g h th e co n cep t o f san d w ich c o n stru c tio n is n o t new, only in th e last
decade h a s it g ain ed g reat p ro m in en ce in th e c o n stru c tio n of p rac tic a lly all
aero sp ace vehicles, in clu d in g m issiles, b o o sters, a n d spacecraft. T his is p rim arily a
resu lt o f th e high stru c tu ra l efficiency th a t c an b e developed w ith sandw ich
c o n stru ctio n . O th e r ad v a n ta g e s offered b y san d w ich c o n stru c tio n a re its excellent
v ib ra tio n a n d flu tter ch aracteristics, su p e rio r in su la tin g qualities, an d design ver
satility.
An elem en t o f a sandw ich beam is sh o w n in Fig. 4.12. F o r sim plicity, th e
facings a re assu m ed to have eq u al thickness t j , a n d th e c o re thickness i s l c . It is
also assum ed th a t th e co re carries n o lo n g itu d in al n o rm al stress a. Let us c o n
sider th e case w here it is desired to find th e o p tim u m facing thickness w hich
results in a m in im u m w eight o f th e san d w ich b eam c arry in g a b ending m o m en t
M . W ith o u t a n y loss in generality, b an d L m a y be tak en as un it values, a n d th u s
Figure 4.12 Sandwich beam clement.

th e resisting b en d in g m o m e n t can be expressed as
M = o tftif + t c)
If w e assum e th a t f, is sm all co m p ared to tr , w hich is n o rm a lly th e case, then th e

a b o v e e q u a tio n reduces lo
M = at j- tc
or
M = a p t2 (4.27)
w here tf is expressed in term s o f tc by the e q u a tio n tj- = fitc .

T h e w eight o f a u n it elem ent o f the b eam is a p p ro x im a te ly
W = p c tc + 2pf p tc (4.28)
w here p c a n d p f eq u a l th e co rc an d facing d en sities, respectively, E lim in atin g the

v ariab le tc from E qs. (4.27) a n d (4.28) yields
W = ([,c + 2 p f P ) J ^ (4 -2 9 )
T h e value o f P for the m in im u m w eight m ay b e o b ta in e d by differen tiatin g E q.

(4.29) wilh res peel lo jl a n d eq u alin g the d eriv ativ e lo zero. P erform ing the
d ifferentiation a n d solving fo r p yield
P= ^~ (4-30)
2P f
E q u atio n (4.30) indicates th a t for a sandw ich m a te ria l resistin g b e n d in g m om ent,

th e m inim um w eight is o b ta in e d w hen th e tw o lay ers o f th e face m aterial h av e
a p p ro x im ately th e sam e to ta l w eight as the core. N o te th a t th is c o n d itio n do es
n o t yield m in im u m w eight if th e beam elem ent is u n d e r th e a c tio n o f com pressive
(buckling) load.
It is now possible to c o m p a re the w eight o f a san d w ic h -c o n stru c tio n beam
elem ent w ith th a t o f a solid elem ent c o rre sp o n d in g to th e san d w ich face m aterial,
if we assum e th a t they b o th resist the sam e lo ad s. A san d w ich elem ent designed
to resist bending m o m e n ts will have a to ta l w eight e q u a l to tw ice the to tal w eight
o f the facings, if the face a n d corc m aterials have eq u a l w eights. T h u s, from Eq.
(4.28)
W = ApPt (4.31)
By solving for t from Eq. (4.27) a n d su b stitu tin g in to E q. (4.31), th e follow ing
w eight for the sandw ich elem en t is o b ta in e d :
94 AIRCRA1T STRUCTURES
T h e w eight Ws o f a solid beam elem ent from E q. (4.23) is
(4.33)
H encc. the ra tio o r th e w eight o f a san d w ich beam elem ent to th a t o f a solid
elem ent of the co rre sp o n d in g sandw ich face m aterial is
Ws P y /6 M J a ‘■U JV F (4.34)
It is im p o rta n t to n o te th at Eq. (4.34) is valid o n ly for a san d w ich in w hich

Ihe to ta l w eight o f th e facings is equal to th e w eight o f the core. In o rd e r to
c o m p a re the w eights o f a san d w ich w ith solid elem en ts stu d ied in T ab le 4.3,
co n sid er a sandw ich w hose facings a rc m ad e o f 2024-T 3 a lu m in u m allo y an d a
core m aterial w hose density is 0.01 lb /in ’. F ro m Eq. (4.30)
„ Pc 0-01
P = — = ------- = 0.05
' 2p , 2(0.1)
F ro m Hq. (4.34)
W ,------
— = 1 .6 3 x/0 .0 5 = 0.37
w;
T h u s, the san d w ich h as only 37 percen t o f th e w eight o f a solid elem ent resisting
the sam e b en d in g m o m en t. A lso n o te th a t th e value of 0.37 is less th a n a n y o f the
o th e r values in co lu m n 6 of T a b le 4.3.
In th e p reced in g discu ssio n , it w as assu m ed th a t th e p ro p o rtio n s for the
sandw ich clem ent w ere lim ited only by th eo retical c o n sid eratio n s. In a c tu a l stru c
tures, p ractical c o n sid e ra tio n s a re m u ch m o re im p o rta n t. T h e th ick n ess of th e
face m aterial, for exam ple, usu ally is g re a ter th a n th e th eo retical value, because it
m ight n o t be feasible to m a n u fac tu re a n d form very th in sheets. Likew ise, th e
co re w as assum ed to su p p o rt the facings sufficiently to d ev elo p th e sam e u n it
stress as in a solid elem ent, w h ereas th e actu a l lo w -d en sity m ate ria ls m ight n o t
pro v id e such su p p o rt. f
4.7 T Y P I C A L D E S I G N DATA FO R M A T E R IA L S
In the m a n u factu re o f m aterials, it is not possible to o b ta in exactly th e sam e

stru c tu ra l p ro p e rtie s for all specim ens o f a m aterial. In a large n u m b e r o f tested
specim ens o f the sam e m aterial, th e u ltim a te stren g th m a y vary as m u ch as 1 0
percent. In the design o f an aero sp ace vehicle stru c tu re , therefore, it is necessary
to use stresses w hich a re th e m in im u m v alu es th a t m a y be o b ta in e d in a n y
specim en of th e m aterial. T hese values a re term ed th e minimum guaranteed values
of the m an u factu re r. T h e licensing an d p ro c u rin g agencies spccify th e m in im u m
values to be used in th e design o f aero sp ace vehicles. T h ese values a re c o n ta in e d
BEHAVIOR AND I'VALUATION OF VF.H1C1.K MATERIAL 9 5
T ab le 4.4 T ypical m cchanical d a ta for

m aterials
Tension
Ultimate stress
Yield stress
Proportional limit
fc M odulus of elasticity
e Elongation
C (impression
Ultimate (block) stress
a<y Yield stress
**cr
Proportional limit
Column yield stress
M odulus of elasticity
'Shear
<7SU Ultimate stress
°S(
Torsional modulus of rupture
ff«P Proportional limit (torsion)
a Modulus of rigidity (torsion)
Bearing
17hru Ultimate stress
< *h rr
Yield stress
in M ilitary H a n d b o o k s, such as M 1 L -H D B K -5 A , M IL -H D B K -5 , M 1 L -H D B K -
17, M IL -H D B K -2 B . T ab ic 4.4 show s the typical m ech an ical d a ta req u ired in the
design of aero sp acc stru ctu res. N o rm ally th ese d a ta a re p re se n ted in acc o rd a n c e
w ith one of the follow ing bases:
A basis: A t least 99 percent o f all m echanical p ro p e rty v alues a re expected to fall

abo v e th e specified p ro p e rty values w ith a co n fid en cc o f 95 percent.
B basis: At least 90 perccn t o f all m cchanical p ro p e rty v alues a re expected to fall
abo v e th e specified p ro p e rty values w ith a co n fid en ce o f 95 percent.
S basis: M inim um m echanical p ro p e rly values a s specified b y v a rio u s agencies.
PROBLEM S
4.1 The buckling load fur ;i sandwich column is approxim ately given by / ’ ~ i z 2 E l f l . 1. Kind the
thickness ratio of facing to the core which results in an optim um design (minimum weight) for the
column. Sec Fig. P 4.1.
>f
_L_,________________________
~ T ~ FT I T II
_i_________ I I 11 1 I I 1 I I LI
Figure IM.l
4.2 Find the weight ratio of a sandwich coiuron to that of a solid colum n whose m aterial is the same
as that o f the sandwich facings.
4-3 W ork Prob. 4.2 for a corc density of 0.015 lb/in 3 and the following specific cases o f facing
materials:
(а) 2024-T3 alum inum alloy (density = 0.1 Ib/in3)
(б) 6A1-4V titanium (density = 0.16 lb/in3)
(c) 321 stainless steel (density — 0.286 Ib/in3)
(J) Incone! (density = 0.3 lb/in')
(f) Beryllium (density = 0.069 lb/in3)
(/) Reinforced composite (unidirection)
11) Glass fiber (density = 0.09 lh/in3)
• (2) Boron fiber (density = 0.095 lb/in3)
(3) G raphite (density = 1.053 Ib/in3)
4.4 A missile-holding fixture on an aircraft is subject during each flight to the strcss-load history
shown in Kg. P4.4. After how many flights will the fixture fail if the material fatigue allowable is that
shown in Fig. 4.10?
Time, s
Figure P4.4
4.5 Ten parts were fatigue-tested at the same stress level, and the fallowing failure cycles were
reported:
Specimen no. Cycles to failure
1 300.000
2 190,000
3 225,000
4- 350,000
5 260,000
6 280,000
7 490,000
8 310.000
9 360,000
10 390,000
After how many cycles should the part be replaced so that only the following percentage of (he parts
in service fails before replacement'?
<«) 1 i
<h)5
(<■> 1 0
CHA PTER
FIVE
STRESS ANALYSIS
In o rd er to select sizes o f stru ctu ra l m em b ers to m eet th e desig n load req u ire
m ents on a specific a ero sp a cc vehicle, it is n ecessary to find th e unit stresses
acting on the cro ss sectio n o f each stru c tu ra l elem en t. T h e u n it stress referred to
here is the force in ten sity a t an y po in t, a n d it h as u n its o f fo rce p er u n it area, o r
p o unds per sq u a re inch in co m m o n en gineering units.
It w as show n in C h a p . 3 th at there exist tw o d istin c t c o m p o n e n ts of stress,
norm al a n d sh e a r stress. A n o rm al stress is a u n it stress w h ic h a c ts n o rm al to th e
cross section of th e s tru c tu ra l elem ent, w hile th e sh e a r stress is p arallel an d in th e
plane of th e cro ss section. A n orm al stress is induced by b e n d in g m om ents a n d
axial forces. A sh e a r stress, how ever, is cau sed by to rsio n a l m o m e n ts and sh e a r
forces. T his c h a p te r discusses the theory a n d th e a p p lic a tio n o f these tw o fu n d a
m ental stress co m p o n en ts.
5.2 F O R C E - S T R E S S R E L A T I O N S H I P S
T he stress field al a n y ch o scn po in t in a solid b ea m m a y b e e n tirely defined by

the co m p o n en ts o f force re su ltan ts o r stresses a c tin g a lo n g th e d irectio n s o f so m e
“ g a u ssia n ” c o o rd in a te system , as show n in F ig. 5.1. T h e forces a n d stresses a re
taken to he positive if they act in the p ositiv e d irec tio n o f th e co rresp o n d in g
c o o rd in a te axis.
97
Figure 5.1 Stresses and force resultants.
F ro m Fig. 5.1 th e force resu ltan ts m a y be related to the stresses as follow s:
<TXX (IA A/_ = — J yrrxx dA
K - (Txy dA M y = £ ™XX dA ' (5.D

A
K = a x2 dA T = j j y a X2 - z a xJ dA
A
w here P = axial force

Vy, V. = sh e a r forces
M _, M y = b e n d in g m o m e n ts
T = to rq u e
a xx = n o rm a l stress
— sh e a rin g stresses
STRI5S ANALYSIS 9 9
5 .3 N O R M A L S T R E S S E S IN BEAM S
T h e n o rm al stresses in beam elem ents are in d u ccd by b e n d in g a n d /o r extensional

actions. T w o a p p ro a c h e s m ay be used to d e te rm in e stresses; th e first is based on
the th eo ry o f elasticity, an d the second is based o n stren g th -o f-m ateriais theory.
T he latter, w hich is used here, assum es th a t p la n e sectio n s rem ain plane after
ex ten sio n al-b en d in g d efo rm atio n tak es place. T h is assu m p tio n im plies th a t th e
defo rm atio n s du e to transverse sh ear forces (K a n d Vy) a re very sm all an d th ere
fore m ay be neglected. In ad d itio n , th is a ssu m p tio n allo w s th e displacem ents
(deflections) o f an y p o in t in th e beam to be ex p ressed in term s of the displace
m ents o f p o in ts lo ea te d on th e beam axis.
A ssum e th a t the disp lacem en t in th e x d ire c tio n o f a n y p o in t in the b eam is
represented by qx(x, y. z). If we tak e ux(s) to b e th e e x te n sio n a l displacem ent of
an y p o in t o n th e beam axis (y = z = 0 ) a n d tj/. a n d ij/y to be the ro ta tio n a l
disp lacem en ts o f the beam cross section, then
qx(x. y , z ) = u j x ) - y ij/z(x) + z>l/y{x) ( 5 .2 )
T h e axial strain from Fq. (3.14«) is defined by
«.v.v = <tx. x
H ence, from Eq. (4.2)
e „ = nx. , - ViA=. + z x (5-3)
At an y given cross scction .v = x 0 ,
dux(x 0)
— c o n st =
dx
# ;( * o )
= c o n st = B z
dx
o)
= c o n st = B 3
dx
w here Eq. (5.3) beconics
^xx ~ B i + B 2 y + B 3 z (5.4)
In o rd e r to d eterm in e ihe stresses w hich c o rre sp o n d to th e stra in s in Eq. (5.4),
the stress-strain re la tio n sh ip in C hap. 3 is utilized. By assu m in g th a t the stresses
a . , an d <r are negligible co m p ared to a x x , th e fo llo w in g relatio n sh ip for an
iso tro p ic m aterial m ay be o b ta in e d easily from E q. (3.25):
= P^xx (5 -5)
w here E = m o d u lu s o f elasticity o f the m aterial.
S u b stitu tin g Eq. (5.4) in to Eq. (5.5) yields
(txx = h ( B | 4 B 2 y + B 3 z) (5.6)
C o n sta n ts B h B.2 , a n d B 3 m ay now be d ete rm in e d th ro u g h th e use o f Eq. (5.1), o r
P = F.(B, + B 2 y + B 3 z) dA
Af: = - j E y ( B , + B 2 y + / J 3 2)d/4
Mf = E z (B t + B 2 y + B 3 z) dA
C arry in g o u t th e in te g ra tio n s yields
— By A + B 2 y + B 3 z
■M.
p — y + l x B 2 + Jy- B 3 (5.7)
M.
~ f = B l z + l yzB2 + ly B3
w here ,4 = cro ss-sectio n al area
L = .v2 d A = m o m en t o f in ertia o f cro ss section a b o u t x axis (5.8«)
'y = dA = m om ent o f inertia o f c ro ss section a b o u t y axis (5.8h)
Kz = y z dA = p ro d u c t m o m en t of in e rtia o f cro ss section (5.8 c)
y dA
z dA 4 5 .9 )
If Ihe z a n d r axes a re taken th ro u g h th e g eo m etric ccn lro id o f th e cross

section, th en y a n d z becom e identically zero. H en ce Kq. (5.7) reduces to
P
—= B ,A
-M .
— — = L B, + / B, ( 5 .1 0 )
STR1SS ANALYSIS 101
S olving Eqs. (5.10) for th e u n k n o w n c o n sta n ts yields
3 E (lyL - I 2
yz)
S u b stitu tin g Eqs. (5.11) in to Eq. (5.6) yields th e g e n eral e x p ressio n o f th e n o rm al

stress:
P _ I y Mz + + IyzM z
“ ^ lyl z - ^ p y+ '1 ,1 .- 1 % ( )
W hen Eq. (5.12) is used, it is im p o rta n t to observ e th e sign c o n v e n tio n used in th e
d eriv atio n . See Fig. 5.1. In cases w h ere y a n d z axes a re p rin c ip a l axes o f th e
cross-sectional are a , th e p ro d u c t o f th e m o m e n t o f in e r tia I yz a b o u t these axes is
zero. F o r this c o n d itio n , Eq. (5.12) rcduces to
If there is no axial force actin g on th e beam a n d b en d in g o ccu rs a b o u t the z axis

only, then Eq. (5.13) rcduces to the fam iliar stre n g th -o f-m a te ria l p u re b en d in g
e q u a tio n
o xx = ^ (5.14)
1ZJ
5 .4 S H E A R S T R E S S E S I N B E A M S
T h e sh e a r stresses in b eam s a re ind u ced by p u re sh e a r force actio n a n d /o r to r

sional action. In th is section, only sh e a r stresses d u e to sh e a r forces a re c o n
sidered, w hile the la tte r a re d e a lt w ith in a se p a ra te section.
C o n sid er a sm all section of a beam , as sh o w n in F ig. 5.2. F o r sim plicity,
assum e th a t the beam cro ss scction is sym m etrical a n d th e th e o ry o f stren g th o f
m aterials holds. T h e sh e a r force Vy parallel to th e beam cro ss scction p ro d u ces
sh ear stresses n xy o f vary in g inten sity o v er th e cro ss-sectio n al area. C o rre sp o n d
ing to the vertical sh e a r stress axy th ere exists a sh e a r stre ss a yx in the x z plane
w hich is equal to a xr a t the p o in ts o f in tersec tio n o f th e tw o planes. T h u s, the
expression o f the vertical sh ear stress a xy a t an y p o in t in th e cross section is
o b ta in e d by d e term in in g the sh ea r stress ayx o n a h o riz o n ta l p la n e th ro u g h the
point.
T h e bending stresses o n th e left an d rig h t sectio n s o f th e b eam elem ent (Fig.
5.2) arc show n in Fig. 5.3. At an y p o in t a d istan ce >’ from the n e u tral axis, th e
b en d in g stress will be M . y / L o n the left face an d M . v / I z + Vs ijy/I. on th e right
facc. In o rd e r to o b ta in th e sh e a r stress a t a distance y = y i above th e n eu tral
axis, th e p o rtio n o f th e beam above th a t p o in t is co n sid ered as a free body, as
show n in Fig. 5.3c. F o r eq u ilib riu m o f th e h o riz o n tal forces, the force p ro d u c e d
by the sh ear stress trf I o n th e h o riz o n ta l area o f w id th t a n d length 5 x m ust be
equal to the difference in the n o rm a l forces o n the tw o cro ss sections. S u m m in g
forces in the h o riz o n ta l d ire c tio n yields
a yx li] = ^■ cIA (5.15)

>1 Iz'
E q u atio n (5.15) m ay be w ritte n in sta n d a rd form as
K
ydA (5.16)
1- t .
•'>'1
w here the in teg ral rep resen ts th e m o m e n t o f th e a re a o f th e cross section ab o v e

the p o in t w here th e sh e a r stress is b ein g d eterm in ed , w ith the m o m e n t arm s
m easu red from the n e u tra l axis. T h e cro ss-sectio n al area considered is sh o w n by
the sh a d e d p o rtio n in Fig. 5.3a. It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t Eq. (5.16) is ap p li-
Figurc 5.3
STRUSS ANALYSIS 103
cubic o n ly to b eam s o f uniform , sym m etrical cro ss sections. T ap ered b eam s a n d

beam s o f u nsym m etrical cro ss section a re c o n sid e re d later.
E x.m ipic 5.1 Find th e m axim um n o rm al stress in th e beam in Fig. 5.4 a n d

the sh e a r stress d istrib u tio n over the cro ss section.
T h e m axim um n orm al stress d u e to b e n d in g will o c cu r a t th e

S o i .u t i o n
p o in t o f m ax im u m b en d in g m o m en t, o r a t th e fixed en d o f the beam . Since
the sh e a r force is c o n sta n t th ro u g h o u t th e b eam sp a n , th e sh ear stress d is
trib u tio n will be th e sam e a t any cross section. T h e m o m e n t o f inertia for th e
cross is o b ta in e d as follow s:
/. = 2 3 x ~ | + 3 x 2.5 2 + ( I x — 1 = 43.3 in 4
I , : = P = M }. = 0
T h e m axim u m n o rm al stress is
M =y_ 40 x 20( + 3)
------- ------------ = + 5 5 .4 k ip s/in
"'' ~ 77 ~
F o r a p o in t 1 in below the to p o f th e b ea m , th e in teg ra l o f Eq. (5.16) is e q u a l
to the m o m e n t of th e a re a o f the u p p e r rectan g le a b o u t th e n eu tral axis:
j> dA = 2.5(3) = 7.5 in 3 .
T h e av erag e sh e ar stress ju s t above th is p o in t, w here f = 3 in is

K. f c 40,000
. ‘ T i'i, y dA = J 5 T J 1 7,5 = 2310 lb/in
T he average sh e a r stress ju s t below th is p o in t, w here t = 1 in is
}’ dA = ^ ° ’Q00| 7.5 = 6930 lb /in 2

" " = t: 43.3 x 1
F o r a p o in t 2 in below the to p o f the beam , the in teg ral o f Eq. (5.16) is
y dA = 2.5 x 3 + 1.5 x 1 = 9.0
Figure 5.4
T h is sh e a r stress a t th is p o in t is
y d A = -^ Q0- 9.0 = 8320 lb /in 2

- - h n 43.3 x 1
A t a p o in t on th e n e u tra l axis o f Ihe beam , the s h e a r stess is
40,000
v d A = — ;------ (2.5 x 3 + 1 x 2) = 8780 Ib /in 2
Jy i 43.3 x 1
T h e d is trib u tio n o f sh e a r stress o v er th e cross se c tio n is sh o w n in Fig. 5.5.

T h e stress d is trib u tio n o v er the low er h a lf o f Ihe b ea m is sim ilar to the
d is trib u tio n o v e r th e u p p e r h alf b ecau se o f the sy m m e try o f th e cro ss section
a b o u t th e n e u tra l axis.
Alternative Solutions for Shear Stresses

In som e p ro b lem s it is m o re co n v en ien t to find sh e a r stresses b y o b tain in g the
forces resu ltin g from th e c h a n g c in b en d in g stresses b etw een tw o cro ss sections
th a n it is to use Eq. (5.16). P o rtio n s o f th e b ea m betw een tw o cro ss sectio n s a u n it
d istan ce a p a rt a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.6. T h e b en d in g m o m e n t increases by Vy in this
unit distance, a n d th e b e n d in g stresses o n th e left face o f th e b e a m a re larg er th a n
th o se on th e rig h t face by an a m o u n t V}. r\J1z , w here >7 = 1. A t th e to p o f the
beam , (his difference is
i^7 =■S3 ■2'77kips/i,,^

T h e differences in b e n d in g stresses a t o th e r p o in ts o f th e cro ss scction are
o b tain ed by su b s titu tin g v a rio u s values o f y a n d a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.6ft. C u ttin g
sections a n d utilizin g th e e q u a tio n s of sta tic eq u ilib riu m in each case (Fig. 5.6c, d,
an d e) yield th e sh e a rin g stresses a t these v ario u s p o in ts:
a yx = 6930/3 = 2910 Ib /in 2 at 1 in below to p o f beam
ayx = 8320/1 = 8320 lb /in 2 a t 2 in below to p o f beam /
<tyx = 8780/1 = 8780 lb /in 2 at n e u tral axis
N o te th a t these sh e ar stress values a re th e sa m e as sh o w n in Fig. 5.5.
2 3 1 0 Ib/in 2
(V 3 0 lb/in 2
r z ii— :
“ h k 8 3 2 0 Ib/in2
S7X0 Ib/in 2
.U 0 Ib /in 2
7 ^ * 6 ^3 0 Ib/in2
c_ _ i:
2 3 1 0 lb /in 2 F igure 5.5
STRESS ANALYSIS 105
z.n I in
6 9 3 0 lb m o ib
1390 lb 13901b
460 lb
= H320
It/) <«■)
Figure 5.6
E xam ple 5.2 In the beam cro ss sectio n sh o w n in F ig. 5.7, the w ebs a re
co n sid ered to be ineffective in resisting n o rm a l stresses b u t cap ab le o f tra n s
m ittin g shear, F aeh strin g er area o f 0.5 in 2 is assu m ed to b e lum ped a t a
p o in t. F in d the sh e a r stress d istrib u tio n in th e w ebs.
S o l u t i o n If vvc neglect th e m o m en ts o f in e rtia o f th e w eb s a n d of the strin g

ers a b o u t (heir ow n ccn tro id s, the c ro ss-sectio n al m o m e n t of in ertia a b o u t
th e n eu tral axis is
' L = 2(0.5)(63) + 2(0.5)(22) = 40 in 4
If tw o cross sectio n s 1 in a p a rt are co n sid ered , th e difference in b en d in g
stresses V y / l . o n the tw o cross sectio n s will be 8 ( ^ ) = 1.2 k ips/in 2 on th e
o u tsid e strin g ers a n d 8 ^ ) = 0.4 k ip s /in 2 on th e in sid e stringers. T h e d iffer
ences in axial, lo a d s o n the stringers a t th e tw o cro ss sectio n s a re found as the
p ro d u c t o f these stresses a n d th e strin g e r a re a s an d a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.7c.
T h e sh e a r stress in th e w eb a t a p o in t betw een th e u p p e r tw o strin g ers is
found from the eq u ilib riu m o f Spanw ise forces o n th e u p p e r stringer.
<7,J0.04}(1) = 600
or
ayx = 15,000 lb /in 2
vV
(T = 1 5 .0 0 0 Ill/in
:n,000 Ih/iir
i 5 .000 lh /in 2
W>
Figure 5.7
If the w ebs resist n o b en d in g stress, th e sh e ar stress will be c o n sta n t a lo n g

each w eb, a s sh o w n in Fig. 5.1d. If the webs resist b en d in g stresses, the sh ear
stress in e ach w eb will vary alo n g th e length o f th e w eb a n d will be g re a te r at
the en d n e a re r th e n eu tral axis. T h e sh e a r stress in th e w eb betw een the tw o
m iddle strin g ers is found by co n sid e rin g sp an w ise forces on the two u p p er
strin g ers:
<t^(0.04)(I) = 6 0 0 + 2 0 0
or
ayx = 2 0 ,0 0 0 lb /in 2
In p ro b le m s in volving sh e a r stresses in thin w ebs, th e sh ear force per inch

length o f w eb o ften is o b tain ed ra th e r th a n th e sh e a r stress. T h e sh ear p er
inch, o r shear fl o w , is eq u al to th e p ro d u c t o f th e sh e a r stress a n d th e w eb
thickness. T h e sh e a r flow for each w eb, show n in Fig. 5.7c, is equal to the
sum o f th e lo n g itu d in a l lo ad s a b o v e th e web.
T h e sh e a r stresses m ay also be o b ta in e d by u sin g Eq. (5.16). F o r a p o in t
betw een the tw o u p p e r stringers,
8000
y dA = (0.5 X 6 ) = 15,000 lb/in
40 x 0.040
F o r a p o in t b e tw een th e tw o m iddle stringers,
K. Cc 8000
) ’ d A = 4Q - 0 04Q (0.5 x 6 + 0.5 x 2) = 20,000 ib/irT
E x am p le 5.3 F in d expressions for the n o rm al stress for all beam s w hose

u n sy m m etrical c ro ss sectio n s are given in Fig. 5.8a a n d b.
/, = 71.23 in4,/,. = 913.71 in4

I, = 693.3 in4. fy » 173.3 in4 lyz = 5.3 in"
= 240 in4
(a) <M
Figure 5.8
STRESS ANALYSIS 107
S o u m o N F ro m F q . (5.12) w ith P set to zero , th e n o rm a l stress for the beam

in Fig. 5.8<j is
‘ /,. A/- f / . M.. +

■z
— n ~ 7 ^ - v+ V r - ; * -
'r - *>- *>• - ^ 2
173.3(100,000) -f 240(10,000) 693.3(10,000) + 240(100,000)

(693.3)( 173.3) — 2402 y + (693.3X173.3 - 2402 Z
= - 315 r t 4 9 4 r
Sim ilarly, for th e beam in Fig. 5 .8 /\ th e n o rm a l stress ex pression is
= —6457j> + 9.0 6 z
5 .5 S H E A R FLO W IN T H I N W EBS
S h ear flow is defined as the p ro d u ct of th e sh e a r stress a n d th e thickness o f th e

web. F o r all p ra c tic al pu rp o ses, it is sufficiently a c c u ra te to assum e th a t sh e a r
stresses in thin w ebs a re alw ays parallel to th e su rfaces for th e en tire thickness o f
the w eb. In Fig. 5.9. a curved w eb re p rese n tin g th e le a d in g edge of a w ing is
show n, an d the s h e a r stresses a re parallel to th e su rfaces o f th e web a t all p o in ts.
A ir lo ad s n o rm a l to the surface m ust, o f co u rse, b e resisted by sh ear stresses
p erp e n d ic u la r to th e web, but these stresses u su ally a re negligible an d a re n o t
co n sid ered here. It m ig h t a p p e a r th a t a thin , c u rv ed w eb is n o t an efficient
stru c tu re for resistin g sh e arin g stresses, b u t th is is n o t th e case. T h e d ia g o n a l
tensile a n d co m p ressiv e stresses <r, an d a c a re sh o w n in F ig. 5.9 o n p rin c ip a l
planes a t 4 5 ” fro m th e p lanes o f m axim um s h e a r crv. F ro m M o h r’s circle fo r a
co n d itio n o f p u re sh ea r, it m ay be show n th a t th e d ia g o n a l com pressive stress a c
an d th e d ia g o n a l tensile stress a, a re b o th eq u a l to th e m ax im u m shear stress a*.
If the d iag o n al c o m p ressio n alone w ere a c tin g o n th e cu rv ed w eb, it w ould b e n d
the w eb to an in creased cu rv atu re. T h e d ia g o n a l tensile stress, how ever, ten d s to
decrease the cu rv a tu re , a n d the tw o effects c o u n te ra c t each o th er. C o n seq u en tly ,
the c a rv c d w eb will resist high sh e a r stress w ith o u t d efo rm in g from its o rig in al
cu rv atu re.
T he sh e a r flow q, w hich is th e p ro d u c t o f the sh e a r stress <r„ a n d th e w eb

thickness f, usually is m o re co n v en ie n t to use th an th e sh e a r stress. T h e sh e a r
llow m ay be o b ta in e d b efo re the w eb thickness is d eterm in ed , but the sh ear stress
d epends o n th e w eb thickness. O ften it is necessary to o b ta in the re su ltan t force
on a curved w eb in w hich th e sh e a r flow q is c o n sta n t for th e length of the web.
T h e elem ent o f th e w eb sh o w n in Fig. 5.10 h a s length ds, a n d th e h o rizo n ta l an d
vertical c o m p o n e n ts o f this length are dz a n d dy, respectively. T h e force o n this
elem ent o f len g th is q ds, a n d th e c o m p o n en ts o f the force a re q dz h o rizo n tally
a n d q d y vertically. T h e to ta l h o rizo n tal force is
q d z = qz (5.17)
'- r
w here z is the h o riz o n ta l d ista n c e betw een th e ends o f th e w eb. T h e to ta l vertical
force on the w eb is
q d y = qy (5.18)
■ '- f
w here v is th e vertical d istan ce betw een the en d s o f the w eb. T h e re su lta n t force is
qL, w here L is th e len g th o f the stra ig h t line jo in in g the en d s o f th e web, a n d th e
re su ltan t force is p arallel to this line. E q u a tio n s (5.17) an d (5.18) a re in d ep en d en t
o f the sh a p e o f th e w eb, b u t d ep en d o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f th e d istan ce betw een
the ends o f the w eb. T h e ind u ccd to rsio n al m o m e n t o f th e re su lta n t force d ep en d s
o n the sh ap e o f th e w eb. T h e to rq u e ind u ced a t a n y p o in t su ch as 0 , sh o w n in
Fig. 5.1 la , is e q u a l to rq ds. T h e a re a d A o f th e triang le fo rm ed by jo in in g p o in t 0
an d the ex trem ities o f th e elem en t o f length ds is r ds/2. T h e n th e to rq u e indu ced
by the sh e a r flow a lo n g th e en tire w eb m ay b e o b ta in e d as follow s:
T = qr ds = 2q d A — 2q J dA
(5.19)
T = 2 Aq
/
<u.
fig u re 5.10
I
str e ss / a n a l y sis 109
ds
Figure 5.11
w here A is the area en clo sed by the w eb a n d th e lines jo in in g th e ends o f th e w eb

w ith p o in t 0 , as sho w n in Fig. 5.116. T h e d ista n c e e, sh o w n in Fig. 5.11b, o f the
re s u lta n t force from p o in t 0 m ay be o b ta in e d by d iv id in g th e to rq u e by the force:
It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t th e sh e ar flow q is assu m ed to b e c o n stan t in th e

d eriv a tio n o f Eqs. (5.19) a n d (5.20).
5.6 SHEAR CENTER
O p e n -sectio n th in w eb b eam s, such as in Fig. 5.12, a re u n sta b le in ca rry in g

hus it a beam cross se c tio n is sy m m etrical a b o u t a vertical axis,
then th e vertical lo a d s m u st be ap p lied in th e p lan e o f sy m m etry in o rd e r to
p ro d u ce no to rsio n o n th e cro ss section. H ow ever, if th e b e a m c ro ss section is n o t
sym m etrical, then the lo a d s m u st be ap p lied a t a p o in t su ch th a t they p ro d u ce n o
torsion. T h is p o in t is callcd the shear center a n d m ay be o b ta in e d by finding th e
p osition o f th e re s u lta n t o f the sh e a r stresses o n a n y c ro ss section. T he sim p lest
type o f beam for w hich the sh ear c e n te r m ay be c a lc u late d is m ade o f tw o
c o n c e n tra te d flange a re a s jo in e d by a c u rv e d sh e a r w eb, as sh o w n in Fig. 5.12.
(M Figure 5.12
I 10 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
T he tw o flanges m u st lie in th e sam e vertical p lan e if th e beam carries a vertical

load. If the w eb resists n o b ending, th e sh e a r flow in the w eb will have a c o n sta n t
value (/. T h e re s u lta n t of th e sh e a r How will b e q L = V, a n d the p o sitio n of this
resu ltan t from Eq. (5.20) will be a d istan ce e = 2 A / L to th e left of the flanges, as
show n in Fig. 5.12a. T h erefo re, all lo ad s m u st b e ap p lie d in a vertical p la n e w hich
is a distance e from th e p lan e o f th e flanges.
A beam w ith o n ly tw o flanges th a t are in a vertical p lan e is n o t sta b le for
h o rizo n tal lo ad s. T h e vertical lo c atio n o f the sh e a r c e n te r w o u ld have n o signifi
cance for this beam . F o r b eam s w hich resist h o riz o n ta l lo a d s as well as vertical
loads, it is necessary to d eterm in e the vertical lo c a tio n o f th e sh e a r center. If the
cross section is sym m etrical a b o u t a h o riz o n ta l axis, th e sh e a r cen te r m u st lie o n
the axis o f sym m etry. If th e cross section is n o t sy m m etrical a b o u t a h o rizo n tal
axis, the vertical p o sitio n o f th e sh e ar c en te r m ay be calc u lated by ta k in g m o
m ents of the sh e a r forces p ro d u ce d b y h o rizo n ta l lo ad s. T h e m eth o d o f calcu
lating the sh e a r cen te r o f a b eam can be illu strated best by n u m erical exam ples.
E xam ple 5.4 F in d the sh e a r flows in the w ebs o f th e beam show n in Fig.
5.13a. E ach o f th e fo u r flange m em bers h as an a re a o f 0.5 in 2. T h e w ebs a re
assum ed to c a rry n o b en d in g stress. F in d th e sh e a r c e n te r for the area.
S o l u t i o n T w o cro ss sections 1 in a p a rt a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.13ft, T h e in

crease in b e n d in g m o m e n t in th e I-in length is eq u a l to the sh e a r V. The
increase o f b en d in g stress o n the flanges in th e 1 -in len g th is
V v 10,000 x 5 ,
= — -----------------= 1000 lb/in
L 50
T h e load o n each 0 .5 -in 2 area resu ltin g from this stress is 500 lb an d is show n
in Fig. 5.13h. T h e a c tu a l m ag n itu d e o f the b en d in g stress is n o t needed in th e
shear-flow analysis, since the sh e a r flow d ep en d s o n o n ly the ch an g e in
b en d in g m o m e n t o r th e shear. If each w eb is cu t in th e span w ise direction, as
show n, th e sh e a r forces o n the c u t w ebs m u st b a la n c e th e lo ad s o n th e
STRESS ANALYSIS I I I
flanges. T he forcc in w eb ab m u st b alan c e th e 500-lb force o n flange a, and

sincc this s p a n wise force a c ts on a 1 -in length, th e sh e a r flow in the w eb will
be 500 lb/in in th e d irectio n show n. T h e sh e a r flow in w eb be m u st balance
th e 500-lb force on flange h as well as th e 500-lb sp an w ise force in w eb ab,
a n d co n seq u en tly t h e sh ea r flow has a value o f 1000 lb /in . T h e sh e a r flow in
w eb cd m ust b alan ce th e 1 0 0 0 -lb sp an w ise force in w eb be as well as the
500-lb force o n llangc c. w hich is in th e o p p o site d ire c tio n . T h e sh ear flow in
w eb cd is therefo re 500 lb /in a n d is checked by th e e q u ilib riu m o f flange d.
T h e d irectio n s o f th e sh ear flow o n th e vertical b e am cro ss section are
o b tain ed from th e d irectio n s o f th e spanw ise forces. Since each w eb h a s a
c o n sta n t thickness, th e sh ear flow, like sh e a r stresses, m u st be equal on
p e rp en d icu la r planes. T h e sh ear flow o n a re c ta n g u la r elem ent m ust, form
tw o eq u al an d o p p o site couples. T h e d ire c tio n s o f all s h e a r flows are show n
in Fig. 5.13/; a n d the back section in Fig. 5.13a. T h e sh e a r ce n tcr is found by
ta k in g m o m e n ts a b o u t point c:
I T e = 0^3
- 10,000e + 500(4)(10) = 0
or e= 2 in
T h e sh ear c e n te r will be o n a h o riz o n tal axis o f sy m m etry , since a h o rizo n tal
forcc a lo n g this axis will p ro d u c e n o tw isting o f th e beam .
E xam ple 5.5 F in d th e sh ea r flows in th e w ebs of th e b eam show n in Fig.

5.14a. E ach o f the fo u r flanges has a n a re a o f 1.0 in 2. F in d th e sh e a r c en te r
for th e area.
S o l u t i o n T h e m o m en t o f in ertia o f th e a re a a b o u t th e h o riz o n ta l cen tro id al

axis is
/. = 4 (1 x 4 2) = 64 in 4
1000 lb/in
(*)
Figure 5.14
T h e chan g e in ax ial lo ad in each flange b etw een th e tw o c ro ss sections 1 in

a p a rt is
= 1 ^ 2 x 4 x ! = 10001b
12
T h e axial lo a d s a n d sh e a r flows a re sh o w n in Fig. 5 .14ft. T h e sh e a r flows in

the w ebs a re o b ta in e d by a su m m atio n o f th e sp an w ise forces o n th e el
em ents, as in E x am p le 5.4.
T h e d ista n c e e to sh e a r c en te r is fo u n d b y ta k in g m o m e n ts a b o u t a p o in t
below c, o n th e ju n c tu re o f th e w ebs. T h e sh e a r flow in th e n o se sk in p ro
duces a m o m e n t eq u al to th e p ro d u c t o f th e sh e a r flow an d tw ice th e a re a
enclosed by th e sem icircle. T h e sh e ar flow-in th e u p p e r h o riz o n ta l w eb h as a
re s u lta n t force o f 6000 lb a n d a m o m e n t a rm o f 10 in. T h e sh o rt vertical w ebs
a t a a n d d e a c h resist forces o f 1000 lb w ith a m o m e n t a rm o f 6 in. T h e
re s u lta n t forces o n th e o th e r w ebs p ass th ro u g h th e c e n te rs o f m o m e n t :
I Tc = 0 4}
- 16,000c + 2(39.27)(2000) + 6000(10) + 2(1000X6) = 0
or e = 14.32 in
5.7 TORSION OF CLOSED-SECTION BOX BEAMS
T h e thin-w eb, o p en-sectio n b o x b eam s p rev io u sly c o n sid ered are c a p ab le o f re
sisting lo ad s w hich are applied at the sh e a r c e n te r b u t b eco m e u n stab le u n d e r
to rsio n a l lo ad s. In m a n y stru c tu re s, especially in a e ro sp ace vehicles, th e re su ltan t
lo a d takes on differen t p o sitio n s fo r d ifferen t lo a d in g c o n d itio n s an d co n se
q u en tly m ay p ro d u c e to rsio n . O n an a irc ra ft w ing, Tor ex am p le, th e re su lta n t
a e ro d y n am ic lo a d is farth e r fo rw ard o n th e w in g a t high an g les o r a tta c k th a n a t
low angles o f a tta c k . T he p o sitio n o f this lo a d also chan g es w h en th e ailero n s o r
w ing flaps a re deflected. T h u s a closed-section box beam , w hich is c a p ab le o f
resisting to rsio n , is used for airc ra ft w ings a n d sim ila r stru c tu res. T ypical type§. o f
w ing co n stru c tio n a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.15. T h e w in g section o f Fig. 5.15a has*6 nly
Spar
Stringers (longitudinals)
Figure 5.15 Ty pical w ing construction.
STRESS ANALYSIS 113
Figure 5.16 Box beam loaded in torsion.
one sp a r, a n d th e skin forw ard o f th is s p a r form s a closed section w hich is

designed lo resist th e w ing to rsio n , w h ereas th e p o rtio n a ft o f the sp a r is lig h te r
an d is designed n o t to resist an y lo ad s o n th e w in g b u t to a c t as an a e ro d y n a m ic
surface. T h e w ing section show n in Fig. 5A 5b h as tw o sp ars w hich form a
closed-seetion box beam . In som e w ings, tw o o r m o re closed boxes m ay a c t
to g e th e r in resistin g to rsio n , b u t such sec tio n s a re sta tic a lly in d eterm in ate a n d
are co n sid ered in a late r chaptcr.
T h e box sectio n sh o w n in Fig. 5.16 is lo a d e d o n ly by a to rsio n al m o m en t T .
Since the axial lo ad s in th e strin g ers a re p ro d u c e d by w in g bending, they a re zero
for the co n d itio n o f p u re torsion. If th e u p p e r strin g ers a rc considered as a free
body, as show n in Fig. 5 .16/\ the sp an w ise forces m u st b e in equilib riu m ; th a t is,
qa = q , a o r q = q t . If sim ilar sections c o n ta in in g o th e r flanges are co n sid ered , it
becom es o b v io u s th a t th e sh ear flow a t a n y p o in t m u s t be equal to q. T h e
c o n sta n t sh e a r flow q a ro u n d th e circum ference has n o re su lta n t h o rizo n tal o r
vertical force, since in the a p p licatio n o f E qs. (5.17) a n d (5.18) the h o rizo n tal a n d
vertical d istan c e s betw een the e n d p o in ts o f th e closed w eb a re zero. T he re s u lta n t
of the sh ear flow is th u s a to rq u e eq u al to th e ap p lie d e x tern al to rq u e T , ta k e n
a b o u t any axis p e rp e n d ic u la r to the c ro ss sectio n . If we ta k e p o in t 0 in Fig. 5.16c
as a reference, th e follow ing m ay be im m ed iately w ritten from Eq. (5.19):
T = X 2(AA)q = 2 A q (5.21)
w here A is th e sum o f the tria n g u la r a re a s A A an d is eq u a l to the to ta l a rea

enclosed by th e box section. T he a re a A is th e sam e reg ard less o f the p o sitio n o f
p o in t 0 , since th e m o m e n t of a co u p le is th e sam e a b o u t a n y point. If p o in t O is
chosen o u tsid e the section, som e o f the tria n g u la r a re a s A A will be n egative,
co rre sp o n d in g to th e d irection o f th e m o m e n t o f th e s h e a r flow a b o u t p o in t O,
but th e alg eb raic sum o f all areas A A will be eq u a l to th e enclosed area A.
5.8 SHEAR FLOW IN CLOSED-SECTION BOX BEAMS
C o n sid er a bo x beam co n ta in in g only tw o strin g ers, a s sh o w n in Fig. 5.17. S ince

this section is sta b le u n d er the a ctio n o f to rsio n a l loads, th e vertical sh ear fo rce V
114 a ir c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s
Figure 5.17 O ne-celi-tw o-stringers box beam.
m ay be ap plied a t an y p o in t in the cross section. N o te th a t this beam is unstable

u n d e r the a ctio n o f a h o riz o n ta l load, since the tw o strin g ers in th e sam e vertical
plane c a n n o t resist a b en d in g m o m e n t a b o u t a vertical axis. If tw o cross sections
1 in a p a rt a re co n sid ered , as sh o w n in Fig. 5 M b , the difference in axial lo ad on
the stringers, A P, betw een the tw o cross sections m a y be fo u n d from the differ
ence in the b e n d in g stress a xv = — M . y / I z = Vy( \ )y /1 ., o r | A P | = ax x A r =
Vy A sh t/ I z = Vy A 2 hz/ I 2, w here A , a n d A 2 are strin g e r areas. T h ese lo ad s m u st be
balanced by the sh e a r flow show n in Fig. 5.17/j. If we c o n sid e r eq u ilib riu m , the
su m m a tio n o f forces o n th e u p p e r strin g e r in th e span w ise d ire c tio n m u st be zero:
<?iU in) + 9o(l in) - = 0

*2
or q x = V> * lh l - q 0 (5.22)
T h e sh e a r flow r/ 0 m a y be fo u n d by su m m in g to rsio n a l m o m en ts for the back

section a b o u t a p e rp e n d ic u la r ax is th ro u g h th e lo w er strin g e r:
Vy C - 2 A q 0 = 0
V .C
w here A is the to ta l a re a enclosed b y th e box.

S u b stitu tin g this value in Hq. (5.22) yields
Vrh'
^
A' Yz£
T h e sh ear flows in b o x b eam s w ith several slringc..; m a y be o b tain ed by a

m e th o d sim ilar to th a t p rev io u sly used. F ro m a su m m a tio n o f spanw ise lo ad s on
vario u s strin g ers th e sh e a r flows m ay all be expressed in term s o f o n e u n k n o w n
sh ear flow. T h en this sh e a r flow m ay be o b ta in ed b y e q u a tin g th e m o m en ts o f the
sh ear flows to th e e x tern a l to rsio n a l m o m e n t a b o u t a sp an w ise axis. F o r th e box
beam show n in Fig. 5.18, all th e sh e a r flows q ^ q z , . . . , q„ m a y b e expressed in
STRIiSS ANALYSIS 115
term s o f the sh ear flow q0 by co n sid erin g the span w ise eq u ilib riu m o f the strin g
ers betw een w eb 0 an d th e w eb u n d er co n sid e ra tio n :
q, = f/n + A P,
ll2 = clo + AP j + A P 2
................................................... (5.24)
or <7„ = Qa + Z
0
wliere APn rep resen ts the su m m atio n o f lo ad s A P betw een 0 an d any web n.
A fter all the sh ear flows a re expressed in term s o f the u n k n o w n q0 , the value o f
q0 m ay be o b tain ed from the su m m atio n o f ihc to rsio n a l m o m en ts. N o te th a t the
shear flow in any o th e r w eb could have been co n sid ered as th e u n k n o w n q0 . F o r
the case of general b en d in g , the difference in axial lo ad o n th e stringers A P
betw een tw o sections 1 in a p a rt m ay be fo u n d from Eq. (5.12). M ak in g the
su b stitu tio n s M . = VJ. 1 in), M y = V.{1 in), a n d P = 0 yields
\ 1y 1 z yz 1y ‘ z J yz /
w here v a n d z are the c o o rd in a te s of the strin g er a re a A j .
E xam ple 5.6 Find the sh e a r flow in all w ebs o f th e box beam show n in Fig.
5 .19a.
S o l u t i o n T h e m o m en t o f inertia o f th e beam cross sectio n a b o u t the neutral

axis is / = (4 x 0.5 | 2 x I)(52) = 100 in4. T h e difference in bending stress
betw een the tw o cro ss sections 1 in a p a rt is V { \)y j\ = 10,000 (I)(5)/100 = 500
lb /in 2. T h is p ro d u ces com pressive lo ad s A P o f 500 lb on the 1-in 2 u p p er
strin g er areas an d 250 lb on the 0.5 in 2 strin g e r areas, as sh o w n in Fig. f-.l'ih.
T h e sh e a r flow in th e leading-edgc skin is co n sid ered a s th e unknow n qa ,
alth o u g h th e sh e a r How in any o th e r w eb co u ld h av e been considered as the
unk n o w n . N ow th e sh e a r llow in all o th e r w ebs m ay b e o b ta in e d in term s of
c/ 0 bv co n sid erin g the eq uilibrium o f the spanw ise forces o n the stringers, as
show n in Fig. 5.19/).
T h e value o f q„ is o b tain ed by co n sid erin g th e eq u ilib riu m o f to rsio n al
116 AI1U'RAFT STRUCTURES
2 5 0 Ib 5001b
0>)
7u 250 Qa ~ 500
-*T------------ ^ ------------
'•» - •/* , N <r
\ *S
N \ U0 | </,. 1000 •
1 - 1 = 2 7 8 .5
____________ I
0
7n 250 t/1, 500
io kips
(r>
Figure 5.19
m om ents du e to th e sh e a r flow an d the e x tern al applied lo a d s in reference to

;iny axis n o rm al lo the back cross sccti.m o f tlie beam . T a k in g Ihe axis
th ro u g h p o in t 0 , for exam ple, as sh o w n in Fig. 5.19c, a n d sum m ing to rq u es
to zero yield
I T0 = 0 +
9/>0
- 10,000(8) + too - ^00X100) + (<7 o - 500X100) + <?0(278.5) = 0
or q0 = 324 Ib/in
T h e sh e a r flow in th e rest o f the w ebs m a y be c o m p u te d easily from Fig.

# 5 .19c-.
E xam ple 5.7 F in d the sh e a r flow in th e w ebs o f the box b eam show n in Fig.
5.20.
S o l u t io n T h e ch an g e in b en d in g stress betw een tw o cro ss sections is o b

tained from Eq. (5.25). T h e term s to be used in this e q u a tio n are o b tain ed as
follow s:
I: = ( 2 x 3 + 2 x l)(52) = 200 in 4
/ }, = (2 x 3 + 2 x 1 )(1 0 2) = 800 in 4
g = 1(5)( - 10) + 3( - 5)( - 10) + 1(10)( - 5) + 3(5)( 10) = 200 in 4
V. = 4 kips
Os
\X = 10 kips
STRIiSS ANALYSIS 1 17
y
I
Section C-C-
T h e su b s titu tio n in l;.q. (5.25) yields
A P = (23.33z - 73.33y)/4j
W ith th e a b o v e e q u a tio n , the AP o n e a c h strin g e r m a y b e o b ta in e d easily by

m a k in g the p ro p e r su b stitu tio n fo r th e flange a re a a n d its co rresp o n d in g
co o rd in ates. T h e resu lts arc show n in Fig. 5.21a. N o w th e sh e a r flow in each
w eb can be o b ta in e d from th e in crem en ts o f th e flange lo ad s, a s w as d o n e in
E xam ple 5.6 for th e sym m etrical b o x b eam . T h e sh e a r flow in the left-hand
w eb is d esig n ated q 0 . T h e sh e ar flows in th e re st o f th e w ebs a re o b tain ed by
co n sid erin g the eq u ilib riu m o f forces in th e sp an w ise d ire c tio n an d are given
in Fig. 5 .2 1a. N o w th e u n k n o w n sh e a r flow q0 is o b ta in e d from the eq u ilib
riu m o f to rsio n a l m o m en ts. T a k in g p o in t O as a reference p o in t an d sum -
iiiing m o m en ts a b o u t th e x axis th ro u g h O yield
(,/«, - 400)( 100) + </(,( 100) + (q0 - 600)(100) + (q0 - 1000)(100) = 0
or 400</„ - 200,000 = 0
T h e final shear-flow resu lts a re in d icated on Fig. 5.21/;. T h e m inus sign

im plies th a t the w ro n g directio n o f sh e a r flow has been assu m ed .
5.9 SPA N W ISE T A P E R E F F E C T
In the preceding analy sis o f sh e a r stresses in beam s, we assu m ed th a t the cross

section of the beam re m ain ed co n sta n t. Since in ae ro sp ac e vehicle stru c tu re s a
m inim um w eight is alw ay s so u g h t, usually the b eam s a re ta p e re d in o rd er to
achieve m axim um stru c tu ra l efficiency. W hile this v aria tio n in cro ss section may
not cause ap p reciab le e rro rs in th e ap p lic atio n o f the f i g u r e fo rm u la for bending
stresses, often it causes larg e erro rs in the sh e a r stresses d eterm in ed from Eq.
(5.16).
As an illu stratio n , c o n sid er the beam show n in Fig. 5.22 w hich, for sim plicity,
is assum ed to co n sist o f tw o strin g ers jo in e d by a v ertical w eb th a t resists no
bending. T he re s u lta n t ax ial lo ad s in the strin gers m u st be in th e d irectio n o f the
stringers and m u st hav e h o riz o n ta l c o m p o n e n ts P x = M J h . T h e vertical co m
p o n en ts o f this lo ad w hich a c t o n th e stringers, P tan a , a n d P tan a 2 , as show n
in Fig. 5.22b, resist p a rt o f th e external ap p lied sh e a r Vy . By d e sig n atin g the sh ear
(ft)
Kigurc 5.22
STRESS ANALYSIS 1 19
resisted hy the strin g ers us l'f a n d th a t resisted by th e w ebs as V„,
K = >> + K (5.26 a)
Vj = P (lan a , + ta n a 2) (5.26b)
F ro m the geo m etry o f the beam , tan a , = h J C , ta n a2 = h J C , an d t a n a , +

tan a , = (/i, t- h 2), ( ' = /i/C'- S u b stitu tin g th is v alu e in to Eq. (5.26b) yields
(5.27)
FqiuU ion (5.27) will ap p ly for a beam w ith a n y system o f vertical loads. F o r the
present loading, the value o f P is Vy bfh. S u b stitu tin g th is v alu e for P into Eq.
(5.27) yields
(5.28)
F ro m Eqs. (5.26«) an d (5.2S) an d from the g eo m etry ,
(5.29)
F.quations (5.28) an d (5.29) can be expressed in term s o f th e d e p th s /i„ an d h o f the

beam by m ak in g use o f the p ro p o rtio n a /C = h0/h:
(5.30a)
an d (5.30ft)
h
T h e sh e a r flow in the w ebs now can be fo u n d by using E q. (5.16) in co n ju n c

tion with the sh e a r F„ in Eq. (5.30«). F o r in stan ce, if we assu m e th a t the areas o f
b o th strin g ers in Fig. 5.22 a rc the sam e, th e sh e a r flow a t a sectio n w here the
d istan ce betw een the strin g ers is h m ay be c a lc u la te d as follow s:
(5.31)
'W hen the beam h a s several stringers, the s h e a r flow m ay be o b ta in e d in a m an n er

sim ilar lo lh a t for the tw o -strin g er beam as lo n g as th e strin g e r a reas rem ain
c o n sta n t alo n g the sp an . If th e strin g e r a re a s v ary a lo n g th e sp an a n d n o t all vary
in th e sam e p ro p o rtio n , F.q. (5.16) c a n n o t be ap p lied .
E xam ple 5.8 Find the sh e a r flows in the w eb o f th e beam sh o w n in Fig. 5.23
a t 2 0 -in in terv als alo n g Ihe span.
S o n rrio N T h e sh e a r flows are o b ta in e d b y th e use o f E qs. (5.30a) a n d (5.31).

T h e so lu tio n o f these e q u a tio n s is sh o w n in T a b le 5.1.
-------------------- -100 in -------- — ■ »
1 in A
K
[^\ 20 in
n I in2 A
S
\
Scction AA 10.000 lb
Figure 5.23
W hile slid e-ru le accu racy is sufficient for shear-flow calc u latio n s, th e values
in T a b le 5.1 a re c o m p u te d to fo u r sign ifican t figures fo r co m p ariso n w ith a
m eth o d to be d ev elo p e d later.
E xam ple 5.9 F in d the sh e a r flows a t section A A o f th e box beam sh o w n in

Fig. 5.24.
S o l u t i o n T h e m o m en t o f in e rtia o f th e c ro ss section a t A A a b o u t th e n e u
tral axis is
/ = 2(2 + 1 + 1X52) = 2 0 0 in 4
T he b en d in g stresses a t section A A are

M zy 400,000 x 5
<7.., = ' 1 0 ,0 0 0 lb /in 2
I 200
T h e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n en ts o f th e forces a c tin g o n th e 2-in 2 strin g ers are
20,000 lb, a n d th e forces o n th e 1-in 2 strin g e rs a re 10,000 lb, as sh o w n in Fig.
5.25a. T h e v ertical co m p o n en ts a re o b ta in e d b y m u ltip ly in g the forces a n d
the tan g en ts o f th e angles betw een strin g ers an d th e h o riz o n ta l. T h e sum of
the vertical co m p o n e n ts o f forces o n all strin g e rs Vs is 4000 lb , an d the
rem ain in g sh e a r VK o f 4000 lb is resisted b y th e sh e a r flow s in th e w ebs. If o n e
o f the u p p e r w ebs is cu t, a s sh o w n in F ig. 5.25b, th e s h e a r flows in the w ebs
m ay be o b ta in e d fro m
K. *
y dA
T able 5.1
*2 K
X h h I 1., ^ 7
0 10 1 10.000 1,000
20 12 0.8333 8.333 694.4
40 14 0.7143 7,143 510.2
60 16 0.6250 6,250 390.6
80 18 0.5555 5,555 308.6
100 20 0.5 5,000 250.0
f
STRESS ANALYSIS 121
I in
Figure 5.24
w here the in teg ral rep resen ts th e m o m en t o f th e a re a s b etw een th e cu t w eb

a n d th e w eb u n d e r co n sid e ra tio n . T h e ch an g e in b e n d in g stress o n a stringer
betw een the tw o cro ss sectio n s 1 in a p a rt is Vwy / l w hen th e effect o f tap er is
considered, an d th e c h a n g e in axial lo a d o n a strin g e r o f a re a A s is
AP = ~ yAf
T hese axial lo ad s a rc sh o w n in Fig. 5.25b in th e sam e w ay as they were

show n prev io u sly fo r b eam s w ith n o tap er. T h e eq u ilib riu m o f forces in the
spanw ise d irectio n yields the sh e a r flow in term s o f q0 in all th e webs, as
show n in Fig. 5.25ft. N o w th e sh ear Row q 0 can b e fo u n d b y sum m ing
torsional m o m en ts a b o u t the z axis th ro u g h p o in t 0 for th e back scction, as
show n in Fig. 5.26«. T h e final sh e a r flow in each w eb is sh o w n in Fig. 5.26b.
I T0 = 0 +
8000(2) + (q0 - 100)(200) + go(100) + (q0 + 100X100)
-2(5 0 0 X 1 0 ) - 2(500)(20) = 0
q„ = 60 lb/in
Figure 5.25
1000 Ib 5001b 500 1b
Figure 5.26
5.10 BEAMS WITH VARIABLE STRINGER AREAS
In See. 5.9, b eam s w ere co nsid ered w hich varied in d e p th hu t had stringers w hose
cross sections w ere c o n sta n t. In m an y a e ro sp a c e stru c tu ra l beam s, the cross-
sectional area o f th e strin g e r m em bers varies as well as th e d ep th o f the beam . If
the areas o f all the strin g e r m em b ers a re in creased by a c o n sta n t ra tio , th e
m eth o d o f Sec. 5.9 can be used ; if (he a re a s a t o n e cro ss section are n o t p ro
p o rtio n a l to the a re a s a t a n o th e r cro ss sectio n , th e m e th o d w ould be co n sid erab ly
in erro r. T h e airp la n e w ing section in Fig. 5.27 rep resen ts a stru c tu re in w hich th e
v ariatio n in strin g e r a reas m ust be co n sid ered . T h e strin g e r areas in this w ing are
designed in such a m a n n e r th a t th e b e n d in g stresses a re c o n sta n t along the span.
In o rd e r to resist th e la rg e r b ending m o m e n ts n e a r th e ro o t o f the w ing, (he
bending stre n g th is a u g m en ted by increasin g th e d e p th o f th e w ing and the a re a
of sp a r cap s A a n d B. T h e strin g ers w hich resist the p a rt o f th e bending m o m en t
n o t resisted by the s p a r cap s h av e th e sam e a re a for th e en tire sp an . Since the
axial stresses on these strin g ers a re th e sam e a t every p o in t alo n g the sp an , the
increm ents o f lo a d in crease A P will be ze ro except o n s p a r cap s A an d B. I t m ay
be seen from F.q. (5.24) th a t the sh e a r flow m u st be c o n sta n t a ro u n d the e n tire
leading edge o f the w ing a n d ch an g es o n ly a t th e s p a r caps. C onseq u en tly , th e
m eth o d s o f analy sis p reviously used a re n o t a p p lic ab le to th is problem .
-The b en d in g stresses a n d to ta l strin g e r lo ad s m a y be calcu lated for tw o cro ss
sections o f th e beam . T h e actu a l d im en sio n s a n d strin g e r areas for each cross
section a rc used, so th a t an y ch an g es b etw een th e cro ss sections are ta k e n in to
STRIiSS ANALYSIS 123
Figure 5.28
co n sid eratio n . T h e strin g e r loads P tt an d Pb a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.28 for tw o

sections a d istan ce a p a rt. T h e increase in lo a d in a n y strin g e r is assum ed to be
uniform in length a. T h e increase in strin g er load p e r u n it len g th alo n g the sp a n
is
' P — P
A = ... ... ....- (5.32)
a
T his typical force is sh o w n in Fig. 5.28b. N o w th e sh e a r flow can be o b ta in e d

from these values, o f AP, as in the p rev io u s analysis.
It is seen th a t th e sh ear force is n o t used in fin d in g th e values o f A P ;
consequently, it is n o t necessary to calc u late th e vertical c o m p o n en ts o f th e
strin g er loads. T h e cITecl o f beam ta p e r a n d c h an g e s in strin g e r area are im
plem ented au to m a tic a lly w hen the m o m en ts o f in e rtia a n d b en d in g stresses a re
calculated. Since it is necessary to d eterm in e th e w ing b e n d in g stresses at frequent
sta tio n s a lo n g the w ing sp an in o rd e r to desig n the strin g ers, th e term s Pa an d P h
can be o b tain ed w ith o u t lo o m any a d d itio n a l c alc u latio n s. T h u s this m eth o d o f
analysis is often sim p le r an d m ore a c c u ra te th a n th e m e th o d w hich considered
v ariatio n s in d ep th b u t n o t v ariatio n s in strin g e r area.
T h e distance a betw een tw o cro ss sectio n s m a y be an y co n ven ie n t value. It is
co m m o n p ractice to calc u late w ing b en d in g stresses a t in te rv a ls o f 15 to 30 in
alo n g the span. T h e intervals are q u ite sa tisfac to ry for shear-flow calculations.
N o te th a t for very sm all values o f a, sm all p e rc en ta g e e rro rs in Pa an d Ph result in
large percentage e rro rs in A P . H ow ever, if a is to o large, th e av erag e sh ear flow
o b tain ed betw een tw o sections m ay n o t be q u ite th e sam e a s th e shear flow
m idw ay betw een th e sections.
E xam ple 5.10 F in d th e sh ear flows in th e b eam o f F ig. 5.23 b y the m eth o d of
using diflerences in b en d in g stresses.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Table 5.2
M
.X M h P = ~h P > -P . 20 Percentage error
(1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6 ) (7)
10 100,000 11 9,091
20 13,986 699.3 0.7
30 300,000 13 23.077
40 10,256 512.8 0.5
50 500,000 15 33,333
60 7,843 392.1 0.4
70 700,000 17 41.176
80 6,192 309.6 0.3
90 900,000 19 47,368
S o l u t i o n F o r th is tw o-flange beam , th e axial lo a d in the flanges has a

h o rizo n tal c o m p o n e n t P = M/h. T h e v alu es o f P fo r v ario u s sections are
calcu lalcd in c o lu m n 4 o f T a b le 5.2. In c o m p u tin g th e sh ear a t any cro ss
section, v alu es o f th e axial lo ad s a t cro ss sections 1 0 in on eith er side a re
found. T h e free-b o d y d ia g ram s a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.29. T h e circled n u m b ers
represent sta tio n s, o r th e d istan ce from th e cro ss section to th e left end o f th e
beam . T h e difference in h o rizo n tal lo a d s o n the u p p e r p a rt of the beam
b etw een th e cro ss sectio n s 2 0 in a p a rt m u s t be b a lan c ed by th e resu lta n t of
(he h o riz o n ta l s h e a r flow, 20q. T h e differences in axial loads are tabulated in
co lu m n 5, a n d th e sh e a r flows q = (Pb — P„)/20 a re sh o w n in colum n 6 . T h e
value o f th e sh e a r flow a t sta tio n 2 0 th u s is assum ed to be equaf to the
average h o riz o n ta l sh e a r betw een sta tio n s 10 a n d 30. E ven th o u g h the sh e a r
STRESS ANALYSIS 125
1 1 in
Station 60
C*)
d o es n o t v ary linearly alo n g the sp an , th e e r r o r in th is a ssu m p tio n is only 0.7

p ercent, as fo u n d by co m p a riso n w ith th e ex act v alu e o b ta in e d in T ab le 5.1.
T h is e rro r is even sm aller al th e o th e r statio n s.
E x am p le 5.1! F in d the sh ear flows a t cro ss se c tio n A A o f th e box beam

show n in Fig. 5.24 by co n sid erin g th e difference in b e n d in g stresses a t cro ss
sections 10 in o n e ith e r side o f A A.
S o l u t i o n T h e m o m en t o f in ertia a t sta tio n 40 (40 in fro m th e left end) is

fo u n d from the d im en sio n s show n in Fig. 5.30a. T h e b e n d in g stresses at
sta tio n 40, resu ltin g from the bend in g m o m en t o f 320,000 in • lb, are
Mr 320,000(4.5)
= 8 8 8 8 lb /in 2
lz 162
T h e lo ad s o n th e 1-in 2 areas are 8 8 8 8 lb, a n d th e lo a d s o n th e 2-in 2 a reas a re

17,777 lb, as sh o w n in Fig. 5.31a. T h e m o m e n t o f in e rtia a t statio n 60 is
found from the d im en sio n s show n in Fig. 5.31ft:
I z = 8(5.52) = 242 in 4
T h e b ending stresses resulting from th e b en d in g m o m e n t o f 480,000 in ■ lb
l.M (6 )
Figure 5.3!
are
M zy 480,000 x 5.5
, - 2 4 2 - 10,909 ib /in 2
T he lo ad s on the strin g e rs are 10,909 a n d 21,818 lb, as show n in Fig. 5.3 hi.
T he increm ents o f flange lo ad s A P in a 1-in length are fo u n d from Eq. (5.32).
F o r the a re a o f 2 in 2,
A„ 2 1 ,8 1 8 - 7 ,7 7 7
A P = — ------— ------- = 202 b
20
F o r the a rea o f 1.0 in 2
0,909 - 8 8 8 8
A P = — :— —---------= 101 lb
20
T h e values o f A P a re sh o w n in Fig. 5.31ft. T h e rem ain in g so lu tio n is identical

to th a t o f E xam ple 5.9. T h e values o f AP a re 1 p ercen t h ig h er th an th e exact
values sh o w n in F ig. 5.25b. T he reaso n for this sm all d iscrep an cy is th a t th e
average sh e a r flow betw een sta tio n s 40 a n d 60 is 1 p e rc e n t higher th an the
sh ear flow a t sta tio n 50. T h e o th e r a ssu m p tio n s used in th e tw o so lu tio n s are
identical. T h e m e th o d o f using differences in b en d in g stresses a u to m a tic a lly
con sid ers the effects o f th e sh e a r carried b y th e strin g ers, a n d it is n o t neces
sary to calc u late th e an g les o f in c lin a tio n o f the strin g ers. I t is, how ever,
nccessary to find th e to rsio n a l m o m en ts a b o u t th e p ro p e r axis if the strin g er
forces a re o m itte d in the m o m e n t e q u a tio n .
5.11 A IR Y S T R E S S F U N C T I O N
It is show n in C h a p . 3 th a t a stress field describes the ex act sta te o f stress in a

solid if an d o n ly if it satisfies th e c o n d itio n s o f eq u ilib riu m , c o m p atib ility , a n d
prescribed b o u n d a ry stresses. F o r tw o -d im en sio n al stress p ro b le m s in th e absence
o f body forccs, th e eq u ilib riu m an d c o m p a tib ility e q u a tio n s a re
x + 17xy. jr 0 (equ ilib riu m ) (3 . 1 1 )

&xy. x ^yy. y ^
ft xx, XX + 2(TXS x), + rx,v rj = 0 (co m p atib ility ) (3.29)
If a stress function <1> (.v, y) is assu m ed su ch th a t the stresses in a solid a rc

delined by
= ‘I’..,, (5.33)
= - <t>...
STRESS ANALYSIS 127
then Eqs. (3 .1 1) arc identically satisfied. U p o n s u b s titu tin g Eqs. (5.33) in to Eq.
(3.29), the follow ing is o b ta in e d :
„ + 2® «w + Q „„ = 0 (5.34)
T h e so lu tio n o f Eq. (5.34) satisfies b o th the eq u ilib riu m a n d the co m p atib ility
eq u a tio n s a n d therefore gives a possible stress field in an elastic solid. In o rd e r for
the o b ta in e d stress field to describe the tru e sta te o f stress for a specific problem ,
the prescribed b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s m ust be satisfied also.
T h e so lu tio n o f Eq. (5.34) m ay be o b ta in e d by tw o m e th o d s: the polynom ial
so lu tio n an d the F o u rie r series solution.
Polynom ial solution If th e stress fu n ctio n ^(.x,^) is assu m ed to h av e a so lu tio n of

the form
N
(.\, y) = fI>i(.w y) + Q2(.t, >’) + •■• + <D„(x, y) = £ On(x, y) (5.35)
n=1
w here
<!>„{.'% J ') = i (5.36)

;=o
then, by co n sid erin g v ario u s degrees o f p o ly n o m ials a n d su itab ly ad ju stin g th eir
coefficients A in, a n u m b er o f p ractical p ro b le m s m a y b e solved. F o r instance,
taking
4 4 / n
(.Y, v) = I 0„(.v, y) = I I A in (5.37)
it — 1 n=l \i =0
an d assu m in g ail coefficients to be zero A 22 a n d A 01 yield
"xx = = 2 ^ 2 2
17yy ^ = 2 ^ 0 2 (5.38)
<T.SV = 0
By ex am in in g Eq. (5.37), it m ay be sh o w n easily th a t th is is th e solution o f a

tw o -d im en sio n al solid lo a d e d as show n in Fig. 5.32a. If, in a d d itio n , A 02 is ta k e n
as zero, then the so lu tio n c o rresp o n d s to th a t o f Fig. 5 3 2 b . F ig u re 5.32c a n d b
rep resen ts th e c o n d itio n s w here A i2 a n d A 3 i , respectively, a re th e o n ly n o n zero
set o f coefficients in Eq. (5.36).
T o illu strate th e u se o f the Airy stress fu n ctio n in th e so lu tio n o f p ractical
problem s, let us c o n sid e r the beam p ro b le m sh o w n in Fig. 5.33a. It is assum ed
th a t th e ex tern al sh e a r lo a d V is d istrib u te d a t th e su rface jc = x 0 acco rd in g to
the stren g th -o f-m a te ria l p ara b o lic sh e ar-stress d is trib u tio n , a n d th e axial force 5
is ap p lied uniform ly o v er th a t surface.
A lso, it is assu m ed th a t the b en d in g stresses vary lin early , as show n in Fig.
-/ r
(<> (</)
Figure 5 3 2
5.33/). T h ro u g h c o m p ariso n o f Figs. 5.32/), c, a n d d an d 5.33/>, it can be seen th a t

the lo ad in g o f Fig. 5.336 m ay be o b ta in e d by su p erp o sin g th e lo ad s show n in Fig.
5.32h, c, a n d d. T h u s, th e stress field for the beam in Fig. 5.33« is
= + 6 A 3Ax y
nrs = 0 (5.39)
(!xy = A 12 — 3/134 } ' 2

T h e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s w hich m ust be satisfied for th e given beam in Fig. 5.33a
are
<7,j. = 0 at y = ±h
<*.»■ dv = v at x = 0 4 5 .4 0 )
dy at .x = 0
U tilizing F.qs. (5.39) in Eqs. (5.40) yields
■AI2 - 3 A 3 i /i2 = 0
( A i2 3 A M y 2) d y = (5.41)
STRESS ANALYSIS 129
"*U
4 ■R = S
(fc)
Figure 5 J 3
Solving E q. (5.41) sim u ltan eo u sly gives

3 V
<41 2 — . ,
4 «
V
4/r 1
A l2 ~ 4 h
H cncc the tru e beam stresses are
S 3 V
xy
2 /i 2 h3 Xy 2h
"y y = 0
(5.42)
3 V --------
3 V y, l .
--------------- 1
(ft2 - y 1)
4 h 4 h 21
F ourier series solution T h e F o u rie r series tech n iq u e is used w henever the lo a d

d istrib u tio n is d is c o n tin u o u s over a p o rtio n o f th e solid, as sh o w n in Fig. 5.34, for
exam ple. T h is m e th o d assum es th a t the so lu tio n o f Eq. (5.34) m ay be expressed as
cl>(.v, y) = <l>i (x)<t>,0') (5-43)
w here <^(.v) m ay be tak en , in the form o f F o u rie r series, as

mnx
(I>Xx) = si*1 L
(5.44)
mnx
(l\(.v) = cos
1 30 A1KC RAI r STRUC TURES
A
■/>-}■»- — /i4- h —
.£ ---------4 - ----------i-
(a) (/>)
Figure 5.34
U tilising Eq. (5.43«) or (5.43/>) in Eq. (5.43) a n d then su b stitu tin g in to Eq.
(5.34) yield
d 2<i\
r - 2 /i: (5.45)
dx dy2
w here fl = m n/L.
E q u atio n (5.45) is a fo u rth -o rd e r h o m o g en eo u s differen tial eq u a tio n w ith
c o n sta n t coefficients. Its so lu tio n can be o b ta in e d easily in term s o f hyperbolic
fu n ctio n s as
<Py = C , s i n h fly + C , c o s h flv + C j y s in h fly + C 4 y c o s h fly (5.46)
C o n s ta n ts C t , ( % . - - • a re d eterm in ed from the b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s of the solid

u n d e r c o n sid eratio n . T h e to ta l so lu tio n o f Eq. (5.34) th u s becom es
<1>(.\\ y) = (C , sinh fly + C 2 cosh fly 4- C 3 y sinh fly
, . mnx
+ C 4 y cosh fly) sin —— (5.47a) .
L /
y) = (T , sinh fly + C 2 cosh fly + C j.v sinh fly
mitx
+ C' 4 y cosh fly cos —— (5.41b)
T h e choicc o f the trig o n o m e tric function d ep en d s o n th e sy m m etry o f th e

loading. F o r instance, if th e lo ad in g is sym m etrical a b o u t th e ch o se n y axis o f th e
beam , as show n in Fig. 5.34a, then the cosine function m u st be used. F o r th e
beam o f Fig. 5.34ft, the sine function m ust be assum ed becau se o f the a n tisy m
m etry o f the lo ad in g a b o u t th e ch o sen y axis.
STRKSS ANALYSIS 131
PROBLEM S
5.1 Find ihc maximum tensile and maximum compressive stresses resulting from bending of the
beam shown in Fig. 1*5.1. Kim! the distribution of shear stresses over the cross section at the section
where the shear is a maximum, considering points in the cross section at vertical intervals of 1 in.
1 in
T
3 in
£Z z j ;
~T
3 in
3 in
5.2 Find the maximum *hcar and bending stresses in the beam cross section shown in Fig. P5.2 if the
shear V is 10,000 lb and the bending moment M is 400,000 in - lb. Both angles have the same cross
section. Assume the web to be cITective in resisting bending stresses.
JL
0 .5 in
T / - 0 . 15 in4
10 in A = 0 .S in2
-0.051 in
Figure P5.2
5.3 Find the shear stress anil the sliear-flow distribution over the cross section of the beam shown in
Fig. P5..1. Assume the tveb to be ineffective in resisting bending and the stringer areas to be con
centrated at points.
1.0 in2
f\
— r
10 m1
\
Sin
\ 0 . 0 4 0 in
\
2.0 in2
10,000 Ib Figure P5-3

5.4 Each o r the live upper stringers has an area or 0.4 in2, and each or the five lower stringers has an
area of 0.8 in2. Find the shear nows in all IIn- webs if the verticil) shearing force is 12,000 Ib.
~T
2 in
’ (>in
1 in
t Figure P5.4
£L5/Each o f the six stringers of the cross section shown in Fig. P5.5 and P5.6 has an area of 0.5 in2.
Fnul the shear Dows in all webs and the location of the shear center for a vertical shearing force of
^10,000 Ib.
Find ,hc shear n° ws in aI1 wchs in FiS- anci for a horizontal shearing force of 3000 Ib.
Each stringer has an area of 0.5 in2.
Figure P5.5 and P5.6
^ .7 \lrind a general expression for the shear-dow distribution around the circular tube shown in Fig.
P5.7. Assume the wall thickness I lo he small compared with the radius R.
STRESS ANALYSIS 1 33
5.8 Use P.qs. (5.17) and (5.18) lo find the shear flow in the webs of the tw o-stringer beams shown in
Fig. P5.8 under the action of a vertical shear Vr . <
Figure P5.8
5.9 Find the shear-flow distribution for Ihe section shown in Fig. PS.9.
1 in
Figure P5.9
5.10 Find the shear (lows in Ihe webs of the box beam shown in Fig. P5.10 if the area is symmetrical
about a horizontal centerline. •
Figure P5.10
5.11 Find the shear Hows in the webs of the beam shown in Fig. P5.U and P5.12. All stringers have
areas of 1.0 in2.
5.12 Assume that the Iwo right-hand stringers in Fig. P 5 .ll and P5.12 have areas of 3.0inJ and the
other stringers have areas of 1.0 in2. Kind the shear flows in the webs by two methods.
Figure 5.11 and P5.I2
5.13 Find the shear (lows in ail webs if the two right-hand stringers shown in Fig. P5.I3 have areas of
1.5 in2 and the other stringers have areas of 0.5 in2.
5.14 Find the shear-flow distribution in all webs shown in Fig. P5.14. Ml parts of the cross section
resist bending stresses.
Figure P5.I4
5.15 Solve Fxample 5.8 if the beam depth varies from 5 in at the free end to 15 in at the support. (Sec
1-ig. P5.15.)
STRESS ANALYSIS 135
Figure P5.I5
5.16 Find Ihc shear flows for the cross section at x — 50 in. Consider only this one cross section, but
calculate the torsional moments by two methods.
(a) Select the torsional axis arbitrarily, and calculate the in-plane com ponents of the flange
loads.
(fc) Take moments about a torsional axis joining the centroids of the various cross sections.
5.17 Repeal Prob. 5.16 if there is an additional chordwise load of 6000 lb acting to the left at the
center of the tip cross section.
5.18 A cantilever beam 30 in long carries a vertical load of 1000 lb at the free end. The cross section
is rectangular and is 6 by 1 in. Find the maximum bending stress and the location of the neutral axis
if (d) the 6-in side is vertical, (b) the 6-in side is tilted 5° from the vertical, and (c) the 6-in side is tilted
10° from the vertical.
5-19 A horizontal beam with a square cross section resists vertical loads. Find the angle of the
neutral axis with the horizontal if one side of the beam makes an angle 0 with the horizontal. At what
angle should the beam be placed for the bending stress lo have a minimum value?
5.20 Find the bending stresses and stringer loads for the box beam whose cross section is shown in
Fig. P5.20 if M . = 100,000 and M y = -40,000 in - lb. Assume the areas of the stringer members are
as follows:
(d) a= h = r = // = 2 in 2
(b) a= b= 1 in2. c = <1 - 1 in'
(r) a= </ - 3 in2 b = <■— 1 in"
(<•/) a= c= 3 in2. h — tl - 1 in
(c) a= c= 1 in 2. b = d = 3 in
Figure P5.20
5.21 A beam with the cross section shown in Fig. P5.21 resists a bending m om ent A/. - 100 in • lb.
Calculate the bending stresses a t points A, U, and C.
Figure P5.2I
5.22 The box beam shown in Fig. P5.22 resists bending moments o f A/. = 1,000,000 and A/v =
120.(100 in * Ib. Find Ihe bending stress in each stringer member. Assume th at the webs are ineffective
in bending and the areas and coordinates of the stringers are as follows:
No. Area, in2 2, in j'. in •I
1 1.8 2.62 8.3

2 0.4 - 10.81 9.12
3 0.8 -2 4 .7 0 9.75
4 2.3 -2 4 .7 0 - 1 .3 '"v.
5 1.0 2.62 - 1 .2 V
5.23 Find the shear flows at the cross section shown in Fig. P5.23 and P5.24 for x = 50 in. Consider
only Ihe one cross scction, and calculate the in-plane com ponents of the stringer loads.
Figure 1*5.23 and P5.24

STRESS ANALYSIS 137
5.24 Repeal Prob. 5.23. using the differences in stringer loads shown in Fig. P5.23 and P5.24 at the
cross scction for x -= 40 and a* — 60 in.
5.25 Calculate the shear Hows in the webs of the cross section shown in Fig, P5.25 and P5.26 at
x — 50 in. Assume the flange areas as follows:
(r/) a - b — 3 in2, r </ - 1 in2

(/>) u « c - I in ’, h - </ 3 in"
(r) a — r — 3 m 2, h - il ~ 1 in2
Consider only the one cross section, and calculate the in-plane com ponents of the flange loads.
5.26 Repeal Prob. 5.25, using the dilfcrences in flange loads at the cross section shown in Fig. P5.25
and P5.26 for .v —40 anti 60 in. Use a torsional axis joining the centroids of the cross sections.
a h
d f Figure P5.25 and P5.26
5.27 Find the shear Hows at station 100 of ihe fuselage shown in Fig. P5.27. Assume all stringer areas
to be I in2.
Figure P5.27
5.28 Using Ihe Airy stress function, find the stresses in the beams shown in Fig. P5.2X.
’<) Ib/in
4
~ T ■ r r r r <
\
------------ --- - - - - - -
\
\
K
^ ^ 4 ii
-«---------------------IllO in---------------------- H -•----------------------100 in -----------------------
5.29 A circular, thin plate is under the action of uniformly distributed pressure applied around the
outer edge. Kind the stresses, using the Airy stress function. Assume the plate thickness is equal to I.
(See Fig. P5.29.)
CHA PTER
SIX
DEFLECTION ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
T he m ost im p o rta n t ap p licatio n s o f th e m e th o d s for c alc u la tin g d isp lacem en ts

(deflections) a re in th e analysis o f re d u n d a n t (in d eterm in ate) stru c tu ra l system s, a s
is d e m o n stra te d h ere a n d in late r ch ap ters.
T h e deflections o f m ost engineering stru c tu re s a re sm all a n d very seldom a re
used as a n im p o rta n t design criterion. H o w ev er, the relativ e rigidity o f v a rio u s
elem ents in re d u n d a n t stru c tu ra l system s affects the stress d istrib u tio n in th e
stru c tu re ; therefore, it is ncccssnry to c o n sid e r th e d e fo rm a tio n s in the an aly sis o f
such stru c tu ra l system s.
T h e m eth o d s o f dcflcction analyses p resen ted in this c h a p te r are C astig lian o ’s
m eth o d , the R ayleigh -R itz m ethod, a n d th e finite difference m eth o d . T h e finite-
elem ent m e th o d is p resen ted in a se p a ra te c h a p te r. A lso presented here is th e
u n it-lo ad m e th o d fo r th e analysis o f sim ple re d u n d a n t stru c tu res. T h e en e rg y
m eth o d s treated arc derived in a c co rd an c e w ith the p rin cip les o f virtu al a n d
co m p lem en tary v irtu a l w o rk asso ciated w ith v irtu a l disp lacem en ts and v irtu a l
forces, respectively. W e assum e sm all s tra in s a n d c o rre sp o n d in g sm all d isp la c e
m ents in all the d ev elo p m en ts o f this c h a p te r. In a d d itio n , th e m aterial is a ssu m ed
perfectly clastic.
139
1 4 0 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
6.2 WORK AND COMPLEMENTARY WORK: STRAIN AND

COMPLEMENTARY STRAIN ENERGIES
C o n sid er a stru c tu re to b e ac te d o n by a set o f g eneralized forces Q,{i = 1,

2 . . . . , « ) w hich resu lt in a co rre sp o n d in g set o f generalized d isp lacem en ts = 1,
2 . . . . , n). T h e force-d isp lacem en t re latio n sh ip fo r a ty p ical force Q„ a n d its c o rre
sp o n d in g d isp lacem en t q„ a re sh o w n g rap h ically in Fig. 6.1a. T h e area u n d e r the
curve re p re se n ts th e w o rk W d o n e by force Q„ in m o v in g th ro u g h th e c o rre
sp o n d in g d isp lace m e n t qa . T h e a re a ab o v e th e curve is defined as th e comp
lementary w o rk W . F o r a sy stem w hich is in a sla te o f sta tic eq u ilib riu m , a n d if
h eat d issip a tio n is neglected, th e n b ased o n th e c o n se rv a tio n o f energy, it c a n be
stated th a t th e w o rk d o n e o n th e system is eq u al to th e s tra in energy sto re d in the
system , o r
W =U (6.1)
and W = U (6.2)
w here U a n d U are th e stra in energy a n d c o m p lem en tary stra in energy, resp ect
ively. F ig u re 6.1b show s a g ra p h ic a l re p re se n ta tio n o f these q u an tities.
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS AND

RELATED THEOREMS
In v aria tio n a l m echanics, a stru c tu ra l system is im agined to have g o n e th ro u g h a

set o f infinitesim al d isp lacem en ts co n sisten t w ith the c o n stra in ts, w hen, in reality ,
no such d isp lacem en ts exist. T h ese fictitious m ovem ents o f th e stru c tu re are co m
m only referred to as th e virtual displacements, an d th e c o rre sp o n d in g w o rk is
called the virtual work.
C o n sid e r th a t a stru c tu re is given a sm all v ariatio n in v irtu al d isp lacem en t
5q„, as sh o w n in Fig. 6.1. T h is induces a v aria tio n in v irtu a l w o rk 5 W a n d a
Figure 6.1 la) w o rk and co m p lem en tary w o rk : (M strain an d com plem entary strain energies.
n i'iF t.i-rn o N a n a l y s is o f s t r u c t u r a l sy ste m s 141
co rre sp o n d in g v aria tio n in strain energy 5 U , as in d ic a te d by th e vertical strip s in

Fig. 6.1. If we assum e th a t th e e x tern al ap p lied forces {Q} an d the in d u ced
in tern al stresses {£} rem ain c o n sta n t d u rin g th e v irtu a l disp lacem en ts, th e n the
changes in v irtu al w o rk a n d v irtu al stra in en erg y c a n b e o b ta in e d readily fro m
Fig. 6 .) a nd are given by
A W = 6 W = Q„ 5q„ (6.3)
A t/* = S U * = aSe (6-4)

w here <5 d e n o tes th e first v ariatio n , a n d it o p e ra te s in th e sa m e m a n n e r as the
differential o p e ra to r d , a n d SU * is th e v a ria tio n in s tra in e n erg y per u n it v o lu m e
(energy density), i.e..
SU = SU * d V (volum e in teg ral) (6.5)
If the v a ria tio n s in S W a n d S U a re c o n sid ere d for th e v a ria tio n of all d isp lace
m en ts </,■(i = 1 , 2 , . . . , n) co n sisten t w ith th e c o n strain ts, th e n
< W = I Q iSq, (6.6)

i—1
or, in m atrix co m p a c t form , F.q. (6 .6 ) becom es
S W = lS q ] { Q } (6.7)
w here the sym bo ls | J a n d [ j in d icate ro w a n d co lu m n m atrices, respectively.

Likew ise, th e c o rre sp o n d in g v a ria tio n in s tra in energy d e n sity can be expressed
as
5 U * = L<5£J{£} ( 6 .8 )
w here th e strain an d stress Helds, in g en eral, a re given by
l S E \ = S [ e xx e yy e z. e (6.9)
and
(6 .10)
-'E1- =
T h e principle o f virtu al d isp lacem en ts states th a t an elastic deform able stru c

tu ral system is in a sla te o f equ ilib riu m if th e v irtu al w o rk S W d o n e by forces {Q}
is eq u al to the virtu al stra in energy S U for every a rb itra ry v irtu al disp lacem en t
co n sisten t w ith the co n stra in ts o f the stru c tu re . M a th e m a tic a lly , this prin cip le is
expressed as
( 6 .1 1 )
L S q liQ ) = L<5EJ{2} d V (6. 12)
w here the ex tern al ap p lied forces {Q} a n d th e in tern al stresses {E} are assu m ed
to be in e q u ilib riu m a n d th e c o o rd in a te d isp lacem en ts {<5c/} a n d the stra in s {<5£}
satisfy the c o m p a tib ility c o n d itio n
{SE} = (6.13)
S u b stitu tin g Eq. (6.13) in to Eq. (6.12) yields
M G } M * ] T{£} d v (6.14)
or, in ex p an d ed form ,
Q i'
Qz
['k t S q 2 - - - S q r - ■ 5q„] Sq 2 ■■■ Sq, ■■■<5<j„]
Qi
LG.J
Ah ;.i2 *13 ' • X
* 2, *22 * 2 3 ' ■X < ^2
X *3, *32 *33 • ■ X dV (6.15)
4 , *62 *63 ■*
w here the su p e rsc rip t T d en o te s m atrix tra n sp o se (i.e., ro w s a n d co rresp o n d in g

c o lu m n s are exchanged).
If every v irtu a l d isp lacem en t 5qr [(r = 1, 2, . . . n), r # f] is set eq u a l to zero
w ith th e /th d isp la c em en t <5qt allow ed to be a u n it d isp lacem en t, then it can be
seen easily from E q. (6.15) th a t Eq. (6.14) red u ces to
l)i.KU:CTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 143
Qi |A J{ £ } d V (6.16)
V
w here the row m atrix [/.,j is delined by Eq. (6.13), w hich u n d e r th e co n d itio n
fO for r ^ i
K = (, for r = i
bccom cs
LA,j = |5EJ (6.17)
E q u atio n (6.16) dcscribcs w hat is c o m m o n ly referred to as th e unit-displacement

method. See A rgyris an d K elsey2-’ for m o re d etailed in fo rm a tio n o n th is theorem .
F o r conservative stru c tu ra l system s, Eq. (6.11) m ay be ex p ressed in the form
S(U + P) = 5 V = 0 (6.18)
w here c5i' is the first v a ria tio n o r the to ta l p o te n tia l energy a n d

n
&\V = - S P = £ Q ,H
fa 1
E q u a tio n (6.18) is th e prin cip le of s ta tio n a ry to ta l p o te n tia l a n d m ay be sh o w n
readily to be equivalent to sta tin g th a t
- - = () (/ = 1, 2, ..., n) (6.19)
w hich is the basis of the R aylcigh-R itz m e th o d in stru c tu ra l analysis.

A n o th e r theorem th a t is based on th e prin cip le o f v irtu a l d isp lacem en ts is
C astig lian o ’s first th eo rem .
F ro m Eqs. (6.3) a n d (6.11).
W = \te M ) (6 -2 0 )
By n o tin g th a t ?>V is a fu n ctio n o f th e c o o rd in a te g en eralized * d isp lacem en ts
[ (>y. (i = | , 2 ........ /i)] a n d using th e T a y lo r series e x p an sio n , E q. (6.20) becom es
" PU . I ” " 5 2 l/
dL, = ^ ()q + - £ £ — — Sqt Sqj +■■■
i i <’<h 2 ,-e, d q jq j
or. in m atrix form ,
w = l> /J { ^ 1 + + ••• (6 .2 1 )
w here the sum bol P ilcn o tcs p artial d ifferen tiatio n a n d th e m a trix [S ] is a stiffness
m atrix w hose elem ents a re defined by
S ,t = ~ Pcjj ( / , ; = 1 , 2 , . . . , «) (6.22)
Pq,
If only first-o rd er v a ria tio n in 3q is retain ed in E q. (6.21), th e n from Eq. (6.20),
or
Since [<■%] a re in d ep en d e n t d isplacem ents,
or
(6.23)
F o r / = r, E q. (6.23) sta te s th a t
(6.24) -
E q u a tio n (6.24) is C a stig lian o ’s first theorem .
6.4 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES AND

RELATED THEOREMS
T h e treatm en t o f v irtu a l forces in v ariatio n al m ech a n ics is a n a lo g o u s to th a t of

the v irtu al disp lacem e n ts p resen ted in Sec. 6.3. T h u s, from F ig. 6.1 it can be seen
easily th a t for a given sm all v a ria tio n in v irtu al force SQ„, c o n siste n t w ith the
sta tic eq u ilib riu m c o n d itio n s, th e c o rre sp o n d in g v a ria tio n s in c o m p lem en tary
v irtu al w o rk a n d c o m p le m e n ta ry virtu al stra in e n erg y d en sity a re
A W = 5 W = q„ 5Q„ (6,25)
and
A U * = <W* = e Scr (6.26)
w here
5U = cW* (IV (v o lu m e integral) (6.27)

V
If we co n sid er the v a ria tio n s in 5 W a n d <51/ fo r the v a ria tio n o f all forces
Qi (i = 1 , 2 , . . . , n), E qs. (6.25) a n d (6.26) b ecom e
sw = im W s (6.28)
DEFLECTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 145
an d
6V - L<52|{£} d V (6.29)
T h e principle o f v irtu al forces 2 4 (p rin cip le o f v irtu a l w o rk ) d icta te s th a t an

elastic stru c tu ra l system is in a c o m p a tib le sta te o f d e fo rm atio n if for every
a rb itra ry v irtu al force SQ, the co m p le m e n ta ry v irtu a l w o rk is eq u al to th e c o m
p lem en tary strain energy consistent w ith sta tic c o n d itio n s o f equilib riu m . M a th
em atically, the p rincip le m ay be expressed as
S W = 5U (6.30)
or
- J L « :j{ £ } d y (6.31)
w here the d isp lacem en ts {</] an d the c o rre sp o n d in g stra in s {£} a re co m p atib le
and the virtual forces \^ Q ) an d c o rre sp o n d in g stresses {<5£} satisfy the eq u ilib
rium c o n d itio n
[<5 Z} = []{«5e} (6.32)

S u b stitu tin g Fq. (6.3?) in to Hq. (6.31) yields
- * Q K <tqT{ E } d V (6.33)
In F.q. (6.33). if every virtual forcc SQr '(r = 1, 2, n), r =£ i] is set equal to
zero w ith the ;'th force SQ, given a u n it value, th e n th e e q u a tio n becom es
<■.l i = Ld>;J{E} d V (6.34)
w here the row m atrix |’| is defined by Eq. (6.32), w hich u n d e r th e co n d itio n
( 0 for r # /
S Q .-
= •° ?
1 1 for r = i
becom es
Ld>iJ = [ < 5 S J ( 6 .3 5 )
E q u atio n (6 .3 4 ) is referred to by A rgyris a n d K elsey as th e unit-load-method.

T h e principle o f sta tio n a ry total c o m p le m e n ta ry p o te n tia l m ay be d educed
from liq. ( 6 .1 8 ) an d is given by
i){p f U) = d V = 0 ( 6 .3 6 )
w here
ft
fiW = -8 P = I q ,5 Q , ( 6 .3 7 )
i= 1
E q u atio n (6.36) m a y be sh o w n to be eq u iv alen t to
dV
— = 0 i = 1, 2 , n (6.38)
<Q,
w hich represents th e c o m p a tib ility co n d itio n s a t all c o o rd in a te s i.

If we c o n sid er E q. (6.30), from Eq. (6.28) th e c o m p le m e n ta ry strain energy can
be expressed as
SO ^lS Q Jiq } (6.39)

E x p an d in g Eq. (6.39) in a T a y lo r series yields
" flU 1 " " r)2U
o r, in m atrix form ,
S U = L<^J { “ } + i L 8 < n m { * Q } + ■■■ (6.40)
w here the m atrix [ a ] is th e flexibility m atrix w hose coefficients a re defined by
If only first-o rd er v a ria tio n in SQ is retain ed in E q. (6.40), th e n from Eq. (6.39)
im u i) = m i
or
L < 5 e j(M -{ ^ } ) = 0 (6.42)
Since L<^(2J a re in d e p e n d e n t a rb itra ry forces, fo r Eq. (6.42) to be satisfied, th e

follow ing m ust h o ld tru e :
or
F o r i - r, Eq. (6.43) is eq u iv alen t to
?U
,
4 = -^ r
OQr
(644)
w hich is the scco n d th eo rem o f C astigliano.

DI-I LKCTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 147
6.5 LINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS10
F o r stru c tu ra l system s w hose b ehavior is lin early elastic, a s sh o w n in Fig. 6.2, th e

w ork d o n e on the system is equal to the c o m p le m e n ta ry w o rk ; likewise, th e strain
energy sto red is eq u a l to the co m p lem en tary s tra in energy. A s can be seen easily
from Fig. 6.2, the expressions for the w ork an d stra in energy a n d th eir c o u n te r
parts are
»' = iy = \iQ, Qz ••• GJ (6.45)
or. in com pact m atrix form ,
W — W —M M (6.45a)
and
G xx
°yy
a„
U = U = - dV (6.46)
2
or, in co m p act m atrix form ,
U — U = \- iA im d v (6.46a)
w here Q,- (i — 1 , 2 , . . . , n) a re the external ap p lie d lo a d s a n d qt (i = 1, 2 , . . . , n) ar e
H iinrc 6.2 I ine.ir clastic behavior.

148 A1RCRAIT STRUCTURES
the co rre sp o n d in g n o d al co o rd in a te d isp lacem en ts; the m atrices [A'J an d {£} are
the strain an d stress fields, respectively.
By u tilizatio n o f H o o k e ’s law , Eq. (6.46) m a y b e expressed in term s o f stresses
o r strain s a lo n e a s follow s:
U = U =4 L Z JiX K E } d V (6.47)
or
U = V =4 L E J [0 ]{ £ } d V (6.48)
T h e m atrices [/V ] an d [ 0 ] a re defined by
—V I sy m m etric
—V —v 1
[N] = - (6.49)
0 0 0 2 (1 + v)
0 0 0 0 2 (1 + v)
0 0 0 0 0 2 (1 + v) _
an d
1- V
V 1 - V sym m etry
[© ] = t, V V 1 - V
(6.50)
0 0 0 (1 - 2 v) / 2
0 0 0 0 (1 - 2 v )/2
0 0 0 0 0 ( 1 — 2 v) / 2
w here i] = E( 1 + vX 1 — 2v)
E = elastic m o d u lu s o f elasticity
v = P o isso n ’s ra tio
In stru c tu ra l system s w hich are c o n stru cte d from an assem blage o f b a r el
em ents, it is m o re co n v en ien t to express th e stra in energy in term s o f the elem ent
in tern al loads a n d then sum the c o n trib u tio n s o f each e lem en t to th e to tal stfa in
energy o f th e system .
T o derive th e stra in energy expression, co n sid e r a lin ear clastic b a r for w hich,
at any p o in t f a lo n g its length, the in tern a l lo a d s a re given by M .(0 , 7'({), K},(0,
an d Si0 , w here M . — b en d in g m o m en t a b o u t £ axis, T = to rq u e , Vy = sh ear force
in r d irection, a n d S = axial force. T h e n o rm a l stresses in d u ced in the b a r by the
internal force system m ay be o b ta in e d from C h ap . 5 and a re given as
<t. vo = n o rm al stress d u e to axial force = (a)

A(Q
axxb = n o rm a l stress d u e to b en d in g = ^ (b)

If wc assum e lh a l <rsx is th e o n ly n o n zero stress, th e n E q. (6.47) red u ces to
-*rdV to
U- - 2 . v E
w here U„ = stra in en erg y d u e to n o rm al stresses only.
S u b stitu tin g Eqs. (a) a n d (/>) in to Eq. (c) yields
S \Q M 2(Q
v . - y . . + u.> = 2
dV y 2 dV
E A 2(Q 2 E Jy E I 2Z(Q
s2(0
l J E A ‘i 0 i / “ K * 2 E ] C JA [J
b ut
1 d A — /1(C) = cro ss-sectio nal a re a
and i' 2 dA = /.(£) = m o m en t o f in ertia
T herefore,
u ■1 f s "(0 r , 1 f M -A 0 - (d)
U ° - 2 l F ^ Q d i + ~ 2j l, E ~
I z( Q
T h e stra in energy d u e (o tran sv erse sh e a r m ay be o b ta in e d by considering

Fig. 6.3. T h e averag e sh e a r stress actin g o n th e rig h t face o f th e b a r can be
expressed as
_ VJLQ _ VJLQ
(e)
^ AM) kA (Q
w here A s(Q is th e effective sh e ar area, /1(C) is th e a c tu a l b a r cro ss-sectio n al area,
and k is the sh ear-fo rm fac to r w hich ac co u n ts fo r the s h e a r stress d istrib u tio n
across the b a r d epth.
F ro m H o o k e ’s law,
if)
U tilizing (p), Eq. ( / ) becom es

VJLQ
to)
e* GkA(r)
-<X - Figure 6.3

150 AIRCRAIT STRUCTURES
T he w o rk d o n e o n the d ifferential elem ent di' by the force ^.(Q is equal to the
stra in energy sto red , or,
d W = d U s = i Vy e.y dZ
_ 1 V r2(Q
dc
2 G kA(Q
T herefore,
(h)
GkA(C)
T he strain energ y due to a to rq u e T can be sh o w n to be given by
‘ T 2( 0
u, = - dC (0
GJ
w here J = to rsio n a l c o n stan t.
T hus, for a stru c tu ra l system w hich is m ad e o f m stru c tu ra l b ar elem ents, the
strain energy expressio n m ay be w ritten as
t 2(q
+ ■ dC (6.51)
EA(Q £ 1 (0 kGA(C) GJ(Q
w here m = to ta l n u m b er o f elem ents in stru c tu re
S = axial in te rn al load
M = in te rn al b en d in g m o m en t
V — in te rn a l tran sv erse sh ear
T = in te rn a l to rq u e
A E , E l, AG. G J = ex ten sio n al, bending, sh e a r a n d to rsio n al rigidity, respectively
A, /, ,/ = cro ss-sectio n al area , m o m e n t o f inertia, a n d torsio n al
c o n sta n t, respectively
O' = sh e a r m o d u lu s
k = sh ear-fo rm facto r w hich ac c o u n ts for d is trib u tio n o f sh earin g
stresses acro ss b a r d ep th (for w ide flange sections, t s l ,
w hile for recta n g u la r sections, k ^ 0.833)
£ = generalized c o o rd in a te axis J
6 .6C A S T I G L I A INO ’S S E C O N D T H E O R E M IN D E F L E C T I O N
A N A L Y S IS O F S T R U C T U R E S
F o r linear elastic stru c tu ra l system s, the seco n d theorem o f C astig lian o m ay be

w ritten as
9, = ^ - {V = V) (*-52)
<~Qr
T his e q u atio n states th a t th e disp lacem en t q a t an y p o in t r o n the stru c tu re and

DHl-'LliCTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTliMS 151
in anv direction is eq u al lo Ihc firsl p artia l d eriv a tiv e o f th e to ta l strain energy

w ith respect to a c o rre sp o n d in g force Q a t r a n d in the sam e d ire c tio n as q. T h e
follow ing exam ples illu strate a p p licatio n s o f th is w idely used theorem in the
dcflection analysis o f stru ctu res.
E xam ple 6.1 F in d the vertical deflection of p o in t 3 on th e stru c tu re show n in

the ligure. A ssum e all m em bers to be the sam e m ate rial a n d to have the sam e
cross-sectional pro p ertie s. P o in ts 2, 3, a n d 4 a re pinned.
S o lu tio n T h e to tal stra in energy sto red in th e stru c tu re is
U = I/, + U 2 + U 3
w here L/,, f ; , an d £/., are the stra in energies in m em b e rs 1, 2, and 3,

respectively. By n o tin g th at m em bers 2 a n d 3 a re axial ro d elem ents, th eir
strain energies m ay be expressed as
v , = 2-
AE
L’,
AE
w here the c o o rd in a te ,v;; d en o tes the ax is being tak en a lo n g the direction
from i to j. F o r clem ent 1, there exist in te rn a l lo ad s in th e form o f bending,
shear, and axial loads. T herefore the stra in energy ex p re ssio n for this elem ent
is
U, -
, 4 i ; AVi' + 2 J. E l ix " + 2 . AG 2
T h e in tern al lo ad s in each elem ent m ay be fo u n d from sta tic s and are given
by
s ,=
V5
2Fy
Sj = •
Fr
S,
\T *
M i = F y x 2l
K = F y
M ak in g th e a p p ro p ria te su b stitu tio n s yields
1 /'I C2L 4 f 2L 1 f'-

F>2 ^ ‘ + 3j0 ^ ^ + 3 ^ ^
21. 1
F yx 2 , d1x 2 1 + 1 F l d x 2i
2E l 2AG .
or
rr f n L 41} L \
C/ = ( — + — + — If 2
kG A E 3EI agj y
By using C astig lian o ’s th eo rem , Eq. (6.52) yields
t dU (U L 8 L3 2L\
* ~ PFy ~ \ 3 / ( £ + 3 E l + A G J
If sh e a r d e fo rm a tio n is neglected, then th e deflection becom es
(\\L 8 L3N\
‘ y ~ \ 3 A E + 3 E l) * /
E xam ple 6.2 F in d th e slo p e a n d vertical deflcction a t the tip o f (he can tile-
vcrcd beam show n in th e figure. N eglect s h e a r d efo rm atio n .
it A.I.E
S o l u t i o n R ecall th a t in o rd e r to find a p a rtic u la r c o o rd in a te displacem ent

by using C a stig lia n o ’s seco n d th eo rem , th e re m u s t exist a c o rresp o n d in g
force a t th e p o in t w h ere th e d isp lacem en t is so u g h t a n d in th e d irectio n o f the
displacem en t. H ence, in o rd e r to find th e slo p e a t th e tip o f th e cantilevered
beam show n in the figure, a fictitious m o m e n t m u s t be ap p lied a t th a t poin t,
as show n. A fter the slo p e is found, this m o m e n t is se t eq u al to zero, w hich

im plies its nonexistcn ce o n the original stru c tu re.
T h e stra in energy ex pression for th is case is
*L
1 r M >(, ) 1
d x -f* ^ dx
2 ,* El J
^ o E l 12 ^ •0
F ro m the sketch abov e.
M , 2 = A4 23 = M 0 + Fy x
T herefore
U
2 FA
(M 0 + F yx ) 2 d x +
i;
| (W o + F y x) dx
3
M lL +
4El
-Using Eq. (6.52) yields
du I 2H
8Fy a/ 0 = o 2El
8U _ 3 F VL2
slo p e = 0 =
d M 0 Mo —0 4E l
E xam ple 6.3 F in d th e h o rizo n ta l m o tio n o f th e rig h t s u p p o rt o f the sem i

circular arch show n in th e figure (p. 154). A ssum e b en d in g d e fo rm atio n s only,
and assum e E l to b e c o n sta n t.
S o lu tio nIn o rd e r to find the h o rizo n ta l m o tio n a t 1, a fictitious h o riz o n tal

forcc m u st be ap p lied a t th a t p o in t, as sh o w n in the figure. T he finding
m o m en t can be easily calcu latcd a n d is given by
P it
M l2 = R( 1 — cos 0) — + (R sin 0)FX 0 < 0 <-
M 32 = M , 2
T h erefo re the stra in energy is
it/2
U - 2| i M \ ZR dO
El \2 E I
r* n
R( 1 — cos 0) — + FX R sin 0 R dO
El
U sing C a stig lia n o ’s sccond theorem yields
clU 2 *jin
R( 1 - co s 0) — R 2 sinl) dO
F x - 0 M . 0
or
PR3
2E l
E xam ple 6.4 Find Ihc vertical dcflection a t 1 an d th e a n g u la r tw ist at 2 o f the

stru c tu re show n in (lie figure. Neglect s h e a r d efo rm atio n .
S o lu tio n T h e stra in energy stored in th e s tru c tu re is
m i, , j ft
1 M il , , 1
U = dx
~~e T 2 o + 5 CJ
w here M l2 = F r
M 23 F ,x
T23 = T,- + 7 ^ 1 - - ) + * L F
Tf — fictitio u s torq u e ap p lie d a t 2

i. dM 12
■' PFy El (IF.
M il P M 23 T23 8 T 23
+ dx + dx
El ()F„ C J (IF,
and
M l2 0 M l2
dz
El dTF
■V/ 2 3 f l M 2 ’*• T23 3 T 23

+ dx +
El dTF 0 G J dT F
T h e p artia ls in th e ab o v e eq u a tio n s m a y b e easily calculatcd a n d a rc

given by
dM11_ dM,3 _ DT13

SFs ' SF, X DFy
<>m 12 _ d M 23 _ a r23 _
(!Tr dTF dTF
S u b stitu tin g in th e integ rals a n d c a rry in g o u t th e in te g ra tio n s yield
olL 2T0
+ 0 . , , +!
6.7 RAYLEIGIf-RITZ METHOD IN DEFLECTION

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
T h e R ayleigh-R itz m eth o d o f o b ta in in g d isp la c em en ts o f conservative clastic

s tru c tu ra l system s is b ased o n the principle o f co n se rv atio n o f energy, as sh o w n
previously. T he m eth o d assum es th at a d eflection sh ap e o f th e stru c tu re is k now n
a n d m ay be tak en as
N
9 = I A®. (6.53)
n I
w here q is the generalized c o o rd in a te d isp lacem en t, /?„ a re u n d eterm in ed c o n sta n t
p a ra m e te rs a n d a re ch o sen such th a t th e to ta l p o ten tia l in th e system becom es
m inim um , an d <!>„ a re a chosen set o f fu n c tio n s w hich m u st satisfy o n ly th e
d isp lacem en t b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s of th e s tru c tu re a t h a n d .
T h e u n d eterm in ed c o n sta n ts j8 „ a re o b ta in e d by so lu tio n o f a set o f sim ul
ta n eo u s lin ear alg eb raic e q u a tio n s w hich resu lt w hen th e prin cip le of minim.um
po ten tial is applied in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e assu m ed deflection shape givefi by
Eq. (6.53). T h e m eth o d is best explained by co n sid e rin g th e follow ing exam ples.
E xam ple 6.5 U sing th e R ayleigh-R itz m eth o d , find th e d eflection of the sim ple
beam show n below. C o n sid e r b ending d e fo rm a tio n only.
S o l u t i o n T h e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s o f th e b e a m a re
D eflection = <w(0) = co(L) = 0
do)
B ending m o m cn l = M (0) = M ( L ) = 0 = E l (6.5.4)
dx2
T herefore, if „ in F.q. (6.53) is tak en as sin ( t i k x / L ) , w h ere n is a n integer, th en it is

obvious th a t b o th sets o f b o u n d a ry co n d itio n s a re satisfied. H ence, the a p p ro p ri
ate dcflcctcd sh ap e o f th e beam m ay be ta k e n as
« { * ) = E ft. sin («)
T h e principle o f m in im u m to ta l p o ten tial sta te s th a t
d
(U + P) = 0 (*>
Wn
w here
ic)
^ = 2
and
- W = - P 0(x ) oj( x ) d x
T h e b en d in g m o m en t m ay be expressed in te rm s of co as fo llo w s:
d co tN
—, if nini'
n \i 2 „ ,
sin L
By m ak in g the a p p ro p ria te su b stitu tio n s, E qs. (c) a n d (d) b e c o m e , respectively,
El V „ . nnx
U
j P -sm — dx ie)
and
P = -
U TT n ■ n7ZX if)
P0 L Pn sm — dx
) n=l t-
P erform ing th e in teg ra tio n s yields
{(/)
and P = - — E - (n = l , 3, 5 , . . . ) W
7t n
F ro m Eq. (b)
— P )- -on -- —
+ n
t p Wi l l + L a " fr l . - 2-L
T h e deflection from E q. (a) becom es
^ i . nn x
0 /= 71 £■' n = I, ^3. 5 , ... ift? s m ~Lr u)
T h e convergence o f the a b o v e series is very ra p id , an d in m o st cases few term s are

needed to o b ta in sufficient a cc u ra cy for the deflection. F o r exam ple, if o n ly the
first term in the series is co n sid ered , th e m ax im u m deflection will be 0.0131
/ ’„ Z.4 /(/-7), as co m p a re d to the exact value o f 0 .0 1 3 0 ^ L*7(E/).
6 .8F IN IT E D IF F E R E N C E M E T H O D IN D E F L E C T IO N
A N A L Y S IS O F S T R U C T U R E S
C loscd-form so lu tio n s o f differentia! eq u a tio n s rep resen tin g the d efo rm atio n s o f
stru c tu ra l system s a re n o t alw ay s possible. T h erefo re, th e ap p licatio n o f som e
a p p ro x im a te n u m erical m e th o d s is n o t on ly perm issible b u t, in m any instances,
desirable. T h e m o st co m m o n ly used is th e m e th o d o f finite differences. T he
m eth o d a p p ro x im a te s differen tials by finite d ifferences; as a result, it tra n sfo rm s a
set o f differential e q u a tio n s to a set o f sim u lta n e o u s a lg eb raic eq u atio n s, w hich
th e n can be solved easily.
T h e fu n d am en ta l re la tio n s o f finite differences m ay be established by co n
sid ering the existence o f a real, c o n tin u o u s sim ple function
0> = f ( x ) (6.55)
F ig u re 6.4 sh o w s a g ra p h ica l re p re se n ta tio n o f th e fu n ctio n a t e q u id ista n t vajues

o f A x.
T he first d eriv a tiv e o f ■!> for sm all values of A.v at som e p o in t i m ay be
cM>
■■T1 (6.56)
dx Ax
w here A<1>, c a n b e fo u n d by co n sid e rin g c ith e r p o in ts i a n d i -i- 1 o r i an d i — 1:
a <l\-, , - CD,- (6.57)
or
A 4 f* * ; (6.58)
T h e difference A<1>1/ ’ rep re se n ts (he first fo rw ard difference a p p ro x im a tio n , w hile

A<hjM rep resen ts the first b a ck w a rd difference a p p ro x im a tio n . T h e m ean value of
IJEFLKCriON ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 159
Figure 6.4 One-dimensional fmite-

difference approximation.
these tw o extrem es m ay be expressed as
Ad)!/'
,w ~ ----- + A4>f >
1------------'—
Atf>j‘
or
'!>,+ , - ; (6.59)
AO;1'’
w here A<l>-r) is referred to as th c.first central difference approximation.

By u tilizin g E q. (6.59), Eq. (6.56) becom es
J
(6.60)
dx 2 Ax
E q u atio n (6.60) gives th e a p p ro x im a te first d eriv ativ e o f a t p o in t i in term s o f

ccn tral differences.
tM> <!>, + , - 2 0 ),- + 0 > ,- - 1
Jx2 (A.x)2
d 3<l> <1), f 2 — 2 (1), + 1 + 2 Q ,- t -j - 2

dx4 (A-x) 4
etc.
F o r a tw o -d im e n sio n a l function su ch as sh o w n in Fig. 6.5, th e p artial d eriv a
tives m ay be o b ta in e d as in the case o f o n e-d im en sio n al fu n c tio n :
<
2 <!> frm i.j fid)
dx 2 A-x dz 2 Az
5 20 f y + 1. J ~ - i . ,• d 20 _ . Q u + i - 2 0 ,.J +
d x 2 *. J (A x )2 dz2 u ~ m 2
d 3o ~ <t>e+^ J ~ Zf y +l . J + 2 0 , - j i — Q ,_ 2,
d x 3 *\i 2 (Ax ) 3
5 3<J>
~ ?-L J« - + 2® U -1 - * ,.J - 2
d z3 j 2 (Az ) 3 (6-62)
cj O • ~ ®i +2 . J ~ ^ I H . j + ~ 4 0 ,- 1 . i + 60; ,-
(Ax ) 4
5 40 f^)f. J + 2 ~~ 4(î. j +1 + ^ i . i +1 ~ j 4- 60/,y
az* *<j (Az)4
^ 2o
~ (^>‘+ l . i + t ~ *î- t . l - n ~ + ^ i- l.i- l
(?X d z 4 Ax Az
a 3o j+ t ~ I. 1 — 2<&i J+l + 2<fr; J _ | — <!>,•-I + q> ,_ , /+ 1
<V <•)>- «. j 2 (Ax ) 2 Az
a 3o O <+ 1. j + i — O j - i , / - i — 2 0 , + ] . j + 2Q,_, j — <!>,_, J+l + <I)[W.| j , |
d x d y 2 «-7 2 Ax (Az)2
E xam ple 6 .6 U sing th e finite difference m e th o d , find the vertical deflection a t
Figure 6.5 T w o -d im en sio n al finite-dilTercnce ap p ro x im atio n .

ni-H .p.c t i o n a n a l y s is o f s t r u c t u r a l systf .m s 161
m id sp an a n d th e slo p e a t th e left s u p p o r t (see th e figure). A ssum e El = c o n

stan t.
S o l u t io n In o rd e r to use the finite difference m e th o d in stru c tu ra l analysis,

the follow ing step s m u st be ta k e n :
1. F o rm u la te all th e g o v ern in g differen tial e q u a tio n s w h ich describe th e b e

h av io r o f the stru c tu re .
2. E xpress th e g o v e rn in g differential e q u a tio n s a n d th e e q u a tio n s w hich d e
scribe th e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s in te rm s o f finite differences.
3. O b ta in a set o f sim u ltan eo u s alg e b ra ic eq u a tio n s b y satisfying th e re
su ltin g finite difference e q u a tio n s in ste p 2 a t finite d iscrete p o in ts o n th e
stru ctu re. T h is is eq u iv alen t to idealizin g th e stru c tu re to a finite n u m b e r
of elem ents c o n n e c ted a t d iscrete p o in ts.
4. Solve for the finite difference m eth o d s.
In this exam ple, th e go v ern in g differen tial e q u a tio n o f d efo rm atio n fo r a
sim ple beam s tru c tu re m ay be o b ta in e d from th e stre n g th o f th e m aterial a n d
is given by
w here ir = beam vertical dcflcction

E l = beam b en d in g rigidity;
p = d istrib u te d no rm al ap p lied lo ad
T he slope at an y p o in t a lo n g the b eam is

dw
0 b)
E xpressing E qs. (*/) an d {h) in term s o f finite differences yields
V)
an d
ib ’)
2 A.v
w here / = 1, 2, 3........N are p o in ts a lo n g th e beam sp an .

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
By ex am in in g Eq. (o'), it can b e co n clu d e d th a t o n ly a finite n u m b e r of

p o in ts m ay be satisfied if a feasible so lu tio n h a s to b e reached. T h u s, for
sim plicity, d iv id e (idealize) th e beam in to fo u r eq u al elem ents only, as show n
in the figure below .
*------ i / 4 ------►
p u l /4)
1
r Q x
- ------ i / 4 ------■+•------ L I 4 — i x------i / 4 ------ ► *------ i / 4 ----- ►-------i / 4 — 4 * -
N o te th a t the accu racy increases w ith an increase in the n u m b e r o f

elem ents ta k en . T h e fictitious ex tension o f th e beam b ey o n d its o u te r su p
p o rts is n ecessary a s can be seen from E q. (a'). T h e d isp lacem en ts o f p o in ts 0
and 6 a re assu m ed to be eq u al to th e n eg ativ e d isp la c em en ts o f points 2 a n d
4, respectively. F o r fixed su p p o rts, these d isp la ce m e n ts a re equal in sign an d
m ag n itu d e. See sk etch es (a) an d (h) below . Also n o te th a t the c o n cen trated
load P is assu m ed to be d istrib u te d u n ifo rm ly o v er h a lf the length o f each
elem ent o n b o th sides o f th e p o in t w h ere th e lo ad is co n cen trated . T h is is
necessary becau se th e lo ad function in Eq. (o') is a d istrib u te d load.
\
K
I~
(a) 0}
W ritin g Eq. (o') for p o in ts 2, 3, a n d 4 yields
u !4 — 41V-, + 6 u>2 — 4w j + w0 = 0
S
PL3
ws - 4 u ’4 + fiu -j - 4 u ’2 + iv , = — — (c)
64J57
>v„ — 4»v5 + 6 w4 — 4 w j + w 2 = 0
F ro m b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s a n d sy m m etry , the follow ing deflections are

know n:
H’| = Wj = 0 vv, = vv4
Also, for th e d e fo rm a tio n to be c o n tin u o u s o v e r th e su p p o rts,
iv„ = - - iv2 and iv,, = — iv4
N o te th a t th e first a n d the last e q u a tio n s in (r) a rc identical because o f

sy m m etry ; th erefore, by deleting o n e a n d utilizin g th e ab o v e co n d itio n , Eq.

(r) becom es
6 vv2 — 4w 3 = 0
PL*
-4 w , + 3w ,
128 E l
or, in m atrix form ,
6 -4 M)
PL3
-4 3
128 E l
Solving Eq. (</) fo r w 2 a n d w 3 yields
0.015 6 P L 3 0.0143 P U
VV■> — e x a c t:
2 FJ El
PL3 PL3\
e x a c t:
/ 42.7 El V 48 E l )
T he slo p e from Eq. (/>') is
IV2 — u' 0 vr, 0 .06 24 P L 2 0.0625P L 2

0> = e x act:
2 Ax Ax El El
E xam ple 6.7 U se th e finite difference a p p ro a c h to find th e m axim um b en d in g

m o m en ts a n d vertical deflection o n th e p la te stru c tu re show n. A ssum e th a t
th e p la te is sim p ly su p p o rte d a n d ac te d o n b y a u n ifo rm pressure p. A lso
assum e th a t th e p la te is o f uniform th ick n ess t.
25
T h e g o v e rn in g differential e q u a tio n o f a flat p la te is given by
d*w d4w d*w

d x ■* + 2 d x 1 By 2 + dy*
a,,* ~ D
n (“)
w here D = E l3/ £12(1 — v2)] an d v = P o isso n ’s ra tio . T h e b ending m o m en ts

arc given b y 2 5
~ f d 2w d2 w \
M
_zW + vl y J
/ 5 2vv d 2w \
F ro m Fq. (6.62), Hi), (a) m ay he easily expressed in term s o f finite differ

ences:
+ O itj_ 2
+ E w i - ! . j —i + F w i J_ t + E w !+k j _ 1
^ w i-2,j + + w i.j + B w n .i_ j+ A w n 2 'j = P
+ £ « ’i- i ,y + i + Fw /,J + i + E w i+ l' J+ j (c)
+ ^ Wi.j+2
w here A = -j-
H
^ + g2)
H
c = n*
u
2a 1
E - i r
4 a 2(l + a 2)
r = •
H
- = P (A x A y a ) 2
dh
A.x
“ “ Ay
H = 6 + 8 a2 + 6 * 4
As in th e beam ex am p le, for sim plicity, divide th e p la te into fo u r equal

p a rts alo n g the x a n d v axes, as sh o w n in th e figure. F ro m sym m etry, only
p o in ts 1, 2, 4, a n d 5 need to be considered. T h u s, w ritin g Rq. (c) for these
points yields
l)i:i l.liC I I()N ANAI.YSIS ()!•’ STRllCTllltAI. SYSTHMS 163
sy m m etry ; th erefo re, by deleting o n e a n d utilizin g th e ab o v e con ditio n , Eq.

(c) becom es
6 w2 — 4 w 3 = 0
PL
— 4 us + 3w3 =
128 E l
or, in m atrix form .

__ 0
6 -4 w2 (d)
- P I3
-4 3 L W 3_
128 E l
Solving E q. (r/) for w 2 a n d iv3 yields

0 .0 1 5 6 P L 3 0 .0 1 4 3 P L 3"'
, e x act:
M’I = E l ...... El ,
PL3 PL3\
ex act:
•’ 42.7 E l 48 ElJ
T h e slope from Eq. (/?') is

0.0624P L 0.0625P L 2
ex a c t:
2 A a- A.v El El
E xam ple 6.7 U se th e finite difference a p p ro a c h to find th e m axim um b en d in g

m o m en ts a n d vertical dcflection o n th e p la te stru c tu re sho w n . A ssum e th a t
the plate is sim ply su p p o rte d an d acte d on b y a u n ifo rm p ressure p. A lso
assum e th a t th e p la te is o f uniform th ick n ess t.
T h e g o v ern in g differential e q u a tio n o f a fiat p la te is given b y 2

cTSv ^ d*w (fw p

dx* + d x 2 d y 2 + d / ' 7=D (a)
w here D — F / 3/[1 2 (l — c2)] and v = P o isso n 's ratio . T h e b ending m o m en ts

a re given b y 25
, , „ ( d 2w d 2w
,== W + V3 /
/ d 2w d 2w \
F ro m Eq. (6.62), Eq. (<i) m ay be easily expressed in term s of finite differ

ences :
+ C wi . j - 2
+ E w <- i . j i + F w i,j-\ + i
A w i - 2, j + S»V'; - 1 J + tV; j + f l\V ; ,. | j + A IV; t 2. j = F
+ i ,; + i + F"',\,-+i + l.y + i to
+ <>U +2
B = - 4(1 +
H
2a2
e -~ h
_ 4 « 2(1 + a 2)
H
- F ( A .v A v a ) z
Ax
“ “ Ay
H = 6 + 8a2 + 6 a4
As in th e b eam ex am p le, for sim plicity, divide th e p la te in to io u r equal

p a rts a lo n g th e _x a n d j axes, as sh o w n in th e figure. F ro m sym m etry, only
p o in ts 1, 2, 4, an d 5 need to be co n sid ered . T h u s, w ritin g Eq. (c) for these
p o in ts yields
i
!.0 - 0 .1 4 9 - 0 .5 9 7 0 .0 5 9 7 ' Wl 4.664"

- 0 .1 4 9 0.5 0.0597 - 0 .2 9 9 w2 2.332
10~ 4 PL*
D
- 0 .5 9 7 0.0597 0.5 - 0 .0 7 5 w* 2.332 id)
0.0597 - 0 .2 9 9 - 0 .0 7 5 0.25 _ 1.16 6 _
S o l v i n g F q . (</) y ie ld s
PL*
iv, = 0.00559
D
PL*
vv2 = 0.00723
D
P I*
m'4 = 0.00778
D
PLz PL\
: 0.01008 ^ ( e x a c t: 0.01013 ^
D \ D
S in c e v v c.Im vc th e d i s p l a c e m e n ts , t h e m o m e n t s a r e c a lc u l a t e d a s f o llo w s :
- n f uV - . ; - 2w-.j + w . - i . J . v w.-,;+1 - 2 w i, J + w lV,--i

M , .m a x -— Mm -
.x .5 — u \ —— , T r ——
V Ax2 Ay2
16 D
- j (u ’6 - 2 vv5 + w4) + 0 .3 (w 8 - 2 w 5 + w 2)
L s)
= 0.045 4P I 2 (exact: 0.0479P L ;)
Likew ise,
m;l, = M y. , = .0.9 6 6 P L 2 (exact: 0.094 8 P L \)
6.9 R E D U N D A N T S T R U C T U R E S A N D T H E
U N IT -L O A D M E T H O D
A red u n d an t (sUttieally in d eterm in ate) stru c tu ra l system is o n e for w hich the

external reactio n s o r in te rn a l lo ad s c a n n o t be co m p letely d eterm in ed from th e
c o n d itio n s for sta tic eq u ilib riu m . A sta b le a n d statica lly d e te rm in a te stru c tu ra l
system c o n ta in s o n ly en o u g h ex tern al s u p p o rt re a c tio n s o r stru c tu ra l m em b ers
for stability, an d the e q u a tio n s o f sta tic e q u ilib riu m a re sufficient to d eterm in e
com pletely th e re a c tio n s o r th e m em b er in te rn a l lo ad s. If o n e m em b er o r rea c tio n
is rem oved, th e stru c tu re becom es u n a b le a n d h en ce in c a p a b le o f resisting a p p lied
loads. If on e m e m b e r o r reactio n is a d d e d , th e s tru c tu re becom es singly re-
d u n d a u l, a n d (he re a c tio n s a n d m em b er in te rn a l lo a d s m u s t be o b ta in e d by
co n sid erin g th e d e fo rm a tio n o f th e stru c tu re in a d d itio n to th e co n d itio n s o f

sta tic equilibrium .
N orm ally, a rigid c o p la n a r stru c tu re req u ires th ree ex te rn a l rea c tio n s for
stability, a n d th e y m ay be calc u lated from th e th ree e q u a tio n s o f statics. T h e
n u m b e r o f reactio n s, how ever, is n o t th e on ly c riterio n fo r stability, a n d it is
ncccssary to ex am in e each p a rtic u la r stru c tu re in o rd e r to d eterm in e w h e th er it is
stable, u n stab le, o r sta tic ally in d eterm in ate. F o r ex am ple, a h o riz o n ta l sim ple
beam n o rm ally re q u ire s th ree re a c tio n co m p o n en ts. H ow ever, if th e b eam is
su p p o rte d o n ro llers a t th ree p o in ts a lo n g the sp a n , th e b e a m will be u n stab le for
resisting h o riz o n ta l forces' a n d statically in d e te rm in a te fo r vertical forces. Sim
ilarly, if th e th ree re a c tio n s o f a sim ple beam a c t th ro u g h a n y co m m o n p o in t itt
the plane, th e m o m e n ts a b o u t th a t p o in t will be zero re g ard less o f the m a g n itu d e s
o f the forces, a n d th e m o m e n t e q u a tio n c a n n o t be used to o b ta in th e reactio n s.
Such a stru c tu re , sh o w n in Fig. 6.6, is a m echanism th a t is free to ro ta te th ro u g h
a sm all angle a b o u t p o in t O as an in s ta n ta n e o u s cen te r, a n d it is u n sta b le in
resisting an y lo ad w hich d o e s n o t act th ro u g h p o in t 0 . If a load acts th ro u g h
p o in t 0 , the s tru c tu re is sta tic a lly in d eterm in ate.
In m ost stru c tu re s, th e n u m b e r o f eq u a tio n s o f statics m a y be co m p a red w ith
the n u m b e r o f re d u n d a n ts to d eterm in e the co n d itio n s o f stability. F o r such
special stru c tu re s a s th a t sh o w n in Fig. 6.6, an a tte m p t to find the th ree u n k n o w n
re actio n s from th e th re e e q u a tio n s o f sta tic s will yield eq u a tio n s w hich a rc n o t
in d ep en d e n t (one o f th e e q u a tio n s can be d erived from th e others). W hen an
a tte m p t to analy z e a stru c tu re by th e e q u a tio n s o f sta tic s results in such a
co n d itio n , th e stru c tu re m u st be ex am in ed for in stab ility o r red u n d an cy . F o r
sim ple re d u n d a n t stru c tu re s, the u n it-lo ad m e th o d is often used, a n d it is d e m o n
stra te d here.
If a stru c tu re h as o n e m o re m em b er o r reac tio n th an is req u ired for stability,
the stru c tu re h as single re d u n d an cy . In m a n y cases, a n y o n e o f several m em bers
o r reactio n s m ay b e rem oved w ith o u t ca u sin g in stab ility . T h en one deflection
eq u a tio n m u st b e used in a d d itio n to th e e q u a tio n s o f sta tic s in o rd e r to analyze
the stru ctu re. If a s tru c tu re has several m o re m em b ers o r reactions th a n are
required for sta b ility , it h as m u ltiple red u n d a n c y . T h e d e g re e o f red u n d a n cy is
eq u al to the n u m b e r o f re d u n d a n t m em bers, a n d it is eq u a l to the n u m b q r o f
deflection co n d itio n s w hich m ust be used in the analysis. *
DEFLECTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 67
6.10 STRUCTURES WITH SINGLE REDUNDANCY
A tru ss w hich is co m p o sed of clastic m em b ers a n d w hich h a s single re d u n d a n cy is

co n sid ered first. A typical tru ss o f th is ty p e is sh o w n in Fig. 6.7a. T h e s u p p o rts
a re assu m ed to be rigid, a n d th e m em b ers a re assu m ed to be un stressed befo re
load P is applied . T h ere a re fo u r ex te rn al reactio n s, an d o n ly three w o u ld be
req u ired for stab ility . T he h o rizo n tal re a ctio n c o m p o n e n t i s considered a s th e
re d u n d a n t, an d Ihe dcflection e q u a tio n w ill b e o b ta in e d from th e c o n d itio n th a t
the h o riz o n ta l su p p o rt dellcction 5 is zero. F ro m E q. (6.34) it can be show n th a t
(6.63)
AE
w here S rep resen ts the force in a n y m e m b er o f th e stru c tu re of Fig. 6.7a a n d s

rep resen ts the force in an y m em ber o f th e stru c tu re d u e to a u n it lo ad ap p lied in
the d irectio n o f th e desired deflection, as sh o w n in Fig. 6.7c.
T h e force S in an y m em b er is fo u n d b y su p e rim p o sin g th e lo ad in g c o n d itio n s
show n in Fig. 6.7h an d d. If the re d u n d a n t force is rem oved, th e resulting s ta ti
cally d e te rm in a te stru c tu re is sh o w n in Fig. 6.7b, a n d th e ap p lie d lo ad s p ro d u c c a
force S 0 in any m em ber. If the re d u n d a n t force X ! is actin g alone, it p ro d u ces a
force ,Vt.s- in an y m em ber, as .shown in Fig. 6.1 d, since th e s forces result from
a unit valu e o f .Vj. T he to tal force S is o b ta in e d as the sum o f the forccs fo r the
tw o c o n d itio n s:
S -- S q + -iîS (6.64)
S u b stitu tin g from Eq. (6.64) into Eq. (6.63) yields
tfg u rc 6.7
_ r-< S n sL n s jL
+ ■■ ( M 5 >
o r , fo r /> = 0,
Z S 0 sL /(A E )
1~ I s 2L /(A E ) (6‘66)
w here all the terras o n th e rig h t side o f th e e q u a tio n m ay b e o b ta in e d from the

lo ad in g a n d g eo m etry o f th e stru ctu re.
E q u a tio n (6.66) is appH cable to an y elastic tru ss w ith single red u n d a n c y in
w hich the deflection in th e d irectio n o f the re d u n d a n t is zero. If the deflection in
the d irection o f the re d u n d a n t <5 is a know n v alu e o th e r th a n zero, this deflection
m ay be s u b s titu te d in to Eq. (6.65) an d th e v alu e o f X 0 d eterm in e d for this
c o n d itio n .
T h e physical significance o f the term s in E qs. (6.65) a n d (6.66) is discussed in
o rd e r to visualize th e a c tio n o f a re d u n d a n t stru c tu re . If th e re d u n d a n t fo rce is
rem oved, the stru c tu re is sta tic a lly d eterm in ate, a n d th e d eflection in th e d irectio n
o f th e re d u n d a n t d u e to th e ap p lie d lo ad s has th e follow ing v alu e:
( 6 .6 7 )
T h is dcflcction is assu m ed positive in (he d ire c tio n o f th e re d u n d a n t. A unit value

o f th e re d u n d a n t deflects the stru c tu re a d istan ce
( 6-68)
w hich is also p o sitiv e in th e d irectio n o f th e re d u n d a n t. T h e v alu e o f A-, req u ired

lo give a zero deflectio n is o b ta in e d by d iv id in g th e deflection resu ltin g from the
ap plied lo ad s by the d eflection resulting from th e u n it lo a d , a n d it will be nega
tive w ith the assu m ed sign c o n v e n tio n s:
X i = - T T ( 6 .6 9 )
/
It is easier to visualize th e dcflection term s o f Eq. (6.69) th a n the su m m a tio n
term s o f Eq. (6.66). T h e form o f Eq. (6.69) will a p p ly id en tically for rigid fram e
stru ctu res w ith single red u n d an t? except <5,, a n d <5(0 will h av e different defini-.
tions.
E xam ple 6.8 F in d th e re actio n s an d th e stresses in th e m em b ers o f the stru c

tu re o f Fig. 6.8. T h e a re a s o f m em bers A B , BC, a n d B D a re 4 in 2, a n d the
a reas o f m em b e rs A D a n d D C are 3-6 in 2.; A ssum e rigid su p p o rts an d
E = 10,000 k ip s /in 2.
S o l u t i o n T h e n u m erical so lu tio n o f Eq. (6 .6 6 ) is disp lay ed in T ab le 6.1, w ith

the n o ta tio n as sh o w n in Fig. 6.7. T h e h o rizo n ta l reac tio n c o m p o n e n t X l is
considered th e re d u n d a n t. T h e forccs S 0 in th e tru ss w ith th e re d u n d a n t

rem oved a re ta b u la te d in colum n 1. T h e len g th s L o f th e vario u s m em bers
are calcu lated from the d im ensions sh o w n in Fig. 6.8 a n d a re divided by the
areas and m o d u lu s o f elasticity. T h e values o f L /(A E ) a re ta b u la te d in co lu m n
2. T h e forces x, resulting from a u n it v alu e o f X t ap p lie d a s sh o w n in Fig.
6.7c, arc ta b u la te d in colum n 3. P ositive signs in d icate ten sio n , and negative
signs indicate com pression. T he su m m a tio n term s o f E q. (6.66) are ev alu ated
as the sum of the values for th e in d iv id u al m em b ers ta b u la te d in co lu m n s 4
an d 5.
£ S 0 sL/{AE) 0.5150
X , = --------- =----------- = ------------ = 25.6 k ip s
1 Z x 2L/(AE ) 0.02008
T his value is m ultiplied by the term s in c o lu m n 3 to o b ta in values o f X ts for
all m em bers. T h e final forces S in th e m em b ers are o b ta in e d as the alg eb raic
sum o f term s in co lu m n s 1 an d 6 a n d a re listed in co lu m n 7.
E xam ple 6.9 F in d the forces in the m em b e rs o f th e s tru c tu re o f E xam ple 6.8
if the su p p o rt at p o in t C is deflected 0.25 in to th e rig h t a n d the te m p e ra tu re
is decreased 4 0 "F. A ssum e a te m p e ra tu re coefficient o f ex p a n sio n a — 1 0 " 5
in/(in • °F).
S o l u t i o n A te m p e ra tu re decrease w o u ld cau se the rig h t en d o f the statically

d e te rm in a te tru ss o f Fig. b .lb to m ove to th e left a d ista n c e (aL) A T , w here L
T able 6.1
/. Spsl- s 2L
Mem lie rs V kips a i:' s AE ' AE' .V,.v S

in/kip in in/kip
(1) (2) <3) w (5) (6! O)
AH - 56.6 0.001414 1.414 —0.1130 0.00283 36.3 -2 0 .3

nc - 56.6 0.001414 1.414 -0 .1 1 3 0 0.00283 36.3 -2 0 .3
AD 44.8 0.1X11245 -2 .2 3 3 -0 .1 2 4 5 0.00621 -5 7 .3 - 1 2 .5
DC 44.X 0.001245 -2 .2 3 3 -0 .1 2 4 5 0.00621 -5 7 .3 -1 2 .5
pn 40.0 0.000500 - 2 .0 -0 .0 4 0 0 0.00200 -5 1 .3 - 1 1 .3
Total -0 .5 1 5 0 0.02008
T able 6.2
Member So X ,s S
AB - 5 6 .6 16.4 - 4 0 .2
BC - 5 6 .6 16.4 -4 0 .2
AD 44.8 - 2 5 .9 18.9
DC 44.8 -2 5 .9 18.9
BD 40.0 —23.2 16.8
is the d is ta n c e betw een s u p p o rts (80 in):
acL (A T ) = 1 0 - 5 x 80 x 4 0 = 0.032 in
T h e s u p p o r t o f p o in t C is displaced an a d d itio n a l 0.25 in to th e rig h t;

therefore, th e to ta l d isp lacem en t 5, w hich m u s t be given to the rig h t su p p o rt
o f the tru ss by th e s tra in s in th e m em b ers, is
S = 00.032 - 0.25 = - 0 .2 8 2 in
w here th e n eg ativ e sign in d icates th a t th e deflection d u e to the stresses is

o p p o site to A-,. F ro m E q. (6.65),
i +
w here th e su m m a tio n te rm s a re o b tain ed in T a b le 6.1 a n d
- 0 .5 1 5 + 0 .0 2 0 0 8 Z , = - 0 .2 8 2
X , = 11.6 k ips
T h e values o f th e resu ltin g forces in th e m em b ers are fo u n d in T a b le 6.2 as

S = S 0 + X ts, w here v alues o f S 0 a n d s a re th e sam e as for E xam ple 6.8.
E xam ple 6.10 F in d th e b en d in g m o m en t a t any p o in t o f th e sem icircu lar

a rc h o f F ig. 6.9 if th e s u p p o rts d o n o t m ove. T h e value o f E l is co n sta n t for
all cross sections. N eg lect axial d efo rm atio n . J
S o l u t i o n T h e stru c tu re is sy m m etrical a b o u t a v ertical centerline, a n d all

integrals a re e v alu a ted for th e left h a lf o f th e s tru c tu re a n d m ultiplied b y 2.
T h e h o riz o n ta l reactio n X , is co n sid ered th e re d u n d a n t, a n d th e value o f M 0
is calcu lated for ih c statically d e te rm in a te stru c tu re form ed by su p p o rtin g
one end o f the arc h o n frictionlcss ro lle rs:
Mo= — (1 — co s P)
T h e value o f m is calc u lated for a u n it lo a d a c tin g in th e d irectio n o f X l :
m = — R sin /?
U tilizing Eq. (6.34) a n d n o tin g th a t M = M 0 + X y in a n d d[, = R dp, yield
Y - V ’R I P - E D W ~ c o s P ) ( ~ R s i n P)R dp P
' ' ~ ~ 2f t '2 [ ( - « s in p f R / i F J )] dp
T h e final b en d in g m o m en t is o b ta in e d b y su p e rim p o sin g th e values o f M 0 for
the ap p lied lo ad s a n d X tm for th e re d u n d a n t:
M = M 0 + X tm
PR PR
M = — (1 — cos p) — sin p
7Z
T his eq u a tio n ap p lies for 0 < P < n/2, a n d th e b en d in g -m o m e n t d ia g ra m is

sym m etrical a b o u t a vertical centerline.
E xam ple 6.11 T h e stru c tu re show n in Fig. 6.10a co n sists o f a ro u n d tu b e in a

h o rizo n tal plan e, b e n t a t an angle o f 90°. T h e free e n d su p p o rts a lo ad o f 2
kips, a n d it is also su p p o rte d by a v ertical wire. F in d th e tension in th e w ire
and m ak e th e b en d in g -m o m en t an d to rsio n d ia g ra m s fo r th e tube.
S o l u t i o n T h e w ire is considered th e re d u n d a n t m em b er. T h e vertical deflec

tio n o f the free e n d o f the tu b e is calc u la tcd by assu m in g the wire to be
rem oved a n d th e statically d e te rm in a te tu b e to su p p o rt th e load of 2 kips.
T he b e n d in g m o m en t an d to rsio n in th e tu b e u n d e r th e loading a re de
sig n ated as A/0 a n d T0 , respectively, a n d are p lo tte d in Fig. 6.106. T h e
dcflcction resu ltin g from b ending a n d to rsio n al d e fo rm a tio n of the tu b e is,
from Eq. (6.34).
T he values of m a n d m ,, the b ending m o m en t a n d to rsio n a l m om ent, resp ect

ively, in the static a lly d eterm in ed stru c tu re for X 1 = 1, a re p lo tted in Fig.
6.1 Or. T h e in teg rals o f the above e q u a tio n becom e
3 6 x 4 -1 -8 1 x 6 12x6x9
= - 1 .4 4 in
1000 800
T he negative sign in d ic a te s a deflection in th e o p p o site d irectio n to the unit

load, o r a d o w n w a rd deflection.
T h e deflectio n <?n, resu ltin g from a u n it force in the se p a ra te wire,
consists o f p a rts d u e to to rsio n an d b en d in g o f th e tu b e a n d tension in the
w ire:
m , m, , sL
*.«
T i ds + Jd S + A£
T he tension s in the w ire is 1, an d the v alues o f m a n d w , are sh o w n in Fig.
7"0 » 12 in 'kip
Figure 6.10
DI-FLECTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 7 3
6.10c:
18 x 4 + 40.5 x 6 6 x 6 x 9 12 x 40
--------- + 800 + ~200- - 0 '92 in /k ip
T his is how far a 1-kip tension force in th e w ire w o u ld m ove th e gut en d s

together. T h e force X , req u ired to m o v e th e c u t e n d s o f th e w ire the d ista n c e
—<>I0 is found from Eq. (6.69):
x '~ ■ ^ 7 - a 9 2 = , '5 6 5 k lp s
N ow the bend in g -m o m cn t a n d to rsio n d ia g ra m s for th e tu b e calculated from

the eq u a tio n s o f sta tic s an d a re show n in Fig. 6.10rf.
6.11 S tr u c tu r e s w ith M u ltip le R e d u n d a n c y
T h e p ro ced u re for analy sis o f stru c tu re s w ith tw o o r m o re re d u n d a n ts is sim ilar

to th a t used for a stru c tu re w ith one re d u n d a n t m e m b er o r reactio n . T h e first
step is to rem ove th e re d u n d a n t m em b ers o r re a c tio n s in o rd e r to o b ta in a
statically d ete rm in a te base stru ctu re. T h en th e deflectio n s o f th e statically d e te r
m in ate base stru c tu re in th e directio n s o f the re d u n d a n ts a re calc u lated in term s
o f th e re d u n d a n t forces an d a re e q u a te d to th e k n o w n deflections, w hich a re
usually zero. T h e n u m b e r o f know n deflection c o n d itio n s m u s t b e eq u al to th e
n u m b e r o f re d u n d a n ts. F o r a stru c tu re w ith n re d u n d a n ts, th e deflection c o n d i
tio n s yield n eq u a tio n s w hich m ust be solved sim u lta n eo u sly fo r th e values o f th e
red u n d an ts.
T h e tru ss show n in Fig. 6.11a h as o n ly th re e re a c tio n s a n d is static a lly
.d e te rm in a te externally , b u t th ere a re tw o m o re m em b ers th a n a re req u ired fo r
sta b ility ; therefore, it is statically in d e term in a te in tern ally . T h e deflection c o n d i
tio n s w hich will be specified are th a t th ere a re n o stresses in th e stru c tu re w hen it
is n o t load ed o r if tw o m em b ers o f th e u n lo a d e d stru c tu re a re cu t, th e relativ e
deflections S, a n d S2 o f th e cut ends will b e zero. T h e d eflections a re n o w
expressed in term s o f the forces X l a n d X 2 in th e re d u n d a n t m em bers. All
deflections a re assu m ed to be elastic.
T h e statically d e te rm in a te base stru c tu re, sh o w n in Fig. 6.11/), is form ed by
c u ttin g o r rem oving th e re d u n d a n t m em bers. T h e a p p lie d lo a d s p ro d u c e forces S 0
in the m em bers o f the b ase stru ctu re. T h e forces s t in th e m e m b e rs a re p ro d u c e d
by a unit value of X s ap p lied to base stru c tu re , as sh o w n in Fig. 6.11c. S im ilarly,
a force X 2 = 1 p ro d u ce s forces s2 in th e m em b ers w h en a p p lie d to the b ase
stru c tu re , as show n in Fig. 6.11c/. T h e final force S in a n y m em b er m ay be
o b ta in e d by su p erim p o sin g th e forces d u e to th e a p p lie d lo a d s a n d th e re d u n d a n t
forces:
S - S q -f- 'X’lSi + X 2 52 (6.70)

1 7 4 a ir c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s
Figure 6.11
T h e deflections 5 , a n d S2 o f the c u t en d s o f th e m em b ers a re now e q u a te d to

z e ro :
T hese eq u a tio n s m ay be solved sim u lta n e o u sly for X t a n d X 2 . T h e final values

o f the forces S m a y be o b ta in e d from Eq. (6.70).
T h e p receding e q u a tio n s have been d eriv ed fro m th e su p e rp o sitio n o f the

stress co n d itio n s, ms sta te d in F.q. (6.70). T h ey m ay also b e o b ta in e d from a
su p erp o sitio n o f the dcllection co n d itio n s. T h e a p p lie d lo a d s a re assum ed to
p roduce deflections <>10a n d o f th e re d u n d a n ts. A u n it value o f X , produces
deflections (5,, a t A', a n d ii 2 1 at X 2 ■ A u n it v alu e o f X 2 p ro d u c e s d e fle ctio n s522
at X 2 and r>12 at X ,. T h e to ta l deflections in th e d ire c tio n s o f the re d u n d a n ts can
be o b tain ed by su p erim p o sin g the effects o f th e v a rio u s lo a d s:
<5, = 5 1U + Ar1i51 j + X 25 l2
C>2 — <Î U "t" X i d 21 + ^ 2 ^ 2 2
In m ost p roblem s, th e deflections <5, a n d <52 a re zero , b u t in som e cases, k n o w n

values o f su p p o rt deflections o f sim ilar d e fo rm a tio n s m a y be su b stitu ted .
F o r stru c tu re w ith n re d u n d a n ts, a n u m b e r o f deflectio n s c o n d itio n s n m u st
be used. T hese m ay be w ritten as
= <5io + * i <>i i + X 2 d l2 + ■ • • + X „ d ln
(52 = <S2(, -f , Y , ^ , + X 2 S 22 + ■ ■ ■ + X „ d 2n (6.71)
3 h = ti/10 A : (),: ] i A' 2 /. ; T A II Snn
or, in m atrix form .
V (>12 . • 8i.~ X,
<>2 = <>20 + <>22 ' ■d2„ * 2
(6.71a)
.A . _V . ' 5 nn_
T h e term s in Eq. (6.71) m ay be defined in th e follow ing m a n n e r for truss

stru c tu re s:
c __S n L>
(6.72)
mn ~ ^ AE
F o r rigid-fram e stru c tu re s w here o n ly b e n d in g d e fo rm a tio n is considered, th e

.-terms in Eq. (6.71) a re defined as
= I € dC (6.73)
El El
F ro m M axw ell’s reciprocal theorem , = dy,.

T h e in tern al lo ad s in each m em ber j m a y b e o b ta in e d fro m th e eq u a tio n s
Sj ~ $0 + -Y 1 Si + ^ 2 S2 + ' ' ‘ + X n sn
or M j -- M u + X , i" 1 + X 2 m 2 + ■•■ + X nm„ (6.74)
T h e ap p lic a tio n s o f th e preceding e q u a tio n s a re illu stra te d b y num erical

exam ples.
P i
© d )
& )
\ f £ \ / \ ( i V
® 1
© S a ©
h / ? / ®
0
---------- A , — L — h x—
r7 V 7
id) Figure 6.12
E xam ple 6.12 F in d (he forces in the m em b ers o f th e tru ss show n in Fig. 6.12a
if P , = P 2 — 10 kips, /! = /!(, an d L /(A E ) is th e sam e fo r each m em ber o f the
stru ctu re. T h e m em b ers are unstressed w hen P i = P 2 = 0, an d stresses d o
n o t exceed th e elastic lim it.
S o l u t i o n : T h e n u m erical values o f L / ( A E ) a re n o t re q u ire d for the m em bers,

since o n ly relativ e values a re im p o rta n t. F o r = d2 = • • • = = 0, in E qs.
(6.71) th e su m m a tio n term s m ay be m u ltip lied by a n y c o n sta n t value. If any
DliH.HCTION ANALYSIS OF STR U CTU RAL SYSTEMS 177
Sn is n o t zero, it is nccessary to k n o w th e n u m e ric a l v alues. T h u s it is

assum ed th a t L /(A E ) is u n ity for all m em b ers. T h e c a lc u la tio n s o f th e sum
m atio n term s a re m a d e in T ab le 6.3. T h e forces S 0 in th e m em b ers o f the
statically d e te rm in a te base stru c tu re a re sh o w n in F ig . 6.126 a n d ta b u la te d in
colum n 1. T h e values o f s t a n d s2 d u e to u n it v alues o f th e re d u n d a n t are
show n in Fig. 6.12c a n d d an d a re ta b u la te d in c o lu m n s 2 a n d 3. T h e term s
for the su m m a tio n s o f Eqs. (6.72) a re o b ta in e d as th e to ta ls o f c o lu m n s 4, 5, 6,
7, an d 8. S u b stitu tin g these to tals in to E q. (6.71) yields
"4.0 0 .5 lp f 1l _ r - 4 2 . 4 2 l
_0.5 4.0J U J ~~ L - 70.70J
By carry in g o u t th e m atrix inversion, th e u n k n o w n s a re o b ta in e d :
X i = -8 .5 3 and X 2 = - 1 6 .6 0
H ence the in tern al load in each m em b er is given by
S j = (S0 — 8.53s1 — 16.6 s 2) j

w here / is th e m em b er nu m b er.
T h e values o f Sj a re sh o w n in co lu m n 9 o f T a b le 6.3.
E x a m p le 6.13 F i n d t h e f o r c e s in th e t r u s s o f F ig . 6.13a. A s s u m e t h a t Lf(AE)

is 0.01 i n / k i p f o r a ll m e m b e r s . T h e r i g h t- h a n d s u p p o r t d e f l c c ts 0 .5 in fro m th e
u n s t r e s s e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e tr u s s . A s s u m e h = h l .
S o l u t i o n T h e re d u n d a n ts A', a n d X 2 a re ch o se n a s sh o w n in Fig. 6.13a,
T able 6.3
S qSi S q s2 L sfL s jL s ts2 L S,

So s. 5, AE AE ~AE AE AE kips
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1 0 1.000 0 0 0 1.0 0 0 -8 .5 3
2 0 0 1.000 0 0 0 1.0 0 -1 6 .6 0
3 -1 0 -0 .7 0 7 0 7.07 0 0.5 0 0 -3 .9 7
4 0 -0 .7 0 7 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 + 6.03
5 14.14 1.00 0 14.14 0 1.0 0 0 + 5.61

6 - 10 -0 .7 0 7 0 7.07 0 0.5 0 0 -3 .9 7
7 -2 0 -0 .7 0 7 -0 .7 0 7 14.14 14.14 0.5 0.5 0.5 -2 .2 4
8 10 0 -0.7 0 7 0 -7 .0 7 0 0.5 0 + 21.73
9 2X.2K 0 1.000 0 28.28 0 1.0 0 + 11.68

10 -3 0 0 -0 .7 0 7 0 21.21 0 0.5 0 -18.27
11 -2 0 0 -0 .7 0 7 0 14.14 0 0.5 0 -8 .2 7
12 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 30.00
Total 42.42 70.70 lo 5!o 05
1 7 8 A IRCRAFT STRUCTURES
leaving th e^ram e statica lly d ete rm in a te b a se stru c tu re as for E xam ple 6.12.
T h e v alues for S Q an d s 2 a rc the sam e as for E x am p le 6.12, b u t values o f ^
m ust be calc u lated a s sh o w n in Fig. 6.l3/>. T h e term s involving S„ a n d .^ are
therefore the sam e as th o se calcu lated in T ab le 6.3, ex cep t th a t th e value of
L/{AE) is now 0.01 fo r each m em ber, w hereas a v alu e o f 1.0 w as used in
T ab le 6.3. F o r c o n sta n t values o f L j(A E ) for all m em bers, Eq. (6.71) m a y be
w ritten as
' 16.0 - 3 .5 3 5 " 190.0 "

3.535 4.0 - * 2_ —70.70_
T ab le 6.4
*i S qS i *1*1 S, kips
(1) (2) (3) (4) IS)
2 0 0 0 0 —8.90
3 0 0 0 0 - 10.00
4 0 0 0 0 0
5 -1 .4 1 4 -2 0 0 2.0 t,.09
6 1.0 -1 0 0 1.0 -0 .0 7
7 1.0 -2 0 -0.7 0 7 1.0 -3 .7 7
8 - 1 .0 -1 0 0.707 1.0 6.23
9 -1 .4 1 4 -4 0 -1 .4 1 4 2.0 5.33
10 2.0 -6 0 -1 .4 1 4 4.0 -3 .8 4
11 1.0 -2 0 -0.707 1.0 -3 .7 7
12 - 2 .0 -6 0 0 4.0 10.14
Total -2 4 0 -3 .5 3 5 T&o
DKFLF.CTION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 179
Solving for X , a n d X z yields
X t = 9.93 and ^2 = -8.90

w here S j = (S0 + 9.93.';, - 8.90s z) j
T ab le 6.4 show s the calc u latio n s for th e q u a n titie s used in Eq. (6.71). It
also gives the final results o f the in tern al lo a d s in each m em ber.
E xam ple 6,14 F in d the b en d in g -m o m en t d ia g ra m for th e fram e show n in Fig.

6.14a. T h e value o f E l is c o n stan t, a n d th e m em b ers a re fixed ag ain st ro
ta tio n a t the su p p o rts.
S o l u t i o n T h e stru c tu re has three re d u n d a n t reactio n s. If th e fram e is cut at
10 kips
60
(/>)
.V, T I
7777
(c) («0
12 ft *kip kip
i— r
10 kips
Z~777Z
\d J
,V,= I i s rt-kip 18 ft-kip
(<?) in
F igure 6.14
the left s u p p o rt, th e rem ain in g stru c tu re is stab le a n d statically d eterm in ate.
The tw o force c o m p o n e n ts an d th e c o u p le, X u X 2 , a n d X 3 , are assu m ed to
be re d u n d a n t reactio n s. T h e b en d in g -m o m en t d ia g ra m for th e b ase stru c tu re
u n d e r th e a ctio n o f th e applied lo ad is show n in F ig . 6.14b. All b en d in g
m o m en ts a re p lo tte d o n th e co m p ressio n side o f th e m em bers a n d a re n o t
d esig n ated as p o sitiv e o r negative. T h e p ro d u c t o f tw o bending m o m en ts is
positive if th ey a re b o th p lo tted on the sam e side o f th e m em ber. T h e b en d in g
m o m en ts m t , m 2 , a n d m 3 d u e to un it v alues o f th e re d u n d a n ts a re p lo tte d in
Figs. 6.14c, d, a n d e. T h e v ario u s deflection term s a re ev alu ated sem i-
g rap h ically , b y reference to the m o m en t diag ram s.
E I S t0 = d x = 180 x 2 = 360
E I 5 10 = A/0 hi2 d x = — 180 x 9 = — 1620
E1530 = M o 7Hj d x = - 180 x 1 = - 180
£/<■>,, = m l d x = 2 x 18 x 4 + 6 x 9 x 6 = 468
E l 5 12 = m \ d x = 40.5 x 6 + 54 x 9 = 729
£/<5,2 = m , m 2 d x = —6 x 40.5 — 18 x 9 = —405
E I S I3 — = — 1 x 1 8 x 2 — 1 x 54 = —90
E / S 23 = m 2m 3 d x = 1 x 40.5 + 1 x 54 = 94.5
U p o n su b s titu tin g in Eq. (6.71), th e follow ing is o b ta in e d :
468.0 - 4 0 5 .0 - 9 0 . 0 X i - 3 6 0 .0
- 4 0 5 .0 729.0 94.5 X 2 1620.0
- 9 0 .0 94.5 21.0J 180.0
In v ertin g th e m a trix a n d solving for the u n k n o w n s y ield :
X i = 5.0 X 2 = 2.667 X 3 = 18.0

DEFl ECTJON ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 181
N ow , the final b e n d in g m o m e n ts in e a c h m em b e r c a n b e o b ta in e d from E q.

((>.74) a n d a rc sh o w n in Fig. 6 .14f .
6.12 SUear Lag
It w as p o in ted o u t in C h a p . 5 th a t m an y o f the assu m p tio n s m a d e in deriving the

sim ple beam flexure th eo ry arc so m ew h at in e rro r. T h e a ssu m p tio n s th a t plane
sections rem ain p la n e after b en d in g an d th a t b e n d in g stresses a re p ro p o rtio n a l to
th e distance from the n e u tra l axis a re less a c c u ra te for se m im o n o c o q u e stru ctu res
th a n they a re fo r heavy stru ctu res, because th e sh e a rin g d e fo rm a tio n s in thin
w ebs are n o t alw ays negligible.
T h e effect o f sh e a rin g d e fo rm atio n s in re d istrib u tin g the b e n d in g stresses in a
box beam is c o m m o n ly know n as shear lag. T h e effect m a y b e illu strated by
considering the c an tile v e r box beam sh o w n in Fig. 6.15. F o r sim plicity, it is
assum ed th a t th e beam cross section is sy m m etrical a b o u t a v ertical centerline
a n d th a t the lo a d is ap p lied a lo n g th is centerline, so th a t th e re is n o to rsio n al
defo rm atio n . A n analysis, using th e sim ple b eam th e o ry sh o w s th a t all the
strin gers o n th e u p p e r surface are th e sam e for all cro ss sections. As a result o f
these shearing stresses, a n o riginally p lan e cro ss sectio n will d efo rm to the p o si
tion indicated by line a' h' c'.
Al the su p p o rt, how ever, Ihe cross scction is re stra in e d from w arp in g o u t o f
its original plane, a n d line ahc o f Fig. 6.15 re m ain s stra ig h t. S ince th e distance cc'
is g reater th a n th e d istan c e a a \ the strin g e r a t c resists a sm a lle r com pressive
stress th an th e strin g e r a t a. T h u s, the b en d in g stress a t a m u s t b e g re ate r th a n
th a t calculated .by th e .simple llcxure theory, a n d th e b e n d in g stre ss a t c m ust be
less th an in d icated by th e sim ple theory. In this case, all th e cro ss sections a t
som e distance from th e su p p o rt w arp th e sam e a m o u n t, a n d th u s all th e stringers
have ap p ro x im ately th e sam e b en d in g stress a n d stra in . T h e sh e ar-lag effect is
greatest at th e su p p o rt a n d is so m eth in g o f a local effect.
Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16

M an y w ing stru c tu re s a re spliced only at th e sp ars, so (h a t the strin g ers resist

no b en ding stress a t th e splice. T h e box beam sh o w n in Fig. 6.16 is spliced in this
m an n er, so th a t only the c o rn e r flanges resist ax ial lo ad s a t th e left-hand su p p o rt.
In this case, th e cro ss section a t th e su p p o rt deform s as in d icated by line a" b" c",
in an o p p o site d irec tio n to the d efo rm a tio n a' b' c’ o f cross sections som e d istan ce
from the su p p o rt. T he m iddle strin g er has a final length c' c" which is co n sid er
ably g re a te r th an the final length «' a" o f the c o rn e r strin g er. T h e shear-lag cflcct
is g reater in th is beam th a n in th e beam w ith th e e n tire c ro ss section restrained.
T h e efTcct is also localized n e a r the su p p o rt, a s th e strin g e rs a t som e d istan ce
from the su p p o rt resist b en d in g stresses, w hich a re ap p ro x im a te ly as calcu lated
by the sim ple flexure theory.
T h e cfTect o f sh e a r lag m ay be desirable, since it p erm its a stru c tu re to resist
higher u ltim ate b o n d in g m o m e n ts th a n are c alc u lated from the sim ple flexure
theory. T h e allo w ab le b en d in g stresses for th e strin g ers betw een th e sp a rs are
sm aller th an the allo w ab le stresses for the c o rn e r flanges, o r sp a r caps. T he
stringers tend to fail as co lu m n s w ith lengths eq u a l to th e rib spacing. T h e sp a r
caps a re s u p p o rte d vertically b y th e sp a r web an d h o riz o n ta lly by the skin, and
they usually resist high com pressive stresses.
W hen a re c ta n g u la r box beam is subjected to to rsio n , a cro ss section ten d s to
w arp from its o rig in al plan e. W hen o n e end is re strain ed a g a in st w arping, axial
lo ad s are induced in th e flanges, an d the sh ea r flows are red istrib u ted n e a r th e
fixed end. T h is a lso is an effect o f the sh e a r d e fo rm atio n a n d is som etim es referred
to as a sh ear-lag effect.
T h e e x ten t o f th e sh ea r-la g effect can be stu d ie d by co n sid erin g the stresses
resu ltin g from a few sim ple c o n d itio n s o f lo a d in g a n d th en su p erim p o sin g them
w ith o th e r stress co n d itio n s. T h e stru ctu re w ith tw o w ebs a n d th ree stringers,
sh o w n in Fig. 6.17a, is assum ed to extend fo r a n in d efin ite length in the x
d irectio n a n d to be lo a d e d as show n. T h e d is trib u tio n o f th e lo ad s an d d e fo r
m a tio n s o f the x d ire ctio n a re investigated.
T h e force P in th e cen te r strin g er is a fu n ctio n o f th e d istan ce x. In a length
dx, the force ch an g es a n a m o u n t dP, a n d the w eb sh e a rin g d efo rm atio n ch an g es
an a m o u n t dy, as sh o w n in Fig. 6.176. F ro m th e sp an w ise equilibrium o f a
strin g er, th e lo ad increase d P resu lts from the sh e a rin g stress f s in the w eb: -
d P = —2 / s f d x (6.75)
T h e d efo rm atio n y resu lts from the w eb sh e a rin g stress:
f s = 97 (6.76)
T h e ch an g e in th e angle y resu lts from th e axial elo n g a tio n o f th e strin g ers:
T he variables f s a n d y m ay be elim in ated from these th ree e q u a tio n s in o rd e r to

o b tain a dilTerential e q u a tio n for P as a fu n ctio n o f x. D ifferen tiatin g Eq. (6.75)
and su b stitu tin g from Eq. (6.76), we have
DCKLI-CTION ANALYSIS OK STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 183
(6.78)
dx dx
T he value o f d y /d x m ay be su b stitu ted from Eq. (6.77):
d 2P
= k 2P (6.79)
dx1
w here
2tG ( 1 l
k2 = (6.80)
bE 2AX
F.quation (6.79) m ay he in teg rated as follow s:
P = C ,e k* + C 2 e ~ kl (6.81)
w here C , a n d C 2 a re c o n sta n ts o f in teg ratio n . T h e lo ad P a p p ro a c h e s zero at a

large value o f .v ; th u s for .v = o o , P = 0 an d C j = 0. A t th e lo a d e d end, jc = 0 and
P — P 0 o r C 2 = Pu- T herefore, Eq. (6.81) has th e follow ing valu e:
P = P 0 e - kx (6.82)
F.quation (6.82) m ay be differentiated an d e q u a te d to E q. (6.75) in o rd e r to o b tain

an expression f o r /,:
(6.83)
T h e displacem ent 6 of th e force P(l is equal to yb, o r f s b/G fo r x = 0:
Pokb
6 = (6.84)
2 tG
Figure 6.17
T h e stru c tu re sh o w n in F ig . 6.18 m ay be an aly z ed in a sim ila r m a n n e r to th e

stru c tu re o f F ig. 6.17. T h e flange forces P a t a n y c ro ss sectio n are defined by
P 0 e -kx (6.85)
4G(\/h) + l/c
w here k2 = (6.86)
A E ( l/ t) + l / t t
It is assum ed th a t th e ribs a re closely spaced for Eq. (6.85) to be valid. T h e sh ea r

flows q m ay be sim ilarly defined by
(6.87)
w here q 0 is th e s h e a r flow w hen .x = 0. In th e sh e a r-la g p o rtio n only, th e sh e a r

flow m u s t be th e sa m e in all fo u r w ebs to satisfy th e e q u ilib riu m co n d itio n for
to rsio n a l m o m en ts. T h e w a rp in g d isp lacem en t 5 o f e ac h o f th e forces P 0 from the
p lan e o f th e o rig in a l cro ss sectio n is m easu red as sh o w n in F ig. 6.18b:
<?o((V0 + V ti P p fc O /t+ i/O

8= (6.88)
2 G (l/b + l/c ) 4 G (l/b + l/c )
T o illu stra te sh e a r-la g calcu latio n s, co n sid er th e b o x b e am o f Fig. 6.19a. All

th e w ebs hav e th ic k n e ss t = 0.02 in, an d the m a te ria l has th e p ro p ertie s E = 107
lb /in 2 a n d G — OAE. T h e sim ple beam th e o ry yields sh e a r flows w hich a re c o n
s ta n t fo r th e le n g th o f th e sp an , w ith th e v alu es sho w n , a n d values o f th e axial
strin g e r lo ad s as sh o w n . F o r th is th e o ry to a p p ly , how ever, th e cross section a t
the su p p o rt m u s t w a rp so th a t th e m iddle strin g e r is d isp laced th e d ista n c e 50
from th e o rig in al p la n e :
_f s 200 x 10
= 0.025 in
~ G ~ 0.020 x 4,000,000
If th e cro ss se ctio n a t th e su p p o rt is re stra in e d from w arping, th e cen te r
strin g er resists a co m p ressio n force sm aller th a n 40,000 Ib a n d the c o rn e r strin g
ers resist c o m p ressio n forces larg er th a n 20,000 Ib. T h e force P 0 a ctin g as sh o w n
Figure 6.18
Figure 6.19
in Fig. 6.19ft, w hich is req u ired to displace th e stru c tu re a d ista n c e 5 0 , is calcu

lated from E q. (6.84). T h e n th e system o f forces sh o w n in F ig. 6.196 is superim
posed on th o se o b ta in e d b y th e sim ple flexure th e o ry in Fig. 6.19a.
T h e stru c tu re o f Fig. 6.196 is eq u iv alen t to th a t o f Fig. 6.17. F ro m Eq. (6.80)
,2 2 x 0.020 x 0.4 f \ l\
or k = 0.04
S u b stitu tin g <5 = 0.025 in in to F.q. (6.84) and so lv in g for P u , we have

2tG 5 2 x 0.020 x 4 x 106 x 0.025
P« = ■= 10,000 lb
kb 0.04 x 10
F ro m Eq. (6.82)
P = lO.OOOe'0-04*
an d from Eq. (6.83)
f s = 10,000e - ° '04*
T ab le 6.5
X g-0.04* P = iO.OOOi?-0 04* q = 2 0 0 e -° o1*
0 1 10,000 200
5 0.817 8,170 163
10 0.670 6,720 134
20 0.450 4,500 90
40 0.202 2,020 40
KM 0.019 190 4
o r q —f s t = 2 0 0 e _0 04jc. T h u s, a t the s u p p o rt, the c o rn e r stringers each resist

co m p ressio n forces o f 25,000 Ib, a n d th e c e n te r strin g e r resists a co m p ressio n
force o f 30,000 lb. T h e sh e a r flow is zero a t this cross sectio n , w hich is obviously
necessary for the a ssu m e d co n d itio n o f n o sh earin g d efo rm a tio n .
T h e values o f P a n d q a t v ario u s distan ces x fro m th e fixed su p p o rt are
calcu latcd in T a b le 6.5. T h ese ta b u la te d v alues m u st be su p erim p o sed o n the
values sh o w n in Fig. 6.19a. It is observ ed th a t the c o rre c tio n forces a t a cross
scction 20 in from th e s u p p o rt are less th a n o n e -h alf th e v alues at the su p p o rt.
T h e lo a d in g c o n d itio n sh o w n in Fig. 6.19 requ ires la rg e r c o rrectio n s for the
effects o f s h e a r lag th a n a re req u ired in th e n o rm a l a irp la n e w ing. T h e sh e a r lo ad s
in an airp la n e w in g u su ally a re resisted a t th e sid e o f th e fuselage, b u t th e cross
section a t th e c en te r o f th e fuselage is p rev en ted from w arp in g . T h u s th e cross
section at th e side o f th e fuselage, w hich h as th e m ax im u m sh e a r flows, is p e rm it
ted to w a rp a n d d is trib u te the sh e a r flows in a lm o st th e sam e m a n n e r as p re
d icted by th e sim p le flexure theory.
PROBLEMS
6.1 Find the displacements of point 3 or the truss structure shown in Fig. P6.1. Assume ! in2 for the
area of cach m em ber and £ = 107 lb/in2. y
6.2 Find the rotation of member 4-5 of the truss structure shown in Fig. P6.2. Area = 1 in2 and
£ = 107 Ib/in2 for all members.
20 kips
Figure P6.2
6.3 Find the displacements (translation and rotation) of points 2 and 3 of the beam structure shown
in Fig. P6.3. Assume that the beam has a uniform area.
6.4 You are given a simply supported beam under the action of a uniformly distributed load, as
shown in Fig. P6.4. Find the midspan deflection, using Castigiiano’s theorem.
P Ib/in
El = constant
Figure P6.4
6*5 Solve Prob. 6.4 by using the Rayleigh-Ritz method.

6.6 Solve Prob. 6.4 by using the finite difference method.
6.7 Solve Prob. 6.4 by solving the classical beam differential equation E l d*wfdxA — p{x),
6.8 Using the finite difference m ethod, solve for the vertical displacements at points a, b, and c and
the slopes at the left and right supports of the multispan beam shown in Fig. P6.8. E f — 10®.
y ? 50 lb/in
r f . i i E L T
-100 in- -100 in- -1 0 0 in - -1U0 in—
Figure P6.9
6.9 Use the finite difference m ethod to find the moments and shears at the locations indicated on the
beam structure shown in Fig. P6.9.
6.10 A square plate o f uniform thickness i is fixed at two opposite edges and simply supported at the
other two opposite edges. Using the finite difference method, find the maximum displacements and
bending m oments. Assume that the plate is under the action of a uniform normal pressure P. Use
Poisson's ratio v = 0.25.
6.11 Analyze the truss of Fig. 6.8. assuming that L/(AE) is constant for all members. Analyze the
truss of Fig. 6-8 for a horizontal load of 20 kips at B, in addition to the vertical load shown. Assume
A E is constant for all members.
6.12 Analyze the truss of Fig. 6.8 assuming there is an additional m ember AC with a cross-section
area of 3 in2. T ake B'D as the redundant.
6.13 Repeat Prob. 6.12, assuming BC is the redundant member. '-•i
6.14 Repeat Prob. 6.12, assum ing that member BD is 0.1 in too long because of manufacturing
tolerances. Assume no external loads on the structure.
6.15 Analyze the structure of Fig. 6.9 if load P is acting horizontally at the same point. Assume a
constant value of E l. ■ j.
6.16 Analyze the structure of Fig. 6.9 for the loading shown, assuming the supports to be spread
horizontally a distance of O.S in. Use R = 50 in, P = 2 kips, 1 = 1.0 in4,a n d E = 10,000 kips/in2.
6.17 Analyze the structure of Fig. 6.10, assuming the 2-kip load to be applied at the point w hife the
tube is bent.
6.18 Repeal Example fi. 12, assuming It — 40 in, /il = 3 0 in, and A E = 10,000 kips for each member.
6.19 Repeat Example 6.13, if It = 40 in, /i, = 30 in, and A E = 10,000 kips for each member. Member
12 has a length of 10 in.
6.20 Repeat Prob. 6.19 assuming member 12 is a redundant in place of the reaction X ,.
6.21 Analyze the frame of Fig. 6.14a, assuming the left support to be pin-connecled and the right
support to be fixed.
6.22 Analyze the frame of Fig. 6 .14u. assuming an additional load of 20 kips to act down at the
center of the structure. '
6.23 O btain the bending-momcnt diagram for the frame shown ill Fig. P6.2.1 to P6.25 if / ’ -- 0 and
W = 4.0 kips/ft.
6.24 O btain the bending-momcnt diagram for the frame shown in Fig. P6.23 to P6.25 if W — 0,
P = 10 kips, and a = h — 4.5 ft.
P
■h.
W kips/ft
6 ft
I • 1 = 0.75
7= 1.0 / = 1.0 6 ft
1
•9 ft Figure P6.23 to P6.25
6*25 O btain the bending-moment diagram for the fram e shown in Fig, P623 to P6.25 if W = 0,
P = 10 kips, a = 3 ft, and b = 6 ft.
6.26 The frame for a fuselage o f rectangular cross section is shown in Fig. P6.26 to P6.28. Calculate
the bending moments if W — 3 kips and a = 1.5 f t Assume E l is constant
6.27 Repeat Prob. 6.26 if E l for the bottom frame mem ber is 4 times as large as the value of E l for
the other members.
6.28 Repeat Prob. 6.26 if 2 W = 6 kips and a = 3.0 ft.
6 ft
6.29 Use the principle of virtual displacements to establish the relationship between the applied
forces and corresponding displacements on the beam structure shown in Fig. P6.29. This relationship
is of the form {Q =* [$]{<?}.
Cl, A E
\
\
L
Figure P6.29
6.30 Repeal Prob. 6.29 except Ihe beam is as shown in Fig. P6.30.
CHA PTER
SEVEN
FINITE ELEM ENT STIFFNESS M ETHOD IN
ST RUC TURA L ANALYSIS
In real design cases, g en erally stru c tu ra l system s a re co m p o se d o f a large assem

blage o f v ario u s s tru c tu ra l elem ents su ch as b eam s, p lates, a n d shells o r a co m b i
n a tio n o f th e three. T h e ir overall g eo m etry becom es extrem ely com plex an d
c a n n o t be re p resen te d b y a single m a th e m a tic a l expression. In ad d itio n , these
b u ilt-u p stru c tu re s a re intrinsically ch ara c te riz e d as h av in g m aterial an d stru c tu r
al d isco n tin u ities su ch as c u to u t, thickness v a ria tio n s o f m em bers, etc., as well as
d isco n tin u ities in lo a d in g a n d su p p o rt c o n d itio n s. G iv en these factors, re la tiv e to
the stru c tu re g eo m e try a n d disco n tin u ities, it becom es a p p a re n t th a t the classical
m eth o d s can n o lo n g er be used, p a rtic u la rly th o se w hose p rerequisites a re the
fo rm u la tio n a n d th e so lu tio n o f g o v ern in g differential eq u a tio n s. T hus, for co m
plex stru c tu re s, the an aly st has to reso rt to m o re general m e th o d s o f analysis
w here th e a b o v e fa c to rs p lace n o difficulty in th eir a p p lic atio n . T hese m e th o d s
a re the finite elem en t stiffness m eth o d a n d th e finite elem en t flexibility m eth o d .
W ith the a d v e n t o f high-speed, larg e-sto rag e-cap acity d ig ital co m p u ters, the
finite clem ent m a trix m e th o d s have b eco m e o n e o f th e m o s t w idely used to o ls in
the analysis o f com p lex stru c tu ra l system s. T h ese m e th o d s a re based o n the
fo rm u latio n s o f a sim u lta n e o u s set o f lin ea r a lg eb ra ic e q u a tio n s relatin g forces to
c o rre sp o n d in g d isp la c em en ts (stiffness m eth o d ) o r d isp lacem en ts to c o rre sp o n d
ing forces (flexibility m e th o d ) a t discrete, p reselected p o in ts o n the stru ctu re.
190
FINITE ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 191
T hese m e th o d s offer m a n y ad v an ta g es:
1. C ap ab ility for c o m p le te a u to m atio n .

2. T h e stru c tu re g eo m e try can be described easily.
3. T h e real stru c tu re can be rep resen ted easily by a m a th em atica l m odel c o m
posed o f v a rio u s stru c tu ra l elem ents.
4. A bility to tre a t a n iso tro p ic m aterial.
5. A bility to tre a t d isco n tin u ities.
6. A bility to im p le m e n t resid u al stresses, p restress c o n d itio n s, a n d th e rm a l lo a d
ings.
7. A bility to tre a t n o n lin e a r stru c tu ra l p roblem s.
8. Ease o f h a n d lin g m u ltip le load cond itio n s.
Figure 7.1
192 A IRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Figure 7.2
FINITE ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 1 93
T h e finite elem ent m a trix m eth o d s h a v e g ain ed g re a t p ro m in en c e th ro u g h o u t

the industries ow ing lo th e ir un lim ited a p p lic a tio n s in th e so lu tio n o f p ractical
design p ro b lem s o f h ig h co m plexity. F o r fu rth e r in fo rm a tio n o n th e finite elem ent
m atrix m e th o d s, th e rea d er is en c o u ra g e d to c o n su lt Refs. 10, 24, a n d 27 to 35.
7.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE
T h e basic con cep t o f th e finite clem ent m a trix m e th o d in stru c tu ra l analysis is

th a t the real stru c tu re c a n b e rep resen ted b y a n e q u iv a le n t m ath em a tic a l m o d el
w hich consists o f a d iscrete n u m b e r o f finite s tru c tu ra l elem ents, as sh o w n in Figs.
7.1 to 7.3. T h e stru c tu ra l b e h a v io r o f each o f these elem en ts m a y b e described by
different sets o f fu n ctio n s w hich n o rm a lly a re ch o se n su ch th a t c o n tin u ity o f
stresses a n d /o r stra in s th ro u g h o u t the stru c tu re is e n s u r e d .
T h e types o f elem en ts w hich a re c o m m o n ly u sed in s tru c tu ra l idealizatio n a re
the truss, beam , tw o-dim en sio n al m em b ran e, shell a n d p la te b ending, an d th ree-
dim ensional solid elem ents. F ig u res 7.4 a n d 7.5 illu stra te schem atically each el-
F igure 73
em en t a n d the ty p ical n o d a l forces a n d c o rre sp o n d in g d isp lacem en ts asso ciated

w ith each type.
7.3 ELEMENT DISCRETIZATION
T h e m a th em atical re la tio n sh ip s w hich g o v ern the s tru c tu ra l b eh av io r of an el

em ent a re derived o n th e b asis of an idealized elem ent m odel. F o r exam ple, once
th e elem ent sh a p e is selected, it is discretized by placing a finite n u m b er o f nodes
a t v ario u s lo c atio n s o n th e elem ent surface, as sh o w n in Fig. 7.6. G enerally
(c)
Figure 7.4 Structural elements, (a) Truss element; (ft) beam element; (<r) membrane plate element, (i/)
plate bending elements.
speaking, the accuracy increases w ith a n increase in n o d a l p o in ts considered on

the elem ent. L ikew ise, th e sm aller th e elem en t size, th e m o re ac c u ra te th e a n a ly ti
cal results becom e fo r a given stru c tu ra l system . N o te th a t th e core sto rag e
req u irem en t increases rap id ly w ith a n increase in th e n u m b e r o f elem ent nodes
an d the n u m b er o f elem en ts co n sid ered in a stru ctu re.
7.4 APPLICATIONS OF FINITE ELEMENT MATRIX METHODS
T h e finite elem ent m atrix m eth o d h as a w ide ra n g e o f a p p lic a tio n s in stru c tu ra l

analysis. Its uses ex ten d to every en g in eerin g field, from sp ace stru c tu res to
land-based an d m a rin e stru ctu res.
Figure 7.5 Structural elements, (a) Shell elem ents; (b ) three-dim ensional elements.
7.5 C O O R D IN A T E S Y ST E M
T h e c o o rd in a te sy stem u sed h ere in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e finite elem ent m a trix

m eth o d is a set o f o rth o g o n a l axes, x , y, a n d z, sh o w n in F ig. 7.6a. T hese axes a re
referred to a s e ith e r th e g lo b a l axes o r th e lo cal axes, respectively, d ep en d in g o n
w h eth er th e stru c tu re o r th e elem ent is being tre ate d .
In th e fo rm u la tio n o f elem en t relatio n sh ip s, th e elem ent n o d e geom etry,
forces, a n d d isp lacem en ts a rc referenced w ith resp cct to th e local axes o f the
elem ent. H ow ever, w hen rela tio n sh ip s a re b ein g esta b lish e d for a stru c tu re , th.e
n o d e geom etry, forces, a n d d isp lacem en ts a re referenced w ith respect to th e stru c
tu re g lobal axes. See F ig. 1.6b.
Truss structure
x 2
(*)
Figure 7.6 G lobal and local axes elements, (n) C oordinate system: (/i) ,v, v = global axes for structure;
.*i, y i = local axes for element 1: v , . y j = local axes for element 2.
FINITE ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL/ANALYSIS 1 97
7.6 FORCES, DISPLACEMENTS, AND TIIEIR. SIGN

CONVENTION
T h e term fo r c c is used here to d e n o te b o th forces a n d m o m e n ts ; likewise, displace

m ent is used to m e a n b o th tra n sla tio n a l a n d ro ta tio n a l, disp lacem en ts. T h e forces
a n d th e ir c o rre sp o n d in g d isp lacem en ts a re a ssu m e d p o sitiv e if they a ct in the
positive d irectio n o f their respective axes, a s sh o w n in Fig. 7.7. T h e rig h t-h a n d '
rule is used h ere to represen t th e v e cto r n o ta tio n o f m o m en ts.
In fo rm u la tin g elem ent relatio n sh ip s, it is c o n v e n ie n t to a d o p t th e c o n cep t o f
g eneralized forces an d displacem ents as follow s:
/. L <5x
fl f,
h S. <53 (7.1)
u mx <*4 o,
/5 m, 9,
J* J _<56 _ J z_
F o r instance, consid er the elem ent sh o w n in Fig. 7.8. T h e force a n d displace-
LM ,, 0y
■e
F z , 52
M z, 6 ,
Figure 7.7 Positive forces and displacements.

m en t vectors a re re p re se n ted as
v r r / ,i ~&ix~
fz 4 <52 5iy
fz fj* <5*
k fjy s* tjy
fs fkx ds K
_ /« _ _fky_
7.7 STIFFNESS METHOD CONCEPT

T h e s tif f n e s s m e th o d , o r w h at is c o m m o n ly referred to as the d isp lacem en t
m eth o d , is b ased o n th e p rin cip le o f su p e rp o sitio n o f d isp lacem en ts. C o n sid er th e
plane stress p ro b lem sh o w n in Fig. 7.9. At ev ery n o d e o f th e solid such as i j , an d
k, there exist tw o p o ssib le tra n sla tio n a l d isp lacem en ts in th e x a n d y directions.
C o rre sp o n d in g to e a ch d isp lacem en t th ere exists a se t o f in d u ced forces at each
node. T h e m e th o d o f su p e rp o sitio n for lin e ar stru c tu re s sta te s th a t the to tal force
induccd a t a given n o d e in a given d ire ctio n by all th e p o ssib le n o d al d isp lace
m en ts th a t the solid elem en t m a y experience can be o b ta in e d by sim ple algeb raic
su m m a tio n :
/ i = / ! +f~ i + / ? + / f + / i + / ?
h = /i + /! + fi + fi + fi + /! (7.2)
f& = f e + / 2 + / e + /<s + / « + / *
fm = E / i = E /» (m = 1, 2, ..., 6) (7.3)
n —1 n= 1
w here = / ” = force in d u ced in the d irectio n o f c o o rd in a te force m as a result
o f the n o d al c o o rd in a te d isp lacem en t n a n d [„ is th e to ta l m co o rd in a te force
resulting from all p o ssib le c o o rd in a te d isp lacem en ts (n = 1, 2 , . . . , ) , as show n in
Fig. 7.9.
Figure 7.8 Kiement force and

displacement notation.
FINITE FJ.EMKNT STIFFNESS M im iO D IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 199
I, 2. . . . . 6 = possible
coordinate nodal
displacem ent
Figure 7.9 Plane solid with

three nodes showing all*pos-
sible nodal coordinate dis
placements <5„ (/! = 1 ,2 ,__ 61.
F o r linearly elastic stru ctu res, forces a re directly p ro p o rtio n a l to d isp la c e

m ents:
f= k 5 (7.4)
w here / = force *
<5 = d isp lacem en t
k = p ro p o rtio n a lity c o n sta n t
By utilizing th e basic relatio n sh ip in E q . (7.4), E q. (7.3) can be w ritten
L = I (in = 1, 2 , . . . . 6) (7.5)
n= 1
w here k,„„ is referred to as a c o n sta n t stiffness coefficient w ith d im ensions o f force
p er u n it d isp lacem e n t a n d is defined a s th e force in d u c e d in the d irec tio n o f '
c o o rd in a te m d u e to a u n it d isp lacem en t ap p lied in the d ire ctio n o f n o d al c o o rd i
n ate n.
In m a trix form , Eq. (7.5) m ay be re w ritte n as
/ r ki L Sl
fi &21 k 22- <52
h = ^31 ^32 k-33 sy m m etric '-53 (7.6)
u ka k .i2 k*3 ^4-4. <5*
h k 51 ksi k$3 ^54 ^55 <5s
h _ k f ,i k&2 ^63 ^64 ^65 ^66- <5*
or, in c o m p a c t m a trix form ,
(7.7)
w here { / } a n d {<5} a re th e colum ns o f force an d d isp lacem en t vectors, resp ec
tively, a n d {k} is a sq u a re m a trix o f the stiffness coefficients.
E q u a tio n (7.7) form s th e b asis o f th e stiffness m e th o d a n d establishes th e
co n d itio n s o f sta tic equilibrium .
F o r elem en t relatio n sh ip s, Eq. (7.7) ta k e s th e form
{/«} = M - y (7.8)
w here {/„,} = in tern a l n o d a l forces fo r m e m b e r m

{<5m} = stru c tu ra l n o d al d isp lacem en ts asso ciate d w ith nodes of m em b er in
{k m} = stiffness m a trix fo r m th m em b er
See Fig. 7.10a.

F o r a s tru c tu ra l system su ch as sh o w n in Fig. 7.10ft, E q . (7.7) becom es
{F} = [ K ] {A} (7.9)
w here {F} = stru c tu re ex te rn a l ap p lied n o d a l forces a n d /o r reactio n s

{A} = stru c tu re n o d a l d isp lacem en ts
[ K ] = stru c tu re ag g reg ate stiffness m atrix
E q u a tio n (7.9) set th e su m o f th e in tern a l e lem en t forces [ i f ] {A} eq u al to

generalized forces {F } a c tin g a t th e n o d a l p o in ts o f th e stru c tu re ..T h e ag g reg ate
stiffness m a trix [/v ] c an be fo rm ed by th e d irect a d d itio n o f elem en t stiffness
m atrices [fcm] ;
[K] = X [ f c j (7.10)
Ml—1
w here N = to ta l n u m b e r o f elem ents in th e stru c tu re u n d e r co n sid eratio n .

S ince E q. (7.9) rep resen ts th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een all n o d al p o in t forces a n d
c o rre sp o n d in g d isp lacem en ts, it m ay be co n v en ie n tly re w ritte n in a m a trix p a rti
tio n ed form as
'{ F 0r ■ { A J“
(7.11)
M . _ [K J ZKrrl
w here { F a} = specified ex te rn a l n o d a l forces

{F r} = u n k n o w n n o d al reac tio n forces
{A„} = u n k n o w n n o d a l disp lacem en ts
{Ar} = specified n o d al d isp lacem en ts
E x p a n d in g E q. (7.11) yields
{Fa} = [K JI 4 .J + M 'A } (7.12)

and
{ V l = [ K J [ A „ } + [A -J{ A r} (7.13)
E q u a tio n (7.12) can b e solved fo r th e u n k n o w n disp lacem en t {A„}, an d th e n

the re a ctio n s m a y be d eterm in ed by u tilizing Eq. (7.13). E lem en t in tern a l forces
a re d e te rm in e d fro m elem en t relatio n sh ip s.
T o illu strate, co n sid er th e sim ple tru ss stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 7.10ft. A ssum e
th a t elem ents 1 a n d 2 h av e cro ss-sectio n al a re as o f 4 v/ 2 a n d 4 in2, respectively,
a n d a m o d u lu s o f elasticity equal to 107 lb /in 2. As is sh o w n later, th e elem ent
re latio n sh ip s a re given by
Element 1 :
'f i x '' 0 .5 0 .5 0 0 0 .5 - 0 .5 ' * 1*

f>y 0 .5 0 .5 0 0 0 .5 - 0 .5 8 ij
f ix 0 0 0 0 0 0 $2x
= A y 1f>5
0 0 0 0 0 0 («)
Jly
fix - 0 .5 - 0 .5 0 0 0 .5 0 .5 ^x
- 0 .5 - 0 .5 0 0 0 .5 0 .5
Element 22 ::
J lx 0 0 0 0 0 O' p » ,l
fy 0 0 0 0 0 0 K
fix = 4 x 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 hx (b)
h>- 0 0 0 1 0 1 s 2V
fix 0 0 0 0 0 0 $3x
0 0 0 -1 0 1 L<53 V_
i tv
t" fix
fix
2
fl?
• r a = i o kips
Figure 7.10 E lem ent an d s tru c tu re relationships.

2 0 2 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES-
If we c a rry o u t th e m a trix a d d itio n o f the e lem en t stiffness m atrices in Eqs.

(a) a n d {b), the stiffness m a trix re latio n sh ip for th e e n tire stru c tu re becom es
* u “ 0.5 0.5 0 0 - 0 .5 - 0 .5 . , 0
R ly 0.5 0.5 0 0 - 0 .5 -0 .5 0
R ix 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rzy = 4 X 103 0 0 0 1 0 -1 0 (c)
10 -0 .5 - 0 .5 0 0 0.5 0.5 ^3*

0 4- - 0 . 5 - 0 . 5 0 .1 0.5 1.5_
E q u a tio n (c) m ay be e x p an d e d as
a
1
o
0.5 0.5 A3i

= 4 x 105 M)
.0 . 0.5 1.5 A3 , J
R lx - 0 .5 - 0 .5
R ly - 0 .5 - 0 .5
= 4 x 103
R 2x 0 0 *3,, (e)
0 -1
..F ro m E q. (d), after th e red u ced ag g reg ate stiffness m a trix is in v erted , th e
'd isp lacem en ts are
A3 i = 0.075 in
A 3y = 0.025 in
H a v in g d eterm in ed th e u n k n o w n disp lacem en ts, w e c a n calculate th e reac

tions from Eq. (e):
R lx = — 10 k ip s R lx = 0
R ly = — 10 k ip s R 2y = 10 kips
F ro m E qs. (a) a n d (b), th e in te rn a l lo ad s a c tin g on each elem en t are
Elem ent 1 Element 2
h x = - 1 0 kips f2 x = 0
/ i , = —10 k ips fly = 10 kips

f 3x = 10 k ips hx = 0
f 3} = 10 kips / 3, = - 1 0 k ips
7.8 FORMULATION PROCEDURES FOR ELEMENT

STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS
T h e elem ent stiffness m a trix re latio n sh ip can b e d eriv ed b y several different a p

proaches, all o f w hich will resu lt in a se t of a lg eb raic sim u lta n eo u s e q u a tio n s of
FINITE ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2 0 3
the form
(7 .1 4 )
w here { /} rep resen ts th e elem ent forccs, [£ ] rep resen ts th e elem ent stiffness
m atrix, and {<?} rep re sen ts th e elem ent d isplacem ents.
D ep en d in g o n th e type o f elem ent b ein g co n sid ered , o n e o f three m e th o d s
m ay be con v en ien tly selected to establish th e basic elem en t re latio n sh ip for finitc-
elem ent analysis: d irect m eth o d , m eth o d o f w eighted resid u als, an d energy m e
th o d s in co n ju n c tio n w ith v a riatio n al p rinciples. A lth o u g h to cover th eo ry d ev el
o p m en t is n o t th e in te n t o f this text, a b rie f d esc rip tio n o f th e first an d th ird
m eth o d s is presen ted .
D ir e c t M e th o d
T h e direct m e th o d o f finilc-elcm ent fo rm u la tio n s co n sists o f th e follow ing step s:
1. A set o f functio n s q is chosen to define th e elem en t d isp lacem en ts in term s o f

its n o d al displacem en ts.
2. E lem ent stra in s a re expressed in term s o f th e ch o sen disp lacem en t functions in
acco rd an ce w ith th e basic stra in -d isp la c em en t re la tio n sh ip s o f the elem ent.
3. E lem ent stresses a re expressed in term s o f th e d isp lac e m e n t functions in a c
c o rd an ce w ith th e basic strain -stress re la tio n sh ip s o f th e elem ent.
4. E lem ent n ode forces a rc expressed in term s o f elem en t stresses in acco rd a n ce
w ith the statica l eq u iv alen ce o f elem ent b o u n d a ry stresses.
T o illu strate, c o n sid e r th e sim ple elem ent sh o w n in Fig. 7.11.

T h e d isp lacem e n t o f an axial rod clem en t is d escrib ed by tw o n o d al d is
placem ents 5ix a n d Sj r , as sh o w n in Fig. 7.11. T h e d isp la ce m en t function qx(x)
m ay be ch o sen as a p o ly n o m ial w hich m u s t satisfy th e n o d a l b o u n d a ry c o n d i
tions
qx{0) = 5ix and q y(L) = 8Jx (a)
H ence, the p o ly n o m ia l m u st be a lin e ar fu n ctio n o f x \ th a t is,
qx{x) = C[ + c 2x ib)
or < /.v = [l C' (c)

S i.
Figure 7.11 Axial ro d elem ent.

T h e d isp la c e m e n t fu n ctio n qx in Eq. (c) can b e expressed in term s o f th e

‘elem ent n o d a l d isp lacem en ts b y using Eq. (a):
or
as (d)
(e)
w here jV£ = 1 — x j L a n d N j = x / L a re referred to a s sh a p e functions, w hich p lay

a m a jo r role in finite-elem eiit analysis.
A g e n eralizatio n o f Eq. (e) m ay b e w ritten as follow s:
,
8
{q} = l N i N j~ - N J Sj (7.15)
l^ j
or ;{q} = m { & } (7.15a)
w here Six
{5;} = (7.16)
T h e lin e a r stra in -d isp la ce m e n t re la tio n sh ip for a n axial ro d elem ent is given

by
tig*
= (/)
dx
By utilizing E q . (d), E q. ( / ) becom es
(9)
A g e n e ralizatio n o f Eq. (g) m ay be w ritten as
{.E} = [G]{<5} (7.17)
T h e m a trix [G ] c a n b e c a lc u lated easily o n ce the sh a p e function m atrix [ N ]

is determ in ed . y
F o r is o tro p ic m aterial, th e strain -stress relatio n sh ip for uniaxial stress is
given by
-
€* = ~E
or ' ax = Eex (h)
F o r a tw o -d im e n sio n al s ta te of stress, Eq. (/i) becom es
{Z} = [D ]{£ } (7.18)
w here {£} = |_ax a, TtjJ r

( 7 .1 9 )
{£} = le x e, ykf\ T
a n d [£>] is th e elasticity m atrix . T h e su p e rsc rip t T in E q. (7.19) d en o tes th e

tran sp o se.
In o rd e r to express th e stress in term s o f th e n o d al c o o rd in a te d isplacem ents,
Eq. (f/) is s u b s titu te d in to E q. (h):
- { - 1 a s
T h e g en eral form o f E q. (/) m ay be w ritten as
{£} = [0 ][C ]{(5} = [5 ] {5} (7.20)

w here [S J is th e stress m atrix .
A s a final step , th e stresses a re tra n sfo rm e d to e q u iv ale n t n o d a l forces. T h is is
d o n e by sim ply m u ltip ly in g th e stress by th e cro ss-sectio n al a re a A o f th e ro d :
or, in general,
m s
L .J jx J L
lo j (j)
{ /} = [ # ] { £ } (7.21)
w here [ / / ] is a m atrix w hich relates b o u n d a ry stresses to eq uivalent elem en t
n o d al forces.
U tilizing Eq. (/) in E q. (j) yields the final resu lt:
[£KU -iia
In g eneral, E q. (k) m ay be w ritte n as
i f ) = [H ][/)][G ]{ 5 }
or { /} = (7.22)
and {k} = [ H ] [ D ] [ G ] (7.23)
w here {k } = elem en t stiffness m atrix

[7T| = m a trix relatin g n o d a l forces to elem ent b o u n d a ry stresses
[D ] = m a trix relatin g stresses to stra in s
[G ] = m a trix re latin g stra in s to n o d a l disp lacem en ts
Energy Methods
T he energy m eth o d s in finite-clem ent fo rm u latio n s a re b a sed o n (1) w ork a n d
strain energy a n d on (2) co m p lem en tary w o rk an d c o m p le m e n ta ry strain energy
in c o n ju n c tio n w ith calcu lu s o f v ariatio n . In th e first case, th e m eth o d s yield the
elem ent stiffness m atrix , w hile in the seco n d th e m eth o d s yield th e elem ent flexi
bility m atrix . In this section, only elem en t stiffness m a trix fo rm u latio n is p re
sented.
From the principle of virtual work and virtual strain energy, the finite-
elem ent fo rm u latio n p ro ceed s as follows. T h e elem en t b asic re latio n sh ip s a re
{<?} = W W (7.15a)
(D = I W A (7.18)
{E ) = [G]{<5} (7.17)
T h e stra in energy a n d w o rk expressions are
' . i. U= L£J{E} d V (7.24)

Jy
an d ' ^ = I A |{ /} (7.25)
F ro m the prin cip le o f v irtu al d isplacem ents,
SU |_<5£J{2;} d V (7.26)
3W = ld 5 j{f} (7.27)
{<?£} = [G ]{35} (7.28)
w here d d e n o tes th e first v aria tio n .

By utilizin g Eqs. (7.17), (7.18), a n d (7.28), Eq. (7.26) becom es
dU = L ^ J [ G ] r [D ][G ]{ ^ } d V (7.29)
E q u a tin g the v irtu al w o rk to the v irtu al stra in energy yields
1A1 [ G ] r [Z > ][G ]{ < 5 } < /K -{ /} ) = 0 (7.30)
or
ra w = { /} (7.31)
w here [fc] is th e stiffness m a trix a n d is given b y
ra = J [g]t [d][g] dv ^ 7 .3 2 )
A s a n illu stra tio n , c o n sid e r th e axial ro d elem en t in Fig. (7.11), w here
- i r
[G ] = (<3 )
. L L_
-1
[G ] T =
L
I
(b)
L
M = [E ] (c)
T herefore, th e stilln ess m atrix from Eq. (7.32) is
" -1 "
L L
[* ] = [£ ] dV
1 1
L _ L _
JL —
L2 13
dA dx
-E E_
L2 L2
AE 1 - i
L ■1 1
w h ic h , a g a i n , is t h e s a m e r e s u lt a s in p r e v i o u s t r e a t m e n t s .
7.9 E L E M E N T S H A P E F U N C T I O N S
W e show ed th a t th e disp lacem en t sh ap e fu n c tio n s p lay an im p o rta n t role in th e

fo rm u latio n o f finitc-elem ent relatio n sh ip s. A lth o u g h stress o r strain shape func
tions m ay be .selected, in this section wc discu ss o n ly th o se functions th a t arc
based on the d isp lacem en t field.
T h e c riteria for selecting disp lacem en t s h a p e fu n ctio n s a re :
1. T h e c o n tin u ity o f th e chosen set o f fu n c tio n s m u st p rev ail th ro u g h o u t th e

elem ent design.
2. F ree-strain co n d itio n s th ro u g h o u t th e elem en t m u st exist u n d er rig id -b o d y
m o tio n .
3. C o n sta n t stra in o r stress c o m p o n en ts m u st be p resen t u n d e r the co n d itio n s o f
th e chosen set o f functions.
T h ere a re tw o m ean s o f arriv in g at sh a p e fu n c tio n s: p o ly n o m ial scries and d ire c t

fo rm u latio n th ro u g h th e in terp o la tio n tech n iq u e.
P o ly n o m ia l M e th o d s :
A ny fu n ctio n can be rep resen ted by a p o ly n o m ia l series as follow s:
® = I P. = L ^ JW (7.33)
n= 0
w here the p o ly n o m ia l P„ o f an y o rd e r n m a y be w ritte n in tw o dim ensions as
/’. = E W - y (7.34)
T h e coefficients C nl- a re generalized p a ra m e ters a n d a re ch o sen such th a t th e ir

to ta l n u m b e r is a t le a st eq u al to th e to ta l n u m b e r o f assu m ed n o d a l c o o rd in a te
d isp lacem en ts o f th e elem ent. F o r exam ple, in case o f th e ax ia l ro d elem ent, o n ly
tw o n o d a l c o o rd in a te d isp lacem en ts a re possible. T h erefo re, fo r th is case, th e
d isp lacem en t fu n c tio n m u s t be ta k e n as
9xix) = Po + P i — C 0o + C 10 * + £ ? i y
= C00 + C 10x = [ l (fl)
w here C t t is set eq u a l to zero because qx c a n n o t be a fu n ctio n of y.

E q u a tio n (7.33) m ay be rew ritte n in term s o f general disp lacem en t fu n ctio n s:
{q} = M e } (7-35)
T h e c o lu m n m a trix {c} m u st be d eterm in ed so th a t E q. (7.35) is satisfied for all
n o d a l d isp lacem en ts {<5}; th a t is
~ - {5} = [ ^ { c } (7.36)
and (7-37)
w here {5} = n o d a l c o o rd in a te d isplacem ents

[A] = m a trix w h o se coefficients a re c o n sta n t fu n ctio n s o f no d e co o rd in ates
{ c } = so u g h t coefficients o f assum ed p o ly n o m ial
H en ce E q . (7.35) becom es
{q} = l P J L X ] - l { t } = m { S } (7-38)
w here [ N ] is th e m a trix o f th e sh ap e function.
T o fu rth e r illu stra te th e selection o f d isp lacem en t fu n ctio n p olynom ials, c o n
sid e r a p la n e stress tria n g u la r elem en t a s sh o w n in F ig. 7.12. C o n sid er th a t th e
elem en t h a s o n ly th re e n o d al p o in ts, in w h ich case th e to ta l n u m b e r o f n o d a l
c o o rd in a te disp lac em e n ts is 6. T h e disp lacem en ts a t a n y p o in t o n th e elem ent a re
F ig u re 7.12 P lan e stress trian g u la r elem ent.

described by qx(x, v) an d qy(x, y), w hich a re th e d isp la c e m e n ts in the x a n d y

directions, respectively. Since th ere a re six n o d a l d isp lacem en ts, th e polynom ials
for qx an d qy m ust he ch o sen so' th at th e to ta l n u m b e r o f coefficient param eters
C fj-d o es n o t exceed th ree c o n sta n ts in each c ase; i.e.,
® = Q >o + C | 0 x + C n }'
T hen qx a n d qy will be o f th e form
qx = C t + C 2 x + C 3 y
qy = C4 + C s .< + C 6 y
T h e sh ap e fu n ctio n s a re d eterm ined in a c co rd an c e w ith E q s. (7.37) and (7.38).
7.10 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRICES
T h e stiffness m a trix fo r th e general b eam elem en t sh o w n in Fig. 7.13 c a n be

derived easily by an y o f th e related energy m e th o d s d iscu ssed previously. O n e is
C astig lian o ’s second th e o re m :
w here U* = c o m p le n ien lary strain energy

= strain en erg y for lin ear elastic stru ctu re s
3; = n odal c o o rd in a te d isplacem ents
f — c o rre sp o n d in g n o d al co o rd in a te forces
Figure 7.13 General beam element. r

F o r th e beam sh o w n , th e stra in energy is given by
Ml MI Ml S2 Zl
— - + — L H----- - + ---- dx ( 7 .4 0 )
E l, E It GJ AE A fi
w here M , S, a n d V a re th e in tern al m o m en ts, axial force, an d tran sv erse sh ear

force, respectively. T h ese in te rn a l lo ad s m a y be expressed in term s o f n o d al forccs
a t e ith er en d o f th e b eam elem en t:
M = g A fd S = g 2(fd V = gM )
T hus
U = G(f<)
T h e stiffness coefficients a re o b ta in e d by system atically giving each n o d al

co o rd in a te d isp lacem en t, o n e a t a tim e, a u n it value, fixing all others, a n d th en
calc u latin g the in d u c e d reactio n s. T h u s, if is set eq u al to 1 a n d all o th e r <5’s are
set eq u al to 0, th e resu ltin g re actio n s a re the stiffness coefficients k n {i = 1,
2 , . . . ,12). T h e coefficient is defined as th e force in d u c e d in th e c o o rd in a te
d irectio n i d ue to a u n it d isp lacem en t ap p lied in c o o rd in a te 1. By p erform ing this
o p e ra tio n for every p o ssib le d isp lacem en t, th e beam stiffness m atrix can be o b
ta in e d :
fu *1
f, 0 *4,
f>, 0 0 K , sh
M„ 0 0 0
0 0 “ *2j- 0 *3,
M„ 0 ^2* 0 0 0 **
0 0 0 0 0 ki **
fl,
0 -* 4 . 0 0 0 0 k+t *Jr
h,
0 0 — k+y 0 k Zy 0 0 0 **
4
0 0 0 ~ k5 0 0 0 0 0 k$ o*
0 0 — k 2y 0 Q 0 0 k 2y 0 *3, Ojr
0 fc2z 0 0 0 0 —^2* 0 0 0
y (7 .4 i)
N o te th a t from M ax w ell’s reciprocal th e o re m 10 for lin e a r elastic stru c tu re s, k tj =

k j ^ i j). T h is can be easily p ro v ed by co n sid erin g
D2U d 2U
dqt di]j ~~ dqj dqt
w here the o rd e r o f d ifferen tiatio n w ith respect to qt a n d cjj is im m aterial. In

c o m p a c t form E q. 7.41 becom es
{ / } = W{<5} (7.4 la)

w here
1 •
b b
L- _ £± / 1
4r — , „ *62 — ,
0 a5 b
. 2 L [}
/) = (f3 ((4 — a 2 = —— a2 =
/4 £ ' 2EL
13 L L L
° J ~ 3E lz + A 0 G E IZ Us ~ G J
T he fc,v ex p ressio n s c a n he o b ta in e d by re p la c in g th e su b sc rip ts z an d y in the

above definitions. T h e b a rs w hich a p p e a r in E q. (7.41a) d e n o te relatio n sh ip in
local axes of th e elem ent.
E q u atio n (7.41) is valid only w hen n o n lin earities, m a te ria l a n d /o r geom etric,
do not exist. W h en large disp lacem en ts a re e n c o u n te re d , th e stru c tu re b eh av io r is
referred to as geom etrically n o n lin e ar b eh av io r. In th is case, th e force equ ilib riu m
e q u atio n s m u st be fo rm u late d w hile th e stru c tu re is in its d efo rm ed position. T h e
stiffness m a trix fo r th e-g eo m etrically n o n lin e a r b e a m e lem en t b eh av io r can be
derived by any o f th e previously p resen ted m e th o d s in co n ju n c tio n w ith the
n o n lin ear slrain -d isp lac e m e n t relationships.
7.11 FROM ELEMENT TO SYSTEM FORMULATIONS
E lem ent fo rm u latio n s generally a re carried o u t in reference to an elem ent local

set o f c o o rd in a te axes .v, y. a n d f .T h e stilTness m a trix re la tio n for such elem ents is
{ /} = (7.42)
w here th e o v e rb a r d e n o tes reference to th e local axes.
S tru c tu ra l system s arc defined as an assem b lag e o f s tru c tu ra l elem ents which
m ay be ra n d o m ly o rie n te d in space. In o rd e r to fo rm u la te th e stru c tu ra l system
force-dispiacem cnt eq u a tio n s, all elem ent re la tio n sh ip s su ch as Eq. (7.42) m u st be
transform ed to a c o m m o n set o f stru c tu re g lo b a l axes x , y. a n d z.
F ro m v ecto r m a th e m a tic s it can be sh o w n th a t a n y se t o f th ree o rth o g o n al
axes .y, _v, a n d 5 c an be expressed in term s o f a n o th e r set o f o rth o g o n a l axes x, y,
a n d z by
w here ).xx = cosine o f an g le betw een x a n d x axes, etc. See F ig . 7.14.

In general, Eq. (7.43) sta te s th a t an y set o f th ree v ecto rs {T} in local coordi-
Figure 7.14 Local and global axes.
n ates can be tra n sfo rm e d to a v ec to r {F} in g lo b al c o o rd in a te s by
{ r} = K J { r } (7.44)
w here [A] is th e 3 x 3 tra n sfo rm a tio n m atrix given in E q. (7.43).

In a c co rd an ce w ith E q. (7.44), the follow ing tra n sfo rm a tio n s m ay be acco m
plished on an y force a n d disp lacem en t vecto rs { / } a n d {<5} :
{ /} = m } / } and {<5'} = m { « 5 } (7.45)
w here [ T ] is a m a trix w h o se d iag o n al elem en ts a re th e su b m atrices [A]. T h e

n u m b e r 'o f elem en ts in th e d iag o n al su b m a tric es d e p en d s o n the o rd e r o f th e
m atrix vectors { / } a n d {<5}. <
By utilizing E q . (7.45), E q. (7.42) becom es
[T ]{ /> =
or { /} = [T ] - (7.46)
w here [A-] is referred to as th e elem ent g lobal stiffness m a trix a n d is defined by
[fc] = [ T ] - ‘[fc][T ] = [ T ] r [/c'][T ] (7.47)

UNITE ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 213
w here Ihe inverse o f [ 7 ’J is its tra n sp o se :
[ T ] = [T ]r
T h is p ro p e rty h old s tru e fo r a n y o rth o g o n a l sq u a re m atrix .

O n ce th e elem en t g lo b al stiffness m a trix h a s b een fo u n d , th e g lo b al stru c tu re
stiffness m a trix ca n b e c o n stru c te d easily by sim p le alg eb raic su m m a tio n :
m = Z W (7.48)
i= 1
w here m is th e to ta l n u m b e r o f elem ents w hich m a k e u p th e stru c tu re . N o te th a t
in o rd e r to c a rry o u t th e su m m a tio n in Eq. (7.48), th e o rd e r of[fc;] m u s t be m ad e
c o m p atib le w ith th e o rd e r o f th e a n tic ip a te d stru c tu re m a trix [ X ] . T his c a n be
d o n e by filling zero a rra y s co rre sp o n d in g to all n o d al forces a n d c o rre sp o n d in g
disp lacem en ts n o t co n n e cte d w ith th e n o d es w h ich a p p e a r o n th e elem ent b eing
considered.
T o illustrate, c o n sid e r th e stru c tu re sh o w n in F ig . 7.15. F o r each elem ent, th e
stiffness m atrix e q u a tio n is fo rm u lated in a c c o rd a n c e w ith E q. (7.46). E ach el
em en t is identified by its connectivity. F o r ex am p le, elem en t 1 h a s connectivities
1. 3, an d 4 ; elem ent 2 has th e co nnectivities 1 a n d 2 ; etc. E ac h elem ent stillness
m atrix [A] is placed in the a p p ro p ria te lo c a tio n o f the g lo b al m atrix in acco rd -
© © ©
F igure 7.15 C o n stru ctio n o f stru c tu re re latio n sh ip from elem ent relations.
ance w ith its connectiv ity . E ach d o t m ay rep resen t a single coefficient o r a su b
m atrix o f coefficients if m o re th a n one degree o f freedom is being considered a t
the node. O n ce th is is d o n e for each elem ent, a sim ple alg eb raic su m m atio n is
perform ed w hich yields th e stru c tu re stiffness m a trix e q u atio n . A pplying the
b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s will resu lt in a red u ced ag g reg ate stru c tu re stiffness m atrix
e q u atio n w hich ca n be solved for th e u n k n o w n d isp lacem en ts. Back su b stitu tio n
of these d isp lacem en ts in to each elem ent e q u a tio n will yield elem ent internal
forces.
7.12 GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRICES FOR

SPECIAL BEAM ELEMENTS
T he space tru ss is sh o w n in Fig. 7 .1 6 a Its g lo b al stiffness m a trix is
<5;* <5,> <5;z <5;* <5j,
Rn
R ii sy m m etric
AE R u R l3 R l l Rl3 Rh
r a s l= ; -R u -R n R x 2 RuRu i? u (7.49)
— R h R s2 -Rh — R l2 R l3 R11R12 R*2
—R i i R u R \ 2Ra Ri 3 R11R13 R 12 R13 R f3
Xj ~ X;
w here R u =
L
y’i - y*
R 12 =
L
R i3 =
L = Kxj - xd2 + (yj - yd2 + (zj ~ ^)2l m (7.49a)
A — cro ss-sectio n al area o f m em b er
' E = Y o u n g ’s m o d u lu s
T h e p lan e tru ss is sh o w n in Fig. 7.16/j. Its g lo b al stiffness m atrix is
h- djx 5jy
Rh sy m m etric
AE
( 7 .5 0 )
W P, = RiiRu Rfi
-Ri. —Ri 1R12 Rh
-R11R12 -Rh Ri\R 12 R\2
"1
I
Figure 7.16 Beam dem ents, (a) Space truss element: {h) plane truss elem ent; (c) plane frame element;
(//) space frame element.
216 a ir c r a f t s tru c tu re s
T h e p lan e fram e is sh o w n in Fig. 7.16c. Its g lo b a l stifTness m atrix is
Six <>iy 6 iz < 5 <>jy G jz
a sy m m etric
b d
■
M Pr = c e f (7.51)
~a -b —c a
~b -d ~e b d
c e 9 —c —e f
w here a = jRu<Xi + R I i ^ az b — R n R i 2 a i + R 2 1 R 2 2 &4-z
c = Ru& zz d = R\ 2 a t + R 2 2 ®4i
e = i?22a 2i /= « 3 x ff = «6z
>y - r . R */ ~ *
Rl l~ L
Xi
2"11/2
L = [(x j - x , ) 2 + (} ’j - y j ]
AE G El. 4 £ /_
«2z = a 3*
L 1}
12 E I, 2 E I.
a 6z ~ '
I . = cro ss-se c tio n a l m o m en t o f in ertia

a b o u t z axis
E x am p le 7.1 U se th e finite elem ent stiffness m e th o d to analyze th e stru ctu re s

show n in Fig. 7.17.
C ase 1 P la n e tru ss problem T h e jo in ts a n d th e ir g eo m etries a re :

x coordinate, J’ coordinate.
Joint no. in in
1 0 0
2 100 0
3 100 100
4 0 100
HNITK ELEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
50 kips
(A)
Figure 7.17 Plane truss and frame structures.
T h e follow ing in fo rm a tio n is given a b o u t each m em b er:
Member no.
(and its nodes) ••1, ill2 E, lb/in’ I., in
1 d -2 ) 2 !07 UK)
2 (2 3) 2 I07 100
3 (2-4) 2^2 107 100^2
T h e ro ta tio n m atrix coefficients for m e m b er 1
* 2 - -V! 100
11 L 100
and * i2 = Z i^ 2i = 0
F o r m em b er 2, the vertical m em b er w ith >’3 — y 2 = 100 — 0 > 0,
R, | = 0 and R L2 = 1
F o r m em b er 3,
K n = V'4 ~ ** = 0 - 1 0 0 / 1 0 0 = - y / l / 2
V4 - .V’
Rn =
T h e k n o w n b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s a re :
Displacements: 6ix = (54v = r)u = <5^, = 0
lixternal f o r c e s : t ' 2x = 10* F 2y = - I 0 k
T h e g lobal stifTness m atrices [E q . (7.50)] a re
1 0 -1 0
0 0 0 0
M em b e r I: 2 x 105 («)
-1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0_
~0 0 0 0
0 1 0 _ 1
M em ber 2: 105 ib)
0 0 0 0
_0 -1 0 1_
0.5 - 0 .5 0.5 0.5

- 0 .5 0.5 0.5 - 0 .5
M em ber 3: 2 x 105
- 0 .5 0.5 0.5 - 0 .5
_ 0.5 -0 .5 0.5 0.5_
Since tlicre a rc fo u r jo in ts o n the stru c tu re w ith tw o degrees o f freedom

a t each jo in t, th e o rd e r o f th e stru c tu re stifTness m a trix is 8 x 8. E x p an d in g
each m em ber m a trix to 8 x 8 by ad d in g row s a n d c o rre sp o n d in g co lu m n s o f
zeros associated w ith jo in ts n o t a p p e a rin g in the m e m b e r itself, thus m ak in g
all m atrices c o m p a tib le in size w ith the stru c tu re m atrix , a n d th en using
m atrix ad d itio n yield
/
[k ]8 *8 = I W 8
o 1
0 0
sy m m etric
- 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 +
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0.
© 0
0 0 sym m etric
0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 +
0 0 0 -1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q
0 0 sy m m etric
0 0 0.5
0 0 - 0 .5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 -0 .5 0.5 0 0 0.5
0 0 0.5 - 0 .5 0 -0 .5 0.5
1
0 0 sy m m etric
-1 0 1.5
0 0 - 1 .5 1.5
(d)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 -1 0 1
0 0 -0 .5 0.5 0 0 0.5
0 0 0.5 -0 .5 0 -0 .5 0 .5 .
H cnce th e m a trix eq u atio n for th e stru c tu re becom es
"R u “ i 1 sy m m etric 0
R \y 0 0 1 0
10* - ! 1.5 (h x
°!
- 10* 0 -0 .5 1.5
1 °!
2 x IO5 * 3 ,
— 0 o 1 0 0 0 0
* 3 , 0 0 I 0 -1 0 1 0
R*x 0 0 1 - 0 .5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0
0 0.5 - 0 .5 0 0 -0 .5 0.5 _ 0
_ °l
(e)
T h e u n k n o w n s a rc S 2,x . S 2)., and all th e reactio n s R l x , R iy , etc. T h u s, ex tract-
ing the th ird an d fo u rth eq u a tio n s from th e ab o v e yields
1 10* 1.5 —0.5~|p2

2 x 10s 10' H -£ 1-5J U
In v ertin g the m atrix gives
&2x 1 "0.75 0.25] ' 10*] r 0.025"

U J _ 2 x 105 0.25 0.75J L- 0.25 _
T h e re a ctio n s from E qu(e) a rc as follow s (sec th e sketch below ):
R lx = - { 2 x 105)(<52.J = - 5 * R ix = 0
R ly ~ *
R&x= R* 5*
10 kips
T h e in te rn a l lo ad s a rc found from th e elem en t re la tio n sh ip s:
~ /u ~ " 1 0 -1 O' " 0 ' “- 5 * '

0 0 0 0 0 0
= 2 x 10s
fix -1 0 1 0 0.025 5*
-fiy^ 0 0 0 0 -0.025 0 _
5^.tps
5 kips 5 kips
t
3
1 ©
©
'fix *0 0 0 O' ’ 0.025- " 0 ”
0 1 0 1 -0.025 -5 *
fly = 2 x 105
fix 0 0 0 0 0 0
J iy _ 0 -1 0 1 0 5*
FINITE EI.l-MENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 221
J lx " 0.5 -0 .5 - 0 .5 0.5" “ 0 .0 2 5 ' “ 5*“

fly - 0 .5 0.5 0.5 - 0 .5 - 0 .0 2 5 —5*
= 2 x 105
S a-x - 0 .5 0.5 0.5 - 0 .5 0 —5k
_ A ,_ 0.5 -0 .5 - 0 .5 0.5 0 5*
C ase 2 P lane fra m e stru ctu re

T h e jo in ts an d th e ir geom etries are a s follow s:
x coordinate, y coordinate,
Joint no. in in
i "0 0
2 0 600
3 240 600
4 240 0
T h e follow ing in fo rm atio n is given fo r c a c h m em b er:

M em ber no.
(and its nodes) A, in2 I ., in4 E, lb/in2 L, in
I (1-2) 20 360 30 x !06 600

2 (2 3) 20 360 30 x 106 240
3 (3 4) 20 360 30 x 106 600
T h e ro ta tio n m a trix coefficients are as follow s:

M em b e r /:
222 AIKCRA1T STRUCTURES
M em b er 2:
*11 i Rn = = o
=
A / ember 3:
.\*4 — A*j >4 ~ >’2
Rn = = 0 R.,= = - 1
r -m = r Rn = 0
E xam ple 7.2 D eterm in e th e d isp lacem en ts an d in te rn al lo ad s lo r the

tru ss s tru c tu re sh o w n in th e figure. A ssum e £ = 1 0 7 lb /in 2 for b o th ro d s;
-4(rod I) = 4 ^ /2 in 2 a n d ,4(rod 2) = 4 in 2.
So l ut io n By c h o o sin g th e system axes as sh o w n , from Eq. (7.49a) the tra n s

fo rm atio n coefficients Ry for each elem ent m a y be o b ta in e d :
1
Element I : Ru =
U-V2 — -X i)“ + 0 '2 — J l ) 2 ] ' /2 ^ / l
. 12 [(.v2 - . v , ) 2 + 0 ' 3 - > ’.) 2] 1/2 y /2
Element 2: —y 2 < 0
.'. R , , = 0 R l2 = - 1
F ro m Eq. (7.50) the elem en t re latio n sh ip s a re the follow ing
Element / : a, = ^ = 4 n/2 x 107 10 0 ^ /2 = 4 x 10 5
0.5 S\
F] 0.5 0.5 6\
/ ’2 - 0 . 5 - 0 . 5 0.5 Si
F y2 = 4 x 10 5 —0.5 - 0 . 5 0.5 0.5 ,55 (a)
0 0 0 0 0
n
/•$ 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,55 j
FINITF- rj.nMr.NT STIFTNFSS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2 2 3
4 x 10 7
^
Element 2:
H
4 x 10s
II
_ 1
^2 1 0 0
p i “I ~ 0
FI 0 0 sy m m etric <p;
F'z 0 0 0 <5'I
p; = 4 x 10s 0 0 0 1 .0 <K (h)
/•'J 0 U 0 0 0
1.0
o
1
0 0 0 l «5j
C arry in g o u t th e m atrix a d d itio n o f th e elem ent stiffness m atrices in Eqs.
la) and (/>), the stiffness m atrix re la tio n sh ip for th e e n tire stru c tu re becom es
0.5 0
0.5 0.5 sy m m etric 0
10 * -0 .5 - 0 . 5 0.5 <51
0 4 x 10 5 -0 .5 - 0 . 5 0.5 1.5 (c)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 - 1 .0 0 1.0 0
E x trac tin g the tw o m iddle e q u a tio n s from (c) yields
" 1 0 *" 2 x 1 0 5 2 x 1 0 5 <5? (</)

_ 0 _ 2 x 1 0 s 6 x 1 0 s. .Si.
Solving for th e u n k n o w n d isp lacem en ts gives

ijl_ r2 x l0 5 2 X 105" ' 1 0 *'
.<5d _ L 2 x 1 0 5 6 x 1 0 5. 0
w here the inverse o f th e m atrix in (e) is
0.75 - 0 .2 5 '
10'
-0.25 0.25
T herefore the d isp lacem en ts arc
<5i = 0.075 in
S-l = - 0 .0 2 5 in
D isplacem ents k n o w n , the ex tern al re actio n s o n the stru c tu re an d the cle

m en t in tern al lo a d s m ay be found from Eqs. (c), (a), a n d (b). respectively:
- 2 x 1 0 5 - 2 x 1 0 r f 0.075" " - 1 0 4"

" R i/ lb
-------------------
- 2 x 1 0 5 - 2 x 1 0 5 [_—0.025_ _ — 1 0 4_
R ir.
0 T 0.075" " 0 '

Ib
_
4 x 10SJL —0.025. - 10 \
I
1
2 2 4 AIRCRAI-T STRUCTURES
Fi 0.5 0 - 10 4~
F\ 0.5 0.5 sy m m etric q - 1 0 4
n = 4 x 10 5 - 0 . 5 - 0 . 5 0.5 0.075 = 104 lb

.- 0 .5 - 0 .5 0.5 0.5 - 0 .0 2 5 _ 1 0 4_
> 3 “ ~ 0 0.075 ' 0 "
n 0 1 sy m m etric —0.25 - 10 “
Fl = 4 x 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 lb
-F l_ . 0 - 1 0 1 0 104
A free-body sk etch o f th e in tern a l lo a d s is sh o w n below .
104 104 lb
1I 104 lh
IUJ Ib
E x am p le 7.2 A ssum e th a t th e stru c tu re o f E x am p le 7.1 has rigid jo in ts as

show n in the ligure below . D eterm in e th e d isp lac e m e n ts and internal loads.
N eglect sh e a r d e fo rm a tio n , /(b ea m 1) = 1 0 , ^ in4, /(b e a m 2) = 10 in 4.
So l u t io n T h e tra n sfo rm a tio n coefficients R y arc o b ta in e d from Eq. (7.51):

Beam I:
1 „ 1
Beam 2:
H„ = 0 * 1 2 = - 1
Rn = l R 22 = 0
F ro m Eq. (7.51) th e elem ent stiffness m a trix re la tio n sh ip s a re as follows:

Beam I :
'F f 0.2003 * r
sy m m etric
n 0.1997 0.2003 si
Mt -0 .0 3 0.03 4 0]
F*x = io6 - 0 .2 0 0 3 -0 .1 9 9 7 0.03 0.2003 («)
FI - 0 .1 9 9 7 - 0 .2 0 0 3 - 0 . 0 3 0.1997 0.2003 iS
>*
°2
-0 .0 3 0.03 2 0.03 - 0 .0 3 J l .
Beam 2:
F i ' 0 .0 0 1 2
r * n
sy m m etric
Fl 0 0.4 55
M\ 0.06 0 4 01
Fi = 1 0 6 -0 .0 0 1 2 0 - 0 .0 6 0 .0 0 1 2 <51
FI 0 - 0 .4 0 0 0.4 °3
0.06 0 2 - 0 .0 6 0 4 J l .
As in E x am p le 7.1, th e overall stifTness m a trix re la tio n sh ip for the w hole

stru c tu re m ay be easily co n stru cted from Eqs. (a) a n d (b ):
R*x 0.2003 sym m etric

R? 0.1997 0.2003
FM ] 0.Q3 0.03 4.0
103 0.2003 -0 .2 0 0 3 - 0 .0 3 0.2015

0 = IO* 0.1997 -0 .2 0 0 3 -0 .0 3 6 0.1997 0.6003 (C)
0 0.03 0.03 2.0 0.091 - 0 .0 3 8.0
0 0 0 —0.0012 - 0.0012 - 0 .0 6 0.0012

0 0.4
1
0 0 0
a
o
o
FM \ 0 0 0 0.06 0 2.0 - 0 .0 6 0
w here F M d e n o te s fixed end m o m en t reactio n s.

E x tra c tin g from (c) the e q u a tio n s c o rre sp o n d in g to th e non zero displace
m en ts yields
~10 3 ~ '0 .2 0 1 5 sy m m etric
0 = 10 A 0.1997 0.6003 81 id)
0 0.09 - 0 .0 3 8.0 0 2 .
C a rry in g o u t m atrix inversion p ro d u c es th e u n k n o w n displacem ents:
p 3 l 7.415 - 2 .4 6 8 - 0 .0 3 7 1 ~1 0 4~ 0.07415 in
= 1 0 ~ 6 - 2 .4 6 8 2.488 0.01859 0 = -0 .0 2 4 6 8 in
-0 .0 3 7 1 0.01859 0.1249 _ 0 -0 .0 0 0 3 7 1 ra d z
N o te th a t for large s tru c tu ra l system s, the m atrix o rd e r becom es q uite

large an d th e c o n v en tio n a l m atrix in v ersio n a p p ro a c h is avoided. O th e r
m eans o f solvin g larg e sets o f sim u lta n e o u s a lg eb raic e q u a tio n s a re available.
T he in te rn a l lo ad s are calc u latcd from E qs. (a) a n d (h) a n d a rc show n in
the sk etch below .
9 9 ft2 Ib 99f.: Hi
I h ■in
3 4 lb
34 Ib
2 b 16 Ib-in
m 2 lb
PROBLEM S
7.1 In ihc following set of algebraic equations, R t, <52, unci arc the unknowns. Put them in a
matrix form, and solve for the unknowns. Use only matrix notation and manipulation.
Ri = S t - 52
p = s l + \.5S2 -0 .5 * 3
2P = - 0.5*2 + 0.5S3
7.2 A structure is acted on by the forces shown in Fig. P7.2. IT the materia! behavior is given by
ff - K t:\ where K is a constant, find the strain energy stored in the system. Neglect tiie dead weight,
and assume A E to he constant. *
t
t1 Uniformly distributed
Q
I load, p lb/in
t
t
XXXNX Figure P7.2
FINITE KLEMENT STIFFNESS METHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2 2 7
7 3 Find the m atrix relationship {Q} — for the truss structure shown in Fig. P7.3. Note:
Assume A E lo be constant and the same for both members.
7.4 Given the truss structures shown in Fig. P7.4, determ ine the following information for each:
{«) The external nodal applied loads to be used
(h) The known displacement boundary conditions
(c) The size of the element stiffness matrix
(c/) The size of the structure reduced stiffness matrix
Figure P7.4 (</) Planar truss; {/>) planar truss: (c) space truss.
7.5 Using the finite element m ethod, determine the reactions, displacements and internal loads for the
planar truss structure shown below. Show all the Jelails.
10 kips
Figure P7.5 Cross-sectional area = 2 in2 for each
7.6 W rite m athem atical expressions which will determine for any structure (a) the order of the
aggregate stiffness m atrix and (/>) the order of the reduced aggregate stiffness matrix. Illustrate the use
of the derived expressions on structures shown in Fig. P7.6.
(o)
Figure P7.6 (i/) Plane frame; (f>) plane truss; (r) space frame; (J) space truss.
7.7 Find the joint loads which must he used in the finite-element analysis of the frame structure
shown in Fig. P7.7.
AT = 100 F
F igure P7.7
7.8 Show how you would go about analyzing Ihe beam on continuous elastic foundation shown in
Fig. P7.S by using Ihe linite-elemcnl technique.
Ueam
1*7.8
7.9 What displacement functions would you use lo develop the stiffness matrix relationship for cach
of the element* shown in Fig. P7.9?
<«)
Figure 1*7.9 (c/> Axial rod element ideal i/cd into four
nodes; (/>) plate element (in plane forces only); six
nodes.
7.10 Find the strain-energy expression per unit volume of a structural m ember whose stress-strain
behavior is related as
a —fe"
where c and n are constants.
7.11 Find the total displacement of point 2 on the truss structure in Fig. P 7 .ll. Assume £ = 107
lb/in2 and cross-sectional area of cach member = 2 in2.
Figure P7.1I
7.12 The displacements for a two-dimensional solid arc given by
cl x — a i + ^2* + <7* “ h i + b 2 x + b 3 y
rin d the strain energy per unit volume of the solid.

7.13 Show the structure global axes and each element's axes for the structure in Fig. P7.I3.
;\\\\\ Figure P7.13
7.14 An axial rod element is idealized as shown in Fig. P7-I4. The displacement function f/(v) is
assumed lo be
qfx) = c, + c2.v + r 3x 2
How would you derive the element stiffness matrix equation?
Figure 1*7.14
7.15 Derive the stiffness coefficients for the element shown in Fig. P7.I5.
( '" “ ■r ) Figure P7.15
7.16 Illustrate by means of sketches the physical significance o f the stiffness coefficients correspond
ing lo the actions shown in Fig. P7.16.
Qi
Qi
Figure P7.16
7.17 Find the coefficients of the transformation matrices for cach of the truss structure elements
shown in..Fig. P7.17.
Figure P7.17
J-'INITK l-I.HMHNT STII-TNHSS MKTHOD IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 231
7.18 Find the equivalent nodal loads lo be used in the finite-element analysis for each of the struc
tures in Fig. P7.18. You are given that
AT = lOCTF, a = 10“ 6 in/(in ■°F)
/•; - i()7!b/in2 A - 10 in2 / = 100 in4
Figure P7.18 (a) Frame.
7.19 The radius of a tapered, solid, tubular shaft clement varies as follows:
R = R 0 , p — const
Assuming that only torsional loads can be transm itted, find the stiffness m atrix of the element.
7.20 The nodal displacements of the truss structure shown in Fig. P7.2G were found by the finite
element lo be
d2x = - 0 .0 2 in Slr = -0 .0 1 in
Find the internal loads on element 2. AE — I07 lh.
7.21 Determine the displacements and the internal loads for the truss structure shown in Fig. P7.21.
Assume a cross-sectional area of 1 in*1 for each rod and a m odulus of elasticity of 107 Ib/in2. Use the
stiffness method.
7.22 In cach of Ihe structures in Fig. P7.22, determine the internal loads an d the deflections. Use the
slifl'ness matrix m ethod only.
10 kips 10 kips 10 k ip s 10 kips
Kijjurc P7.22 (a) Rigid frame: all members are made or 2-in tubing with 3/8-in wall thickness, (b)
T russ: 2-in tubing; 3/8-in wall thickness.
CHAPTUR
EIGHT
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS
OF SEMIM ONOCOQUE STRUCTURES
T his c h a p te r p resen ts ap p ro x im a te m e th o d s fo r th e a n aly sis o f typical m em b ers

o f sem im o n o co q u e stru c tu re s. In h eren tly , th ese stru c tu re s a re highly re d u n d a n t,
and an a c c u ra te an aly sis w o u ld req u ire th e use o f a c o m p u te r in co n ju n ctio n w ith
the m atrix m e th o d s discussed in C h ap . 6 . C u to u ts, sh e a r lag, w arping re stra in t,
d isco n tin u ity o f lo a d s , etc. are som e o f th e fa c to rs w hich affect the accuracy o f th e
analysis, an d th eir inclu sio n is w h at m akes c o m p u te r so lu tio n s inevitable.
8.2 D I S T R I B U T I O N O F C O N C E N T R A T E D L O A D S T O
T H IN W E B S
M o dern a irc ra ft stru c tu re s arc c o n stru cte d p rim arily from sh eet m etal. T he m etal
is necessary fo r a co v erin g an d this is utilized fo r stru c tu re as well. T he thin sheets
o r w ebs a re very efficient in resisting sh e a r o r ten sio n lo a d s o n the planes o f the
webs, b u l u su ally th ey m u st be stiffened b y m e m b e rs m o re cap ab le o f resisting
com pression lo ad s a n d lo ad s n o rm al to th e w eb. W h en n o stiffening m em bers are
used a n d the skin o r shell is designed to resist all loads, th e c o n stru ctio n is called
manocoque, o r fu l l monocoque, from th e F re n c h w o rd m e a n in g “ shell o n ly .” U su
ally it is n o t feasible to have the skin th ick e n o u g h to resist com pression lo ad s.
an d stiffeners a re p ro v id ed to form scm im o n o co q u e stru c tu re s. In such stru ctu res,

the th in w ebs resist te n sio n a n d sh earin g forces in th e p la n es o f the w ebs. T h e
stiffeners resist eith er co m p re ssio n forces in th e p lan e o f th e w eb o r sm all, d is
trib u ted lo a d s n o rm a l to th e p la n e o f th e web.
W hen sem im o n o co q u e stru ctu re s m u st resist large, c o n c e n tra tcd loads, it is
necessary to tra n sm it th e lo ad s to the p lan es o f th e w ebs. Since th e c o n c e n tra te d
loads m ay have co m p o n e n ts a lo n g th ree m u tu a lly p e rp e n d ic u la r axes, it is neces
sary to pro v id e w ebs in differen t planes, so th a t th e lo a d s m ay be ap p lied a t the
in tersectio n of tw o planes. A fuselage stru c tu re , fo r ex am p le, has closely sp aced
rings o r b u lk h ead s w hich resist lo ad s in tran sv erse plan es, w hile th e fuselage shell
resists lo ad s in the fo re-an d -aft directio n . C o n c e n tra te d lo a d s m u st be a p p lied at
the in tersec tio n o f th e p la n e o f the b u lk h e ad a n d th e shell, o r else a d d itio n a l
stru c tu re m em b ers m u st be p ro v id ed to sp an betw een b u lk h e a d s an d tran sfer the
lo ad s to tw o such in tersectin g planes.
W hen a c o n c e n tra te d lo a d is ap p lied to the p lan e o f a web, a stiffening
m em b er is req u ired to d istrib u te this lo a d to the web, as sh o w n in Fig. 8.1a. T h is
m em ber sh o u ld be in th e d irectio n of th e lo ad , o r the lo a d sh o u ld be ap p lied at
the intersection o f tw o stiffeners, so th a t each stiffener resists the load c o m p o n e n t
in its d irectio n . T h e lo a d P sh o w n in Fig. 8.1 is d is trib u te d to the w eb by th e
stiffener A B . T h e sh e a r flows q t an d q2 in th e ad jac en t w ebs are a p p ro x im a tely
c o n sta n t fo r the len g th o f th e stiffener. T h e axial lo ad in th e stiffener, therefore,
varies linearly from P a t p o in t B to 0 a t p o in t A , as sh ow n in Fig. 8.1c. F ro m th e
/O o "
Figure 8.1
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SF.MIMONOCOQUR STRUCTURES 2 3 5
eq u ilib riu m n f the forces show n in Fig. 8.1/?, P = (q t + q 2)d. T h u s the req u ired
length cl o f the stiffener d ep en d s on the ability o f th e w ebs to resist shear, sincc a
longer stiffener rcd u ees sh ear flows <j, a n d q 2 . T h e end o f th e stiffcncr, p o in t A,
should alw ays be a t a tran sv erse stilTener. If a stiffen er e n d s in the cen te r of a w eb,
it produces a b ru p t ch an g e in the sh e a r Hows a t th e end o f the stiffener an d
un d esirab le c o n c e n tra tio n conditions.
In this e h a p tc r, thin w ehs a te assum ed to resist p u re sh e a r a lo n g their b o u n d
aries. In ac tu a l stru c tu re s, the thin w ebs m ay w rin k le in sh e a r, th u s in tro d u cin g
tension field stresses in a d d itio n to those c alcu lated . T h e effects o f tension field
stresses nre c a lc u la te d in la te r ch ap te rs. I t is fo u n d a t th a t tim e th a t the ten sio n
field stresses can be su p erim p o sed readily o n th o se c a lc u la te d by the m eth o d s
used here, a n d the m e th o d s used in this c h a p te r rem a in v alid for o b tain in g the
sh ear d is trib u tio n in tension field webs. In so m e cases, th e ten sio n field stresses
pro d u ced by w rin k lin g of the w ebs ind u ce a d d itio n a l ax ial c o m p ressio n lo ad s in
stiffeners. T hese lo a d s sh o u ld be co m p u ted se p a ra te ly a n d a d d e d algebraically to
(lie loads o b ta in e d in (his ch ap te r.
A stu d y o f a sim ple n u m erical ex am p le d e m o n s tra te s th e m eth o d by w hich
loads are d istrib u te d to sh ear webs. T h e b eam sh o w n in Fig. 8.2a is sim ilar to a
w ing rib w hich is s u p p o rte d by sp ars at th e en d s a n d w hich resists the lo a d o f
3000 lb, as show n. T h e stiflcner A B tran sm its this lo a d to th e tw o w ebs in inverse
p ro p o rtio n to th e h o riz o n ta l lengths o f the w ebs, since th e vertical sh ear a t an y
cross section o f th e b eam m u st be in e q u ilib riu m w ith th e e x tern al reaction o n the
beam . T h e axial lo ad in A B is show n in Fig. 8.2c; il varies from 3000 a t B to 0 a t
A. T h e axial lo ad in th e u p p er flange o f the b eam can be o b ta in e d from cither th e
.1
10 0 III'in , 200 Ill/in

(/>) .1
1301)0 III
Figure 8.2
b en d in g -m o m en t d ia g ra m o f the beam o r a su m m a tio n o f th e sh e a r flows, as

show n in Fig. 8.2b. T h e co m p ressio n at p o in t A o f 2000 lb can be o b ta in e d from
the sh e a r flow o f 1 0 0 lb /in for 2 0 in o r from th e sh e a r flow o f 2 0 0 lb/in fo r 1 0 in.
T h e c an tilev er beam sh o w n in Fig. 8.3 resists a lo a d R w hich has a h o riz o n ta l
co m p o n e n t o f 1500 lb a n d a vertical c o m p o n e n t o f 3000 lb. T h e h o riz o n ta l
stiffener A B m u st be p ro v id ed to resist the h o riz o n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f th e load , a n d
(he vertical stifTcner C B D m ust resist the vertical c o m p o n e n t. T h e in tersectio n o f
these stiffeners, p o in t B, sh o u ld be o n the line o f a c tio n o f R. T he sh e a r flows q x
a n d q 2 can be o b ta in e d from th e eq u ilib riu m o f th ese stiffeners. F o r stiffener A B
to be in eq u ilib riu m u n d e r th e forces show n in Fig. 8.3c,
10^ - 10q 2 = 1500
Sim ilarly, fo r m em b e r C B D to be in e q u ilib riu m u n d e r th e forces sh o w n in Fig.

83b,
5 qt + 10q2 = 3000
Solving the a b o v e tw o e q u a tio n s sim u ltan eo u sly yields </, = 3 0 0 a n d q 2 = 150

lb/in. T hese values also can be derived by analy zin g th e beam separately for each
o f the tw o lo a d co m p o n e n ts a n d th en su p e rim p o sin g th e results. T h e vertical lo a d
alo n e w o u ld p ro d u c e sh e a r flows o f 2 0 0 lb /in in each w eb while th e h o riz o n ta l
+5000 Ib
r-T-T-T— +3000 Ib
200 lb/in 300 lb/in
(c)
Figure 8 3
ANALYSIS OH TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 3 7
lo ad w ould p ro d u c e a sh e a r flow o f 1 0 0 lb /in in th e u p p e r w eb a n d —50 lb /in in

the low er w eb. T h e axial lo ad s in th e u p p e r flange m em b er, sh o w n in Fig. 8.3d,
co u ld n o t be o b ta in e d read ily from a b en d in g m o m e n t d ia g ra m o f th e m em ber.
T h e lo ad s consid ered ab o v e w ere assu m ed to a c t in th e p la n e o f th e web.
W hen lo a d s have c o m p o n e n ts a lo n g all th re e references axes, th e stru c tu re sh o u ld
be a rra n g e d so th a t th e lo ad s a c t as th e in te rse c tio n o f tw o w ebs, a s show n in Fig.
8.4o. H ere cach o f (he th ree co m p o n e n ts o f the force R is d is trib u te d to th e w ebs
by a stiffener in the d irectio n o f th e force c o m p o n e n t. In so m e cases, this is n o t
p ractical a n d a lo ad n o rm a l to a w eb, as sh o w n in F ig. 8.4b, c a n n o t be avo id ed . If
th e lo ad is sm all, th e slilTcner m a y be d esig n ed to h av e en o u g h b en d in g stre n g th
to resist th e load. In m an y eases, th e lo a d s a re su ch th a t it is n ecessary to p ro v id e
an a d d itio n a l m em b er, such as w eb A B C D in Fig. 8.4c, to resist th e load. T h is
m em b er sp an s betw een rib s o r b u lk h e a d s a n d c a n resist a n y lo a d in its p lan e by
m ean s o f th e th ree re a ctio n s F , , F 2 , a n d F 3 sh o w n in F ig. 8.4d. E ven sm all lo a d s
such as th o se from b ra c k e ts su p p o rtin g c o n tro l pulleys sh o u ld n o t be ap p lied as
no rm al lo ad s to a n u n su p p o rte d web. Such b ra c k e ts m ay b e a tta c h e d to stiffeners
o r m ay be located a t th e in tersec tio n s o f w ebs.
Figure 8.4
8.3 LOADS ON FUSELAGE BULKHEADS
T h e stru c tu ra l u n it w hich tran sfers c o n c c n tra te d lo a d s to th e shell o f an a irp lan e

fuselage o r w ing is c o m m o n ly called a bulkhead. B u lk h ead s are a tta c h e d to th e
w ing o r fuselage skin c o n tin u o u sly a ro u n d th e ir perim eters. T hey m ay be so lid
w ebs w ith stifTeners o r beads, w ebs w ith access holes, o r tru ss stru ctu res. F uselage
bulkheads u sually are open rings o r fram es, so th a t the fuselage in terio r is n o t
o b stru cted . N o rm a lly the chordw ise b u lk h e a d s in w ings a re called ribs, w hile
fuselage b u lk h e a d s a re called rings o r fram es. In a d d itio n to tran sferrin g lo ad s to
the skin, w ing a n d fuselage b u lk h ead s su p p ly colu m n su p p o rt to stringers a n d
red istrib u te sh e a r flows in th e skin. T h e first ste p in th e design o f a b u lk h ead is to
o b tain the lo a d s w hich act o n the b u lk h ead a n d th u s h o ld it in static equilib riu m .
In the case o f fuselage rings, th is step is sim p ler th a n th e n ex t p ro b lem — to o b tain
the u n it stresses from the loads. U n it stresses in fuselage rings an d sim ilar stru c
tures are an aly z ed in a la te r c h a p te r o n static a lly in d e te rm in a te stru ctures.
F uselage shells n o rm ally are sy m m etrical a b o u t a vertical centerline an d
often are lo a d e d sym m etrically w ith respect to th e centerline. T he fuselage b e n d
ing stresses can be o b ta in e d by the sim ple flexure fo rm u la / = M y / I , a n d th e
fuselage s h e a r flows can be fo u n d from th e related e x p ressio n derived in C h ap . 5,
(5.31)
In a p p ly in g Eq. (5.3!) to a sym m etrical b o x stru c tu re , often it is co n v en ie n t to

consider o n ly h a lf o f the stru ctu re , since th e sh e a r flow m u s t be zero a t the to p
an d b o tto m centerlines. T h u s, each term o f E q. (5.31) ap p lies to o n ly h a lf th e
fuselage shell. If strin g ers o r lo n g ero n s are lo c ate d on th e to p o r b o tto m c e n te r
lines, h a lf o f th eir a re a is co n sid ered to a ct w ith each side o f th e stru ctu re.
T h e fuselage ring sh o w n in Fig. 8.5 is lo a d ed by a vertical load P on th e
ccnterline o f th e airplane. T h is vertical lo ad P m u st be in equilibrium w ith th e
ru n n in g lo a d s q w hich are applied to th e p e rim e te r o f th e ring, as sh o w n in Fig.
8.5c. T he p resen t p ro b lem is to o b ta in th e d is trib u tio n o f the forces q. T h e
fuselage cro ss section ju s t fo rw ard of the rin g has an ex tern al sh e a r Va, a n d th e
cross sectio n aft o f the rin g h as a sh e a r Vb, a s sh o w n in Fig. 8.5« an d b. The. lo a d
P o n the rin g m u st be eq u al to th e difference o f these sh e a rs: ^
V .-V „ = P
If, for the m o m en t, th e sh e ar resisted by th e in -p lan e c o m p o n e n ts of th e strin g e r
lo ad s is neglected, th e sh e a r flows on the tw o cro ss sectio n s ad jacen t to the rin g
are
(8.2)
and
V> I y d A
<ib = -j- (8.3)
ANAI YSIS C)l TYPICA1. MFMRFRS OF SF.MIMONOCOQUF. STRUCTURES 239
T he load (/ tra n sm iltc d to the p erim eter o f th e ring m u s t equal the difference
betw een r/„ a n d qh , o r
<7 = Qa (8.4)
F ro m l:qs. (8 . 1) to (8.4),
<1 = V dA (8.5)
I
W hen the areas resistin g b ending of the shell are c o n c e n tra te d as flange areas
the integral is replaced by a su m m atio n , as in th e follow ing e q u a tio n :
= y I i'A f (8 .6 )
liq u a tio n s (H.5) aiul (8 .6 ) are correct even w hen th e relieving elTects of the ill-plane
co m p o n en ts o f the strin g er forces are co n sid ered , since th is sh e a r resisted by the
stringers m ust be the sam e on b o th fuselage cro ss sectio n s a d jac en t to the ring, if
the stringers have no a b ru p t change in d ire c tio n a t the ring. T h u s the difference
' r
W
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
in to ta l sh e a r forces, Va — Vb, m u st eq u al th e difference in th e sh ears resisted by

th e w ebs.
In m a n y cases, a fuselage stru c tu re m a y be sy m m etric al b u t th e lo a d s m ay
n o t be sym m etrical. A ny u nsym m etrical vertical lo a d m a y be resolved in to a
vertical lo a d a t th e cen te rlin e a n d a couple. T h e co u p le a p p lie d to th e ring will be
resisted by a c o n s ta n t sh e a r flow
w here T is th e m a g n itu d e o f th e co u p le a n d A is th e a re a enclosed b y the fuselage

skin in th e p la n e o f th e bulk h ead .
A fuselage rin g also m ay resist lo ad s w hich have h o riz o n ta l co m p o n en ts. In
this case it is n o t possible to find a w eb w ith zero sh e a r flow by inspection, as in
the case for sym m etrical vertical loads. It is n ecessary first to o b ta in all th e sh e ar
flows in term s o f o n e u n k n o w n an d then to find th is u n k n o w n from th e eq u ilib
rium o f m o m en ts, as w as d o n e in th e analysis o f b o x beam s. T he m eth o d ^ v ill be
o b v io u s after you stu d y E xam ple 8.2.
E x am p le 8.1 T h e fuselage b u lk h ead is sh o w n in Fig. 8 .6 . O n ly o n e -h a lf o f th e

shell is co n sid ered , as show n in Fig. 8 .6 b. T h e value o f P resisted on this h a lf
o f th e stru c tu re is 500 lb, an d the m o m e n t o f in ertia is fo u n d for only o n e -h a lf
o f the stru c tu re . O f course, th e value o f P /I in Eq. ( 8 . 8 ) will be th e sam e if
b o th values a re o b tain ed for the en tire stru c tu re , since b o th will be d o u b led .
S o l u t i o n T h e so lu tio n is show n in T a b le 8.1. T h e a re a s listed in co lu m n

2 a re (he to ta l a rea s o f strin g ers 2, 3, a n d 4 b u t o n ly h a lf th e a reas o f strin g ers
1 an d 5, since th e stru c tu re show n in Fig. 8 .6 b is b ein g considered. T h e
ANALYSIS 01' TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 241
Table 8.1
Stringer no. v' ■■h-y' V yA f y 2Af X yA , q, lb/in

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
I 0.05 34.0 1.7 18.5 0.925 17.12

0.925 10.20
2 (1.10 2-1.0 2.4 X.5 0.85 7.23
1.775 19.55
3 0.10 15.0 1.5 - 0 .5 - 0 .0 5 0.02
1.725 19.00
4 0.10 6.0 0.6 - 9 .5 - 0 .9 5 9.02
0.775 8.54
5 0.05 0.0 0.0 -1 5 .5 -0 .7 7 5 12.01
Z 0.4 6.2 45.40
cen tro id y is d ete rm in e d from th e su m m atio n s o f c o lu m n s 4 a n d 2:
L A r v" 6.2
j = = 15.5 in
1 Z Af 0.4
It is now necessary to o b ta in c o o rd in a te s o f th e strin g e rs w ith respect to

the c c n tro id a l'a x is. T hese values, r = y ' = y, o b tain ed by su b trac tin g 15.5
f r o m t e r m s in c o l u m n J , a r e s h o w n in c o l u m n 5. T h e t e r m s and A/ a rc
calculated in c o lu m n s 6 a n d 7, T he su m m a tio n o f c o lu m n 7 yields th e
m o m en t o f in ertia I. E q u atio n (8 .6 ) becom es
P V „ 500 V j
9 = y I y Af - M I >’A f
T h e values o f q a rc ca lcu latcd in co lu m n 9 a n d a re sh o w n in F ig. 8 .6 a.
E xam ple 8.2 T h e fuselage b u lk h ead sh o w n in Fig. 8.7 resists a h o rizo n tal
load as show n. T h e strin g e r c o o rd in a tes a re given in co lu m n 3 o f T abic 8.2.
Figure 8.7
Table 8.2
Slringer no. .X x* A , Z xA f 2/1 2 A q'
* *
'-v
(1) (2) (3) (5) (6) (V) (8) (9) (10)
1 0.05 0 0 0
0 0 140 0 + 16.8
2 0.10 8 0.8 6.4
0.8 15.1 100 1,510 ■h 1.7
3 0.10 10 1.0 10.0
1.8 -3 4 .1 100 -3 ,4 1 0 - 1 7 .3
4 0.10 10 'l.O 10.0
2.8 - 5 3 .0 160 -8 ,4 8 0 -3 6 .2
5 0.05 0 0 0
Z 0.4 26.4 500 -1 3 ,4 0 0
T h e a reas en clo sed by th e skin segm ents a n d the lines to reference p o in t 0

are in d icated by th e d o u b le areas listed in co lu m n 8 o f T ab le 8.2. F in d the
re a ctio n s o f the skin o n th e b ulkhead.
S o l u t i o n F irs t th e sh ea r flows a re o b ta in e d w ith th e assu m p tio n th at w eb

1-2 resists a zero sh e a r flow. T h e re su ltin g sh e a r flows q' are
= f I xAf ( 8 .8 )
T h e c alc u latio n s a re p erform ed in T a b ic 8.2. T h e value o f /,. for h a lf the

s tru c tu re is o b ta in e d in co lu m n 5 as 26.4 in*. If th e sh e a r flows a re positive
clockw ise a ro u n d th e ring, the force P is co n sid ered as negative in Eq. ( 8 .8 ), o r
, - 1 ° ° ° V' ,
q ~ 2 x 26.4 f
T h e values o f q a rc calcu lated in co lu m n 7. T h e se values arc o b viously

th e sam e for th e left h a lf o f the stru c tu re becau se o f sym m etry. T h e ysh e a r
flows q’ p ro d u c e m o m e n ts o f 2Aq' a b o u t p o in t 0 . T h ese m o m en ts are'”ca lc u
la te d in co lu m n 9. It is now necessary to su p e rim p o se a c o n sta n t sh e ar flow
q0 a ro u n d th e rin g so th a t th e e x tern al m o m e n ts o n th e ring a re in eq u ilib
rium . T a k in g m o m e n ts a b o u t O a n d c o n sid e rin g clockw ise m o m en ts a s p o si
tive, w e have
q Q X 2A + E 2A q' + 100C x 10 = 0
1000</o - 2 x 13,400 + 1000 x 10 = 0
or
q 0 = 16.8 lb /in
\ n a i .ysis n r t y p i c a i . m fm k f r s o f sf.m im o n o c o q u f s t r u c t u r e s 2 4 3
T he resulting sh e a r (lows q are found by a d d in g 16.8 to each v alu e in colum n

7. T hese values are sh o w n in colum n 10 a n d in Fig. 8.7.
8.4 A N A L Y S IS O F W I N G R IB S
In the sim plest type o f w ing stru ctu re, th a t in w hich the b e n d in g stresses are
resisted by only th ree c o n e e n lra tcd flange m em bers, th e skin re a c tio n s on the ribs
can be o b ta in e d from th e eq u a tio n s o f statics. T h ere will be o n ly th ree u n k n o w n
sh ear flows, an d these m a y be o b ta in e d readily from the e q u a tio n s fo r th e eq u ilib
rium o f forces in th e vertical an d d rag d irectio n s a n d for th e equ ilib riu m of
m om ents a b o u t a sp an w ise axis.
T hen th e in tern al stresses in the rib a re o b ta in e d from th e sh ea rs a n d bending
m o m en ts a t the v ario u s cro ss sections. N o rm ally , th ere v/ill be ax ial lo ad s in the
rib in ad d itio n to th e sh ears and b ending m o m en ts; th u s it is necessary to
calcu late b ending m o m e n ts a b o u t a p o in t w ith a vertical p o sitio n c o rresp o n d in g
to the n eu tral axis o f the rib. F o r the rib an aly zed in E x am p le 8.3, we assum e th a t
ail bending m o m en ts a re resisted in the rib flange m em bers a n d th a t all shears are
resisted by th e webs. W ith th ese assu m p tio n s, it is m o re c o n v e n ie n t to calculate
bending m o m en ts a b o u t th e n eu tral axis.
In the m ore gen eral case o f a w ing in w hich the b e n d in g m o m en ts are
resisted by m o re th an th ree flange m em bers, it is n ecessary to d eterm in e the
section p ro p ertie s o r the w ing cross section before the sh e a r re a c tio n s on the ribs
can be found. The p ro b lem is sim ilar to th a t o f calc u latin g re a c tio n s o n fuselage
bulkheads, but it differs in th e co n d itio n th a t the fuselage c ro ss sectio n usually is
sym m etrical, w hereas the w ing cross section seld o m is sy m m etrical. T h u s the skin
sh ear flows, a n d co n seq u e n tly the skin reactio n s o n th e ribs, m u s t b e o b ta in e d b y
the m ore gen eral m e th o d s w hich involve th e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia o f th e cross
section.
E xam ple 8.3 F in d th e sh e a r flows a ctin g o n the rib o f Fig. 8 .8 . T h e w ing

bending m o m en ts a re resisted by the th ree flange a reas sh o w n in Fig. 8 .8 a to
c. C alcu late th e lo a d s in th e rib flanges a n d th e sh e a r flow s in th e rib w ebs a t

a vertical cross sectio n th ro u g h flange a a n d a t vertical c ro ss sectio n s a sh o rt
d istan ce to e ith e r side o f the applied loads.
S o l u t i o n T h e re actio n s o f the w ing skin o n th e rib m u s t be in e q u ilib riu m

w ith th e ap p lied lo ad s o f 9000 a n d 2000 lb. F ro m a su m m a tio n o f m o m e n ts
a b o u t p o in t c a n d a su m m atio n o f forces in th e vertical a n d d ra g d irectio n s,
the follow ing e q u a tio n s a re o b ta in e d :
Z A fr = 9000 x 10 - 16&qac - 222qba = 0

X F S = 20qac - 20qba - 2 0 0 0 = 0
E F 3 = 9000 - \0 q bc - 4 qba - 6qac = 0
T h e so lu tio n o f these e q u a tio n s yields qba= 274, qac = 374, a n d qbc = 566 lb/in .
A t a vertical cross section th ro u g h flange a, th e stresses a re o b ta in e d by
co n sid erin g th e free b o d y sh o w n in F ig. 8.9a. T h e to ta l sh e a r a t th e cross
section is V — 374 x 6 = 2244 lb, a n d th e b e n d in g m o m e n t is
M — 2 x 24 x 374 = 17,940 in • Ib. T h e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n e n ts o f the ax ial
loads in th e flanges are fo u n d from th e b e n d in g m o m e n t as P x = P 2 =
M / 6 = 2990 ib. T h e low er rib flange is h o riz o n ta l a t th is point, b u t the u p p e r
m em b er h a s a slo p e o f 0.4. T h e sh e a r c a rrie d b y th e flange is th erefore
0,2PS = 1448 Ib
(£•)
Figure 8.9
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MI-MBKRS OF S1-M1M0N0C00UK STRUCTURES 2 45
Vf = 0.4 x 2990 = 1 1 9 5 lb. T h e re m a in in g sh ear, w hich is resisted by the

web, is Vw = V — Vf = 2244 — 1195 = 1049 lb. T h e sh e a r flow a t this section
is r/ = 1049//) = 178 lb/in. T hese v alues a rc sh o w n in Fig. 8.9a.
T h e stresses a t a vertical sectio n to th e left o f th e ap p lied loads are
o b tain ed by co n sid erin g the free b o d y sh o w n in Fig. 8.9b. T h e sh e a r a t the
cross section is V = 274 x 3 + 374 x 6 = 3066 lb. T h e b en d in g m om ent
ab o u t th e low er llange is M = 2 x 45 x 275 + 2 x 54 x 374 = 65,100 in • lb.
T h e h o riz o n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f th e u p p e r flange lo a d is P 3 = 65,100/9 = 7240
lb. T h e low er flange lo a d is o b ta in e d fro m a su m m a tio n o f h o riz o n ta l forces
as P4 — 7240 — 10 x 274 + 10 x 374 = 8240 lb. I t is o b v io u s th a t th e b en d
ing m o m en t in th e rib d ep en d s o n th e v ertical lo c a tio n o f th e c en te r o f
m om ents, sincc th ere is a resu lta n t h o riz o n ta l lo a d a t th e section. If the entire
d ep th o f a beam resists b en d in g m o m e n t, th e c e n tro id o f th e sectio n is used
as th e c e n te r o f m o m en ts, an d th e stresses re su ltin g from th e axial lo ad then
a re uniform ly d istrib u te d o v er the a re a o f th e cross sectio n . T h e vertical
c o m p o n en t o f Ihe u p p e r flange lo a d is 0.2 x 7240 = 1448 lb. T h e sh e ar flow
in the w eb is therefo re q = (3066 — 1448)/9 = 180 Ib/in. T h ese values are
show n in Fig. 8.9h.
T h e stresses at a vertical cross sectio n ju s t to th e rig h t o f th e applied
loads a re o b tain ed in sim ilar m a n n e r a n d a rc sh o w n in Fig. 8.9c. Since the
b ending m o m en t w as co m p u ted a b o u t th e in tersec tio n o f th e tw o applied
loads, (he value o f P 3 is th e sam e as fo r th e p rev io u s case. T h e axial lo ad in
the low er flange a n d the w eb sh ear flow d iffer from th o se sh o w n in Fig. 8.96.
E xam ple 8.4 T h e rib show n in Fig. 8.10 tran sfers th e v ertical lo a d o f
10,000 lb to the w ing sp ars a n d to th e w ing skin. F in d th e reac tin g sh ear
flows a ro u n d the p erim eter of the rib, th e s h e a r flows in th e rib w eb, a n d the
axial lo ad s in the to p a n d b o tto m rib flanges.
S o l u t i o n T h e d is trib u tio n of sh ear flows d e p e n d s o n th e sp a r-c a p areas. T he

section p ro p ertie s a re : / . = 200 in4,. l y = 800 in 4, Iy, = —200 in 4. T h e reac
ting sh ear flows on th e rib are eq u al to th e sh e a r flows in th e sk in o f a box
w hich resists an ex tern a l sh e a r o f 10,000 lb, b u t have o p p o site d irections. T he
change in sh ear flow at each flange a re a is fo u n d from E q. (5.25):
+ 3 7 5 0 lh (top)
-3 7 5 0 lh (b o tto m )
125 Ib/in
| 375 lb/in •
Figure 8.11
If we assu m e q positive ciockw isc, the follow ing values are o b ta in e d :
A q = —500 at flanges a an d b
A q = + 5 0 0 at flanges c a n d d
If a sh e a r flow q0 is assum ed in th e to p skin, th e o th e r sh ear flows are Found

in term s o f q 0 , as sh o w n in Fig. 8.10. T h e final sh e a r flows can be o b ta in e d
now from th e eq u ilib riu m of m o m en ts a b o u t so m e con v en ien t point, say
llange a:
200qo + 2Q0[qo + 500) = 10,000 x 5
0F q 0 — — 125 Ib/in
T h e sh e a r flows in th e rem ain in g w ebs ca n be found now from these

values o f (/o a n d are show n in the p ro p e r d ire c tio n s in Fig. 8.11. T he sh e a r
flows in th e rib w ebs are o b tain ed from th e e q u ilib riu m o f forces o n th e
vertical cro ss sectio n s an d a re show n in Fig. 8.11 as 625 lb/in. o n the left-
h an d w eb a n d 375 lb/in o n th e rig h t-h a n d web. T h e axial lo ad s in th e rib
flanges a re sh o w n in Fig. 8.11 a n d a re d eriv ed by a su m m a tio n o f the sh ear-
flow forces a c tin g o n the rib flanges, in c lu d in g sh e a r flows from b o th th e
w ing a n d th e rib w eb. A c o m p ariso n o f th e rib w eb shears a n d flarfge lo ad s
show n in Fig. 8.11 w ith those for a sim p le beam o f the sam e dim ensions
show s th a t th e flange lo ad s will be the sam e in b o th cases, but the web sh ears
will be different.
8.5 SHEAR FLOW IN TAPERED WEBS
T h e sh e a r flow in a ta p e re d beam w ith tw o c o n c e n tra te d flanges is co n sid ered in

Sec. 5.9, in the d iscu ssio n o f the u n it m e th o d o f sh ear-flo w analysis for tap ered
box beam s. T h e d is trib u tio n o f the sh ear flow in a ta p e re d w eb is considered n o w
in g reater d etail, since a larg e p ro p o rtio n o f th e sh e a r w ebs in an airp la n e stru c-
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 247
lu re are tap ered ra th e r th a n rectan g u lar. T h e sh e a r flow s in th e w eb o f the beam

show n in Fig. 8.12u are o b ta in e d in Sec. 5.9. F ro m E q. (5.30) th e sh e a r V„ resisted
by the w eb will be
(8.9)
w here the n o ta tio n co rre sp o n d s to th a t show n in Fig. 8.12. T h e sh e a r flow q m ay

be expressed in term s o f th e sh e a r ilow q0 = V Jh 0 a t th e free en d by the follow ing
e q u a tio n s:
(8 .10)
T h e d istrib u tio n of the sh e a r flow q a lo n g the sp a n o f th e beam is sh o w n in Fig.

8 . 1 2 /).
In m an y p ro b lem s it is necessary to o b ta in th e a v erag e sh e a r flow in a

tap ered web. T h e averag e sh e a r flow betw een the free end a n d the p o in t .x o f the
beam show n in Fig. S. 12c; can be found from th e sp an w ise e q u ilib riu m o f the
flange show n in Fig. 8.12c. T h e h o rizo n tal c o m p o n e n t o f th e flange lo a d is found
by dividing the b en d in g m o m en t q n h 0 b by the beam d e p th h. T h e av erag e sh ear
flow in this len g th , t/.,v, is th erefo re o b tain ed by d iv id in g th is force by the h o r
izontal length b:
'Ml
</.«.- = <fa J °r </„ (8. 11)
\
If th e sh e a r flow o n o n e side o f a ta p e re d w eb is k n o w n , th e sh e a r flows o n th e

o th e r th ree sides m ay be o b ta in e d fro m E qs. (8.10) a n d (8.11).
It is assu m ed in th e d e riv a tio n o f E qs. (8.10) a n d (8.11) th a t th e stresses
existing o n all fo u r b o u n d a rie s o f th e ta p e re d p la te a re p u re sh e arin g stresses. It
h as been show n th a t p u re sh e a rin g stresses can exist o n on ly tw o p lanes, w hich
m u st be a t rig h t angles to each o th e r. Since th e c o rn e rs o f th e ta p e re d w ebs d o
n o t form rig h t angles, it is necessary fo r som e n o rm a l stresses to act a t the
b o u n d a ry o f Ihe web. In o rd e r to estim a te th e m ag n itu d e o f these n o rm a l stresses,
a ta p e re d w eb in w hich p u re sh e a rin g stresses m a y exist a t all the b o u n d a ries is
considered. -
It c a n be sh o w n b y th e th e o ry o f elasticity th a t a se c to r su ch a s sh o w n in Fig.
8.13 m ay hav e p u re sh e a rin g stresses o n all th e b o u n d a rie s. U n d e r these b o u n d
a ry c o n d itio n s, a n y e lem en t su ch as th a t sh o w n will h a v e n o n o rm a l stress in th e
radial d irectio n a„ a n d no n o rm al stress in th e ta n g e n tia l d irectio n am . T h e
sh e a rin g stresses o n th ese ra d ia l a n d ta n g e n tia l faces m u s t satisfy th e e q u a tio n
K
° r 9 — r2 (8.12)
w here K is a n u n d e te rm in ed c o n sta n t. T h is e q u a tio n is sim ila r to Eq. (8.10) if th e

ta p e r is sm all.
By c o m p a rin g the se c to r o f Fig. 8.13 w ith th e ta p e re d w eb o f Fig. 8.12, it is ^
seen th a t the a ssu m p tio n o f p u re sh e a r o n th e to p a n d b o tto m b o u n d aries o f th e
tap e re d w eb w as c o rrect. T h e left a n d rig h t b o u n d a rie s also m u st resist som e
n o rm al stresses, how ever. T h e m a g n itu d e o f these n o rm a l stresses m a y be d e te r
m ined fo r th e M o h r circle o f Fig. 8.146. T h e elem en t u n d e r p u re sh e a rin g stresses
h as faces A a n d B w h ich a re in clin ed a t an angle 0 w ith the vertical a n d h o r
izontal. T h e M o h r circle for the p u re sh e a r c o n d itio n w ill have a cen te r a t th e
origin a n d a rad iu s x ,. P o in t A will be a t the to p o f th e circle, a n d p o in t C,
rep resen tin g stresses o n th e vertical plan e, will be clockw isc a t an angle 20 from
p o in t A. T h e c o o rd in a te s o f p o in t C rep re se n t a tensile stress o f xs sin 20 a n d a
sh e a rin g stress o f r , cos 20 o n th e v ertical plan e. T h e n o rm a l stresses obvio u sly
a re negligible fo r sm all v alu es o f th e an g le 9.
T h e e q u a tio n s for sh e a r flow in ta p e re d w ebs first w ere derived for th e w eb of
Figure 8.13
ANAI.YSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 4 9
a beam w ilh tw o c o n c e n tra te d flanges a n d th e n w ere sh o w n to b e ap p ro x im ately

co rrcct for an y w eb th a t resists n o n o rm a l lo ad s a t its b o u n d a rie s. It can be
show n by exam ples o f o th e r stru c tu re s c o n ta in in g ta p e re d w ebs th a t th e sh ear
flows m ay be applied lo th e w ebs by m em b ers o th e r th a n b eam flanges. T ap ered
w ebs often a re used in to rq u e boxes, such as sh o w n in F ig. 8.15. F o r this box, ail
fo u r sides are tap ered in su ch a w ay th a t the c o m e rs o f th e b o x w o u ld intersect if
extended. T h e enclosed are a a t an y cross sectio n v aries w ith x a c c o rd in g to
(8.13)
T he sh ear flow a t a n y cro ss sectio n , for the p u re to rsio n lo a d in g c o n d itio n show n,

is o b tain ed from
F ro m Eqs. (8.13) and (8.14) a n d from the v alu e o f th e sh e a r flow a t the left end,
q 0 = T j( 2 A 0), th e follow ing ex p ressio n for q is o b ta in e d :
(8.15)
7\.sin 2t)
c o s 20
t
I)
sin
lf I
Fifiurc 8.14
T his c o rre sp o n d s to th e value o b ta in e d in E q. (8.10) fo r th e tw o-flange beam . T he

sh ear flow q given b y Eq. (8.15) applies fo r all fo u r w ebs of th e box. C o n se
quently, th ere is n o axial lo a d in th e flange m em bers a t th e c o m ers o f the box,
since the s h e a r flow a t the sides o f th e box wiii be tra n sm itte d directly to th e to p
an d b o tto m w ebs.
In the stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 8.15, all four w ebs a re tap ered in the sam e
ratio , so th a t th e sh e a r flow o b ta in e d from F.q. (8.15) will be th e sam e for all four
webs. W hen th e ta p e r ra tio for the h o riz o n ta l w ebs is n o t th e sam e as the tap e r
ra tio for th e v ertical w ebs, th e sh e a r flows will n o t have th e sam e d istrib u tio n for
ail w ebs. If, for ex am p le, th e to p a n d b o tto m w ebs arc re c ta n g u lar a n d the side
w ebs are tap ere d , as sh o w n in Fig. 8.16, th e sh e a r in th e re c ta n g u la r web m u st
rem ain c o n s ta n t for th e e n tire len g th , w hile th e sh e a r in the tap ered w eb m u st
vary acco rd in g to E q. (8.10). T h e sh e a r flow for this stru c tu re w hich h as ribs only
a t the en d s c a n n o t be o b ta in e d from Eq. (8.14), a lth o u g h Eq. (8.14) is q u ite
acc u ra te for th e c o m m o n a irp lan e w ing stru c tu re w ith closely spaced ribs. T he
ribs divide the ta p e re d web in to several sm aller w ebs a n d d istrib u te sh ear flows
so th at they arc a p p ro x im a te ly equal in the h o rizo n tal a n d vertical webs.
T h e sh e a r flows in the ta p e red w ebs of Fig. 8.16 v ary acco rd in g to Eq. (8.10):
(8 . 16)
Since the flange m em b ers a t the co rn ers o f the box m u st be in equilibrium for
spanw ise forces, the sh e a r flows qa in th e lo p a n d b o tto m w ebs m ust equal the
averag e sh ear flows for the ta p e red w ebs, as o b ta in e d fro m Eq. (8 .11),
<7n — 9o (8.17)
Ih
a n d from Eq. (8.16),
!h (8.18)
h0
T h e difTbrcnce in s h e a r flows betw een tw o a d ja c e n t w ebs p ro d u ces axial lo ad s in
th e flange m em b er betw een these w ebs. A t an y in te rm e d ia te cross sectiqn o f the
box, th e in -p lan e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e flange lo ad s m u s t be considered ifi a d d itio n
to th e w eb sh ears, in o rd e r to check th e e q u ilib riu m w ith th e ex tern al to rq u e on
the box. A t th e en d cross sections, th e s h e a r flows a re in eq u ilib riu m w ith the
Figure 8,15
ANALYSIS OH TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 251
external torque. F o r th e left end o f the box,
(<7o + <7oWio = T
an d su b stitu tin g values from Eq. (8 .17) gives
<?.= „ (8.'19)
T his e q u atio n also can be-derived from the eq u ilib riu m of forces a t the right end
of the box
T = n/i ,(<:/, + qtt)
a n d su b stitu tin g values from Eq. (8.18) yields

T
a(h, + h0)
w hich checks the p rev io u s value. T h e d e n o m in a to r o f Eq. (8.19) rep resen ts th e

average value o f 2A for th e box, as m ig h t b e ex p ected from E q. (8.14). F o r m o st
co n v en tio n al w ing o r fuselage stru ctu re s, th e rib s a n d b u lk h ea d s are closely
spaced, a n d it is seld o m necessary to co n sid er the ta p e r o f the stru c tu re w hen
to rsio n al sh e a r flows a re o b ta in e d . E q u a tio n (8.14) m a y be used, a n d the sh ear
flows in all w ebs will be a p p ro x im a tely eq u a l a t a cro ss sectio n . F o r u n co n
ventional stru c tu re s, how ever, w here the rib s c a n n o t d is trib u te sh e a r flows, it m ay
be necessary to use m e th o d s sim ilar to th o se e m p lo y ed for the stru c tu re o f Fig.
,8.16. If the to p a n d b o tto m w ebs also a re ta p e re d , b u t h a v e a differen t tap er ra tio
th a n the side w ebs, th en th e flows m ay be o b ta in e d by ap p ly in g Eq. (8.10) to cach
web, eq u a tin g the a v erag e sh e a r flows for all fo u r w ebs, a n d then eq u a tin g the
to rsio n al m o m en ts o f th e sh e a r flows at o n e e n d to th e e x tern al to rq u e o n th e
structure.
8.6 CUTOUTS IN SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES
T ypical aircraft stru c tu re s w hich consist o f closed b o x es w ith lo n g itu d in a l stilTe-

ncrs and transverse b u lk h e a d s a re an aly zed in p reced in g sections. In actu al a ir
craft stru c tu re s, how ever, it is n eccssary to p ro v id e m an y openings in th e ideal

co n tin u o u s stru c tu re . W in g stru c tu re s u su ally m u st b e in te rru p te d to p ro v id e
w heel w ells fo r re tra c tio n o f th e m ain lan d in g g ear. O th e r o p en in g s m ay be
necessary for a rm a m e n t in stallatio n s, fuel tan k s, o r engine nacelles. F u selag e
s tru c tu re s often m u st be d is c o n tin u o u s fo r d o o rs, w indow s, c o ck p it openings,
b o m b bays, gun tu rre ts , o r lan d in g -g e ar d o o rs. I t is a lso necessary to p ro v id e
holes a n d d o o rs fo r access d u rin g m a n u fa c tu re an d fo r in sp ectio n a n d m a in te n
an ce in service. T h ese “ c u to u ts ” a re u n d esira b le from a stru c tu ra l sta n d p o in t, b u t
are alw ays necessary. O ften they o c cu r in regions w h ere high lo a d s m u s t be
resisted, a n d fr e q u e n tly 'c o n s id e ra b le stru c tu ra l w eig h t is req u ired for re
inforcem ents a ro u n d th e c u to u ts.
A sim plified ex am p le o f a stru c tu re w ith a larg e c u to u t is sh o w n in Fig. 8.17.
T h is c o rre sp o n d s to a w ing stru c tu re w ith fo u r flange m em bers in w hich th e
low er skin is com p letely rem oved. In p rev io u s sectio n s w e stated th a t a elosed
to rq u e b o x w as necessary to p ro v id e sta b ility fo r resistin g to rsio n a l loads. In
o rd e r fo r the stru c tu re o f Fig. 8.17 to be stab le, o n e end m u st be b u ilt in, so th a t
the to rsio n m ay be resisted by the tw o side w ebs a c tin g in d e p e n d e n tly as c a n tile
ver beam s, as sh o w n in Fig. 8.17b. T h e flange m em b ers resist axial lo ad s, w hich
have th e values P = T L j(bh ) a t th e s u p p o r t T he sh e a r (lows q in th e vertical
w ebs a re d o u b le th e values o b ta in e d in a closed to rq u e box w ith th e sam e
dim ensions. T h e h o riz o n ta l w eb resists n o sh e a r flow in th e case o f th e p u re
to rsio n lo ad in g , b u t it is necessary for stab ility in resistin g h o rizo n tal loads. T h e
to rq u e box, w ith w ebs o n all six faces, is c a p a b le o f resistin g torsion w ith n o axial
lo ad s in th e flange m em bers. H ence th e to rq u e box is m u ch m o re rigid in to rsio n ,
since the sh e a r d efo rm atio n s o f th e w eb a re negligible in co m p a riso n w ith b e n d
ing d efo rm a tio n s o f a c an tilev er beam .
In a full-can tilev er a irp la n e w ing, it is n o t feasible to have an o p en stru c tu re
for th e e n tire sp an , for the w ing tip w o u ld tw ist to an excessive angle o f a tta c k
u n d e r so m e flight c o n d itio n s. A closed to rq u e box is necessary for m o st o f thS
sp an , b u t m a y be o m itted for a sh o rt len g th , su ch as th e length o f a w heel-w ell
opening. W h en th e lo w er skin is o m itte d fo r such a reg io n , the to rsio n is resisted
T
h
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 5 3
by “ differential b e n d in g ” o r Ihe sp ars, as in d ica ted in F ig. 8.17fo. T h e axial loads

in th e sp a r Manges usu ally a re d eveloped a t b o th sides o f th e o p en in g , since the
closed to rq u e boxes in b o a rd a n d o u tb o a rd o f th e o p e n in g b o th resist th e w arp in g
d efo rm atio n o f th e w ing cro ss section. F o r th e to rsio n lo a d in g sh o w n , often it
w ould be assum ed th a t flange lo ad s w ere ze ro a t th e m id p o in t o f th e o p en in g a n d
th a t lo ad s o f P /2 w ere d eveloped at b o th sides o f th e o p ening.
T h e o p en box w ith th ree w ebs an d fo u r flange a re a s is sta b le fo r an y loading
if o ne o r b o th e n d s a rc restrain ed . T h e s h e a r flow s in th e th ree w ebs m ay be
o b tain ed from th re e e q u a tio n s o f statics. T h e m e th o d o f o b ta in in g th e sh ear flows
is o b v ious from a n u m erical ex am ple su ch a s th a t in d ic a te d by Fig. 8.18. F ro m
the eq u ilib riu m o f m o m e n ts a b o u t p o in t C o f Fig . 8.186,
. 10ff i x 20 = 10,000 x 10 + 2000 x 5 + 40,000
or qi = 750 lb /in
F ro m the e q u ilib riu m o f vertical forces,

10y3 + 10 x 750 = 10,000
or q 3 — 250 lb /in
Sim ilarly, from the eq u ilib riu m o f h o riz o n ta l forces,
20 q2 = 2000
or 52 = 100 lb /in
T h e axial lo ad s in th e flange m em bers can b e fo u n d from a su m m a tio n of sp an -
wise forces:
P„ = 4 0 ta = 3 0 ,0 0 0 lb
ph = 4 0 c /j + 4 0 f/, = 3 4 ,0 0 0 Ib
pc = 4 0 < /3 - 4 0 c /2 = 6000 lb
pd = 4 0 < j3 = 1 0 ,0 0 0 lb
10.000 Ib
Figure 8.18
W hile these forces satisfy the c o n d itio n s for sta tic eq u ilib riu m , they c a n n o t be
o b tain ed Irom th e flexure form ula. F o r a n o p e n b eam c o n ta in in g only four flange
m em bers, the flange lo ad s are in d ep en d e n t o f th e flange areas. If th e beam has
m o re th an fo u r flanges, o n e m u st co n sid e r th e flange a re a s in estim atin g the
d istrib u tio n o f axial lo ad s. T h is p ro b lem is sta tic a lly in d eterm in ate, a n d usually it
is solved by a p p ro x im a te m ethods.
A c u to u t in a sh o rt len g th o f the w ing stru c tu re aficcts the sh ear flows in th e
ad jac en t sectio n s o f th e w ing w hich have closed to rq u e boxes. F irst c o n sid er a
case in w hich the w ing resists p u re to rsio n . T he sh e a r flow in a c o n tin u o u s elosed
box is
9. = ^ (8 .2 0 )
<9
T his e q u a tio n is d eriv ed from the a ssu m p tio n th a t the flange m em bers resist no
axial loads. At the edges o f the c u to u t, how ever, the flange lo ad s resulting from
differential b en d in g have th eir m axim um values. T hese flange lo ad s are d is
trib u ted to the w ebs, a n d a t som e d istan c e from the c u to u t, the flange lo ad s
becom e zero fo r th e box in p u re to rsio n . T h e d ista n c e a lo n g the sp an required for
the d istrib u tio n o f th e flange lo ad s d ep en d s o n th e relativ e rigidities of the m em
bers, but it will be a p p ro x im a te ly equal to th e w idth o f the cu to u t. T h e sh e a r
flows in the to rq u e b o x a re affected co n sid erab ly by this d istrib u tio n o f load.
T h e re c ta n g u la r to rq u e b o x sh o w n in Fig. 8.19a resists p u re torsion. T h e
low er skin is c u t o u t for the e n tire w id th o f the box, for a length L. T h e effect o f
the c u to u t is a ssu m ed to exten d a d istan ce L alo n g th e sp a n on c ith e r side o f the
c u to u t; therefore, it is n ecessary to co n sid er only the len g th 3 L, w hich is show n.
T h e sh ear flows at the sectio n th ro u g h the c u to u t are sim ilar to those o b ta in e d in
Fig. 8.17b, o r they will be ze ro in th e u p p e r skin a n d 2q, in the sp a r w ebs, w here
q, is the sh e a r flow in a c o n tin u o u s box, as o b ta in e d from Eq. (8.20). T he axial
lo ad s P in th e sp a r flanges a re assu m ed to b e e q u a l on th e in b o a rd a n d o u tb o a rd
sides o f the c u to u t a n d th u s are h alf th e value sh o w n in Fig. 8.17b, or
P = q ,L (8.21)
T his axial load m u st be tran sferred to the w ebs a d ja c en t to th e flange in th e

assum ed length L. F ro m the eq u ilib riu m o f th e flange m e m b er sh o w n în Fig.
8.19ft,
q J .-q .L ^ -P (8.22)
or. from Eqs. (8.21) a n d (8.22),
<Zi - < 7 2 = <7, (8 -2 3 )
T h e sh ear flows q t a n d q 2 m u st satisfy th e c o n d itio n s o f eq u ilib riu m o f th e

stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 8.19c-. F o r th e vertical forces to b e in e q u ilib riu m a t a
cross scction, th e sh e a r flows in th e sp a rs m u s t have eq u al a n d o p p o site values
</2. F o r h o riz o n ta l forces to be in eq u ilib riu m , the sh e a r flows in to p a n d b o tto m
skins m ust have e q u a l an d o p p o site v alues q t . F o r the sh e a r flows in all fo u r
w ebs to react the to rq u e T , th e follow ing co n d itio n m ust be satisfied:
ANALYSIS O!' TYPICAL VliMKIiRS OK SKMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTUKUS 2 5 5
1/ t A + q2 A = T
o r, from Fq. {8.20),

< h + < h = 2qt (8.24)
Solving Eqs. (8.23) a n d (8.24) yields

</, = I -5f/, and </2 = 0 . 5 q,
T he values of llic.sc sh e a r flows arc show n in p a re n th e ses in Fig. 8.19a.
F ro m these resu ltin g values of sh ear flow s q x a n d q2 , th e c u to u t is seen to
have a serio u s effect o n th e sh e a r flows in th e clo sed to rq u e boxes a d jac en t to tn e
cu to u t. T h e to p an d b o tto m skins h av e sh e a r flow s o f l i tim es th e m ag n itu d e o f
those for a c o n tin u o u s b o x , while the sh e a r flows in th e sp ars are only o n e-h alf as
m uch. T h e ribs ad ja c e n t to the c u to u t also resist h igh sh e a r flows. T he rib ju s t
o u tb o a rd o f the c u to u t is sh o w n in F ig. 8.19cZ. T h e rib receives th e sh ear flow o f
].5</( from the to p a n d b o tto m skins of th e to rq u e b o x . T h e sp a rs transfer sh e a r
flows of Iq , from ih e c u to u t section an d 0.5r/, from th e to rq u e box section. Since
Figure 8.19
the sh e a f flows a re in o p p o site d irectio n s, th e re su ltan t sh e a r flow ap p lied to the

rib is 1.5q,.
T h e p ro b lem o f a b o x b eam ’s resistin g a m o re gen eral co n d itio n o f lo ad in g
usually is analyz ed b y a n o th e r m eth o d . T h e m e th o d em p lo y ed for the stru c tu re
resistin g p u re to rsio n becom es m o re difficult w hen th e s p a r flanges resist axial
lo a d s resu ltin g fro m w in g b en d in g in a d d itio n to th o se resu ltin g from th e differ
en tial bending. T h e c o m m o n p ro c e d u re for th e general c a se is first to analyze th e
c o n tin u o u s w ing stru c tu re as if th ere w ere n o c u to u t. T h e n a system o f co rrectin g
sh e a r (low s m u s t b e o b ta in e d an d su p erim p o sed o n th e o rig in al sh e a r flows found
for the c o n tin u o u s stru c tu re . In fin d in g th e c o rre ctin g s h e a r flows, o n ly a s h o rt
length on e ith e r side o f th e c u to u t need be co n sid ered , sin ce the lo a d s ap p lied to
th e w in g in arriv in g a t th ese sh e a r flows a re in eq u ilib riu m w ith them selves. O n e
o f th e estab lish ed p rin cip les o f m echanics, fo rm u lated by S ain t V en an t, states th a t
the stresses resu ltin g fro m such a system o f forces w ill be negligible a t a d istan ce
from th e forces. T h e d ista n c e is a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l to th e w idth o f th e opening.
T h e m e th o d o f o b ta in in g c o rrec tin g sh e a r flow s is illu strate d for the w ing
stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 8.20. T h e w ing is assum ed to h a v e a c o n sta n t sh e a r o f
30,000 lb in th e vertical d ire c tio n a n d —9000 lb in th e ch ordw ise d irectio n for the
en tire len g th from sta tio n 30 (30 in from th e a irp la n e centerline) to sta tio n 120.
T h e lo w er skin is rem o v ed fo r the e n tire w id th betw een th e sp ars from sta tio n 60
to sta tio n 90. T h e w ing b en d in g m o m e n ts affect th e flange lo ad s b u t n o t th e sh e a r
flows; therefore, th e b en d in g m o m e n ts a re n o t co n sid ered . T h e d im ensions o f the
cro ss sectio n a rc sh o w n in Fig. 8.20b. T h e sh e a r flows in th e co n tin u o u s elosed
box w ith n o c u to u t a re sh o w n in Fig. 8.20c. T hese a re co m p u te d by th e m e th o d s
discussed in C h a p . 7, a n d th e c o m p u ta tio n s a re n o t discussed here. Since the
ex tern al sh e a r is c o n sta n t, the sh ea r flows in all w ebs betw een sta tio n s 30 a n d 120
w ould h av e th e values sh o w n in Fig. 8.20c if th ere w ere n o c u to u t.'
T h e c o rrectin g sh e a r flows a re n o w found by a p p ly in g the loads of 660 lb/in
in th e c u to u t reg io n , as sh o w n in Fig. 8.21«, a n d fin d in g the sh ear flows in th e
rem ain in g w ebs. It is o b v io u s th a t th e lo ad s o f 660 lb/in a ro u n d all fo u r sides o f
the c u to u t a re in e q u ilib riu m w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h e s h e a r flows a t the cross
sectio n th ro u g h th e c u to u t a re a ssu m ed to be q ,, q 2 , a n d q 3 , as sh o w n in Fig.
8 . 2 1 ft, a n d m u st have a re su lta n t eq u al to th e applied lo a d o f 660 lb /in ,a t the
low er skin. F ro m a su m m a tio n o f h o riz o n ta l forces,
30<72 = 30 x 660
or
q 2 = 660 lb/in
F ro m a su m m a tio n of m o m e n ts a b o u t p o in t O o f Fig. 8.20b,
2 x 90 x 660 = 2 x 75 x j/, — 2 x 200 x 660 + 2 x 90 x q 3
S olving these e q u a tio n s sim u ltan eo u sly yields q , = 1340 lb/in an d q 3 = 1010
lb/in. T h ese co rre c tin g sh e a r flows a re sh o w n in Fig. 8.21« for the stru c tu re
betw een sta tio n s 60 a n d 90. T h e final sh e a r flows in th e c u to u t region a re now
ANALYSIS Ol- TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 5 7
Station .'0
Station
Station
S ta tio n 120
3 0 .0 0 0 lh
30,000 lb
Figure 8.20
o b tain ed by su p e rim p o sin g ihe values sh o w n in F ig. 8.20c a n d 8.21a. T his su p e r

p osition yields a sh e a r flow of 300 lb/in in the u p p e r skin, 1930 lb/in in the fro n t
sp a r w eb, a n d 940 Ib/in in ihe rear sp a r w eb, a s sh o w n in parentheses o n Fig.
8.20 a.
T h e c o rr o d in g sh e a r flows betw een sta tio n s 90 a n d 120 arc found from th e
equilibrium o f the forces o n a cross section. T h e sh e a r flow s are show n in f‘ig.
8 . 2 1 c, an d th e follow in g e q u atio n s are d erived from th e e q u ilib riu m of the sh ear
flows on the cro ss scctio n :
Z F . = 30(is - 30<7? = 0
Z F r = IO< / 4 + 2f/s - 12</(, = 0
EM „ = 2 x 75c/ 4 + 2 x 200qs + 2 x 90q6 + 2 x 90q7 = 0
O n e ad d itio n a l e q u a tio n m ay be derived from th e sp an w ise equilibrium of

forces on on e o f (he flange areas. F o r the flange m e m b e r show n in Fig. 8.21 cl, the
axial load a t sta tio n 90 is o b tain ed by a ssu m in g no axial lo ad s at the cun ter o f
the c u to u t, s ta tio n 75. F ro m th e sh e a r (lows sh o w n in Fig. 8.21a,
P = 15( 1340 + 660) = 30,000 lb. F rom Fig. 8.2 Id, ’*
30q 7 ~ 30q4 = 30,000
Solving these fo u r e q u a tio n s sim u lta n e o u sly yields qA = —670, q s = 330, q„ =

- 505, a n d cj7 = 330 lb/in . T hese v alues o f th e co rre c tin g sh ears are sh o w n in Fig.
8 .2 lo. T h e final sh e a r flows a rc o b ta in e d by su p e rim p o sin g the co rrectin g sh e a r
12
<n <n
U)
<!’>
990 Ib/in
Figure 8.21
ANALYSIS 0 ): TYPICAL MKMBEKS OH SEM1MONOCOQUH, STRUCTURE 259
flows an d th o se for th e c o n tin u o u s stru c tu re, sh o w n in F ig. 8.20c. T h e corrected

values are show n in p a ren th eses o n Fig. 8.20a.
T he lo ad s a c tin g o n th e rib a t sta tio n 90 a re fo u n d from th e differences in
sh ear flow on th e tw o sides o f the rib a n d sh o w n in F ig. 8.21 e. T h e sh ear flows
transferred to the rib by th e w ing skin a rc seen to be g re a te r th a n the sh ear flows
in the skin, since the skin sh ears a ct in th e sam e d ire c tio n o n th e rib an d m u st be
a dded. T h e rib at sta tio n 60 will resist the sam e lo a d s as th e rib at sta tio n 90, but
the d irectio n s o f all lo ad s will be reversed.
C u to u ts in fuselage stru ctu re s are tre a te d in essen tially th e sam e m an n e r as
c u to u ts in w ing stru c tu re s. Fuselage stru c tu re s u su ally h av e lig h ter stringers and
skin and resist sm aller lo ad s, p articu larly to rsio n a l loads. T h e to rsio n a l rigidity of
fuselages is n o t as im p o rta n t as th e to rsio n a l rig id ity o f w ings, a lth o u g h flutter
problem s m ay d evelo p in high-speed aircraft if th e fuselage is to o flexible to r-
sionally. F uselage stru c tu re s often a re o p en for a large p ro p o rtio n o f th eir length
in o rd er to perm it lo n g c o ck p it openings o r lo n g b o m b bays. T hese stru ctu res are
able to resist the to rsio n a l loads by differential b en d in g o f the sides o f the fuse
lage.
F uselages o f larg e p assenger a irp lan e s often c o n ta in ro w s ot w indow s, as
show n in Fig. 8 .2 2 . If these w indow s a rc eq u ally sp aced a n d have equal sizes, the
sh ear flows in w ebs a d ja c e n t to the w in d o w s can be o b ta in e d in term s o f the
average sh e a r flow q 0 w hich w ould exist in a c o n tin u o u s stru c tu re w ith n o
w indow s. If ihe w in d o w s have a sp a c in g w a n d th e w ebs betw een them h av e a
w idth th e sh e a r in these w ebs </, can be d e riv e d fro m a su m m a tio n of forces
on a h o riz o n ta l scctio n th ro u g h th e w in d o w s:
< h = — 9o (8-25)
Wj
</<»
iir ~ r ~ r - n T T T T ii
III— - f ------ j ------ — j---------- j- — I-— f —fa
I [ I ____f j ^ _ l_2t_ i ____ /
hi h
JB O S L Je!
L M
«/:
’ \ n \'
-l— U - L \
I
<il1
Figure 8.22
S im ilarly, if the effect o f the c u to u ts is assu m ed to e x ten d over a vertical d istan ce

h, as sh o w n , th e sh e a r flows in w ebs a b o v e an d b elo w the w indow s m a y be
o b tain ed by c o n sid e rin g a vertical cro ss sectio n th ro u g h a w indow :
h
< ?2 — , 9o (8.26)
>h
T h e sh e a r flows q 3 , sh o w n in Fig. 8.22, can be fo u n d by considering e ith e r a
h o rizo n tal sectio n th ro u g h the w ebs o r a vertical cro ss scction th ro u g h th e webs.
T h e tw o e q u a tio n s are
q2 w’ 2 + q3 Wj = q 0 w
and q th 2 + q3 = q0 h
F Jther o f th ese tw o e q u a tio n s, w hen values from Eqs. (8.25) and (8.26) a re su b s ti
tu ted , red u ces to
(8.27)
T h e n o ta tio n is sh o w n in Fig. 8.22.

O p en in g s for larg e fuselage d o o rs m ay be an aly zed in the sam e m a n n e r as
w ing c u to u ts. S o m etim es it is difficult to p ro v id e rigid fuselage b u lk h ead s o n
c ith er side o f an o p en in g , because of in te rio r space lim itatio n s. In such cases, a
rigid d o o rfra m e can be p rovided so th a t the d o o rfra m e itself resists th e sh e a r
loads in p lace o f th e c u to u t stru ctu re . If su ch a s tru c tu re is provided, it is no
lo n g er n ecessary to have the heavy b u lk h ea d s a d ja c e n t to th e opening. A fuselage
d o o rfra m e u sually m u s t follow th e c u rv a tu re of th e fuselage and hence d o es n o t
lie in a plane. T h u s, th e stru c tu re o f th e d o o rfra m e m u s t be capable o f resisting
to rsio n as well as b en d in g , a n d the fram e m u s t be a clo sed -b o x structure.
8.7 S H E A R I N G D E F O R M A T I O N S
In the an aly sis o f sem im o n o c o q u e vehicle stru c tu re s, th e sh e a r stress d istrib u tio n

is o f g reat im p o rtan c e. M u ch o f th e classical th e o ry o f statically in d e te rm in a te
stru c tu re s h as been d eveloped for th e analysis o f heavy stru ctu re s in w hich sh e a r
ing d efo rm a tio n s are o f m in o r im p o rtan ce. C o n se q u en tly , m uch o f the pub lish ed
w ork on stru c tu ra l d eflections a n d in d e te rm in ate stru c tu re s docs n o t treat sh e a r
ing d efo rm atio n s. T h e deflections caused b y sh e arin g d efo rm atio n s can be d e te r
m ined by th e m e th o d o f virtu al w o rk , in th e sam e m a n n e r as o th e r types o f
deflections a re analyzed.
T h e sh e arin g d e fo rm a tio n of an elastic re c ta n g u la r p la te w ith thickness f,
w idth L x , a n d len g th L y is in d icated in Fig. 8.23ci. T h e shearing stra in e v). is
o b tain ed from the rela tio n
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MFMBKRS OF SF.M1MONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 261
i r
e„.
-
/ -----------------------
r if
I 1'
/
v - ,
/ " Ji i f ""
1 !/ . . . . ..L
ib)
Figure 8.Z3 Plate deform ation under shear action.
w here G = sh e a r m o d u lu s
a xy = sh e arin g stress
q = itxyt = sh e a r flow
In finding th e deflections o f a stru c tu re resu ltin g from sh e a r d e fo rm atio n s of

(he w ebs, it is co n v en ie n t to use a u n it v irtu a l lo a d a p p lie d a t th e p o in t o f th e
desired dcflection A. T h u s from Eq. (6.31), rep lacin g th e g en eralized d isp lacem en t
q by A yields
L<5ZJ{£'} d V
I •A = S a xyexy d V (8.29)
U tilizing Eq. (8.28) in Eq. (8.29) yields
1•A = l- l J L d y
Vt tG
<7„g (8.30)
or A= dV
G t2
w here q„ — = slicar flow due to th e u n it ap p lied lo ad a n d q = real sh e a r flows
w hich p ro d u ce the d efo rm atio n . In te g ra tin g Eq. (8.30) gives
o.u QLx L v
A= — (8. 31)
Gt
F o r a stru c lu rc w hich lias N webs afTecting its deflection, F.q. (8.31) becom es
A_ Qui ‘ ^xi Lyi (8!52)

- .-ri c,-1,
E q u atio n (8.32) ap p lies only lo clastic d e fo rm atio n s w hich satisfy E q. (8.28).
8.8 TORSION OF BOX BEAMS

O ne o f the m ost c o m m o n a p p licatio n s o f Hq. (8.32) is fin d in g the angle of tw ist of
box beam s, such as th a t show n in F ig. 8.24. T h e sh e a r flow s q m ay resu lt fro m
2 6 2 AIRCRA1T STRUCTURES
Figure 8.24 B o\ beam.
any c o n d itio n o f loading, a n d they are o b ta in e d by th e m e th o d s used in C h ap . 5.

Since an a n g u la r deflection is req u ired , a u n it v irtu al c o u p le (torque) will be
applied as sh o w n in Fig. 8.25 an d the resu ltin g v irtu al sh e a r flows are 17,, - 1/(2A),
w here A is the enclosed a re a o f the box. T h e w ebs a re assu m ed to have d im e n
sions L x — A s a n d L r = L. T h e angle o f tw ist 0 is o b ta in e d by su b stitu tin g th ese
values in to E q. (8.32): ____________ ____
/
q, As, L
(8.33)
lA tfC j;
T he su m m atio n includes all w ebs of the stru c tu re.
E x am p le 8.5 T h e box beam show n in Fig. 8.26 h as fro n t spar-flange a rea s

w hich a rc 3 tim es the re a r spar-flange a reas. F in d th e angle o f tw ist at the
free end. A ssum e G = 4 x 10f’ lb /in 2.
S o l u t i o n T h e sh e ar flows q are sh o w n in Fig. 8.27. All these sh e ar flows a re

positive except th e sh e a r flow in the rig h t-h a n d w'cb, w hich tends to p ro d u c e
J' *
u n it foique.
ANALYSIS OK TYPICAL MPMWiRS OF SLMIMONOCOQUH STRUCTURE; 2 6 3
I ( > . 0 0 0 111 1 6 . 0 0 0 111
i'i” uro 8.26
Figure 8.27
a co u n terclo ck w ise ro ta tio n . H ence, from E q. (8.33) th e tw ist is
n _ V C
1 ^ ^ V f|'
~ L 2 A tG ~ 2 A G L
20 ^ 1400 x 10 200 x 40 x 2 200 x 10'

2 .x '4 0 0 x 4 x 106 V 0.081 + 0.040 “ 0.032
0 .0 2 0 rad
8.9 E L A S T I C A X IS O R S H E A R C E N T E R
T h e elastic axis o f a w ing is defined as th e a x is a b o u t w hich ro ta tio n will occu r

w hen the w ing is lo ad ed in p u re to rsio n . F o r the w in g sh o w n in Fig. 8.28n, in
w hich the cro ss scc tio n is uniform a lo n g th e sp a n , th e elastic axis is a stra ig h t
line. P o in ts on the elastic axis do n o t deflect in th e to rsio n loading, b u t p o in ts
forw ard o f the elastic ax is arc deflected u p w ard . It is n ecessary to calculate the
p o sitio n o f the clastic axis in o rd e r to m a k e a flu tter a n aly sis o f the wing.
The shear center o f a w ing cross sectio n is defined as th e p o in t a t w hich th e
resu ltan t sh e a r lo ad m ust act to p ro d u ce a w ing d eflection w ith no ro ta tio n . T h e
sh ear force show n in Fig. 8.28/? deflects th e w ing in tra n sla tio n , b u t causes n o
ro ta tio n of the cro ss scction a b o u t a span w ise axis. If th e w ing is an elastic
stru c tu re , then th e s h e a r ccn te r o f a cro ss scctio n m u s t lie o n th e elastic axis, since
a force a t the sh e a r c e n te r produces n o ro ta tio n a t th e p o in t o f applicatio n o f th e
couple and the c o u p le m u st therefore p ro d u c e n o v ertical deflection at th e p o in t
26 4 A IRCRAFT STRUCTUR15
Figure 8.28
o f a p p lic a tio n o f th e force. P ractical w ings dev iate slig h tly from c o n d itio n s o f
elasticity because th e skin w rinkles a n d becom es ineffective in resisting co m
pression lo a d s b u t, for p ractical purposes, th e elastic axis m ay be assu m ed to
coincide w ith th e line jo in in g the sh ear cen te rs o f the v a rio u s cro ss sections.
T h e sh e a r c en te r o f a c ro ss section m ay be c a lc u la te d from Eq. (8.33) by
finding the p o sitio n o f the re su ltan t sh ear force w hich yields a zero angle o f tw ist.
T h e sh e a r-c e n te r lo c a tio n d e p en d s on the d istrib u tio n o f th e flange areas a n d th e
thickness o f th e sh e a r w ebs. T h e p ro ced u re can be stu d ie d best by m ean s o f an
illustrative exam ple.
E xam ple 8 . 6 F in d the sh e a r center for th e w ing cro ss sectio n show n in Fig.
8.29. W eb 3 h a s a thick n ess of 0.064 in, a n d the o th e r w eb s have thicknesses
o f 0.040 in. A ssum e G is c o n stan t for all cross sections. T h e cross section is
sy m m etrical a b o u t a h o riz o n ta l axis.
S o l u t i o n T h e p o sitio n o f the sh e a r ce n ter does n o t dep en d o n th e m ag

n itu d e o f th e sh e a r forcc. T h u s a sh e a r forcc V — 400 lb is assum ed a rb i
trarily. T h e shear-flow in crem en ts are o b ta in e d by the m e th o d s used in C hap.
5 an d a re as sh o w n in Fig. 8.30. T h e sh e a r flow in w eb 1 is assum ed to have a
value o f </0 , a n d th e rem ain in g sh e a r flows a re ex p ressed in term s o f as
show n. In p rev io u s p ro b lem s, the sh e a r flow q0 w as o b ta in e d from th e eq u i
librium o f to rsio n al m o m en ts, b u t the ex tern al to rsio n a l m o m en t is n o t
k now n now . So we assum e th at the 400-lb sh ear force acts at a d istan c e x
from th e right side, as show n, an d th a t th is p o in t is th e sh ear ccnter. T h e
sh ear flow q„ is found from the co n d itio n th at the an g le of twist 0 be zero.
F ro m Eq. (8.33), w here L = 1 and 2 AG is c o n sta n t for all webs,
0= £ ^ - ^ = 0
^ 2 A tG
be tak en o u tsid e th e su m m a tio n sign a n d then can celcd :
( 8 .3 4 )
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MHMRURS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 6 5
Kigurc* 8.29
T h e to ta l slic a r flow q is th e sum o f the c o m p o n e n t q0 a n d th e co m p o n en t q \

w here q' is th e sh e a r flow if w eb 1 is c u t:
q = qQ + q'
S u b stitu tin g th is value into l-q. (8.34) a n d ta k in g q0 o u tsid e the su m m atio n
sign (because it is c o n sta n t fo r all webs) p ro d u c e :
o (8.35)
T h e n u m e ric al so lu tio n is ta b u la te d below . C o lu m n 1 lists values o f As,

th e circum feren tial lengths for the v ario u s w ebs, as sh o w n in Fig. 8.29. T h ese
values a re divided by the w eb thick n ess in co lu m n 2. T h e values o f q \ the
sh ear flows w hen w eb 1 is cut, a re ta b u la te d in co lu m n 3. T h e sh ear flows are
considered positive when they are clockw ise a ro u n d th e o u tb o a rd face o f the
elem ent o f I-ig. X.30. T h e values o f q A.s/f are calc u lated in colum n 4.
As As
Web As 1 <l' q' T 2A 2Aq' 9
(t) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
I 8 200 0 0 80 0 - 0 .5 3
2 8 200 -1 0 -2000 80 -8 0 0 -1 0 .5 3
3 to 156 -2 0 -3120 0 0 -2 0 .5 3
4 8 200 -1 0 -2000 0 0 -1 0 .5 3
5 8 200 0 0 0 0 -0 .5 3
6 15.7 392 + 20 7840 239 4780 + 19.47
Total 1348 720 399 3980
F igure 8.30
S u b stitu tin g th e to ta ls o f co lu m n s 2 an d 4 in to Eq. (8.35) yields
1348<z0 + 720 = 0
q0 = — 0.53 lb/in
T h e final sh e a r flows in the w eb q a re c a lc u la tc d in co lu m n 7 by a d d in g

the value of q 0 to th e value o f q' in co lu m n 3.
T h e p o sitio n o f th e sh e a r c en te r is n o w calc u late d from the equilib riu m
o f to rsio n al m o m en ts. T h e m o m en t a b o u t a n y p o in t can be o b ta in e d from
the relatio n i.
T = T.2Aq
or, since q = q 0 + q',
T = q0L 2 A + E2 A q' (8.36)
w here A is th e a re a enclosed by a w eb an d th e lines jo in in g the en d p o in ts o f

the w eb an d th e cen te r o f m o m en ts. T h e ce n ter of m o m e n ts is tak en as the
low er rig h t-h a n d c o rn e r o f th e box, an d values o f 2A are ta b u la ted in colum n
5 a n d values o f 2 A q ' in colum n 6 . T h e to ta ls o f c o lu m n s 5 an d 6 , w hen
su b stitu te d in to Eq. (8.36), yield
400,\- = - 0 .5 3 x 399 + 3980
3c = 9.42 in
T h is value o f x determ in es the h o rizo n ta l lo c a tio n o f the sh ear center.

F ro m sym m etry, th e vertical lo catio n is on th e line o f sym m etry. F o r cro ss
sectio n s w hich a re n o t sym m etrical a b o u t a h o riz o n ta l axis, th e vertical
lo c a tio n o f th e sh e a r ce n ter can be fo u n d by c o n sid e rin g a h o riz o n tal sh e a r
force to act o n the sectio n a n d then p ro ceed in g in th e sam e m a n n e r as above
to find the sh e a r flows for a zero tw ist. T h e lo catio n o f th e re su lta n t o f these
sh e a r flows, o b ta in e d by e q u atin g to rsio n a l m o m en ts, gives the vertical p o si
tio n o f the sh ea r center.
8.10 WARPING OF BEAM CROSS SECTIONS
W hen a re c ta n g u la r b o x beam is subjected to to rsio n al m o m en ts, it deform s as

show n in Fig. 8.31. If th e cro ss section is sq u a re an d th e w eb thickness is th e
sam e on all sides, the cro ss sections will rem ain p la n e a fter the box is tw isted.
S im ilarly, if the bo x b eam is subjected to b en d in g w ith n o to rsio n , the plane cro ss
sections will rem ain p la n e after bending. In th e usu al case, how ever, th e box is
re c ta n g u la r an d resists som e to rsio n ; th erefore th e c ro ss sectio n s d o n o t rem ain
p lane, but w arp. In th e an aly sis o f box b eam s in C h a p . 5, we assum e th a t
to rsio n al m o m en ts d o n o t affcct th e d is trib u tio n o f b e n d in g stresses, o r th a t cro ss
sections a rc not restrain ed ag ain st w arp in g . T h e sh e a r flows c o m p u ted from
these assu m p tio n s are a c cu ra te for all cross sectio n s except th o se w hich are very
close to a fixed cro ss section.
ANALYSIS Ol' TYl'R'AL MliMRIsKS Ol- SHMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTUKUS 2 6 7
£ Figure 831
T h e a m o u n t o f w arp in g o f a cross scction c a n be m e a su re d by the an g le 0

betw een sp a r cross sections, as show n in Fig. 8.32a. T h is angle is calcu lated by
applying unit v irtu a l couples, as show n, a n d c a lc u la tin g th e relative ro ta tio n from
Eq. (8.32). T h e w arp in g o f cross sections of th e b eam o f Fig. 8.26 is calculated by
assu m in g th a t the sh e a r flows q are as sh o w n in Fig. 8.27. A u n it spanw ise length
o f the beam is co n sid ered , as show n in Fig. 8.32. T h e u n it co u p les acting on the
sp ars a re rep resen ted by forces of 0 . 1 a t d istan ces 1 0 in a p a rt, an d the values o fg „
m ust be 0.05 for all w ebs, as show n, in o rd e r to satisfy all co n d itio n s o f static
equilibrium . S u b stitu tin g values from Figs. 8.27 a n d 8.32 in to Eq. (8.32) yields
q v ’ Qu'iuh 0-05 x 200 x 40 x I x 2

~ ^ " IG ~ ~ 0.040 x 4 x I0 6
0.05 x 200 x 10 x 1 0.05 x 1400 x 10 x 1
= 0.00362 rad
+ 0.032 x 4 x 10 6 ~ 0.081 x 4 x 10 6
T his w arp in g o f th e cro ss scction is the sam e for all c ro ss sectio n s on w hich th e
sh e a r flows are as sh o w n in Fig. 8.27. T h e 1-in len g th a lo n g th e sp an w as selected
a rb itra rily , b u t a n y o th e r length b m ight be used. T h e v alu es o fg „ show n in Fig.
8.326 w ould be div id ed by an assum ed length b; th en th e term s in th e a b o v e
su m m atio n w o u ld be m u ltiplied by h in ste a d o f th e u n it len g th , in o rd e r to yield
the sam e final result.
A t the fixed su p p o rt show n in Fig. 8.26, o b v io u sly th e w a rp in g o f the cro ss
(/■)
Figure 8.32
2 6 8 A IR C R A F T S T R U C T U R E S
16.000
16.000
I.M ill </,
Vi
IK1 ) Figure 8.33
section is p re v en ted ; th erefo re th e values o f q c a n n o t be as show n in F ig. 8.27.

T h e values o f q w hich a re re q u ired to p rev en t w arp in g a re calc u late d now for this
beam . A t an y cross sectio n , th e sh ear Rows m u st b e as sh o w n in Fig. 8.33 in o rd e r
to satisfy co n d itio n s o f eq u ilib riu m . F ro m th e e q u ilib riu m o f m o m en ts a b o u t a
spanw ise axis th ro u g h o n e co rn er, a n d from th e eq u ilib riu m of h o riz o n ta l a n d
vortical sh earin g forces, th e sh e a r (lows q t m u st be e q u a l a n d in th e d irectio n s
show n for th ree w ebs. F o r th e front sp a r w eb, th e s h e a r flow is 1600 — <7 j.
S u b stitu tin g the values o f q from Fig. 8.33 a n d th e v alues o f q„ from Fig. 8.32/)
in to Eq. (8.32) gives
y 0.05ol x 40 x 1 x 2 0.05j l x 10 x 1
= ^ tG = 0.040 x 4 x 10* + 0.032 x 4 x 106
A t the fixed su p p o rt, 0 = 0, o r q, = 81 lb/in. T h e final s h e a r flows are sh o w n in

p aren th eses in Fig. 8.33. T h ese are seen to b e co n sid erab ly different from those
show n in Fig. 8.27.
T h e sh e a r flows o f Fig. 8.27 apply a ru n n in g load o f 400 lb/in to the re a r sp a r
flanges an d a ru n n in g lo ad o f 1 2 0 0 lb/in to th e fro n t s p a r flanges. N e ^ r the
su p p o rt, the sh ear flows ap p ly a ru n n in g lo ad o f 162 lb /in to the re a r sp a r flanges
an d a fu n n in g load o f 1438 Ib/in to th e fro n t sp a r flanges. N e a r th e su p p o rt, the
b en d in g stresses arc th erefo re higher in the fro n t sp a r th a n in the re a r spar, the
axial stra in s in the fro n t sp a r flanges a re g reater, an d th e cro ss sections ch an g e
from plan e sections to w a rp ed cross sections. T h e spanw ise d istan ce req u ired for
th e tran sitio n dep en d s o n th e flange a re a s a n d web gages. In this pro b lem , th e
sh ear (lows a t a sectio n 30 in from th e su p p o rt have ap p ro x im ate ly th e values
show n in Fig. 8.27. T h e b en d in g stresses o u tb o a rd o f th is cro ss scction arc a p
p ro x im ately eq u al fo r th e tw o spars, since all cross sectio n s w arp th e sam e
a m o u n t. T h e effect o f a fixed cross section is to increase th e b en d in g stresses a n d
sh ear flows in the lo a d e d sp a r for a spanw ise d istan ce w h ich is a p p ro x im ately
equal to the averag e o f th e cross-sectional dim ensions.
ANAI.YS1S Ol- TYPICAL MFMBHRS OF SI-M1MONOOOQUF. STRUCTURES 2 69
Figure 834
8.11 R E D U N D A N C Y O F B O X B E A M S
T h e o n ly ty p e o f box beam w hich is sta b le a n d sta tic a lly d ete rm in a te co n sists o f

th ree flange a reas a n d three w ebs, a s sh o w n in F ig. 8.34. In th is beam , th e th re e
u n k n o w n flange forces P t, P2 , an d P , a n d th e th ree u n k n o w n sh e ar flows q2 ,
a n d q3 m ay be o b ta in e d from th e six e q u a tio n s o f sta tic equilibrium , X F x = 0,
Z F r = 0, E F . = 0, X A /V= 0, = 0, an d X M . = 0. As in an y o th e r static ally
d e te rm in a te stru c tu re , th e in tern al forces a re in d e p e n d e n t o f th e a reas o f stiffness
p ro p ertie s o f th e m em bers. In an y sta tic a lly in d e te rm in a te stru ctu re, th e a re a s
an d elastic p ro p e rtie s affect th e d is trib u tio n o f th e in tern a l forces in th e m em bers.
T h e in te rn a l b en d in g stress d is trib u tio n in all c o m m o n b eam s is sta tica lly
in d eterm in ate, an d th e d efo rm atio n s a re co n sid ered in deriv in g the flexure fo r
m ula a = M y/1 . T h is e q u a tio n is so c o m m o n th a t it is n o t cu sto m ary to th in k o f
such b eam s as statically in d eterm in ate. T h e b en d in g stress d istrib u tio n in a b o x
beam c o n ta in in g m o re th an th ree flanges, su ch as th a t sh o w n in Fig. 8.35, d e
pen d s on th e are a a n d elastic p ro p e rtie s o f th e flanges. T h e shear-fiow d is
trib u tio n , w'hich is derived from th e b e n d in g stress d istrib u tio n , also d ep e n d s on
the a reas o f the flanges an d is th erefore static a lly in d eterm in ate.
In this a n d th e follow ing section, w e a ssu m e th a t th e b e n d in g stress is o b
tained by the sim ple form ula a n d th a t a p u re to rsio n lo a d show n in F ig . 8.35
p ro d u ces n o axial stresses in th e flanges. T h ese a ssu m p tio n s h av e been u se d in
p revious shear-fiow analyses a n d have been sh o w n to be a cc u ra te in m o st cases.
T h e shear-fiow d istrib u tio n in a single-cell box th en can be o b ta in e d fro m the
c o n d itio n s o f statics, a n d such a box is co n sid ered as statica lly d e te rm in a te for
shcar-flow calcu latio n s. W ith th e a ssu m p tio n th a t a to rsio n a l m o m en t p ro d u c e s
no axial stresses in th e flanges, th e e q u a tio n q = T/{2 A ) fo r th e sh e a r flow s is
o b ta in e d from the c o n d itio n s o f statics.
2 7 0 AIRCRAFT STRUCTlfRFS
n
Figure X.36
A tw o-cel! box su ch as th a t sh o w n in Fig. 8.36 c a n n o t be analyzed b y th e

eq u a tio n o f statics. It is assum ed th a t the w in g ribs have sufficient rigidity th a t
the tw o cells deflect th ro u g h th e sam e angle 0. T h en this deflection co n d itio n a n d
the eq u a tio n s o f sta tic s a re sufficient for th e shear-flow an aly sis, an d the stru c tu re
has a single red u n d a n c y . It is, o f course, assum ed th a t th e to rsio n p ro d u ces n o
axial lo ad in th e flanges; hence the flanges are n o t sh o w n in the sketch. A box
stru c tu re w ith several cells has o n e less re d u n d a n t th a n th e n u m b e r o f cells, since
webs in all b u t o n e cell m ay be cu t to leave a single cell as a statically d ete rm i
n ate base stru ctu re.
T h e angle o f tw ist o f a box beam was fo u n d by E q. (8.33):
w here the term s a rc in d icated in Fig. 8.35. T h is e q u a tio n can be used for th e
angle o f tw ist o f a m ulticell stru c tu re , if th e su m m a tio n is e v alu a ted a ro u n d a n y
closed p a th a n d th e a re a A is enclosed by this closed p a th . T h u s, for a three-cell
stru ctu re, th e su m m a tio n can be ev alu ated a ro u n d th e e n tire perim eter enclosing
the th ree cells, th e e n tire p erim e te r enclosing a n y o n e cell, o r the a re a en closing
tw o cells. T h is p ro c e d u re is som etim es defined as a line in teg ral, as follow s:
W here the in teg ral re p resen ts an e v alu a tio n a lo n g a closed p a th , retu rn in g t,a th e
sta rtin g p o in t. T h e v alu es o f th e su m m a tio n o r in tegral a re co n sid ered positive in
going clockw ise a ro u n d th e enclosed areas.
8.12 TORSION OF MULTICELL BOX BEAMS
F o r the tw o-cell b o x of Fig. 8.36, the angle o f twist 0 1 for cell 1 m u st eq u al th e

angle l)2 for cell 2. A u n it length L m ay be considered, since L is alw ays th e sam e
for the tw o cells:
y , <7 f A.V; _ y , f/j ASj
(8.37)
V 2A S iG r 2 Z A zU G i
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAI MFMRHRS OF SFM1MONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 7 1
T lie first su m m a tio n m ust be ev alu a ted a ro u n d th e to ta l perim eter o f cell 1,

including th e interim ' web, and ilie second su m m a tio n m ust inchidc ail webs or
cell 2 an d the in te rio r web.
T h e value o f q for an y ex terio r web of cell I is <7 , , , an d fo r th e in terio r w eb it
is ‘h , ~ ‘h i- Sim ilarly, the value o f q for an e x te rio r web o f cell 2 is c/2,, a n d fo r
the in te rio r w eb it is t/: , — q u . liq u a tio n (8.37) now can be rew ritten by m a k in g
these su b s titu tio n s, m oving c o n sta n t term s o u tsid e th e su m m atio n signs, a n d
assu m in g C to be c o n sta n t in all w ebs:
T h e follow ing a b b re v ia tio n s are used for the term s in Eq. (8.38):
A.V: . „ As, ( A s\
^1i = X ~ < >22 = < ^ 2 = T (8'3 9 )
i ‘i 2 h \ 1 J 1-2
T h e term <5,, rep resen ts a su m m atio n a ro u n d th e e n tire p erim eter o f cell 1,
i>22 a su m m a tio n a ro u n d th e en tire p erim e ter o f cell 2 , a n d 3 , 2 the value o f th e
in te rio r web. T h e term s S tl a n d S22 b o th in clu d e th e te rm <51 2 for the in te rio r
web. T h e <5 term s d o -not have q u ite th e sa m e significance as th e sim ilar terras
used in p revious stru ctu res, because th e c o n sta n ts a re elim in a ted for sim p licity
a n d the re d u n d a n ts are tak en as sh e a r flows.
By utilizing Eq. 18.39), Eq. (8.38) becom es
~7~ U htS 11 — ‘h i ^ 1 2 ) = ~7~ (<I n S 2 2 — € 1 1 ^ 1 2 ) (8.40)

A1 A2
T he eq u a tio n for equ ilib riu m o f m o m en ts a b o u t a to rsio n al axis can be fo u n d
by reference to Fig. 8.35:
T = 2 A l q u + 2 A 1 q ls (8.41)
E q u atio n s (8.40) a n d (8.41) can be solved sim u ltan e o u sly for th e two u n k n o w n s,
q u an d q 2l.
T h e sh e a r flow s resu ltin g from p u re to rsio n m ay be o b ta in e d "111 a sim ilar
m a n n e r fo r a box beam w ith >1 cells. F ro m th e co n d itio n s o f c o n tin u ity o f d e fo r
m a tio n s betw een a d ja c e n t cells,
or
, ( < 7 li ^ 1 1 — Ci l t <5 I 2) — , ( £/ 2 i <^22 — <5l2 — ^ 23)

A 1 A2
— ~~7~ (lhi<>33 — ‘111 $23 ~ ^ 1 ^ 34) (8 -4 2 )
. (‘hit c\in Q(tr - Hi i]n)

T h e term s in Eq. (8.42) a re defined as
it *i
and A„ = n th cell enclosed a re a (8.43)
T h e s u m m a tio n o f E q. (8.43) includes all w ebs a ro u n d th e circum fcrcnce o f the

cell, a n d the term 5„„ ap p lies to the in te rio r w eb b etw een cclls m an d n. T h e
e q u a tio n fo r eq u ilib riu m o f to rsio n al m o m en ts is
T — 2 A { q it + 2.4 2 q 2, + 2 A 3 q 3t + ■■- + 2A„q„, (8.44)
E q u a tio n s (8.42) a n d (8.44) form a set o f n sim u lta n e o u s lin ea r alg eb raic e q u a
tions w hich c a n be solved for th e n u n k n o w n s, q u , q 2l, ■- ., q„t .
8.13 BEAM SHEAR IN MULTICELL STRUCTURES
Box b eam s u su ally resist tran sv erse sh ea rin g forces in ad d itio n lo th e to rsio n a l
m o m en ts a lre a d y considered. O ften it is co n v en ie n t to co n sid e r th e tw o effects
sep arately , as a sh e arin g force a p p lied a t th e sh e a r c e n te r a n d as a to rsio n a l
m o m e n t a b o u t th e sh e a r center.
In a m ulticell box su ch a s th a t sh o w n in Fig. 8.37, th e in crem en ts o f flange
loads AP can be calc u lated from the b en d in g stresses a t tw o cro ss sectio n s o r
from th e sh e a r eq u a tio n s as used in C h ap . 5 for a single-cell box. If o n e w eb is cu t
in e ach cell, th e sh e a r flows q' c an be o b ta in e d from th e e q u ilib riu m o f spanw ise
forces o n the strin g ers. T h e stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 8.37 is u n stab le fo r to rsio n a l
m o m ents, b u t th e system o f sh e a r flows q' w ill be in e q u ilib riu m w ith ex tern al
sh ear forces a ctin g a t th e sh e a r c e n te r o f th e o p en section.
T h e sh e a r flows q ls , q 2s, an d q3s in th e cu t w ebs c a n be o b ta in e d a n d
su p erim p o sed on th e sh e a r flows q' to give a system o f sh e a r flows w hich h av e a
re s u lta n t eq u a l to th e e x tern al sh earin g force actin g a t th e sh ear c en te r o f th e
closed m ulticell box. A su p e rp o sitio n o f th e c o n d itio n s sh o w n in Figs. 8.37 a n d
8.38 yields the sh e a r flows in a closed m ulticell box w ith n o twist. T h e values o f
q is , q 2s, a n d q is a re fo u n d from th e c o n d itio n th a t the an g les of tw ist 0 U Qj.*, a n d
03 for each cell m u st be zero. A fter q ls , q 2s, a n d d /3s a re o b ta in e d , the eq u a tio n o f
to rsio n al m o m en ts yields th e p o sitio n o f th e sh e a r c e n te r o f th e closed box. T h e n
the ex tern al to rq u e a b o u t the sh e ar c e n te r can be c o m p u te d an d th e sh e a r flows
resulting from this to rq u e calcu lated by th e m eth o d s o f Sec. 8.11.
ANALYSIS OI- TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 7 3
T h e c o n d itio n s th a t th e angles o f tw ist for c a ch cell be zero yield th e follow

ing e q u a tio n for cach cell:
V lA ± = 0
^ lA G t
Since G usually is c o n sta n t an d 2/1 is alw ays c o n sta n t, these term s m a y be

canceled from th e e q u a tio n . T h en
— q As
i V =0 (8-45)
F o r ccll on e E q. (8.45)'yields
■„ ill A.s-; „ AS: ( A s\

I + <■/., I — i - 9 J — = 0 (8.46)
I ‘i 1 ‘I \ 1 / I- 2
in w hich su m m a tio n s are ev alu ated a ro u n d th e e n tire p e rim e te r of the cell, in

clu d in g th e in te rio r w eb, a n d the last term ap p lies to th e in te rio r web only. T h e
term s in Eq. (8.46) m ay be ab b rev iated , a n d sim ila r e q u a tio n s m ay be w ritten for
the o th e r cells:
^10 + q I — < ?2 s< 5 l2 = 0
<>20 +■ t/’s < * 2 2 — C

1 1 .v 12 — Q3s$ 23 = 0 (8-47)
^JO + <hs^3i ~ ^ 2 s ^ 2 J = 0
T h e follow ing ab b re v ia tio n s are u s e d :
„ ti'i As, . if. A.s-,- . „ o'. As,

<^ = 1 -“ ^3o = Z — 1 18.48)
1 ‘i 2 I; -3 fi
in ad d itio n to th e a b b re v ia tio n s given in Eq. (8.43).
E q u atio n s (8.47) m ay now be solved sim u ltan e o u sly for r/Iv, q2s, an d q 3s.
T hese eq u a tio n s a re ap p licab le to a tw o-cell stru c tu re if all term s co n tain in g the
su b scrip t 3 are d ro p p e d . Sim ilar e q u a tio n s m ay also b e w ritte n for any n u m b e r of
cells.
E xam ple 8.7 F in d the sh ear flows in th e tw o-cell b o x of Fig. 8.39. T h e

h o riz o n ta l w ebs have gages of / = 0.040 in. A ssum e G is c o n sta n t for all w ebs.
T h e cross sectio n is sym m etrical a b o u t a h o riz o n ta l centerline.'
4 0 0 0 Ib
Figure 8.39
S o l u t i o n T h e sh e ar flows m ay be o b tain ed by su p e rp o sitio n o f the values of

q' for the stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 8.40u, a n d th e values o f <7 i a n d q2 arc
show n in Fig. 8.406. T h e sh ea r flows a n d q 2 are c o m p u te d as the sum of
values for a lo ad a t the sh e a r c e n te r a n d for a p u re to rsio n loading. F irst, if
we co n sid er th e sh e a r flows q is a n d q 2s req u ired to p ro d u c e n o tw ist of the
stru ctu re, the follow ing eq u a tio n is o b tain ed for cell 1 :
cii As,- 20 10 20
iI : <?I 0.040
+ (qu - 1 0 0 )
0.040
+ <?i.
0.040
f;
10
+ ( 9 1.( — ch s + 1 0 0 ) = 0
0.050
A nd so
1450<jIt - 200<f2, - 5000 = 0 (a)

A sim ilar e q u a tio n is w ritten fo r cell 2:
q; As,- / 10 10 10
I ti ^ 2 \0 .0 4 0 ) + {‘h s + 2 0 0 \0 .0 8 0 y + 92\ 0 . 0 4 0
+ (q2s - Ri, - 100) ( o ^ o ) = °

and
825q Zs - 2 0 0 c , , + 5000 = 0 (b)

F.quations (u) an d (h) c a n now be solved sim u ltan eo u sly , yielding q u = 2-7
an d q 1%— —5.4 lb/in. T h e m inus sign indicates th a t th e sh e a r flow q 2 is
o p p o site to the assu m ed directio n , o r co u n terclo ck w ise a ro u n d th e box.
T hese values rep resen t th e sh e a r Hows for a load ap p lied a t the sh ear center.
<li ~ ‘/|» * 'fir

<12 ~ <h, 1 'hi
q -■ 200
{hi F igure 8,40

ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MEMBERS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 275
I '-().(>
Ib/in
Figure 8.41
T he to rsio n al m o m e n t a b o u t the reference p o in t O o f the sh e a r flows is
1 2 A q ’ + 2A Lq ls + 2 A 2 q 2s
w here A i a n d A 2 rep resen t th e enclosed a reas o f the cells, a n d
100 x 200 - 100 x 200 + 2 x 200 x 2.7 - 2 x 100 x 5.4 = 0
T he ex tern al sh e a rin g force o f 4000 lb a c tin g a t th e sh e a r c e n te r p ro d u ces no

to rsio n al m o m e n t a b o u t p o in t O, o r th e sh ea r cen te r of th e cross sectio n is a t
point O.
T he actu a l lo ad o f 4000 lb a ctin g a t th e left-h a n d w eb has a m o m en t arm
o f 10.0 in a b o u t th e sh ea r center. T h e sh e a r flows q Xt a n d q2t m u st now be
o b tain ed for a p u re to rq u e o f T = 4000 x 10 = 40,000 in ■ lb. F ro m Eq.
(8.44)
40,000 = 4 0 0 q „ + 200g2,
and from Eq. (8.42)
g„f 2 x 2 0 1 0 10 \ q 2l 10
2 0 0 \ 0.040 + 0.040 + 0.050J ~ 200 0.050
q 2lf 2 x 1 0 1 0 [ 1 0 y qu 10
1 0 0 V 0.040 0.050 0 .0 8 0 / 1 0 0 0.050

T hese tw o e q u a tio n s are solved sim u ltan eo u sly a n d yield q u — 66.7 an d
<h i = 66.7 Ib/in. T h e final sh ea r (lows in th e c u t w ebs a re o b ta in e d from Eqs.
(a) .and (b) a s q u = 69.4 a n d q 2, = 61.3 Ib/in. T hese v alu es a re now su p e rim
posed on the v alu es o f q’, an d the final sh e a r flows a re sh o w n in Fig. 8.41.
PROBLEMS
8.1 Find ihe shear How in each web of the beam shown in Fig, P8.1 and P8.2, nnd plot Ihe
I5 7
1
1U ill
1
—■1U i n—— — - 1 0 i n —— 10 in— -
'
r / Figure P8.I and P8.2
distribution of axial load along each stiffening member. Solve for each o r the following loading
conditions:
(«) P , ~ 3000 Ib P2 = P 3 = 0
Ib) P 2 = 6000 lb Pt = P3 = 0
(c) P3 = 6000 lb P 2 = 6000 lb P3 = 6000 lb
8.2 Repeat Prob. 8.1 for the following loading conditions: P x — 2400, P2 = 1200, and = 18001b.
8.3 The pulley bracket shown in Fig. P8.3 and P8.4 is attached lo lycbs along the three sides. Find
the reactions R „ R 2 , and R2 of the webs if P = 1000 lb and 0 =■ 45°.
Figure P8-3 and P8.4
8.4 Repeal Prob. 8.3 for P = 2000 lb and 0 = 60*.

8.5 Find ihe shear flows applied by the skin to the fuselage ring shown in Fig. P8.5 to P8.8 if
P , = 2000 lb and P z = M = 0.
8.6 Find the skin reactions on the fuselage ring in Fig. P8.5 in PS.8; P2 ~ 1000Ib, and P, = Af — 0.
All stringers
A j “ 0 .2 in ?
Figure P8.5 to P8.8
8.7 Find the skin reactions on the fuselage ring if P , = 20001b, P2 = 1000 lb, and M — 10,000 in * lb.
8.8 Find the skin reactions on the fuselage ring if P i = 1500 lb, P2 — 5001b, and M — 8000 in - lb.
8.9 Find the skin reactions on the rib shown in Fig. P8.9 and P8.10 if the rib is loaded by the
distributed load of 20 lb/in. Calculate the shear Hows in the rib web and the axial loads in the rib
(hinges at vertical sections 10 and 20 in forward of the spar.
K J0 K rp c a l P r o b . 8.9 if th e rib is lo a d e d by a c o n c e n tr a te d u p w a r d fo rc e o f 0 0 0 lb . a p p lie d ;il a p o in t
20 in fo rw a rd of th e s p a r , in s te a d o f ih e d is tr ib u te d lo a d .
8.11 Find the skin reactions on the rib shown in Fig. P 8 .ll lo P8.16. Analyze vertical cross sections
at 10-in intervals, obtaining the web shear flow's and the axial loads in the rib flanges. Assume the
loads / ', - 40.000 lb and P2 = 0. The spar flange areas are u - b = c = d = 1 in2.
ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL MKMBHRS OF SEMIMONOCOQUE STRUCTURES 2 7 7
20 llv'in
t*—fj in -JOin--- 1'iRurc PS.9 m P8.10
Figure P8.1 I to P8.16
8.12 Repeal Prob. 8.11 Tor Pj = 0 nnd / ’> -- 8000 lb.

8.13 Repeat Prob. 8 .11 for P , *= 20,000 lb and 1 \ = 8000 Ib.
’ ' for P, — 40.000 Ib and P 2 = 0 if the spar flange areas are a = 3 and
8.15 Repeat Prob. S.II for / ’, - 0 and P 2 — 8000 lb if the spar (lange areas arc n = 3 and
/)=.[■ = ,1 i 1 in2.
8.16 Repeat Prob. 8.11 for /*, ^ 20,(KX) and l‘2 - X000 Ib if the spar flange areas are a = 3 and
b = c = d = 1 in2,
8.17 The structure of Fig. 8.16 has the dimensions in inches h0 = 5, Ay = 15, a = 20, length L = 100.
For a torque T of 40,000 in • lb, findq0. q t, andij„. Find the axial loads in the corner flanges and the
shear flows a t a cross scction 50 in from one end. Check the values by the equilibrium of torsional
moments, including the in-plane components of the flange loads.
8.18 Repeat Prob. R-i£,if /’ j 10 in.
8.19 Find the shear flows and the flange loads for the structure of Fig. 8.1S if only the horizontal load
o f 2000 lb is acting:-""“ ' ~ '
8.20 Find the shear flows and flange loads for the nacelle structure shown in Fig. P8.20 and P8.21.
I0 .U0 0 lh
10.000 lh
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
•30 in-
Figure P8.20 and P8.21

8.21 Find the shear flows and flange loads for Ihe nacelle structure shown in Fig. P8.20 and P8.21 if a
clockwise couple load o f 200,000 in • lb is acting in addition to the loads shown.
8.22 Find the shear flows in all webs of the structure shown in Fig. 8.20 if a clockwise couple load of
100,000 in • lb is acting in addition lo the loads shown.
8.23 A cantilever wing spar is 10 in deep between centroids of the flange areas. The bending stresses
in the flanges are 30,000 lb/in2, and the shear stresses in the web are 15,000 Ib/in2 at all points. Find
the deflection resulting from shear and bending deformations as well as the percentage of the deflec
tion contributed by the shear at {a) 20 in from the fixed support, (ft) 40 in from the fixed support, and
(r) H)0 in from the fixed support. Use E — 107 and G = 3,000,000 Ib/in2.
8.24 Kind the angle of twist of the wing shown in Fig. 8.26 iT all four flanges have equal areas. Use
G = 4 x 106 ib/in2.
8.25 Find the angle of twist of the wing shown in Fig. 8.26 if all webs have a thickness of 0.040 in.
Use G - 4 x 106 Ib/in2.
8.26 Calculate the location of the shear center, or elastic axis, or the wing in Fig. 8.26.
8.27 Find the shear flows in the webs of the structure shown in Fig. 8.39. The horizontal webs have
gages of 0.064 in and G is constant.
8.28 Find the shear flows in the webs of the structure shown in Fig. 8.39 if all flange areas are 1 in2.
The horizontal webs have gages of 0.064 in, and G is constant.
8.29 Find the shear flows in the webs of the structure shown in Fig. P8.29 to P8.32 if all flanges have
areas of I in2 and all webs have gages of 0.040 in. Assume V =. 3000 Ib, c ~ 8 in, and G is constant for
all webs.
Figure P8.29 to P8.32
8.30 Repeat Prob. 8.29 if t* = 0.

831 Find the shear flows in the webs of the structure shown in Fig. P8.29 lo P8.32 i M ( = A y ~ I
in2. A , = 2 in2, f, ~ t 2 = 0.064 in, V — 4000 lb, and e = 10 in. The other webs have gages of 0.040 in,
and G is constant for all webs.
8.32 Repeat Prob. 8.31, assuming an additional vertical web of 0.064-in gage at flange A 2. J
8.33 Assume the box beam shown in Fig. 6.19« to be loaded by a torsional couple of 160,000 in • lb
at the free end instead of the vertical load shown. Assume the cross section to be symmetrical about a
horizontal centerline and all web gages to be t = 0.020 in. Calculate the warping displacements of a
cross section which is free to warp, and calculate the axial flange Joads and web shear flow's at ihe
wall and at cross sections at 10-in intervals along the span. Note that the stringer of2-in2 area resists
no load and docs not aflecl the analysis. Assume E - 10 lb/in2 and G - 0.4 E.
CHA PTER
NINE
TH ERM AL STRESSES
T e m p e ra tu re ch.-inges in stru ctu ra l system c o m p o n e n ts a re acco m p an ied by a

chan g e in length w hich results in w h a t is called th e rm a l stresses. T h e su b ject of
therm al stress an aly sis encom passes a w ide ra n g e o f stru c tu ra l system s and c o m
ponents, w ith a p p lic a tio n s in airfram e vehicle stru c tu re s, n u clea r reactors, je t a n d
rockct engines, oil refining lines, a n d so m e civil en g in eerin g structures. In this
ch ap te r, we in tro d u c e th e rm a l stress analysis.
9 .2 T H E R M A L S T R E S S P R O B L E M : P H I L O S O P H Y
A te m p e ra tu re ch an g e in a given solid m aterial causes fibers to expand an d

co n tra c t in dill'erenl am o u n ts. F o r th e solid to rem ain c o n tin u o u s, a system of
therm al s tra in s a n d co rre sp o n d in g th erm al stresses m ay be induced, d ep en d in g
o n the c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e solid a n d its te m p e ra tu re d istrib u tio n . A h o m o g e
neous solid w ith no physical ex tern al re s tra in ts is free o f th e rm al stresses if th e
tem p e ra tu re d is trib u tio n is uniform th ro u g h o u t the solid. T h is co ndition is r e
ferred to as f r e e expansion or contraction o f th e solid. U p o n im posing ex te rn a l
restraints, the free ex p an sio n o r c o n tra c tio n is p rev en ted , an d thus th e rm a l
stresses arc in tro d u c e d to the body. T o illu stra te , co n sid e r th e beam of Fig. 9.1 to
be heated un ifo rm ly from a d a tu m te m p e ra tu re T0 to a final tem p eratu re T
degrees F ah ren h eit. T h e elo n g atio n o f th e b e a m d u e to th e tem p eratu re ch an g e
279
.1, /:, a
f-*------------------- 1.-------------------- “] Figure 9.1
T — T0 is given by
8 b = a { T - T 0) L (9 .1 )
w here a = m a te ria l th e rm a l coefficient o f e x p an sio n X, in • °F

L = b e a m len g th , in
T , T0 = final a n d d a tu m te m p e ra tu res, respectively, °F
T h e e lo n g a tio n o f a b e a m d u e to a u n iform tensile stress a is
= ^ (9 -2 )
E
F ro m c o m p atib ility c o n d itio n s, th e to ta l d efo rm a tio n s given by Eqs. (9.1) an d

(9.2) m ust eq u a l the co n n e c tin g sp rin g d efo rm a tio n fib :
oc( T - T0)L + y = <5* (9-3)
F ro m e q u ilib riu m co n d itio n s, it m ay be seen easily th a t
Fh + F s = crA + K S b = 0 (9.4)
w here Fb = beam in te rn al forcc = a A a n d Fs = sp rin g force = K Ss . T h u s
(9-5)
U p o n s u b s titu tin g Eq. (9.5) in to Eq. (9.3) a n d solving fo r th e stress <r, the follow
ing is o b ta in e d :
= a{T ~ Ta)L
L /b + A /K y
= , « K W T - T 0) (C)
K L + AE
By e x a m in in g Eq. (9.6), it can be sh o w n th a t if K = 0, w hich is eq u iv alen t to

the free e x p an sio n o f the beam , the th e rm a l stress is zero . In the case w here
K = oo, w hich is eq u iv alen t to h av in g th e beam su p p o rte d betw een tw o rigid
w alls, the th erm al stress is
a = - a E ( T - T 0) (9.7)
In general, F.q. (9.6) m ay be w ritten as

c r = - R s z E ( T - T0) (9.8)
THERMAL STRESSES 281
w here Rs is a n o n d im cn sio n a l re s tra in t coefficient w h o se v alu e ra n g e s betw een 0

an d 1. F o r R„ — 0, th e b ea m is com p letely free to e x p a n d , w h ereas for R s = 1, the
beam is com pletely p rev e n te d from expansion.
F ro m the p reced in g illu stra tio n , it m ay be c o n clu d e d th a t th e fo rm u la tio n of
the th erm al stress p ro b lem is iden tical to th a t o f th e iso th e rm a l stress problem in
th a t it requires c o n sid e ra tio n o f th e follow ing c o n d itio n s :
1. E quilibrium o f forces
2. C o m p atib ility o f d efo rm a tio n s
3. S tress-strain and stra in -d isp lac e m e n t relatio n sh ip s
4. B o u n d ary co n d itio n s
9.3 FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS FOR

THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS
M o st stru ctu ral p ro b lem s en c o u n te re d in en g in eerin g a re c o m m o n ly in a three-
d im ensional stale of stress. Q u ite often, th ree-d im en sio n al p ro b le m s a re difficult
to solve a n d hence th ro u g h valid sim plifying a ss u m p tio n s a re n o rm a lly reduced
to tw o- o r o n e-d im en sio n al p roblem s. F o r in stan ce, in th e case o f a plate stru c
ture, if we assum e th a t th e thick n ess is sm all c o m p a re d to its o th e r dim ensions,
then the stresses th ro u g h th e thickness d irectio n u su ally a re neglected, thus re
d u cin g a th ree-d im en sio n al p ro b lem to a tw o -d im en sio n al one. In th e case o f a
beam , all stresses a re neglccted b u t o n e n o rm al stress a n d o n e sh e a rin g stress,
th u s reducing the p ro b lem to a on e-d im en sio n al one. T h erefo re, in th e rest o f this
b o o k , all fo rm u latio n s o f eq u a tio n s are in one o r tw o d im ensions.
Equilibrium Equations
T h e eq uilibrium e q u a tio n s o f a tw o -d im en sio n al so lid sh o w n in Fig. 9.2 are
derived in C h ap . 3:
^xx, x ^ xy, y ^ ^ (9.9)
17yy. y + °xy.x + Y = 0 (9.10)
w here , ayy = n o rm a l stresses

a xy — sh e arin g stress
X , Y = b o d y forces
In p o lar co o rd in ates, Eq. (9.10) becom es
<h<L±+ r a<*> + R =o (9 .1 1 )
r
Gyp, fl
r
w here the stresses a n d b o d y forces a re show n in Fig. 9.3.
2 8 2 AtRCRAPT STRUCTURES
°\y
+ K,h:
U „ + IT,.,, f ,lx
Figure 9.2
S tr a in - D is p la c e m e n t R e la tio n s h ip s
If \vc co n sid er sm all d efo rm atio n s, the strn in -d isp lacem en t re latio n sh ip s are
■ = <?*.* e ,T = <ly. >■ exr = <1*. y + <7>-. * (9.12)
or, in p o la r co o rd in a te s,
(9 .1 3 )
ffr.fl , „ <7<?
€ r0 — T*~ <70 , r
r r
w here <? = generalized d isp lacem en t function a n d e d e n o te s strain co m p o n en ts.
T h e r m o c la s tic S tr a in - S tr c s s R e la tio n s h ip s
T h e th e rm o elastic stra in -stre ss relatio n sh ip s for p lan e stress p roblem s a re ex

pressed as follow s:
= g fa x x - 'V y y ) + a T
= - far , - v i r j + a T (9.14)
e = 2Q
e,,. n
Figure 9.3
THERMAL STRESSES 28 3
w here cc = coefficient o f th erm al ex p a n sio n a n d T = te m p e ra tu re above the

d a tu m te m p eratu re. F o r p lan e strain p ro b le m s Eq. (9.14) becom es
1 - v2 ( v
= — — ( a „ - ------ - cr„ j + <*T(1 + v)
E V ‘" ~ 1 - v
I — V2 / V
a „ ) + a.T{ 1 + v ) (9.15)
€'xy = G
In p o la r c o o rd in a te s, Eqs. (9.14) and (9.15) b ecom e, respectively,
err = (a„ - v(7„o) + a T

h
£(111 = J; (nou — vO + <*T p la n e stress (9.16)
_ fit?
Crf ~ G
e,r = 1 ■£— f! 00 j + <*T(1 + v)
too = ■- j T - (a<m - <*„ ) + « T ( l + v) p la n e stra in (9.17)
a r0
Compatibility Equations
T he c o m p atib ility e q u a tio n s can be expressed in term s o f stra in s alo n e:
(9.18)
or, in p o la r c o o rd in ates,
, c r r , 80 , ^00, r ^ rr r ^r(>. rff , ^rd. 0 i n ; f i\

e « .w + — + — r ~ r + rz ^ )
In term s o f stresses a lo n e for plane stress p ro b lem s, E q. (9.18) becom es
^ + r-“ + ^ + ]= _ ( ! + v )
or, for plan e stra in p ro b lem s,
Boundary Conditions
F o r a specific th erm a l stress pro b lem , th e ap p lied su rface lo a d s S x a n d Sy m u st be
in eq u ilib riu m w ith th e in d u c ed stresses a t th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e solid:
S x = axx I + <jxym
(9.22)
Sy = (Tyy in + a h
Xy l
w here a xlc, a xy a n d o hxy arc stresses al th e b o u n d a ry surfaces and I an d m a re

d irectio n cosines. '
In p o la r c o o rd in a te s, Eq. (9.22) becom es
S r = a hrrl + a brltm
(9.23)
Soe — I
9.4 SO LU TIO N M ETH O D S FO R T H E R M O E L A ST IC PR O B LE M S
In general, tw o -d im e n sio n a l th erm o elastic p ro b le m s in v o lv e six u n k n o w n s of

stresses a n d strain s. T h e m eth o d of so lu tio n q u ite often is d e p e n d e n t on th e type
o f stru c tu re u n d e r co n sid e ra tio n . T h e follow ing are so m e ty p ical techniques used
in the so lu tio n o f th erm o elastic problem s.
Direct Solution Using Equilibrium and Compatibility Conditions

A n u m b er o f sim ple th e rm a l stress p ro b lem s c a n b e solved b y m erely seeking a
so lu tio n for th e differen tial eq u a tio n s w hich d e scrib e them . C on sid er, for ex am
ple, a c ircu lar solid p la te h av in g u n ifo rm th ick n ess t an d subjected to a te m p e r
a tu re d is trib u tio n T = T{r). E q u a tio n s (9.11) a n d (9.19) b ecom e (note th a t the
stresses a n d s tra in s a re in d ep en d e n t o f 0)
forr C'r - {924a)

dr r
(9.24/>)
E q u a tio n (9.24b) m ay be expressed in term s o f stresses as
ilnm d arr dT (1 -i 'A { n rr - < t „ 0)

— -------v — — -j- a £ —------------------------------------- = 0 (9 .2 4 //)
Solving Eqs. (9.24a) a n d (9.24/)') yields

THERMAL STR1SSES 2 8 5
A direct in te g ra tio n o f Eq. (9.24) yields
aE
T r dr + C j H— y (9.26)
o r
F o r th e solid p la te sh o w n in Fig. 9.4, r = 0 a t th e c e n te r; hence Eq. (9.26)
becom es und efin ed becau se o f the term C 2/ r 2. T o re n d e r a feasible so lu tio n , C 2
m u st be set to z e ro ; th u s Eq. (9.26) becom es
aE
o ,r = - - T r dr + (9.27)
F ro m b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s a„ — 0 a t r = R 0 . H e n ce th e c o n sta n t o f in te
g ratio n is
Ro
T r dr
a n d a„ becom es
aE aE 'Ro
T r dr + —2 T r dr
R■2o J
a£ fr _ , aE Ro
and f7„„ = — 7. E T f T r dr (9.28)
H ' r" f
r+5IJ
F o r a ho llo w circ u la r p late Eq. (9.28) becom es
aE ( r - R f Ro
Or, - T r dr - T r dr
r2 \ R 2 - R f J Ri
Ro
a E f r2 + R f
Cflfl T r dr + T r dr - T r 2 (9.29)
R o -R fJ
crr0 = 0
E q u atio n s (9.26) a n d (9.27) are cases o f g en eralized p lan e stress o r plane stra in
■ problem s (b o d y forces a re zero) and th u s a p p ly equally to u n re stra in e d open -en d
cylindrical shells.
F igure 9.4
Stress Function Solution

If a stress function O = <T>(.r, y) is choscn such th a t th e stresses a rc defined by
d 2<t> d 2® 3 2d>
0xx~ W ~ ~ te fy (9'30)
then (he eq u ilib riu m e q u a tio n s, Eqs. (9.9) an d (9 .10 ), a re satisfied w ith the b o d y
forces set eq u al to zero. If has to d escribe th e tru e stress field, it m u st satisfy
not only eq u ilib riu m b u t also c o m p atib ility and b o u n d a ry cond itio n s. T hus,
su b stitu tin g Eq. (9.30) in to £ q . (9.20) for th e p lan e stress p ro b lem yields
c?40 d4<t> ( 8 2T d 2T ,
o ? + 2S ? s ? + y + “EU ? + s7 ) = 0 <931)
In p o la r c o o rd in a te s, Eq. (9.31) becom es
_ 11 I ilYil 11 J
i Pr1 /• Pr r 2 P02J \P r2 r r> r
\u r
w here the stresses are defined by
1^5 1 5 2<J)
r dr + r 2 DO1
tPtl)
(9.33)
Or0 d r \r dO j
F o r a given specific th erm a l stress p ro b lem , Eq. (9.31) o r (9.32) can be solved
by using tech n iq u es o f so lv in g differential eq u a tio n s.
Equivalent Load Solution s
T herm al- stress p ro b lem s m ay be h an d led in the sam e m a n n e r as iso th erm al

p ro b lem s if the a ctu a l th e rm a l lo ad s a re c o n v erted to w h a t is called equivalent
static loads. In tw o -d im en sio n al p ro b lem s, th e co n v ersio n is accom plished by
m a k in g the follow ing su b s titu tio n :
THURMAL STRUSSIiS 2 8 7
w here (rIA., <ts). , a xy = eq u iv alen t stresses (d isp lace m en t stresses)
(7 v t, (7 fr = a c tu a l therm al stresses
E 'jtT
------- = local uniform pressure c o u n te rb a la n c in g frcc-cxpansion
l — i' , .
stra in
E q u atio n (9.34) m ay be w ritten as

EaT
- ff,, ~ j _ v
Fa T
(935)
<r,, = d xy
S u b stitu tin g Fq. (9.35) in to Eqs. (9.9) a n d (9.10) a n d assu m in g th a t body

forces A' an d Y d o n o t exist yield
a ..vi. ,t + a xy. y + X —0
(9.36)
IV. + <rA1. v. -I- V= 0
w here X an d V a rc e q u iv ale n t body forces defined as
_ Ea dT
A — — . _
(9.37)
Y _ Ea d T
1 — v dy
If we assu m e th e ap p lied .surface tra c tio n s a re zero, th e n th e b o u n d ary c o n d i

tions, E q. (9.22), b eco m e
.Sl = a h„ I + &x). m
(9.38)
Sy = (fyy in + a xy I
w here S x a n d S y a rc e q u iv ale n t surface tra c tio n s defined by

In p o la r c o o rd in a te s , E qs. (9.35) to (9.39) becom e
E xT
E xT
Goo = aoo - -j— - (9.40)
&r0 — a r0
. a r0. n , <trr — G00 . a n

<rrr r H---------- 1---------------- 1- R — 0
(9.41)
aoo.o . - . 2&re . p. *
~ ^ T + aro., + ~ y + 0 = 0
w here
_ Ear d r
(9.42)
© - _ EaT dT
I - v dO
Sr = o*„l +
(9.43)
S e = o h in + a h I
and
E olT
1“ v (9.44)
- EaT
SB = - - ------ m
1— v
By ex am in in g Eqs. (9.36). (9.38), (9.41), a n d (9.43), it is a p p a re n t th a t for an y
given te m p e ra tu re d is trib u tio n , w ith th e u se o f Eqs. (9.37), (9.39), (9.42), and,(9.44)
the th erm al stress p ro b lem can be c o n v e rte d to an e q u iv alen t iso th erm al stress
pro b lem w ith c o n v en tio n a l loads. T h u s, so lu tio n s o f th erm a l stress p ro b lem s
becom e id entical to th o se o f th e iso th erm a l ones. As a n illu stra tio n , co n sid er the
u n re stra in e d beam o f Fig. 9.5 to be h ea te d to a u n ifo rm te m p e ratu re T0 . T h e
surlace tra c tio n s at th e en d s o f the beam , if we co n sid er ax ial d irection only, arc
a.ETtt. as show n.
T h ese surface tra c tio n s will in d u cc a c o n sta n t e q u iv a len t axial stress d xx =
<xET0 th ro u g h o u t th e beam . H ence from Eq. (9.35) for the o n e-d im en sio n al p ro b
lem, the th e rm a l stress is
<txx — (jxx — Ey.T = x E T 0 — aE T 0 = 0
w hich is the sam e result as w as o b ta in e d in Sec. 9.2.

THERMAL STRESSES 2 8 9
y = ai:r„ F «AT„ = 5j
F ig u r e 9J5
N o w let us assu m e th a t (he beam o f Fig. 9.5 is h e a te d according to th e

follow ing te m p e ra tu re d is trib u tio n :
T-T°(j)'
T h e surface tra c tio n s a t th e en d s will n o w ta k e th e fo rm
<
“>
= a ET0 {yj0)3, as
show n in Fig. 9.6.
T h ese surface tra c tio n s p ro d u ce e q u iv a le n t en d b e n d in g m o m e n ts:
c bEaTn 3E aT 0 1
M = (b)
w here b = beam w id th a n d / = m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f b eam area. F rom beam

theory, th e eq u iv alen t stress d u e to th e e q u iv alen t m o m e n t M is
My 3E aT 0
(c)
° xx = T = 5c
T hus, the actu a l th e rm a l stress in the beam is
< t„ = 5 XX — a E T = a E T 0 l i
5 c
9.5 T H E R M A L S T R E S S E S IN U N R E S T R A I N E D B E A M S W I T H
T E M P E R A T U R E V A R IA T IO N T H R O U G H T H E D E P T H O N L Y
C o n sid er the beam o f Fig. 9.7 tci be subjected to a te m p e ra tu re g rad ien t

T = 7"(v). F ro m e le m e n ta ry beam th eo ry it m ay be co n clu d e d th a t
(Tvv (Tv; (7y- 0
and
VxJy)
Figure 9.6
F igure 9.7
By assu m in g b o d y forces are zero, it can be seen from Eqs. (9.9) a n d (9.10)
th at eq u ilib riu m is id entically satisfied. The c o m p a tib ility e q u a tio n [E q . (9.20)]
becom es
£
I ((rxx + « £ T ) = 0 (9-45)
dy
T herefore, th e th erm al stress can be o b ta in e d by sim p ly in teg ra tin g Eq. (9.45):
<?xx = — a E T + A t f + A 2 (9.46)
T he c o n sta n ts o f in te g ra tio n A t an d A 2 m ay b e ch o sen su ch th at for any te m p e r
a tu re g ra d ie n t T(v), the re su lta n t force a n d m o m e n t in d u ccd by a xx are zero o v er
the e n d s 'o f th e beam :
a xx dA — (rxxy d A = 0 (9.47)
U tilizing E q. (9.46) in Eq. (9.47) an d solving for (he c o n sta n ts yield the follow ing
expression for the th e rm a l stress in th e beam :
aE
= - <*ET + T y dy (9.48)
2c
E q u atio n (9.48) m a y be w riiten in a m o re c o n v e n tio n a l fo rm as
$t Mr
(Txx = — aET +~7 + ~ 7~ y (9.49)
A ]
w here
S T = xE T dA M- T y dA (9.50)
w ith A an d I being th e cross-scctionnl a re a a n d m o m e n t o f in ertia of the beam ,

respectively.
F o r b eam s o f a rb itra ry cross section, Eq. (9.49) becom es
w here
S T = aE T dA M !-J- = a E T z dA M \ = aE [ T y dA (9.52)
H ere Iy an d I . a rc m o m en ts o f in ertia a b o u t the y a n d z axes, respectively, and

I y. is the p ro d u c t m o m e n t of inertia.
As an illu stra tio n , co n sid er the beam show n in Fig. 9.6, w here T = T0(y/c)3.
F rom Eq. (9.50),
S u b stitu tin g the ab o v e expressions for S r and M T in to Eq. (9.49) yields th e

beam th erm al stress:
which is the sam e a s o b ta in e d p reviously by using th e eq u iv alen t load m eth o d .

T hu s, F.qs. (9.49) a n d (9.51) represent th e eq u iv alen t lo a d so lu tio n for beam
problem s.
9.6 T H E R M A L S T R E S S E S IN B U I L T - U P S T R U C T U R E S
T he therm al stress o f b u ilt-u p stru c tu re s can be an aly z e d easily by using th e

eq u ivalent lo ad m e th o d . T echniques su ch as th e stiffness m atrix m eth o d , energy
m etho ds, etc. th a t a rc used in the an a ly sis of iso th e rm a l p ro b le m s can be used
identically for th e rm a l p ro b lem s once th e eq u iv alen t th e rm a l lo ad s are calculated.
T o illustrate, c o n sid e r th e d ete rm in a te tru ss stru c tu re sh o w n in Fig. 9.8. A ssum e
th a t m em b er 1 is heated to a uniform te m p e ra tu re T , a b o v e a certain d a tu m
F ig u re 9.8
te m p eratu re. A lso assu m e th a t all m em bers a re o f th e sam e m aterial a n d each has
a cross-sectional a re a A . T h e eq u iv alen t th e rm a l lo a d c au sed by the te m p e ra tu re
chan g e in m em b e r 1 is A E a T and is show n in Fig. 9.8. U sing the e q u atio n s o f
s ta tic eq u ilib riu m in co n ju n c tio n w ith th e jo in t m eth o d yields th e forces in m em
bers 1 a n d 2 :
F2 = 0 F1 = AEaT
H en ce from F.q. (9.35) for the o n e-d im en sio n al p ro b le m , the th erm al stresses
Fi AEaT
irt = — - a E T , = — — aET = 0
A A
<t2 ^ -« £ T 2= ^- aE(0) = 0
A A
It is a p p ro p ria te to sta te a t this p o in t th a t d e te rm in a te truss stru ctu re s in

w hich a n y m em b er u n d erg o es a uniform ch an g e in te m p e ra tu re are stress-free if
we assu m e n o c o n v e n tio n al lo ad s exist.
T o illu stra te th e use o f th e stiffness m atrix m eth o d in th e so lu tio n o f th erm al
p roblem s, co n sid e r th e in d e te rm in a te truss show n in F ig u re 9.9. A ssum e th a t
m em b er 1 h as an a re a A a n d is heated to a co n sta n t tem p e ra tu re T. T h e area o f
m em bers 2 an d 3 is y /2 A each. F ro m C h ap . 6 th e elem en t stiffness m atrix
re latio n sh ip s are:
Elem ent 1:
F xi 0 sym m etric ft = 0
F\ AE 0 1 5 -1 = 0
FI L 0
(fl)
0 0
-F i- 0 - 1 0 1
Elem ent 2:
Si H
FX
2 0.5 sym m etric
f>
2 AE 0.5 0.5
O O
L - 0 .5 -0.5 0.5
II II
SsfO
- 0 .5 -0.5 0.5 0.5

1
I I n i'
Figure 9.9
TH1-UMAI. STO SSES 2 9 3
Element 3:
F\ 0.5 sy m m etric [<5-2 I
F\ AE - 0 .5 0.5 <5$ (c)
FI L - 0 .5 0.5 0.5 <55 = 0
F i_ 0.5 -0 .5 - 0 .5 0.5 «5J = 0
T h e o verall red need m atrix can be o b ta in e d easily, as w as d o n e in C h a p . 6,
a n d is given by
0
r\ "1 AJ EA ' r 1 A
1.0 0 V
r\ ~l sx
W
AEaT L 0
A
2.0
In v ertin g a n d solving for th e u n k n o w n th e rm a l d isp lacem en ts yield

- s r "1.0 0 0 0
/,
.1
K> £
81 AE 0 0.5 AEaT
t„.
1
T h e eq u iv alen t th e rm a l lo ad s o n e a c h elem en t m a y b e o b ta in e d from E q s. (a)
to (c):
Elem ent I :
AEaT
F>[ = F>2
AEaT
or f i = m f + ( P ;) 2] (tension)
Element
AEaT
FI = - Fi =
4
A EaT
P2 = - F $ =
4
AEaT
or (tension)
2 j2
Element 3:
AEaT
/■2 = — /• i =
4
A EaT
F \= - F \ = :
4
A E zT
or F3 = - (tension)
2J2
H cnce Ihe ac tu a l th erm al stress in each ro d is
Fi AEaT EaT
<7t = ~A ~~ 1= 2 a . ~~ a E T = —
F2 _ EaAT _ EaT
— a E T = — 7=— 7=r— — 0 = ■
'-JiA 2^/2 ^JlA ~ 4
ff3 = (r2
T h e p recedin g p ro b lem can be solved by u sin g th e en erg y m ethod. T h is m ay

be accom plished by m ak in g th e stru c tu re re d u n d a n t, a s sh o w n in Fig. 9.10. F o r
c o m p atib ility o f d efo rm atio n , the relative d isp la c em en t in the d irectio n o f jR j
m ust be zero. T h u s fro m C aslig lian o ’s th e o rem ,
8U
_ 5RX~ °
w here U is th e to ta l strain energy sto red in th e stru c tu re a n d R , is the u n k n o w n
eq u iv alen t in te rn a l lo ad in m em b er 1.
F ro m th e eq u a tio n s o f sta tic e q u ilib riu m in c o n ju n ctio n w ith th e jo in t
m eth o d , the eq u iv ale n t in tern a l lo ad s in m em b ers 2 a n d 3 c a n be calcu latcd :
P F EaAT~Rl
T herefore, the stra in energy U is
2 ; = 1 A iE j 2 AE l^ A E X )
P erform ing the d ifferen tiatio n w ith respect to R j a n d se ttin g the result equal to
zero yield
R 1 =
E a _A T = F_j
_
F
^ 1 - P-*3 r
2 y /2
. I /:'o r
Figure 9.11)
1
Bn
or
EaAT ^ ^ EaT
„ = — - / - a T = —
EaAT EaT
ff Z ~ f f 3 ~ 2 ^ 2 ^ 2 A ~ ° - 4
w hich a rc the sam e results o b tain ed by using the stiffness m atrix technique. As
m ay be seen from th e tw o preceding p ro b lem s, th e a d v a n ta g e o f the stiffness
m atrix m eth o d is th a t it yields n o t o n ly th e in tern a l e q u iv a len t th erm al lo ad s b u t
also the a ctu a l th e rm a l deflections.
R igid-fram e stru c tu re s u n d er the a c tio n o f th erm a l lo a d s are analyzed in the
sam e m a n n e r as tru ss stru ctu res. F irst the e q u iv ale n t th e rm a l loads arc ca lc u
lated, an d then a n y con v en ien t tech n iq u e em p lo y ed in co n v en tio n ally load ed
stru ctu res can be used.
PROBLEM S
9.1 F in d I he ra d ia l d is p la c e m e n t o f a ih in . c ir c u la r , s o lid p la te w h ic h is s u b je c te d to a te m p e r a tu r e
d is tr ib u tio n T — T{r).
9.2 F in d th e r a d ia l d is p la c e m e n t o f a c irc u la r c y lin d e r w h o se e n d s a r e h e ld b etw e en tw o rig id walls.-
A ssu m e a te m p e r a tu r e d is tr ib u tio n 7 ’ — 7 (r).
9 .3 F in d th e th e rm a l s tre s s e s in s trip s I a n d 2 o f th e c o m p o s ite b e a m s h o w n in F ig. P9.3. A ss u m e
u n ifo rm te m p e r a tu r e s 7 ’, a n d 7 \ fo r s trip s I a n d 2, re sp e c tiv e ly . A lso a s s u m e th a t n o slip p a g e ta k e s
p la ce a t th e b o n d line.
F ig u re P 9 .3
9.4 F in d th e th e rm a l s tre s s e s in th e id e a li/c d s tr u c t u r e s h o w n in F ig . P 9 .4 . A ssu m e th e sk in a n d th e

s tr in g e r to b e h e a te d to u n ifo rm te m p e r a tu re s 7^ a n d ^ r e s p e c t i v e l y .
S k in
T ~
h S lti
_K H■
Figure P9.4
9.5 The inner and o u ter surface temperatures of a circular cylindrical shell (inner radius = R, and
outer radius = R„) are kept constant at T, and T„, respectively. T he end surfaces are perfectly insula
ted. Find the steady-state tem perature distribution in the cylinder, and plot the results. Assume the
datum tem perature to be 7^.
Hint: See G atew ood, Jr., Aero. Sri., vol. 21, no. 9, 1954, pp. 645-646.
d2T 1 dT
l? +-r i; = 0
9.6 Refer lo Prob. 9.5. F ind the stresses in the cylinder. Assume unrestrained conditions. Plot the
results.
9.7 F o r the riveted structure shown in Fig. P9.7, find the loads on each rivet. The critical rivet load
0
©
-20 in- -40 in- -20 in-

Figure P9.7
and deflection are 1200 lb and 0.006 in, respectively. Assume steady-state tem perature distribution.
The following data are given:
E, = E 2 = 101 lb/in2
2 A t = A 2 = 2.0 in2
a , = a2 — 1 0 ~ 7 in/(i'n • °F)
2T, 7'2 — 400°F above datum tem perature
T0 = 80°F
H in t: See G atew ood, Jr.. Afro. Set., vol. 21, no. 9, 1954, pp. 645-646.
9.8 The general equation which describes the general state of stress in a one-dimensional thermally
loaded beam is
<jxx = * E l- T ( y ) + A y + B ]
where A and B are arbitrary constants which depend on the end conditions of the beam. FjrTd the
stress in an unrestrained beam whose cross section is shown in Fig. P9.8 and subjected to a temper
ature distribution given by T = T0 ye~*’.
THERMAL STRESSES 2 9 7
9.9 In Prob. 9.8, consider a beam whose cross scction is shown in Fig. P9.9. The skin is m ade out of
aluminum and is at a constant tem perature 7j, while the web and (lange are made out of different
material and at a constant temperature Tw, Find the stresses in the skin, web, and flange.
(«) Assume that ihe beam is completely unrestrained.
(b) Assume that the beam is restrained in axial compression.
Skin j ■•!, = web area j
/ w—f.
w - web area
I ~1
A , = flange area Figure P9.9
9.10 The tem perature of a beam of rectangular cross section, as show n in Fig. P9.I0, is T =
Ta e'-x +fr‘. Using the Airy stress function iji = {•(x)li(y), find the stress distribution throughout the
beam. Assume the beam is unrestrained.
21.. 1-. / h Figure P9.10
9.1! Design the truss structure shown in Fig. P 9 .ll. Assume 2024-T42 aluminum-alloy tubing con
struction is used.
20,0(10 Ib Figure P9.11

2 9 8 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES " S '
9.12 Find Ihe thermal stresses and dellections for each of the structures shown in Fig. P9.12.
E, = Ej = £ 3 = 107 lb/in2 / , = / , = 10 in4

(x, = ot2 = cti = 10-7 in/in "F £ , = £ , = 101 Ib/in3
T, = 100"F, T2 = 200" F a, = = 10“ ' in/in "F

T} = 400"F T, = 400 "F
T, = 200 T
Figure P9.12
9.1.1 Find Ihe displacements for the structure shown in Fig. P9.13. Assume the beam is subjected
to a tem perature dislribulion given by T = 400y,’h, as shown. Assume E = 107 lb/in2 and a = 10~7
iri/(in • "I") for both rod and beam.
‘/ / ' / /
h i
ll12
Figure P9.I3
CHA PTER
TEN
DESIGN OF MEMBERS IN TENSION,
BEN D IN G , OR TORSION
10.1 T E N S I O N M EM BERS
T ension m em bers a re analyzed an d d esig n ed m o re rea d ily th a n o th e r types o f

m em bers. T he stress c o n d itio n s existing in ten sio n m em b ers a t th e u ltim ate lo a d
co n d itio n a re a ccu ra te ly k now n a n d a re n o t su b ject to th e un certain ties w hich
exist in jo in ts, fittings, a n d o th e r ty p es o f stru c tu ra l m em b ers. T h e a llo w ab le
tensile stress for a stru c tu ra l m aterial is easy to d eterm in e, a n d a single value o f
the allow able stress ap p lies to m em b ers o f an y sh ap e. It is sh o w n th a t th e allo w
able stresses for stru c tu ra l m em b ers in b en d in g , to rsio n , o r co m p ressio n d e p e n d
o n the shap es o f the m em b ers an d o n o th e r facto rs w h ich a re n o t considered fo r
tension m em bers.
F o r a co n ccn tric tension load P o n a m em b er w ith a n et a re a A, the tensile
stress is found from th e e q u a tio n a, — P /A . T h e allo w a b le ten sio n stress rr,„ is th e
m inim um g u a ran tee d value for the m a teria l. T h e m arg in o f safety m ay be calcu
latcd in the usual m a n n e r as crtJir, — 1.
T ension m em b ers frequently m u st resist b en d in g a n d co m p ressio n stresses
u n d er o th e r lo ad in g co n d itio n s, a n d th ese o th e r c o n d itio n s often d eterm in e th e
sh ap e o f a m em ber, even w hen the ten sio n lo a d is th e larg est lo ad .
T h e p rim ary ten sio n stru c tu re in a sem im o n o c o q u e w in g consists o f the skin,
stringers, a n d s p a r cap s o n the u n d e r surface. A lth o u g h th e positive b e n d in g
m om ents in a w ing a re a b o u t tw ice as larg e as th e n eg ativ e b en d in g m o m en ts, th e
com pression lo ad s from n egative b e n d in g d e term in e th e d esig n o f m o st o f th e
299
3 0 0 AIRCRAFT S T R U C T U R E S
‘'I <'.1 r 4
Figure 10.1
stru c tu re on the u n d e rsid e of th e wing. T h e w ing skin resists tension stress, b u t

buckles an d becom es ineffective for co m p ressio n stress. T h u s the com p ressiv e
area is less th a n th e tensile area, an d the allo w able co m p ressiv e stress is c o n sid e r
ably less than the allo w ab le tensile stress. Even th o u g h th e com pressive lo ad s a re
sm aller, they m u st alw ays be considered w hen th e sh ap e o f th e stillening m em b ers
is d eterm ined a n d freq u en tly they d eterm in e th e req u ired areas.
10.2 PLASTIC BENDING
In the previous calc u latio n s o f b ending stresses, w e a ssu m e th a t th e stresses are

below the clastic lim it. In m ost types o f m ach in e design a n d stru ctu ral design, the
stre n g th a t th e yield stress is th e im p o rta n t c rite rio n for desig n , and th e c o n v en
tional elastic stress d istrib u tio n is sa tisfacto ry for u se in design. In a irfram e
stru ctu res, how ever, th e u ltim ate stre n g th o f a m em b er is th e design c riterio n .
Before failure, the stress exceeds the elastic lim it a n d is said to be in th e plastic
range. T h e assu m p tio n s used in deriv in g th e flexure fo rm u la irb = M y/1 n o lo n g e r
apply.
T h e initially s tra ig h t beam sh o w n in Fig. 10-1 a h as b en d in g stresses exceed
ing th e elastic lim it. P la n e sections rem ain p la n e a fter bending, an d th u s th e
stra in d istrib u tio n is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d istan c e from th e neutral axis, as in
elastic beam s. If the b e a m is deflected so th a t th e ex trem e fiber has a stra in eA,
th ere will be a stress tr4 af this point, as sh o w n by th e stress-strain curve o f F ig.
10.1/?. F o r o th e r stra in s e u e 2 , an d e 3 , th e c o rre sp o n d in g stresses or2 ^ n d c 3
d o n o t vary linearly w ith the stra in s ab o v e th e elastic lim it, a n d th e stress d is
trib u tio n on the beam c ro ss section varies as sh o w n in Fig. 10.2.
T h e u ltim ate resisting m o m en t o f a beam d ep en d s o n b o th the sh ap e o f the
"a Figure 10.2

Pl-SIGN Ol- MHMHHRS IN TENSION, RENDING, OR TORSION 301
beam cro ss scction a n d th e sh a p e o f th e stress-stra in curve. Since th ere is n o

sim ple th eo retical relatio n sh ip w hich ap p lie s to a g en eral case, freq u en tly an
em p irical m eth o d is used to d eterm in e th e u ltim a te b e n d in g stren g th . A. fictitio u s
stress o b, te rm e d the bending m odulus o f rupture, is defined by th e e q u a tio n
Of, = M e / 1 , w here M is the ultim ate b e n d in g m o m e n t, a s d eterm in ed from te sts of
sim ilar beam s, 1 is th e m om ent of in e rtia o f th e cro ss sectio n , a n d c is th e d ista n c e
from th e beam n eu tral axis to th e ex tre m e fiber. T h e tru e stress d istrib u tio n is
show n in Fig. 10.2, an d the fictitious stra ig h t-lin e stress d istrib u tio n w hich yields
an eq u al b en d in g m o m en t and h as a m ax im u m v a lu e o f a B is show n b y the
d o tte d line. F o r geom etrically sim ilar sec tio n s su ch as ro u n d tu b es w ith th e sa m e
ra tio o f o u tsid e d ia m e te r to wall th ic k n e ss D /t, th e b e n d in g m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re
m ay b e foun d for an y m aterial by m ean s o f tests.
T h e b en d in g m o d u lu s of ru p tu re fo r ro u n d tu b e s o f c h ro m e-m o ly b d en u m
steel is sh o w n in F ig. 10.3 for v ario u s v alu es o f D /t a n d o f cr,u, th e u ltim ate tensile
n :i
Figure 103
stress to w hich th e m ateria! is h e at-tre a te d . F o r th e la rg e r values o f D /t, the tube

w alls a re th in an d ten d to crip p le locally. T h e local c rip p lin g stress o f th e tube
w all, w hich in itself is difficult to c o m p u te th eo retically , c o rre sp o n d s to th e stress
<jA show n in Fig. 10.1. T h u s the tests ta k e in to c o n sid e ra tio n ihe effects o f local
crippling, as well as th e effects o f the sh a p e o f cro ss sectio n an d of th e stress-
strain curve. T h e b en d in g m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e bending
m o m en t, an d th e m a rg in o f safety m ay be c o m p u te d from the usual relation,
îs!a b ~ 1- T he tru e m ax im u m stress cr4 o f Fig. 10.1 is n o t p ro p o rtio n a l lo the
b end ing m o m en t a n d c a n n o t be used in o b ta in in g th e m a rg in of safety.
E xam ple 10.1 A l j b y 0.0S3-in steel tu b e resists a b e n d in g m o m en t o f 25,000

in • lb. W h a t is the m arg in o f safety if the m a te ria l is h ea t-tre a te d to an
u ltim ate tensile stress c la o f 180,000 lb /in 2?
So l u t i o n T h e p ro p e rtie s of a 1-| by 0.083-in steel tu b e are D /t = 18.08 and
I/c = 0.1241 in 3. F ro m Fig. 10.3, a B — 220,000 lb /in 2. T h e fictitious bending

stress o h is o b ta in e d from th e sim ple flexure fo rm u la :
Me 25,000 ,
^ =~ =^ = 201’°00 !b/in
T h e m arg in o f safely (M S) is now o b ta in e d in th e u su a l m an n e r:
220,000 , _
MS = - 1 = 0.09
201,000
It is also necessary to d eterm in e a yield m arg in o f safety. F o r this m aterial,
the yield stress is 165,000 lb /in 2. T h e applied o r lim it b ending m o m en t is
§ x 25,000 = 16,670 in • lb an d so
^ = ^ S i = i3 4 ’oooib/in2
o r the m arg in o f safety for yielding is
= 1 = 0 .2 3
134,000 ^
10.3 C O N S T A N T B E N D I N G STRESS
F o r som e m aterials, th e stress-strain cu rv e rem ain s a lm o st h o rizo n ta l after the

elo n g atio n excccds a value c o rre sp o n d in g to th e yield p o in t. If a beam o f such a
m aterial is subjected to b en d in g b e y o n d th e yield stress, th e b en d in g stresses will
a p p ro x im a te th o se sh o w n in Fig. 10.4. B o th the ten sio n an d the co m p ressio n
stresses m ay be assu m ed to have co n sta n t values of<Tn o v e r the en tire area. T h e
b en d in g m o m en t is o b ta in e d by ta k in g the sum o f th e m o m e n ts o f infinitesim al
forces (7q dA a b o u t th e n eu tra l axis:
DHSIGN OF MI-MHRRS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 303
C
,1/
c
“ i h
y
i
Figurt* 10.4
c
M = a0 y dA ( 10. 1)
In the ease o r a cro ss-sectio n al area w hich is sy m m etrical with rcspcct to a

h o rizo n tal axis, th e b en d in g m o m en t becom es
M = 2Q o0 ( 10.2 )
w h e re
(10.3)
F o r the sym m etrical area, the n eu tral axis c o rre sp o n d s w ith th e axis of sy m m etry ,
as in the case o f clastic bending. F o r an u n sy m m etrical a re a , th e n eu tral ax is is
not a t the cc n tro id , b u t is located so th a t the c ro ss-scctio n al area a b o v e th e
neutral axis is e q u a l to the area below it, sin ce the to ta l ten sio n force m u st e q u a l
the lota! co m p ressio n force.
F o r a re c ta n g u la r beam o ‘>' w idth b a n d d e p th h, A = b h 2/&. S u b stitu tin g in
F.q. (10.2) yields
T h e b en d in g m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re <rb can be fo u n d b y e q u a tin g the b e n d in g

m o m en t o f E q. (10.4) lo the ex pression w h ich defines a b, o r M = u b I/c. F o r th e
re ctan g u lar scctio n , // c = b h 2/6 , a n d a b = l.5<ra .
T h e p a ra b o lic sh e a r stress d is trib u tio n for a re c ta n g u la r beam in w h ich th e
stresses are below th e clastic lim it w as o b ta in e d from th e b en d in g stress d is
trib u tio n , a n d d o es n o t ap p ly for o th e r d is trib u tio n s o f b en d in g stress. F o r a
re c tan g u lar cro ss sectio n , o r for o th e r sim ila r cro ss sectio n s in w hich the b e n d in g
m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re is co n sid erab ly la rg e r th a n the a c tu a l stress, the sh e a rin g
stresses a re seld o m very high a n d m ay be ap p ro x im a te d w ith sufficient accuracy.
T h e p lastic b e n d in g of a beam in w hich th e cro ss sectio n is n o t sy m m etrical
a b o u t the n eu tra l ax is is considered by a n a ly z in g a n u m e ric al exam ple. T h e a re a
show n in Fig. 10.5 has its cc n tro id al ax is 0.3 in a b o v e th e base. F o r p la s tic
b en d in g w ith a c o n s ta n t stress cr0 , th e n e u tra l axis will be 0.2 in above th e b ase,
in o rd e r for th e te n sio n a re a to be e q u a l to th e co m p ressio n area. T h e ten sio n
a n d co m p ressio n forces will be eq u al to 0 .12<r0 a n d will resist a b ending m o m e n t
0.2
1 • 0.12 a0
0.6
T
0.4
f = 0.3
? ~ r ' i ; 0.12u„
,1/ = 0.04So0
f*----0.6---- ►
]
to) (A) (<)

Figure J0.5
o f 0.048<ro , as sh o w n in Fig. 10.56. T h e elastic b en d in g stress for this a re a is

o b tain ed from the e q u a tio n M = crb Ijc — 0.021 o b. T h e b en d in g m o d u lu s o f ru p
tu re is th erefo re eq u al to a b = (0.048/0.0272)cr0 = 1.765o-0 . T h e stress dis
trib u tio n o f v a rio u s b en d in g m o m en ts is sh o w n in Fig. 10.5c. F o r b en d in g m o
m ents less th a n M = 0.0272cto , th e stresses a re below th e elastic lim it and have a
straig h t-lin e d is trib u tio n w ith th e n eu tral axis a t th e c e n tro id o f the area, as
show n by cu rv e I. F o r larg er values o f th e b en d in g m o m e n t, the stresses will
exceed the elastic lim it a t th e u p p e r side o f th e beam , b u t re m a in below the elastic'
limit on the lo w er side, w ith th e n e u tra l axis shifting d o w n w a rd , as show n by
curve 2. F o r fu rth e r increases in bend in g m o m en t, th e stresses a p p ro a c h th e
c o n sta n t v alues sh o w n by curve 4, w ith th e n e u tra l ax is betw een th e tw o
rectangles.
10.4 TRAPEZOIDAL DISTRIBUTION OF BENDING STRESS
T h e stress-strain curves for m ost aircraft m a te ria ls can be a p p ro x im ated accu

rately by a tra p e z o id a l curve, as sh o w n in Fig. 10.6«. T h e idealized b ending stress
d istrib u tio n is sh o w n in Fig. 10.6ft. T h is a p p ro x im a tio n for o b ta in in g th e bending
stren g th in th e plastic ra n g e w as p ro p o sed b y C o zzo n e.7 T h e b ending m o m en t
for the tra p e z o id a l stress d istrib u tio n is read ily o b ta in e d as th e sum of the b<$nd-
an
Figure 10.6
DESIGN OF MEMBERS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 3 0 5
ing m om ent for a c o n sta n t stress tr,,, as given b y E q. (10.2), a n d the b en d in g

m om ent fo r a lin e a r stress d istrib u tio n v arying from 0 to a hl :
M = 2Q<r0 + H i i l (10.5)
c
T h e term a m m ay be in tro d u ce d instead o f trM by s u b s titu tin g u bx = <rm — cr0 in to

E q. (10.5). M ak in g this su b stitu tio n an d d iv id in g by*l / c give
Me (2 Q \
au = — = <**,+ ffo \ 7 f c ~ 1 ) ( 10-6)
T h e term in p a re n th e se s d ep en d s on th e sh a p e o f th e c ro ss section and m ay v ary

from 0 for c o n c e n tra tc d flange areas to 1.0 fo r a d ia m o n d shape. If this term is
designated by K , Eq. (10.6) becom es
Ob = <?m + K<7q ( 1 0 .7 )
20
w here K — —1 (10.8)
l/c
Som e values o f K for v ario u s cross sections a re sh o w n in F ig. 10.7.
T h e valu e o f a 0 sh o u ld be d eterm in ed in su ch a w ay th a t the b ending
m om ent resisted by th e assum ed tra p ez o id al stress d is trib u tio n is equal to th e
bending m o m e n t resisted by th e actu a l stresses. T h erefo re, th e c o rrect value o f cr0
w ould d ep en d so m e w h a t on th e cro ss-sectio n al a re a . If th e value o f cr0 w ere
calculated for each a re a , there w ould be n o a d v a n ta g e in a ssu m in g a trap ezo id al
stress d is trib u tio n , since it w ould be n ecessary to c a lc u la te the true resisting
m o m en t o f the b ea m in o rd e r to calc u late a 0 . C o zzo n e h a s show n th a t it is
sufficiently a c c u ra te to calc u latc tr0 for a re c ta n g u la r cross sectio n a n d to use this
value for all cro ss sections.
E xam ple 10.2 A b eam w ith the cro ss scctio n sh o w n in Fig. 10.8 is m ad e of
a lu m in u m -a llo y forging. T h e tru e sh a p e o f th e fo rging is sh o w n by the d o tte d
lines, b u t th e tra p e z o id s show n by th e so lid lines a re assum ed. C alculate the
Section K Scelinn K
0 0 J 5 to 0.7
I ©
1\ 0.5 1.0
i
0 i.i 0.5
E I I j
Figure 10.7
o .:o
u ltim ate b end in g stre n g th a b o u t a h o riz o n tal axis if <x„, = 65,000, <r0 =
60,000, an d the yield stress crly = 50,000 lb /in 2.
S o l u t i o n T h e values o f / an d Q a re calc u latcd for th e assum ed area, w hich

is com posed o f eight o f the triangles (1) a n d four o f th e rcctangies (2):
r 8 x 0.12 x l 3 4 x 0.20 x l 3
/ ----------------------- + ---------- ---------- = 0 .3 4 7 in4
12 ' 3
22 8 x 0.06 x 0.333 + 4 x 0.20 x 0.5 = 0.56 in3
T he b en d in g m o d u lu s of ru p tu re is n o w calcu lated fro m Eqs. (10.7) a n d

( 10.8):
„ 20 , 0.56 , „,
~ I fc ~ 0.347 “ ~ ' 1
cu = tru + K (j0 = 65,000 + 0.61 x 60,000 = 101,600 lb /in 2
T h e u ltim ate b en d in g stre n g th is
M = = 101,600 = 35,300 in • lb
c i .0 y
Tn this case, it w ould n o t be possible lo utilize th e full u ltim ate bend in g

stren g th because the stress at the applied lo ad c o n d itio n w ould exceed the
yield stress. T h e exact a m o u n t o f p e rm a n e n t set p erm itte d a t the ap p lied o r
limit load is n o t specified clearly for a m em b er in bending, b u t d ep en d s
so m ew h at o n th e ju d g m e n t o f th e designer. In som e cases, the b en d in g m o
du lu s of ru p tu re is n o t p erm itted to exceed the yield stress; or, for this
problem , the value o f M c /I w ould n o t excecd 50,000 lb /in 2 a t the ap plied
load an d co n seq u en tly co u ld n o t excecd 75,000 lb /in z at the u ltim ate o r
design lo ad . Even a t th e yield stress, how ever, som e p lastic b e n d in g effects
m ay be considered. T h e stress-strain d ia g ra m for th e m aterial o f Fig. 10.8, in
w hich the stress does n o t exceed th e yield stress sh o w n in Fig. 10.9, m ay be
represented by the tra p e z o id w ith cr0 = 21,200 a n d a m — 50,000 lb /in 2. T h e
DESIGN OF MI-MRl-RS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 307
Figure 10.9
b en d in g m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re a t th e lim it lo a d can be calculated from Eq.

(10.7):
g n = a m -I Krru = 50,000 + 0.61 x 21,200 = 63,000 Ib /in 2
T h e allow able valu e of M c /I w ould th e n be 63,000 for the lim it lo ad and

1.5 x 63,000 = 94,500 Ib /in 2 at the u ltim a te o r design load.
10.5 C U R V E D BEAM S
M ost beam stru c tu re s a rc analyzed by th e m e th o d s p rev io u sly considered, in

w hich an y initial c u rv a tu re o f the axis o f th e b eam is neglected. H ow ever, when
the rad iu s o f c u rv a tu re is o f the sam e o rd e r o f m a g n itu d e as the d e p th o f the
beam , the stress d is trib u tio n differs c o n sid erab ly from th a t fo r stra ig h t beam s.
T h e stresses on the co n cav e side o f th e b eam a re h ig h e r th a n those for a sim ilar
straig h t beam , an d the stresses on th e c o n v ex side a re low er. W h en the m axim um
stresses excecd th e elastic lim it, local y ield in g o ccu rs, w hich p erm its a re
d istrib u tio n of stress. A t the u ltim ate b e n d in g m o m en t, th e stresses a p p ro a c h the
sam e d istrib u tio n as for th e plastic b e n d in g o f a s tra ig h t b eam . T h u s th e beam
c u rv a tu re has the effect o f reducing th e yield stre n g th b u t o f n o t ap p reciab ly
ch an g in g the u ltim ate b e n d in g strength.
T h e beam show n in Fig. 10.10 lias an initial rad iu s o f c u rv a tu re R m easu red
to th e cen tro id o f th e cro ss scction. A p la n e cro ss sectio n pp rem ain s plane after
bending, an d its relativ e p osition after b e n d in g is sh o w n by m . A lon g itu d in al
liber o f the beam o f in itia l length L is e x te n d e d a d ista n ce <5. Since <5 is m easured
betw een the s tra ig h t lines pp an d nil, it v aries lin early w ith th e d istan ce y from the
cen tro id to the fiber:
<5 = k ! -f k 2 y
T h e term s k t , k 2 . an d k } arc d ete rm in e d c o n sta n ts. T h e len g th o f th e fiber L is

p ro p o rtio n a l to its d ista n c e from the e c n tc r o f c u rv a tu re :
L — fc3(R + y)
3 0 8 MRCRAl-T STRUCTURE
Figure 10.10
T h e unit stress is n o w o b ta in e d as the p ro d u c t o f the u n it stra in 5 /L a n d th e

elastic m o d u lu s E:
r 3 _ T~k i + k 2 y
a L k 2(R + y)
T his expression m a y be sim plified b y div id in g th e n u m e ra to r by the d e n o m in a to r

an d g ro u p in g th e c o n sta n ts in to two new, u n d eterm in ed c o n sta n ts a a n d b:
a = a+ (10.9)
R + y
T his stress d is trib u tio n is p ictu red in Fig. 10.10c.
If a re s u lta n t ten sio n force P acts at th e c e n tro id o f th e a re a , it m ust equal th e
sum of the in tern al forces, th a t is, J a dA. F ro m E q. (10.9) w e have
dA
P = dA = uA + b
I R + y
(10.10)
w here A is the to ta l cro ss-sectio n al area an d a a n d b are u n d eterm in ed co n stan ts.

F o r the case o f p u re b ending, th e force P vanishes. y
T he e x tern al b en d in g m o m e n t M a b o u t th e cen tro id a! axis m ust eq u al th e
m om ent o f th e in tern a l forces J / y dA :
y dA
M = v dA y d A {■ h
R + y
T h e first in teg ral on th e right side o f th e e q u a tio n is ze ro beeau sc y is m easured

from the c e n tro id a l axis. T h e second in te g ral m ay b e s e p a ra te d in to tw o term s by
division:
’ y dA
JR + y ~
DESIGN OF MKMRERS IN TENSION, BENDING, O R TORSrON 3 0 9
T h e b en d in g -m o m en t e q u a tio n m a y now be w ritte n as
dA
M = b A ~ bR ( 10. 11)
R + y
T h e u n k n o w n c o n sta n t h ca n b e found from E q. (10.11) since all o th e r term s are

k n o w n from th e g eo m etry a n d lo ad in g o f th e beam . T h e o th e r u n k n o w n c o n
sta n t, a, is o b ta in e d from Eq. (10.10). T h e stress d is trib u tio n is th e n found from
Eq. (10.9). T he effect o f th e axial load P is to ch an g e th e c o n s ta n t a a n d th e stress
tr by an a m o u n t PJA. H e n c e th e sam e stress d is trib u tio n can be o b ta in e d by
su p erim p o sin g th e b e n d in g stresses for P = 0 a n d th e stresses P /A resulting from
the axial lo ad P a t the c e n tro id o f the area.
T he extrem e fiber stresses for v ario u s curved b eam s c a n b e d eterm in ed as
ra tio s o f the stresses c o m p u te d by th e flexure fo rm u la. T h e se ra tio s have been
c o m p u ted fo r v a rio u s cro ss sections. T h e term s K for th e e q u a tio n cr = K M c /I
a re p lo tted in F ig . 10.11 fo r a few c o m m o n c ro ss sectio n s. I t is observed th a t the
stresses alw ays b eco m e infinite on th e co n cav e side w h en R /c = 1, w hich co rre
sp o n d s to a s h a r p re e n tra n t angle o n th e co n cav e su rface o f th e beam . Such
re e n tra n t angles sh o u ld be av o id ed in an y stru c tu re o r m a ch in e p a rt.
A n o th er effect o f b e a m c u rv a tu re w hich c a n n o t b e an aly zed b y sim ple th eo ry
o ccurs in beam s w ith th in flanges, as ind icated in Fig. 10.12. I f th e concave sid e o f
a beam is in c o m p ressio n , th e flanges tend to deflect to w a rd th e n e u tral axis, as
show n in Fig. 10.12b. T h e bending stress is n o t d istrib u te d uniform ly alo n g th e
F ig u re j 0.11
3 1 0 a ir c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s -f
1
(/')
(«) Figure 10.12
h o rizo n tal beam flange, b u t is m uch h ig h er n e a r the w eb th a n it is in th e o u t

sta n d in g legs, as show n in Fig. 10.126. W hen th e b en d in g p ro d u ces com pression
on the convex side o f the beam , the flanges deflect aw ay from the n eutral axis, but
the stress d is trib u tio n a lo n g th e h o riz o n ta l w id th of th e flange is essentially the
sam e as show n.
10.6 T O R S I O N O F C IR C U L A R S H A F T S
T he stresses resu ltin g from to rsio n al m o m e n ts a c tin g on elastic cylindrical m em

bers o f c ircu lar cross section can be o b ta in e d readily, ft h as been found exper
im entally th a t there is n o d is to rtio n o f an y cro ss section o f th e shaft eith er in the
d irectio n norm a! to th e p lan e o f the cross scctio n o r in th e plane o f the cross
scction. A ny tw o cross sectio n s o f the shaft, su ch as th o se sh o w n in Fig. 10.136,
have a relative ro ta tio n a b o u t the axis o f th e shaft. Since th e tw o cross sections
have no relative d isp lacem en t radially, o r a lo n g the axis o f the shaft, the only
stresses are the sh earin g stresses in the circu m ferential a n d axial d irections, as
sh o w n in Fig. 10.136.
Figure 10.13
nr.SIGN OF MFMBFRS IN TENSION, FSFNDING, OR TORSION 311
T h e sh earin g stra in y an d conseq u en tly th e sh e a rin g stress t s m ust vary

linearly in p ro p o rtio n to th e d istan ce r from th e c e n te r o f th e sh aft:
x ,= K r (10.12)
T he term K is a c o n sta n t of p ro p o rtio n a lity w hich is d eterm in ed later. T h e

external to rsio n al m o m e n t T m ust equal th e su m c f th e m o m e n ts o f the in te rn a l
shearing forces 0 1 1 th e cro ss section:
T= r , r dA = K \ r 2 dA (10.13)
T he integral of Eq. (10.13) represents the p o la r m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f the cross-

sectional area, and usually it is d esignated as J o r I P . T h e value o f K m a y be
found from Eq. (10.13) as K = T /J . S u b stitu tin g this value in to Eq. (10.12) yields
the form ula for to rsio n al sh e a r stresses in c irc u la r sh afts:
Ts = y (10.14)
T h e an g le o f tw ist o f a circu lar shaft m ay b e d e te rm in ed from the angle o f

shearing stra in y. T h e sh e arin g m odulus o f e lasticity G is defined as the ra tio c f
shear stress to sh ear s tra in :
G= — (10.15)
7
A nd C is related to E for an iso tro p ic m ateria! o n ly by the follow ing e q u a tio n :
C = r-4 - (10.16)
2(1 + ti)
T he shaft o f rad iu s r0 sh o w n in Fig. 10.13 tw ists th ro u g h a n an g le <ji in len g th
L. A p o in t o n the circum ference of the u p p e r c ro ss sectio n m o v es a distance q>rQ
, d u rin g the d efo rm atio n . T h is p o in t is also d isp la c e d a d ista n c e yL, as sho w n :
<l”'u = yL
T h e angle o f tw ist <f>m a y b e expressed in o th e r fo rm s b y s u b s titu tin g values fro m
Eqs. (10.15) a n d (10.14):
4 ,= = = {10.17)
v r0 G r0 JG
T hese e q u a tio n s ap p ly o n ly to to rsio n m em b ers w ith solid c irc u la r cro ss sections,

o r to tu b u la r m em b ers w ith hollow c ircu lar c ro ss sections.
10.7 T O R S I O N O F A N O N C IR C U L A R S H A F T
T h e stresses in a to rsio n m e m b er o f a rb itra ry cro ss se ctio n c a n n o t be o b ta in e d by

m eans o f a sim ple, general eq u atio n . A few sp ecial cases m a y be analyzed, h o w -
Figure 10.14
ever, a n d so m e general p ro p e rtie s o f th e sh e a r stress d is trib u tio n are exam ined. A

cylindrical to rsio n m em b e r o f a rb itra ry c ro ss section is sh o w n in Fig. 10.14a. T h e
sm all cu b ica l elem en t a t th e surface o f th e m em b er is e n la rg e d in Fig. 10.146. In
general, th ree p a irs o f sh e a rin g stresses T j , t 2 , t 3 exist o n a n y such elem en t; b u t
in the case w here o n e face o f this elem ent is a free su rface of th e m em ber, the
sh ear stresses t 2 a n d t 3 o n th e free surface m u st be zero. T h u s the elem ent a t th e
b o u n d a ry h a s o n ly th e sh e a r stresses i l5 w hich a re p a ra lle l to the b o u n d a ry .
H ence th e s h e a r stresses on a cross sectio n n e a r an y b o u n d a ry are p arallel to the
b o u n d a ry , as show n in F ig. 10.14a. T h e re s u lta n t o f all sh e arin g forces o n the
cross sectio n m u s t be eq u a l to the ex tern al to rq u e.
T h e ex ag g erated d e fo rm atio n s of a sq u a re shaft in to rsio n arc sh o w n in Fig.
10.15a. A n elem en t a t a c o rn e r o f the cro ss sectio n m a y be c o m p ared to th e
elem ent sh o w n in Fig. 10.146, a n d since tw o p e rp e n d ic u la r faces o f th e elem ent
can have n o s h e a r stresses, all th e sh e a r stresses t j , t 2 , a n d t 3 m u st be zero a t a
c o rn e r o f the m em b er. T h e sh ear stresses o n th e cro ss sectio n have m axim um
values a t th e c e n te r o f each side an d have d irectio n s ap p ro x im a te ly as sh o w n in
d i s ic in o f m e m b e r s i n t e n s i o n , b e n d in g , o r t o r s io n 313
h i
SIZE
(</) ib)
Figure 10.16
Fig. 10.156. T h e cubical elem en ts a t the co rn ers rem a in c u b ica l, a s ind icated in
Fig. 10.15a, b u t elem ents n e a r th e cen ters o f th e sides h a v e ra th e r larg e shearin g
deform ations. T h e cross sectio n s th erefore d o n o t rem ain p lan e, b u t w arp as
show n.
O n e type o f m em b er w hich is used freq u en tly o n flight vehicle stru c tu re s h as
a n arro w , rectan g u lar cro ss section. W hile su ch cro ss sectio n s a re inefficient for
to rsio n m em bers, often th e y m u st resist som e to rsio n a l stresses. F o r the cross
section show n in Fig. 10.16 o f len g th 6 an d w id th f, the s h e a r stresses m u st be
parallel to th e b o u n d a ry . If th e length h is large co m p a red to th e th ick n ess t, the
end effects a re sm all, a n d th e sh e a r stresses m ay be assu m ed to b e d istrib u te d as
show n in Fig. 10.166 fo r th e e n tire length 6. It c a n be sh o w n th a t th e sh e a r stress
has th e follow ing value:
3J
2 ( 10. 18)
bt
E q u a tio n (10.18) is a c c u ra te when the w id th 6 is larg e c o m p a re d to the
thickness 1. F o r re c ta n g u la r cro ss sections in w hich the d im en sio n s are o f the
sam e o rd er, the m ax im u m stress, w hich o ccu rs a t th e m id d le o f th e lon g est side, is
fo u n d by
T
(10.19)
abt
V alues o f a are given in T a b le 10.1. T hese values h av e been calc u la ted by th e o r
etical m eth o d s w hich a re n o t w ithin the scope o f th e p re se n t d iscu ssio n . F o r large
ra tio s o f b/t, the value o f a is 0.333, w hich c o rre sp o n d s to E q. (10.18). F o r sm aller
values of b/t, th e effects o f th e en d s are m o re n o ticeab le, a n d th e v alu es o f a are
sm aller than 0.333.
T h e angle of tw ist o f a re c ta n g u la r shaft o f len g th L can be o b ta in e d from
TL
P bt3G
w here (jj is in rad ian s a n d /f is a c o n sta n t w hich is given in T a b le 10.1.
T able 10.1 C onstants for Eqs. (10.19) and (10.20)
b/t 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.0 0 2.50 3.00 10
a 0.208 0.231 0.23y 0.246 0.25S 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333
f! 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333
(c) Figure 10.17
T h e to rsio n a l p ro p e rtie s o f a re c ta n g u la r p la te a rc n o t ap p reciab ly aflccted if

the plate is b en t to so m e cross section, su ch as those sh o w n in Fig. 10.17,
pro v id ed th a t the e n d cro ss sectio n s of th e m em b er are free to w arp. T h u s these
sections m ay be a n aly z ed by Eqs. (10.19) a n d (10.20). T h e angle o f tw ist for a
shaft o f an y cross sectio n m ay be expressed in the form
w here K is a c o n sta n t w hich d ep en d s o n o n ly the cross-sectional area. By c o m

p arin g Eqs. (10.20) an d (10.21), th e value of K for a re c ta n g u la r cross scction is
found to be fib l3. F o r a cro ss scction m ad e u p o f several re cta n g u la r elem ents,
such as th a t sh o w n in Fig. 10.18, the v alu e o f K is given a p p ro x im a te ly by
K = (ll b i t 3l + ( l 2 b 2 <32 + P 3 b 3 tl (10.22)
E x am p le 10.3 T h e ro u n d tube sh o w n in F ig. 10.19« h as an av erage rad iu s R

an d a w all th ick n ess f. C o m p a re th e to rsio n a l stre n g th a n d rigidity of this
tu b e w ith th a t o f a sim ila r tube w hich is slit for its en tire length, as sln5wn in
Fig. iO. 19b a n d c. A ssum e R /t = 20.
S o l u t i o n A p p ro x im a te values o f th e a re a an d m o m en t o f inertia a re satis-

'"0’ DESIGN o r MEMBERS IN TF.NSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 3 1 5
facto ry for thin -w alled tubes. T h e area is eq u al to th e p ro d u c t o f the circu m

ference 2 n R a n d th e w all thickness t. T h e p o la r ra d iu s o f g y ra tio n is a p p ro x i
m ately eq u a l to R, a n d the p o la r m o m en t o f in e rtia is th en o b ta in e d as
follow s:
J = 2nRh (10.23)
It is sufficiently a cc u ra te to use the av erag e ra d iu s R in p lace of th e o u tside
rad iu s in c o m p u tin g the m axim um sh ea rin g stress. T h e v alu es o f the closed
tu b e are o b ta in e d from Eqs. (10.14) a n d ( LO. 17):
_7>_ T
(10.24)
2K Rh
TL
<*= — = ■ (10.25)
V JG 2 n R 3tG
T h e slit tu b e is an aly zed by Eqs. (10.18) a n d (10.20), assu m in g b = 2n R a n d

a = P = 0.333:
3T
t. = (10.26)
2 n R t2
3TL
$ = (10.27)
2 n R ti G
T h e ra tio o f sh e a rin g stresses for th e tw o m em b ers is o b ta in e d by d ividing
Eq. (10.26) by Eq. (10.24). T h e values o f th e stress a n d an g le for th e closed
tube a re d esig n ate d t s0 a n d </>„, respectively:
3R
60
t
T he sh earin g stresses arc therefore 60 lim es as high in th e slit tu b e as in th e

closed tube, o r th e closed tu b e w ould be 60 tim es as s tro n g if th e allo w ab le
sh earin g stresses w ere equ al.
T h e to rsio n a l stiffness o f the tw o m em bers m ay be c o m p a re d by dividing
Eq. (10.27) by Eq. (10.25):
<t> 3 R 2
= 1200 (10.28)
$o
</>!
(c) Figure 10.19

F o r a given angle o f tw ist, the closed tu b e resists 1200 tim es th e to rsio n o f th e

o p en sectio n ; or, fo r a given to rq u e, th e o p e n se c tio n tw ists th ro u g h a n angle
1200 tim es as g re a t as th e closed tube. W e assum ed th a t th e open tu b e w as
free to d is to rt as sh ow n in Fig. 10.19c, o r th a t th e en d cro ss sectio n s w ere n o t
restrain ed a g a in st w arping.
10.8 E N D R E S T R A I N T O F T O R S I O N M E M B E R S
In Sec. 10.7 we a ssu m e th a t the end cro ss sectio n s o f th e to rsio n m em bers a re free
to w arp from th e ir o rig in al plane a n d th a t th ere a re n o stresses n o rm a l to th e
cross sections. I t h as been p o in ted o u t th a t m a n y a irc ra ft stru c tu ra l m em b ers
m ust be c o n stru c te d w ith thin w ebs a n d th a t such m em b ers are v ery inefficient in
resisting to rsio n a l lo ad s unless they form a closed b o x . In so m e cases, it is
necessary to use o p en sectio n s w ith thin w eb s; a n d in m o s t o f these cases, the
ends sh o u ld b e re stra in e d to p ro v id e a d d itio n a l to rsio n a l rigidity a n d stren g th .
T h e 1 beam sh o w n in Fig. 10.20 resists p a rt o f th e to rsio n by m ean s o f th e
sh ear stresses d istrib u te d fo r th e in d iv id u al rectangles, a s sh o w n in Fig. 10.16.
T he re m a in d e r o f the to rsio n is resisted b y h o riz o n ta l b en d in g o f th e beam
flanges, as show n in Fig. 10.20b. T h e p ro p o rtio n o f th e to rsio n w hich is resisted
by each o f the tw o w ays d ep en d s on th e d im en sio n s o f th e cross section a n d the
len g th o f th e m em ber. T h is p ro p o rtio n also varies a lo n g th e m em ber, as m o re of
the to rsio n is resisted by flange b ending n e a r th e fixed end th a n n e ar th e free end.
F o r m em b ers in w hich th e w ebs a re th in a n d th e le n g th is n o t g reat, ail the
torsion m ay be assu m ed to be resisted by flange b en d in g . In the case o f long
m em bers w ith th ick w ebs, all the to rsio n m ay b e assu m e d to be resisted b y th e
to rsio n al resistan ce o f th e re cta n g u la r elem ents. In som e cases, how ever, it m ay
be necessary to c alc u la te th e p ro p o rtio n of th e to rsio n resisted by each m eth o d .
A m em b er w hich is n o t restrain ed a t th e en d s tw ists as show n in Fig. 10.21.
T h e angle o f tw ist varies uniform ly alo n g th e len g th a n d m ay be co m p u ted from
Eq. (10.21). F o r a m e m b e r resisting to rsio n by m ean s o f flange bending, as sh o w n
in Fig. 10.20/), th e flange b en d in g stresses v ary from z e ro a t th e free en d to
m axim um values a t th e fixed end. T h e an g le o f tw ist an d the a m o u n t o f cross
section w a rp in g v ary a lo n g th e span. F o r th e J-b eam cross section, T im oSfienko
and G e re 9 give the follow ing eq u atio n s for th e m ax im u m flange b en d in g m o m e n t
niSK iN OF MFMBHRS IN TENSION, BENDING, Olt TORSION 3 1 7
Figure 10.21
fo r th e m ax im u m to rsio n resisted b y w eb sh ears T'm x , a n d for the an g le of

tw ist 0 in len g th L (th e c o n sta n t a is a ra tio o f th e relativ e flange b en d in g rig id ity
to the to rsio n a l rigidity):
( 1 0 .2 9 )
f'mai — I sech ^ (10.30)
0 = -tH l — a ta n h — ) (10.31)
KG «/
2ly E (10.32)
KG
T h e term I f is th e m o m e n t o f in ertia o f o n e flange o f th e b ea m a b o u t a vertical
axis, K is defined b y Eq. (10.22), a n d h is th e beam d e p th betw een cen te rs o f
flanges. T h e analysis for th e / beam sh o w n in F ig. 10.20 also applies for a b e a m
of leng th 2 L w hich has a to rq u e o f 2 T ap p lie d a t th e c e n te r a n d w hich resists h a lf
Figure 10.22
the to rq u e a t cach en d , if the ends are n o t restrain ed a g a in st w arping. In this ease,

a cro ss scctio n at th e c en tc r o f the beam is p rev en ted from w a rp in g because of the
sy m m etry o f loading.
A chan n el cro ss scction, su ch as th a t sh o w n in Fig. 10.22d, frequently is used
as an a irc ra ft s tru c tu ra l m em ber. If a ch an n el m em b er is restrain ed a t th e end, it
will resist to rsio n by b en d in g o f the flanges in m u ch th e sam e m an n e r as the
/-b e a m flanges sh o w n in Fig. 10.20b. T h e analy sis for flange bending is slightly
m o re co m p licate d th a n for th e I beam , becau se th e v ertical w eb o f the ch an n el
acts w ith the flanges in resisting flange bending, as sh o w n in Fig. 10.22«. T h e
cross scctio n sho w n in Fig. 10.22/; acts in th e sam e w ay as the channel section,
b u t the stress d is trib u tio n is still m o re difficult to an alyze.
10.9 TORSIONAL STRESSES ABOVE THE ELASTIC LIMIT
It has been assum ed th a t th e stresses arc below th e elastic lim it in the previous
analysis of to rsio n a l stresses. In m any design a p p lic a tio n s, the ultim ate to rsio n al
stren g th is desired. W hile th ere is n o t m uch p u b lish ed in fo rm atio n con cern in g
stress-strain curves for specim ens in pure sh ear, these cu rv es will have the sam e
general sh a p e as th e ten sio n stress-strain curvcs a n d w ill h av e o rd in ate s a p p ro x i
m ately 0.6 o f th o se fo r th e tension curves. T h u s the to rsio n a l stresses in a ro u n d
b a r a re d is trib u te d as sh o w n in Fig. 10.23 w hen th e stresses exceed th e elastic
lim it.
As in th e plastic b en d in g o f beam s, it is c o n v en ie n t to w o rk w ith a fictitious
stress in stead o f the ex act stress d istrib u tio n s. T h is stress is d esignated as the
to rsio n al m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re i r , w hich is defined by
Tr
(10.33)
w here T is the u ltim a te to rsio n a l stre n g th o f the m em b er. F o r steel tubes, the
value o f x T d ep en d s o n the p ro p o rtio n s o f th e cro ss scction. T h e values of th e
ratio T r /r r ,„ a re sh o w n in Fig. 10.24 for v a rio u s values o f the ratio o f outsid e
d ia m e te r to wall thickness D /t. T hese curves a re ta k e n from M IL -H D B K -5 .
E q u a tio n (10.33) ap p lies to o n ly c irc u la r o r h o llo w circ u la r cross se'ctions,
/
/
/
Figure 10.23
i>i;sk;n or mhmiii-rs in' thnsion, hi-nding, or torsion 319
an d Fig. 10.24 supp lies in fo rm atio n for allo w ab le stresses o n all su ch cross sec
tions for v ario u s a irc ra ft steels. T h e plastic to rsio n a l stress d istrib u tio n in n o n
circu lar sections u su ally c a n n o t !>c o b ta in e d by a n y sim ple analysis. O ften it m ay
bo necessary to m a k e sta tic tests on to rsio n m em b ers o f n o n c irc u la r cross sec
tions to d eterm in e the allow able to rsio n al m o m en ts to use for design.
E xam ple 10.4 A ro u n d steel tu b e w ith 1-in o u te r d ia m e te r (O D ) 0.065 in

thick resists a design to rsio n al m o m e n t of 5000 in • lb. F in d th e m a rg in o f
safety if the u ltim a te tensile stress a lu = 100,000 lb /in 2.
S o l u t i o n T h e v alues D /t = 15.38 a n d l/ y = 0.04193 in 3 a re o b ta in e d for this

tube. F ro m F ig. 10.24, the ratio t T/a lu = 0.6 is o b ta in e d . T h e m a rg in o f safety
is th erefo re c a lc u la te d as follow s:
T = 0.6 X 100,000 = 60,000 lb /in 2
!, = — = — = ----- 5000 = 59,600 Ib /in 2

' J 2//y 2 x 0.04193
MS = — — 1 = 1 ^ - 1 = 0 .0 0 7
t, 59,600
E x am p le 10.5 D esign a ro u n d tu b e to resist a to rsio n a l m o m en t o f 8000

in ■ lb. T h e m in im u m perm issible wall thickness is 0.049 in, a n d the m aterial
h as an u ltim a te ten sile stress a tu o f 100,000 lb /in 2.
S o l u t i o n A to rsio n tube m u st be d esigned b y a tria l-a n d -e rro r process,

because allo w a b le stress depends o n th e D /t ra tio a n d c a n n o t be d eterm in ed
exactly until th e tu b e is selected. F o r tu b e s o f a p p ro x im a te ly th e sam e w eight,
the larg er l / y v alu es a re o b tain ed for la rg e r d iam eters, b u t th e hig h er allo w
ab le m oduli o f ru p tu re are o b ta in e d for th ick er tu b e w alls. T h u s several tu b e s
m ay have a b o u t th e sam e w eight a n d stren g th , a lth o u g h tubes w ith h ig h er
D /t ratio s u sually have a stren g th -w cig h t a d v a n ta g e . A ssum e an average ratio
n il Figure 10.24
T ab le 10.2
tot D /
Tube, in 100 in t y *7- MS
l i x 0.049 6.32 30.60 0.07847 53,000 51,000 0.04

I f x 0.049 5.78 28.05 0.06534 54,000 61,500 - 0 .1 2
l i x 0.058 6.15 21.55 0.06187 56,000 64,700 -0 .1 2
ir M « o f 0.60 as a first a p p ro x im a tio n , o r xT = 60,000 lb /in 2. T h e re q u ire d

tu b e p ro p e rtie s a re n o w o b tain ed as follow s:
n . 21 T 8000
R eq u ired —= — = — = ■
r y xT 60,000
or
R equired - = 0.0667 in3

y
T h e lig h test lu b e w hich m eets th e re q u ire m en t o f 0.0667 in 3 is a 1^- by
0.049-in tu b e w ith D /t = 3 0 .6 0 ,I / y = 0.07847, a n d a w eig h t o f 6.32 lb/1 0 0 in.
F ro m Fig. 10.24, x T/ a tlt = 0.53, o r r r = 53,000 lb /in 2. T h e m arg in of safety is
T 8000
T' = 2 ^ = 2 T 0 ^ = 5 , ’° ° 0 ! b /in
MS = — —1= - 1 = 0.04
x, 51,000
O th e r lu b e s a re c o m p a re d in T ab le 10.2. T h e 1^- by 0.049-in tub e is the only

o n e w hich h a s a p ositiv e m arg in o f safety. A ny o th e r tu b es w hich a re lig h ter
th a n by 0.049 in a n d w hich have a m in im u m w all thickness o f 0.049 in are
o b v io u sly u n d e r th e re q u ired stren g th .
10.10 COMBINED STRESSES AND STRESS RATIOS
T h e design o f m em b ers resisting ten sio n , bending, o r to rsio n is d iscu ssed in

earlier sections. M a n y stru c tu ra l m em b ers, how ever, m u st resist th e sim u ltan e o u s
aclion o f tw o o r m o re o f these lo ad in g c o n d itio n s. If stresses are below th e elastic
lim it o f the m a te ria l, th e n o rm a l a n d sh e a r stresses a t an y p o in t m ay be c o m b in ed
by utilizing M o h r's circle. W h en w o rk in g stresses b a se d o n th e elastic lim it are
used, as in m o st ty p es o f stru c tu ra l d esig n , it is c u sto m a ry to d eterm in e th e
principal stresses a n d th e m ax im u m sh e a rin g stresses a t a p o in t an d to c o m p a re
these to th e allo w ab le w o rk in g stresses.
W hen m em b e rs a re designed on th e b asis o f u ltim a te stren g th , it is n o t
feasible to calc u late ih e tru e p rincipal stresses in th e case o f plastic b en d in g o r
(orsion. E ven if (lie tru e stresses are k n o w n , it is difficult lo p red ict the lo a d s a t
DESIGN OF MEMBERS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 321
w hich failure w o u ld o c c u r u n d e r co m b in ed lo a d in g c o n d itio n s. A ten sio n m e m b er

fails w h en the av erag e stress reach es th e u ltim a te tensile stre n g th g ... fo r th e
m aterial, b u t a m e m b e r resisting co m b in ed stresses m a y fail before th e m ax im u m
p rin cip al stress reac h es th e v alu e of a tu. F a ilu re in p u re sh ear, fo r exam ple, o ccu rs
w hen the p rin cip al ten sio n a n d co m p ressio n stresses a re a b o u t 0.6c,„. V a rio u s
theories o f failure o f m a teria ls u n d e r co m b in ed lo a d in g h a v e beerT3bveloped, b u t
n one gives a sim ple m e th o d o f pred ictin g th e failure o f all m a terials.
S h an ley a n d R y d er h av e p ro p o se d a m e th o d w hich p ro v id es a p ra c tic a l
m ean s o f co n sid e rin g th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e fictitio u s stresses o f b e n d in g o r
to rsio n a n d o f o b ta in in g th e allo w ab le u ltim a te lo a d s for co m b in ed loadings. T h is
m e th o d consists o f u sin g stress ra tio s a n d h a s been extensively a d o p te d in th e
analysis o f flight vehicle stru c tu res. T h e stress ra tio m e th o d m ay be ap p lied to
alm o st an.y c o m b in a tio n o f tw o o r m o re types o f lo ad in g , a lth o u g h in som e cases
it m a y be n ecessary to test so m e specim ens in o rd er to a p p ly th e m e th o d . T h e
m eth o d o f stress ra tio s is ap plied first to so m e special cases o f lo ad in g a n d is
sta te d la te r in a gen eral form .
O n e o f the sim p lest ty p es o f co m b in ed lo ad in g s is th a t o f tension a n d b e n d
ing, as show n in F ig. 10.25. T h e stresses m a y be a d d e d algebraically, a n d for
sm all lo ad s th e stress rs P /A + M y /I a t an y p o in t in th e cro ss section, as sh o w n
in Fig. 10.25a. W h e n th e stresses exceed th e elastic lim it, how ever, th e dis
trib u tio n becom es' sim ilar to th a t sh o w n in Fig. 10.256. T h e tru e stress d is
trib u tio n is dilTiciiIl to calcu late, an d it is c o n v en ie n t to use th e m eth o d o f stress
ra tio s in p red ictin g th e stren g th . F o r p u re b en d in g w ith no to rsio n , failure will
o ccu r w hen th e ra tio o f th e ap p lied b en d in g stress <?b to th e allow able b en d in g
stress aB a p p ro a c h e s un ity (R b = c b/crB = 1). S im ilarly, for ten sio n w ith n o b e n d
ing, failure will o c c u r w hen th e ten sio n -stress ra tio R , = g J<j iu a p p ro ach es unity.
Since th e stresses b elow th e elastic lim it a d d directly, it seem s logical to a d d th e
stress ratio s, a n d tests su b sta n tia te this m e th o d . T h e failure u n d er co m b in ed
tension an d b e n d in g th erefore occurs u n d e r th e follow ing c o n d itio n :
Rb + R t — 1 (10.34)
T h e m arg in of safety is defined b y th e follow ing e q u a tio n , w hich co rresp o n d s

willi previously used expressions w hen eith er o f the stress ra tio s is zero :
M S= i d T r ‘ (ia35)
F o r ro u n d tu b e s in co m b in ed b en d in g a n d to rsio n , th e stresses d o n o t a d d
algebraically. F o r stresses below th e elastic lim it, the m ax im u m stress at an y
p o in t m ay be o b ta in e d readily by using M o h r’s circle. T h e m ax im u m ten sio n a n d
sh earin g stresses in th e tube sh o w n in Fig. 10.26a will o c cu r a t th e su p p o rt an d
on the u p p e r surface, as show n. T h e ten sio n stress in th e d ire c tio n o f th e axis o f
the tu b e <jb is fo u n d from th e b en d in g m o m e n t M as follow s:
= -p (10.36)
T h e sh e arin g stress zs o n the p lan es show n is o b ta in e d from the to rsio n a l m o

m ent T :
t3 = — (10.37)
3 21 !
T he sm all elem en t a t the to p o f th e tu b e is en larg ed in Fig. 10.266. T h e principal
stresses an d the m ax im u m sh earin g stresses at this p o in t o n th e tu b e a re o b tain ed
from the stresses a h a n d r , by M o h r’s circle, as sh o w n in F ig. 10.26c. T h e m axi
m um sh e arin g stress r mj>j is equal to th e rad iu s o f th e circle
.2 , / < V 2
S u b stitu tin g values <jb a n d xs from Eqs. (10.36) an d (10.37) in to Eq. (10.38) yields
Figure 10.26
DESIGN OF MF.MBF.RS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 323
w here Tc is an eq u iv a le n t to rq u e defined by Eq. (10.39). If th e to rsio n is la rg e r

th a n th e b en d in g m o m e n t, the m ax im u m sh earin g stress m a y be used to p red ict
the stren g th of the tube. If th e b en d in g m o m e n t is larg e in co m p ariso n to th e
to rsio n , th e p rin cip al stresses a re m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e sh earin g stresses. In
m achine design practice, shafts in b en d in g a n d to rsio n a re designed so as to keep
the sh earin g stress o f Eq. (10.39) a n d th e prin cip al stresses sm aller th a n th e
co rre sp o n d in g allow ab le w o rk in g stresses, w hich a re a c e rta in fraction o f th e
yield stress.
W hen a tube is stressed beyond th e elastic lim it, E qs. (10.36) an d (10.37) d o
not yield the tru e stresses, b u t yield th e fictitious stresses defined as th e b en d in g
m odulus o f ru p tu re a n d th e to rsio n a l m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re . E q u a tio n s (10.38) an d
(10.39), therefore, a re n o t exact when th e stresses are b e y o n d th e elastic lim it.
W hen the to rsio n is large in co m p a riso n to the b en d in g m o m en t, how ever, E q.
(10.39) m ay be used to p red ict the u ltim a te for the allo w ab le stress. A m o re
accu rate m e th o d o f d esig n in g tu b es in to rsio n o r b en d in g is by stress ratio s. T h e
bending a n d to rsio n al m o d u li o f ru p tu re a b a n d t , , respectively, are ca lcu lated
from Eqs. (10.36) an d (10.37), an d th e allo w ab le values crB a n d t t are fo u n d b y th e
sam e m et!' 'd s as for tu b es in b en d in g o r to rsio n only. T h e stress ra tio in b e n d in g
R h = a h/ a n is co m b in ed w ith th e stress ra tio in to rsio n R sl = x ,jxT in th e sam e
m an n er as th e loads a rc co m b in ed in Eq. (10.39). F a ilu re o cc u rs for the follow ing
c o n d itio n :
Rl + R l = 1 (10.40)
T he m arg in o f safety is
M S = —j= = L = = - 1 (10.41)
jR l + Rl
W here eith er the b en d in g m o m en t o r th e to rsio n a l m o m e n t is zero, Eqs. (10.40)
an d (10.41) yield values w hich w ere prev io u sly o b ta in e d fo r b en d in g o r to rsio n
onlv.
E q u a tio n s (10.34) a n d (10.40) rep resen t tw o w ays in w hich stress ratio s m ay

be co m b in ed . T h ese e q u a tio n s m ay be p lo tte d witti the tw o stress ratio s as
co o rd in ates, as sh o w n in Fig. 10.27. T h e g ra p h fo r E q. (10.34) is sh o w n b y th e
straig h t line, a n d th a t for E q. (10.40) b y th e circle. O th e r c o m b in a tio n s o f lo a d in g
co n d itio n s m ay be rep resen ted by a m o re gen eral e q u a tio n :
R xi + * $ = 1 (10.42)
w here th e ex p o n en ts x a n d v usu ally m u st be fo u n d experim en tally by p lo ttin g
test results, as sh o w n in Fig. 10.27, a n d by w ritin g a n e q u a tio n for a curve p assing
th ro u g h the points.
E xam ple 10.6 A 2- by 0.095-in steel tu b e is h e a t-tre a te d to an u ltim ate tensile

stren g th crlu — 180,000 lb /in 2.
(a) F in d th e m a rg in o f safety if th e lu b e resists a design ten sio n lo a d o f 50,000
lb an d a design b en d in g m o m en t o f 30,000 in ■lb.
(h) F in d the m arg in o f safety if th e tu b e resists a b e n d in g m o m en t of 30,000
in • lb a n d a to rsio n al m o m e n t o f 50,000 in ■lb.
S o l u t i o n T h e tu b e p ro p e rtie s are A = 0 .5 6 8 5 in 2, D /t = 21.05, a n d //v =

0.2486 in 3.
(«) F ro m Fig. 10.3, cr„ = 211,000 lb /in 2. T h e stresses an d stress ratio s arc
My 30.000 11fnnniu;_2
= 116,000 lb /in
1 0.25S6
ah 116,000
Ri aB 211,000 ° ' 55°
P 50,000
ff' = I = ^ ==88’0 0 0 ,b /m
0488
1 ff,u 180,000
T h e m arg in o f safety is o b ta in e d from Eq. (10.35): s ’•
MS = - 1 = - 0 .0 3 5
Rh + R t
T h e negative m a rg in o f safety in d icates th a t th e lu b e is unsatisfactory.

(/>) T h e stress ratio for bend in g is th e sam e as co m p u ted in p a rt (a). T h e
to rsio n al m o d u lu s o f ru p tu re is o b ta in e d from Fig. 10.24, for D /t = 21.05
an d t t = 0.58 x 180,000 = 104,000 lb /in 2. T h e stress ra tio for to rsio n is
Ty 50,000
DISIGN or MEMBERS IN TENSION, BENDING, OR TORSION 325
T h e m a rg in o f safety is n o w c a lc u la te d from E q . (10.41):
MS = - , •’ - 1 = - 0 .0 7
T h e tu b e is u nsatisfactory.
10.11 FAILURE THEORIES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Since th e stre ss -ra tio tech n iq u e w as d ev elo p e d b y S h an ley a n d R y d er35 y ears ago,
m an y th eo ries o f failure in stru c tu ra l desig n h a v e been p resented. T h e th re e m o s t
co m m o n ly u sed a re the m ax im u m stress th e o ry , m ax im u m sh ear th eo ry , a n d
m ax im u m d is to rtio n energy th e o ry .37
In th e m ax im u m stress theory, failu re is sa id to o c cu r in a stru c tu ra l m e m b e r
u n d er th e a c tio n o f com bined stresses w h en o n e o f th e p rin cip al stresses reach es
the failu re v a lu e (yield stress, u ltim a te stress, etc.) in sim ple tension cr0 . In a
tw o -d im en sio n al s ta te o f stress, failu re is d efin ed a s follow s:
F a ilu re occurs w hen a l = + c r0 (o^ > a 2)

F a ilu re occurs w hen <r2 = ± cr0 (a 2 > ffi)
or
a
-'• = + 1 (cr, > <t2)
(10.43)
— = ± 1 (cr2 > O’!
In the m ax im u m sh ear theory, failure is sa id to o c cu r in a stru ctu ra l m em b er

u n d er the a c tio n o f com b in ed stresses w h en th e m ax im u m sh e a r stress reach es th e
value o f sh e a r failure stress in tension, = <r0/2. U n d e r com bined stresses in
tw o d im en sio n s, th ree possible sh e a r v alues exist:
00 0i
Tj - 2 -
t2 = y0 0 = h (10.44)
2
00 0i
±
2 2
T herefore, failu re is defined by one o f th e follow ing:
<Xi <72 ~ ± 0 0
a 2 = + ffo
f t = ± 0 -o
C’HAPTI-R
ELEVEN
BUCKLING DESIG N OF
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
11.1 B E A M - D E F L E C T I O N E Q U A T IO N S
T h e m e th o d s used in th e design o f c o m p ressio n m em bers, o r colum ns, a re based

on beam -defiection e q u a tio n s. C o lu m n s d o n o t fail as a resu lt o f th e d irect
co m p ressio n stresses, o n ly as a result o f the c o m b in ed c o m p ressio n a n d bend in g
stresses. Since the m a g n itu d e s of the b e n d in g stresses d e p e n d o n th e bend in g
deflections, it is n ecessary to derive the c o lu m n e q u a tio n s from beam -deflection
equations.
T h e e q u a tio n s Tor b eam deflections a rc derived from th e c u sto m ary assu m p
tions th a t stress is p ro p o rtio n a l to stra in a n d th a t the deflectio n s are srar&ll in
co m p ariso n to th e o rig in al dim ensions. O n ly d e fo rm a tio n s resu ltin g from b en d
ing stresses is usually co n sid ered , b u t if sh earin g d e fo rm a tio n s are appreciable,
they m ay be co m p u ted se p a ra te ly and su p erim p o sed . A n in itia lly stra ig h t beam is
-show n w ith ex ag g erated deflections in Fig. 11.1. T he tw o c ro ss sections a d istan ce
d x a p a rt a re p arallel to th e unstressed c o n d itio n , b u t h av e a relative angle dO in
the stressed c o n d itio n . T h e angle dO m ay be o b ta in e d b y co n sid erin g the sm all
triangle betw een th e n e u tra l axis a n d a p o in t a d istan ce c below the n e u tral axis.
T he stress a at this p o in t is o b ta in e d from th e flexure fo rm u la :
T he lo n g itu d in al fiber a d istan ce c from the n eu tra l axis h a s a n elo n g a tio n a d x /E
328
BUCKLING DESIGN O f STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 329
Figure II. 1
in the length dx. T h e angle dO is o b ta in e d by d iv id in g this elo n g atio n by the

distance c, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.1:
F ro m F qs. (11.1) an d (11.2),
( 1 1 .3 )
T h e dcflection c u rv e o f ihe beam can be rep rese n te d by x and y co o rd in ate s,

as show n in Fig. 11.2. T h e beam is a ssu m ed to be initially s tra ig h t an d p arallel to
the x axis. T h e deflectio n s are sm all, a n d th e angle 0 b etw een a ta n g en t to the
deflection curve a n d Ihe ,x axis is sm all e n o u g h th a t it is sufficiently a cc u ra te to
assum e th a t th e an g le in rad ian s, the sin e o f th e angle, a n d the ta n g en t o f th e
angle a re all e q u a l:
0 = sin 0 = ta n 0 (1 1 .4 )
( 1 1 .5 )
F ro m Eqs. (11.3) a n d (11.5),
d 2y M
dx2 ~ E I (1L6)
All c o n v en tio n al m e th o d s o f o b ta in in g b eam deflections a re based o n E q. (11.6).
It sh o u ld be n o te d th a t th e deflections y a re m easu red p o sitiv e u p w ard , so th a t a
positive b e n d in g m o m e n t M p ro d u c e s a p o sitiv e c u rv a tu re d 2y /d x 2. E q u a tio n
(11.6) often is derived from the a ssu m p tio n th a t y is p o sitiv e d o w n w ard , a n d a
m inus sign is in tro d u c e d becau se a positive b e n d in g m o m en t w o u ld th e n p ro d u c e
a negative cu rv atu re .
11.2 L O N G COLUM NS
C o m p ressio n m em b ers ten d to fail as a result o f the lateral b ending induced by

th e co m p ressio n lo a d , a n a c tio n w hich is co m m o n ly term ed buckling. In th e case
o f colum ns w hich a re lo n g in c o m p a riso n to th e ir o th e r dim ensions, elastic b u c k
ling occurs, o r th e co lu m n s -buckle w hen th e co m pressive stresses a re below th e
elastic lim it. Such co lu m n s a re term ed long columns.
T h e initially s tra ig h t c o lu m n sh o w n in Fig. 11.3 is a ssu m ed to b e held in th e
deflected p o sitio n by m ean s o f th e co m pressive forces P. T h e b en d in g m o m e n t at
an y cross sectio n is fo u n d from
M = —Py (11.7)
It is assu m ed th a t th e m a te rial do es n o t exceed th e elastic lim it at an y p o in t, an d
therefore E q . (11.6) is ap p licab le. T h e differen tial e q u a tio n o f th e deflection curve
is o b ta in e d from E qs. (11.6) a n d (11.7):
d 2y _P
dx2 + El
T h e general so lu tio n o f Eq. (11.8) is
y = C ! sin /- £ - x + C 2 cos H ~ x -('fl.9)

V hi V
T h is so lu tio n m ay be verified by su b s titu tio n a n d m u st b e a general so lu tio n
o f the seco n d -o rd e r differen tial e q u a tio n b ecau se it c o n ta in s th e tw o a rb itra ry
c o n sta n ts C , a n d C 2 . In o rd e r to satisfy th e en d co n d itio n s sh o w n in Fig. 11.3,
th e dcflection curv e m u st pass th ro u g h th e p o in ts (x = 0, y = 0) a n d (x = L,
|
BUCKLING DESIGN O F STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 331
y = 0). S u b stitu tin g th e first c o n d itio n in to E q. (11.9) yields C 2 = 0. T h e second

co n d itio n , th a t v = 0 w hen x — L, m a y be satisfied w h en C y = 0, w hich is a
trivial so lu tio n , c o rre sp o n d in g to th e c o n d itio n s o f sm all lo a d s w hen the co lu m n
rem ains straig h t. T h e o n ly so lu tio n o f in te re st in c o lu m n analysis is th a t for
w hich the c o lu m n is deflected an d C , is n o t zero. T h is so lu tio n , in w hich th e
colum n is b uckled, is o b tain ed w hen th e value o f P satisfies th e c o n d itio n
, — L = 7i, 2n. 3 n , . . . , n n
' El
(H .1 0 )
T h e valu e of P is o b v io u sly a m in im u m w hen n = 1, a n d h ig h er values o f n h av e

no significance in th is case, since the co lu m n will fail a t th e sm allest value o f P
th a t wili p ro d u cc b u ck lin g . T h e critical, o r b u ck lin g , lo a d P „ is therefore defined
as fo Ilow's:
P cr = ^ r - (u.ii)
O ften it is m o re co nvenient to w o rk w ith a b u ck lin g stress a cr = P CJ A . T h is

m ay b e found by in tro d u c in g the rad iu s o f g y ra tio n o f th e cross-sectional area,
p — I j A, in to Eq. (11.11):
T h e analysis o f lo n g co lu m n s was first pub lish ed by th e Swiss m ath e m a tic ia n

E uler. E q u a tio n (11.11) [ o r Eq. (11.12)] is c o m m o n ly called th e Euler equation,
an d th e b u ck lin g lo a d is often called th e Euler load.
T h e valu e o f C x c a n n o t be o b tain ed a t th e critical lo a d . T h is value is ecnial to
the m ax im u m deflection <5 at the c c n tc r o f th e co lu m n , w hich is in d eterm in ate for
the assum ed co n d itio n s. F o r lo ad s sm aller th a n P cr, th e deflection C x o r 5 m u st
be zero, o r else the co lu m n rem ains stra ig h t. A t th e critical lo a d , any deflection 5
for w hich the m ax im u m stress is below th e elastic lim it w ill satisfy co n d itio n s o f
equilibrium . T h is may' be show n ex p erim en tally by lo a d in g a lo n g co lu m n in a
s ta n d a rd testin g m ach in e. As the en d s o f th e co lu m n a re m oved to g eth er, the
colum n rem ain s s tra ig h t until the E uler lo ad is o b tain ed . A s th e ends c o n tin u e to
m ove to g eth er, th e lo ad rem ains c o n sta n t a t the E u le r lo ad , b u t th e late ra l
deflection 5 increases. If the elastic lim it is n o t exceeded, th e colum n re tu rn s to its
initial sh a p e w hen th e lo ad is rem oved.
i 1.3 E C C E N T R I C A L L Y L O A D E D C O L U M N S
In an actu al stru c tu re , it is no t possible fur a co lu m n to be perfectly stra ig h t o r to

be lo ad ed exactly a t th e cen tro id o f th e area. T h e a c tio n of a practical long
colum n m ay be ap p ro x im a te d by th e m em b er show n in Fig. 11.4, in w hich tfie
n
x
L Figure 11.4
colum n is initial!)' s tra ig h t b u t the lo ad s b o th have eccen tricity a. T h e axes o f

co o rd in ates a re tak en as ^ h o w n . T h e e q u a tio n o f th e dcflection curve is still
represented by Eq. (11.9) since Eqs. (11.7) an d (11.8) a re ap p licab le, b u t c o n sta n ts
C j an d C 2 m u st be fo u n d from th e co n d itio n th a t th e deflection curve satisfy th e
tw o co n d itio n s = 0, y = 5 + a an d x = 0, d y jd x = 0. S u b stitu tin g these tw o
co n d itio n s in to E q. (1 1.9) p ro d u c e s
(11.13)
T he value o f <5 can be found now from th e c o n d itio n th a t y = a for .x = L/2. By

su b stitu tin g these v alues in to Eq. (11.13) th e follow ing value o f <5 is o b ta in e d :
(11.14)
T h e deflection <5 o f an eccentrically lo ad ed co lu m n th u s increases w ith an increase

in the load P. As the value o f P reaches th e E uler lo ad P cr, as defined by Eq.
(11.11), the deflection becom es infinite, since sec (n:/2) = oo. F ig u re 11.5 show s th e
re latio n sh ip betw een P a n d 5 for v a rio u s eccentricities a, a s d eterm in ed from Eq.
(11.14). All cu rv es a re a sy m p to tic to th e lin e P = P cr, fo r th is is the th eo retical
b uckling lo a d reg ard less o f th e eccen tricity o f loading. A large deflection m ay
stress the m a te ria l b ey o n d th e elastic lim it a n d cause failure before the E u ler load
is o b tain ed , since then th e lo n g -co lu m n eq u a tio n s w o u ld n o lo n g er apply.
11.4 SHORT COLUMNS
C o lu m n s o f an y specific m a te ria l are classified a c c o rd in g to th eir slenderness

ratio L /p. F o r a slen d ern ess ra tio g re a ter th a n a c crtain critic a l value, th e co lu m n
is a long co lu m n a n d is a n aly z ed b y Eq. (11.12). S h o rt c o lu m n s have a slenderness
ratio less th a n this critical value. T h e critical L /p c o rre sp o n d s to the v alu e for
w hich th e m ax im u m co m p ressiv e stress in th e colum n is eq u a l to th e stress a t
w hich the com pressiv e stress-strain cu rv e deviates from a stra ig h t line, as sh o w n
by p o in t B in Fig. 11.6. U su a lly this stress is co n sid erab ly sm aller th a n th e yield
stress, p o in t C of Fig. 11.6 at w hich th e m a te ria l h as a p e rm a n e n t u n it e lo n g atio n
o f 0.002.
M ost flight vchicle m a te ria ls have stress-strain curves sim ila r to th a t sh o w n
in Fig. 11.6, in w hich the stress-strain cu rv e has a positive slo p e at all p o in ts. T h e
iujc ' k i in c ; d i s k j n o i - .s t r u c t u r a l mhmhi ;r s 333
6 Figure 115
c o n sta n t slo p e of th is stress-strain cu rv e b elo w the elastic lim it is equal to th e

m o d u lu s of elasticity E, an d Ihe v ariab le slo p e above th e elastic lim it is te rm ed
the tangent m odulus o f elasticity E ,. D u ctile m aterials, su ch as mild steel, m ay
have a zero o r n egative value o f E, n e a r the yield p o in t. If £ , is positive a t all
points, a sh o rt co lu m n m ay rem ain p erfectly stra ig h t w h en londed to stresses
beyond the yield p o in t. If such a c o lu m n has a slig h t lateral deflection, th e
internal resisting m o m en t is found from an e q u a tio n sim ilar to Eq. (11.6), ex cep t
th a t E is replaced by £ ,, th e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s for th e co m p ressiv e stress:
(1 1 .1 5 ).
If this in tern al resistin g m o m en t is g rea ter th a n th e b en d in g m o m en t p ro d u ced by

the load P, the co lu m n will rem ain stra ig h t w hen lo ad ed . If th e in tern al resistin g
m o m en t is n o t as larg e a s th e ex te rn a l b e n d in g m o m e n t, the deflection will
increase and th e co lu m n will p ro b a b ly fail. W h en th e b e n d in g m om ent o f th e
load P is eq u a l to the resisting m o m e n t d efin ed b y Eq. (31.15), P m ay be o b ta in e d
in the sam e m a n n e r as in th e E uler e q u a tio n , b u t w ith E , su b stitu te d for E:
(11.16)
d 1-
0 Fig u re 11.6
3 3 4 A IR C R A F T ST R U C T U R E S
T h is e q u a tio n is called th e tangent m odulus equation, o r th e Engesscr equation.

T h e tan g en t m o d u lu s e q u a tio n d o es n o t q u ite rep re se n t the tru e co n d itio n s
fo r s h o rt colum ns. A t p o in t C o f the stress-strain d ia g ra m in Fig. 11.6, a sm all
increase in th e com p ressiv e stra in p ro du ces an in crease in com pressive stress, as
d eterm in ed by th e p o rtio n CG o f th e curve, w hich h as slo p e £ ,. A sm all decrease
in the com pressive stra in , how ever, p ro d u ces a decrease in stress, as in dicated by
line CD, w hich h as slo p e E. If a sh o rt co lu m n deflects late ra lly in su ch a w ay th a t
the com pressive stra in o n the convex side is d ecreased, the resisting m o m en t will
be g re a te r th an th a t given b y Eq. (11.15) becau se th e m o d u lu s o f elasticity for
p a rt o f th e cross sectio n is E ra th e r th an E , . T h u s th e co rrect m o d u lu s of
elasticity sh o u ld be a v alu e b etw een E a n d E t . V alues o f a n effective m o d u lu s o f
elasticity sh o u ld b e d erived o n th e a ssu m p tio n th a t th e co lu m n is su p p o rted
laterally a n d rem ain s stra ig h t u n til th e u ltim a te lo ad is ap p lied a n d th en buckles
w ith n o ch an g e in axial lo ad . T h e co lu m n fo rm u la o b ta in e d b y su b stitu tin g this
m o d u lu s in to th e E u le r eq u a tio n is term ed th e reduced m odulus equation a n d
frequently is referred to in th e literatu re.
S h an ley 8 h a s sh o w n th a t th e c o rre c t lo a d resisted b y a sh o rt co lu m n is
betw een th e v alues given by the ta n g en t m o d u lu s e q u a tio n a n d b y th e reduced
m o d u lu s e q u a tio n . T h e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s e q u a tio n yields v alues w hich a re slightly
low, since so m e stra in reversal m u st tak e place before th e u ltim a te colum n lo ad is •
re a d ie d . T h e reduced m o d u lu s e q u a tio n alw ays yields v alues w hich are lo o high,
since th e c o lu m n is n o t laterally su p p o rte d w h en the lo a d is applied. T he tan g en t
m o d u lu s e q u a tio n is used frequently, because it c o rresp o n d s closely to test results
an d is alw ays conserv ativ e.
It is c u sto m a ry to rep re se n t co lu m n eq u a tio n s by p lo ttin g the av erage co m
pressive stress < j c = P /A a g ain st th e slenderness ratio L jp . F ig u re 11.7 show s such
curves. T h e slendern ess ra tio b ey o n d w hich th e m ate ria l acts as a long colum n is
a b o u t 115. T h e stress a t th is p o in t c o rre sp o n d s to th e stress a t p o in t B of Fig.
11.6. F o r slenderness ra tio s less th a n 115, the com p ressiv e stress is higher, an d th e
tan g en t m o d u lu s o f elasticity E, is sm aller th a n E. T h u s the p o in ts o n th e colum n
curve are below the E u ler curve in the sh o rt-c o lu m n range. T h e test p o in ts are
seen to follow th e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s curve very closely. Such test lo ad s are alw ays
slightly low er th a n th eo retical lo ad s because o f u n a v o id a b le eccentricities o U o ad -
ing. T h e curves sh o w n in Fig. 11.7 rep re sen t values for a n actu a l specim en,
w h ereas sim ilar design curvcs a re based on m in im um g u a ran tee d p ro p erties o f
the m aterial a n d give so m e w h a t low er stresses.
11.5 C O L U M N END F IX IT Y
In the p revious analysis, we assum e th a t the co lu m n is hinged a t b o th ends so

t hat it can ro ta te freely. In m o st cases, how ever, co m p ressio n m em bers are co n
nected in such a w ay th a l Ihcy are re stra in ed a g a in st ro ta tio n a t the ends. In
o rd e r to have th e m ean s o f d eterm in in g th e b u ck lin g lo a d for a colum n w ith
RUCKLING P13IGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 3 5
v arious en d fixities, F.q. (11.8) is w ritten as follow s:
^ + ^ = 0 (11.17)
Jx* + k d x 1 °
w here k 2 = P /(E I). T h e so lu tio n of Eq. (11.17) can be fo u n d easily:
y = C , sin hx + C 2 co s h x -)- C 3 x + C 4 (11.18)
C o n sta n ts C i th ro u g h C 4 a rc d eterm in ed from th e b o u n d a ry co n d itio n s a t the

ends o f the co lu m n . F o r instance, in th e case o f p in -e n d e d co lu m n s, the b o u n d a ry
c o n d itio n s a re
V = 0 d zy /d x 2 = 0 at x — 0
y = 0 d 2y /d x 2 = 0 a t .x = L
F o r c o lu m n s w hich a re com pletely fixed a t b o th en d s, th e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s

are
,V(0) = 0
dy
dx(0)
= 0
dy
y(I-) = 0 0
dx(L ) :
C o lu m n s w hich a re fixed a t x = 0 a n d p in n ed a t .x = L have the b o u n d a ry

c o n d itio n s
J’<0) = 0 y[L) = 0
dy d 2y
= 0 = 0
dx( 0) dP V L)
20 on 8(J 1011 120 140

U p o n su b stitu tin g th e b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s in E q. (11.18), a set o f four alge

b raic ho m o g en eo u s e q u a tio n s is o b ta in e d . F o r n-ontrivial so lu tio n s, th e determ i
n a n t o f the u n d eterm in ed coefficients C , to C4 m u st van ish . T h is will yield a
tran scen d en tal eq u a tio n from w hich th e b u ck lin g lo a d is d eterm in ed . F o r exam
ple, su b stitu tin g the last set of b o u n d a ry c o n d itio n s (co lu m n fixed a t one end and
pinned a t the oth er) yields
C 2 + C4 — 0
k C i -f- C 3 = 0
(sin fcL)Cj. + (cos k L )C 2 + L C 3 + C 4 = 0
(k 2 sin k L )C i + (^ 2 cos kL)C-2 = 0
F o r n o n triv ial so lu tio n s o f the a b o v e set o f e q u atio n s, th e d e te rm in a n t m ust

vanish, i.e.,
0 1 0
k 0 1 0
sin k L cos k L L = 0
k 2 sin k L k 2 cos k L 0 0
T h e critical buck lin g load o ccu rs at the sm allest v alu e o f k L w hich satisfies the
tran scen d en tal e q u a tio n abo v e. T h is value c a n b e sh o w n lo b e eq u al to n.
H ence the critical bu ck lin g lo a d is
If a com pression m em b er is rigidly fixed a g a in st ro ta tio n a l b o th ends, the

deflection curve for elastic b u ck lin g m ay b e d e term in e d b y using th e above
p ro ced u re an d will have th e sh ap e sh o w n in F ig. 11.86. A t th e q u a rte r p o in ts o f
the fixed co lu m n , there will be p o in ts o f reverse c u rv a tu re , o r p o in ts o f contraflex-
ure. At p o in ts o f c o n traflex u re th ere is n o c u rv a tu re a n d hen ce n o bending
m om ent. T h e p o rtio n o f th e co lu m n b etw een p o in ts o f co n tra fle x u re thus m a y be
treated as a pin-en d ed co lu m n . T h e len g th L ' b etw een th e p o in ts o f co ntraflexure
is used in place o f L in the co lu m n e q u a tio n s p rev io u sly d eriv ed , an d the slen d er
ness ratio is defined as L{p. A n end-fixity te rm c is used o ften a n d is defined in the
Rl,'CK.LING OFSIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 3 7
follow ing e q u a tio n :
k 2E c k 2E
for lo ng co lu m n s o n ly ( 11. 20 )
= (Em 1 = (L/t>f
or for all c o lu m n s ( 11.21 )
F o r the fixed-end c o n d itio n of Fig. 11.8/), L = L /2 a n d c = 4. T h u s the fixed-end

co lu m n will resist 4 tim es the lo ad o f a sim ilar p in -en d ed co lu m n , if b o th are in
the lo n g -co lu m n range. T his sam e relatio n d o es n o t h o ld in the sh o rt-co lu m n
range, because th e value o f E, in Eq. (11.16) is sm aller for th e sm aller values o f L‘.
T his fact is ev id en t from Fig. 11.7, w here it m ay be seen th a t a reduction in L '/p
has a m u ch sm a lle r effect on ac in the sh o rt-c o lu m n ra n g e th a n it has in the E u ler
co lu m n range.
In o rd e r to o b ta in com plete en d fixity, th e c o m p ressio n m em ber m u st be
a tta c h e d to a s tru c tu re o f infinite rigidity a t b o th ends. T h is co n d itio n is a p
p ro ach ed less freq u en tly in p ractice th a n th e c o n d itio n o f hinged ends. M o st
p ractical co lu m n s have end c o n d itio n s som ew h ere betw een hinged an d fixed, as
show n in Fig. 11.8c. T h e ends are rigidly a tta c h e d to a stru c tu re w hich deflects
an d p erm its the en d s to ro ta te slightly. T h e tru e end-fixity co n d itio n s seldom can
be d eterm in ed cxactly , an d so co n serv ativ e a ssu m p tio n s m u s t be m ade. F o r tu
nately, s h o rt co lu m n s usually a re used, a n d th e effect o f en d fixity o n the allo w
able com p ressiv e stress is m uch sm aller th a n it w o u ld be fo r lo n g colum ns.
O th e r co m m o n en d co n d itio n s for co lu m n s a re sh o w n in Fig. 11.9. F o r the
colum n fixed a t o n e en d and free to b o th ro ta te a n d m ove laterally a t the o th e r
end, as show n in Fig. 11.9«, length L' is tw ice len g th L, since the colum n is sim ilar
to o n e -h a lf o f th e c o lu m n w ith tw o h in g ed ends. T h e co lu m n w ith one end fixed
an d the o th e r e n d free to ro tate b u t n o t free to m o v e late ra lly has an effective
length L ' = 0.7L, as sh o w n in Fig. 11 .b.
W elded tru sses m ad e of steel tu b es freq u e n tly a re u tilized in vehicle stru c -
338 AIRCRAFT S T R U C T U R E S
lures. T h e en d s o f a co m p ressio n m em b er in su ch a tru ss c a n n o t ro ta te w ith o u t

b ending all th e o lh e r m em b ers a t the end jo in ts. S uch a m e m b e r is show n in Fig.
11.10. T h e p ro b le m o f o b ta in in g the tru e e n d fixity o f such a com pression
m em ber is difficult, since th e m em b er m ay b u ck le e ith e r h o riz o n tally o r vertically
an d is re stra in e d b y th e to rsio n a l a n d b en d in g rig id ities o f m a n y o th e r m em bers.
F o r a steel-tu b e fuselage truss, usually it is c o n serv ativ e to assu m e c = 2.0 for all
m em bers. If a very heavy com pression m e m b e r is re stra in e d by co m p arativ ely
light m em bers, a sm aller e n d fixity m ight be o b ta in e d . Sim ilarly, a light co m
pression m em b er re stra in ed by heavy m em bers m ay a p p ro a c h the fixity co n d itio n
c = 4. If all th e m em b ers a t a jo in t are co m p ressio n m em b ers, they m ay all have a
tendency to ro ta te in th e sam e direction, so th a t n o n e h elp s restra in th e o thers,
an d all sh o u ld be designed as pin-endcd. W h ere th is ra re case exists w ith m em
bers in any plane, th e m em b ers p e rp e n d ic u la r to th is p la n e p ro b ab ly w ould
supply to rsio n a l re stra in t to the jo in t. T en sio n m em b e rs th a t co nnect to th e ends
o f co m p ressio n m em b ers su p p ly g reater re s tra in t th a n sim ila r com pression m em
bers. O ften steel-tu b e engine m o u n ts are designed w ith th e conservative assu m p
tion of pin -en d ed m em b er w ith c = 1.0.
S tringers w hich a ct as com pression m em b ers in sem im o n o co q u e w ing o r
DUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL M E M B E R S 3 3 9
-------------- A-------------- -
V ^ --------- ------ ^ 'L - r r

-------------— /■
i /
1
! Figure 11. U
fuselage stru c tu re s often are su p p o rted by c o m p arativ ely flexible ribs o r b u lk

heads. S uch a strin g e r is show n in F'ig. 11.11. Since the rib s o r b u lk h ead s a re free
to tw ist as show n, th e ir restrain in g cffcct is neglected a n d th e effective co lu m n
len g th L ' is assu m ed eq u al lo th e length L betw een b u lk h ead s. W here th e b u lk
head s are rigid en o u g h to provide re stra in t a n d clips a re p ro v id ed to a tta c h the
strin g ers fo th e b u lk h ead s, a value c = 1.5, c o rre sp o n d in g to a n effective len g th L '
o f 0.S15L, is som etim es used.
11.6 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR SHORT COLUMNS
O n e d isa d v a n ta g e o f th e tangent m o d u lu s form ula fo r s h o r t colum ns is th a t the

relatio n betw een the allow able co lu m n stress ac an d L '/p c a n n o t be expressed by
a sim ple eq u a tio n . It is often m ore co n v en ie n t to express this relatio n sh ip by a
sim ple a p p ro x im a te e q u a tio n w hich is reaso n ab ly close lo the points o b ta in e d
directly from co lu m n tests o r from the ta n g e n t m o d u lu s eq u atio n . T h e sh o rt-
co lu m n curves for m an y m aterials a p p ro x im a te the p a ra b o la
ffr = ffeO- K 0 J (11.22)
T h e c o n sta n ts ae0 an d K must be chosen so th a t the p a ra b o la fits the test d a ta

a n d is ta n g e n t to th e F u ler curve. By eq u a tin g th e slo p e o f this p a ra b o la to th a t
o f the E uler curvc a t Ihe p o in t o f tangency an d su b s titu tin g the resulting v alu e of
K in to Eq. (11.22), (he follow ing eq u a tio n is o b ta in e d :
gro(E/P)2
(11.23)
4 n 2E
T h e term ac0 is called the column yield stress. It has little physical significance,
since very sh o rt co lu m n s (L/p < 12) fail by block co m p ressio n ra th e r th a n
co lu m n actio n , an d Eq. (1 1.23) is n o t ap p licab le in this ran g e. T he value o f tr c0 is
d eterm in ed so th a t Eq. (11.23) will fit sh o rl-co lu m n test d a ta for values o f L /p
ab o v e the block co m p ressio n range.
T h e general sccond-dcgrce p a ra b o la e q u a tio n is sh o w n in Fig. 11.12 w ith the
co rre sp o n d in g E uler eq u atio n . T he value o f <tcQ rep resen ts the in tercep t o f this
geou-'py
fdi 4 7r2£
]
n2E
(L'lp)2
v<un
0
s/2ir-J~E~
<>ca Figure 11.12
curve a t the p o in t L /p = 0. T h e p a ra b o la is alw ays ta n g e n t to the E uler curve

when <rc 0 = o-c0 /2, as is fo u n d by solving Eq. (11.23) sim u ltan eo u sly w ith th e E uler
eq u atio n . In the sam e w ay, the critical slenderness ratio , w hich div id es th e long-
co lum n a n d sh o rt-c o lu m n ranges, is fo u n d to be L /p — y / 2 n ^ / e / crc 0 .
T h e sh o rt-co lu m n curves for m o st alu m in u m alloys a n d for several o th er
m aterials are rep re se n te d m o re a ccu rately by stra ig h t lines. A stra ig h t line
ta n g e n t to th e E u ler curve h as the e q u a tio n :
(11.24)
T he c o o rd in a te s o f th e p o in t o f tan g en cy o f this cu rv c a n d Ihe E uler curve are

L /p — v ^3 Ti x/ E/(tc0 an d <rc = frc0/3 (see Fig. 11.13). T h e value o f L /p a t this
p o in t is the critical value div id in g the sh o rt-c o lu m n a n d lo n g -co lu m n ranges.
O th e r m a terials h av e co lu m n curves w hich m a y be re p resen ted by a semi-
cubic e q u a tio n . A 1.5-degree e q u a tio n w hich is tan g e n t to th e E uler curve has the
form
(11.25)
T he c o o rd in a te s o f the p o in t o f tan g en cy a re ag ain found by solving th e .^ h o rt-

BUCKLING nnSICiN OP STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 341
co lu m n an d lo n g -co lu m n e q u a tio n s sim u ltan eo u sly . T h e c ritica l slenderness ra tio

is L jp = \.521n^/'Ej<Tc0 co rrespondim - to a stress o f a c = 0.429ctcO .
E q u a tio n s (11.23) to (11.25) a n d th e E u ler e q u a tio n m a y be expressed in
dim cnsionless form by using co o rd in a tes B an d R„ as defined by
E jp
B = — 7= = = (11.26)
K = — (11.27)
c,cO
T he E uler e q u a tio n , F.q. (11.12), then bccom cs
R. = - p (H .2 8 )
E q u atio n s (11.23) to (1 1.25) will have the follow ing form s, respectively:
R„ = 1.0 - 0 .2 5 S 2 (11.29)
R „ = 1.0 - 0 .3 0 2 7 B1 5 (11.30)
Ra = 1 .0 — 0.385B (11.31)
T hese eq u a tio n s arc p lo tte d in Fig. 11,14. T h e d im cn sio n less form of expressing
colum n curves has the a d v a n ta g e of sh o w in g co lu m n cu rv es for all m aterials o n a
o o.s i.u 1.5 :.o 2.5 3.0
Figure 11.14
11.7 DIMENSIONLESS FORM OF TANGENT

MODULUS CURVES
T h e m aterials u sed in fligh t vchicle c o n stru c tio n are im p ro v e d frequently. D esign

ers m u st a d o p t new m a te ria ls a n d processes w hich save stru c tu ra l w eight, even
(hough the new m a te ria ls a re m o re expensive th an sta n d a rd iz e d ones. W hen a
new o r im p ro v ed m a te ria l is in tro d u ced , it is difficult to m a k e extensive colum n
tests a n d crip p lin g tests in o rd e r to estab lish new desig n allo w ab le stresses. It
w ould be m uch b e tte r to o b ta in sim ple com pressive stre ss-stra in curves for the
new m aterial a n d to b a se new co lu m n a n d crip p lin g allo w ab le stresses o n these
tests th a n to test n u m e ro u s b u ilt-u p co lu m n specim ens. T h e R o m b e rg -O sg o o d 1 9
eq u a tio n for the stress-stra in curve, discussed in Sec. 4.3, p ro v id es th e necessary
d a ta for c o m p a rin g sim ila r m aterials.
T h e R o m b erg -O sg o o d e q u a tio n o f th e stress-strain c u rv e is
e = + (11.32)
w here d and e a re dim en sio n less functions of the stress cr a n d the stra in e and the
m o d u lu s o f elasticity E:
€ = — (11.33)
(11.34)
T he stress is ap p ro x im ate ly equal to th e yield stress a t a p e rm a n e n t strain o f

0 .0 0 2 , b u t it m ust be defined as the stress a t a sccan t m o d u lu s o f elasticity of 0.7E,
in o rd e r fo r stre ss-stra in cu rv es w ith eq u al values o f n to b e g eo m etrically sim ilar.

T h e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s o f elasticity E, = d a /d e is read ily o b ta in e d from Eqs.
(11.32) to (11.34):
E „ de dz , . .., .
— = £ — = — = 1 + f/ju" (11.35)
E, da da
E 1
— = ------ -------- r (1*36)
E l+îff”' 1
See Fig. 11.15. N ow th e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s e q u a tio n can be w ritten as a single
expression w hich includes b o th th e long- a n d sh o rt-co lu m n ranges, since Eq.
(11.36) rep resen ts th e m o d u lu s of elasticity below as well as ab o v e th e elastic
lim it:
a . = ^ L = -£jL(^---- J---- (n .3 7 )
‘ ( £ /p) (% ) \ 1 + V 7
F o r low values o f cr, the ex p ressio n in b rack ets is a p p ro x im a te ly unity, a n d Eq.

(11.37) co rre sp o n d s to th e E uler eq u atio n . T he ex p ressio n in b rack ets, c o rre
sp o n d in g to E J E o f Eq. (11.36), is p lo tte d in Fig. 11.15 for v a rio u s values of n.
RUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 4 3
o
a= —
' °l
Figure 11.15
In o rd e r lo p lo t co lu m n curves given b y Eq. (11.37) in a dim ensionless form

sim ilar to th a t show n in Fig. 11.14, the stress a x m u st be u sed ra th e r th a n ac0 in
Eqs. (11.26) a n d (11.27):
B = - ~ 4 !L = (11.38)
n jE /a !
11 = r— —
ii \ I.lut
Figure 11.16
344 a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s
K„=— (11.39)
Cl
By su b stitu tin g these v alues from Eqs. (11.38) an d (11.39) into Eq. (11.37), th e
follow ing co lu m n e q u a tio n is o b ta in e d :
1 £,
( l] -4°)
T his e q u a tio n is p lo tte d in Fig. 11.16 for v ario u s values o f n.

T h e form of dim ensionless co lu m n cu rv c given b y E q. (11.40) a n d Fig. 11.16
w as p ro p o se d by C o zzo n e a n d M elco n 7. T h ey also use this sam e basic diagram
for local crippling, in itial b uckling o f sheet in co m p re ssio n a n d shear, an d b uck
ling o f sheet betw een rivets. T hese fu rth e r ap p lica tio n s a re discussed later. These
colum n curves have a very d istin ct a d v a n ta g e w hen stru c tu re s o f new m aterials
arc analyzed. It is n ecessary only to o b ta in the basic co m p re ssio n stress-strain
d iag ram of the m aterial. T h e sh ap e facto r n an d th e stress <jl c o rresp o n d in g to
the yield stress supp ly all the necessary in fo rm a tio n on th e new m aterial. All the
in fo rm atio n o b ta in e d fro m tests of co lu m n s o f o n e m a te ria l are im m ediately
applicable to a new m aterial.
11,8 B U C K L IN G O F ISO TRO PIC F L A T

PLA T ES IN C O M PRESSIO N
A flat p late, in w hich th e thickncss is sm all c o m p are d to th e o th e r dim ensions,
does n o t act as a n u m b e r of p arallel n a rro w b eam s w h en resisting bending
stresses. T h e initially flat p late sh o w n in Fig. 11.17a m a y be co m p ared to the
n arro w beam show n in Fig. 11.17b. T h e initially re c ta n g u la r cross section o f the
n arro w beam d isto rts to th e trap ezo id al cross sectio n , bccau se the com pression
stresses o n the u p p e r face o f the beam p ro d u c e a la te ra l elo n g atio n , w hile the
tensile stresses o n th e low er face of the beam p ro d u c e a la te ra l co n trac tio n . The
cross sectio n s o f the flat p late, how ever, m u st rem ain re c tan g u la r.
If the sh ad ed clem en t o f Fig. 11.17a, show n to a la rg e r scale in Fig. 11.17c, is
considered, it will have u n it e lo n g atio n s <-x an d ey as follow s:
€ = ^ ~ 5; (11.41)
v £ V E
1
II
J 7'
and e' = ? - V
1 ££ (11'42)
w here v is P o isso n ’s ra tio . In the plate, th e e lo n g atio n in th e y directio n m u st be

zero if th e plate is assu m ed to have n o c u rv a tu re in th e y d irectio n . S u bstitu tin g
er — 0 in to E qs. (1 1 .4 1 ) a n d (1 1 .4 2 ) yields
Gy — V(7X (1 1 .4 3 )
e* = 7* (1 - v2) (11 .4 4 )
E
BUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 4 5
Figure 11.17
T hus, w hen the flat p la te is dcflceted w ith single c u rv a tu re in th e x direction, th e

stresses in th e y d ire ctio n are equal to P o isso n ’s ra tio tim es th e stresses in the jc
direction. Sim ilarly, the u n it e lo n g atio n s in th e x d ire c tio n h av e the ratio o f
1 — v2 to th e c o rre sp o n d in g e lo n gatio n s in a n a rro w beam .
Since a fiat p late h as sm a lle r u n it e lo n g atio n s th a n th e c o rre sp o n d in g n a rro w

beam , the c u rv a tu re resu ltin g from an eq u iv alen t b en d in g m o m e n t will be sm aller
by the ratio 1 — v2, S im ilarly, if the term M /(E I) of th e g e n e ra l beam -deflection
relation, Eq. (11.6), is replaced by M ( 1 — v2 )/(EJ), th e E u le r fo rm u la .for a flat
p late m ay be o b ta in e d as follow s:
n 2E I
p = (11.45)
(1 - v 2)i3
T his e q u a tio n applies for th e co n d itio n sh o w n in Fig. 11.18 w h ere the u n lo a d e d

edges are free an d th e lo a d ed edges are sim ply su p p o rte d , o r free to ro ta te b u t
n o t free to dcflcct n o rm a l to th e plane of the p late. S u b s titu tin g / = be3/ 12, L = 2,
■
a n d P CI = <xcr tb in to E q . (11.45) gives
k E*
(11.46)
° CT “ 12(1 - v2)
F o r a p la te sim ply s u p p o rte d o n all four edges, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.19, the

buckling c o m p ressio n lo a d is co n sid erab ly higher. As th e p la te deflects, b o th
vertical an d h o riz o n ta l strip s m u st bend. T h e su p p o rtin g effect o f the h o rizo n tal
strip s m ay be sufficient to cau se a vertical strip to deflect in to tw o o r m o re waves,
as show n in F ig. 11.19. I t c a n be sh o w n th a t th e b u ck lin g stress is 1 5
(11.47)
w here m is th e n u m b e r o f w aves in th e b u ck led sheet. T h e value o f v is a p p ro x i

m ately 0.3 for all m etals. Since a larg e e rro r in v p ro d u c e s on ly a sm all e rro r in
crcr, it is seld o m necessary to c o n sid er th e v a ria tio n o f P o is so n ’s ratio . E q u a tio n
(11.47) m ay be w ritte n as fo llo w s:
(11.48)
w here K is a functio n o f ajb a n d is p lo tted in Fig. 11.20 fo r v = 0.3. O n ly the

curve o f Fig. 11.20 w hich gives th e m in im u m v alu e o f K is significant, since the
sheet will b u ck le into th e n u m b e r o f w aves th a t requires th e sm allest load. It is
seen from Fig. 11.20 th a t th e w avelength o f the buckles is a p p ro x im ate ly eq u a l to
the w id th b, o r th a t m = 1 for ajb = 1, m = 2 for ajb =^2, etc. T h e ra tio a/b a t
w hich the n u m b e r o f w aves changes from m to m + 1 is o b ta in e d from Eq. (11.47)
as ajb = ~Jm(m + 1). T h e b u ck lin g stress o b ta in e d from E q. (11-47) for a sq u a re
plate w ith fo u r edges sim ply su p p o rte d is 4 tim es th a t o b ta in e d from E q. (11.46)
for the p late w ith sides free a n d en d s sim ply su p p o rte d .
P = aJib
Figure 11.19
BUC KLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 4 7
F ig u re 11.20
. T h e bu ck lin g lo ad s for re c ta n g u la r p la te s w ith o th e r edge c o n d itio n s also can

be fo u n d from Eq. (11.48) by using th e co rre c t v alu es o f K . V alues o f K are
show n in Fig. 11.21 fo r v arious c o n d itio n s. T h e lo a d e d edges are te rm e d ends,
a n d th e u n lo ad ed edges term ed sides, a s d esig n ated o n th e curves. A free edge
m ay ro ta te o r deflect in a directio n n o rm a l to the p late. A fixed edge, as sh o w n in
Fig. 11,22a, is p rev en ted from ro ta tin g o r deflecting. T h e sim ply su p p o rte d edge
show n in Fig. 1 1.22b is free to ro ta te , b u t n o t to deflect n o rm a l to th e p la n e o f the
plate.
T h e tru e edge-fixity co n d itio n s for flat plates in a n a irp la n e stru c tu re c a n n o t
be calcu lated in m o st cases. It is n ecessary to e stim a te th e edge fixity a fter the
su p p o rtin g stru c tu re h a s been co n sid ered , in a m a n n e r sim ilar to th a t for esti
m a tin g co lu m n end-fixity co n d itio n s. T h e u p p e r skin o f an a irp lan e w ing, for
ajb
* Figure 11.22
exam ple, is co m p ressed in a spanw ise d irection. I f th e strin g ers are flexible to r-
sionally, they will ro ta te as the sh eet b u ck les a n d will a c t a lm o st as sim ple
su p p o rts for the sh eet b etw een th e strin g ers, as sh o w n in F ig. 11.23a. If th e
strin g ers have co n sid erab le to rsio n a l rigidity, as d o the “ h a t ” sections an d the
(«)
(W
Figure 11,23
BUCKUNG DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 349
sp ar flange sho w n in Fig. 11.23/j, they will ro ta te only slig h tly a n d will p ro v id e
alm o st clam ped edge co n d itio n s. In m o s t stru c tu re s, it is necessary to a ssu m e a
value for the term K o f Eq. (11.48) w hich will re p re se n t a co n serv ativ e m e a n
betw een sim ply su p p o rte d an d d a m p e d edge con d itio n s.
11.9 U L T I M A T E C O M P R E S S I V E S T R E N G T H O F IS O T R O P IC
FLA T SH EE T
T he bu ck lin g o f sheets in co m p ressio n do cs n o t cau se th e co llap se o f a sem i-

m o n o co q u c stru c tu re , bccausc the stiffening m em bers u su ally can resist stresses
w hich are m u ch hig h er th a n those at w hich th e initial sh eet b u ck lin g occurs. W e
show ed th a t a long co lu m n m ay resist a co m p ressio n lo ad w hen in the b u ck led
co n d itio n an d th a t the lo a d is the sam e for a sm all la te ra l deflection as for a larg e
deflection, p ro v id ed th a t the stress d o e s n o t exceed th e elastic lim it. T h e c o m
pression load resisted by a flat sheet w ith th e sides free also rem ain s c o n s ta n t for
any lateral deflection. If the sides are su p p o rte d , how ever, th e co m p re ssio n lo a d
resisted by the sheet will increase as th e la te ra l deflection increases, becau se the
sides o f the sheet m u st rem ain s tra ig h t a n d co n se q u e n tly m u st be stressed in
p ro p o rtio n to the stra in in the directio n o f loading.
T h e p late sh o w n in Fig. 11.24 is sim p ly su p p o rte d a t all fo u r edges a n d is
loaded by a rigid block. T h e co m p ressio n stresses a re u n ifo rm ly d is trib u te d as
show n in Fig. 11.19 if th e load is sm a lle r th a n th e b u c k lin g lo ad . T h e stress
d istrib u tio n over th e w id th o f the p la te is in d icated in Fig. 11.25 by lines 1 a n d 2,
Figure 11.24
Figure 11.25
w ith line 2 in d icatin g the. stress a t in itia l buckling. A s th e lo ad is increased

b ey o n d th e bu ck lin g lo ad , th e stress d is trib u tio n is in d ic a te d by lines 3, 4, a n d 5.
N e a r th e m id d le o f th e cross section, th e co m pressive stress rem ain s a p p ro x i
m ately e q u a l to the b u ck lin g stress, o r a vertical s trip a c ts in a sim ilar m a n n e r to
a lo n g colum n. A t th e sides of th e sheet, b u c k lin g is p rev en ted , a n d the stress
increases in p ro p o rtio n to th e vertical m o tio n o f th e lo a d in g block. T h e lo ad m ay
be increased u n til failure occurs by cru sh in g o f th e sh eet a t th e sides, alth o u g h in
co m m o n a ircraft stru c tu re s th e stiffening m em b ers su p p o rtin g th e sheet usually
fail before th e sheet fails.
T h e curve rep rese n tin g the d istrib u tio n o f co m p ressiv e stress o v er the w id th
of a sheet is difficult to o b ta in , a n d even if it w ere k n o w n , it w o u ld be ted io u s to
use in analysis. I t is m o re co n v en ie n t to o b ta in th e to ta l c o m p ressio n lo ad co rre
sp o n d in g to a given co m p ressio n stress a t th e side o f th e sheet. It is c u sto m a ry to
w ork w ith effective w id th s w, sh o w n in Fig. 11.26, w hich a re defined in su ch a
w ay th a t the c o n sta n t stresses a c a ctin g o v er th e effective w id th s will yield the
to ta l co m p ressio n lo ad . T h u s vv is selected so th a t th e a re a u n d e r th e tw o rec
tangles in Fig. 11.26a is equal to th e a re a u n d e r the c u rv e of the actu al stress
d istrib u tio n . T h e to ta l co m p ressio n lo a d P a n d th e edge stress c c can be fo u n d
experim entally, a n d th e w id th s w m ay be calc u lated from
2 w ac = P (11.49)
A n a p p ro x im a te v alu e o f vv m ay be o b ta in e d b y a ssu m in g th a t a lo n g sh eet of

to ta l w id th 2w will have a b u ck lin g stress o f rrc . F ro m Eq. (11.48) and Fig. 11.20,
V /
K
it
W
i »• i
F ig u re 11.26
<*>
BUCKLING DISIGN OF STRUCTURAL MFMllERS 351
or
w = 0.95f
T est results in d ic a te th a t this value is to o high a n d th a t it is m o re accu ratc to use
w = 0 .8 5 r (H -5 0 )
V oc
In o b ta in in g E q. (11.50), we assum e th a t th e sheet is free to ro ta te a t all fo u r
edges. In a c tu a l stru c tu re s som e degree o f re s tra in t alw ays exists, a n d the effective
w idths m a y be m u ch g re a te r in m a n y cases. T e sts in d ic a te th a t stringers p ro v id e
c o n sid erab le edge fixity a t low stresses, b u t d o n o t p ro v id e m uch re s tra in t at
stresses a p p ro a c h in g th e u ltim ate stre n g th o f th e strin g ers. N u m e ro u s o th e r e q u a
tions h av e been used in place o f Eq. (11.50); n o e q u a tio n s pro v id e a cc u ra te c o r
relatio n w ith test resu lts u n d e r all c o n d itio n s. U n c e rta in tie s regarding th e ef
fects o f edge re stra in ts in the actu al stru c tu re , a ccid en tal eccentricities in the
sheet, a n d th e effects o f stresses b ey o n d th e elastic lim it fu rth e r co m p licate th e
problem . E q u a tio n (11.50) yields a sm aller effective w id th th a n d o m o st o th e r
e q u a tio n s a n d is co n serv ativ e for use in design. F o r n o rm a l aircraft stru c tu re s in
w hich th e sheet is relatively thin, th e w eight p e n alty in tro d u c e d by u sin g Eq.
(11.50) is sm all; for high-speed aircraft in w hich the skin is relatively thick, a m o re
accu rate analysis m ay be justified.
T h e b u ck lin g stress for a flat sheet w ith a large ra tio o f length to w idth, w ith
one side sim ply su p p o rte d a n d the o th e r free, can be o b ta in e d from F.q. (11.48)
and Fig. 11.21. F o r K = 0.385, a c! = 0.385E (i/b )2. T h e u ltim ate lo ad resisted by
such a sheet w hen th e su p p o rted side is stressed by a value ac is fo u n d by
c o n sid erin g th a t an effective w idth resists th e stress a,, a n d by o b tain in g vvt as
b from Eq. (11.50):
a c = 0.385 i
or
vi1! = 0 .6 2 /
A m ore co n serv ativ e value is reco m m en d ed :
it’j = 0.60/ (11.51)
T hese effective sheet w id th s ie an d Wj sh o w r in Fig. 11.27 a re obtain ed from Eqs.

(11.50) an d (11.51).
E xam ple 11.1 T h e sheet strin g er pane sh o w n in F ig. 11.28 is lo a d e d in
co m p ressio n b y m ean s of rigid m em b ers. T h e sh eet is assum ed to be sim ply
su p p o rte d a t the load ed ends and a t th e riv et lines a n d to be free at th e sides.
E ach strin g e r h a s an a re a of 0.1 in 2. A ssum e £ = 10,300,000 lb /in 2 for the

sheet a n d stringers. F in d the to ta l com p ressiv e lo a d P:
(a) W h en the sheet first b u ck les
(b) W h en th e strin g e r stre ss <rc is 10,000 lb /in 2
(c) W hen the strin g e r stress trc is 30,000 lb /in 2
S o l u t i o n (a) T h e sh eet betw een the strin g e rs is sim piy su p p o rte d on all four
edges a n d h as d im e n sio n s o f a = 10, b = 5, a n d t = 0.040 in. F ro m Fig. 11.20,
for ct/b = 2.0 th e v alu e K = 3.62 is o b ta in e d . T h e b u c k lin g stress is ac =
K E {tjb )2 = 3.62 x 10,300,000(0.040/5)2 = 2390 Ib/in2. T h e edge o f th e sheet
has d im en sio n s o f a — 1 a n d b — 1 0 in a n d is sim ply su p p o rte d on three
1 in j . | 1 in
------- ►U--------5 i n --------- 4 - ---------5 in --------*-f*-------*
% = ^ T - r
(J Q 0 .0 4 0 in
to)
(/■) Figure 11.28

BUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 353
edges an d free o n the fo u rth edge. F ro m Fig. 11.21, K = 0.385. T h e b u ck lin g

stress is < j c = K E {t/b )2 = 0.385 x 10,300,000(0.040/1)2 = 6200 lb /in 2.
T h e sheet th erefo re buckles initially betw een th e strin g ers. T h e to ta l a re a
of the sh eet is assu m ed to be effective before b u ck lin g occurs. T h e b u ck lin g o f
a flat sheet in co m p ressio n is a g ra d u a l process, a n d th e lo ad does n o t d ro p
a p p reciab ly w hen b uckling occurs. T h e lo a d is th erefo re calculated as fol
low s:
A = 3 x 0.1 + 12 x 0.040 = 0.78 in 2
p = a c A = 2390 x 0.78 = 1865 lb
(b) T h e effective sheet w idths are o b ta in e d from Eqs. (11.50) an d (11.51):
E /10,300,000
u- = 0.85 - = 0.85 x 0.040 / — ■ - = 1.09 in
V ffe V 10,000
\\\ = 0.601 — = 0.77 in

V Cc
T h e effective sheet a re a is
A , = (4vv + 2w ,)/ = (4 x 1.09 + 2 x 0.77) x 0.040 = 0.236 in 2
T h e to ta l com p ressiv e lo ad is
p = at A = 10,000(0.3 -I- 0.236) = 5360 lb
(c) T h e so lu tio n is sim ilar to th a t o f p a rt (b):
E 10,300,000
-u- = 0.85/ / — = 0.85 x 0.040 / ■ = 0.63 in
V ac V 30,000
[e
if , = 0.60/ / — = 0.44 in
V
A = 0.3 + (4 x 0.63 + 2 x 0.44) x 0.040 = 0.436 in 2
P = a , A = 30,000 x 0.436 = 13,080 lb
11.10 PLASTIC BUCKLING OF FLAT SHEET
In the discussio n o f b u ck lin g o f sheet elem ents, we assum e th a t th e stress do es n o t

excced the p ro p o rtio n a l elastic lim it for the m a te ria l. T h is elastic b uckling a c tio n
for flat sh eets is sim ilar to the elastic b u c k lin g o f lo n g co lu m n s in th a t th e
m o d u lu s o f elasticity is th e only significant m ate rial p ro p e rty . E q u a tio n (11.48)
for sheet b u ck lin g is sim ilar to the E u ler e q u a tio n for co lu m n s, an d in each case
the buckling stress is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e m o d u lu s o f e lasticity o f th e m aterial.
In th e case of sh eet elem ents for w hich th e thick n ess is g re a te r in c o m p a riso n
to th e o th e r d im en sio n s, th e com pressive stresses will exceed th e elastic lim it
3 5 4 AIRCRAFT .STRUCTURES
before buckling will o ccu r, as is th e case for s h o rt colum ns. E q u a tio n (11.48) w ill
be valid in this case if th e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s o f elasticity £ , is su b stitu te d fo r the
m o d u lu s E:
(11.52)
ff" = K E { -b
T his e q u a tio n m ay be w ritten as

KE,
(11.53)
cr m 1
E q u a tio n (11.53) is sim ilar to the ta n g e n t m o d u lu s e q u a tio n for sh o rt co lu m n s:
k 2E,
(11.54)
W p )2
T h e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s curve a n d o th e r cu rv es fo r sh o rt co lu m n s were p lo tte d w ith
values of <rc as o rd in a te s a n d v alues o f L jp as abscissas. V alues o f <r„ a n d b /t
could be sim ilarly p lo tte d from Eq. (11.53) for a k n o w n v alu e of K . In fact, th e
co lu m n cu rv es can be used for p lastic sh eet b u c k lin g if th e values of b /t are
m u ltiplied by a c o n sta n t w hich is o b ta in e d b y e q u a tin g th e right side o f Eq.
(11.53) an d th e rig h t side o f Eq. (11.54) as follow s:
. , L n b
E q u iv a le n t — - —7 = - (11.55)
P y /K t
A typical co lu m n curve fo r a n a lu m in u m -a llo y m a te ria l is show n in Fig.
11.29. T h e allow ab le co lu m n stress is o b ta in e d fro m th e c u rv e for a k now n value
f, jf) o r —a a - o r 1.65-
\/K t t
Figure 11.29
DUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3 55
o f L /p . In th e sh o rt-c o lu m n range, the th e o re tic al ta n g e n t m o d u lu s curve m a y be

replaced by th e m o re conservative s tra ig h t line, in o rd e r to a c c o u n t for ac cid en tal
eccentricities o r o th e r u n k n o w n co n d itio n s. S im ilarly, th e curves in F ig. 11.29
yield th e allo w ab le b u ck lin g stress fo r a flat p late in th e p lastic, o r sh o rt-c o lu m n ,
range. T h e v alu e o f m ay be o b ta in e d for an y k n o w n v alu e o f (n /^/K )(b /t).
E ith e r o f the sh o rt-c o lu m n curves m a y b e used, d ep e n d in g o n the p o ssib le in itial
eccentricities of th e sh e e t elem ent a n d th e degree o f c o n serv atism desired. T h e
value o f K is o b ta in e d from Fig. 11.20 o r 11.21.
O n e co m m o n a p p lic a tio n o f p lastic b u ck lin g is th e b u ck lin g o f com p ressiv e
skin betw een rivets a tta c h in g the skin to th e strin g ers o r sp a r caps. A skin
elem ent o f this ty p e .is sh o w n in Fig. 11.30. T h e rivets h av e a uniform sp a c in g s
along th e stringer, a n d th e re stra in t is su ch th a t th e sk in elem ent of len g th s a n d
indefinite w idth has c lam p ed ends a n d free sides. T h e elem en t therefore resists 4
tim es th e lo ad o f a sim ila r elem ent w ith h in g ed en d s, w h ich w as analyzed b y Eq.
(11.46). S u b stitu tin g a = s and E - E, in to Eq. (11.46) a n d m u ltiplying th e rig h t-
h an d side by 4 (to a c c o u n t for the end fixity) yield
k E,
c 3(1 - v
or, for v = 0.3,
3.62 E,
CT-= (11.56)
(s /tf
T h e ta n g e n t m o d u lu s sh o rt-c o lu m n c u rv e m ay be used in solving Eq. (11.56). An

eq u iv alen t slendern ess ra tio m ay be o b ta in e d by e q u a tin g th e rig h t-h a n d sides of
Eqs. (11.54) a n d (11.55):
E q u iv a le n t— = —7 = - = 1.65 - (11-57)
P y /3 .6 2 * £
E x am p le 11.2 F in d the co m p ressio n b u ck lin g stress fo r a sheet 4 by 4 by

0.125 in w ith ail fo u r edges sim p ly su p p o rte d , assu m in g th a t the ta n g e n t
m o d u lu s co lu m n cu rv e for the m aterial is rep resen ted by Fig. 11.29.
S o l u t io n F o r th is sheet a = £> = 4 a n d t = 0.125. F ro m Fig. 11.21 for

a /b = 1 a n d sim ply su p p o rte d edges, K = 3.62. F ro m E q. (11.55) the eq u iv a

lent L /p is
71 b n 4
—7 = - = —j = x ------- = 52.8
y /K <■ y /3 6 2 0.125
F ro m Fig. 11.29, c cr = 28,000 lb /in 2. If this p o in t h ad been o n th e rig h t-h an d

p o rtio n o f Fig. 11.29, c o rre sp o n d in g to th e lo n g -co lu m n o r clastic range, the
buckling stress w ould c o rresp o n d to th a t given by Eq. (11.48).
E x am p le 11.3 T h e angle ex tru sio n sh o w n in F ig. 11.31 is load ed in c o m

pression. E ach leg o f th e angle buckles as a p la te sim p ly su p p o rte d o n the
ends an d on o n e side an d free o n th e o th e r side. F in d th e stress a t w hich this
buckling occurs. A ssum e th a t Fig. 11.29 re p resen ts p ro p e rtie s o f this m aterial.
F o r each leg, b = 1, a = 8 , a n d r = 0.072. F o r a /b =

S o lu tio n 8 the value of
K from Fig. 11.21 is a p p ro x im a tely 0.385. T h e e q u iv alen t L /p is
n b n 1
—7 = - = X ------- = 70.4
y/K f v/o.385 0 .0 7 2
F ro m Fig. 11.29, o Ca = 20,500 lb /in 2.
T he type o f failure in d icated for this sectio n is typical o f crip p lin g failures for
a lu m in u m -allo y ex tru sio n s. T h e o rd in a ry sh o rt-c o lu m n cu rv es a p p ly only to
ro u n d tu b es o r to sta b le cro ss .sections w hich d o n o t crip p le locally. Since light
e x tru sio n s a re used extensively as co lu m n m em b ers in a irc ra ft stru ctu res, th e
subject o f c rip p lin g failure is very im p o rta n t a n d is d iscussed in detail later.
E x am p le 11.4 An 0.040 sheet is riveted to an e x tru sio n by rivets spaced 1 in

a p a rt. W h a t co m p ressio n stress in th e e x tru sio n will p ro d u c e buckling o f th e
sheet betw een rivets, as show n in Fig. 11.30, if th e sh eet has co lu m n p ro p e r

ties as rep resen te d by Fig. 11.29?
S o l u t io n F ro m Eq. (! 1.57) ihe e q u iv ale n t L /p is
1.65 - = 1.65 — = 41.2

l 0.040
F ro m Fig. 11.29, a c = 31,300 Ib /in 2.
11.11 N O N D I M E N S I O N A L B U C K L I N G CURVES
T h e plastic b u ck lin g stresses in Sec. 11.10 a re o b tain ed from co lu m n curves o f th e

type sh o w n in Fig. 11.29. A colum n cu rv e o f this type is ap p licab le to o n ly o n e
m aterial, sincc the co lu m n curve is nfTected by the sh ap e o f stress-strain curve, th e
m o d u lu s o f elasticity, an d the yield stress o f the m aterial. T h e re are n u m e ro u s
a d v a n ta g e s to p lo ttin g co lu m n curves in d im ensionless form , as show n in Fig.
11.16 an d as discussed in Sec. 11.7. W h e n several m ate rials have stress-stra in
cu rv es o f th e sam e general shape, as in d ic a te d by th e value o f n, a single-colum n
cu rv e p resen ts the d a ta f o r all these m ate ria ls. T est in fo rm a tio n for an y o n e o f th e
m a terials is therefore ap p licable to all o f them .
C o 7 .zone an d M elcon p ro p o se th a t th e n o n d im en sio n al curves o f Fig. 11.16
be used for all p ro b lem s o f plastic sh e e t buckling, in te rriv e t buckling, a n d local
c rip p lin g o f co m p ressio n m em bers. T h e cu rv e s o f Fig. 11.16 a re presented by
ir r li- ( n -5 8 )
w here cra is the allo w ab le average stress fo r a co lu m n for sh eet buckling, o r for
crip p lin g , a n d cr, is the secan t yield stress c o rre sp o n d in g to the stress a t th e
in tersec tio n betw een th e stress-strain c u rv e a n d a line th ro u g h the origin h av in g
slo p e 0.7E.
F o r co lu m n s, th e term B is defined by E q. (11.38):
S = — ( 11. 38)
TCy f E/<T1
F o r plastic sheet buckling, the value o f B is o b ta in e d fro m Eqs. (11.53) a n d

(11.58):
B — , b /t ■- (11.59)
n / E K ja ,
F o r in terriv et bucklin g , the value o f B is o b ta in e d from E qs. (11.56) a n d (11.58):
B= (11.60)
T hus th e v alues o f B m a y be calcu lated from Eqs. (11.38), (11.59), o r (11.60), a n d

(hen the value o f a j a ^ m ay th en be re ad from th e p ro p e r curve of Fig. 11.16.
11.12 COLUMNS SUBJECT TO LOCAL CRIPPLING FAILURE
T h e co lu m n e q u a tio n s prev io u sly derived are a p p lic a b le to closed tu b u la r sec

tions w ith c o m p arativ e ly thick walls o r to o th e r cro ss sections w hich are n o t
subject lo local crip p lin g failure. M an y o f th e co lu m n s used in sem im o n o co q u e
(light vehicle stru c tu re s a re m a d e o f e x tru d ed sectio n s o r o f bent sheet sections
an d fail by lo cal crippling. T h e assum ed co lu m n cu rv e is th a t show n by line A o f
Fig. 11.32, w here th e acc is the crip p lin g stress. T e sts o f co lu m n s o f ex tru sio n s o r
bent sh eet w ith thin w alls su b ject to local crip p lin g yield values rep resen ted by
curve B o f Fig. 11.32 a n d in d ic a te th a t sectio n s su b je ct to crip p lin g failure sh o u ld
be analyzed by different co lu m n e q u a tio n s th a n sta b le cro ss sections o f th e sam e
m aterial.
U sually it is desirab le to m ake tests w hich will c o v e r a range o f slenderness
ratios for cach thin -w alled scctio n w hich is to be used as a colum n. T h is p ro
cedure is n o t alw ay s p ractical for p re lim in ary design, since th e designer, h av in g a
w ide choice o f cro ss sections, m u st be ab le to select so m e sections an d pred ict
th eir stren g th a t an early stag e o f the design. T ests o n alu m in u m -allo y co lu m n s
subject to crip p lin g failures sh o w th a t th e sh o rt-c o lu m n cu rv e closcly a p p ro x i
m ates a second-deg ree p a ra b o la , as re p rese n te d b y Eq. (11.23) o r (11.29). T h e
crippling stress a cc is su b s titu te d fo r the stress a c0 as follow s:
a c = a,cc (11.61)
o 3
II
F ig u re 11 32
As in th e case o f o th e r sh o rt-c o lu m n curves, E q. (11.61) d o e s n o t apply for very

sh o rt co lu m n s [IL/p < 1 2 ) because th e end su p p o rts in crease the crip p lin g stress.
T h u s the crip p lin g stress a„ can be o b ta in e d b y testin g a co lu m n w ith an L /p o f
a b o u t 12. An a p p ro x im a te value o f th e crip p lin g stress m a y be derived by finding
the sum o f th e p la stic b u ck lin g stren g th s o f th e re c ta n g u la r elem ents o f th e cro ss
section.
T h e co lu m n cro ss sectio n s show n in Fig. 11.33 m a y b e co n sid ered as m a d e o f
re c ta n g u la r p la te s o f w id th b, thickness f, a n d len g th a, w hich is large in c o m p a ri
so n to b. T h e p la te s w ith w idths d esig n ated b' a re assu m e d to be sim ply su p
p o rte d o n b o th sides, a n d those w ith w id th s d e sig n a te d b a re assum ed to b e free
o n on e side a n d re s tra in e d o n th e o th e r side. In th e case o f th e angles sh o w n in
Fig. 11.33a a n d e, th e p late s are assum ed to b e sim ply su p p o rte d on one side,
since the tw o p la te s b u ck le a t th e sam e stress a n d n e ith er p la te supplies an y edge
re stra in t for th e o th e r. In th e case o f the o th e r cro ss sectio n s, how ever, th e p lates
w hich hav e o n e side free h av e edge co n d itio n s b e tw een th e clam p ed a n d sim ply
s u p p o rte d cases fo r th e o th e r side. T h is difference o n ed g e re stra in t is seen by
c o m p a rin g th e b u c k le d form o f th e angle sh o w n in Fig. 11.31 to th e b uckled fo rm
o f the ch an n el sh o w n in F ig. 11.34. T h e legs o f th e an g le b u c k le in one half-w ave
regardless o f th e le n g th o f th e colum n, as is th e case fo r a flat p late w ith o n e side
free an d th e o th e r side sim ply su p p o rted . T h e legs o f th e c h a n n e l bucklc in to th e
sam e n u m b e r o f half-w aves as the b ack o f th e ch an n el w hich buckles in a p p ro x i
m ately sq u a re panels, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.34.
T h e in itial b u ck lin g stress o f the p lates m ay be sm a lle r th an the stress at
w hich co llap se o f th e m e m b e r occurs, since th e c o rn e r resists lo ad after th e in itial
b uckling. T h is effect is co n sid ered em pirically b y assu m in g th e effective w idth b to
be less th a n th e to ta l w id th , as sh o w n in Fig. 11.33e. T h e ex trusions resist a
g reater lo a d a t "the c o rn e rs th an th e b e n t sh eet sectio n s, as indicated b y the
h H h H
Figure 11.33
360 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
tru sio n o f the type sh o w n in Fig. 1 1 .3 3 / d e p e n d on th e b en d in g stiffness o f the

bulb, b u t u sually it is assum ed th a t th e b u lb su p p o rts th e p la te as indicated.
A fter the p lastic b uckling stress is d ete rm in ed for each elem ent o f area by the
m eth o d of Secs. 11.10 a n d 11.11, the to ta l crip p lin g lo a d o n the cross section is
found as the sum o f the lo ad s o n the in d iv id u al areas. If the areas have d im e n
sions b2 t 2 , a n d b 3 (3 a n d b u ck lin g stresses <Ti, cr2 , an d a 3 , th en the to tal
crippling stress is
_ + a 3b3t3 Zabt
+ b 2 t2 + b3 13 Zbt
T h e d e n o m in a to r of Eq. (11.62) m ay n o t be eq u al to th e to ta l a re a because the

c o rn e r areas a re n o t included. T h e crip p lin g lo a d is o b ta in e d by m u ltip ly in g the
stress acc by th e to ta l area, an d it m ay b e g re a te r th a n the n u m e ra to r o f Eq.
(11.62) because o f the lo ad o n th e co rn ers.
E xam ple 11.5 F in d the e q u a tio n o f th e sh o rt-c o lu m n curve for th e ex tru sio n
show n in Fig. 11.35 given th a t E = 10,700,000, n = 10, a n d crL = 37,000.
S o l u t i o n A ssum e the co lu m n curve fo r this m a te ria l is rep resen ted by Fig.

11.29. F o r p lastic buckling, th e e q u iv a le n t L /p is o b ta in e d from Eq. (11.55)
w ith K = 3.62 from Fig. 11.21. F o r a re a 1, b jt — 1.564/0.05 = 31.3; for a re a 2,
b /t = 0.70/0.093 = 7.52. F ro m E q. (11.55),
_ . , E n b b
E q u i v a l e n t — = — == — = 1 . 6 5 —
p V k 1 [
UUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MF.MnF.KS 361
F o r a re a 1, the eq u iv alen t L /p is 1.65 x 31.3 = 51.6; for area 2, it is

1.65 x 7.52 = 12.4. F ro m Fig. 11.29, cr = 29,000 for a re a 1 and a = 45,000
lb /in 2 fo r a re a 2. F ro m Eq. (11.62),
H abt 29,000 x 1.564 x 0.05 + 45,000 x 0.70 x 0.093 x 2

Zbt .564 x 0.05 + 2 x 0.70 x 0.093
39,000 lb /in 2
T h e crip p lin g stresses for th e in d iv id u al a reas also can be d eterm in ed

from the n o n d im en sio n a! curve o f Fig. 11.16. F ro m E q. (11.59),
b /t b
B = - ■ ■■ = 0.0308 -
V 10,700,000 x 3.62/37,000 t
F o r a re a 1, B = 0.0308 x 31.3 = 0.965. F ro m Fig. 11.16, a /a i = 0 .7 7 > o r

a = 28,500 lb /in 2.
F o r a re a 2, B = 0.0308 x 7.52 = 0.232. F ro m Fig. 11.16, <t/< 7, = 1.20, o r
<7 = 45,000 lb /in 2. T h ese check th e v alu es o b ta in e d from Fig. 11.29. T h e
sh o rt-c o lu m n curv e is now o b tain ed from Eq. (11.61):
1
4 tt2£
39,000{L /p )2
39,000 1 -
An1 10,700,000_
= 39,000[1 - 0.0000923(L/p)2]
E x am p le 11.-6 G iven the se c tio n . sh o w n in Fig. 11.36, assum e th at n = 10,

E = 9700, a n d c , = 46,000. F in d the c rip p lin g stress for th e cross section.
S o l u t i o n T h e w eb is assum ed to be sim p ly su p p o rte d o n b o th sides, w ith

K = 3.62, a n d buckles into ap p ro x im a te ly re c ta n g u la r panels in a m a n n e r
sim ilar to th e ch an n el section sh ow n in Fig. 11.34. T h e half-waves a re a p
p ro x im a te ly 1 . 1 2 in lo n g ; therefore, th e flanges m a y be considered as sim ply
s u p p o rte d a t e n d s 1.12 in a p a rt a n d o n one side. F ro m Fig. 11.21 fo r
a/b = 2.000, K = 0.60. F ro m Eq. (11.59),

b /t
B =
jE K te x
F o r th e flanges,
0.5/0.064
B = , ............... .......... = 0.693
7 9 ,7 0 0 ,0 0 0 x 0.6/46,000
F o r the web,
1.12/0.064
B = ■ ■■ = 0.633
^ 9 ,7 0 0 ,0 0 0 x 3.62/46,000
F ro m Fig. 11.16, ff/ffj = 0 .8 8 , o r £7 = 40,500 lb /in 2, for th e flanges, a n d
ff/o-, = 0.905, o r a = 41,600 lb /in 2 fo r th e web.
F ro m E q. (11.62),
Hcrbt Z<7 b 2 x 40,500 x 0.5 + 41,600 x 1.12
GVr =
Ybt Xb 2 x 0.5 + 1.12
= 41,000 lb /in 2
11.13 N E E D H A M A N D G E R A R D M E T H O D S F O R
D E T E R M IN IN G C R IP P L IN G ST R E SSE S
M o re recen t sem iem pirical m eth o d s th a n th a t o f Sec. 11.12 for the d eterm in a tio n
o f c rip p lin g stresses o f co lu m n s w ere dev elo p ed by N e e d h a m 4 5 an d G e ra rd .4 6 - 4 9
In the N e e d h a m m eth o d , th e stru c tu ra l m e m b e r se c tio n is divided in to angle
elem ents, as show n in Fig. 11.37. T h e c rip p lin g stre n g th o f these elem ents can be
estab lish ed by th e o ry a n d /o r tests. T h e crip p lin g failure stren g th o f th e m em b er
sectio n th en can be d eterm in ed by su m m in g th e crip p lin g stren g th s o f each angle
elem ent th a t m ak es u p th e to ta l section. T h ro u g h extensive tests N eed h a m a r
rived a t th e follow ing sem iem pirical e q u a tio n for th e crip p lin g stress o f angle
sections:
k e(Ec < x X 5 (11.63)
(6 '/f ) 0 ' 7 5
C ut
I
C u t-
C u t ------- -C u t
WJCKI.ING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 363
w here trc = crip p lin g stress

E c — com pressiv c m o d u lu s o f elasticity
crcy = m a te ria l com pressive yield stress
b' _ a + b
7 ~ 21
k L. = c o n sta n t coefficient w hose m a g n itu d e d ep en d s o n su p p o rt co n d itio n

o f an g le edges: = 0.316 for the tw o edges free, 0.342 for one
edge free, an d 0.366 w ith no edge free
T h e crip p lin g stress for the actual m em b e r sectio n is o b ta in e d by utilizing the

follow ing e q u a tio n :
t11-64*
w here = m e m b e r sectio n crip p lin g stress
= /th angle crip p lin g stress, c a lc u lated from Eq. (11.63)
A; = ith an g le cro ss-sectio n al a re a
G e ra rd ’s m e th o d 4 9 for calcu latin g crip p lin g stresses is a gen eralizatio n of

N eed h am ’s m eth o d . H is extensive in v estig atio n led to th e fo rm u la tio n o f th ree
sem iem pirical e q u a tio n s for d eterm in in g th e crip p lin g stresses in various sh ap es
of stru c tu ra l m em bers.
F o r sectio n s w ith s tra ig h t unlo ad ed edges such as p la te s, tee, cruciform , a n d
H sections, the follow ing crip p lin g stress e q u a tio n applies:
, 1/2 '
<r„ = 0.67(7,. ££_ (11.65,'?)
A
F o r sections w ith d isto rte d u n lo ad ed edges su ch as tubes, V -g ro o v e plates, angles,

stiffened panels, a n d m u ltic o rn e r sections, the follow ing crip p lin g e q u a tio n
applies:
1/2
i]£_ E,
cr„ = 0.56cr, (11.656)
A
F o r sections such as tw o c o rn e r sections, J, Z, a n d ch an n el sections, the follow ing

eq u a tio n ap p lies:
r /A
= 3.2ffr (11.65c)
_ ( E > „ ) W3J
w here A = scction a re a a n d tj = n u m b e r o f Ranges w hich m a k e up the scctio n
plus the n u m b e r o f c u ts req u ired to d ivide th e section in to a n u m b e r of flanges.
See Fig. 11.38. T h e m ax im u m crippling stress (7 „ m u st n o t exceed those specified
in T ab ic 11.1 unless it is verified experim entally.
I
(/>)
U) (</) (c)
Figure 11.38 (o) Basic angle section; g = 2; (b) tube; g = 4 cuts + 8 flanges = 12; (c) basic T section;
g = 3; (d) II section; g = 1 cut + 6 flanges = 7; (?) cruciform section; g = 0 cut +- 4 flanges = 4.
T a b l e 1 1.1
Section shape M aximum <rCJ
L 0.7 acr
T, + , H 0.8<rCJ,
Z, J, l j 0.9ctc,
D , multicorner 0.8<rcy
11.14 C U R V E D S H E E T I N C O M P R E S S I O N
A th in -w alled circ u la r cy lin d er lo ad ed in c o m p ressio n p arallel to its axis m ay fail

by local in stab ility o f the thin walls. T h is ty p e o f failure is sim ilar to th a t w hich
occurs in the co m p ressio n skin o f se m im o n o c o q u e w ing a n d fuselage stru ctu re s.
T h e co m p ressio n b u ck lin g o f flat sh eets w as co n sid ered , b u t m o st a c tu a l s tru c
tures a re m ad e o f curved sheets, a n d th e c u rv a tu re has a co n sid erab le effect o n
the b u ck lin g a n d u ltim a te strengths. A cy lin d e r w hich is load ed in co m p ressio n
will assu m e a bucklcd form sim ilar to th a t sh o w n in Fig. 11.39. T he n u m b e r o f
circum ferential w aves d ep en d s on th e ra tio o f R /t, w here R is the rad iu s a n d t is
(A) Figure 11.39

the wall thickness o f th e cylinder. A larg e n u m b e r o f w aves develop for a large

value of R /t. T h e length o f the lo n g itu d in al w aves is th e sam e m a g n itu d e as the
length of the circum feren tial waves. F o r th e high ra tio s o f R /t w hich a re c o m m o n
in se m im o n o co q u e w ing a n d fuselage skins, th e w av elen g th s a re so sm all th a t a
secto r o f a cylinder, w ith sim ply su p p o rte d edges as sh o w n in Fig. 11.40a resists
ap p ro x im ately th e sam e buckling stress as the c o m p le te cylinder. T h is secto r
c o rre sp o n d s to the skin betw een ad ja c e n t stringers, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.406. F o r
sm aller values o f R/f, th e length of the circu m feren tial w aves is g reater, a n d the
strin g ers o r edge su p p o rts o f Fig. 11.406 p rev en t the fo rm a tio n o f th e w aves a n d
th u s increase th e bu ck lin g stress.
T h e co m p ressio n b uckling stress for a th in -w alled cy lin d er m ay be d e ter
m ined th eo retically in a m a n n er sim ilar to th a t used in o b ta in in g th e b u ck lin g
stresses o f flat plates. T h e classic an aly sis o f cylinders, w h ich is b ased o n the
assu m p tio n o f sm all d isplacem ents, yields
<7Ca = 0.606E j ( 11.66)
if P o isso n ’s ratio is 0.3. T est values, how ever, are m u ch lo w er th a n th o se given by

Eq. ( 1 1.66), and test results show co n sid e ra b le scatter. T h is is in c o n tra st to the
excellent c o rre la tio n b etw een theo retical a n d ex p e rim en tal v alues fo r the b u ck lin g
stresses for flat sheet.
V on K a rm a n , D u n n , a n d T sien 6 h a v e sh o w n th a t th e a ssu m p tio n s m a d e in
the analysis by th e classic th eo ry arc in e rro r, [n th e case o f b uckling o f a flat
plate, a lo n g itu d in al strip o f the p late is s u p p o rte d elastically by la te ra l strip s
w hich exert re stra in in g forces in p ro p o rtio n to th e ir d eflection. W h en th e flat
plate buckles, it. m a y b uckle in eith er d irectio n , a n d th e lo a d after b uckling
rem ains eq u al to th e b uckling load, a s in a E uler co lu m n . In th e case o f a
com pressed cylinder, how ever, th e lo n g itu d in a l strip s a re su p p o rte d by circum fer
en tial rings w hich ex e rt restrain in g forces th a t are n o t p ro p o rtio n a l to th eir rad ial
deflection. T h e stilln ess o f a circular rin g in creases as it is deflected o u tw a rd an d
decreases a s it is d eflected inw ard. T h u s th e th in w alls o f a co m p ressed cy lin d er
buckle in w ard m uch m o re readily th a n they buck le o u tw a rd . T h e b u ck lin g is
acco m p an ied by a su d d en decrease in b o th th e lo ad a n d th e len g th if th ere a re no
eccentricities o f the walls. T h e b u ck lin g lo a d is c o n sid e ra b ly reduced by sm all
eccentricities o f the walls. T h e b u ck lin g stress d ep e n d s o n th e rigidity of the
testing m achine, sin cc an y testing m ach in c has so m e elasticity , a n d th e p la te s o f
Figure 11.40
the m ach in e m ove to g e th e r slightly as th e resistance o f th e specim en decreases.

T he large effects o f specim en eccentricity a n d o f testin g m ach in e elasticity ex p lain
the large s c a tte r o f test results.
i f th e co m p ressio n lo a d o n a cy lin d er P is p lo tte d a g a in st th e axial co m
pressive d e fo rm a tio n e, curves sim ilar to th o se sh o w n in Fig. 11.41 a re o b tain ed .
C urve I rep resen ts a th e o retica l cu rv e for a n ideal cylinder in w hich the w alls a re
perfectly cylindrical a n d h om ogeneous. T h e poinf A , c o rre sp o n d s to (he th e o
retical b u ck lin g stress, o b ta in e d from liq. ( 1 1 . 6 6 ), w hich c a n n o t be d eterm ined
ex p erim en tally by th e m o st careful testin g because th e u p p e r b ran ch o f th e curve
is so close to the lo w er b ran c h . A t a d efo rm atio n e c o rre sp o n d in g to p o in t B t , th e
cylinder assum es a b u ck led form a n d th e lo ad d ro p s. If the d efo rm atio n h as
exceeded th a t c o rre sp o n d in g to Bj before b u ck lin g occurs, th e cylinder su d d en ly
decreases in len g th w hen b u ck lin g occurs. B ecause o f th e elasticity o f th e testin g
m achine, th e plates o f th e m ach in e m ove to g e th e r an d th e cylinder decreases in
length w hen the lo a d d ro p s, even for test specim ens w ith sm all eccentricities, as
represented by curve 2 .
B uckling lo ad s o b ta in e d experim entally a re rep resen ted by p o in ts A 2 an d / t 3
o f Fig. 11.41. In th e case o f unstiffened cylinders, these b u ck lin g lo ad s rep resen t
the u ltim ate stren g th o f th e cylinder in co m p ressio n . S everal em pirical eq u a tio n s
have been deriv ed from exp erim en tal results, a n d the v a rio u s e q u atio n s yield
w idely div erg en t values o f b u ckling stress, as m ig h t be ex pected because o f the
sc a tte r o f test values. K an e m itsu a n d N o jim a p ro p o se th e follow ing eq u atio n s:
(11.67)
w here L is the length o f th e cylinder. T h is eq u a tio n a p p e a rs to give satisfacto ry

ag reem ent w ith test values w ithin th e ran g es of 500 < R /t < 3000 a n d
0.1 < L /R < 2.5.
A n o th e r e q u a tio n w hich yields rea so n a b le values o f th e buckling stress for
sm aller v alu es of R /t is o b ta in e d as a p p ro x im a te ly o n e-h alf of the value of Eq.
( 11.66):
( 11. 68 )
T his e q u a tio n yields resu lts w hich are m uch h ig h er th an ex p erim en tal values in
HUC'KLINCi DISICiN Ol' STRUCTURAL MliMiiKRS 3 6 7
cases w here R /r is large. P e rh a p s it is re a so n a b le to use E q. (11.68) for values o f

R /t less th a n 500 a n d to u se E q. (11.67) for th e ra n g e in w hich it applies.
In the case o f cu rv ed sh e e t w hich is stiffened by lo n g itu d in a l m em bers, as is
com m on in se m im o n o c o q u e co n stru ctio n , th e sh eet w o u ld resist a b u ck lin g stress
as given by E q. (11.48) if th ere were n o c u rv a tu re a n d a n a d d itio n a l stress, as
given by Eq. (11.67), b ecau se o f the c u rv a tu re. W hile th ere is little th eo retical
ju stificatio n fo r a d d in g th ese b uckling stresses, this p ro c e d u re is su b sta n tia te d
reaso n ab ly well by tests.
T h e c o m p ressio n b u c k lin g stress fo r cu rv ed skin o n th e u p p e r surface o f a
w ing is increased c o n sid erab ly by th e n eg ativ e a ir p ressu re o n th e sheet. Since th e
curved sheet h as a ten d en c y to buck le in w ard , th e a e ro d y n a m ic forces reduce th is
tendency. E q u a tio n (11.67) is very co n serv ativ e in th is case. I t is very im p o rta n t
to p rev en t th e b u ck lin g o f th e w ing skin o f h igh-speed a irc ra ft because o f th e
a e ro d y n am ic d ra g o f th e irre g u la r airfoil section.
T h e u ltim ate stre n g th o f a stiffened, cu rv e d sh eet p a n e l m a y be fo u n d in a
sim ilar m a n n e r lo th a t u sed in o b tain in g th e u ltim ate stre n g th o f a flat sh eet
panel in Sec. 11.9. in a d d itio n to the c o m p ressio n lo a d resisted by th e strin g ers
an d by th e effective w id th s o f skin actin g w ith th e strin g ers, th e sheet betw een
strin g ers resists lo a d b ec a u se o f its c u rv a tu re , even th o u g h it h as buckled. T h e
lo ad resisted by a b u ck led , curved sheet is in d icated by th e rig h t-h a n d p o rtio n o f
th e curves o f Fig. 11.41. W hile this lo a d d ep en d s o n th e e lo n g a tio n e o f th e
strin gers, m any o th e r u n k n o w n factors a re involved. T h e m e th o d for c alc u latin g
lhis lo ad is to a ssu m e th a t a skin w idlh o f h — 2 W betw een stringers resists a
stress o f 0 .2 5 £ f/R , as sh o w n in Fig. 11.42. A s a n a lte rn ativ e m e th o d , this stress
m ig h t be calcu lated by E q. (11.67). W here th is b u ck lin g stress for th e curved sh eet
cxceeds th e strin g er stress crr , the entire sh eet a re a is a ssu m ed to resist a stress o c .
E x am p le 11.7 F o r th e w ing show n in F ig. 11.43, R = 50, f = 0.064, b = 6 ,

a n d the rib sp acin g is L = 18 in. F in d th e com pressive stress in the skin a t
w hich th e bu ck lin g o ccu rs if E — 107 lb /in 2.
0.25/-:-
F ig u re 11.42
3 6 8 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES ,
S o l u t i o n T h e b u ck lin g stress is o b ta in e d a s th e sum o f the b u ckling stress

fo r a flat sheet sim ply su p p o rte d o n fo u r sides, as o b ta in e d from Eq. (11.48),
a n d the b u ck lin g stress for a cylinder, a s o b ta in e d fro m Eq. (11.67). F ro m Eq.
(11.48),
cxCcr = A ' e Q = 3.62 x 10 7 x = 4110 lb /in 2
F ro m E q. (11.67),
aCcr = 2130 + 1560 = 3690 lb /in 2
T he to ta l buck lin g stress is the sum o f these tw o v alu es:
<
tCct = 4110 + 3690 = 7800 lb /in 2
1 1.15 E L A S T I C S H E A R B U C K L I N G O F F L A T P L A T E S
T h e bu ck lin g o f re c ta n g u lar p lates w hich resist d irect co m p ressio n stresses is

discusscd in Sec. 11.8. O th e r types o f stresses, such as sh e a r stresses a n d bending
stresses, also m a y p ro d u c e elastic b u ck lin g o f thin p lates. O n ly loads in th e p lan e
o f th e p la te are d iscu ssed here, a n d c o m p o n e n ts n o rm a l to th e p lan e o f the p late
a re assu m ed to be zero.
T h e elastic bu ck lin g stresses for th in re c ta n g u la r p late s in sh ear can be calcu
lated theoretically . T h e analysis is b ey o n d th e scope o f th is b o o k , b u t th e results
m ay be expressed in the sam e form as E q. (11.48) if P o is so n ’s ra tio v is assum ed
c o n sta n t for all m a te rials:
.,(11.69)
T he values o f K a re p lo tted in Fig. 11.44 for v = 0.3 and fo r the tw o co n d itio n s of

all four edges clam p ed an d all four edges sim ply su p p o rte d . T h e term t is the
p late th ickness, a n d E is the elastic m o d u lu s o f th e p la te m aterial. F o r th e
com pressed p la te discussed in Sec. 11.8, th e w idth b is p e rp en d icu lar to the
d irectio n o f lo a d in g a n d th e length a is p arallel to the lo a d s ; b u t since the p late in
sh e a r is lo ad ed o n all fo u r sides, the d im en sio n b is co n sid e re d as th e sm aller of
the tw o plate dim en sio n s. T h e critical sh e arin g stress Tcr is uniform ly d istrib u te d
along all fo u r sides o f th e plate.
T h e re c ta n g u la r p late w hich is lo ad ed in p u re sh e a r h a s p rincipal tension and
com pressive stresses a t 45° to the edges. T h ese p rin cip al stresses are eq u a l to the
sh earin g stresses. T h e d iag o n al c o m p ressio n stresses cau se th e sheet buckling, and
BUCKLING DESIGN OF STRU CTU RAL MEMBERS 3 6 9
0 2 4 b S 10
ajb
Figure 11.44
w hen buck lin g occu rs, the w rinkles form a t a p p ro x im a te ly 45° angles to th e
edges. T h e b u ck lin g sh e a rin g stresses T cr are co n sid e ra b ly h ig h e r th a n the b u c k
ling co m p ressio n stresses erCcr for plates w ith e q u a l d im en sio n s. T h is is a resu lt o f
the restrain in g effect o f th e diag o n al te n sio n in th e p la te w h ich is load ed by
shearing forces.
T he critical b u ck lin g stresses in a th in p la te lo ad ed in b e n d in g as sh o w n in
Fig. 11.45 also can be c a lc u la ted th eo retically a n d ex p ressed in th e sam e form as
the eq u a tio n s fo r c o m p ressio n and sh e a r b u c k lin g :
(11.70]
w here a btr is th e critica l m ax im u m b en d in g stress sh o w n in F ig. 11.45 a n d K is

given by the cu rv e o f F ig. 11.45 if all fo u r edges a re sim ply su p p o rte d .
In the case o f b u c k lin g o f thin p lates u n d e r th e co m b in e d a c tio n of tw o o f th e
alb
Figure 11.45
co n d itio n s o f co m p ressio n , sh e a r o r b ending, the in itial b u ck lin g stresses have

been determ in ed em p irically by the m eth o d o f stress ra tio s. T h e initial b u ck lin g
occurs w hen o n e o f th e follow ing e q u a tio n s is satisfied:
C o m p ressio n and b en d in g :
R'b-75 + R c = 1 (11.71)
C o m p ressio n and sh e a r:
R's -5 + R c = 1 (11.72)
B ending a n d sh ea r:
R l + R f= 1 (11.73)
w here R b, R s , an d R c rep resen t th e ra tio s o f th e stresses in th e plate to th e critical
bu ck lin g stresses ffA/crAcr, ac/a Ccr, a n d x jx „ .
11.16 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF CURVED

RECTANGULAR PLATES
A large p a rt o f the stru c tu re o f a sem im o n o co q u e a irp la n e consists o f th e o u te r
shell, o r skin. T h is skin usually is curved to p ro v id e th e nccessary ae ro d y n am ic
shape, and it m u st resist tension, co m p ressio n , sh e ar, a n d bending stresses. In
a d d itio n to th e co n d itio n s o f u ltim a te stre n g th a n d yield stre n g th , w hich m u s t be
considered in th e design o f flight vehicle stru c tu ra l m em b e rs, often th e skin m u st
be designed so th a t it will n o t w rinkle u n d e r n o rm a l flight cond itio n s. Skin
w rinkles o r o th e r su rface irreg u larities seriously aflect th e airflow in th e case of
high-speed a irc ra ft, b u t m a y be perm issible fo r slo w er-sp eed aircraft. U n fo rtu
nately, b o th th e b u c k lin g stre n g th a n d th e u ltim a te stre n g th of curved p lates
depend on m an y u n c e rta in facto rs an d a re difficult to p re d ict accurately. In itial
plate ecccntricities, a ir p re ssu re n o rm a l to th e p late, a n d c o n d itio n s of th e su p

p o rts a re difficult to ev a lu a te ; yet th ey m a y h av e a c o n sid e ra b le effect o n b u c k
ling loads.
T h e b u ck lin g stress for a curved p la te in sh ear, su c h as sh o w n in Fig. 11.46, is
higher th a n the bu ck lin g stress for a flat p la te w ith c o rre sp o n d in g dim ensions.
T h e b u ck lin g stresses o b ta in e d ex p erim en tally u su ally a re sm aller th a n th o se
ca lcu lated theoretically for an ideal p la te w ith sm all deflections. A co n d itio n
sim ilar to th a t described in Sec. 11.14 fo r p late s in c o m p re ssio n exists for p la te s in
sh ear; the th eo retic a l b u ck lin g stresses fo r flat p lates c o rre sp o n d closely w ith te st
results for p ractical p lates, b u t th eo retical b u ck lin g stresses- for curved p la te s
usually a rc h ig h er th a n values o b ta in e d experim en tally .
T h e th eo retical sh e a r b u ck lin g stresses for cu rv ed p late s h a v e been calc u lated
by B atdorf, Stein, an d S c h ild c ro u t . 5 0 F o r a c o n sta n t v alu e of P o isso n ’s ra tio ,
v = 0.3, th e sh e a r b u ck lin g stress i „ m a y be expressed in th e fo rm o f p re v io u s
buckling e q u a tio n s:
t CC = K SE ^ J ( 1 1 .7 4 )
T h e term K s is a fu n ctio n o f the ratio s a /b a n d b 2/{rt) a n d is p lo tte d in Figs. 11.46

an d 11.47. W h en th e circum fcrential len g th is g re a te r th a n th e axial length, Fig.
ri
Figure 11.46
11.47 is ap p lic a b le ; w hen th e axial length is g reater, Fig. 11.46 m ust be used. T h e
dim ension b is sm aller th a n the d im en sio n a in e ith er case. B oth figures apply
only to plates for w hich all fo u r edges a re sim ply su p p o rte d . T h e p o in ts at the left
side of the ch arts, for b 2/(rt) = 0 , c o rresp o n d to the b u ck lin g stress coefficients for
flat plates, as given in Fig. 11.44.
F o r design purp o ses, it is necessary to co n sid er the efleets o f initial accidental
eccentricities, w hich alw ays cause the b u ck lin g stresses to be sm aller th a n th e
theoretical values. O ften th e designer m u st use ju d g m e n t in e v alu a tin g these
effects for a p a rtic u la r stru c tu re . A n em p irical e q u a tio n is p ro p o se d :
t« = k e ( 0 + K i E ~r (11.75)
w here the first term re p resen ts the b u ck lin g stress for a flat p late, as given by Fig.
11.44, a n d th e last term represents the a d d itio n a l stress w hich c a n be resisted
bccause of th e cu rv a tu re. T h e value K x = 0.10 is reco m m en d ed . By rew ritin g Eq.
(1 1.75) aryd c o m p a rin g it to Eq. (11.74), the follow ing re la tio n s are o b tain e d :
( b2\ f t Y
^ = [K + K ' n ) E{ b )
X - = A + K- i — (11.76)
rt
rt
Figure 11.47
T h e values o f K s from Eq. (11.76) are p lo tte d as th e d o tte d lines in F igs. 11.46 a n d
11.47, assu m ing K x = 0.10. T h e values o b ta in e d fro m E q . (11.75) are seen to
represent co n serv ativ e a p p ro x im atio n s for all values sh o w n o n th e c h art, except
for th e case o f large values o f a/b an d b 2/{rt) sh ow n in Fig. 11.47. E x cep t for th is
range, Eq. (11.75) ap p ro x im a tes m ost o f the av ailab le test in fo rm a tio n closely a n d
conservatively and m ay be used in practical design. W hile th e th e o re tic al curves
o f Figs. 11.46 an d 11.47 apply only to p lates w ith sim ply su p p o rte d edges, E q.
(11.75) m ay be used w ith Fig. 11.44 for p lates w ith clam p ed edges o r for o th e r
edge co n d itio n s, by in te rp o la tio n of Fig. 11.44.
11.17 P U R E T E N S I O N F I E L D BEA M S51
T h e u ltim ate stren g th o f thin w ebs in sh ea r is m u ch g re a te r th a n th e in itial

buckling stren g th . In th e case of stru c tu ra l m em b ers w hich a re n o t exposed to th e
airstream , such as w ing sp ars, th e sh ear w ebs m ay be p e rm itte d to w rin k le a t a
sm all fraction o f th eir u ltim a te loads. T o d escribe th e m a n n e r in w hich lo ad s a re
resisted by sh e a r w ebs after b u ck lin g has o ccu rred , it is c o n v e n ie n t to co n sid er a
pure tension field beam in w hich the w eb buckles w hen th e sh e arin g forces a re
initially app lied. S uch a web never exists in practice, since even very th in w ebs
have en ough b u ck lin g resistan ce to affect th e stress d istrib u tio n ap p reciab ly .
T h e beam show n in Fig. 11.48a h as c o n c c n tra tc d flange a re a s w hich a rc
assum ed to resist th e e n tire beam b en d in g m o m en ts. T h e b eam w eb h as thickness

I an d d ep th h betw een cen tro id s o f th e flanges. T h e v ertical stifTeners a re spaced
uniform ly at a d ista n ce d a lo n g the span. T h e sh e a r force V is c o n sta n t fo r all
cross sections. T h e s h e a r flow at all p o in ts in th e w eb is th erefore eq u al to V /h,
an d th e sh e a r stress a t all p o in ts t 2 is V /(th). If th e w eb is shear-resistan t, a w eb
elem ent a t th e n e u tra l axis o f the beam is stressed, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.49. O n the
vertical a n d h o riz o n ta l faces X an d Y , th e elem ent resists o n ly th e sh earin g
stresses t a n d no n o rm a l stresses. T h e p rin cip al stresses a, a n d rrc o ccu r o n p lanes
a t 45" to the h o riz o n tal, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.496. T h e m ag n itu d es o f th e prin cip al
stresses a re determ in ed b y 'th e M o h r circle c o n stru c tio n o f Fig. 11.49c, from
w hich <r, = ffc = r. If th e beam w eb o f Fig. 11,48a is assu m ed to be extrem ely
flexible, it will n o t be c a p a b le o f resisting th e d ia g o n a l com pressive stress. T h e n it
will act a s a g ro u p o f p arallel wires, inclined in the d irectio n of the ten sio n
d iag o n al, o r a t an angle a o f a p p ro x im ately 45°, as sh o w n . Such a g ro u p o f w ires
c a n n o t resist an y o f th e b ea m bend in g m o m e n t, a n d it is c u sto m a ry to assum e
th a t every elem ent in a ten sio n field w eb resists th e sam e stress as a n elem en t a t
the n eu tral axis. A w eb elem en t for a p u re ten sio n field w eb is therefore stressed
as show n in Fig. 11.50. T h e sh earin g stresses o n th e v ertical an d h o riz o n ta l faces
have th e sam e values x = V/(th) as for th e sh e a r-re sista n t web. T hese p lanes, X
a n d Y , also have tensile stresses ax an d ay , respectively, w hich are o b ta in e d from
the M o h r circle c o n stru c tio n in Fig. 11.50c. F ro m th e g eo m etry o f th e circle, th e
lengths o f lines Q X a n d P Y are r/sin a, a n d th e len g th s o f lines P X an d Q Y are
t/c o s a. T h e follow ing stresses are o b ta in e d :
a x = t cos a (11.77)
<js = x ta n a (11.78)
2 r
(11.79)
sin a cos a sin 2 a
T h e relatio n sh ip s expressed by Eqs. (11.77) to (11.79) m a y be o b ta in e d w ith
o u t the use o f the M o h r circle c o n stru c tio n b y referrin g to Fig. 11.486. T h e w eb
o f thickness t, w hich resists a m ax im u m tensile stress cr,, is assum ed to be re
placed by w ires a u n it d istan ce a p a rt w hich resist forces of <rt . T h e vertical
Iff) (M (c)
Figure 11.49
(a) (/,) (r)
Figure 11.50
c o m p o n e n t o f the w ire ten sio n is then a, sin a, an d th e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n e n t is

a, cos «. A long a h o riz o n ta l line th ro u g h th e w ires, th e sp a c in g is 1/sin a, c o rre
sp o n d in g to a h o riz o n ta l w eb a re a of £/sin a. T h e w eb te n s io n stress oy o n th e
h o riz o n ta l p lan e is o b ta in e d b y d ividing th e vertical c o m p o n e n t of th e w ire
tension <r, sin a by th e w eb a re a //sin a :
ffj. = a, sin 2 a (11.80)
T h e sh earin g stress t o n a h o riz o n tal p la n e is fo u n d b y d iv id in g th e h o riz o n ta l

co m p o n e n t o f the w ire te n sio n <r, cos a by th e w eb a re a £/sin a:
r = it, s i n cc c o s cc (1 1 .8 1 )
E q u a tio n (11.81) c o rre sp o n d s to Eq. (11.79). S im ilarly, a v ertic a l line th ro u g h th e

w ires gives spacin g o f 1/cos a co rresp o n d in g to a w eb a re a o f t/co s a. T h e h o r
izontal w eb stress a x is o b ta in e d by d iv id in g th e h o riz o n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f th e
w ire ten sio n by th e a r e a :
crx — a, c o s 2 a (11.82)
E q u atio n s (11.77) a n d (11.78) m ay be o b ta in e d fro m Eqs. (11.80) to (11.82).

T h e tension field b eam also differs fro m th e sh e a r-re sista n t beam in th e
m a n n e r in w hich stresses a re transferred to th e stiffeners, b e a m flanges, a n d
riveted connections. T h e vertical stifTeners in a sh e a r-re sista n t beam resist n o
com pression lo a d ; th e y o n ly divide the w eb in to sm aller u n su p p o rte d rectangles
and th u s increase the w eb buckling stress as calc u lated fro m E q. (11.43). In a
tension field beam , how ever, th e vertical w eb ten sio n stresses u y ten d to pull th e
beam flanges to g eth er, a n d this tendency m u st be resisted b y com pression forces
in the stiffeners. E ach stiffen er m ust resist a co m p ressiv e fo rce P th a t is equal to
the vertical tension force in th e web for a le n g th d equal to th e stiffener spacing,
as show n in Fig. 11.5In:
P = a..td = ~ - t a n a (11.83)
h
T h e vertical w eb ten sio n stresses also te n d to b e n d th e b ea m flanges in w ard .
T h e flanges act as c o n tin u o u s beam s su p p o rte d by th e stiffeners. If th e ends o f th e
p-- d— -- (/—► --- </— -- d—►
72 P =avni p
= I- ->'tan a (a>
/fTTh\ /tT T k /fTTTx /TTTTk
V Y ' \
M =artd~/24 LM = ovfdz/12
( >)
flanges are assu m ed to be fixed ag ain st ro ta tio n , th e flange b en d in g -m o m en t

d iag ram is as sh o w n in Fig. 11.516. A t the stifleners th e b en d in g m o m en t is
a., td 2 Pd
M = ^ - = — (11.84)
M idw ay betw een th e stiffeners th e flange b en d in g m o m e n t is
T h e directio n o f the b en d in g m o m e n t is such th a t it p ro d u ces ten sio n o n th e

o u tsid e of the flange a t th e stifleners a n d o n th e inside o f the flange betw een the
stiffeners.
T h e h o riz o n ta l co m p o n e n ts o f the w eb stresses ax tend to pull th e end
stiffeners to g e th e r w ith a force u x th = V c o t a. T h is force is resisted equally by
the tw o sp a r flanges, p ro d u c in g co m p ressio n forces o f K(cot a)/ 2 , w hich m u st be
su p erim p o sed o n th e forces M /h th a t resu lt from b ea m bending.
T h e riveted co n n e c tio n s for a sh e a r-resista n t w eb m u s t be designed to resist a
lo ad g = t s £ p e r u n it length. In a ten sio n field w eb co n n ectio n , th e h o riz o n ta l,
riveted jo in ts m u st resist sh e a r flows q as well as ten sio n forces o f q ta n a p e r un it
length in a p e rp e n d ic u la r d irection. H en ce all h o riz o n ta l riveted jo in ts m u st
resist forces o f q j 1 + ta n 2 a = q sec cr. per u n it length. T h e vertical riveted jo in ts
at the en d s o f th e b eam o r a t w eb splices m u st resist sh e a r flows o f q = rs t a n d
tensile forces o f a x t + q cot a p er u n it length. T h u s, th e jo in ts m u st be designed
for a load of q ^ J 1 + c o t 2 a. o r q csc a. p e r u n it length. T h is force does n o t a p p ly
for co n n ectio n s betw een the w eb an d in term ed iate stiffeners, since n o ap p reciab le
lo a d is tran sferred by this co nnection.
In earlier ch ap te rs, v ario u s shear-fiow analyses a re m a d e in w hich the w ebs
arc assum ed to resist p u re shear. T hese analyses re m a in valid even th o u g h the
w ebs a re in ten sio n field, since the ten sio n stresses o n th e X an d Y p lan es m ay be
superim posed o n th e sh ea rin g stresses w ith o u t affecting th e shear-fiow analysis.
-5 0 - J\
\
(1 = 1 0 \
\
/ = 0 .0 :0 - =\
^ r \
h=20 \
\
-\
\
V = 6 0 0 0 Ib
K
Figure 11.52
E xam p le 11.8 T h e b eam show n in Fig. 11.52 is assu m ed to have a p u re

tension field web. D ra w frec-body d iag ram s for the stiffeners a n d flanges, an d
plot the axial lo ad s in the stiffeners an d flanges. A ssum e a = 45°.,
S o l u t i o n T h e sh e a rin g stress on a h o riz o n ta l o r vertical p lan e o f a web

elem ent is x = V[(th) = 6000/(0.020 x 20) = 15,000 lb /in 2. T h e ru n n in g shear
is q = xs t = 300 lb /in . T h e tension stresses a x a n d <r o n these planes an d the
tension lo ads pcr in ch also equal xs an d q. T h e co m p ressio n load on an
in term ed iate stiffener, P = V<l/h, is 3000 lb. T h e stiffener a t the left end has a
co m pressio n lo ad o f P /2 a n d an a d d itio n a l co m p ressio n force of 6000 lb
applied at the low er end. B oth beam flanges have c o m p ressio n loads o f
7 /2 = 3000 lb a t th e left end. T h e b eam flange lo ad s v a ry linearly along the
span. A t the s u p p o rt, the flange lo ad s from beam b e n d in g 'M jh are 6000
x f § = 15,000 lb. T h e com pression flange resists a lo a d —M / h — V j2 =
-3 0 0 0 !M
-1 8 ,0 0 0 lb
3000 lh 300 lb/i.n -1 8 0 0
-is o o m
1500 lb Irrfrrtrrf rrtrfT
i 15001b 3 0 0 0 1b 1 3000 lb 3000 1b 15001b
" 1 ^ - 3 0 0 0 lb 3000 Ib
L . 300 Ib/in
t (f.0 0 0 1 b) -3 0 0 0 Ib
r -3 0 0 0 Ib
- 7 5 0 0 lb
3000 Ib
7 5 0 0 lb
1500 1b 3 0 0 0 1b 30001b 3000 1b 3000 1b 15001b
3 0 0 0 Ib J j j L-u U J I j j I j j 12.0 0 0 Ib
300 Ib/in
- 3000 l b ( [
mrnTflTIJf[I + 12000 lb
Figure H .53
— 18,000 lb, a n d th e ten sio n flange resists a lo a d o f M jh — K /2 = 12,000 lb.

T he free-body d ia g ra m s a re sh o w n in Fig. 11.53. All in term ed iate stiffeners
resist th e sam e loads.
11.18 ANGLE OF DIAGONAL TENSION IN WEB
T h is an g le m a y be d eterm in ed from th e deflected geom etry o f th e beam ,

fram ew ork, co n sistin g o f th e finnges a n d stiffeners, h as e q u a l stifTness in resisting
the h o rizo n tal ten sio n o ^ 'a n d th e v ertical ten sion ay , th e tw o tension stresses will
be eq u al an d a will be 45°. In p ra ctica l b eam s, th e flanges are m uch m o re rigid in
resisting co m p ressio n lo ad s th a n a re th e stiffeners. T h e stiffeners defo rm in co m
p ression an d p erm it th e flanges to m o v e to g eth er, w hile the stiffeners rem ain
a p p ro x im ately th e sam e d istan ce a p a rt. T h e h o riz o n ta l w eb stress a x is th erefore
g re a te r th a n ay , an d th e d ia g o n a l ten sio n stress a y h a s a n angle less th a n 45°.
T h is angle m ay be d eterm in ed from th e dcflccted g eo m e try o f the beam .
T h e beam sh o w n in F ig. 11.54 is in itially h o riz o n ta l, an d it has a sh earin g
d efo rm atio n y a t all cro ss sections. B en d in g deflections a re n o t co n sid ered here.
T h e d efo rm atio n y is cau sed b y axial e lo n g a tio n s o f the stiffeners a n d flanges a n d
by the elo n g atio n o f th e w eb d iag o n a l re su ltin g from th e d iag o n al ten sio n stress.
A section o f th e b eam o f length h c o t a. a n d d e p th h is considered, a n d th e value
o f a required to p ro d u c e a m in im u m d e fo rm a tio n y is determ ined. All e lo n g a tio n s
a re assum ed positive as ten sio n in th e d eriv atio n , a lth o u g h the stiffeners a n d
flanges will alw ays be in co m p ressio n a n d h av e n eg ativ e elongations. T h e d efo r
m a tio n s of the len g th , h co t cc, o f th e b e am in F ig. 11.54 will be the sam e as th o se
fo r the truss show n in Fig. 11.55, if th e u n it elo n g a tio n s in the h o rizo n tal, vertical,
a n d d iag o n al d irectio n s are th e sam e for th e tw o stru ctu re s.
T h e to ta l elo n g a tio n o f a vertical stiffener is e q u a l to the p ro d u c t o f the u n it
elo n g atio n ey a n d a n d the len g th h. T h is e lo n g a tio n causes a sh e a rin g d efo r
m a tio n Vi, as sh o w n in Fig. 11.55a, w hich is o b ta in e d by dividing th e to ta l
elo n g atio n by th e ra d iu s h c o t a:
/ig>- = ey ta n cc , ( 11.86 )
7i =
/i c o t a
T h e beam flanges have a u n it e lo n g a tio n ex , o r a to ta l elong atio n o f ex h co t
Figure 11.54
Figure 11.55
a in th e h o riz o n ta l len g th considered. T h e a n g u la r d efo rm a tio n y 2 is o b ta in e d b y

div iding this d e fo rm a tio n by th e ra d iu s h, a s sh o w n in Fig. 11.556:
y 2 = ex cot a (l 1-87)
T h e d iag o n al strip o f th e w eb h as a u n it e lo n g a tio n e a n d a length h/sin a. T h e
a n g u la r d e fo rm a tio n y 3 is o b ta in ed from th e g eo m etry o f F ig . 11.55c:
y3 = ~ — -------- (11-88)
sm a cos a
T h e to ta l sh e arin g d efo rm atio n for th e b ea m is th e a lg eb raic sum o f the th ree

co m p o n e n ts:
y = - y i - y 2 + y3
S u b stitu tin g from E qs. (11. 8 6 ) to {11.8 8 ) yields
e
y = — e, ta n a — e , c o t a 4- —-------------- (11.89)
J sin a cos a
T h e an g le o f the w eb d ia g o n a l tension a w ill be such th a t th e d efo rm atio n y is a

m inim um . D ifferen tia tin g Eq. (11.89) a n d e q u a tin g dy/da to ze ro yield
tan2 a = -— — (11.90)
e-e,
w here e = a J E is th e uni t strain a lo n g th e w eb d iag o n al, is th e u n it stra in in

the beam flanges re su ltin g from the co m p ressio n caused by the w eb ten sio n ax ,
an d ey is the u n it stra in in the vertical stiffeners caused b y th e com pression lo a d
P. All stra in s a re p o sitiv e for tension a n d neg ativ e for com pression. T he b e n d in g
of the beam flanges a n d the slip in th e riveted jo in ts a t th e flanges have th e sam e
effect as an elo n g a tio n e} an d m ay be in clu d ed in th e analysis.
T h e u n it e lo n g a tio n s used in E q. (11.90) d e p e n d o n th e stresses, w hich in tu rn
depend on the angle a. It is th erefore n ecessary to solve this eq u a tio n sim u l
tan eo u sly w ith o th e r e q u a tio n s o b ta in e d from th e w eb stress conditions. F o r
n o rm al beam p ro p o rtio n s , the flanges d o n o t co m p ress ap p reciab ly as a re su lt o f
3 8 0 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES'
the tension field stress, an d ex m ay be assum ed zero. T he w eb d iag o n al strain c is

gJE , o r 2 r, csc 2ajE , from Eq. (1 1.79). T h e u n it stra in ey is o b tain ed as —t s id tan
z / A c E, w here A t. is th e cfTcctivc area o f a v e rtic a l’ stiffener. S u b stitu tin g these
values in to E q . (11.90) gives
(11.91)
T h e effective stifTcner a re a is equal to th e tru e stiffener a re a A if the stiffener

consists of tw o m em b ers sym m etrically a tta c h e d o n o p p o site sides o f the web.
W here a single stiffener is a tta c h e d to only o n e side o f the web, it is loaded in
bending as well as co m p ressio n . T h e co m p ressio n lo a d P has an eccentricity e
m easured from the c c n te r o f the w eb to the ccn tro id o f th e stiffener area. T he
com bined b en d in g a n d c o m p ressio n stress a t a d istan ce e from the n eu tral axis is
w here p is the rad iu s o f g y ra tio n o f the stiffener cro ss-sectio n al area and
T h e d ifferen tiatio n o f E q. (11.89) m a y a p p e a r q u estio n a b le , since th e elo n g a

tions e, ex , a n d ey are tre ated as c o n sta n t w ith respect to a. E q u a tio n (11.91) also
m ay be o b ta in e d by su b stitu tin g values for th e stra in s as fun ctio n s of a in to Eq.
(11.89) before differen tiatio n , w hich is a m o re rig o ro u s m ath em atical p ro ced u re
b u t yields th e sam e angle a. E q u a tio n (11.90), how ever, is a general expression for
the angle o f th e p rin c ip a l p lan es a t a p o in t in a n y stru c tu re w ith tw o-dim ensional
stress co n d itio n s w hen the stra in s e x , ey , a n d e are k n o w n . L ah d e a n d W a g n e r 5 5
first applied this e q u a tio n to the analysis o f ten sio n field w ebs. L a n g h a a r 6 7 ex
pressed th e stra in e in term s of a k n o w n d is to rtio n y a n d e q u ate d de/da to zero in
o rd e r to find the angle a for th e m ax im u m o r p rin cip al stra in . T h e angle a thus
o b tain ed is equal to th a t yielded b y Eq. (11.90). L a n g h a a r also expressed th e to ta l
strain energy as a fu n ctio n o f a a n d e q u a te d th e deriv ativ e o f th e stra in energy to
zero in o rd e r to find th e angle a, w hich yielded a m in im u m of th e to ta l 'strain
energy .T h is also gave th e sam e resu lt as th a t o b ta in e d from E q. (11.90). If flange
bending an d o th e r d efo rm a tio n s a re co n sid ered , th e value o f ey is g rea te r th a n
th a t used in o b ta in in g Eq. (11.91).
11.19 S E M I T E N S I O N F IE L D B E A M S
In Sec. 11.18 wc assu m e th a t the beam w eb is perfectly flexible a n d is n o t cap ab le

o f resisting an y d ia g o n a l com pressive stress. In p rac tic a l b eam s, the w ebs resist
som e d iag o n al com pressive stress after b u ck lin g , an d th u s they act in an in te r
m ediate ran g e betw een sh ear-re sista n t w ebs a n d p u re te n sio n field w ebs. Such
beam s a re term ed sem itension fie ld beams, partial-tension fie ld beams, o r incom
pletely developed diagonal tension fie ld beams. T h e p u re ten sio n field th e o ry is

co n serv ativ e for th e design o f all p a rts o f a p rac tic a l beam , b u t m ay yield stiffener
lo a d s o r flange b e n d in g m om ents w hich are as m u ch as 5 tim es th e tru e values.
H ence a m o re a c c u ra te theory is necessary for design pu rp o ses.
T h e th eo ry o f p u re tension field b eam s w as first p u b lish e d by W a g n e r in
1929. Since th en , m an y in vestigators have stu d ie d th e p ro b lem o f sem itension
field beam s. L ah d e an d W ag n er 5 5 p u b lish ed em pirical d a ta in 1936 w hich w ere
b ased on stra in m easu rem en ts o f b u c k le d re c ta n g u la r sheets. T h ese d a ta p ro v id e d
in fo rm a tio n for th e p ractical design of beam s, b u t th e test p o in ts h a d c o n sid e r
a b le sc a tte r becau se o f the difficulty in m a k in g stra in m e asu rem en ts o f b u ck led
sheet. M a n y a irc ra ft m an u factu rers c o n d u c te d tests a n d d eveloped e m p irical
design form ulas, b u t usually, one p a rtic u la r type o f b e a m has been tested, a n d th e
e q u a tio n s m u st be u sed w ith ca u tio n in d esigning b e a m s of differen t m a te ria ls o r
p ro p o rtio n s differen t from those on w hich the tests w ere c o n d u cte d . T h e m o s t
extensive test p ro g ra m has been c o n d u cte d by the N A C A u n d e r the d ire ctio n o f
P a u l K u h n . K u h n et al . 5 1 and P e te rso n 5 2 m easu re d stra in s in th e v ertical stiff
en ers o f a large n u m b e r o f beam s a n d d eriv ed em p irical e q u a tio n s from th ese
m easu rem en ts. T h e stiffener stresses su p p ly in fo rm a tio n re q u ire d for th e stiffener
design an d for the design o f the flanges to resist se c o n d ary bend in g . A th e o retica l
a n aly sis o f the stresses in a buckled re c ta n g u la r sh eet h as been m a d e by L evy e t
a l . 5 3 , 5 4 W hile so m e sim plifying assu m p tio n s a re m a d e in th e analysis, it p ro v id e s
v alu a b le in fo rm a tio n reg ard in g the stress d istrib u tio n in th e w eb. T h e an aly sis o f
L evy et al. show s th a t the stress c o n d itio n s v ary c o n sid e ra b ly a t differen t p o in ts
in th e w eb a n d th a t a n y p ractical an aly sis in w hich th e sam e stress c o n d itio n s a re
assu m ed a t all p o in ts will have som e d iscrep an cies w ith o b serv ed test c o n d itio n s.
In th e analysis o f sem itension field b eam s by K u h n e t al., it is assu m ed th a t
p a rt o f the sh e a r lo a d k V is resisted by p u re ten sio n field a c tio n a n d th a t th e
rem ain in g lo a d ( 1 — k )V is resisted by th e b e am a c tin g as a sh e a r-re sista n t b e a m .
All p o in ts o f th e w eb are assum ed to h a v e th e sam e stress d istrib u tio n , e x c e p t fo r
th e w eb ad ja c e n t to th e vertical stifTeners. T h is p o rtio n o f the w eb is riv eted to th e
stiffeners a n d d o es n o t w rinkle. T h e stresses in the w eb m ay b e fo u n d b y m u lti
p ly in g the values sh o w n for a sh e a r-re sista n t w eb in Fig. 11.49 by 1 — k a n d th o s e
sh o w n for a p tire ten sio n field web in Fig. 11.50 by k a n d th e n su p e rim p o sin g
th em . T h e v alu es sh o w n in Fig. 11.56c re p re se n t th e to ta l stresses o n h o riz o n ta l
a n d v ertical p lan es a n d arc found b y su p e rim p o sin g th e c o n d itio n s sh o w n in F ig.
11.56a a n d b. T h e an g le a is o b ta in ed from E q. (11.90) w ith sufficient ac cu racy .
T h e re is a co n serv a tiv e e rro r involved in using Eq. (11.90) for p a rtia l ten sion field
w ebs, since this e q u a tio n yields the an g le o f p rin c ip a l stress. T h e p rin c ip a l te n s io n
stress for the elem en t o f Fig. 11.56c h as a n an g le w h ich is b etw een th e 45° a n g le
fo r the p rin cip al stress o f the elem ent o f F ig. 11.56a a n d th e angle a fo r th e
elem en t of F ig. 11.566.
T h e d ia g o n a l ten sio n factor k is given by the em p irical e q u a tio n of K u h n et
al.:
(I - k)as (I - k)as
Figure 11.56
w hich is p lo tte d in Fig. 11.57. T h e angle a is o b ta in e d from Rq. (11.90) after

functions o f k, a, an d A c a re su b stitu te d for th e stra in s. V alu es o f tan a are p lo tte d
as fu n ctio n s of k an d td /A e in Fig. 11.58. Since Eq. (11.90) m u s t be solved b y trial
for tan a, it is m uch m o re con v en ien t to u se Fig. 11.58 th a n to solve th e eq u a tio n
for each p a rtic u la r case.
T h e stress co n d itio n s fo r an y w eb elem ent a re k n o w n after k and a a rc found
an d a re as show n in F ig. 11,56c. T he stiffener c o m p ressio n forces an d the flange
b e n d in g m o m en ts are p ro p o rtio n a l to the v ertical c o m p o n e n t o f the w eb tensile
stress a y , w hich is show n in Fig. 11.56:
<jy = Ait ta n a (11.94)
1.0
-
0.8
0.6
/I
ss
s '
//
0 .4
0. 2
/ 4 6 10 20 40 100 200 400 1000

oJaKr Figure 11.57
T h e stiffener c o m p re ssio n lo a d P is o b ta in e d as follow s:
P = cry td = k ztd ta n a (11-95)
T h e flange b e n d in g m o m e n ts a re o b ta in e d from th e stress cry , as in Eqs. (11.84)

a n d (11.85), for p u re ten sio n field w ebs, b u t th e v alues o fcr, a n d P are sm aller fo r
sem itension field w ebs:
aa aytd2 pd
a t stifTeners (11.84)
M " i r - : 12
ffr td 2 Pd
M = b etw een stiffeners (11.85)
24 24
T h e co m p re ssio n lo a d on a vertical stiffener is resisted b y th e stiffener a n d b y

the effective w eb th a t is riveted to th e stiffener: If sufficient rivets are p ro v id ed
th a t th e w eb w rin k les d o n o t extend th ro u g h th e riv eted jo i n t a t th e stiffener, as
in the c u sto m a ry co n stru c tio n , th e w eb m u st h a v e th e sa m e vertical co m p ressio n
strain a n d a p p ro x im a te ly the sam e co m p ressio n stress a s th e stiffener a t th e riv et
line. A n effective w id th o f w eb equal to 0.5(1 — k)d is a ssu m e d by K u h n et al. to
a c t w ith the stiffener, a n d th e stiffener co m p ressio n stress th e n has th e follow ing
value:
(11.96)
Since the values o f k a re o b tain ed em pirically from m easu rem en ts o f ffc , a n

ap p ro x im a te ex p ressio n for th e effective w id th o f w eb w ill yield an accu rate v alu e
o f <rc if the sam e effective w id th is assu m ed in c a lc u la tin g k from experim en tally
d eterm in ed v alues o f a c . It seem s p ro b a b le th a t th e tru e effective w idths o f th e
w eb are less th a n th o se assum ed a n d th a t th e e m p irical v alu es o f k th u s yield
conservative values for cry a n d the flange b en d in g m o m en ts.
hi
A.. Figure 1 158
T h e riveted jo in ts b etw een th e w ebs a n d th e b eam flanges m u st be designed

for th e re su lta n t o f the sh e a rin g stress x a n d th e ten sio n stress cxy o r for a ru n n in g
load o f y j x 2 + (a y)2 t. S im ilarly, vertical w eb splices' mus t be designed for a r u n
ning lo ad o f J x 2 + (<rx)2 t. T h e rivets co n n ectin g th e v ertical stiffeners to the
beam flanges sh o u ld be desig n ed to tran sfer th e load P u = A e a c , a c co rd in g to th e
ab o v e theory . In a c tu a l b eam s, frequently it is im p ra c tic a l to p rovide this
stren g th . T h e th e o retica l an aly sis by L evy et al. an d m a n y tests in d icate th a t the.
stiffener lo ad d ecreases n e a r th e en d o f th e stiffener a n d th a t as m u ch as h alf of
this lo ad is tran sfe rre d to thie w eb n e a r the en d o f the stiffen er ra th e r th a n to th e
beam flange. In p ra ctic a l beam s, it is c u sto m a ry to p ro v id e a to tal stren g th in the
rivets co n n ectin g the stiffener to Ihe flange a n d th e rivets c o n n ectin g the end of
the stiffener to the w eb to resist th e lo ad P u . T h e stiifen er-w eb rivets w hich are
assu m ed to tran sfe r p a rt o f th is lo a d P„ a re sp aced as close to the end of the
stiffener as possible.
T h e allo w ab le stre n g th for beam w ebs has so m etim es been o b tain ed by
e q u a tin g the calc u la ted d ia g o n a l ten sio n stresses to the allo w ab le ten sio n stress
for the w eb m ateria l, w ith em p irical co rre ctio n s for rivet ho les a n d v ario u s stress
c o n c e n tra tio n factors. M o re a c c u ra te w eb stre n g th p red ictio n s can p ro b a b ly be
o b ta in e d by eq u a tin g th e to ta l w eb sh earin g stress x to an allow able stress <rJW
o b ta in e d from tests o f b eam s o f c o m m o n p ro p o rtio n s . T h ese allo w ab le stresses
a re p lo tted in Fig. 11.59 as fu n ctio n s o f x /xCT. T h e curves of Fig. 11.59 w ere
o b ta in e d by an aly zin g d a ta from extensive tests o f se m ite n sio n field beam s. T h e
tests w ere c o n d u c te d u n d e r th e su p erv isio n of S. A. G o rd o n of th e G len n L.
M a rtin C o m p a n y .
34
32
30
- 28
. * 2
15
I 26
cT
24
2 *i
20
1 2 4 6 S 10 20 40 60 100
aJ°vt Figure 11.59
-'I
HUCKUNG DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 385
It is assu m ed th a t the w cb-flange rivet sp acin g is in th e n o rm a l range o f 3 to

5 tim es th e riv et d iam eter. A sm aller rivet sp acin g red u ces the net a re a exces
sively, w hile a very large sp acin g m ay p erm it the w eb w rin k les to extend th ro u g h
th e rivet lines. T h e allo w ab le web stresses often are p lo tte d as functions o f th e
sheet thickness, w ith the heavier sheet gages resisting h ig h e r stresses. T his p ra c
tice is perm issible because stiffener spacings usually a re k e p t to a m axim um o f
a b o u t 8 in, even for very heavy sheets, a n d th e th ick er w ebs therefore have lo w er
ra tio s o f x jx „ . F o r geom etrically sim ilar, w ebs, how ever, th e allow able stress
w ould be in d e p e n d e n t of th e w eb thickness. W h ere b e a m flanges an d w eb stiff
eners are a tta c h e d sym m etrically to b o th sides o f a w eb, th e edge of the w eb is
b etter s u p p o rte d a n d resists higher stresses th a n th o se given in Fig. 11.59 for
flanges a tta c h e d to on ly o n e side of the web.
E x am p le 11.9 D eterm in e the m arg in of safety for th e w eb interm ed iate stiff

eners, a n d riv eted jo in ts o f the b eam sh o w n in F ig. 11.60. The w eb is,
2024S-T A lclad sheet, an d the flanges a n d stiffeners are 2024S-T extrusions.
S o l u t i o n T h e b u ck lin g stress for the w eb in sh e a r is o b tain ed from E q.

(11.69) a n d Fig. 11.44. T h e w eb d im en sio n s for c o m p u tin g buckling stresses
are m easu red betw een rivet lines, as a = 15 a n d b = 8 in. By entering Fig.
11.44 w ith a /b = 1.875, the values K = 10.3 for cla m p e d edges an d K = 5.9
for sim ply su p p o rte d edges are o b ta in e d . An av erag e value, K — 8.1, is used
because o f th e re stra in in g effects o f the flanges a n d stiffeners. It is given th a t
E = 9,700.000 lb /in 2. S u b stitu tin g in Eq. (11.69) yields
'2 / 0 032V
K E\ = 8.1 x 9,700,000 x = 1260 lb /in 2
T he sh e a r stress is
V 10,000
= 19,500 ib /in 2
In ' 16 x 0.032
1 = 0.032
AN 430 AD 4 i in
I ' = 10,0001b AN 430 AD 5 <2 rivets)
/ „ = 0 .0 1 5 . in4
Figure 11.60
T h e w eb d e p th It is alw ays the d istan ce b etw een c e n tro id s o f th e flange areas,

ra th e r th a n th e d istan ce betw een riv et lines, w h en used in sh ea r stress o r
shear-flow calcu latio n s.
T h e effective stiffener a re a is c o m p u te d from E q. (11.92), since th e stiff
eners a re a tta c h e d to only o n e side o f (he w eb a n d are lo ad ed eccentrically.
T h e stiffener rad iu s o f g y ratio n is /i = J l j A = ^ /O .0 15/0.110 = 0.37 in. T he
stiffener eccen tricity is e = 0.40 + f/2 = 0.416 in. T h e effective stiffener area is
o b tain ed from E q. (11.92):
- A' = 1 + (0.416/0.37)2 = a ° 4 9 m 2
T h e ratio o f w eb a re a to effective stiffener a re a is
td 8 x 0.032
— = --------------= 5.22
Ae 0.049
T his ratio a n d t/ tw d eterm in e the stress d is trib u tio n in th e beam :
x_ _ 19^500 _
■ Tcr 1260
F ro m Fig. 11.57, k = 0.53, a n d from Fig. 11.58, ta n a = 0.79. F ro m Fig. 11.59,
the allow able w eb stress is r lv = 20,400 lb /in 2. T h e m a rg in o f safety for the
w eb in sh e a r is
W eb M S = — - 1= - 1 = 0.04
t 19,500
T h e vertical c o m p o n e n t o f th e w eb ten sio n a y is o b ta in e d as follows:
ay = xk tan a = 19,500 x 0.53 x 0.79 = 8160 lb /in 2
T h e stiffener co m p ressio n lo ad is o b ta in e d from E q. (11.93):
P = c y td = 8160 x 0.032 x 8 = 2090 lb
T h e load per inch in the w eb-flange rivets is
qr = V t 2 + o- 2 t = v/19,5002 + 81602 x 0.032 = 660 lb/in
T h e allo w ab le lo a d for o n e {-in A 17S-T riv et is 375 lb sh ear a n d 477 lb

bearin g on a 0.032 gage sheet, as o b ta in e d from A N C -5. F o r th e j-in spacing,
th e allow able rivet lo a d is 750 lb/in , as d e te rm in e d fro m th e sh ear stre n g th :
R ivet M S = sfo ~ 1 = 0.14

T he m ax im u m co m p ressio n stress in th e stiffener, resulting from the
eccentric co m p re ssio n lo ad , is o b tain ed fro m E q. (11.96):
2 0 9 0 ■= 19,200 lb /in 2
0.049 + 0.5(1 - 0.53) x 0.032 x 8
T his stress exists in the leg a tta c h e d to th e w eb a n d decreases to zero o r a

tension stress in th e o u ts ta n d in g leg. T h e allo w ab le stress is th e co m p ressio n
crip p lin g stress fo r a leg w ith b = 0.70, t = 0,051, o r b /t = 13.7, as c o m p u te d
by the m e th o d s o f Sec. 11.9. T h e allo w ab le crip p lin g stress is ap p ro x im a te ly
2 2 , 0 0 0 lb /in 2.
22,900
MS= I ^ - - 1 = 0 -15
T h e allo w ab le co m p ressio n stress in th e stiffener d e p en d s on m a n y fac

to rs a n d is on ly ro u g h ly a p p ro x im a te d here. T h e a tta c h e d leg of a stiffener
u sually is m a d e a t least o n e gage th ic k e r th a n th e w eb in o rd e r to p re v en t a
forced crip p lin g fro m the w eb w rinkles. Since th e o u ts ta n d in g leg is n o t
highly stressed in co m p ressio n , it supplies to rsio n a l rigidity, a n d the a tta c h e d
leg p ro b a b ly c a n b e assu m ed to have o n e side clam p e d a n d the o th e r side
free in c o m p u tin g th e crip p lin g stress.
T h e tw o riv ets c o n n ectin g th e stiffener to th e flange a re ^ - i n A 17S -T
rivets w ith a single sh e a r stre n g th o f 596 lb each. T h e y m u st tran sfer the
co m p ressio n lo a d in th e stiffener:
• p u = ac A e = 19,200 x 0.049 = 940 lb
T h e re m a in in g -p a rt o f the force P is resisted by co m p ressio n in the effective

sheet a n d is n o t tran sferred by the rivets. T h e m a rg in o f safety of th e tw o
stiffener-flange rivets is
M S 1- 0- 27
940
PROBLEM S
II.I A long column has an initial curvature defined by the equation y 0 —sin (nx/L). Derive an
equation for the additional deflection y by integrating Eq. (11.6). Show th at the center deflection <5 is
defined by
where Ptr is defined by Eq. (11.11). Compare values of t) + a from this equation to those obtained
from Eq. (11.14) for /7 P cr = 0.2,0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 0.95, and 1.00.
11.2 From the expressions Ra = 1 - KB and R„ = 1JB2 derive Eqs. (11.24) and (11.31) by equating
the slopes of the Lwo curves at their point of tangcncy. Find the coordinates of the point of tangency.
11.3 From the expressions R0 — 1 — KB 2 and R„ = 1/ Bz derive Eqs. (11.23) and (11.29) by equating
the slopes of the two curves at their point of tangency. Find the coordinates of the point of tangency.
11.4 Find the column loads which may be resisted by round steel tubes heat-treated to an ultim ate
tensile strength of 180,000 Ib/in2, with the ends welded before heat treatm ent. The dimensions are:
T u b e size L
1 x 0.05 20 2
l | x 0.049 20
x 0.065 40 1
l i x 0.05 30 2
H.5 Repeat Prob. 11.4 Tor steel heat-treated to an ultimate tensile strength of 150,000 ib/in2.
11.6 Repent Prob. 11.4 for steel heat-treated to an ultim ate tensile strength of 125,000 lb/in2.
11.7 The skin of the upper side of an airplane wing is made of 2024-T6 Alclad. The stringer spacing is
5 in, and the rib spacing is 20 inT Assuming the edges to be simply supported, find the compression
buckling stress for skin gages of [a] 0 .020, (6 ) 0.032, (c) 0.040, and (f/) 0 .0 0 4 in.
11-8 Repeat Prob. 11.7, assuming the values of K to be the average of values-for simply supported
edges and clamped edges.
11.9 Calculate points on the curve for m = 1 of Fig. 11.20 for values of ajb of 0.25, 0.33, 0 .5 , 1, 2, 3,
and 4. Calculate points on the curve for m = 2 for values of ajb of 0 .50, 0.66, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8. Note the
similarity between the two curves, and devise a system of coordinates which would show all the
curves of Fig. 11.20 as a single curve.
11.10 Calculate the compression buckling stress for a sheet with a = S in. /; = 4 in, and t = 0.156 in.
The tangent modulus column curve for the material is shown iri Fig. 11.29.
(«) Assume all four edges are simply supported.
(/>) Assume all four edges are clamped.
(c) Assume the ends are simply supported and the sides arc free.
11.U Solve Prob. 11.10, using a dimcnsionless buckling curve for n = 10. Assume E = 10,700,000
and = 3 7 ,0 0 0 lb/in2.
11.12 Find the buckling stress for a colum n with {a} bolU ends fwed. (ty both ends free, (c) one end
fixed and one end free.
11.13 Use the Rayleigh-Ritz method to find the buckling load for a column with both ends pinned.
11.14 The skin on a fuselage is supported by stringers which are spaced at 5 in and by rings spaced at
20 in. Assume E = 107 Ib/in2 and an average between simply supported and clampcd-edge condi
tions. Find the shear buckling stresses for the fiat sheet if (a) t = 0.020, (/?) l = 0.032, (c) i — 0.040, and
[cl) t = 0.064 in.
11.15 Plot the axial loads in the flanges and stifieners of a pure tension field beam similar to that
shown in Fig. 11.46 with h = 10 in, d = 10 in, and V = 10,000 lb. Compute the flange bending
moments and the load per inch on all rivets. Assume a == 45°.
11.16 Solve Example 11.5 by the Needham m ethod and the G erard method. Compare your results.
11.17 Solve Example 11.6 by the Needham m ethod and the G erard method. Compare your results.
CH A PTER
TWELVE
JOINTS A N D FITTINGS
A flight vehicle stru c tu re is m a n u factu red from m a n y p a rts. T h ese p a rts a re m a d e

from sheets, ex tru d e d sections, forgings, castings, tubes, o r m ach in ed sh ap es,
w hich m u s t be jo in e d to form su bassem blies. T h e su b assem b lies m u st th e n b e
jo in e d to form la rg e r assem blies an d th en finally assem bled in to a co m p lete flight
vehicle. M a n y p a rts o f th e com pleted vehicle m u st b e a rra n g e d so th a t th ey c a n
be d isassem b led for sh ipping, inspection, rep a ir, o r rep la c e m en t a n d are u su ally
jo in e d by bolts.
In o rd e r to facilitate assem bly a n d disassem bly, it is d esirab le for su ch c o n
nectio n s to c o n ta in as few b o lts as possible. F o r ex am p le, a se m im o n o co q u e
m etal w ing u su ally resists bending stresses in n u m e ro u s strin g e rs a n d sh eet el
em en ts d is trib u te d a ro u n d the p erip h e ry o f th e w ing c ro ss section. T h e w ing
c a n n o t be m a d e as o n e co n tin u o u s riv e ted assem bly fro m tip to tip, b u t u su ally
m u st be spliced a t tw o o r m o re cross sectio n s. O ften these splices are designed so
th a t fo u r b o lts tran sfe r all the loads a c ro ss th e splice. T h ese b o lts co n n ect m e m
bers called fittin g s , w hich are designed to resist the h ig h c o n c e n tra te d lo a d s a n d
to tran sfer th e m to th e sp ars, from -which th e lo ad s a re d is trib u te d to th e sh eet
a n d strin g ers. T h e en tire stru c tu re for tra n sfe rrin g th e d is trib u te d lo ad s fro m th e
sh eet a n d strin g e rs o u tb o a rd o f the splice to a c o n c e n tra te d lo a d a t th e fittin g a n d
then d is trib u tin g th is lo a d to the**sheeT*and strin g ers in b o a rd o f the splice is
co n sid erab ly h ea v ie r th a n th e c o n tin u o u s stru c tu re w h ich w o u ld be re q u ire d if
th ere w ere n o splice.
389
390 A IRCRAFT STRUCTURES
M a n y u n c e rta in tie s exist co ncern in g the stress d is trib u tio n in fittings. M a n u

facturing to leran ce s a re su ch th a t b o lts n e v er fit th e h o les perfectly, an d sm all
v a ria tio n s in d im en sio n s m ay affect th e stress d istrib u tio n . A n ad d itio n al m a rg in
^.âfetxo05j>eicenti6Linilita.ry airplanes and 20_]jercenTforaviTaiipIariSris
used in the design o f fittings. A co m m o n p ro c e d u re is to m u ltip ly the design lo a d s
by a fitting fa c to r o f 1.15 o r 1.20 before th e stresses a re calculated. T his fitting
factor m u st be u sed in d esigning the e n tire fitting, in c lu d in g th e riveted, bolted, o r
w elded jo in t a tta c h in g th e fittin g to th e stru c tu ra l m em b ers. T h e fitting facto r
need n o t be used in d esigning a c o n tin u o u s riv eted jo in t, a lth o u g h the stress
d istrib u tio n in su ch a jo in t-is also in d eterm in ate.
T he allo w ab le stresses fo r rivets a re ra th e r co n serv ativ e to ac co u n t for su ch
un certain ty .
12.2 BOLTED OR RIVETED JOINTS
B olted o r riv eted jo in ts m u st be in vestigated fo r fo u r types o f failure: b o lt o r rivet

shear, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.1; bearing, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.2; te ar-o u t, as sh o w n in
Fig. 12.3; a n d ten sio n , as sh o w n in Fig. 12.4. T h e tru e stress d istrib u tio n is ra th e r
com plex a n d is discussed later. It is c u sto m a ry to assum e a sim ple uniform o r
n s r
u n
i I
Jr-I rI f rl I I
ittr T± ± r
ih)
1
(/
uJ
Figure 12.1
JOINTS AND FITTINGS 391
average stress d is trib u tio n in all cases, a n d th e allo w ab le stresses w hich a re u se d

in design a re also a v e ra g e stresses w hich h a v e b een o b ta in e d fro m tests o f sim ila r
jo in ts :
I t is th e reforcjyogsible to p red ict the. stre n g U i_ o £ a jo in t w ith a n accuracy o f a
few p ercen t, a lth o u g h th e tru e m ax im u m stresses m ay b e 3 o r 4 tim es as m u c h as
the av erag e stresses. T he av erage stress for a n y o f th e fo u r ty p es o f failuTe is""'
<r = 7 (1 2 . 1 )
A
w here cr is the av erag e stress, P is the lo ad , an d A is th e a re a of the cross scctio n

on w hich failure m ay o ccu r. T h e m argin o f safety (M S) is fo u n d from
MS = — — 1 (12.2)
a
w here er„ is the allo w a b le stress an d th e stress a is o b ta in e d from the lo a d P,

w hich includes the safety facto r of 1.5 a n d usu ally th e fittin g fac to r of 1.15 o r 1.2
as well. If this fitting fa c to r is included in th e stress <r, the m a rg in o f safety sh o u ld
be zero o r a sm all p o sitiv e value. S om e designers m ay n o t include th e fittin g
facto r in the stress a, a n d th u s they m u st show a m in im u m m arg in o f safety of
0.15 o r 0.20 from E q. (12.2). In any analysis, it sh o u ld be clearly sta ted w h e th er
th e fitting facto r is in clu d ed in th(Tlim fg irr'o f"safety . _T he sym bol aa alw ays
7 e p ^ e n !s ^ n ^ d w lS B IO tre s s ,'T ri3 ~ tlre * s y m b o l a re p resen ts a calculated stress. A
su b scrip t is u sed to d e sig n ate th e type o f stress; th a t is, xa a n d t are sh e arin g
stresses, a„hr an d a hr a re b earin g stresses, cr„, an d <x, a re tensile stresses, aac a n d c rc
are co m p ressio n stresses, a n d o ab and cr,, a re b en d in g stresses.
P lb/rivet
(«)
Figure 12.4
F o r investigatin g th e sh e a r stre n g th o f a b o lt o r rivet, th e a re a to be used in

E q. (12.1) is th e a re a o f th e b o lt o r riv et cross section, o r A = n d 2/4 , w here d is the
d ia m e te r o f th e b o lt o r rivet. See Fig. 12.1. T h e sh e a rin g stress is th e n o b ta in e d
from Eq. (12.1):
4P
t = - ; (12.3)
nd2
In Figs. 12.1 th ro u g h 12.4, th e b o lt is sh o w n to be in single sh ea r and one p late is

assum ed to be rigid in bending, so th a t th e forces o n th e th in p la te are in static
e quilibrium . H en ce th e b o lt w o u ld resist a b e n d in g m o m e n t P t/2 a t the cro ss
section sub jected to shear. It is sh o w n la te r th a t this b e n d in g m o m en t on the b o lt
does n o t exist in m o st a c tu a l sin g le-sh ear co n n ec tio n s, a n d it is c u sto m ary to
disreg ard this b o lt b en d in g m o m e n t w hen th e tw o p la tes a re clam ped to g e th e r by
the bolt. W h en a w ash er o r a filler p late is u sed b etw een th e tw o stressed plates,
the b o lt b e n d in g m u st be considered.
T l^ b e a r in g f a i lu r e of a riv eted o r b o lte d jo in t u s u a lly consists of a n elo n g a
tion o f the h o le in the plate, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.2a. T h e allo w ab le b earin g stress
usually d ep en d s o n th e perm issible e lo n g a tio n o f th e hole. F o r riveted jo in ts, the
allow able b e arin g stress is d eterm in e d by a rb itra rily specifying a hole e lo n g atio n
eq u al to a c e rta in percen tag e of th e rivet d iam eter. T h e b ea rin g failure is so m e
w h at sim ilar to th e te a r-o u t failure sh o w n in Fig. 12.3, a n d th e allow able bearing
stress fo r rivets is red u ced w hen th e rivets a re to o close to th e edge o f th e sheet.
T h e b e a rin g stress is assu m ed to be u n ifo rm ly d is trib u te d o v e r an a re a A = td, as
show n in Fig. 12.2. By' su b stitu tin g this a re a in to E q. (12.1), th e eq u a tio n for the
assu m ed averag e b e a rin g stress is o b ta in e d :
' (12-4)
B olt h oles alw ays m u st be slightly la rg e r th a n th e b o lt d ia m e tc rJT the jo in t is

subjecTecTto sh o c k o r v ib ra tio n a l lo ad in g , a s in a la n d in g -g e a r m em ber, there is a
m u ch g reater ten d en c y for a b o lt hole to e lo n g a te th a n w h e n th e jo in t resists only
sta tic lo ad in g . Sim ilarly, w h en relative ro ta tio n o f th e tw o p a rts occurs, the b o lt
h ole is m o re likely to b eco m e en larg ed . In su c h cases, th e b earin g stress ifiust be
low in o rd e r to p rev en t freq u en t re p la c e m en t o f th e b o lt o r th e hole b u sh in g. T h e
licensing a gencies th erefore sp ecify th a t a b e a rin g fac to r o f 2 . 0 o r m o re be uscci in
o b ta in in g th e b e a rin g stjress_when a jb o lte d jo in t is su b jec t to relative ro ta tio n
u n d e r design lo ad s o r to sh o c k o r v ib ra tio n loads. T his b e a rin g facto r is used in
place o f th e 'fittfn g factor, not in a d d itio n to th e fitting facto r.
A te a r-o u t failure of a bo lt o r riv et h o le is sh o w n in Fig. 12.3. T h e p la te
m aterial fails in sh e ar o n th e a reas A = 2 x t, a n d th e te a r-o u t stress is fo u n d from
(12-5)
T h e d istan ce .\ is o b ta in e d as len g th ab in Fig. 12.3, b u t it is conservative to use

length cd, w hich is easier to calculate. It is seld o m n ecessary , to calculate th e

tear-o u t stresses fo r riveted jo in ts in a sh eet o f the ty p e sh o w n in Fig. 12.4. E xam
practical c o n sid era tio n s, it is desirable to je e e p th e d ista n ce fro m th e c e n te r.o f th e
- f y ' W rivets to th e e d g c ^ T T fie ~ s h c e t equal to a t least .twp,. d iam ete rs of the rivet, a n d
' tR c re iS 'n o d a n g e r o f tc a r-o u t w ith this edge d istan ce. ......... .....
A riveted o r b o lte d jo in t m ust be inv estig ated for a p o ssib le tension failure
th ro u g h the b o lt o r rivet holes, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.4. T h e tension stress is
assum ed to be un ifo rm ly d istrib u ted over th e a re a A = (co — d)t for the b o lted
fitting show n in Fig. 12.4a.
= ^ (1 1 6 )
F o r the riveted jo in t sh o w n in Fig. 12.4/;, the ten sio n stress is
(s - d)t (11?)
w here P = load pcr rivet

s = rivet sp a c in g
d = rivet d ia m e te r
t = sheet th ick n css
E xam ple 12.1 T h e fitting show n in Fig. 12.5 is m a d e o f a 1014 alu m in u m

forging, for w h ich a M = 65,000, xa = 39,000, a n d <rabr = 98,0.00 lb /in 2. T he b o lt
a n d b u sh in g arc m a d e of steel for w h ich a M = 125,000, = 75,000, a n d
a abr = 175,000 lb /in 2. T h e fitting resists lim it o r a p p lie d lo a d s o f 15,000-lb
c o m p ressio n -an d 12,000-lb tension. A fittin g fac to r o f 1.2 a n d a b earin g fa cto r
o f 2.0 a re used. F in d th e m argins o f safety for th e fittin g for various types o f
failure.
0 .5 ( 0 5 f r " n
15,000 lb 1
com pression l
j I
!
12.000 Ib 1
tcm iu n t 1
■ LO J
Figure 12.5
S o l u t i o n T h e design o r u ltim a te fitting lo ad s a re o b ta in e d by m ultip ly in g

the lo a d s given b y a safety facto r o f 1.5 a n d a fitting fa c to r o f 1.2:
D esign fitting lo a d s:
15.000 x 1.5 x 1.2 = 27,000 lb co m p ressio n
12.000 x 1,5 x 1.2 = 21,600 lb tension
T h e b e a rin g o f th e b o lt o n th e b u sh in g is in v estig ated by using th e b earin g

facto r o f 2 . 0 in place o f th e fitting fac to r o f 1 .2 : ‘
D esign b e a rin g lo a d s:
15.000 x 1.5 x 2.0 = 45,000 lb co m p ressio n
12.000 x 1.5 x 2.0 = 36,000 lb ten sio n
T h e b o lt is in d o u b le sh e a r; th erefore o n e-h a lf o f th e 27,000-lb lo ad m u st be

resisted b y e a c h cro ss sectio n o f th e b o lt in sh ear. F ro m Eqs. (12.3) a n d (12.2):
4 x 13,500 ,
T = _ 7r(0.5p ~i ’ /ln
and MS = — 1 = 0.09 includes fittin g factor

68,600
T he b e a rin g stress also is calcu lated from the la rg e r o f th e ioads for tension
a n d co m p ressio n . F ro m Eqs. (12.4) an d (12.2), th e b e a rin g o f the b o lt o n the
b u sh in g is in v estig ated :
'>' = d § T 5 3 - lw )0 0 lb /i“’
MS = _ j — o,09 includes b earin g factor

160,000
F o r b e a rin g o f the b u sh in g on th e forging, o n e need only use the fitting
factor, becau se th e b u sh in g fits tigh tly in th e h o le:
a = ------ --------------- = 76,800 lb /in 2

br 0.5625 x 0.625 '
MS = — 1 = 0.29 includes fittin g factor

76,800
T he te a r-o u t o f th e b o lt hole is in v estig ated first by a ssu m in g th a t the length

x show n in F ig. 12.3 is eq u al to cd ra th e r th a n ab:
cd = 0.70 + 0.125 - 0.3125 = 0.5125 in
T h e ten sio n lo ad m ust b e used in c alc u latin g the tc a r-o u t stress, since the
co m p ressio n lo ad p ro d u ce s no stress o n this cross sectio n . F ro m Eqs. (12.5)
sin2 40° - c o s 40°
Figure 12.6
and ( 1 2 .2 ),
21,600
= 37,400 lb /in 2
2 x 0.5125 x 0.5625
39,000
and includes fittin g facto r
MS = ^ - 1 = ° - 0 4
A m o re a c c u n ite value o f (he d istance x m ay be c a lc u lated from th e e q u a tio n

given in Fig. 12.6. T h e term in b ra c k e ts m ay be p lo tte d fo r v ario u s v alues o f
r/R in o rd e r to red u c e th e la b o r o f th e calc u latio n s, w h ere it is n ecessary to
re p eat such c alc u la tio n s frequently. F o r /? = 0.7, r = 0.3125, B = 0.125, a n d
x = 0.562,
21,600
34,000 lb /in 2
2 x 0.562 x 0.5025
39,000
an d MS = 0.14 includes fittin g facto r
34,200
T h e ten sio n stress th ro u g h the b o lt h o le is o b ta in e d fro m Eq. (12.6):
21,600
= 49,600 lb /in 2
(1.4 - 0.625)0.5625
65,000
MS = - 1 — 0.13 includes fittin g facto r
49,600
12.3 ACCURACY OF FITTING ANALYSIS
T h e u ltim ate stre n g th o f a fitting usually m ay be calc u la tc d accurately by th e

m eth o d s previou sly described. T ru e stress d istrib u tio n a t stresses below the elas
tic lim it often is m u c h different from th e assu m ed d istrib u tio n . B efore th e
ultim ate stren g th o f the fitting is reached, how ever, th e m a te ria l yields a n d th e
stresses are red istrib u te d so th a t they u su ally a p p ro a c h th e assum ed stress dis
trib u tio n . B ecause o f this plastic yielding o f th e m a te ria l a n d because the allo w
able sh e a r a n d b e a rin g stresses are o b ta in e d from tests o n specim ens sim ilar to
those in the actu a l s tru c tu re , it is p ossible to achieve a c c u ra te calcu lated stre n g th s
by m eans o f in a c c u ra te assu m p tio n s. W hile th e c o n v e n tio n a l m eth o d s are satis-
factory for m ak in g design calc u la tio n s for fittings, th e d esig n er m u st keep in m in d

the tru e stress d is trib u tio n a n d m u st a v o id c o n d itio n s o f high local stress w her
ever possible.
O n e very c o m m o n case of stress c o n c e n tra tio n , sh o w n in Fig. 12.7, is th a t o f
a tension plate c o n ta in in g a c irc u la r hole. F o r sm all lo ad s, th e tensile stress at the
side o f th e hole is 3 tim es th e av erage tensile stress in th e plate, as ind icated by
line 1. As the lo ad s increase, th e s t r e s s a t t]ae_sidejojLih.e .u Q le x x c e ^ isJie ^ e la stic
limit, a n d lo r a r^ T a s tic y ielding o f th e m a te ria l jj c c u r s j je a r th e h o ig /T h e stresses
near th e "Hole rem ain a lm o st c o n sta n t a t the yield p o in t, w hile the stresses a t a
distance from the hole increase w ith the lo ad , as in d icated by line 2. Before failure
occurs, yielding h a s p ro g ressed o v er th e e n tire w id th o f th e plate, and the stress is
c o n sta n t over the n et section, as sh o w n by cu rv e 3. T h u s th e cu sto m ary assu m p
tion th a t failure occu rs a t a lo a d eq u al to the p ro d u c t o f th e ultim ate tensile stress
an d the n et a re a is a cc u ra te for d u ctile m ate rials. B rittle m aterials, w hich fail
su ddenly w ith no p lastic elo n g atio n , sh o u ld n e v e r be u sed for aircraft stru c tu ra l
m em bers.
Stress c o n c e n tra tio n s a re m uch m o re serio u s in eng in e p arts on w hich the
lo ads a re rep eated m illions o f tim es th a n in airfram e p a rts o n w hich the m axi
m um lo ad s o ccur only a few tim es d u rin g th e life o f th e airplane. In airfram e
design, usually it is safe to c o n sid er only av erag e stresses a n d to neglcct stress
co n cen tratio n s, a lth o u g h c ertain u n fa v o rab le c o n d itio n s, su ch as rad ial crack in g
of sheet a ro u n d holes w hen the holes a re p re ss-c o u n te rsu n k , m ay lead to service
failures from stress co n c e n tra tio n s.
T h e d o u b le-sh e ar co n n e c tio n sh o w n in Fig. 12.8 is assu m ed to resist o n e-h alf
JOINTS AND FITTINGS 3 9 7
the load by sh e a r o n caeh b o lt cro ss scction. M a n u fa c tu rin g tolerances m ay

p erm it th e hole in the lo w er lug to be slightly to th e left o f th e hole in the u p p e r
lug, as show n. F o r sm all loads, then, the en tire lo a d is resisted by sh ear o n the
u p p er cross section. As th e lo ad is increased, the p a rts deflect so th a t the low er
end of the b o lt is also b earin g on the lug, b u t th e u p p e r lu g co n tin u es to resist
m ore th a n o n e-h alf the load. T h e fitting facto r is in te n d ed to acco u n t fo r su ch
ecccntric lo ad in g c o n d itio n s ; in this case, the use o f a fittin g facto r o f 1 . 2 is
eq u iv alen t to the a ss u m p tio n th a t o n e side o f the fittin g m a y resist 60 p ercen t o f
the total u ltim ate load.
M o st of the b o lted a n d riveted jo in ts in a ircraft stru c tu re s are single-shear
jo in ts. F o r the jo in ts sh o w n in Figs. 12.1 a n d 12.2, w e assu m e th a t one m em b er is
rigid, an d only the forces actin g o n th e o th e r m em b e r a re considered. F o r this
assum ed loading, th e b o lt resists a b en d in g m o m e n t o f P t/2 a n d the h eavy
m em ber resists a larg er b en d in g m o m en t. T h e usu al sin g le-sh ear jo in t has b o th
m em bers o f c o m p a ra b le size. A t first it m ig h t a p p e a r th a t e ach o f the m em b ers
show n in Fig. 12.9 c o u ld be treated in the sa m e m a n n e r as th e u p p er m em b er o f
Fig. 12.2b. In fact, m a n y te x tb o o k s sh o w th e forces as in Fig. 12.9, a n d this
assum ed stress d is trib u tio n is cu sto m a ry a n d satisfacto ry fo r design. T he forces
show n in Fig. 12.9 c a n n o t be in eq u ilib riu m , how ever, b e c a u se th ere is an u n b a l
anced m o m e n t Pt o n th e plates in Fig. 12.9a a n d a sim ilar u n b alan c ed m o m en t
on th e pin in Fig. 12,95. T h e c o rrect stress d istrib u tio n m u s t be as show n in Fig.
12.10. F o r the forces P to balance, they m u st act o n th e sam e line, as sh o w n in
Fig. 12.10a. T h e stresses in the p late a re n o lo n g e r P /A , b u t m u s t also in clu d e
stresses from th e b e n d in g m o m e n t P t/2. If th e p la te w id th is b, th e p late stress is
P /A ± M y /1 :
P Pi 6 P 3P
a = bt± ^ 2 b ? =Bbi± Tt ( 1 2 ‘8 )
A t the inside faces o f th e p lates, the tensile stress from E q. (12.8) is AP/A, a n d at
the o u tsid e faces the com p rcssiv e stress is 2 P /A , as show n.
In o rd e r for the p in to b e in eq u ilib riu m u n d e r th e b e a rin g stresses, it m u st
b e a r o n o p p o site c o m e rs o f the hole, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.106. T h e m o st o p ti
m istic a ssu m p tio n o f b ea rin g stresses is th e straig h t-lin e a ssu m p tio n sh o w n in
Fig. 12.10c, w hich yields m ax im u m b e a rin g stresses 4 P fttb ) a t th e inside c o rn e r
an d 2P /(tb) a t th e o u ts id e corners. If th e p in do es n o t fit tig h t in th e hole, th e
Figure 12.10
b earin g stresses m u st be h ig h er th a n those assu m ed . T h u s, fo r the single-shear p in

jo in t betw een p la te s o f eq ual thickness, the m ax im u m p la te ten sio n stresses a n d
the b earin g stresses a re b o th 4 tim es th e v alues assu m ed in Figs. 12.2 a n d 12.9.
T h e b en d in g m o m e n t in th e p in o f Fig. 12.10 is ze ro a t th e cross section of
m ax im u m shear, a n d th e m ax im u m p in b en d in g m o m e n t is ^ P t a t a cross
section a distance t/ 3 from th e inside of th e plates.
T h e u ltim ate stre n g th o f co n v en tio n a l riveted a n d b o lte d jo in ts ap p ro a ch e s
th a t assum ed in th e o rig in al sim ple analysis, becau se o f th e clam ping a ctio n of
th e rivet h eads o r b o lt heads. F o r a riveted jo in t b etw een tw o sheets in tension,
the b e n d in g a n d ten sio n stresses in the sheets ex ceed th e elastic lim it, a n d th e
sheets deform as sh o w n in Fig. 12.11. T h e tw o forces P a re alm o st in th e center
p lan e o f the sheets, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.11a, as th e u ltim a te stren g th is a p
p ro ach ed . T h e m o m e n t P t o f th e b earin g forces o n th e riv e t is b alan ced by th e
m o m en t o f clam p in g forces u n d e r th e h e ad o f th e rivet, as show n in Fig. 12.116.
T hese forces on th e rivet h ead have a m o m e n t a rm D w h ich is slightly less th a n
the d iam eter o f the riv et head. T he b en d in g m o m e n t in th e rivet sh a n k varies
from P f/2 a t each en d o f th e sh an k to 0 a t the p lan e o f riv et shear. A fter plastic
W> F igure 12.11

yielding has progressed in th e sheet, th e b e n d in g stresses sh o w n in Fig. 12.10a a re

elim inated, and (he sh eet is in alm o st u n ifo rm ten sio n a t all p o in ts. T h e a n g u la r
chan ge in the sh ee t is a rc ta n (t/D), as sh ow n in F ig . 12.11c, a n d the force ex erted
b y the riv et head o n th e sh eet is ju s t sufficient to keep th e re s u lta n t tension in th e
ccntcr p la n e o f the sheet. T h e forcc tria n g le a t the b e n d in th e sheet is rep resen ted
by Fig. 12.11 it. T h e an gular chnngc in th e sheet is ex agg erated in Fig. 12.11 F o r a
rivet sh a n k d ia m e te r o f 4 tim es th e sh eet th ick n ess a n d a riv et h e a d d iam eter D o f
tw icc th e sh a n k d iam eter, th e angle is a rc ta n {t/D) o r a rc ta n ■§■.
W here a ten sio n jo in t has tw o lines o f rivets, th e d e fo rm a tio n is as sh o w n in
Fig. 12.12. If th e te n sio n stresses in th e sh eet w ere u n ifo rm a t all points, th e sh eet
w ould deform as sh o w n in Fig. 12.12u. B etw een th e riv e t lines, how ever, th e
sheets h av e o n ly o n e -h a lf th e av erage tensile stress th a t th e y have a t the en d s a n d
therefore m ay resist th e b en d in g d e fo rm a tio n a n d assu m e th e deform ed sh a p e
show n in Fig. 12.126. T h e forces o n th e rivets will re m a in a p p ro x im ately as
show n ill Fig. 12.116, since th e clam p in g forces on th e riv e t h e a d m ust b a la n c e
the m o m e n t o f th e b e a rin g forces.
A ny riv eted o r b o lte d single-shear jo in t will h av e stress con d itio n s w h ich
vary b etw een th e e x trem e co n d itio n s o f Fig. 12.10 a n d 12.11. A t low loads, th e
sheet m u st resisl b en d in g stresses, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.10; b u t as local y ield in g
occurs, th e stresses a rc red istrib u ted so th a t they a p p ro a c h th e co n d itio n s o f F ig.
12.11. T h e u ltim a te stre n g th is p red icted accu rate ly from a n assum ed a v erag e
tension stress in th e sh e et and an av erag e b earin g stress o n th e bolt o r riv et.
M a n y types o f “ b lin d ” rivets o r o f c o u n te rsu n k rivets d o n o t p ro v id e a sufficient
a m o u n t o f clam p in g a c tio n by the rivet h e a d , a n d stre n g th calculations b a se d o n
sim ple stress d is trib u tio n s m u st be verified by tests.
It is in terestin g to c o m p a re the a c tio n of' a ircraft riv ets with the action o f
h o t-d riv en steel rivets, su ch as th o se used in bridges, buildings, boilers, a n d
o th e r steel stru ctu res. T h e steel rivet is u p set w hen re d -h o t a n d cools a n d c o n
tra c ts in placc. T h e c o n tra c tio n m akes th e rivet slightly sm aller in diam eter th a n
the hole an d p rov id es a residual tension stress in the rivet a p p ro x im ately eq u al to
the yield stress of th e rivet m aterial. T h e riv et ten sio n clam p s th e plates so tig h tly
th a t sm all lo ad s a re resisted b y friction b etw een th e p lates, a n d the rivet sh a n k
bears on th e hole o n ly a t higher lo ad s. T h is ten sio n d o es n o t exist in a irc ra ft
rivets, w hich a re d riv en at room tem p eratu res.
It is c o m m o n aircraft practice to a ssu m e th e sam e a llo w ab le b earing stresses
for single-shear jo in ts a n d th e d o u b le -sh e ar jo in ts o f th e ty p e sh o w n in Fig. 12.5.

T h e co m m o n p ra c tic e in bridge o r stru c tu ra l steel design is to use hig h er allow
ab le b earin g stresses for jo in ts in d o u b le sh ear. T h is p ra c tic e is logical, since th e
eccentric d is trib u tio n s, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.10, a re elim in ated in d o u b le-sh ear
jo in ts.
W h en several sim ila r rivets o r b o lls a c t to g e th e r in a jo in t, it is cu sto m ary to
assum e th a t each riv et o r b o lt carries a p ro p o rtio n a te sh a re o f th e load. T his
a ssu m p tio n is very in ac c c u rate w hen the jo i n t is n o t highly stressed; b u t is m o re
a ccu rate as th e lo a d s a p p ro a c h the u ltim ate stre n g th o f th e jo in t an d local plastic
yielding an d rivet “ slip ” "have occurred. In Fig. 12.13 th e d efo rm atio n s of tb s
v ario u s rivets in a d o u b le -sh e ar jo in t are ex ag g erated in o rd e r to show the
relative m o tio n b etw een th e p lates, alth o u g h th e a c tu a l p la te s w ould be in close
c o n ta c t an d the a c tu a l d efo rm a tio n w o u ld co n sist o f h o le e lo n g atio n s as well as
rivet sh ear d efo rm atio n s. It is assu m ed th a t th e tw o o u tsid e p la tes have the sam e
total area A as the inside p la te a n d th a t th e av erag e stress in all plates is p = P /A .
If each of th e five rivets tran sfers one-fifth to th e to ta l lo a d , as co m m only a s
sum ed, stresses in th e v a rio u s plates betw een rivets will be 0.2p, QAp, 0.6p, an d
0.8p, as sho w n in F ig. 12.13. Betw een rivets 1 a n d 2, th e o u tsid e p lates resist
tensile stresses o f 0.8p, an d the inside p late resists a tensile stress o f 0.2p; there
fore, th e o u tsid e p late s m u st elo n g ate 4 tim es as m u ch as th e inside plate. Thus,
rivet 1 m u st be d efo rm ed m u ch m o re th a n riv et 2 a n d m u s t resist a h igher shear.
B etw een rivet 2 a n d rivet 3, th e o u tsid e p lates h av e 1.5 tim es the stress a n d
d efo rm atio n o f th e inside p la te ; therefore, riv e t 2 m u s t resist m o re lo ad th a n riv et
■3. S tu d y o f o th e r d efo rm a tio n s show s th a t th e en d rivets 1 a n d 5 a re equally
stressed a n d m u s t resist m u ch h ig h er sh ears th a n th e o th e r rivets. R ivets 2 an d 4
a re eq u ally stressed a n d resist h ig h er sh ears th a n riv et 3.
In th e case o f a lo n g e r line of b o lts o r riv ets th a n th a t sh o w n in Fig. 12.13, the
end b o lts o r riv ets a re still m o re highly stressed relativ e to th e bolts a n d rivets
n e a r the c en te r o f th e line. As th e load is a p p lie d g ra d u a lly , first th e tw o end
rivets m u st resist m o st o f th e lo ad , until they slip o r yield in sh e arin g an d bearing.
T h en the lo ad is tran sferre d to th e next rivets in th e line, u n til they also slip an d
transfer lo a d to o th e r rivets. T h e u ltim a te stre n g th o f th e jo in t is accu rately
p red icted as th e su m o f th e stre n g th s o f th e in d iv id u al rivets, pro v id ed th'cre is
en o u g h du ctility to p e rm it each rivet to slip c o n sid e ra b ly a n d y et still retain its
m ax im u m s tre n g th a fter slipping. It is d esirab le, how ever, to vary the p late areas
in o rd e r to o b ta in a p p ro x im ate ly c o n sta n t ten sio n stresses in th e plates a n d th u s
d istrib u te sm all lo a d s m o re eq u ally to all th e rivets o r bolts. B olted o r riveted
jo in ts in b rittle m a te ria ls a rc u n d esirab le , since th e end b o lts m ay fail before they
p o.Rp o.ft/’ o.-i/> o.:/’
0.2 P 0.4/* 0 .UP O.R/*

T
P Figure 12.13
O O
O O
I R Figure 12.14
deform en o u g h to re d istrib u te the load, an d th en each b o lt in the line will fail in

tu rn . S om e sp o t w elds d o n o t have en o u g h d u ctility to b e satisfactory fo r th is
type of loading, a n d occasio n al rivets are used in m o st lines o f sp o t welds so th a t
a progressive failure will n o t extend p a st the rivet.
12.4 E C C E N T R I C A L L Y L O A D E D C O N N E C T IO N S
In m an y co n n ectio n s, (he resu ltan t force d o cs n o t act th ro u g h the center o f th e

b o lt o r rivet g ro u p . In such cases, it is u su ally co n v en ie n t to su p erim p o se th e
eflccts o f an eq u a l p arallel force acting a t th e c en te r o f th e rivet g ro u p a n d a
m o m en t a b o u t th e c e n te r w hich is eq u a l to the p ro d u c t o f the force a n d its
distance from th e cen te r. T h e rivet forces in th e typical c o n n e c tio n show n in Fig.
12.14 m ay be o b ta in e d by su p erim p o sin g th e forces fo r th e co n cen tric lo ad in g o f
Fig. 12.15a an d for th e m o m en t Re, sh o w n in Fig. 12.156.
F irst we a ssu m e th a t all the rivets a re critical in single sh ear an d th a t all
A'r.i
\
Figure 12.15
p lates a re rigid. F o r the co n cen tric lo a d sh o w n in Fig. 12.15a, th e shearin g

stresses o n all rivets a re assu m ed equ al. T h e force P c o n a n y riv et resu ltin g from
th e co n cen tric lo a d is
. „ RA
(12.9)
w here A is th e a re a o f th e riv et cross sectio n a n d Z A is th e to ta l cro ss-sectio n al

a re a o f all th e rivets in th e g ro u p . F o r a rivet g ro u p o f n rivets o f eq u al area, Eq.
(12.9) reduces to th e follow ing form :
R
Pc = - (12.10)
T h e re su lta n t o f the forces o n th e in d iv id u al rivets passes th ro u g h th e c en tro id o f

th e areas o f th e riv et cro ss sectio n s; hence th is p o in t m u s t b e used as th e cen ter o f
m o m en ts fo r th e riv et g ro u p .
W h en th e riv ets resist a m o m en t, th e sh e a rin g stresses a re assu m ed to b e
p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d istan c e r from the c e n tro id o f the riv et areas. T h e force P c
on an y rivet o f a re a A re su ltin g from this m o m e n t is
Pe = K rA (12.11)
T h e c o n sta n t K is o b ta in e d by eq u atin g th e sum o f th e m o m e n ts o f th e in d ividual

rivet forces to the ex te rn a l m o m e n t:
M — Z P cr = K Z r 2A (12.12)
T h e c o n sta n t K m ay be elim in ated from E q. (12.11) a n d (12.12) a n d the force P c

o b ta in e d :
(m 3 )
E q u a tio n (12.13) is sim ilar in form to th e c o m m o n eq u a tio n s for b en d in g o r
torsion.
T h e re su lta n t force P o n an y rivet can b e d eterm in ed now from th e co m
p o n e n t forces P c a n d P e , as sh o w n in Fig. 12.15c. W hen an algebraic so lu tio n is
desired, u sually it is m o re co n v en ie n t to o b ta in th e h o riz o n ta l an d vertical co m
p o n en ts o f the riv et forces. T h e distan ce r does n o t need to be calcu lated if th e
c o o rd in ates x a n d y a re used. F ro m Fig. 12.16 an d Eq. (12.13), th e follow ing
eq u atio n s for th e c o m p o n e n ts P rx a n d Pn . a re o b ta in e d :
P = ......~ M >’A P = ____ _________ f l 2 141

“ Z x 2A + Z y 2A '* Z x 2A + Z y 2A { J
T h e m e th o d o f an aly sis for an ecccntric co n n ectio n , like m eth o d s o f analysis

for several o th e r types o f fittings, m u st be co n sidered o n ly as a ro u g h a p p ro x i
m atio n . W h ere b e a rin g stresses are critical in th e design o f th e bolts o r rivets, it is
c u sto m ary to s u b s titu te Pa, th e allow able b earin g lo ad for e a c h bolt o r rivet, in to
E qs. (12.13) a n d (12.14) in place of the sh e a r area A. Tn so m e cases, it m a y be

assum ed th a t the lo ad s on all bolts o r rivets a p p ro a c h th e ir u ltim ate stre n g th s,
ra th e r th a n th a t the lo ad s a re p ro p o rtio n a l to r o r th a t b o lts o r rivets n e a r the
c en te r a re n o t highly stressed. F req u en tly b o lts o r rivets a re a tta c h e d to m em b e rs
w hich a re m o re rigid in o n e direction th a n a n o th e r. If th e su p p o rtin g s tru c tu re is
rigid h o riz o n ta lly b u t flexible vertically, for exam ple, it m a y be assum ed th a t an
app lied m o m e n t is resisted b y h o riz o n ta l riv et o r b o lt forces, ra th e r th a n by
forces p e rp e n d ic u la r to the rad ial line. W h e re b o th s ta n d a rd b o lts an d riv ets are
used in th e sam e co n n ectio n , it is n ecessary to design th e con n ectio n so th a t
eith er th e rivets alo n e o r the b o lts alo n e c a n resist th e to ta l load. Rivets fill th e
holes com pletely, b u t b o lts m u st be slightly sm aller th a n th e holes; c o n seq u en tly ,
b olts resist n o loads un til rivets slip en o u g h to be perm anently, dam aged. C lo se-
tolcrance, drive-fit b o lts are occasionally used w ith riv ets, a n d each m a y be
assum ed to resist a p ro p o rtio n a te sh are o f th e load.
E x am p le 12.2 F in d th e re su ltan t force o n each rivet o f th e co n n ectio n sh o w n

in Fig. 12.17. A lso find the m argin o f safety o f th e m o s t highly stressed rivet.
All rivets a rc ^ - i n - O D alu m in u m a llo y in single sh ear, a n d the sheet is 0.051
gage 1024 a lu m in u m A lclad.
S o l u t i o n T h e riv et load s are calc u lated in T a b ic 12.1. T h e cen tro id is d e te r

m ined by inspectio n , an d values o f x, x 2, y, an d y 2 a re ta b u la te d in c o lu m n s 2
to 5, respectively. T h e riv et forces P cx a n d P cy are o b ta in e d by div id in g the
lo a d s o f 1800 an d 300 lb by 6, since these loads are resisted equally b y each
T ab le 12.1 A nalysis o f riveted connection
Rivel .V i’ x2 P ., P, p', P
(i) (2 ) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) ( 10) ( ii) ( 12 )
i -1 1.5 1 2.25 300 -12 0 180 50 -8 0 -3 0 183

2 1 1.5 1 2.25 300 -12 0 180 50 80 130 221
3 -1 0 1 0 300 0 300 50 -8 0 -3 0 302
4 1 0 1 0 300 0 300 50 SO 130 327
5 -I - 1 .5 1 2.25 120 420 50 -8 0 -3 0 422
6 1 - 1 .5 1 2.25 300 120 420 50 80 130 440
Z 6 9.00
■ r ^
40 4 a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e s
Figure 12.17
o f the six rivets. T h e values o f P ex an d P CJ a re found fro m E qs. (12.14). Since

A is the sam e for ali rivets, th e v alues o f A m ay be o m itte d from Eqs. (12.14).
T h e m o m en t M is 1200 in • lb. T h e v alues Px an d P y are e ach o b ta in e d as the
sum of the term s in the tw o p receding colum ns, w ith ca re being ta k en w ith
regard to the alg e b ra ic signs. T he resu lta n t rivet forces P are found as the
sq u are ro o t of th e sum o f the sq u ares of th e re c ta n g u la r co m p o n e n ts Px
a n d Py .
T h e allo w ab le lo a d for the riv et is o b ta in e d fro m M IL H D B K -5 as
593 lb. R ivet 6 resists th e g reatest lo ad , 440 lb. T h e m a rg in of safety is
o b ta in e d from these lo ad s :
593
M S= 4 i0 - 1 = a35 '
It has been assum ed th a t th e lo ad s o f 1800 an d 300 lb w ere design fitting
loads, o r th a t they w ere o b ta in e d by m u ltip ly in g the ap p lied o r lim it lo ad s by
the safety facto r o f 1.5 a n d the fitting facto r o f 1.2 o r 1.15.
12.5 W ELD ED JO IN T S
W elding is used extensively for stecl-tu b e tru ss stru c tu re s, su ch as engine m o u n ts

and fuselages, a n d fo r steel lan d in g gears an d fittings. T h e m o st c o m m o n 'ty p e of
w elding consists o f h e a tin g th e p a rts to be jo in e d by m ean s o f a n oxyacetylene
to rch a n d th en u sing th em to g eth er w ith a su itab le w elding ro d . T h e grain
stru c tu re o f th e m a te ria l at th e w eld becom es sim ilar to th a t o f c a st m etal, a n d it
is m o re b rittle a n d less ab le to resist shocfi a n d v ib ra tio n lo a d in g th a n is the
original m aterial. A ircraft tu b e walls, a re th in a n d m o re difficult to weld th a n
o th e r m achine a n d s tru c tu ra l m em bers. All a irc ra ft w elding w as prev io u sly to rch
w elding, b u t electric a rc w elding h as been dev elo p ed so th a t it is also satisfactory
for the th in aircraft m em b ers. In a rc w elding, th e w elding ro d form s an electrode
from w hich c u rre n t passes in a n a rc to th e p a rts being jo in e d . T he-electric arc
sim ultaneously h eats th e p a rts a n d d ep o sits the w eld m etal from the electrode.
T he heating' is m u ch m o re localized th a n in to rc h w elding, a n d th e stren g th of
h e at-treated p a rts is n o t im p aired as m u ch by a rc w elding as by to rc h w elding.
D esign specifications n o rm a lly req u ire th a t th e sam e a llo w a b le stresses be used
for a rc w elding a n d fo r to rc h w elding.
^0° o r less
£ 3
Figure 12.18
T h e stre n g th o f w elded jo in ts depends greatly on th e skill o f th e w elder. O ften

the stress co n d itio n s arc u n certain , a n d it is cu sto m a ry to design welded jo in ts
w ith liberal m arg in s o f safety. It is p referab le to design jo in ts so th a t the w eld is
in sh e a r o r co m p ressio n ra th e r th a n ten sio n , b u t frequently it is necessary to h av e
w elds in tension. Steel tu b es in tension a re usu ally spliced b y “ fish m o u th ” jo in ts ,
as show n in Fig. 12.18«, w hich are d esigned so th a t m o st o f th e w eld is in sh e a r
and the local h ea tin g o f th e tube at the w eld is n o t confined to one cross section.
W here a b u lt weld m u st be used, as sh o w n in Fig. 12.186, the weld is n o t
p erp e n d ic u la r to the cen te rlin e o f the tube.
F uselage tru ss m em b ers often arc w elded as show n in F ig . I2.19«. O n ly the
h o riz o n ta l m em b er is highly stressed, a n d usually the size o f th e o th e r m em bers is
d eterm ined as a m in im u m tube size, because th ey resist sm all loads. W hen these
m em bers are highly stressed, it is neccssary to in sert g u sset p lates, as sh o w n in
Fig. 12.19b. Steel tu b es often have w alls as th in as 0.035 in a n d th e w elder m u s t
c o n tro l the te m p e ra tu re to keep from o v erh ea tin g the th in w alls an d b u rn in g
holes in them . It is extrem ely difficult to weld a th in m e m b e r to a heavy one,
bccause m ore h eat is re q u ired for th e heavy m em ber. T h e thickness ra tio o f p arts
b eing w elded sh o u ld alw ays be less th a n 3 :1 a n d p referab ly less th a n 2 :1 .
T h e allow able lo a d o n th e weld m etal in w elded seam s is specified in M IL -
H D B K -5 by the follow ing e q u a tio n s:
P = 32,000Lt (lo w -carbo n steel)

(12.15)
P = 0.48Lr<j-„, (ch ro m e-m o ly b d enu m steel)
w here P — allow able lo ad , lb
L = length o f w eld ed seam , in
f = thickness o f th in n est m ate ria l jo in e d by w eld in la p welds betw een
tw o steel p late s o r b etw een p lates a n d tubes, in
t = averag e thick n ess o f w eld m etal in tu b e assem blies (can n o t be as
sum ed g re a te r th a n 1.25 tim es th ick n ess of w elded stock), in
<7,u = 90,000 lb /in 2 for m a te ria l n o t h e a t-tre a te d after w eld in g
atu = u ltim a te tensile stress o f m aterial h e a t-tre a te d after w elding, (heat-
tre a ta b le w elding ro d m u st be used), b u t n o t to exceed 150,000 lb /in 2
T h e local h ea lin g d u rin g w elding also reduces th e allo w ab le tension o r b e n d
ing stress in th e m a te ria l n e a r th e weld. F o r n o rm alized tu b in g w ith n o h e a t
tre a tm e n t after w elding, th e allo w ab le tensile stress is 90,000 lb /in 2 n ea r th e w eld
for tap ered w elds m a k in g an angle o f 30° o r less w ith th e axis o f the tu b e an d
80,000 lb /in 2 fo r o th e r w elds. F o r tu b in g w hich is h e a t-tre a te d after w elding, the
allow able tensile stress is <r,u.
E xam ple 12.3 T h e l j - b y 0.065-in c h ro m e-m o ly b d en u m steel tu b e show n in

Fig. 12.20 resists a lim it o r ap p lied ten sio n lo a d o f 15,000 lb. F in d the m arg in
o f safety o f th e w eld an d o f th e tu b e n ear th e w eld if L t = 2.5, L z = 3, an d
t 1 = 0.20 in ; the tu b e a re a is A = 0.293 in 2.
(a) A ssum e th a t th e u ltim ate tensile stress atu is 100,000 Ib /in 2 before w elding
an d th a t th ere is n o su b seq u e n t h e at trea tm e n t.
(b) A ssum e th a t th e tu b e assem bly is h e a t-tre a te d to a crm o f 180,000 lb /in 2
after w elding a n d th a t th e lim it lo ad is 22,000 lb.
S o lu tio n (a) T h e w eld o n th e curved end o f th e tu b e is neglected, since loads

tra n sm itte d to this p o rtio n o f the tu b e te n d o n ly to stra ig h te n a n d flatten th e
end o f the tube a n d d o n o t increase th e tensile stren g th o f th e w eld a p p reci
ably. B ecause th e lo ad P is ap p lied a t th e c en te r o f th e tu b e , o n e-h alf o f this
load is resisted by th e w eld o n each side o f th e tube. T h u s th e tw o w elds o f
length L j m u st resist th e lo ad o f P /2. T he u ltim a te o r desig n load is o b tain ed
by m ultiplying the applied load by th e safely fac to r o r 1.5:
P = 15,000 x 1.5 = 22,500 lb
T h e allow able lo a d Pa is o b ta in e d from E q. (12.15). T h e tu b e thickness

t — 0.065 is critical sincc th e forging thickness t x is m o re th a n tw ice th e tu b e
wall thickncss. T h e len g th L x is w elded to th e tu b e o n b o th sides o f the
to)
F ig u re 12.20
forging; th erefo re a. length L = 5 in m u st resist h alf o f th e lo ad . T h e allo w

ab le lo ad is
y = 0.48U f f lu = 0.48 x 5 x 0.065 x 90,000
or
P a = 28,000 lb
T h e fitting fa c to r o f 1.20 m ust be in clu d ed in th e c a lc u la tio n o f the m a rg in o f
safety:
P., . 28,000
1= 1 = 0.04
1.20P 1.2 x 22,500
T h is m a rg in a p p e a rs sm all for a weld, b u t w as calc u la te d conservatively. T h e

u ltim a te tensile stress in the tu b e n e a r th e w eld is 90,000 lb /in 2 since fo r a
slo tte d tu b e, the w eld m akes an angle o f 0° w ith th e tu b e axis. T he allow ab le
ten sio n in th e tu b e n e a r the weld is
P a - 90,000 x 0.293 = 26,400 lb

It is n o t necessary to use a fitting fa c to r here, since th e tu b e itself, ra th e r th a n
the fitting, is b ein g investigated:
26,400
MS - 1 = 0 .1 7
22,500
(/>) T h e allo w ab le load is com puted in th e sam e m a n n e r as for p a rt (a), b u t

now <j„( = 150,000 lb /in 2:
= 0.48 x 5 x 0.065 x 150,000

0r '
P a = 4(5,400 lb
T he design lo ad is .
P = 22,000 x 1.5 = 33,000 lb
T h e fitting facto r is in clu d ed in calcu latin g th e m a rg in o f safety :
46,400
MS = ■ ’ 1 . 2 - 1 = 0 .1 8
33,000
T he allow ab le tensile stress in the tu b e n ear the w eld is c,u, and
p a = a ,u A = 180,000 x 0.293 = 52,700 lb
52,700
M S = ~ ~ - 1 = 0.60
33,000
PROBLEM S
I2.J An end filling similar to those shown in Figs. 12.5 and 12.6 is made of slcel wilh an ultimate
tensile strength o,„ or 180,000 lb/in 1 and has no bushing. It has a^-in steel bolt in double shear, a
thickness of 0.5 in, and dimensions R = 0.5 and e = 0.05 ill, as shown in Fig. 12.6. Find the maximum
limit loads in tension and in compression if the fining factor is 1.2 and the bearing factor is 1 .0.
.Obtain allowable stresses from M ILHDBK-5.
12.2 Design a fitting to resist a limit tension load of 15,000 and a limit compression load of 20,000 Ib.
Assume the materials and unit stresses to be the same as those used in Prob. 12.1.
12.3 Design an end fitting of steel with an ultimate tensile strength of 125,000 lb/in2. The applied or
limit loads are 15,000-lb tension and 20,000-lb compression. Use a fitting factor of 1.2 and a bearing
factor of 2.0.
12.4 Find the margin of safety for the joint shown in Fig. 12.17 if Rx = 3000 Ib, Ry = 200 lb, and the
rivets are m ade of |-in-diam eter 2017-T.j in single shear. The plate is 0.072 gage 2024-T3 d a d
aluminum.
12.5 Assume the tube of Fig. 12.20 to be 2 by 0.083 in witli /, = 0.2, £ , = 3.0, and L 2 = 4.0 in. Find
Ihe allowable load P if (a) the tube has an allowable stress <7,„ of 95,000 lb /in 2 and (6) the assembly is
heat-treated after welding to a tensile strength <r,u of 150,000 lb/in2.
APPEND IX
________________________________A
M OM ENTS OF INERTIA, M O H R’S CIRCLE
A .l C E N T R O I D S
T h e force o f g rav ity a c tin g o n an y body is th e re s u lta n t o f a g ro u p o f parallel

forces acting on all elem en ts o f the body. T h e m a g n itu d e o f th e re su ltan t of
several p arallel forces is eq u al to the algcbraic su m of th e forces, a n d th e p o sitio n
o f th e re su lta n t is such th a t it has a m o m en t a b o u t an y axis eq u a l to th e sum of
the m om ents o f the c o m p o n e n t forces. T h e re su lta n t g ra v ity force o n a b o d y is its
w eight W , w hich m u st b e eq u a l to the sum o f th e w eights >vf o f all elem ents o f the
body. If the forces o f g ra v ity a c t parallel to the z axis as sh o w n in Fig. A .l, the
m o m en ts of all forces a b o u t th e x an d y axes m u st b e eq u al to th e m o m e n t o f the
re su lta n t:
H7.v = x,h', + xzw2 + = S.xvv or xdW (A.l)
(A.2)
If the b o d y an d th e axes a re ro ta te d so th a t th e forces a re p a rallel to one o f the

o th e r axes, a th ird m o m e n t e q u a tio n can be used:
dW (A 3)
409
Figure A.l
T h e three c o o rd in a te s x , y, an d z o f th e c c n te r o f grav ity m ay be o b tain ed from

Eqs. (A .l) to (A.3): .
X.xh> f .x d W
(A.4)
x ~ w or W
2y\v f y dW
3’ = ^ T o r — ^r (A.5)
Zzvv
or (A.6)
IF"
T h e su m m atio n s o r in teg rals for E qs. (A.4) to (A.6) m u st include all elem ents o f
th e body. In m a n y en g in eerin g pro b lem s, th e w eights a n d c o o rd in a te s o f th e
various item s a re k n o w n , an d th e cen te r o f g rav ity is o b ta in e d by a su m m a tio n
p ro ced u re, ra th e r th a n by a n in te g ra tio n p ro ced u re.
In th e case o f a p la te of u n ifo rm th ick n ess a n d d e n sity w hich lies in th e x y
plane, as show n in Fig. A.2, the c o o rd in a tes o f th e c en te r o f grav ity are
J x dA
(A.7)
W wA A
MOMENTS OF INERTIA, MOHR’S CIRCLE 411
_ _ J y d W _ wj y dA _ j y d A
(A.8)
^ W wA A
w here A is the area o f th e p la te an d >v is the w eight p e r u n it area. I t is seen th a t
th e co o rd in a te s x a n d y will be the sam e reg ard less o f th e th ick n ess o r w eight of
the plate. In m a n y eng in eerin g p roblem s, th e p ro p e rtie s o f a re a s a re im p o rta n t,
a n d th e p o in t in th e a re a h av in g co o rd in ates x a n d j; as d efined b y E qs. (A.7) a n d
(A.8) is called th e centroid o f th e area.
A.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA

In co n sid erin g in ertia forces o n ro ta tin g m asses, it w as fo u n d th a t th e in e rtia
forces o n the elem ents o f m ass h ad a m o m e n t a b o u t th e axis o f ro ta tio n o f
Lj = a r2 d M
as show n in F ig. A.3. T h e term u n d e r the in teg ral sign is d efined as the m o m en t
o f in e rtia o f th e m ass a b o u t the z axis:
Iz = r2 dM (A.9)
Since (he jc a n d y co o rd in a te s o f the elem ents a re easier to ta b u la te th a n the

rad iu s, frequently il is co n v en ie n t to use the relatio n
or
I. = x 2 dM + y2 dM (A-10)
A n a re a h as no m ass, an d conseq u en tly n o in ertia, b u t it is cu sto m ary to

designate th e follow ing p ro p ertie s of an a re a as th e m o m e n ts o f in e rtia of th e a re a
since they a re sim ilar to th e m o m en ts of in e rtia o f m asses:
Figure A.4
T h e co o rd in a te s are show n in Fig. A.4. T h e polar moment o f inertia of an area is

defined as
r 2 dA (A.l 3)
F ro m the re la tio n sh ip used in Eq. (A. 10),
r2 = x 2 + y 2
x 2 dA + y 2 d A = Iy + I x (A. 14)
It is frequently necessary to find th e m o m e n t of in ertia o f an area a b o u t a n

axis w hen the m o m en t o f in ertia a b o u t a parallel axis is k n o w n . T h e m om ent of
inertia a b o u t the y axis sh o w n in Fig. A.5 is d efined as follow s:
x 2 dA (A. 15)
S u b stitu tin g the relatio n x = d + x ' in Eq. (A.15) yields
(d + x ? dA
= d2 dA 4- 2d x ’ dA + x ' 5 dA
or
Iy = Ad2 + 2X' Ad + I'y (A. 16)
w here x! rep resen ts the d istan ce of the c e n tro id o f th e a re a from the / axis, as
defined in E q. (A.7), /'. rep re se n ts the m o m e n t o f in ertia o f th e a rea a b o u t th e y'
axis, and A represen ts the to ta l area. E q u a tio n (A.16) is sim plified w hen the y'
axis is th ro u g h the cen tro id o f th e area, as show n in Fig. A .6:
Iy = A d 2 + Jc (A. 17)
T h e term rep resen ts th e m o m e n t o f in ertia o f the a re a a b o u t a cen tro id ai axis.

T h e m o m e n t o f in ertia o f a m ass m ay be tran sferred to a parallel axis by a
Figure A.5
sim ilar p ro c e d u re to th a t used for the m o m e n t of in e rtia o f a n area. F o r th e m ass

show n in Fig. A .7, the follow ing relatio n s ap p ly , w here the c e n tro id a l axis C lies
in the x z p la n e :
/. = r2 d M = ( x 2 + y 2) d M
l(d + x ' Y + y 2] d M
[d2 + 2d x' + .x'2 + y 2) d M
an d s u b s titu tin g r2 = x '2 + y 2 gives
I. = d2 d M + 2d x' dM + r2 d M
Since x ' is m easu red from the cen tro id al axis, th e second in te g ral is zero. T h e last
integral rep resen ts the m o m en t of in ertia a b o u t th e c e n tro id a l axis:
l z = M d2 + Ic (A. 18)
E q u a tio n s (A. 17) a n d (A.18) can be used to find eith e r th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia

a b o u t an y axis w hen th e m o m e n t o f in ertia a b o u t a p a ra lle l axis th ro u g h th e
ccn tro id is k now n o r th e m o m en t o f in e rtia a b o u t th e c e n tro id al axis w hen th e
m o m en t o f inertia a b o u t a n y o th e r parallel axis is k n o w n . In tran sferrin g m o
m ents of in ertia betw een tw o axes, n eith er o f w h ich is th ro u g h th e cen tro id , it is
necessary first to find th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia a b o u t th e c e n tro id a l axis, then to
transfer this to the desired axis, by using Eq. (A.17) o r (A.18) twice. I t is seen th a t
the m o m en t o f in e rtia is alw ays a positive q u a n tity a n d th a t the m o m e n t of
in ertia a b o u t a ce n tro id a l .ax is is alw ays sm aller th a n th a t a b o u t any o th e r
parallel axis. If Eq. (A .J6) is used, it is n ecessary to use th e p ro p e r sign for the
term x'. All term s in E qs. (A.17) an d (A.18) a re alw ays p ositive.
T h e rad iu s of g y ra tio n p o f a body is th e d ista n ce fro m th e in e rtia axis over
w hich the en tire m ass w o u ld b e c o n c e n tra te d in o rd e r to give th e sam e m o m en t
o f inertia. E q u a tin g th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f th e c o n c e n tra te d m ass to th a t for
the b o d y yields
p 2M = I
or
(A. 19)'
It is seen th a t the p o in t w here the m ass is assu m ed lo be c o n c en tra te d is n o t th e

sam e as th e c en te r o f g ravity, except for th e case w h ere Ic in Eq. (A.18) is zero.
T h e p o in t a t w hich th e m ass is assu m ed to' b e c o n c e n tra te d is also different for
each in ertia axis chosen.
T h e radius o f gyration o f an area is defined as th e d istan ce from Ihe in e rtia
axis to th e p o in t w here th e a re a w ould be c o n c e n tra te d in o rd e r lo p ro d u ce the
sam e m o m e n t o f in e rtia :
p 2A = I
(A.20)
P =
• T h e m o m cn l of in ertia o f an area is o b ta in e d as th e p ro d u c t o f an a re a -a n d
the sq u are of a d istan ce an d usually is expressed in u n its o f inches to th e fo u rth
pow er. T h e m o m en ts o f in e rtia for the co m m o n a re a s sh o w n in Fig. A.S should
— /.—
1 '
-iri c i
t
wl
Ffaurc A.8
be m em orized, since they a re used frequently. M o m e n ts o f in e rtia for o th e r a re a s

m ay be fo u n d by in te g ra tio n o r from en g in ee rin g h a n d b o o k s.
E x am p le A .l F in d th e c en te r of g ra v ity o f th e a irp la n e sh o w n in Fig. A .9a.
T h e v ario u s item s o f w eight an d the c o o rd in a te s o f th e ir in d iv id u al cen ters of
g rav ity a re sh o w n in T a b le A .l. It is c u sto m a ry to ta k e reference axes in th e
d irectio n s sh o w n in Fig. A.9b w ith the x axis p arallel to th e th ru st line a n d
the z axis vertical. W hile th e z axis is a t th e w in g lead in g edge in th is
exam ple, it m ay be tak en th ro u g h th e p ro p e lle r o r th ro u g h so m e o th er c o n
ven ien t reference poin t.
S o l u t i o n T h e y c o o rd in a te o f th e cen te r o f g ra v ity is in th e plane of sym

m e try o f the a irp la n e . T he c o o rd in a tes x a n d z are o b ta in e d from Eqs. (A.4)
a n d (A.6). T h e term s W , Sxvv, an d E zw are o b ta in e d b y to ta lin g colum ns 3, 5,
a n d 7 o f T a b le A .l.
Eivx 50,723
= 12.16
W 4243
£ u!z 26,109
= 6.2
~W ~' 4243
T ab le A .l
No. Item Weight w X wx z wz

( 1) (2) P) (4) (5) (6) (7)
I W ing group 697 22.6 + 15,781 40.9 +28,574

2 Tail group 156 198.0 30,904 33.1 5,171
3 Fuselage group 792 49.8 39,430 3.9 3,092
4 Landing gear (up) 380 19.2 7,297 - 1 1 .7 -4 ,4 2 9
5 Engine section group 160 - 3 8 .6 -6 ,1 7 9 - 7 .1 -1 ,1 3 8
6 Power plant 1,302 -4 8 .8 -6 3 ,6 7 4 - 6.0 - 7 ,7 8 2
7 Fixed equipment 756 35.9 27,164 3.5 2,621
T otal weight empty 4,243 50,723 26,109
- 2 in-*-
> in
©
> ' ^ N
©\ t
2ii" 1 © i
p ----------- 6 i n -------------
E xam ple A.2 F in d th e c e n tro id a n d the m o m en t o f in e rtia a b o u t a h o rizo n tal

axis th ro u g h the cen tro id o f th e a re a sh o w n in Fig. A. 10. F in d the rad ii of
g y ra tio n a b o u t axis x x a n d a b o u t axis cc.
S o l u t io n T h e a re a is d iv id ed in to rectan g les and trian g les, as show n. T he

a reas o f the in d iv id u al p a rts are ta b u la te d in co lu m n 2 o f T ab le A.2. T h e y
c o o rd in a te s o f th e c e n tro id s o f the elem en ts are ta b u la te d in co lu m n 3, an d
th e m o m en ts o f the a re a s A y are ta b u la te d in co lu m n 4. T h e c e n tro id o f the
to ta l a rea is now o b ta in e d by div id in g th e su m m a tio n o f th e term s in co lum n
4 by the su m m a tio n o f th e term s in co lu m n 2 :
XAy 79.5
y - — T~ = ~ ^ r = 2.94 in
A 27
T h e m o m en t of in e rtia o f th e to ta l a re a a b o u t th e x ax is w ill be o b tain ed as
th e su m o f the m o m e n ts o f in e rtia o f th e elem ents a b o u t th is axis. In finding
the m o m e n t of in ertia o f an y elem ent a b o u t the x axis, Eq. (A.17) m ay be
w ritte n as
Ix = A y 1 + I q
w here I x is th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f th e elem en t o f a re a A a b o u t the x axis, y

is the d ista n c e from th e c e n tro id o f th e elem en t to th e x axis, a n d J 0 is the
m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f th e elem en t a b o u t its o w n ce n tro id . T h e term s A y 2 for
T ab le A.2
Element A y Ay 4 >'2 >0

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1 12 1 12 12 4.0
2 1.5 2.5 3.75 9.4 0.2
3 1.5 2.5 3.75 9.4 0.2
4 12 5 60 300 36.0
Tolal 27.0 79.5 330.8 40.4
all the elem ents a re o b ta in e d in co lu m n 5 as th e p ro d u c t o f term s in c o lu m n s

3 a n d 4. T h e v alues o f I 0 are found from th e e q u a tio n s sh o w n in Fig. A.8.
T h e m o m en t o f in ertia o f th e entire a re a a b o u t th e x axis is equal to th e su m
o f ail term s in co lu m n s 5 an d 6:
l x = 330.8 + 40.4 = 371.2 in*
T his m o m en t o f inertia may be transferred to th e c e n tro id o f the entire a re a

by using Eq. (A. 17) as follow s:
Ic = / , - (TA )y2
w here T A re p re se n ts the to tal a re a an d v rep resen ts th e d istan ce from th e x

axis to the c e n tro id o f the to tal area. T h u s
I c = 371.2 - 27.0(2.942) = 138.0 in 4
T he radii of g y ra tio n m ay now be o b ta in e d as defined in Eq. (A.20):
E xam ple A.3 in a m etal stressed-skin a irp la n e w ing, th e sh eet-m etal co v erin g
acts w ith th e s u p p o rtin g spanw ise sp ars a n d strin g ers to form a beam w h ich
resists the w ing b en d in g . F igure A .l l a sh o w s a cross se c tio n o f a typical w in g
w hich h as a vertical w eb and ex tru d ed angle sections riv eted to the sp ar w eb
an d to th e skin. T h e stringers are e x tru d e d Z sectio n s w hich are riveted to
the skin. T h e u p p e r su rface o f the w ing is in c o m p ressio n , a n d the sh eet-m etal
skin buckles betw een th e stringers a n d is ineffective in c arry in g load. T h e
skin is riveted lo th e strin g ers a t freq u en t in terv als, a n d a n a rro w strip o f skin
ad ja c e n t to e a c h strin g e r is p revented fro m b u c k lin g a n d acts w ith the strin g
e r in carry in g co m p ressiv e lo ad . T h e effective w id th of sk in a ctin g w ith each
strin g er is u su ally a b o u t 30 tim es th e skin thickness. O n th e u n d ersid e o f the
wing, the en tire w id th of th e sk in is effective in resistin g ten sio n . It is usually
sufficiently acc u ra te to assum e the a re a o f each strin g er a n d its effective skin
to b e c o n c e n tra te d a t the c e n tro id o f its a re a in c o m p u tin g th e m o m en t o f
in ertia o f th e are a . T h e w ing cro ss scctio n w o u ld th e n b e rep resen ted by th e
nine elem ents o f a re a sh o w n in Fig. A .llb . T h e m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f each
clem ent a b o u t its o w n C en tro id is neglected. In th is p a rtic u la r wing, the skin
a n d strin g ers to th e rig h t o f th e s p a r a re very lig h t a n d are assum ed to be
n o n stru c tu ra l.
T h e m o m e n t o f in e rtia o f the a re a sh o w n in F ig. A .l lb is o b ta in e d a b o u t
h o riz o n ta l a n d vertical axes th ro u g h th e c e n tro id o f th e to ta l area. T h e areas
an d co o rd in a te s o f th e elem ents are g iven in co lu m n s 2, 3, a n d 6 o f T ab le A.3.
S o l u t i o n T h is ex am p le is solved by th e m e th o d u sed for E x am p le A.2,

except th a t th e co lu m n for / 0 is o m itted . T a b le A.3 sh o w s th e calcu latio n s for
the m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t b o th th e h o riz o n ta l a n d v ertical axes.
T h en .* = ^ = - 1 1 . 5 6
7.135
I , c = 2310 - 7 J3 5 (1 1 .5 6 2) = 1358 in 4
4.72
Z' = ^35 = a66
IAC = 331.6 - 7.135(0.662) = 328 in 4
T able A.3
Element A ■X Ax A x2 z Az A z1
(0 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
! 0.358 -3 4 .5 -1 2 .3 4 426 + 8.6 3.08 26.5

2 0.204 -2 8 .1 -5 .7 3 16! +9.6 1.96 18.8
3 0.395 -1 9 .9 -7 .8 5 156 + 10.0 3.95 39.5
4 0.204 - 10.1 -2 .0 6 21 + 9.6 1.96 18.8
5 1.615 + 0.5 + .81 0 8.8 14.21 125.2
6 1.931 + 0.5 + .97 1 - 5 .7 - 11.02 62.8
7 0.752 - 10.1 -7 .6 0 77 - 5 .2 -3 .9 1 20.4
8 0.784 -2 2 .4 -1 7 .6 5 394 - 4 .3 -3 .3 7 14.5
9 0.892 -3 4 .7 -3 0 .9 2 1074 - 2 .4 -2 .1 4 5.1
Total 7.135 -8 2 .4 0 2310 4.72 331.6
MOMENTS OF INERTIA, M OHR’S CIRCLE 419
A.3 MOMENTS OF INERTIA ABOUT INCLINED AXES
T h e m o m en t o f in e rtia o f a n a re a a b o u t a n y inclined axis m a y be o b tain ed from

the p ro p ertie s o f th e a re a w ith respect to th e h o riz o n ta l a n d v ertical axes. F o r th e
a re a show n in F ig. A.12, a relatio n sh ip b etw een th e m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t th e
inclined axes x ' a n d / a n d th e axes x a n d y m ay be fo u n d . T h e m o m e n t o f in e rtia
a b o u t the jc' axis is
(A.21)
T he co o rd in a te / o f a n y p o in t is
y' = y cos $ — x s'm (j> (A.22)
If this value o f / is s u b s titu te d in Eq. (A.21), th e follow ing v alu e is o b ta in e d :
(cos y dA — (2 sin (j> cos tp) x y dA + (sin2 <fi) x 2 dA (A.23)
T h e integrals m u s t e x ten d o v er the en tire area. T h e an g le <j>is th e sam e regardless

o f the elem ent o f a re a co n sid ered an d is th erefo re a c o n s ta n t w ith respect to th e
integrals. T h e first a n d "last integ rals o f E q. (A.23) re p re se n t th e m o m en ts o f
in ertia o f th e a re a a b o u t th e x an d y axes. T h e seco n d in te g ra l represents a term
w hich is called the product o f inertia I xy :
Ixy x y dA (A.24)
E q u atio n (A.23) m ay n o w be w ritten as

Ix, = Ix c o s2 4>— Ixy sin 24>+ Iy sin 2 4> (A.25)
A sim ilar expression m ay be derived for th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia a b o u t the / axis:
I y, = l x sin 2 (j> + l xy sin 2<j> + I y c o s2 <j> (A.26)
F ig u r e A .12
If Eqs. (A.25) a n d (A.26) a rc ad d ed , th e follow ing re latio n sh ip is o b tain ed :
Ix + I? = I x' + l y
F ro m Eq. (A.14), the sum o f th e m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t an y tw o p erp en d icu lar
axes is seen to be eq u a l to the p o la r m o m e n t o f in ertia, w hich is the sam e
regardless o f the angle + y sin
and
/ = y cos ) x y d A — (sin 2 <p) x>’ dA
+ (sin cp cos (p) y 1 dA — (sin <j> cos cp) a-2 dA
or I x,v. = / AV(co s2 tp — s in 2 (p) + ( / , — / y) sin (p cos </) (A.28)
A .4 P R I N C I P A L A X E S
T he m o m en t o f in ertia o f a n y area a b o u t an inclin ed axis is a function o f the

angle (p, as given in Eqs. (A.25) an d (A.26). T h e angle <p a t w hich the m o m en t o f
in ertia I x, is a m ax im u m o r m in im u m is o b ta in e d from th e d erivative o f Eq.
(A.25) w ith respect to <p\
= —2 / %cos <p sin ip — 21 x cos 2(p + 2 1 . sin <p cos <p

dip
T his derivative is zero w hen Ix, is a m ax im u m o r m inim um . E q u a tin g the d eriva

tive to zero a n d sim plifying yield
(Iy — I x) sin 2<p = 2 I xy cos 2 cp
or tan 2 cp = ^ -xy ■ (A.29)

*y *x
Sincc there a re tw o angles u n d e r 360° w hich have the sam e tangent, Eq. (A.29)
defines tw o values o f the an g le 2rp, w hich w ill be a t 180° intervals. T h e tw o
co rre sp o n d in g values o f th e angle cp will be a t 90° interv als. It can be sh o w n th a t
the value o f Ix, will be a m ax im u m a b o u t o n e o f these axes an d a m inim um a b o u t
the o th er. T hese tw o p e rp e n d ic u la r axes a b o u t w hich th e m o m e n t o f in e rtia is a

m ax im u m o r m in im u m a re callcd the principal axes.
T he p ro d u c t o f in e rtia a b o u t the inciincd axes m ay be ex p ressed in term s o f
the angle 2cp, by m ak in g use o f th e trig o n o m etric rela tio n s
sin 2<j> = 2 sin <j) cos (j> (A.30)
and cos 2<j> = c o s2 (A.31)
S u b stitu tin g these values in Eq. (A.28) yields
I.x’y, = cos 2ij> + — 1 sin 2<j> (A.32)
A n im p o rta n t re la tio n is o b ta in e d Tor the angle a t w hich I xlyl is zero. S u b stitu tin g
I xfy, = 0 in Eq. (A.32) p ro d u ce s
tan 2 c/> =
L - K
T his is id en tical to th e ex p ressio n defining the p rin cip al axes in E q. (A.29). T he
p ro d u c t o f in ertia a b o u t th e p rin c ip a l axes is th erefo re zero.
T he m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t the p rin cip al axes m ay be o b ta in e d by su b sti
tu tin g the value o f 4> o b ta in e d from Eq. (A.29) in to E q. (A.25):
and _ ^ = + (A'34)
w here I p rep resen ts th e m ax im u m value o f I x, a n d I q rep rese n ts th e m inim um

value of I x, . T hese v alues a re m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t p e rp e n d ic u la r axes d e
fined by E q. (A.29).
A.5 PRODUCT OF INERTIA
T h e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia o f an a re a is ev alu ated by m e th o d s sim ilar to th o se used in

e v alu a tin g the m o m e n t o f in ertia. P ro d u c ts o f in e rtia fo r v a rio u s elem ents o f the
a re a u sually a re e v a lu a te d sep arately a n d th e n a d d e d to fin d th e p ro d u c t o f
in ertia fo r th e en tire area. W h en b o th x a n d y are p o sitiv e o r negative, th e
p ro d u c t o f in ertia is p o sitiv e; b u t w hen o n e c o o rd in a te is p o sitiv e a n d the o th e r
negative, the p ro d u c t o f in e rtia is negative. In th e case o f a n a re a w hich is
sym m etrical w ith re sp e c t to th e x axis, as sh o w n in Fig. A.13, e a c h elem ent o f
a re a d A in th e first q u a d r a n t will have a c o rre sp o n d in g a re a in th e fo u rth q u a d
r a n t w ith th e sam e x c o o rd in a te b u t w ith th e y c o o rd in a te c h a n g e d in sign. T h e
su m o f th e p ro d u c ts o f in e rtia for th e tw o elem en ts will be zero , a n d th e in teg ral
Figure A. 13
of these term s fo r the e n tire a re a will be z e r o :
xy dA = 0
T h e sam e re la tio n is tru e if th e area is sy m m etrical w ith respect to th e y axis.

T herefore, w hen eith er axis is a n axis o f sy m m etry , th e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia is zero
a n d the axes a re p rin c ip a l axes.
W hen th e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia o f an area a b o u t o n e set o f co o rd in a te axes is
know n, the p ro d u c t o f in e rtia a b o u t a set o f p arallel axes c a n be found. F o r the
a rea show n in Fig. A.14, the p ro d u c t of in e rtia a b o u t th e x a n d y axes is defined as
x y dA
By su b stitu tin g th e values

x = h + u
y = k + v
the transfer th eo rem is o b ta in e d :
(h + u)(k + v) d A
hk dA + h v dA + k u dA + up dA
= h k A + IwA + k u A + I u (A. 3 5)
w here a a n d v a re th e c o o rd in a te s o f th e c e n tro id o f th e area a n d I„v is the
Figure A. 14
S '
MOMENTS OF INERTIA, MOHR’S CIRCLE 4 2 3
p ro d u c t o f in ertia o f th e a re a w ith respect to th e u a n d v axes. If th e u a n d v axes

are th ro u g h th e c e n tro id o f th e area, Eq. (A.35) becom es
Ixy =-- h k A + • (A.36)
W ith u a n d v axes a lso p rin cip al axes o f th e are a, Iuv = 0 a n d E q . (A.36) becom es
I xy = h k A (A.37)
F o r a n a re a co m p o se d o f several sy m m etrical elem ents, th e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia

m ay be o b ta in e d as th e su m of th e v alues fo u n d by u sin g E q. (A.37) fo r e ac h
elem ent.
E x am p le A.4 F in d th e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia for th e a re a sh o w n in Fig. A.15.
S o l u t i o n T h e to ta l a re a is divided in to th e three re c ta n g u la r elem ents A, B,

an d C. R ectan g le A is sym m etrical a b o u t b o th th e x a n d y axes; hence th e
p ro d u c t o f in e rtia is zero. R ectangle B is sy m m etrical a b o u t axes th ro u g h its
c e n tro id ; therefore th e p ro d u c t of in e rtia m a y be fo u n d from Eq. (A.37):
I x}, = h k A = - 3 x 5 x 8 = - 1 2 0 in 4
F o r rectangle C,
I xy = hkA = 3 x - 5 x 8 = - 1 2 0 in 4
F o r th e to ta l area,
I ly = 0 - 120 - 120 = - 2 4 0 in 4
E xam p le A.5- F in d th e p ro d u c t of in ertia a b o u t h o riz o n ta l a n d vertical axes

th ro u g h the c en tro id o f th e area sh o w n in Fig. A.16.
S o l u t i o n T he to ta l a re a is divided in to th e tw o re c ta n g u la r elem ents A a n d

B as show n. T h e x a n d y reference axes a re chosen th ro u g h th e cen tro id s o f
Figure A .15 Figure A.16
If;
these rectangles. Since recta n g le A is sy m m etrical a b o u t th e y axis a n d rec

tangle B is sy m m etrical a b o u t th e x axis, I xy — 0. T h e c e n tro id o f th e area is
o b ta in e d as follow s:
4 x 2.5 '
— -1 .0
_ 6 x 2.5
■ /— To— 1-5
T h e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia a b o u t th e ce n tro id al axes m ay n o w be derived from

Eq. (A.36):
^ xy xyA 4 -1 y c
0 = 1.0 x 1.5 x 10 + I Xcyc
or I Xcfc = —15 in 4
E xam ple A.6 F in d th e p ro d u c t o f in ertia a b o u t h o riz o n ta l an d vertical axes

th ro u g h the c e n tro id o f th e a re a sh o w n in Fig. A .ll. T h e areas an d c o o rd i
n ates o f th e elem ents are given in T ab le A.3 a n d a re re p e a te d in colum ns 2, 3,
and 4 of T a b le A.4.
S o l u t i o n T h e p ro d u c t o f in e rtia a b o u t th e x a n d z axes is o b ta in e d as th e
su m m a tio n of th e term s A x z , in co lu m n 5 o f T a b le A.4. T h e cen tro id al axes
w ere fo u n d in E x am p le A.3 to h av e c o o rd in a te s x = — 11.56, z = 0.66. F ro m
Eq. (A.36),
I xz = x z A + l Xc
- 6 8 . 2 = - 1 1 .5 6 x 0.66 x 7.135 + I XcZc
or I ^ 2e = - 1 3 .8
T able A.4
Elemcnl A X z A x2
(t) (2) (3) (4) (5)
l 0.358 -3 4 .5 + 8^6 -1 0 6 .2
2 0.204 -2 8 .1 + 9 .6 -5 5 .0
3 0.395 - 1 9 .9 + 10.0 -7 8 .5
4 0.204 - 10.1 + 9.6 -1 9 .8
5 1.615 + 0.5 + 8.8 7.1
6 1.931 + 0.5 - 5 .7 - 5 .5
7 0.752 - 10.1 - 5 .2 39.5
8 0.784 - 2 2 .4 - 4 .3 75.9
9 0.892 -3 4 .7 - 2 .4 74.3
Total 7.135 - 68.2
A .6 M O H R ’S C I R C L E F O R M O M E N T S O F I N E R T I A
T h e eq u a tio n s for th e m o m e n ts and p ro d u c ts o f in ertia a b o u t inclined axes are

difficult to rem em ber. It is often convenient to use a sem ig rap h ic so lu tio n , w hich
is easier to rem em b e r a n d w hich is an aid in visualizing th e relatio n sh ip betw een
the m o m en ts o f in e rtia a b o u t v arious axes. If the values o f I xy, from Eq. (A.32) a re
p lo tted a g a in st values o f I x, o b ta in e d from Eq. (A.25) for c o rre sp o n d in g values o f
</>, the p o in ts all fall o n th e circle sh o w n in Fig. A. 17. T h e m ax im u m an d m in i
m um values of the m o m e n ts o f inertia are rep resen ted by p o in ts P a n d Q.
In o rd e r to pro v e th a t the circle show n in Fig. A.17 re p resen ts the values
given by E qs. (A.25) a n d (A.32), the values o f / „ a n d I xy/ a re expressed in term s o f
the m o m en ts of in e rtia a b o u t th e p rin cip al axes I p a n d l q a n d th e angle 0 from
the x' axis to the p rin c ip a l axis. If the x a n d y axes are p rin cip al axes, a su b stitu
tio n of th e values I xy — 0, l x = I p , l y = / , , a n d cp = 8 in to Eqs. (A.25) a n d (A.32)
yields
Ix, = I p c o s2 6 + I q sin 2 6 (A.38)
. Ixy, = sin 20 (A.39)
T h e follow ing trig o n o m e tric relations for d o u b le angles a re u sed :
sin 2 8 = 2 — 2 cos 28
c o s2 0 = 2 + i cos 20
S u b stitu tin g these v alu es in Eq. (A.38) yields
I x, = cos 28 (A.40)
E q u atio n s (A.39) a n d (A.40) c o rresp o n d to the c o o rd in a te s Jxyr a n d I x, w hich are

co m p u ted from the g e o m e try o f th e circle sh o w n in F ig. A.17. T h e angle of
in clin atio n o f the x ' a x is from th e p rin cip al axis is o n e-h a lf th e angle 26 m ea su re d
betw een th e c o rre sp o n d in g p o in ts on th e circle. If I xy, is m e asu red as positive
up w ard o n th e circle, a co u n terclo ck w ise ro ta tio n o f th e x! a x is co rresp o n d s to a

counterclockw ise ro ta tio n a ro u n d th e circle. P o in ts a t o p p o site en d s o f the d ia m
eter pf the circle c o rre sp o n d to p erp e n d icu la r in e rtia axes. T h e p ro d u c ts o f in ertia
a b o u t p erp e n d ic u la r axes a re alw ays equal n u m erically b u t o p p o site in sign, since
ro ta tio n o f the axes th ro u g h 90° in terch an g es th e n u m erical v alu es o f th e co o rd i
n ates x ' a n d y' fo r a n y elem en t o f a re a an d chan g es th e sign o f o n e coo rd in ate.
E xam ple A,7 F in d th e m o m e n ts o f in ertia a b o u t p rin c ip a l axes th ro u g h th e

centroid o f th e a re a sh o w n in Fig. A.18. F in d th e m o m e n ts a n d p ro d u c t o f
in ertia a b o u t axes jcj a n d y t a n d axes x 2 a n d y 2 ■
S o l u t i o n T h e m o m e n ts o f in e rtia a b o u t the x a n d y axes a re
F ro m E x am p le A.4,
I xy = - 2 4 0 in 4
M o h r’s circle for the m o m e n ts a n d p ro d u c ts o f in ertia a b o u t all inclined axes

m ay now be p lo tte d fro m these three values. T h e p ro d u c ts of in e rtia I xf, are
plo tted a g a in s t th e m o m e n ts o f in ertia /* , as sh o w n in F ig. A.19. P o in t x in
Fig. A.19 has co o rd in a te s 693.3 a n d —240.0, as sh o w n . If th e x ' axis is
ro ta te d th ro u g h 90°, it w ill coincide w ith th e y axis, a n d th e co o rd in ate s of
p o in t Y w ill be Jx, = 173.3, I xy, = 240, T h e p o sitiv e sign fo r I xy, results from
the fact th a t after th e x ' axis is ro ta te d th ro u g h 90° fro m th e x axis, th e
c o o rd in a te x ' is p o sitiv e u p a n d the c o o rd in a te / is p o sitiv e to the left. T h e
Figure A.18
value of I xy, is n u m erically e q u a l b u t o p p o site in sign to th e value o f I xy.

P o in ts X a n d Y a re a t o p p o site en d s o f a d ia m e te r o f th e circle, since a
ro ta tio n o f th e axes o f 90° c o rre sp o n d s to a n angle o f 180° o n th e circle.
T h e c en te r o f th e circle is a d istan c e -j(693.3 + 173.3), o r 433.3, from th e
origin. P o in t X is a d istan ce 260 h o riz o n tally a n d 240 vertically from th e
c en tc r o f the circlc; th erefore
R ad iu s = y / 2402 + 2602 = 353.8
20 = a rc tan jgo = 42.7°
or 0 = 21.35°
T h e p rin cip al ax es a re rep resen ted b y p o in ts P a n d Q o n th e circle. T h e
m o m en ts o f in e rtia h av e m ax im u m a n d m in im u m values, a n d th e p ro d u c t of
in ertia is zero fo r th ese axes. T h e p rin c ip a l m o m e n ts o f in e rtia are eq u al to
the d istan ce fro m th e o rig in to th e c e n te r o f the circle p lu s o r m inus th e
rad iu s o f th e circle:
I p = 433.3 + 353.8 787.1 in 4
* l q = 433.3 - 353.8 = 79.5 in4
T h e P axis is coun'terclockw isc from th e x axis, a t a n angle 8 = 22.35°.
I Sim ilarly, since .p o in t Q o n the circle is co u n terclo ck w ise fro m p o in t Y , th e Q

axis is co u n tcrclo ck w isc from th e y axis.
T h e m o m e n ts a n d p ro d u c t o f in e rtia a b o u t th e x x a n d j;t axes a re o b
tain ed from th e c o o rd in a te s o f p o in ts o n th e circle. Since th e an d >'i axes
are 15° clockw ise from the _x a n d y axes, th e p o in ts X L a n d o n the circle
will be 30° clockw ise from p o in ts X a n d 7 . T h e c o o rd in a te s o f p o in ts X x a n d
Yx m ay be o b ta in e d from the g eo m etry o f th e circle a s follow s:
/ M = 433.3 + 353.8 cos 72.7° = 538 in 4

I yi = 433.3 - 353.8 cos 72.7° = 328 in 4
I xiyi = - 3 5 3 .8 sin 72.7° = - 3 3 8 in 4
Figure A .19
z. r
T h e m o m en ts and p ro d u c t o f in ertia a b o u t th e x 2 a n d y 2 axes a re also

d erived from the g eo m etry o f th e circle:
I X2 = 433.3 - 353.8 cos 77.3° = 355 in 4

l n = 433.3 + 353.8 cos 77.3° = 511 in4
= - 3 5 3 .8 sin 77.3° = - 3 4 5 in4
E xam ple A.8 F in d the p rin c ip al axes th ro u g h th e c e n tro id a n d the m om ents
o f in ertia a b o u t these axes for the area sh o w n in Fig. A .20. T h e x and z axes
are th ro u g h th e c e n tro id , a n d the m o m en ts an d p ro d u c t o f inertia have the
values l x = 320, l z = 1160, a n d l xz = — 120,
S o l u t io n T h e co o rd in a te s o f p o in t X o n th e circle o f Fig. A.21 are 320 an d

— 120. T h e co o rd in a te s o f p o in t Z are 1160 a n d + 1 2 0 . T h e se points a re at
o p p o site ends o f th e d ia m e te r a n d thus d eterm in e th e circle. It is im p o rta n t
to show l xz w ith th e c o rre c t sign a t p o in t X so th a t th e directio n o f the
p rin cip al axes m a y be o b ta in e d correctly. T h e d istan ce o f th e center o f the
circle from th e origin o f c o o rd in a te s is \ (320 + 1160) = 740. F ro m th e geom
e try of the circle,
R ad iu s = V 4 2 0 2 + 12Q2 = 437
ta n 2 2 0 = 15.94°
or 9 = 7.97°
T h e p rin cip al m o m e n ts o f in e rtia are rep re se n te d by p o in ts P and Q o n the

circ le ,'a t w hich th e m o m e n ts o f in ertia have m ax im u m a n d m in im u m values
Figure A.21
an d the p ro d u c t o f in e rtia is zero:
l p = 740 + 437 = 1177 in4

I q = 740 - 437 = 303 i n 4
Since p o in t P is 15.94" clockw ise from p o in t Z on th e circle, the P axis will be

h alf this angle, or 7.97° clockw ise from th e z axis, as sh o w n in Fig. A.20.
A .7 M O H R ’S C I R C L E F O R C O M B I N E D S T R E S S E S
T he relatio n sh ip betw een n o rm a l stresses a n d sh e a rin g stresses o n planes a t

various angles o f in c lin atio n is sim ilar to the re la tio n sh ip b etw een m om ents a n d
p ro d u cts of in ertia a b o u t inclined axes. M o st stru c tu ra l m e m b e rs are subjected
sim ultaneously to n o rm a l a n d shearin g stresses, a n d it is n ecessary to consider
the co m b in ed effect o f th e stresses in o rd e r to design th e m em b ers. T h e landing-
gcar stru t show n in Fig. A.22, for exam ple, is subjected to b e n d in g stresses w hich
p roduce tension in th e d ire c tio n o f the stru t, in tern al oil p re ssu re w hich p roduces
a circum ferential ten sio n , a n d torsion w hich p ro d u ces sh e a rin g stresses on th e
h o rizo n tal a n d vertical p lanes. T h e m ax im u m tensile stress d o es n o t occur o n
eith er the h o rizo n tal o r th e vertical plane, b u t o n a p la n e in clin ed at som e angle
to them . It can be .show n th a t there are alw ays tw o p e rp e n d ic u la r p lanes o n
w hich the sh earin g stresses are-zero. T hese planes a re called principal planes, a n d
the stresses on these p lan es a rc called principal stresses.
A ny co n d itio n o f tw o -d im en sio n al stresses can be re p re se n te d as show n in
Fig. A.23, in w hich th e p rin c ip a l stresses <j p an d crq a c t o n th e p erp en d icu lar
p rin cip al planes. T h e o rie n ta tio n of these p la n es d ep e n d s o n th e co n d itio n o f
stress a n d will b e 'fo u n d fro m k now n stress co n d itio n s. T h e n o rm a l a n d shearin g
stresses a„ a n d i can be fo u n d o n a plane at an angle 9 to th e p rin cip al plan es,
from the e q u a tio n s o f statics. T h e stresses are in p o u n d s p e r sq u a re inch an d m u st
alw ays be m ultiplied b y th e a re a in sq u are inchcs in o rd e r to o b ta in th e force. In
Fig. A.24, a sm all tria n g u la r elem ent is. sho w n , w ith p rin c ip a l p la n e s form ing tw o
sides o f the elem ent a n d th e inclined p lan e a th ird side. If th e inclined plane h as
A sin 0
Figure A .24
Figure A.23
an area A, the sections o f th e p rin c ip al p lan es h a v e areas A cos 6 a n d A sin 0, as

show n. F ro m a su m m a tio n o f forces a lo n g th e n a n d s axes, w hich are p erp en
d icu lar an d parallel to th e inclined plan e, th e follow ing e q u a tio n s are o b tain e d :
Yj = A — ap A c o s2 0 — <rq A sin 2 0 = 0 (A.41)
= t A — <rp A cos 0 sin 0 + a q A sin 0 cos 0 = 0 (A.42)
U sing the trig o n o m etric re la tio n s for fun ctio n s o f d o u b le an g les yields
c o s2 0 = 2 + 2 c o s 20
sin 2 0 = j — i co s 26
sin 0 cos 0 = 2 sin 20
D ividing Eqs. (A.41) an d (A.42) b y A gives
a„ = co s 20 (A.43)
t = ~ ° s sin 26 (A.44)
If values o f t a n d a„ a re p lo tted for d ifferen t v alues o f th e angle 0, as sh o w n

in Fig. A.25, all the p o in ts will lie o h th e circle. T h is c o n stru c tio n , first used by
M o h r, is sim ilar to th a t used fo r finding m o m e n ts o f in e rtia a b o u t inclined axes.
N o rm al stresses a re co n sid ered positive w hen tensive a n d negative w hen
com pressive. C om pressiv e stresses a re th erefo re sh o w n to th e left o f the o rigin o n
M o h r’s circle. In th e follow ing exam ples, sh e arin g stresses a re considered positive
w hen they tend to ro ta te the elem ent clockw ise a n d neg ativ e w hen they te n d to
ro ta te th e elem ent co u n terclo ck w ise. T h u s, o n a n y tw o p e rp e n d ic u la r planes, the
shearing stress on o n e p la n e w o u ld te n d to ro ta te the e le m e n t clockw ise a n d
w ould be m easu red u p w a rd o n th e circle, a n d th e sh e a rin g stress o n the o th e r
MOMENTS O r INF.RTIA, MOHR’S CIRCLE 431
■n.'p Figure A.25
plan e w ould be eq u al n u m erically b u t o p p o site in sign a n d w o u ld be m easured

d o w n w ard . If this sign co n v e n tio n for sh e a rin g stresses is follow ed, a clockw ise
ro ta tio n o f the p lanes o f stress c o rre sp o n d s to a clockw ise ro ta tio n on the circle.
In s o m e books, the o p p o site sign co n v en tio n fo r sh ea rin g stresses is used, an d a
clockw isc ro ta tio n of the p lanes c o rre sp o n d s to a co u n terclo ck w ise ro ta tio n on
the circle.
E x am p le A.9 T h e sm all elem ent sh o w n in Fig. A.26 rep resen ts th e co n d itio n s

of tw o -d im en sio n al stress a t a p o in t in a stru c tu re . F in d th e no rm al a n d
sh earin g stresses o n p lan es inclined a t a n an g le 9 w ith th e vertical plane for
. values o f 9 a t 30° intervals. F in d th e p rin c ip a l p lan es a n d p rin cip al stresses.
F in d th e p lan es of m ax im u m sh ear an d th e stresses o n th ese planes.
S o l u t i o n T h e values o f the n o rm a l stress an d th e sh earin g stress t on th e

h o riz o n ta l and vertical p lanes are p lo tte d as sh o w n in F ig. A.27. T he vertical
p lan e h a s a n o rm a l stress o f 10,000 a n d a sh e a rin g stress o f 4500 lb /in 2, a n d
these c o o rd in ates are sh o w n for p o in t A o n M o h r’s circle. T h e stresses on th e
h o riz o n ta l p lan e a re rep resen ted b y p o in t B o n the circle, w ith co ordin ates of
—2000 an d + 4 5 0 0 . T h e circlc is now d ra w n w ith line A B as a diam eter. T h e
;ooo nviii-’
-2,OCX
+4,50(
Figure A.27
distan ce O C is ^ ( —2000 + 10,000) = 4000. P o in ts A an d B have a h o rizo n tal

distance o f 6000 a n d a v ertical d istan ce o f 4500 from th e c en te r of the circle:
R a d iu s = J 6 0 0 Q 2 + 4 5 0 0 2 = 7500
or 20 = 36.86° and 0 = 18.43°
T h e p rin cip al stresses a re rep resen ted on the circle by p o in ts P a n d Q.

T h e co o rd in a te s o f th ese p o in ts a re o b ta in e d by a d d in g a n d su b tra ctin g the
ra d iu s from d ista n c e OC:
ap = 4000 + 7500 = 11,500 lb /in 2

a q = 4000 - 7500 = - 3 5 0 0 lb /in 2
T h e p o in t P o n th e circle is a t an an g le 20 co u n terclo ck w ise a ro u n d the

circle from p o in t A . T h e p rin cip a l p lan e F is th erefo re a t th e angle 0 = 18.4’3°
co u n terclo ck w ise from th e v ertical p la n e A, as sh o w n in F ig . A.28o. Sim ilarly,
p o in t Q is co u n terc lo c k w ise from th e h o riz o n ta l p la n e B, o r p erp en d icu lar to
p lan e P.
T h e p lan es o f m ax im u m sh e a rin g stress a re alw ays a t 45° to the p rincipal
planes, reg ard less o f th e stress c o n d itio n s. P o in ts R a n d S a t extrem ities of
th e vertical d ia m e te r o f M o h r’s circle rep resen t th e m ax im u m shearin g
stresses. O n th e circle, these p o in ts are alw ay s 90° fro m th e p oints a t th e
extrem ities o f th e h o riz o n ta l d iam eter, w hich rep re se n t th e p rincip, stresses.
T h e n o rm al stresses o n th e tw o planes o f m ax im u m s h e a r a re alw ays equ al,
since they a re b o th e q u a l to the d istan ce O C on th e circle diagram . T h e
m ax im u m sh e a rin g stresses a re show n o n a n elem ent in F ig. A.28b. P lan e S is
MOMENTS OF INERTIA, :MOHR’S CIRCLE 4 3 3
(./) (h) (£■) (J)

Figure A.28
26.57° clockw isc from the vertical, sincc p o in t S is twice this angle clockw ise
from p o in t A o n the circle. P lan e S is also 45° clockw ise from plane P, a n d
p lan e R is 45° co u n terclo ck w ise from p lan e P. T h e sh ea rin g stress on p lan e R
is positive, te n d in g to ro ta te the elem en t clockw ise. T h e sh earin g stress o n
p lan e S is negativ e, len d in g to ro ta te th e clem en t co unterclockw ise.
P lanes E an d F a re 30° co u n terclo ck w isc from p lan es A a n d B. P o in ts E
a n d F o n th e c irc le -m u st be 60° co u n terclo ck w ise fro m p o in ts A a n d B,
respectively. T h e stresses on plane E a re o b ta in e d by c a lc u la tin g the c o o rd i
n ates of p o in t E o n th e circlc:
t = 7500 sin 23.14" = 2950 lb /in 2
<r„ = 4000 + 7500 cos 23.14° = 10,900 lb /in 2
T h e stresses on p lan es £ an d F a rc sh o w n in Fig. A .28c in the c o rre c t
d irections. -
T he stresses on p lan e G, w hich is 60° co u n terclo ck w ise from the v ertical
p la n e A, arc
t = 7500 sin S3.14" = 7450 lb /in 2
o-„ = 4000 + 7500 cos 83.14° = 4900 lb /in 2
T h e stresses on p lan es H, w hich are p e rp e n d ic u la r to p la n e G, are
z = - 7 5 0 0 sin 83.14° = - 7 4 5 0 lb /in 2

<7„ = 4000 - 7500 cos 83.14° = 3100 lb /in 2
T h ese stresses a re show n in Fig. A.l&d.

APPEN D IX
B _______
M ATRIX ALG EBRA
B.l MATRIX DEFINITIONS

______ 1
A m atrix is defined as a re c ta n g u la r a rra y o f elem ents (sym bolic o r num erical)

arran g ed in row s an d co lu m n s as follow s:
1______
k\2
m = &2i k 22 k2j- ( i = 1, 2, 3 , . . . ; ; = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . ) (B .l)
k i2 k<j _
f
w here an clem ent k ;j h as th e su b scrip ts / a n d j to in d icate the elem ent lo catio n in

the ith row a n d j t h co lu m n , respectively. F o r in stan ce, elem ent k 2l is lo cated in
ro w 2 a n d co lu m n 1.
F o r i n o t eq u al to j , as in E q. (B .l), th e m a trix is called a rectangular matrix
o f o rd e r i x j. F o r i = j = n, th e m atrix is defined as a square m atrix o f o rd er
n x n:
-*T
k 12 ■” k ln
k 2\ kzz •** k 2n (B.2)
k„2
• *■> k nn form th e main diagonal of ;

k;j (i ^ j) a re referred to as the off-diagonal elements.
F o r i = 1 a n d j > 1, th e m a trix is said to be a row m a trix o f o rd e r 1 x j a n d is
w ritten as
[ K ] = [fc11 k l 2 - - k 1J] ( j = 1 ,2 ,3 ,...) (B.3)
F o r / > 1 a n d j = 1, th e m a trix is defined as a column m a trix o f o rd e r i x 1
434
MATRIX ALGEBRA 435
and is w ritten as
i
{*} k 21 (i = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . ) (B.4) '
D ia g o n a l, Id e n tity a n d N u ll M a tr ic e s
A diagonal m atrix [ K ] is o n e w hose olT-diagonal elem ents k u = 0 (i t 4 j) a n d

m ain -d iag o n al elem en ts ^ 0 ( / ' = j):
fcn 0 ... 0
[K] = 0 k22 ^ (B.5)
0 0 ^11
An identity, o r m a trix [ X ] is a d iag o n al m a trix w h o se m a in -d iag o n al el
em en ts k u — 1 (/ = _/'):
" 1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0 (B.6)
[K ] = (7] =
,0 0 ... 1
A nu// m atrix [iv ] is o n e w hose every elem ent = 0:
0 0
(B.7)
[K ] = 0 0
0 0
S y m m e tr ic a n d T r a n s p o s e d M a tr ic e s
A sq u are m atrix [A '] is said to be symmetric if th e follow ing h o ld s tru e :
kjj - kj; (B.8)
A num erical exam ple o f a 3 x 3 sy m m etric m a trix is

15v. - 2 7
[K] = - 2 '" " 9 ^ 21
7 21 " 1 6 J
N oticc th a t the m ain d ia g o n a l (dashed line) is the line o f sym m etry.

T h e transpose m a trix [ X J T of a m atrix [A '] is o b ta in e d b y in terch an g in g ro w s
and co rre sp o n d in g co lu m n s. F o r exam ple, if a m a trix [ K ] is given by
ku ku
[K ] = (B.9)
ku k 2i
then its tran sp o se [AT]t c a n be easily w ritten as
fcn k 2l
[K ]r = k 12 k 22
_ k 2j _
D e te r m in a n ts
D eterm in an ts are defined for sq u a re m atrices only. T h u s, th e determinant |K | of a

sq u are m atrix [ K ] is defined as th e q u a n tity w hich results u p o n p erfo rm in g the
follow ing a rith m etic o p e ra tio n o n [ K ] :
l-^ i = Z k*jcij (J ~ a n y in teg er betw een 1 a n d m) (B. 1 1 )

is 1
m
or IK | = £ k-ijCij (i = any integer betw een 1 a n d m) (B.12)
j=i
E lem ents k u in E qs. (B .ll) a n d (B.12) a p p e a r in th e ;'th co lu m n a n d the /th row ,

respectively, o f m atrix [K ], L ikew ise, ciy- are th e cofactors w hich c o rresp o n d
to the Jih co lu m n o f m atrix [A '] in Eq. (B .ll) o r to the /th ro w o f m atrix [K ] in
Eq. (B.12).
T he cofactors ci} o f a m a trix [ K ] are d ete rm in e d by
cv = ( - l ) ,+'M u (B.13)
w here M y a re the m in o rs o f m a trix [ K ] a n d a re defined as th e d e te rm in a n t of th e

m atrix w hich results after d eletin g th e /th row a n d j t h co lu m n o f m a trix [K ].
L et us illu strate the c a lc u la tio n o f a d e te rm in a n t by c o n sid erin g th e follow ing
3 x 3 m a trix :
2 1 6
[K] = 3 5 4 («).
.2 2 1,
U sing Eq. (B .l 1) an d ch o o sin g ./ = 3 a rb itra rily , we gel
I K I= X ! ^>3 Ci3 = ^ 1 3 c 13 + ^ 2 3 c 23 + ^33 ^33

i= l
w here, from Eq. (u),
&i3 = 6 , k 23 = 4, k 33 = 1
F o r j = 3, Eq. (B.13) becom es
cl3 = ( - l ) , +3M a ' / = 1, 2, 3

MATRIX ALGUiRA 4 3 7
Ilcn ce
r t 3 = /U 13 c 23 = —M 23 c32 = M 33
As defined prev io u sly , the m in o r M u , o r the given m atrix in Eq. (a) is th e
d eterm in an t of the m a trix resulting from d ele tin g the first ro w a n d the th ird
colum n, c o rre sp o n d in g to su b scrip ts 1 an d 3 o n M l 3 . O r,
MU = P J = 3 x 2 - 5 x 2 = - 4
2 2
Sim ilarly,
2 1
M 21 = = 2 x 2 —1 x 2 = 2
2 2
2 1
M ,, = = 2 x 5 —1 x 3 = 7
3 5
Therefore,
= -4 C2S — — 2 c 33 = 7
and the d e te rm in a n t is
|K | = 6( —4) + 4( —2) + 1(7) = - 2 5
P r o p e r tie s o f D e te r m in a n t s
1. In terch an g in g a n y tw o row s o r co lu m n s o f a d e te rm in a n t ch an g es the sign o f
the d e te rm in a n t:
2 5 11 10 5 2
15
1 10 ~ 2 5 10 1
2. If tw o row s o r tw o co lu m n s of a d e te rm in a n t are id e n tic al, th e n the v a lu e o f

the d e te rm in a n t is zero.
3. If a d e te rm in a n t h as d ep en d e n t row s o r co lu m n s, the value o f th e d e te rm in an t
will be zero :
6
5 = 0
10
C o lu m n 3 is d e p e n d e n t o n colum ns I a n d 2:
C o lu m n 3 = c o lu m n 1 + c o lu m n 2
4. If row s a n d c o rre sp o n d in g co lu m n s o f a d e te rm in a n t a re in terch an g ed , th e

value o f the d e te rm in a n t is n o t ch a n g ed :
10 5 1 = 20
6 10 61
5. M u ltiplying th e d e te rm in a n t b y a sc a la r q u a n tity a, is eq u iv alen t to m u lti

plying the elem ents o f o n e ro w o r o n e co lu m n b y th a t q u a n tity :
&J1 kx2 aklt ki2 dk-n j2

&21 k 22 a k 21 ki2 k 2i k 22
6. If a row o r a co lu m n o f a d e te rm in a n t is c h an g ed by ad d in g to o r su b tra ctin g
from its elem ents th e co rre sp o n d in g elem ents (or c o rre sp o n d in g elem ents
m ultiplied by a co m m o n factor) o f an y o th e r ro w o r co lu m n , th en th e value o f
the d e te rm in a n t is n o t c h a n g e d :
2 I 6 7 3 1 2 2 4 4
4 6 4 6 10 6 4 8 4 6
ro w 2 co lu m n 2 h a lf o f h alf of
ad d ed a d d e d to co lu m n 1 ro w 2
to ro w 1 co lu m n 1 a d d e d to ad d e d to
c o lu m n 2 ro w 1
Singular Matrices
T h e m atrix [K ] is said to b e singular if th e value o f its d e te rm in a n t is zero.
4 2
If
8 4
4 2
T h en |K | = = 16-16 = 0
8 4
H ence, m a trix [TC] is singular.
B.2 MATRIX ALGEBRA
Matrix Addition
T w o m atrices [B ] an d [C ] o f o rd e r m x n can b e ad d ed by a d d in g each elem ent
bij o f m atrix [B ] to the c o rre sp o n d in g elem en t cy o f m atrix [ C ] :
‘ 6X1 c 12
=
^11 + C11 ^12 + C12
+
>21 b2 2 . _c 21 C22_ L b2l + c21 b 22 + c22_
or, in general, [A]™*" = + [C ]"1*" (B.14)
w here aij = bi] + ctJ i = 1, 2 , . . . , m ; j = 1, 2 , . . . , n) (B. 15)
Matrix Subtraction
M a trix su b tra c tio n is sim ila r to m atrix a d d itio n except elem en ts by a n d c,j are
su b tra c te d in stead o f b eing a d d e d :
[S]™*" = - [C ]" (B.16)

MATRIX ALGEBRA 4 3 9
w here bu - c'ij (i = I, 2 , . . . , m ; j = 1, 2, . . . , n) (B.17)
M a t r i x M u ltip lic a tio n

T h e m u ltip lic a tio n o f tw o m atrices [ 5 ] ” x" a n d [C ]" *r is p erfo rm ed by m u lti
plying cach elem ent o f a ro w i of m atrix [B ] b y th e c o rre sp o n d in g elem ent in a
co lu m n j o f m atrix [ C ] a n d sum m ing th e p ro d u c ts :
[ P ] " <r = (B .l 8)
(B.19)
w here Piji — T j biscsJ (i — 1, 2 , . . . , m ; j — 1, 2, . . . , r)
In e x p a n d e d form , E q. (B.19) bccom es

Pij = bn c u + bi2 c2 j + ■■■ + b in c„j (B.20)
T h e tw o m a trices (_^ j an d C'J can be m u ltip lied only if th e n u m b e r of c o lu m n s in

[B ] is eq u al to the n u m b e r of row s in [C ].
L e t us c o n sid er th e follow ing ex am p le:
1 £ J = [2 1 4 ] 1*3
2 1 3x2
cn = 4 2
L3 5_
= |B Jlx3[C ];' x2
‘2 1'
4 2
[2 1 4] = [20 24]
L3 5 J
or P ij = I! ctj = bn c ij + b n C2j + b i 3 C 3j
k-i
F o r i = 1 an d j = 1,
P u = b t ir u + b l 2 c 2l + b t i c3l
= 2x 2+1 x4 + 4x3=20
F o r i = I and ./ = 2,
Pi 2 = b n c i2 + b l 2 c 22 + b 1 3 c 3 2
= 2 x 1 + 1 x 2 + 4 x 5 = 24
P r o p e r tie s o f M a t r i x M u ltip lic a tio n
1. D istrib u tiv e law :

[ /I ] x ([ii] + [C ]) = [/1 ][B ] + [i4 ][C ]
2. C o m m u tativ e law : :
M M * D BM
3. A ssociative law :
[/*] x ([B ] x [C ]) = fl>i] x [ 3 ] ) x [C ]
4. If a m atrix is m u ltip lied o r divided by a sc a lar q u a n tity , this is eq u iv alen t to

m u ltip ly in g o r d ividing each elem ent o f th e m atrix by th e scalar q u a n tity :
I . 1
<3 Q
ban
-<
f l u
b =
_bd21 ba 22_
IN
~ a ll
1
«1 1 a i2 b b
b - a 21 a 12_
I
Matrix Inversion
T he inverse o f a sq u a re n o n sin g u lar m a trix [/£]> d e n o te d by [ K ] - 1 , c a n be
defined as an o p e ra tio n in m atrix alg e b ra a n a lo g o u s to division in o rd in ary
algebra. A m o n g th e m a n y techniques u sed fo r in v e rtin g a m atrix , o n ly tw o a re
presented here.
T o in v ert a m a trix [/<C] w hich m u st be sq u a re an d n o n sin g u lar, d o the
follow ing:
1. F o rm a m atrix o f c o facto rs [C ] w h o se elem ents a re fo u n d by u tilizing Eq.

(B.13):
Cy = ( - l ) ,+ ' M y ' (/ = 1, 2, n ; j = 1, 2, . . . , n) (B.I3)
T h e new m atrix o f co facto rs [C ] is referred to as th e adjoint o f [ K J :
Adj C/C] = [C ]
2. T ra n sp o s e th e a d jo in t m a trix :
T ran sp o se [ C ] = [ C ] r
3. F ind the d e te rm in a n t o f [ i f ] by using E q. (B.l 1) o r (B.12):

m
|K |= E * l/C y (j = l,2 , . . . , o r » » ) (B.l 1)
i= 1
m
or \K\ = Y k ij1'<j 0 = U 2> ---> o r '») (B -12)
j= i
4. D ivide Adj [/C ]T, o r [ C ] T, by j ^ | to o b ta in th e inverse:
T o illu strate, co n sid er the follow ing 2 x 2 m atrix :
~5 2
[K] = 2 1
F irst, find [C ], th e ad jo in t o f [ K ] :
c<j = ( l); + ; A/„

or cn = M n cu = - M i2 c 2I = - M 2i
w here Mn = 1 A /t2 = 2 M 2, = 2 A /22 = 5
T herefore, [C ] = *
L-2 5
Second, tran sp o se [ C ] :
[ C ] 7' =
-2
T h ird , find Ihe d e te rm in a n t o f [ K J :
|K | = 5 x 1 - 2 x 2 = 1
F o u rth , divide [C V by |K |:
[c y -2
or
\k \
-2
5.
C heek the results:
[K ][K ] [/]
1
1
1
(N
5 2
1
2
o
l_ L - 2 5J
j
In m atrix inversion by the C holeski m e th o d , an y sq u a re n o n sin g u iar m atrix

can be expressed a s the p ro d u c t o f a n u p p e r tria n g u la r m a trix [ [ / ] an d a lo w er
tria n g u la r m atrix [ / J . T h en the inversion o f the orig in al m atrix is reduccd lo
in v ertin g tw o tria n g u la r m atrices [ ( / ] an d [ L ] , w hich is q u ite sim ple. T h e d e
tailed d ev elo p m en t o f this m eth o d can be fo u n d in Refs. 10 an d 24. R estricting
ourselves to sy m m etrical m atrices only, we h av e
[K ] = M O T (B.22)
but OT = M r (B.23)
T h erefo re Eq. (B.22) becom es
(B.24)
T h e inverse can be w ritten as
[ X ] - 1 = [ L r ] - 1[ L ] - 1 (B.25)
or [ K ] - 1 = [ S ] r [SJ (B.26)
w here [S ] = [ L ] - 1 (B.27)
T h e elem ents o f [L ] and [S ] arc from Ref. 10:
i-1 \ 1/2
2
1
hj = i.___ V i - i ; i
îi / = 1 iw ‘mj
1> j (B.28)
hj
o i <j
i =j
‘>j (B.29)
0 i< j
If the inverse of [A ] is d en o ted by [ / / ] :
m = i x r 1 = LS]Tr a = r a t s ]
then the elem ents o f [H ] can be d eterm in e d as Follows:
^ ij Z j
m~ 1
s<„, = 0 O'> m) (B.30)
s,„i = 0 (. < m)
L et us co n sid er the follow ing 2 x 2 sy m m etric m a trix :
'2 3~
[K ]
3 5
i
F ro m Eq. (B.28),
/ i i = ( f c n )1/J = V ^
3_
2-1 \ 1/2
lz2 = ( k 2 2 - ^ Z H nJ = ik22 _ n i} m
= (5 — f ) 1/2 =
F ro m Eq. (B.29),
522 = r= v^
_ V 1 S 2 m L ,l
- - L -----
BI=I '11
= - S w S )
S-
-3
.v,, = 0
Or i
0
r a =
-3
^
1 - 3
S- ,n/2
K T = [S ] =
0 y /l
F ro m Eq. (B.30),
= E — 5 jx5[ | + 5 i 2 ^ i
J _3
+
V i S-
= 5
, , I2 = Zsi„,*„,2 — S , l S l 2 + ^ 1 2 -s 22
m- I
1 —3
—j= 0 + —7= y / l
r
= - 3 = /i21
72 J2
2
X *2m!tm2 = *2 I -?I2 + *2 2*22
= 0(0) + 7 2 (7 2 ) = 2
H cncc
5
[ K ] ’ 1 = [H ] =
-3
P r o p e r tie s o f th e In v e rs e o f a M a t r ix
1. T h e inverse of the p ro d u c t o f tw o sq u are m atrices [R ] a n d [K ] is equal to the

inverse o f [A '] m ultip lied by the inverse of [/? ]:
[ [ R ] [ K ] ] - '= [ K ] - '[ R ] - 1 (B.31)
2. T h e inverse o f a sy m m etric m atrix is also sym m etric.
M a t r i x P a r t it io n i n g
A m atrix K can be p a rtitio n e d (divided) in to sm aller su b m atrices by d raw ing

vertical and c o rre sp o n d in g h o riz o n ta l d o tte d lines a.s in d ic ate d :
^ 1 2 I ^ 1 3 ^ 1 4 I ^ 1 5
[ /c ] =
o ^ 2 1
^3 1
k 22
k i2 |
| ^ 2 3
k ' 33
^ 2 4
k 34.
j
J
^ 2 5
^ 3 5
A '* ! k 42 J fc43 k44 J A , ,
© _ ^ 5 1 k-5 2
1--------------------------------------1-
1 k 53 k 54 1 ^ 5 5 _
[K
U -J
I—i
12] [ £ , 3]
1_________________1
1—
[ K j j ] [ ^ 23]
1
[£31] [ * 3 J [ £ 33]
* .l
w here [ K n ]
.* 2 ! ^22,
4.
[* iJ
_^23 k 24_
^15
[K n ]
_^25.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 445
P r o p e r tie s o f P a r t it io n e d M a tr ic e s
1. T w o m atrices can be a d d ed o r su b tra c te d in term s o f th eir p a rtitio n e d su b

m atrices if the p a rtitio n in g is d o n e o n b o th m atrices in th e sam e m anner.
2. T w o m atrices can be m u ltip lied in term s o f th eir p a rtitio n e d subm atrices if th e
rule o f m atrix m u ltip lic atio n applies.
3. T h e inverse of a m atrix can be found in term s of its p a rtitio n e d subm atrices.
B .3 S I M U L T A N E O U S L I N E A R A L G E B R A I C E Q U A T I O N S
T h e m o st im p o rta n t a p p lic a tio n o f m atrix alg eb ra is in th e so lu tio n o f a large set

o f linear alg cb raic e q u atio n s. F o r in stan ce, th e follow ing is a set o f n sim u l
ta n eo u s lin e a r alg c b ra ic eq u atio n s w ith u n k n o w n s q t (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) expressed in
term s o f k n o w n q u a n titie s Q; (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) a n d the coefficients K ;j (i, j = 1,
2, . . . , ft):
kuVi + kuli + " ' + ki„<2„ = Qi
kuh + ^22 <72 + " ' + k ln qn — Q 2
+ k, , 2 q 2 + " ' + k„„q„ — Q„

or, in m a trix alg eb ra n o ta tio n ,
1_______
<li 'Q i'

e
k 2i k 22 ■■■ k 2„ q2 = Qi (B.32)
_fcni Ki K Jl .
In s h o rth a n d m a trix n o ta tio n , Eq. (B.32) c a n be w ritte n as
m { q } = {fi} (B.3 3)
U p o n in v ertin g [iC ], th e u n k n o w n co lu m n v ecto r {q} can b e fo u n d :
T o illu strate, c o n sid er the follow ing sim u lta n eo u s e q u a tio n s:
2<?i + 3 ? 2 = 14
(a)
3iji + 5 q2 - 22
In m a trix form , (a) becom es
2 3" <3i “ t4 ‘
(b)
3 5_ A i . _22_
- 1 '1 4
'/! '2 3"
(c)
.3 5_ _22_
T he inverse o f the m a trix is

- i
'2 3~ 5 - 3
.3 5_ - 3 2_
5 - 3 " '1 4 ' ~4~

T hus
—3 2_ _22_ 2
L«2.
or <7i = 4 and 92
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INDEX
A erodynam ic bonds, 31 —33 Bolted joints. 390 —395

Airy stress funclion. 126— 127 Bolts, eccentrically loaded. 401 —404
Fourier series solution. 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 Boundary conditions. 70
polynom ial solution, 127— 129 in therm al stress problem s. 284
Algebraic equations, sim ultaneous linear, Box beams:
4 4 5 -4 4 6 closed-section: sh e ar flow in. 113 — 118
Applied loads, 27 torsion of, 112— 113
A rgyris, J. H ., 145 ■ multicell: beam shear in. 272 —275
A ssociative law for m atrix m ultiplication, 440 torsion of. 2 7 0 —272
Axial loads, 3 redundancy of, 269 —270
Axial rods, 1 torsion of, 261 —263
warping of, 266 —269
Buckling design, 328 —387
Batdorf, S.. 371 for crippling failure or columns. 358 —362
Beam -delliction equations, 328 —330 for curved rectangular plates, elastic
Beam elem ents, global stillness m atrices for, buckling. 3 7 0 - 3 7 3
2 1 4 -2 2 6 for curvcd sheets, 3 6 4 - 3 6 8
Beam shear in multicell boxes. 2 7 2 —275 Tor eccentrically loaded colum ns. 331 —332
Beams: for fixed end colum ns, 334 —339
curved, bending stresses in. 307 —3 10 for flat plates, elastic shear buckling,
normal stresses in, 99 — 101 3 6 8 -3 7 0
shear stresses in. 101 — 104 for isotropic flat plates in compression.
alternate solutions for, 104— 107 3 4 4 -3 4 9
tapered, sh ear flow in, 118—121 for isotropic fiat sheets, 349 —353
unrestrained, therm al stresses in, 289 —291 for long colum ns, 3 3 0 - 3 3 1
with variable stringer areas. 122—126 nondim ension;:; buckling curves, 3 5 7 - 3 5 8
Bending m odulus o f rupture, 301 —302 plastic buckling o f flat sheet, 353 —357
Bending m om ents, 3 o f pure tension field beams. 373 —377
Bending stresses: for short colum ns. 3 3 2 - 3 3 4 , 339 —341
constant, 302 —304 Built-up structures, therm al stresses in,
in curved beam s, 3 0 7 —3 J 0 2 9 1 -2 9 5
trapezoidal distribution of, 304 —307 Bulkheads, 238
Body loads, 2 {See also Fuselage bulkheads)
450
I N D E X 4 51
C astigliano's first theorem . 144 Diagonal web tension, angle of, 3 7 7 —380
Castigliano’s second theorem . 146 D im ensionless colum n curves for com parison
use in deflection analysis o f structures. of m aterials, 3 4 2 —344
1 5 0 -1 5 6 Displacem ent boundary conditions, 70
C entroids, 4 0 9 —411 D isplacem ents, sign convention for, 194
Cholcski m ethod. 441 Distributed loads. 2
C ircular shafts, torsion of, 310 —311 D istributive law for m atrix m ultiplication, 439
C'loscd-scction box beams: Dolan. J. J.. 86
shear now in, 11 3 —118 Drag, 31, 32
torsion of, 112— 113 Dunn, L. G ., 365
Colum n end fixity. 334 —339 D ynam ic loads. 2
Column failures, local crippling, 358 —362
Colum n mall ices. 435
Colum n yield stre ss. 339 Eccentrically loaded colum ns, buckling of,
C olum ns (see E ccentrically Joaded colum ns. 3 3 1 -3 3 2
buckling of: Long colum ns, buckling of; Eccentrically loaded connections, 4 0 1 —404
Short colum ns) Elastic axes o f wings, 2 6 3 —266
Com bined stresses. 320 —325 Elastic buckling o f curved rectangular plates,
M o h r's circle for, 4 2 9 —433 3 7 0 -3 7 3
Com m utative law for m atrix multiplication. E lastic limit, torsional stresses above,
440 3 1 7 -3 2 0
Com parison of sim ilar m aterials, dimensionless Elastic m odulus or elasticity, 148
colum n cu rv es for. 342 — 344 Elastic nonlinear behavior, 71, 72
C om patibility equations for therm al stresses. Elastic shear buckling o f flat plates, 368 —370
283. 284 —285 Elasticity of structures, 6 2 —77
C om plem entary strain energies and strain. 14(1 lllcment discretization, 191
Com plem entary w ork and w ork. 140 Elem ent form ulations, transform ations of, to
Com pression: system form ulation, 21 1—214
o f curvcd sheets, 364 —3(>H Element shape functions. 207 —209
o f isotropic flat plates, buckling, 344 - 3-19 polynomial m ethods, 207 —209
C om pression tests, Si Elem ent stiffness m atrices, 2 0 9 —2 1 1
C om pressive strength o f isotropic flat sheet. Element structural relationships:
3 4 9 -3 5 3 form ulation procedures, 202 —203
C oncentrated loads. 2 direct m ethod, 203 —205
C onstant bending stresses, 302 —304 energy m ethods, 2 0 5 —207
C onversion facto rs. S i/m etric, inside front End restraint of torsion mem bers, 316 —317
cover Engesser equation, 333 —334
C oordinate system . 192, 194 Equilibrium conditions for thermal stresses,
C orten. H. J.. 86 281, 2 S 4 - 2 8 5
C ozzone. F. P., 304. 305. 343. 357 Equivalent load solution for thermal stress
Crippling stresses: problems, 286 —289
o f colum ns, 358 —362 Euler, L., 331
G erard m ethod for calculating. 362 —363 Euler column, 365
N eedham m ethod for calculating. 362 —363 E uler curve, 339. 340
Curved beam s, bending stresses in. 307 —310 liulcr equation. 331. 3 3 9 - 3 4 2 . 345, 353
Curved rectangular plates, elastic buckling of, Euler load, 3 3 1, 332
3 7 0 -3 7 3
Curved sheets:
buckling of. 364 —368 F actor o f safety, 27
com pression of, 364 —368 Failure theories in structural design,
C utouts in sem im onocoque structures. 3 2 5 -3 2 7
2 5 1 -2 6 0 I-'atigue. 84 —89
Fatigue failure, 84
Fatigue-life prediction, 84 —87
Deflection analysis o f structural svstems. Fatigue tests, 5-iV curves, 85, 87 —89
1 3 9 -1 8 6 Finite difference m ethod, 158—165
Design loads. 27 Finite elem ent m atrix m ethods, applications of,
D eterm inants. 4 36 —437 192
properties of, 437 —438 Finite element stiffness m ethod, 190 —226
Diagonal m atrices, 435 First central difference approxim ation, 159
452 I N D E X
Fittings, 389 Linear clastic structural system s, 147— 150

strength of. accuracy of analysis of, 395 Load factors:
Fixed supports. 5 gust, 43 —46
F lat plates: for translational acceleration, 37 —41
elastic shear buckling of. 368 —370 V-n diagram s, 41 —43
isotropic, buckling of, 3 4 4 —349 L oads:
Flat sheets, buckling of, 349 —357 applied. 27
FJigb! loading conditions, 27 —31 classification of, 2 —3
Flight-vehicle aerodynam ic loads, 3 I —33 design. 27
Flight-vehicle im posed loads, 26 —58 distribution lo this w ebs, 233 —237
Flight-vehicle inertia loads, 34 —37 on fuselage bulkheads. 2 3 8 -2 4 3
F orce-stress relationships. 97 —98 im posed on flight vehicles, 26 —58
Forces, sign convention for, 194, limit, 27
Free contraction o f solids. 279 ultim ate. 27
Free expansion of solids. 279 Long colum ns, buckling of. 3 3 0 - 3 3 1
Full m onocoque structures, 233
Fuselage bulkheads, loads on. 238 —243
M ain diagonal of a square m atrix, 434
M aterials:
G assner, E.. 86 behavior and evaluation of, 78 —95
G aussian coordinate system s. 97 slrcngln-weight com parisons of, 89 —92
G erard m ethod, 362 —363 testing of, 79 —82
G lobal stillness m atrices for spccial beam typical design data for, 94 —95
elem ents, 214 —226 M athem atical m odels of structures, 191
G ordon. S. A.. 384 M atrices. 6. 435 —436
G u st load factors, 4 3 —46 M atrix addition. 438
M atrix algebra, 4 3 8 —445
M atrix definitions. 434 —438
H inge-roller supports, 5 M atrix inversion, 440 —444
Hinge supports, 4 —5 M atrix m ultiplication. 439
H oneycom b cores, 92 properties of, 439 —440
H ooke's law, 148 M atrix partitioning, 444
properties of. 445
M atrix subtraction. 438
Identity m atrices, 435 M elcon, M. A ., 343, 357
Inclined axes, m om ents o f inertia about, M em branes, 1
4 1 9 -4 2 0 M ethod of joints. 10— 12
Incom pletely developed diagonal tension field M ethod of sections, 12 ■
beam s, 3 8 0 —3 8 1 M etric conversion factors, endpaper
inelastic nonlinear behavior, 71, 72 M inim um guaranteed values, 94 —95
Inertia loads. 34 —37 Minimum weight, 89
Isotropic bodies, 72 M odulus of elasticity, 80
M ohr's circle. 320, 322, 374
for combined stresses, 4 2 9 —433
• Joints, 3 8 9 - 3 9 5 for m oments of inertia, 4 2 5 —429
M om ents o f inertia, 4 1 1 —418
about inclined axes, 4 1 9 —420
Kanem itsu, S., 366 M ohr's circle for, 425 —429
Kelsey. S.. 145 M onocoque structures, 233
Kowalewski, J., 86 Multicell box beams:
Kuhn, P.. 3 8 1 ,3 8 3 beam shear in, 272 —275
torsion of. 270 —272
M ultiphase m aterials. 79
Lahde, R., 381
Langhaar, H. L., 380
Levy, S., 3 8 1 ,3 8 4 N eedham m ethod. 362 —363
Lift. 3 1 ,3 2 N egative high angle o f attack (N H A A ),
Limit-load factor, 27 2 9 -3 0
Limit loads, 27 N egative low angle o f attack (N LA A ). 30
L inear clastic behavior, 7 1 ,7 2 N ojim a, H., 366
IN D E X 453
N oncircular shaft, torsion of, 3 11 —3 16, Sem im onocoque structures:

N ondim ensional buckling curves, 357 —358 analysis o f m em bers of, 233 —275
Norm al strains, 67 —68 cutouts in, 2 5 1 —260
Null m atrices, 435 shearing deform ations of. 260 —261
Scm itension field beam s, 380 —387
Shafts:
Off-diagonal elem ents of a square m atrix. 434 circular, torsion of, 310 —311
O rthotropic bodies,. 72 noncircular, torsion of. 3 1 1 —316
O sgouJ. W. R.. 83. 342 Shanley, R R., 321, 3 2 5 '
S hear centcrs, 109— I 12
of wings, 263 —266
Palm gren-M iner theory. 85 S hear How, 106
Purtial-tension field beam s, 380 —38! in closed-section box beam s, 113 — 118
Partitioned m atrices. 444 in tapered beam s, 118—121
properties of, 445 in t;1.;1 ,-■! w ebs. 246 —251
Peterson, J. P., 381 in Lhm w ebs, 107 — 109
Pitching m om ent, 32 Shear lag. 1 8 1 - 1 8 6
Plane motion, 35 S hearIgads, 3
Plane-strain problem s, com patibility equations Shear m odulus, 73
for, 6 9 - 7 0 Shear m odulus of elasticity, 82
Planc-.stress problem s, com patibility equations Shear panels, 2
for, 69 —70 Shear stresses in beam s, 10 I — 104
Plastic bending, 300 —302 alternate solutions for, 104— 107
Piustic buckling of flat sheets. 353 —357 Shear tests, 8 1 —82
Plastic range o f m em bers, 300 Shearing deform ations in semim onocoque
Plate elem ents, ! structures, 260 —261
P oisson's ratio, 73, 148. 344 —346, 368. 371 Shearing strains, 67
Polar m om ent of inertia, 412 Shells, 2
Positive high angle o f attack (PH A A ), 27 —29 Short columns:
Positive low angle of attack (PI.A A ), 29 buckling of, 332 —334
Principal axes, 420 —421 empirical fom m las for buckling design of.
Principal planes, 429 3 3 9 -3 4 1
Principal stresses, 429 Sign convention for forccs and displacem ents,
Product o f inertia. 419. 421 - 4 2 4 194
Proportional limit, 80 Sim ultaneous linear algebraic equations,
Pure tension field beam s, buckling of, 4 4 5 -4 4 6
3 7 3 -3 7 7 Single-phase m aterials, 79
Singular m atrices, 6
S -N curves. 85. 8 7 - 8 9
Radius of gyration, 414 Spanwise taper effect, 1 1 8 -1 2 1
Rayleigh-Ritz m ethod. 143, 156—158 Square m atrices, 434, 436
Reactions. 4 —5 Stable static equilibrium , 5
Rectangular m atrices. 434 Static analysis o f structures, 1—21
Reduced m odulus equation, 334 Static equilibrium , equations of, 5 —6
Redundancy of box beam s. 269 —270 Static loads, 2
Redundant stru ctu res, 6 —7 Statically determ inate structures, 6 - 7
multiple redu n d an cy. 173—181 Statically indeterm inate structures, 6 —7
single redundancy, 167— 173 Stein, M., 371
and the unit-load m ethod. 165— 166 Stiffness m ethod concept, 197 —202
Riveted jo in ts, 390 —395 Strain and com plem entary strain energies.
Rivets, eccentrically loaded, 401 —404 140
Rolling. 35 "Strain-displacem ent relationships, 68 —69, 282
Romberg, W., 83 Strains, 66 —67
Rom berg-O sgood eq uation, 342 {See also S tresses and strains,
Row m atrices. 434 transform ation of)
Ryder, E. I., 321, 325 Strength-w eight com parisons of m aterials,
8 9 -9 2
Stress analysis, 9 7 — 130
Sandwich constru ction, 92 —94 Stress equilibrium equations, nonuniform
Schildcrout, M.. 37 1 stress field, 65 —66
454 I N D E X :
*
Stress function solution for therm al stress Torsional* stresses { C o n i j 'X ^

problem s. 286 • . o f closed-section box yearns, 112—113
Stress ratios, 3 2 1 —325 ■■ above the elastic limit, 31 7 —320
Stress-strain curve idealization, equations for. end restraint of member;*' 316 —317
' 8 2 -8 4 of multiccll box beam s, 2 7 0 —272
Stress-strain relationships, 7 1 —73 n f mincircuhir shaftx. 31 I —3 16
Stresses, 6 2 —64 T ranslational acceleration, load factors for.
normal, in beam s, 99 — 101 3 7 —41 * -
Stresses and strains, transform ation of. 7 3 —75 T ranspose m atrices, 436
Stringer areas in beam s, 122—126 T rapezoidal distribution of bending stresses,
Structural system s, defined, 1 3 0 4 -3 0 7
Structures, static analysis of, 1 —21 T russes, 1
Supports, 3 —5 ^ . T sien, H. S.. 365
Surface loads, 2 -• T w o-force m em bers, 1
Sym m etric m atrices! 435— 436 •
System form ulations, transform ed from
elem ent form ulations, 2 1 1 —214 U ltim ate com pressive strength of isotropic Hat
sheet, 3 4 9 - 3 5 3
Ultimate-Ioad factor, 27
Tangent m odulus curves, dim ensionless form U ltim ate loads, 27
of, 3 4 2 - 3 4 4 . Ultim ate strength, St
T angent m odulus o f elasticity, 333 \ . Unit-load m ethod, 145
T angent m odulus equation, 333 —334 and redundant structures, 165—166
T apered webs, sh e ar flow in, 2 4 6 —251 U nit matrices, 435
T aylor series, 143, 146
T ensile tests, 79 —81
Tension m em bers, 299 —300 V elocity-load-factor (K-/i) diagrams. 41 - 4 3
Therm al coefficient of expansion, 280 Virtual displacem ents, principle of. 140—144
Therm al equilibrium , 284 —285 a V irtual forces, 144— 145
equations for, 28 1-. V irtual work, 140
Therm al loads, 2 1 V on Karman, T. L.. 365
Therm al stresses, 279 —295
boundary conditions, 284
in built-up stru ctu res, 291 —295 W agner, H .. 380, 381
form ulation o f equations for analysis of, W arping of beam cross sections, 266 —269
2 8 1 -2 8 4 W ebs, diagonal tension in, angle of. 377 —3 SO
. solution m ethods for problem s in, {See also T apered w ebs, shear How in: Thin
2 8 4 -2 8 9 webs)
in unrestrained beam s, 289 —291. W elded joints, 404 —408
T h erm o eiastic problem s, solution m ethods for, W ing ribs, analysis of, 243 —246
2 8 4 -2 8 9 W ings:
Therm oeiastic strain -stress relationships. ■ elastic axes of, 263 —266
2 8 2 -2 8 3 ' shear centers of, 263 —266
Thin webs: W ork and com plem entary work, 140
load distribution to, 2 3 3 —237 ■
shear flow in, 107—109
T orques, 3 Yaw ing, 35
Torsional stresses: Yield point. 80
o f box beam s, 2 6 1 —263 Yield stress, 80
o f circular shafts, 3 10 —311 Y'oung’s m odulus, 73

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

How does the book describe the analysis of stresses and strains?

How does the book describe the analysis of stresses and strains?

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

' [.ate Professor o f Aeronautical Engineering

Professor o f Petroleum anti M echanical Engineering '

McGraw-Hill Book Company

This book was set in Times Roman by Santypo-Byrd.

Copyright vR 1982 by McGraw-Hill. Inc. AH rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Chapter 1 Static Analysis o f Structures I

Chapter 2 Flight-Vehicle Imposed L oad s 26

Chapter 3 Elasticity of'Structures 62

3.7 Stress-Strain Relationships 71

Chapter 4 Behavior and Evaluation o f Vehicle Material 78

Chapter 5 Stress Analysis 97

Chapter 6 Deflection Analysis o f Structural Systems 139

Chapter 7 Finite Element Stiffness Method in

7.3 E lem ent D isc retizatio n 191

Chapter 8 Analysis o f Typical Members o f

Chapter 9 Thermal Stresses 279

Chapter 10 Design o f Members in Tension, Bending,

10.8 E n d R e stra in t o f T o rsio n M em b ers 316

Chapter 11 Buckling Design o f Structural Members 328

Chapter 12 Joints and Fittings 389

T h e p u rp o se of this book is tw ofold: ( 1 ) to p rovide the reader with fundam ental

1.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Figure 1.1 Bar elements, (a) G en­

braues. T h o se w hich a re c a p a b le o f c a rry in g o n ly in -p lan e sh ea rin g lo ad s a re

1.3 LOAD CLASSIFICATION

L o ad s w hich a c t on a stru c tu ra l system m a y be generally classified in a c co rd an ce

Figure 1.2 Plate elements, (a)

th a t it c u ts th e face o f a stru c tu ra l m em b er p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e m e m b er axis, as

1.4 SUPPORTS AND REACTIONS

T h e p rim a ry function of supports is to p ro v id e , a t som e p o in ts o f a stru c tu ral

Ccm cent ruled] II’2/<:

in ten d ed in the design. T h e types o f s u p p o rts th a t o c c u r in o rd in a ry p ractice are

Figure 1.4 S = axial load, lb; M x - T — torque, lb - in ; M x. M. = bending moment(s), Ib -in ; Vx ,

th u s reactiv e forces (reactions) a re d ev elo p ed in th e o th e r d irectio n s w here m o v e­

1.5 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

O n e o f the first step s in the design o f a stru c tu ra l system is (he d e te rm in a tio n

w here I F , = 0 im plies th a t th e v ec to r sum o f all forces acting o n the system o r

a n y preselected po in t m ust ad d to zero a ro u n d an y one o f the ch o sen set o f ax es

N o te th a t o n ly six in d ep en d e n t e q u a tio n s exist for any free b o d y in space an d

In m atrix form these are as follow s.

T he th ird eq u a tio n m ay be o b ta in e d by a d d in g th e first two e q u a tio n s, a n d

A stru c tu re is said to be determinate if all its ex tern al rea c tio n s a n d th e

Figure 1.6 Indeterm inate structures.

W hile the set o f [E q s. (1.1) and (1.2)] is sim p le an d well k n o w n , it is very

E xam ple 1.1 F ind th e in te rn al lo ad s a c tin g o n each m em b er o f th e stru c tu re

S o l u t i o n First, d isassem ble th e stru c tu re as sh ow n in Fig. 1.8 a n d m a k e a

Kigurt* J-8 D is a s se m b le d s tru c tu re .

F iy + 2915 sin 36.9° - 1000 = 0

F 5, - 2915 cos 36.9" + 1335 - 500 cos 60° = 0

F Sv - 2915 sin 36.9" + 750 - 500 sin 60" = 0

e q u atio n s o f e q u ilib riu m to th e e n tire s tru c tu re :

1250 - 1000 - 500 co s 60° = 0

1433 - 1000 - 500 sin 60° :0

Figure 1.1 Bar elements, (a) G en

th u s reactiv e forces (reactions) a re d ev elo p ed in th e o th e r d irectio n s w here m o v e

E xam ple 1 . 2 F in d th e in te rn a l lo a d in m e m b er 5 o f th e c o p la n a r tru ss stru c

— 10 in— ►{-»— 10 in— 4----- 10 in.....-j

A rrow s a c tin g to w a rd a jo in t in d icate th a t a m em b er is in co m

E xam ple 1.6 F in d Ihe lo ad s on the lift a n d d ra g -tru s s m em b ers ol the e x te r

E xtensive ae ro d y n a m ic in fo rm atio n is re q u ired to in v estig ate th e p e r

the w ing sp a n h as th e sam e p itch in g -m o m en t coefficient cm, th e M A C is d e te r