PVC Design Guide Approved PDF

PVC PIPING SYSTEMS FOR
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL

APPLICATIONS
Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following contributors to the Design Guide: The PVC and
Thermoplastic Industrial Piping Systems (TIPS) Product Line Committees and member
companies of the Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association (PPFA). In particular the following PPFA
companies and individuals ably assisted in reviewing the text and tables and provided valuable
comments which added greatly in producing a better and more accurate source document:
Chuck Bush – Oatey Company
Mike Cudahy – PPFA Staff
Patrick Fedor – IPEX
Bill Morris – Charlotte Pipe & Foundry
Jack Roach – Mueller Industries
Bill Weaver – Harvel Plastics
Larry Workman – LASCO Fittings
All text, tables and photos were prepared and or edited by David A. Chasis of Chasis Consulting, Inc.
Using the Design Guide

The Design Guide was created to assist engineers, installers, end-users, engineering students and
building code officials in learning more of the dos and don’ts of PVC piping systems. The Design
Guide is comprised of ten sections including:
 Introduction
 Features and Benefits
 Engineering Design
 Joining Methods
 Installation
 Testing and Repair
 Applications
 Building Codes, Standards, and Sample Specifications
 PVC Piping and the Environment
 Other Plastic Piping Systems
In addition, in the back of the guide is the most complete appendix and glossary of PVC piping
systems ever assembled.
Other PPFA Educational Materials

The PPFA offers a wide range of other educational materials developed to assist the engineering
and construction industry to become more proficient in the use of the preferred piping
system...plastics! On-site seminars, Webinars, CD-based seminars, workbooks, online tutorials
and product and technical literature are available. For more information on these educational
tools, visit PPFA’s website at www.ppfahome.org.
Disclaimer
The material in the Design Guide has been prepared for the general information of the reader/user.
The information is believed to be technically correct; however, the authors, PPFA and their
directors, officers, staff, and agents do not warrant the Design Guide or any of its contents suitable
for any specific applications. The presented material is published as an information guideline only.
It shall be the responsibility of the reader/user to incorporate prudent and generally accepted
engineering practices and to meet the requirements of all involved regulatory agencies and their
codes and standards.
© PPFA, 2008/2009
All Rights Reserved
ii
Table of Contents
Page Page
Introduction ..................................................................... 1 Noise in DWV Piping ......................................... 45
Definitions ................................................................... 1 Static Electricity ................................................. 45
History ........................................................................ 4 Underground Design ................................................ 46
Material Characteristics .............................................. 6 Pipe Stiffness..................................................... 47
Physical Characteristics ............................................. 8 Soil Stiffness ...................................................... 47
Safety and Systems Design ..................................... 11 Pipe Loading...................................................... 47
Features and Benefits ................................................... 13 Trench Design ................................................... 47
Durability .................................................................. 13 Minimum Cover for Pipe .................................... 48
Safe and Easy to Install ............................................ 17 Risers ................................................................ 48
Environmentally Sound............................................. 20 Joining Methods ............................................................ 49
Cost Effective ........................................................... 23 General Piping Practices .......................................... 49
Engineering Design ....................................................... 27 Solvent Cementing ................................................... 52
Design Piping Practices............................................ 27 Flanging .................................................................... 58
Chemical Resistance ......................................... 28 Threading ................................................................. 59
Pipe Operating Pressure ................................... 29 Other Joining Systems ............................................. 61
Types of Pipe..................................................... 29 Gasketed-Bell and Spigot .................................. 61
Other PVC Piping Systems................................ 30 Mechanical Radius Cut/Rolled-Grooved with

Metal Gasketed Coupler .................................... 62
Fittings ............................................................... 30
Mechanical Cut-Groove with Plastic Spline and
Temperature and Pressure Ratings................... 30 Coupler .............................................................. 64
Friction Loss ...................................................... 32 Transition Joints ................................................ 64
Hydraulic Shock/Water Hammer ....................... 32 Heat Fusion ....................................................... 66
Aboveground Design ................................................ 35 Installation ..................................................................... 67
Thermal Expansion and Contraction ................. 35 Work Crew ................................................................ 67
Thermal Stress and Longitudinal Force ............. 37 Storage and Handling ............................................... 68
Support Spacing ................................................ 39 Aboveground Installation .......................................... 69
Pipe Hangers ..................................................... 40 Expansion/Contraction ...................................... 70
Anchors and Guides .......................................... 42 Support Spacing ................................................ 73
Piping Insulation ................................................ 43 Outdoor Weathering .......................................... 73
Fire Resistive Design......................................... 43 Compressed Air/Gases ..................................... 74
Plenums ............................................................ 44 Impact Protection............................................... 74
Fire Resistance Ratings .................................... 44 High Heat Environments .................................... 74
Other Aboveground Design Considerations ............. 44 Air Admittance Valve (AAV) ............................... 74
Cold Environments ............................................ 44 Fire Stops .......................................................... 75
Compressed Air/Gases ..................................... 44 Underground Installation .......................................... 76
Outdoor Environments ....................................... 45 Trench Preparation/Depth/Cover ....................... 76
Air Admittance Valve ......................................... 45 Bedding and Backfilling ..................................... 76
Table of Contents – iii

Page Page
Pipe Placing and Snaking.................................. 77 PVC Cellular Core Pipe and DWV Fittings ............. 116
Thrust Blocking.................................................. 78 PVC SDR Pressure Piping Systems ...................... 117
System Testing.................................................. 79 PVC Reclaimed Water Piping Systems .................. 118
Pipe Relocation ................................................. 79 Other PVC Piping System Products ....................... 119
Testing and Repair ....................................................... 81 PVC Piping and the Environment ............................... 125
Water Testing ........................................................... 81 Other Plastic Piping Systems...................................... 130
Repair ....................................................................... 83 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) ................... 130
Applications .................................................................. 89 Chlorinated Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) .............. 132
Commercial Applications .......................................... 89 Polyethylene (PE)................................................... 134
Plumbing and Mechanical Piping Systems ........ 90 Cross-linked Polyethylene (PEX) ........................... 136
Pressure Systems ............................................. 91 Polypropylene (PP) ................................................ 137
Non-pressure Systems ...................................... 95 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).............................. 139
Industrial Applications .............................................. 99 Appendix A: PVC Product Safety Warnings................ 141
Building Codes, Standards, and Sample Specifications Appendix B: Abbreviations and Acronyms .................. 143
............................................................................... 109
Appendix C: Chemical Resistance .............................. 151
Building Codes ....................................................... 109
Appendix D: PVC Piping Friction-Loss Tables ............ 161
Standards ............................................................... 110
Appendix E: Partial Listing of Fire Stop Installations ... 165
Sample Specifications General .............................. 112
Appendix F: Conversion Charts & Useful Formulas .... 173
PVC Schedule 80 Piping Systems Specification .... 113
Glossary of Plastic and Piping Terminology................ 185
PVC Schedule 40 Pressure Piping Systems
Specification ........................................................... 114
PVC Schedule 40 Dual Marked Pipe and PVC DWV

Fittings .................................................................... 115
iv – Table of Contents
List of Tables
Page
Table 1. History and Highlights of PVC Water Piping Systems ................................................................................................... 4
Table 2. PVC Piping Physical Properties .................................................................................................................................. 12
Table 3. Cost Comparison of Installed Plastic vs. Metal Piping Systems .................................................................................. 25
Table 4. Installed Cost for DWV and Storm Drainage Piping Installation .................................................................................. 25
Table 5. Chemical Resistance of PVC to Typical Broad Chemical Groups* ............................................................................. 28
Table 6. Schedule 40 and 80 Pipe Pressure Ratings (psi at 73°F) ........................................................................................... 30
Table 7. Temperature Correction Factors for PVC Piping ......................................................................................................... 31
Table 8. Operating Pressure of Valves, Unions, and Flanges................................................................................................... 31
Table 9. PVC Pipe Thermal Expansion (in.).............................................................................................................................. 35
Table 10. Support Spacing of PVC 40 and 80 Pipe .................................................................................................................. 39
Table 11. Support Spacing Corrections with S.G. Greater than 1.0 .......................................................................................... 39
Table 12. Minimum Trench Widths ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Table 13. Joint Moving Set Times ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Table 14. 10% Pressure Testing Cure Times ........................................................................................................................... 54
Table 15. 100% Pressure Testing Cure Times ......................................................................................................................... 55
Table 16. Number of Cemented Joints per Container Size ....................................................................................................... 56
Table 17. Recommended Crew Size for PVC Pipe Installation ................................................................................................. 67
Table 18. Loop Offset (in.) for Contraction ................................................................................................................................ 77
Table 19. Welding Rod Diameter and Number of Passes ......................................................................................................... 84
Table 20. Standard Organizations for PVC Piping .................................................................................................................... 90
Table 21. Mandatory Referenced Plumbing Standards for PVC Pipe ..................................................................................... 110
List of Figures
Page Page
Figure 1. Molecules......................................................... 1 Figure 10. Perforated Piping ........................................... 7
Figure 2. Resin................................................................ 2 Figure 11. Double Containment Piping ........................... 7
Figure 3. Compounds ..................................................... 2 Figure 12. Tensile Testing Machines .............................. 8
Figure 4. Extruder ........................................................... 3 Figure 13. Izod Testing Machine ..................................... 8
Figure 5. Injection Molding Machine ............................... 3 Figure 14. Heat Resistance Testing ................................ 9
Figure 6. Pipe Showing Classification ............................. 6 Figure 15. Heat Deflection Testing Machine ................... 9
Figure 7. Coextruded Drain-Waste-Vent Piping .............. 7 Figure 16. Tabor Testing Machine ................................ 10
Figure 8. Clear Piping Systems....................................... 7 Figure 17. Flash Ignition Testing Machine .................... 10
Figure 9. Purple Pipe for Reclaimed and Gray Water ..... 7 Figure 18. Aquarium Piping with FRP Wrapped Fittings in
Use for Over Four Decades ............................... 13
v – Table of Contents
Page Page
Figure 19. Testing Pipe Crush Strength ........................ 14 Figure 59. Solvent Cementing ...................................... 53
Figure 20. PVC Pipes Transporting Chemicals............. 14 Figure 60. Flanging ....................................................... 58
Figure 21. Corroded Metal Pipe .................................... 14 Figure 61. Flange Bolt Tightening Pattern .................... 59
Figure 22. Cemented Joints .......................................... 15 Figure 62. Threading..................................................... 60
Figure 23. Plastic Pipe in Abrasive Environment .......... 15 Figure 63. Gasketed Joint Assembly ............................ 61
Figure 24. Smooth Interior of PVC Pipe ........................ 15 Figure 64. Mechanical Radius Cut-Groove with Metal
Gasketed Coupler ............................................. 62
Figure 25. Pipe Lining ................................................... 16
Figure 65. Mechanical Roll-Groove with Metal Gasketed
Figure 26. PVC Piping can Handle Earth Movement .... 16 Coupler .............................................................. 63
Figure 27. PVC Complete Air Handling System............ 16 Figure 66. Mechanical Cut-Grooved with Plastic Spline
and Coupler ....................................................... 64
Figure 28. Pump and Pipe System ............................... 16
Figure 67. Cast Iron and PVC Transition Using
Figure 29. PVC—Lightweight........................................ 17 Elastomeric Coupling and Clamps .................... 65
Figure 30. PVC Requires Simple Joining Tools ............ 17 Figure 68. Transition Fittings ........................................ 65
Figure 31. Variety of PVC Pipe Ends ............................ 18 Figure 69. Pipe Storage ................................................ 68
Figure 32. Variety of Colors .......................................... 18 Figure 70. Expansion Loop ........................................... 71
Figure 33. Variety of PVC Fabrications ......................... 18 Figure 71. Offset ........................................................... 71
Figure 34. Partial Listing of PVC Standard and Code Figure 72. Change in Direction ..................................... 72
Agencies............................................................ 19
Figure 73. PVC Flanged Piston-Type Expansion Joint . 72
Figure 35. PVC Product Identifiers ............................... 19
Figure 74. Bellows Expansion Joint .............................. 72
Figure 36. PVC Plants in USA and Canada ................. 20
Figure 75. An Installed Air Admittance Valve ................ 75
Figure 37. Less Chance of Injuries with PVC Pipe ....... 20
Figure 76. Pipe Snaking................................................ 77
Figure 38. Metal Piping with Insulation ........................ 20
Figure 77. Various Types of Poured Concrete Thrust
Figure 39. Non-Toxic and Odorless .............................. 21 Blocking ............................................................. 78
Figure 40. Less Energy Used with PVC ........................ 21 Figure 78. Repairing Plastic Piping Systems ................ 83
Figure 41. Recycled Pipe and PVC Post Industrial Figure 79. Pipe Repair .................................................. 85
Regrind .............................................................. 22
Figure 80. Compression Coupling ................................ 86
Figure 42. PVC Feedstocks .......................................... 22
Figure 81. Building Service Lines ................................. 91
Figure 43. Reclaimed Water Pipe ................................. 22
Figure 82. Site Utility Systems ...................................... 91
Figure 44. Life Cycle Assessment ................................ 23
Figure 83. Reclaimed and Gray Water Systems ........... 92
Figure 45. Number of USA PVC Pipe/Fitting Plants ..... 23
Figure 84. Pool, Spa and Fountains ............................. 92
Figure 46. Estimated Time for Joining Piping Products 24
Figure 85. Golf Course Irrigation ................................... 93
Figure 47. Metal Pipe Corrosion ................................... 24
Figure 86. Outdoor Condenser Return Lines ................ 93
Figure 48. Scrap Value of Pipe ..................................... 26
Figure 87. Chilled Water Lines...................................... 94
Figure 49. Flow Rate vs. Valve Closing ........................ 34
Figure 88. Cooling Tower Pumping System.................. 94
Figure 50. Loop............................................................. 36
Figure 89. Drainage, Waste, and Vent Piping at a
Figure 51. Offset ........................................................... 36 Commercial Job Site ......................................... 95
Figure 52. Typical Pipe Hangers ................................... 40 Figure 90. Sanitary Drainage ........................................ 95
Figure 53. Pipe and Valve Supports ............................. 41 Figure 91. Building Sewer ............................................. 96
Figure 54. Anchoring..................................................... 42 Figure 92. Piping for Restaurant Grease Traps ............ 96
Figure 55. Anchoring and Guide Design Diagrams ....... 42 Figure 93. Storm/Roof Drainage ................................... 97
Figure 56. Trench Terminology ..................................... 48 Figure 94. Rooftop Piping with Condensate Drain ........ 97
Figure 57. Inspection .................................................... 50 Figure 95. Subsoil Drainage ......................................... 98
Figure 58. Cutting/Cleaning/Deburring ......................... 51
vi – Table of Contents
Page Page
Figure 96. Manifold Piping Connecting Rain Harvesting Figure 116. Fabricated Fitting ..................................... 120
Barrels ............................................................... 98
Figure 117. Strainers .................................................. 120
Figure 97. Air Handling System .................................... 99
Figure 118. Flow Meters ............................................. 121
Figure 98. Water Slide Park ........................................ 100
Figure 119. Pumps...................................................... 121
Figure 99. Aquarium Piping with FRP Wrapped Fittings
........................................................................ 100 Figure 120. Rods and Profiles..................................... 122
Figure 100. Process Piping ......................................... 101 Figure 121. High Purity Water Systems ...................... 122
Figure 101. Desalinization Piping................................ 101 Figure 122. Tank-Filter-Pump Station ......................... 123
Figure 102. Electronics and Semiconductors .............. 102 Figure 123. Valves ...................................................... 123
Figure 103. Odor Control Piping at Landfill ................. 102 Figure 124. Process Piping ......................................... 131
Figure 104. Fish Farm Piping Systems ....................... 103 Figure 125. DWV Piping.............................................. 131
Figure 105. Food and Beverage ................................. 103 Figure 126. Hot/Cold Water and Fire Sprinkler ........... 133
Figure 106. Piping for Drinking Water at Marina ......... 103 Figure 127. Process Piping ......................................... 133
Figure 107. Mining ...................................................... 104 Figure 128. Piping in Ice Skating Rink ........................ 135
Figure 108. Photography Chemical Manifold Lines..... 104 Figure 129. Power Plant Intake Piping Line ................ 135
Figure 109. Steel Pickling Process ............................. 105 Figure 130. Radiant Floor Heating .............................. 136
Figure 110. Plating of Faucets .................................... 106 Figure 131. Permafrost Protection .............................. 136
Figure 111. Municipal Swimming Pool Filtration System Figure 132. Lab Waste Drainage and High Purity Water
........................................................................ 107 Systems ........................................................... 137
Figure 112. Bleach Process Piping ............................. 108 Figure 133. PP Fabricated Semiconductor Process Work
Station ............................................................. 138
Figure 113. 2006 State Plumbing Code Adoptions ..... 109
Figure 134. High Purity Water Piping System ............. 140
Figure 114. Accessories.............................................. 119
Figure 135. Sanitary Piping System in Plant ............... 140
Figure 115. Hoods and Ducting .................................. 119
Table of Contents – vii

viii – Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
Background of PPFA and PVC piping systems.
The Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association (PPFA) is composed of more than seventy-five
companies involved in the manufacturing of products for plastic piping systems. PPFA has
been a major force in educating the North American market since 1978 in thermoplastic
residential, commercial, and industrial piping products and installations. The Design Guide has
been published by the PPFA with the express purpose of
educating the engineering and construction community to
the design benefits of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) piping
systems in commercial and industrial projects.
PVC or vinyl can be found in just about every home or business, in hundreds of
applications. Because of the physical nature of this amazing plastic, it can be rigid, flexible,
weather or heat resistant, impact resistant, thick or thin, and any color one can imagine.
PVC’s major uses are in the following industries: medical, automotive, electronics, toys,
packaging, and construction.
Over ¾ of PVC compounds produced in North America go into the construction industry
with such products as siding, conduit, window frames, roofing, wire and cable insulation,
flooring, wall coverings, gutters and downspouts, landfill liners, decking, fencing, and piping.
Of these products, piping is the largest user of PVC resin. Presently, PVC pipe accounts for
more than 70% of newly buried water distribution and 75% of newly installed sanitary sewer
systems in North America. Why? Because it is durable, easy and safe to install,
environmentally sound, and cost effective.
Definitions
Plastic: Plastic is a material that contains organic, Figure 1. Molecules
polymeric substances of large molecular weight, is
solid in its finished state, and at some stage in its
manufacture or processing into a finished article, can
be shaped by flow.
Thermoplastic: A plastic that can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by

cooling through a temperature range characteristic of the plastic, and that in the softened
state can be shaped by flow into an article by molding or extrusion. PVC, CPVC, ABS, PP,
PE, and PVDF are thermoplastic piping materials.
Introduction - 1
Thermoset: A plastic that, when cured by application of heat or by chemical means,
changes into a substantially infusible product. PEX and Reinforced Fiberglass piping are
thermoset materials.
Monomer: A relatively simple compound and resin building block that can react to form a
polymer. Vinyl Chloride is the monomer used in making PVC.
Polymer: A substance consisting of molecules characterized by the repetition of one or

more types on monomeric units. PVC is a polymer made from the polymerization of the
monomer vinyl chloride.
Resin: Broadly stated, the term designates any polymer that is the basic material for a plastic.
Figure 2. Resin
Compound: A mixture of a thermoplastic resin with other additives or ingredients. All

certified PVC piping products are manufactured from compounds formulated by
manufacturers to ASTM and PPI standards.
Figure 3. Compounds
2 – Introduction
Extrusion: All PVC pipe is manufactured by the extrusion process. In this process, PVC
compounds, in pellet or powder form, are fed by a hopper into a heated barrel containing a
rotating screw (a.k.a. extruder). The compounds are uniformly heated under pressure by the
screw and barrel until uniform melting and mixing is achieved. The molten plastic is then
forced under extreme pressure through a die and sizing sleeve where the desired shape is
obtained. The product is then cooled through downstream cooling techniques (typically
under vacuum in a water bath) to maintain the dimensions of the desired shape. Further
downstream from the cooling process, the pipe is cut to length. Extrusion is a continuous
process where long runs of pipe are typically manufactured once conditions are optimized.
Figure 4. Extruder
Injection Molding: Most voluminous thermoplastic non-pipe products are injection

molded. Injection molding is the process of forming a material by forcing it, under pressure,
from a heated cylinder through a sprue (runner) into the cavity of a closed mold. All
standard PVC fittings from ¼ inch to 12 inches in diameter and most valves are injection
molded. For most PVC non-standard or larger diameter fittings and valves, fabrication
methods using pipe, rod, and sheet create the desired product.
Figure 5. Injection Molding Machine
For other definitions and plastic acronyms, see the Glossary as well as Appendix B.
Introduction - 3
History
In 2007 the plastic industry celebrated its 100-year anniversary. Dr. Leo Baekeland, a
Belgium-American, created the first all-synthetic plastic, Phenol Formaldehyde (Bakelite), in
1907. His discovery set forth a movement to jump-start the nascent plastics industry
throughout the world.
Table 1. History and Highlights of PVC Water Piping Systems
Year Highlights
1907 First all synthetic plastic – a phenolic named Bakelite
1932 First tubes made from PVC in Germany
1935 First pipes made from PVC in Germany
1936 First installation of PVC piping for potable water and waste pipelines in Germany—
most piping systems are still in service
1949 Initial use of PVC pipe in North America
1952 First PVC water distribution pipes laid in the USA
1960 ASTM 1785 Standard Specification for PVC Schedule Pipe introduced
1964 ASTM D2241 Standard Specification for SDR Series Pipe introduced
1968 AWWA Standards Committee on Thermoplastic Pressure Pipe was established
1970 Canadian Standards Association (CSA) publishes first edition of CS B137.3—“Rigid
PVC Pipe for Pressure Applications”
1971 Uni-Bell Plastic Pipe Association had first meeting
1978 Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association founded
1996 PVC water pipes (>3 in.) market share exceeds 50% in USA and Canada
2004 PVC water pipes (>4 in.) have 78% share of water distribution market in North
America (over 71,100 miles of buried pipe)
2005 PVC is the largest volume plastic pipe material in North America with annual sales in
excess of 6.8 billion pounds
Source: Adapted from AWWA data
4 – Introduction
PVC was discovered in the late 1800s and as with many discoveries in chemistry—
accidentally. Scientists, observing the newly created chemical gas, vinyl chloride, discovered
that when the gas was exposed to sunlight, it underwent a chemical reaction (recognized
now as polymerization) leading to a whitish solid material. After decades of inaction to this
new discovery, in the 1920s Waldo Semon was hired by BF Goodrich to develop a synthetic
rubber. His experiments then proved successful and yielded plasticized or flexible PVC.
At first, PVC was used to make shoes, raincoats, golf balls, insulation of electrical wiring and
other uses (all applications of plasticized PVC). In wasn’t until the late 1930s that rigid PVC
was considered for piping material. In the beginning, PVC pipe manufacturers used
plasticizers as a resin additive. A few years later, plasticizers were eliminated, and the overall
performance of PVC showed a marked improvement. All rigid North American PVC pipe
for the last four or five decades has been made without any plasticizer or heavy metal
stabilizers.
Due to the features of durability, ease and safety of installation, environmental soundness,
and cost-effectiveness, PVC piping and all other vinyl products have grown enormously in
use throughout the world. Today, PVC is the preferred piping material in water mains, sewer
lines, drains, vents, irrigation, water service, swimming pools, and water well casings.
Besides, owning to its excellent long-term strength, higher stiffness, resistance to a broad
range of chemicals, and competitive price, PVC accounts for over 70% of the linear footage
of all thermoplastic piping. And due to its popularity, PVC has the broadest range of valves,
fittings, and other piping appurtenances compared to most other piping materials.
Introduction - 5
Material Characteristics
PVC is made to ASTM International standards, which classify piping material by common
physical characteristics. Over the past decade, there has been a movement to refine the
classifications in a more meaningful way; however, the old designations are still in use.
The old ASTM designation for PVC is made up of four digits:

First digit = Material
Second digit = Grade
Third/Fourth digit = Hydrostatic design stress divided by 100
Example: PVC 1120
Figure 6. Pipe Showing Classification
The new ASTM designation cell classification (per ASTM D1784):

First digit = Material
Second digit = Impact strength
Third digit = Tensile strength
Fourth digit = Modulus of elasticity
Fifth digit = Heat deflection temperature
Example: PVC 12454 (Equivalent to PVC 1120)
In this text, all charts and tables for PVC piping will mostly be characteristic of PVC type 1,
grade 1 or cell classification—12454. Since PVC compounds can be formulated many
different ways, there are other types of solid PVC that exhibit different physical
characteristics, such as: Type II (cell classification 14333) which has higher impact strength
but reduced physical properties in other areas than Type I: and Type III (cell classification
13233) which has fillers that increase the stiffness but lower the tensile and impact strengths
and reduce the chemical resistance. There are several other PVC piping products that are
available as listed in Figure 7 through Figure 11 that can and are used in certain commercial
and industrial applications; still, the Design Guide will only cover the more commonly used
commercial and industrial PVC piping materials.
6 – Introduction
Figure 7. Coextruded Drain-Waste-Vent Figure 8. Clear Piping Systems
Piping
Figure 9. Purple Pipe for Reclaimed and Figure 10. Perforated Piping
Gray Water
Figure 11. Double Containment Piping
Introduction - 7
Physical Characteristics
ASTM test methods and standards are nationally recognized and utilized to define plastic
characteristics. The physical values listed may differ slightly (+ or – 5%) due to variations of
manufacturers’ compound formulations but still within the standards of ASTM product
classification.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of the density of a material to the density of water at standard
temperature (ASTM D-792 Test Method). PVC = 1.40 (Water = 1)
Tensile Strength: The pulling force necessary to break a specimen divided by the cross-
section area at the point of failure (ASTM D-638 Test Method). PVC = 7,000-7,500psi @
73°F
Figure 12. Tensile Testing Machines
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of the stress to the elongation per inch due to this stress,
in a material that deforms elastically (ASTM 638 Test Method). PVC = 400,000 – 433,000-
psi @ 73°F
Izod Impact Strength: The resistance that a notched test specimen has to a sharp blow
from a pendulum hammer (ASTM D-256 Test Method). PVC = 0.65 – 0.75 ft-lb/in
Figure 13. Izod Testing Machine
8 – Introduction
Flexural Strength: The strength of a plastic material in bending as expressed by the tensile
stress of the outermost fibers of a bent test sample at the instant of failure (ASTM D-790
Test Method). PVC = 13,000 - 14,500-psi
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: The fractional change in a length of a specimen due to

a unit change in temperature (ASTM D-696 Test Method). PVC = 2.9 - 3.0 in/in/°F x 10-5
Thermal Conductivity: The time rate of moving heat by conduction through a material of
a given thickness and area for a given temperature difference (ASTM C-177). PVC = 1.02 -
1.20 Btu in/hr/ft2/°F
Figure 14. Heat Resistance Testing
Thermal ConductivityThermal Conductivity

via Modulated
via Modulated
Differential Scanning Calorimetry DSC
(DSC)
Heat Resistance: The general maximum allowable temperature of a piping system in which
20-psi working pressure or less may be used. PVC = 140°F Deflection temperature under
load, °F @ 264 psi (ASTM D 648) = 160 - 170
Figure 15. Heat Deflection Testing Machine
Introduction - 9
Abrasion Resistance: Using the Taber Abrasion Test, the weight loss of a material is
measured after being exposed to an abrasive wheel for 1000 cycles. PVC = 15-20 mg. The
lower the number, the more abrasion resistant. (Stainless Steel is 50 mg.)
Figure 16. Tabor Testing Machine
Flash Ignition Temperature: The lowest temperature of a substance at which sufficient

combustible gas is developed to be ignited by a small external flame. (ASTM D 1929) PVC
= 730°F. Most wood products ignite at 500°F and lower.
Figure 17. Flash Ignition Testing Machine
Flammability Rating: One of Underwriter Laboratories’ tests (UL94) to measure a

material’s resistance to burning, dripping, glow emission, and burn-through. The 94V-0
designation is the most resistant to burning. PVC = 94V-0
Flame Spread / Smoke Development Indices: These material characteristics are

determined by testing the surface flame spread of and smoke developed by plastic piping as
compared to fixed index elements of mineral fiber cement board and red oak flooring
(ASTM E-84, NFPA 255, UL 723, ULCS 102, and UBC 8-l) (42-1 Test Method) PVC
15−20 Flame Spread Index; PVC >300 Smoke Development Index. (Note: There is a
special PVC compound that is specially formulated to give improved flame spread and/or
smoke development characteristics.)
10 – Introduction
Safety and Systems Design
PVC piping, when installed and tested properly, is one of the most durable piping systems
available. Yet, PVC has physical characteristics different than other piping materials that
need to be addressed for a safe and long lasting installation. In the Design Guide there are
steps showing the proper techniques of safely joining, installing and testing PVC piping
systems. However, it is imperative that the manufacturer’s joining, installation and testing
instructions be completely followed. Failure to follow the instructions could cause life
threatening personal injuries or severe property damage. There is no subject more important
than user safety. Therefore, the Design Guide offers in Appendix A commonly listed warnings
that are shown in most PVC product manufacturer’s literature. These safety warnings do not
profess to address all possible situations or risks that may be encountered in the use of PVC
piping systems.
Introduction - 11
Table 2. PVC Piping Physical Properties
Properties Units PVC Test Method

GENERAL
Cell Classification 12454 ASTM D-1784
Maximum Service Temperature °F 140
Water Absorption % increase in 24 hrs @72°F 0.05 ASTM D-570
Hazen-Williams Factor C Factor 150.00
MECHANICAL
Specific Gravity g/cm 1.40+ .02 ASTM D-792
Tensile Strength* psi@73°F 7,000-7,940 ASTM D-638
Modulus of Elasticity – Tensile* psi@73°F 400,000-430,000 ASTM D-638
Flexural Strength psi@73°F 13,000-14,500 ASTM D-790
Flexural Modulus psi@73°F 360,000-420,000 ASTM D-790
Compressive Strength psi@73°F 9,500-9,600 ASTM D-695
Izod Impact* Ft-lbs/in of notch 0.65-1.00 ASTM D-256
Hardness Rockwell “R” 110-120 ASTM D-785
Poisson’s Ratio @73°F 0.38-0.41
Taber Abrasion (1000 cycles) mg 15-20
THERMAL
Coefficient of Linear Expansion in/in/°F 2.8 -3.0 x 10-5 ASTM D-696
Coefficient of Linear BTU/in/hr/ft2/°F 1.02-1.3 ASTM C-177
Conductivity
Heat Distortion Temperature* @ 264 psi 158 ASTM D-648
FLAMMABILITY
Burning Rate in/min Self-Extinguishing
Average Time of Burning* sec. <5 -10 ASTM D-635
Average Extent of Burning* mm <10 -25 ASTM D-635
Flammability Rating (.062) V-0 UL - 94
Flame Spread Index <10
Flame Spread <10 -25 ASTM E84/UL 723
Smoke Generation 80-225 ULC
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) 43 ASTM D-2863
Softening Starts (approx.) °F 250
Becomes Viscous (approx.) °F 350
Material Carbonizes (approx.) °F 425
Flash Ignition Temperature °F 730 ASTM D-1929
ELECTRICAL
Dielectric Strength volts/mil 1,400 -1,413 ASTM D-149
Dielectric Constant 60Hz@ 30°F 3.7 ASTM D-150
Volume Resistivity ohm/cm@73° 1.2 x 1012 ASTM D-257
*The underlined properties are defined as minimum values for PVC with a cell classification of 12454 in compliance with
ASTM D-1784. The range of physical property values reflects the slight differences of manufacturer’s certified piping
system compounds.
Source: Adapted from data of Charlotte Pipe, George Fischer Sloane, Harvel, IPEX, and NIBCO
12 – Introduction
1
Chapter
FEATURES AND BENEFITS

PVC is durable, safe and easy to install, environmentally sound, and cost effective.
For the past four decades, PVC has been one of the fastest growing piping materials in the
world. The reasons for such success are due to PVC’s durability, safe and ease of installation,
environmental soundness and cost-effectiveness. Several of the listed features could have
been listed under one or more of the four categories. For example, optimum flow can be a
feature that could be included in the category of durability, environmental soundness, or cost
effective. But, for brevity purposes, the Design Guide lists a feature under one category only.
Durability
Proven Performance: Millions of feet of PVC Figure 18. Aquarium Piping with FRP
piping have been successfully installed in Wrapped Fittings in Use for Over Four
Decades
applications dating back a half a century or more.
Features and Benefits - 13

Figure 19. Testing Pipe Crush Strength Tested to Rigorous Standards:
Whether it is pipe, fittings, cements or
valves, PVC piping products are
thoroughly tested to ASTM
International, NSF International, ANSI,
and other code and standard agencies.
Resistant to Chemical Attack: Salt water, most Figure 20. PVC Pipes Transporting
acids, plating salts, and hundreds of other Chemicals
chemicals are not a concern to PVC piping. In

most corrosive environments, interior or exterior
coatings or liners are not needed.
Figure 21. Corroded Metal Pipe No Rust, Scale or Pitting: Unlike other
piping materials, PVC doesn’t rust, scale, or
pit. This feature of not being attacked by
galvanic or electrolytic corrosion negates the
need for costly corrosion protection
equipment and electric grounding concerns.
14 - Features and Benefits

Figure 22. Cemented Joints Joint Integrity: When properly installed, cemented
joints are stronger than either the pipe or fitting
being joined. Solvent welded joints are the strongest
method for joining PVC piping products and
provide years of trouble-free service. In most studies
of underground piping installations, there is less
leakage and breakage with PVC piping systems than
alternate non-plastic piping materials.
Abrasion Resistant: In tests using the Taber Figure 23. Plastic Pipe in Abrasive
Abrasion testing method, PVC has less wear and Environment
outlasts most non-plastic piping materials in

handling solids and high velocity flow rates.
Figure 24. Smooth Interior of PVC Pipe Optimum Flow: With a Hazen and
Williams internal bore “C” Factor of 150,
PVC has less turbulence and lower friction
loss than many other piping materials. In
several cases this feature may allow piping
downsizing and lower horsepower pumps.
In other words, less energy is used over
time.

Flexibility: PVC’s pipe flexibility often allows for greater burial depth and loading of
underground installations. Also, the pipe flexibility can allow less damage and better
tolerance to earth movements or shifts. Pipe lining of existing non-plastic piping is also
possible due to PVC’s flexibility.
Figure 25. Pipe Lining Figure 26. PVC Piping can Handle Earth
Movement
Flame and Combustion Resistant: PVC has an ignition temperature of 735°F (200°F
higher than most wood), does not support combustion, and has a low flame spread.
Integrated System: Dozens of products exist in PVC including pipe, fittings, valves,
pumps, tanks, duct, scrubbers, fans, blowers, and others. This breadth of offering often
eliminates the need for any non-plastic material to be involved with the fluid flow.
Figure 27. PVC Complete Air Handling System Figure 28. Pump and Pipe System

Safe and Easy to Install
Lightweight: PVC (1/6th the weight of most non-plastic piping) minimizes on-site heavy
equipment, allows easier installation in close quarters, and eliminates many job-site safety
issues.
Figure 29. PVC—Lightweight
Ease of Joining: Whether it is solvent Figure 30. PVC Requires Simple Joining Tools
cementing, flanging, bell-gasketing,
threading, or other joining methods,
PVC needs no expensive or clumsy
joining tools or heavy equipment. In
many installations, an electrical or heat
source is not required to join the piping.

Figure 31. Variety of PVC Pipe Ends Variety and Breadth of Line: PVC
is available in many diameters,
working pressure ratings, pipe
lengths, and pipe ends to facilitate
the installation in a cost-effective
manner.
Figure 32. Variety of Colors Variety of Colors: The PVC manufacturing piping process
allows color to be an integral part of the piping system. This
feature allows easy identification of piping systems and can act
as a visual safety factor in critical applications.
Ease of Fabrication: PVC piping materials can be easily built into many diverse fluid-
handling products. Manifolds, specially engineered fittings, tanks, valve boxes, and other
special products are available. If you can draw what you want, a capable plastic fabricator can
make it.
Figure 33. Variety of PVC Fabrications

Code Acceptance: There are dozens of PVC piping standards referenced in plumbing and
mechanical codes. These building codes and third-party certifiers require conformance to
consensus standards.
Figure 34. Partial Listing of PVC Standard and Code Agencies
Product Identification: Almost all PVC piping products have surface markings showing
country of origin, material, pipe size, pressure rating, manufacturer, applicable certification
or listing agency, and manufacturing process cycle. This feature makes it easier to determine
product traceability and allows installers and maintenance personnel to communicate directly
with the manufacturer for technical information or ordering additional products.
Figure 35. PVC Product Identifiers

Figure 36. PVC Plants in Product Readily in Stock: There are over 7 dozen PVC
USA and Canada pipe, valve, and fitting manufacturing plants in North
America and thousands of stocking wholesalers. Needed
product usually can be shipped or picked up in a matter of
hours. Plus, most piping products are interchangeable from
one manufacturer to another.
Reduced On-site Injuries: With no power tools, torches, or hot plates needed for
installation, PVC poses less danger to plumbers and pipe fitters than other piping systems.
Figure 37. Less Chance of Injuries with PVC Pipe
Environmentally Sound
Low Thermal Conductivity: PVC piping has low thermal Figure 38. Metal Piping
conductance leading to less heat loss through the wall of the with Insulation
pipe. This feature may eliminate the need for pipe insulation
and may reduce the energy needed to maintain fluid
temperatures.

Non-toxic and Odorless: Most PVC compounds meet NSF and FDA requirements. This
feature allows the use of PVC piping in many food, beverage, pharmaceutical, and high-
purity water applications.
Figure 39. Non-Toxic and Odorless
Energy Savings: Due to PVC’s features of low thermal conductivity, favorable flow,
lightweight, joint integrity, and excellent chemical and corrosion resistance, PVC is a leader in
helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Figure 40. Less Energy Used with PVC

Fully Recyclable: In the production of PVC, pipe and fittings waste is virtually non-
existent. Any off-spec and start-up materials are re-ground and recycled in the manufacturing
process. Most post-consumer (product in use in the field) piping products can be fully
recycled.
Figure 41. Recycled Pipe and PVC Post Industrial Regrind
Sustainable Feedstocks: 57% of PVC material is made from salt (chlorine), one of the
most common and available materials on earth. Fossil fuels are presently being used to
provide the other component in making PVC. However with the advent of new technology
and research, biofuels may be an economical and an environmentally sound alternative to
replace fossil fuels in PVC feedstocks in the next 10 to 15 years.
Figure 42. PVC Feedstocks
Environmental Applications: Many PVC piping Figure 43. Reclaimed Water Pipe
products are used exclusively to prevent damage
to humans and the environment. Double-
contained piping systems, specially colored
reclaimed water pipe, rain harvesting applications,
land-fill piping, and subsurface irrigation are just a
few of the PVC piping systems used for
environmental purposes.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): The PVC piping industry has actively supported scientific,
independent party analysis called LCA to determine the environmental, energy, and
economic impact that PVC piping has on the planet. Preliminary results indicate that PVC
has a “greenness” that other piping materials do not have.
Figure 44. Life Cycle Assessment
Cost Effective
Low Material Costs: There are two major reasons for PVC’s long-term competitive pricing.
First, PVC’s high strength to weight ratio allows for thinner pipe walls than most other
materials. Secondly, the number of world PVC resin suppliers and the abundance of North
American PVC pipe and fitting manufacturers ensure a competitive market place.
Figure 45. Number of USA PVC Pipe/Fitting Plants

Low Installation Costs: Lightweight, easy to use joining systems and lack of requiring
additional corrosion protection and insulation materials give PVC a competitive installation
advantage over other piping materials.
Figure 46. Estimated Time for Joining Piping Products

Estimated time for joining common piping products
For Aboveground Applications
Type Joint Pipe Size and Man-hours per joint (hr)
1 in 2 in 4 in 6 in 8 in
Flanged (all) 0.15 0.30 0.80 1.32 1.72
Threaded (all) 0.08 0.18 0.80 NR NR
Solder/braze (copper) 0.07 0.15 0.50 1.50 2.15
Solvent Cement (PVC) 0.07 0.15 0.25 0.66 0.86
For Belowground Applications
Type Joint Pipe Size and Man-hours per joint (hr)
4 in 8 in 12 in 18 in
Welded (metal) 0.80 1.72 2.81 3.30
Gasketed (PVC) 0.12 0.24 0.40 0.55
Source: Adapted from data of Plastic Piping Systems, author David Chasis, Industrial Press, New York, NY
Low Maintenance Costs: With its history of leak-resistant joint performance, immunity
from most corrosive and chemical attack, and piping systems lasting for decades, PVC is
unmatched in keeping maintenance costs low.
Figure 47. Metal Pipe Corrosion

Lower Overall Installed Piping Costs: There have been several third-party studies done to
determine the costs of various piping materials in commercial and industrial applications. In
most cases PVC piping had substantially lower installed costs than other piping systems.
Table 3. Cost Comparison of Installed Plastic vs. Metal Piping Systems
Table 4. Installed Cost for DWV and Storm Drainage Piping Installation
Total Material Cost Total Labor

Item
($) (Hours)
Cast Iron Soil Pipe 121,218 2,737
PVC Plastic Pipe 19,537 2,003
Difference between PVC
101,681 734
and Cast Iron
Percent Savings Using PVC Pipe 84% 27%
Notes:
1. Table 4 is adapted from a study done by JB Engineering and Code Consulting
of Munster, Indiana in July, 2006 (values shown have been rounded to nearest
whole number.
2. Piping materials and design is for a 12-story residential high-rise apartment.
3. Cast iron pipe is no-hub and PVC is Schedule 40 dual marked.
4. For a free copy of the JB Engineering 33 page report, visit the PPFA website.

Less On-site Theft: The high scrap value of non-plastic piping materials encourages on-site
theft. In addition, there are few costly tools required on-site when installing PVC piping.
Figure 48. Scrap Value of Pipe
Source: Data obtained in October 2009 and edited by Design Guide editor, David Chasis
Less Insurance Costs: It stands to reason that with less

on-site theft, the lack of torches, hot plates, heavy
equipment, and acetylene containers, and less chance of
reportable injuries, most insurance costs related to PVC
piping installations will be less.
The bottom line…PVC piping is:
 Durable
 Safe and Easy to Install
 Environmentally Sound
 Cost Effective

2
Chapter
ENGINEERING DESIGN
A properly designed PVC piping system will normally outlive the life of any project in which
it is installed.
With more than sixty years of history, PVC piping systems have performed successfully in
dozens of applications. To design a successful PVC piping system, follow standard piping
design practices and be aware of the various design nuances and material properties that are
covered in this chapter of the Design Guide.
Design Piping Practices

General Design Piping Practices: When designing any piping system whether plastic or
not, incorporate generally accepted engineering practices. These include the following:
 Selecting the proper material for the application

 Controlling pressure surges and velocities
 Identifying standards for piping components
 Selecting and proper sizing of pipe, valves, and fittings
 Proper pipe supports, anchors, and guides
 Proper underground design considerations
 Selecting the most cost effective system for required service life
 Following all applicable codes and standards
 Designing for thermally caused pipe movement
 Proper firestops
PVC Piping Design Practices: PVC piping has several unique engineering properties
compared to non-plastic materials. To ensure an effective and long-lasting piping
installation, the design engineer needs to be aware of these properties:
 Chemical resistance
 Pipe and system pressure ratings
 Temperature limits
 Temperature-Pressure relationship
Engineering Design - 27
 Expansion/Contraction
 Pipe support
 Firestops for PVC
 Other aboveground issues
 Underground piping design
Chemical Resistance
All plastics in general have excellent chemical resistance; however, there are certain chemical
environments that affect the properties of plastics, including PVC in the following ways:
 Chemical attack: an environment that attacks the polymer chain

 Solvation: absorption of an organic solvent by PVC
 Plasticization: when a liquid, organic material reacts with PVC but is unable to
dissolve it
 Environmental stress-cracking: a failure that occurs when tensile stresses
combined with prolonged exposure to certain fluids generate localized surface
cracks
Chemical Resistance Tables: Many manufacturers have tested hundreds of reagents to

determine their affect on PVC piping products. Appendix C lists the chemical compatibility
of hundreds of solutions with PVC piping products. The list is a guide for end-users and
design engineers and is based on the best available information. If there is a critical
application and there is any uncertainty of PVC handling the fluid, test PVC test strips in the
fluid being considered. For a broad chemical resistance guide of PVC refer to Table 5.
Table 5. Chemical Resistance of PVC to Typical Broad Chemical Groups*
Chemicals—Inorganic Chemicals—Organic
Acids, dilute Recommended Acids Recommended
Acids, concentrated Recommended Acid anhydrides Recommended
Acids, oxidizing Recommended Alcohols—glycols Not Recommended
Alkalis Recommended Esters/Ketones/Ethers Not Recommended
Acid gases Recommended Hydrocarbons—aliphatic Limited Use
Ammonia gases Limited Use Hydrocarbons—aromatic Not Recommended
Hydrocarbons—
Halogen gases Limited Use Limited Use
halogentated
Salts Recommended Natural gas Limited Use
Oxidizing salts Recommended Synthetic gas Not Recommended
Oils Limited Use
*Chemical resistance is provided as a guide only.
28 - Engineering Design
Pipe Operating Pressure
PVC piping pressure ratings are determined using material ratings by ASTM and PPI
standards and requirements. Pipe pressure ratings are calculated using the following ISO
equation:
t
PR = 2 (HDS) x Dm where:
PR= Pressure rating, psi (Mpa)

t = Minimum wall thickness, in. (mm)
Dm = Mean diameter, in. (mm)
HDS = Hydrostatic design stress, psi (Mpa)
HDS = Hydrostatic design stress = HDB (hydrostatic design basis x design factor.
For PVC the HDB = 4000 psi (Mpa) and the service or design factor for most PVC
pipe is 0.5. Therefore the HDS for PVC pipe is 2000 psi.
Types of Pipe
Schedule Pipe: Schedule pipe is Iron Pipe Size (IPS) with an Outside Diameter (OD) and a
wall thickness that matches the wall thickness of the same size and schedule steel pipe. Most
PVC pipe is available in Schedules 40, 80, and 120. (The higher the Schedule number, the
thicker the pipe wall for each size.) Scheduled pipe pressure ratings vary with each pipe
diameter. Pipe pressure ratings decrease as pipe diameter increases for most Schedules. In
the Design Guide most information and applications will focus on Schedules 40 and 80 PVC
pipe.
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) Pipe: Standard dimension ratio (SDR) pipe is mostly
based on the IPS-OD system. The SDR is the pipe OD divided by the wall thickness. For a
given SDR, the pressure ratings and pipe stiffness values are constant for all pipe sizes. Non-
standard dimension ratios (DR) can be computed for any pipe OD and wall thickness.
Pipe Markings: All PVC piping is well marked with ASTM standards, manufacturer’s name
and/or trademark, pipe size, the material, the mark of a certification organization where
required by codes, and in particular cases the application such as reclaimed water or DWV.
Fitting markings may vary slightly because of the limitation of space but in most cases
include the manufacturer’s name and/or trademark, pipe size, the material and the
application symbol (DWV for example), and certification marks.
DWV Pipe Markings: PVC Schedule 40 DWV piping is marked in several different ways
depending on the piping pressure ratings and pipe structure. (There is 3.25-inch OD pipe,
but it is rarely used in commercial or industrial construction.) Listed below are PVC DWV
markings and pipe descriptions:
DWV—cellular core: ASTM F 891, PVC pipe with a cellular core has the PVC-
DWV label plus the additional marking “IPS SCHEDULE 40 SERIES COEX
CELLULAR CORE PVC-DWV.”
DWV—dual marked: ASTM D 1785 and ASTM D 2665 conformance allows for
Schedule 40 PVC DWV solid wall pipe to be dual marked for both DWV and
potable water pressure pipe. Dual marked PVC DWV piping can be triple marked
for use as well casing with the addition of ASTM F 480. None of the other DWV
pipes are pressure rated.
Other PVC Piping Systems

Other plastic piping systems have differing outside diameter dimensions and pressure ratings
such as Cast Iron (CI) and Sewer & Drain. These products have DR ratings that are not used
for most commercial and industrial applications.
Fittings
Pressure ratings of molded Schedule 40 and 80 fittings are affected by part size, wall
thickness, part geometry, molding conditions, part design, and material. Most fitting
manufacturers pressure rate their molded fittings similar to that of pipe under normal
conditions as shown in Table 6. Some manufacturers recommend a maximum suggested
design pressure of 60% of the equivalent sized pipe. Additional information on this subject
can be found in Ron D. Bliesner’s Irrigation Association article, “Designing, Operating, and
Maintaining Piping Systems Using PVC Fittings.” The pressure capabilities of fabricated
fittings may vary with each fabricator. If there is a critical pressure application, check with
the pipe and fitting manufacturer to ensure a properly designed system.
Temperature and Pressure Ratings
Thermoplastic piping materials increase in tensile strength as temperatures decrease, and
decrease in tensile strength as temperatures increase. This characteristic must be considered
when designing piping systems with PVC material. To determine the maximum pressure
capability of each PVC piping product, temperature correction factors have been established.
To determine the maximum suggested pipe operating pressure at a particular temperature,
multiply the base pressure by the correction factor (see Table 6 and Table 7).
Table 6. Schedule 40 and 80 Pipe Pressure Ratings (psi at 73°F)
Nominal Pipe Size (in.) PVC 40 PVC 80

½ 600 850
¾ 480 690
1 450 630
1¼ 370 520
1½ 330 470
2 280 400
2½ 300 425
3 260 370
4 220 320
6 180 280
8 160 250
10 140 230
12 130 230
Note: Other pipe sizes are available. For pipe diameters and pressure ratings not listed, check with the manufacturer.
Source: “Plastic Piping Systems,” author David Chasis, Industrial Press, New York, NY.
Table 7. Temperature Correction Factors for PVC Piping
Operating Temperature (°F) Correction Factor

70 1.00
80 .88
90 .75
100 .62
110 .50
120 .40
130 .30
140 .22
140+ Not Recommended
Example: What is the pressure rating of 3" PVC 80 pipe @ 110°F?
Using Table 6 and Table 7: 370-psi x 0.50 = 185-psi
Operating Pressure of Valves, Unions, and Flanges: PVC piping system materials have a
150-psi maximum pressure capability for valves, union, and flanges. The reason for this is
due to the mechanical connections involved (threads in valves and unions) and the nature of
flat gaskets under pressure (flanges). However, several valve and union manufacturers have
increased the maximum pressure capability of their products up to 235-psi (16 bar) in the
2-inch size range and below. Some flange gasket manufacturers offer designs with built in
O-ring seals, allowing pressures well above the 150-psi on a standard flat gasket design.
Similar to pipe, as the temperature increases, the pressure ratings of valves, unions, and
flanges decrease. Typical valve, flange, and union pressure ratings shown in Table 8 may
vary with each manufacturer. Consult manufacturer’s published information if in doubt.
Table 8. Operating Pressure of Valves, Unions, and Flanges
Operating Temperature (°F) Pressure Ratings (psi)

73–100 150
110 135
120 110
130 50
140 50
140+ Not Recommended
Source: Adapted from NIBCO, Inc. data
Operating Pressure of Direct Threaded Pipe: Direct threading of PVC piping is
accomplished using proper threading equipment. However, do not thread pipe below the
thickness of a Schedule 80 pipe wall. Threading vinyl pipe reduces operating pressures by
50%. If threaded PVC piping components must be used, increased working pressure could
be obtained using special transition or adapter fittings. (See the Joining Methods section of
the Design Guide.)
Friction Loss
As fluid flows through a piping system, it experiences head loss depending on fluid velocity,
pipe wall smoothness and internal pipe surface area. Pipe, fitting and valve manufacturers
using the Hazen-Williams formula, have calculated and have readily available friction loss
and velocity data for all of their products. As mentioned, one of the features and benefits of
PVC is having a C Factor (Flow Coefficient) of 150. This smooth bore rating results in less
friction loss in PVC piping compared to most other non-plastic materials. And because PVC
doesn’t pit, rust, or corrode, it maintains this rating throughout the pipe life in most
applications. Appendix D shows friction loss tables for PVC pipe and fittings.
Hydraulic Shock/Water Hammer

Hydraulic shock or water hammer is a momentary pressure rise resulting when the velocity
of the liquid flow is abruptly changed. The longer the line and higher the change in liquid
velocity, the greater the shock load from the surge. For the piping system to keep its
integrity, the surge pressure plus the operating pressure in the piping system must not exceed
the specified pressure rating or maximum suggested design pressure of the lowest rated
component in the piping system.
The main factors that influence the severity of water hammer are:
 Liquid Velocity
 Length of Pipe Run
 Modulus of Elasticity of Piping Material
 Inside Diameter of Pipe
 Pipe Wall Thickness
 Valve and Pump Closing Times
 Entrapped Air
First, the speed a surge wave travels through the piping system must be calculated. Since the
pressure wave travels at different speeds through each piping material, it is necessary to
compute the speed of sound in the water as it is changed by the pipe material.
4600
a=
[1+ k (DR-2)]½
E
Where:
a= wave velocity, ft./sec.
k= Fluid bulk modulus, 300,000 psi for water at 73°F
E= Modulus of elasticity of pipe, 400,000 for PVC
DR = Dimension ratio of pipe, OD/t
Example: What is the wave velocity for water with 2-inch DR 21 PVC pipe?
4600
a= = 1177.9 ft./sec.
[1+.75(21-2)]½
The pressure surge in the water system can now be calculated using the change in flow rate
or system velocity and the speed of the pressure wave. The following formula is used for this
determination:
aV
P=
2.31 g
Where:
P= Pressure surge, psi.
V= Velocity change, ft./sec. = 12 ft./sec.
g= Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft./sec.
Example: The maximum pressure surge can be calculated:
1178 x 12
P= = 190.0 psi
2.31 x 32.2
This calculated surge pressure is added to the line pressure to realize the maximum pressure
the system undergoes.
To lower or keep the maximum surge within reasonable limits, it is sometimes necessary to
extend the velocity change time. It is common practice to increase, or slow, the valve
closing time to exceed the critical close time (Tc) of a system.
2xL
TC > a
Where:
Tc = Valve Closure Time, (sec.)
L= Length of pipe run, (ft.)
a= Sonic velocity of the pressure wave (1178 ft./sec.)
Example: What is the minimum valve closing time for 100-foot run of 2-inch DR 21 pipe?
2 x 100
TC > = 0.17 sec.
1178
Most solenoid-controlled diaphragm valves will close or open more rapidly the greater the
difference between the upstream and the downstream pressure. This means that most of the
flow (gallons per minute) is closed off in the last 25% of the valve operation. Conversely,
the bulk of the flow comes on during the first 25% of opening.
These sudden, quick, and repeated changes in flow during system operation produce
repeated cyclic pressure fluctuations. These are the fatigue-causing culprits that can weaken
and damage piping systems, such as that for golf course irrigation applications.
Figure 49. Flow Rate vs. Valve Closing
Source: Adapted from LASCO Fittings Data

Avoiding Hydraulic Shock: The principal causes for surge or hydraulic shock are the
closing and opening of a valve, the starting and stopping of a pump, and the movement of
pockets of air accumulated in the pipeline. To reduce the chances of damaging surge from
occurring, it is recommended that the following steps be considered when designing,
installing, and operating a pipe line of PVC piping materials:
 The actual maximum operating pressure plus the surge pressure should not
exceed the specified pressure rating or maximum suggested design pressure of
the lowest rated component in the piping system.
 Fluid velocity < 5 ft/sec
 Actuated valves with specific closing times
 Do not use multiple-step fitting reductions. Keep multiple-step reductions less
than 4 pipe sizes (ex. 12 x 6 tee).
 Start the pump with a partially closed valve in discharge line.
 Install a check valve near the pump discharge to keep the line full.
 Vent all air out of the system before start-up.
 Prevent air from accumulating while the line is operating
 Provide all necessary protective equipment for the system, such as pressure relief
valves, surge arrestors, shock absorbers, and the like.
Aboveground Design
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
PVC compared to non-plastic piping has relatively higher coefficients of thermal expansion.
For this reason, it is even more important to consider thermal elongation and contraction
when designing PVC piping systems.
Table 9 lists the amount of movement of PVC piping per length of run. However to
calculate the exact expansion/contraction of PVC piping, use the Constant factor of Y =
0.36 and the following formula:
where
ΔL = y (T1 – T2) x L
10 100 Δ = Expansion of pipe (in.)
y = Constant factor (in./10°F/100 ft
T1 = Maximum Temperature (°F)
T2 = Minimum temperature (°F)
L = Length of pipe run (ft)
Example: How much expansion will result in 300 ft of PVC pipe installed at 50°F and
operating at 125°F?
ΔL = 0.36 x (125-50) x 300 = 8.1 in.
10 100
Table 9. PVC Pipe Thermal Expansion (in.)
Temp.
Change ΔT Length of Run (ft.)
(°F)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
30 0.11 0.22 0.32 0.43 0.54 0.65 0.76 0.86 0.97 1.08
40 0.14 0.29 0.43 0.58 0.72 0.86 1.01 1.15 1.30 1.44
50 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.72 0.90 1.08 1.26 1.40 1.62 1.80
60 0.22 0.43 0.65 0.85 1.08 1.30 1.51 1.73 1.94 2.16
70 0.25 0.50 0.76 1.01 1.26 1.51 1.76 2.02 2.27 2.52
80 0.29 0.58 0.86 1.15 1.44 1.73 2.02 2.30 2.59 3.24
90 0.32 0.65 0.97 1.30 1.62 1.94 2.27 2.59 2.92 3.24
100 0.36 0.72 1.03 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.52 2.88 3.24 3.60
Example: Highest temperature expected: 120°F
Lowest temperature expected: 50°F
ΔT 70°F
Length of run: 40 feet
Read down to ΔT 70°F row and then read across to 40 ft. run to 1.01 in.
length change.
Managing Expansion and Contraction: Compressive and tensile forces, which result
from thermal expansion and contraction, can be reduced or eliminated by providing piping
offsets, expansion loops, or expansion joints. The preferred method of handling expansion/
contraction is to use offset and, or expansion loops. Expansion joints require little space but
are limited in elongation length and can be a maintenance and repair issue. As a rule-of-
thumb, if the total temperature change is greater than 30°F (17°C), compensation for
thermal expansion should be considered.
Expansion Loops and Offsets:
Expansion Loop Formula:

where:
Loop length (in.)
Modulus of elasticity at maximum
temperature (psi)
Working stress at maximum
temperature (psi)
Outside diameter of pipe (in.)
Change in length due to change in
temperature (in.)
Figure 50. Loop Figure 51. Offset
Example: What would the loop length be to compensate for 4" of expansion of 3" PVC Sch.
80 pipe with a minimum temperature of 110°F? (Outside diameter of 3" pipe = 3.5". E =
371,000, S = 1500)
3 ED (ΔL) 3 • 4000,000 • 3.5 • 4 15,582,000

74.83 in.
2S 2 • 1,500 3,000
Thermal Stress and Longitudinal Force

Thermal Stress: If provisions are not made for expansion/contraction, the resulting forces
will be transmitted to the pipe, fittings, and joints. Expansion creates compressive forces and
contraction creates tensile forces.
To calculate the induced stress of restrained PVC pipe use the formula:
St = ECΔT where:
St = Stress (psi)
E = Modulus of elasticity (psi x 105)
C = Coefficient of thermal expansion (in/in/°F x 10-5)
ΔT = Temperature change between the installation

temperature and max/min temperature, whichever
produces the greatest differential (°F)
Example: What is the induced stress developed in 2" Schedule 80 PVC pipe with the pipe
restricted at both ends? (Assume the temperature extremes are from 70°F to 100°F.)
St = ECΔT = (3.60 x 105) x 3.0 x 105) x (100 – 70) = 324 psi
Longitudinal Force: To determine the magnitude of the longitudinal force of PVC pipe,
multiply the stress by the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The formula is:
F = St x A where:
F = Force (lbs.)
St = Stress (psi)
A = Cross-sectional area (in2 ) = π/4

(OD -ID2)
2
Example: With the stress as shown in the previous example (324 psi), calculate the amount
of force developed in the 2" Schedule 80 PVC pipe.
cross-sectional area of 2" pipe = 3.1416/4 (2.3752 – 1.9132) = 1.556 in2
F = St x A = 324 psi x 1.556 in2 = 504 lbs
Support Spacing
The tensile and compressive strengths of PVC pipe are less than those of metal piping.
Consequently, PVC requires additional pipe support. In addition, as temperature increases,
tensile strength decreases requiring additional support. At very elevated temperatures,
continuous support may be required. One other issue when considering pipe supports is to
make sure corrections are made for liquids with a specific gravity higher than 1.0. Table 10
and Table 11 list the support spacing and specific gravity correction factors.
Table 10. Support Spacing of PVC 40 and 80 Pipe
Nominal Pipe Diameter (in.) PVC 40 PVC 80

60°F 100°F 140°F 60°F 100°F 140°F
½ 4½ 4 2½ 5 4½ 2½
¾ 5 4 2½ 5½ 4½ 2½
1 5½ 4½ 2½ 6 5 3
1¼ 5½ 5 3 6 5 3
1½ 6 5 3 6½ 5½ 3½
2 6 5 3 7 6 3½
2½ 6½ 5½ 3½ 7½ 6½ 4
3 7 6 3½ 8 7 4
4 7½ 6½ 4 9 7½ 4½
6 8½ 7½ 4½ 10 9 5
8 9 8 4½ 11 9½ 5½
10 12½ 11½ 11 13 12 11½
12 14 13 12 15 14 13
Note: Listings show spacing (ft) between supports. Pipe is normally in 20-ft lengths. Use continuous
support for spacing less than three feet.
Table 11. Support Spacing Corrections with S.G. Greater than 1.0
Specific Gravity Correction Factor
1.0 1.00
1.1 0.98
1.2 0.96
1.4 0.93
1.6 0.90
2.0 0.85
2.5 0.80
Note: Above data are for un-insulated piping. For insulated piping, reduce spans to 70% of values shown.
Pipe Hangers
Use hangers that have a large bearing area to spread the load over the largest practical area.
The basic rules for PVC pipe hanger design pipe are:
 Avoid point contact or concentrated bearing loads

 Avoid abrasive contact
 Use protective shields to spread the loads over large areas
 Do not have the pipe support heavy valves or specialty fittings
 Do not use hangers that “squeeze” the pipe
 Compatible to PVC, especially those hangers having plasticized rubber inserts
On high-rise buildings, it is suggested to install a pipe support at each floor unless site
conditions deem otherwise (check with project design engineer if in doubt). Figure 52 and
Figure 53 are suggested hanger and support illustrations for PVC piping.
Figure 52. Typical Pipe Hangers
Figure 53. Pipe and Valve Supports
Anchors and Guides
Anchors direct movement of pipe within a defined reference frame. At the anchoring point,
there is no axial or transverse movement. Guides allow axial movement of pipe but prevent
transverse movement. Use guides and anchors whenever expansion joints are utilized and on
long runs and directional changes in pipe. Figure 54 and Figure 55 are illustrations showing
anchors, guides and anchor-guide design diagram.
Figure 54. Anchoring
Figure 55. Anchoring and Guide Design Diagrams
Piping Insulation
PVC is a low conductive material. In most cases, minimum or no insulation is required of
PVC piping systems. For example, compared to steel, PVC has over 250 times the insulating
capacity. To calculate heat loss or gains through any piping material, use the following
equation:
Q = K t A • ΔT where:
x
Q = Heat gain or loss (Btu)
K = Thermal conductivity of the pipe

(Btu-in./ft2-HR-°F)
ΔT = Temperature difference of inside and

outside pipe walls (°F)
A = Surface area (ft2)
x = Wall thickness (in.)
t = Time (hrs)
Example: What is the heat loss over 1 hour of a 1-foot long section of 2" PVC Schedule 80
pipe with a temperature difference of 80°F?
K = 1.2 Btu-in./ft2-hr-°F (for PVC)
D = 2.375 in. for 2" pipe
A = πDL = (3.141) (2.375 in.) (1ft/12in.) (1 ft) = 0.621 ft2
X = 0.218 in.
Q = K t A x ΔT = 1.2 x 1 x 0.621 x 80 = 273.47 Btu

x 0.218
Fire Resistive Design

One of the reasons PVC piping has been used extensively in residential, commercial, and
industrial applications for decades is that it has inherent fire resistant properties and does not
support combustion. Because PVC piping represents a very small portion of materials in
buildings by weight, no evidence of a need for special tests or requirements other than those
that are specified in building codes has been found.
Plenums
Most PVC piping is within walls or pipe chases; it is protected from fires that originate in
occupied spaces. For unducted return air plenum areas, all building and mechanical codes
require a Flame Spread value of 25 or less and a Smoke Developed value of 50 or less when
tested in accordance with ASTM E84. PVC piping does not meet these minimum
requirements for use without external protection; however, various pipe insulation
manufacturers have tested their products in accordance with ASTM E84 and have met
25/50 FS/SD limits.
Fire Resistance Ratings

As buildings became larger, provisions were added to the codes to contain any fire within a
limited area and to prevent it from spreading vertically or horizontally. This was
accomplished by establishing requirements that certain wall, floor, and floor-ceiling
assemblies have fire resistance ratings of one to four hours. The rating of a barrier is
established by subjecting a sample assembly to the ASTM E 119 fire conditions of one to
four hours. Plumbing codes reinforce the fire and building code provisions by requiring that
all piping penetrations be made in such a manner as to maintain the integrity of the fire
rating of building walls, floors, and ceilings. To prevent fire movement, fire stops are
designed and installed using ASTM E 814 testing methods. For detailed information on this
subject the publication Plastic Piping in Fire Resistive Construction (a comprehensive guide for
selecting and installing plastic piping fire-rated barriers and fire stops) is available free and
can be downloaded from the PPFA site (www.pphahome.org).
Other Aboveground Design Considerations

Cold Environments
PVC piping can handle temperatures below freezing if the system liquid does not freeze;
however, the pipe flexibility and the impact resistance decrease. This may cause the pipe to
become brittle. Protect the piping from impact if this condition can occur. To prevent liquid
freezing in piping, electric heat tracing may be used and applied directly on the pipe (within
the insulation if applicable). The heat tracing must not exceed the temperature-pressure
system design. It is always good practice to check with the pipe manufacturers for their
recommendations.
Compressed Air/Gases
DO NOT CONVEY COMPRESSED AIR OR GASES OR PRESSURE
TEST PVC PIPING SYSTEMS, OR ANY PORTION THEREOF, WITH
COMPRESSED AIR OR GASES. FAILURE TO FOLLOW THIS
WARNING COULD LEAD TO LIFE THREATENING INJURIES AND
SEVERE PROPERTY DAMAGE.
Outdoor Environments
PVC piping products are formulated for protection against the harmful effect of ultraviolet
rays from the sun. However, long periods of exposure to direct sunlight can discolor the
surface of the piping slightly reducing impact resistance. To prevent this phenomenon, PVC
compatible opaque protection, paint, and/or other coverings can be applied. If using a paint,
make certain it is an acrylic or water-based and not oil-based. A light color paint would be
preferable to minimize heat absorption. If uncertain on what covering to use, consult the
pipe manufacturer.
Air Admittance Valve

An air admittance valve (AAV) is a product that simplifies drainage and waste venting in
commercial and residential applications by replacing or supplementing traditional vertical
stacks. It is a one-way valve designed to allow air to enter the plumbing drainage systems
when negative pressures develop in the piping system. The device closes by gravity and seals
the vent terminal at zero differential pressure and under positive internal pressures. The
purpose of the valve is to provide a way of allowing air to enter the plumbing drainage
system without the use of a vent extended to open air and to prevent sewer gases from
escaping into a building. Check with local codes to determine if AAVs are allowed.
Noise in DWV Piping
Good plumbing practices routinely employ the following techniques to reduce the noise in
PVC piping systems:
 Be selective in plumbing wall stack location and avoid critical areas where
possible.
 Use a plumbing “wall” of adequate thickness to properly accommodate the
plumbing system without restriction.
 Support pipe properly and make sure it is not installed under strain and that it is
not in contact with the wall material. Be sure to allow adequate clearances
between piping and holes cut in framing members.
 Use long-radius fittings to reduce turbulence.
 Wrap stacks and piping in critical wall spaces with sound deadening material, or
pack the wall with insulating materials.
 Isolate the piping system from the building structure using vibration damping
materials, such as fiberglass or rock wool, in areas where noise would be
objectionable.
Static Electricity
PVC piping is relatively non-conductive—an advantage particularly in electrical or electronic
applications. In other applications this property could present issues by allowing electrostatic
charges to be generated and accumulated.
Static electricity or electrostatic charge is normally generated by the separation and insulation
of like bodies. This is likely to occur in the transport of dry bulk solids, powders, and
slurries. To prevent charges from accumulating, all equipment and personnel should be
grounded and measures should be taken to dissipate charge by increasing the conductivity of
the piping system. This can be accomplished in three ways:
1. Coating the pipe surface with a solvent-free conductive metallic powder coating then
grounding the pipe.
2. Wrapping conductive wire around the pipe for the entire pipe run and then running it to
ground.
3. Increasing the relative atmospheric humidity with a thin film of moisture on the pipe will
improve conductivity. This temporary measure can be made more permanent by treating
the pipeline surface with a PVC compatible hygroscopic soap.
Underground Design
Due to the benefits of durability, safe and easy to use, environmentally soundness, and cost
effectiveness, well over 75% of PVC piping is used for underground applications. This
Design Guide will highlight some of the design criteria for using PVC pipe in underground
applications. For a more thorough design and installation of underground PVC piping, the
Handbook of PVC Pipe published by the Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association is a recommended
resource. Uni-Bell’s website is www.uni-bell.org.
Similar to all other buried piping systems, good installation practices should be as follows:
 Grade all trench bottoms free of stone and pockets and for continuous, uniform
support fill holes or depressions with clean, well-tamped material.
 Do not set pipe on bricks, concrete, or wood blocks.
 Install pipe on proper grade with full, continuous support.
 Backfill along sides of pipe with selected fill, free of stones, clods, or frozen
lumps.
 Tamp backfill carefully to protect pipe alignment; then backfill on top of pipe
with selected fill free of rock, stone, cement, and other hard-abrasive materials to
a depth of 12 inches.
 The trench can then be backfilled in a conventional manner.
 Avoid burying mechanical connections if possible especially in high traffic areas.
As mentioned earlier, PVC piping is a non-conductor of electricity. Therefore, when burying

plastic pipe, consider using a conductive product such as a metal wire in or above the trench
to definitively locate the piping by using a metal detector device.
Keep in mind that PVC pipe in most instances is considered a flexible pipe rather than a
rigid piping product. Flexible pipe is able to bend slightly without breaking and uses the pipe
wall and buried medium to sustain external loads. When installed properly, PVC pipe
develops support from the surrounding soil. Pipe deflection or compression depends on any
one or a combination of three factors:
 Pipe stiffness
 Soil stiffness (soil density along the sides of the pipe)
 Load on the pipe (earth, static, and live)
For more complete engineering and design information on PVC pipe stiffness, soil stiffness,
and pipe loading, go to Uni-Bell’s website: www.unibell.org.
Pipe Stiffness
Pipe stiffness is the force in psi divided by the vertical deflection in inches. An arbitrary data
point of 5% deflection is used as a comparison of pipe stiffness values in flexible piping.
Each pressure piping material has a different pipe stiffness value that is based on the
material’s flexural modulus. For any given SDR, the pipe stiffness remains constant for all
sizes.
Soil Stiffness
Soil stiffness is the soil’s ability to resist compaction. Spangler’s formula is used to determine
the “E” values or deflection of buried flexible pipe in terms of soil stiffness independent of
pipe size. The “E” value is also referred to as the modulus of soil reactions. The soil backfill
type and amount of compaction directly affect these values.
Pipe Loading
Earth loads may be calculated using Marston’s load formula. Static loads are calculated using
Boussinesq’s Equation. Live or dynamic loads are also calculated using Boussinesq’s
Equation, by multiplying the superimposed load (W) by 1½. There are existing tables
available from pipe manufacturers for various piping materials listing soil conditions, soil
compaction, pipe stiffness values, maximum height of cover recommendations, and other
useful data to design underground PVC piping.
Trench Design
Trenches should be of adequate width to allow the proper bedding and back-filling of PVC
pipe, while being as narrow as practical. A trench width of two or three times the piping
diameter is a good rule of thumb in determining the trench width. Following is Table 12
listing minimum trench widths for various pipe sizes and Figure 56 listing trench
terminology.
Table 12. Minimum Trench Widths Figure 56. Trench Terminology
Nom. Pipe Sizes Number of Pipe Trench Width

(Diameter in.) Diameters (in.)
4 4.3 18
6 2.9 18
8 2.9 24
10 2.5 26
12 2.4 30
15 2.0 30
18 1.8 32 Source: Uni-Bell Pipe Assoc.
21 1.6 34
24 1.5 36
27 1.5 40
30 1.4 42
33 1.4 46
36 1.4 50
40 1.4 56
48 1.3 62
Source: Uni-Bell Pipe Assoc.
Minimum Cover for Pipe

The following minimum guidelines may be used when burying PVC pipe:
 Locate pipe below the frost line.

 Use a minimum cover of 18 in. or one pipe diameter (whichever is greater) when
there is no overland traffic.
 Use a minimum cover of 36 in. or one pipe diameter (whichever is greater) when
truck traffic may be expected.
 Use a minimum cover of 60 in. when heavy truck or locomotive traffic is
possible.
Risers
PVC pipe has excellent weathering resistance especially if coated with a latex paint or other
covering; however, the vertical piping should not be brought above grade under the
following conditions without making particular provisions:
 If pipe is expected to provide structural strength such as supporting an above-

grade heavy metal valve—the valve should be independently supported.
 If pipe is subject to external damage—this can be rectified by sleeving the pipe
with an independently and rigidly supported metal barrier.
 If pipe is subjected to high temperature environments—the situation might be
remedied by insulation.
3
Chapter
JOINING METHODS
PVC piping systems have many joining methods that have stood the test of time and proven
in most cases to have superior joint integrity when compared to other piping materials.
This section will cover several different joining methods; however, solvent cementing, the
most common method for joining PVC piping, will be discussed in the greatest detail. To
guarantee a trouble free piping system two major factors are needed: an experienced
installation crew and completely following the manufacturer’s instructions.
General Piping Practices

There are some distinctive differences between plastic and non-plastic joining and
installation techniques; yet, always use good piping practices similar to other piping materials.
For example:
 Always have a slow operating valve at the pump discharge if water hammer is a
possibility.
 Provide for proper air relief and vacuum break at high points.
 Follow specific manufacturer’s installation and safety manual instructions.
 Train installers if handling PVC piping material for the first time.
 Use appropriate and well maintained piping joining tools and accessories.
 Piping should be installed as stress-free as possible, especially at fitting and valve
areas.
 Eliminate air from the piping system before testing and start-up.
 Design for thermally caused pipe movement.
Joining Methods - 49
Joining Methods
Before joining any PVC piping system, always make certain of the following:
 Products chosen are appropriate for the design.

 Products to be joined are inspected to ensure that no cracks (normal fitting
molding “knit” lines are acceptable), gouges, warping, or other imperfections are
present.
 The fitting socket and outside pipe diameter fit as specified by the manufacturer.
 All pipe is cut squarely, deburred, and beveled.
 All piping products are thoroughly cleaned before joining.
 Piping products to be joined are kept at similar temperatures when solvent
cementing.
 You are knowledgeable of the manufacturer’s products and installation
procedures.
 Ensure all tools are in good condition.
Inspection
Before joining the pipe, inspect the pipe surface for deep gouges and cracks. If suspect areas
are found, cut out the damaged section at least 12 inches beyond the ends of the gouge or
crack. Also, make certain the component socket and outside pipe diameter fit correctly.
Figure 57. Inspection
Check pipe and fittings for proper fit.
50 - Joining Methods
Cutting/Cleaning/Deburring
Cut, deburr, and bevel PVC pipe with specially-designed tools. Using a clean, dry cloth,
remove any dirt, grease, and/or water from joining surfaces. If the cloth is unsuccessful at
removing surface dirt, follow the manufacturer’s recommendations on cleaners or other
acceptable methods. Do not use mechanical sanding tools to clean or bevel pipe.
Figure 58. Cutting/Cleaning/Deburring
Plastic Pipe Cutter for

Square Cut
Pipe Beveller
Remove all burrs on inside

and outside of pipe.
Remove dirt, grease and moisture

using a clean, dry rag.
Solvent Cementing
The preferred joining system for most PVC installations is solvent cementing. The ease of
joining, durability and integrity of the joint, and low labor cost of this joining method make
PVC one of the most preferred piping systems in the world.
Advantages
 Joint is as strong or stronger than the pipe or fitting
 Monolithic—no foreign substance contacting fluid being handled
 No special costly tools required
 No open flames, torches, or hot plates
 Less likelihood for on-site burn, cut, or impact injuries
 Extremely cost-effective
 Fewer training hours for installers to learn techniques
 No need for electric power in many cases
Concerns
 Once joined, connections are permanent
 Time required before testing
 May require ventilated environment
 Leaks, though rare, may require replacement or back welding
 Special precautions may be needed to join in poor weather conditions
Joining Method
Using ASTM standard D 2855, the method of joining PVC piping is shown in Figure 59 as
follows:
Figure 59. Solvent Cementing
Using the correct applicator, aggressively

work primer into fitting socket & pipe OD
until surface is softened. Apply second
coating of primer in fitting socket.
Before the primer is dried, apply

cement aggressively to the pipe
OD and fitting socket.
Apply a second even layer of

cement to pipe OD.
Without delay and while cement is

wet, push pipe into fitting, twisting a
quarter-turn until pipe bottoms out.
After assembly, joint should

have a solid ring or bead of
cement around joint interface.
If voids are present, the joint
may be suspect. Hold pipe & fitting together for
about 15-30 seconds to avoid
push out.
Using a rag, remove excess cement

from pipe & fitting.
Joint Movement Times: The cement begins to “set” within just a few seconds to a few
minutes after its application. Be careful not to move or disturb the joint during this set time.
Below is a guide for moving newly installed PVC piping.
Cementing Cure Times: Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions for a successful
installation of PVC solvent-cemented piping systems. Listed below are typical guidelines for
installers to follow when moving or testing PVC solvent-cemented piping (cure times may
vary—check with manufacturer before testing).
Table 13. Joint Moving Set Times
Pipe Size Hot Weather Mild Weather Cold Weather

(inches) 90° to 150° F 50° to 90°F 10° to 50°F
¼ - 1¼ 12 Min. 20 Min. 30 Min.
1½ - 2½ 30 Min. 45 Min. 1 Hr.
3-4 45 Min. 1 Hr. 1½ Hrs.
6-8 1 Hr. 1½ Hrs. 2½ Hrs.
10 - 12 2 Hrs. 3 Hrs. 5 Hrs.
Source: Adapted from NIBCO, Inc.
Ten Percent Pressure Testing Times (typical guideline): Hydrostatic (water) testing of
PVC welded joints could be accomplished at 10% of the largest pipe diameter’s operating
pressure (temperature-corrected) working pressure according to the times shown in Table
14.
Table 14. 10% Pressure Testing Cure Times

(inches) 90° to 150°F 50° to 90°F 10° to 50°F
¼-1¼ 1 Hr. 1 Hr. & 15 Min. 1 Hr. & 45 Min.
1½-2½ 1½ Hr. 1 Hr. & 45 Min. 3 Hrs.
3-4 2 Hrs. & 45 Min. 3½ Hrs. 6 Hrs.
6-8 3½ Hrs. 4 Hrs. 12 Hrs.
10 - 12 6 Hrs. 8 Hrs. 72 Hrs.
One Hundred Percent Pressure Testing Times (typical guideline): PVC solvent-welded
joints should be tested for no more than 15 minutes at 100% of the largest pipe diameter’s
operating pressure (temperature-corrected) and working pressure. (Values below are for
systems of 180 psi or less).
Table 15. 100% Pressure Testing Cure Times

(inches) 90°to 150°F 50° to 90°F 10° to 50°F
¼ - 1¼ 4 Hrs. 5 Hrs. 7 Hr
1½ - 2½ 6 Hrs. 8 Hrs. 10 Hrs.
3-4 8 Hrs. 18 Hrs. 24 Hrs.
6-8 12 Hrs 24 Hrs 48 Hrs.
10 - 12 18 Hrs. 36 Hrs. 3 - 12 Days
Note: Job site conditions such as humidity, altitude, and other factors can effect the cure times. The listed cure times are
guidelines only. It is best practice to use the cement manufacturer’s recommendations for cure times before testing.
Special Conditions for Cementing

Hot Weather Cementing: Quicker solvent evaporation during hot weather and/or high
winds needs to be taken into account to have a successful installation. Hot weather causes
the primed piping surfaces to dry out more rapidly. To overcome these concerns, the
installation crew needs to reduce the elapsed time from preparing the joint to the joint
installation. Listed below are suggestions to ensure proper joining at high temperatures:
 Increase the size of the joining crew and organize the team to achieve speed
without compromising manufacturer’s instructions.
 Construct a makeshift windscreen around the joining site and the crew.
 Shade the piping products and cement and primer containers from the sun
before installing to eliminate heat absorption.
 Using adequate lighting, the joining may be done at night or early morning.
 Prefab components under controlled conditions if feasible.
 Use a cement applicator that is a minimum of ½ the pipe diameter size.
Cold Weather Cementing: Solvent in the cement and primer will not evaporate as readily
when temperatures are below 40°F and cements become heavier, and may even gel. A stiff
bristle brush can be used to better work the primer solvents into the pipe surfaces. Since the
joints take longer to bond and cure in cold temperatures, be sure to hold together the newly
cemented joint longer to prevent breaking the bond. Listed below are suggestions to help
insure a proper installation at lower temperatures:
 Store piping materials and cement and primer in a temperature controlled area
until ready for use.
 Keep moisture away from the joining site using overhead protection.
 Prefabricate as much of the system as possible in a safely heated work area (no
open flames).
 Protect joints made outside with a portable shelter. The shelter should remain in
place until the joint is set.
Cement and Primer Usage
The usage estimates listed in the table below should be used as a guide; actual usage depends
on many factors especially installation conditions.
Table 16. Number of Cemented Joints per Container Size
Pipe Size Pint Quart Gallon

½ 130 260 1040
¾ 80 160 640
1 70 140 560
1¼ 50 100 400
1½ 35 70 280
2 20 40 160
2½ 17 34 136
3 15 30 120
4 10 20 80
6 NR 8 32
8 NR 3 12
10 NR NR 10
12 NR NR 6
Cementing Dissimilar Plastics

As previously stated, only ABS, CPVC, and PVC piping can be joined using solvent
cementing. There are rare circumstances where there may be a need to transitionally join a
PVC system with either an ABS or CPVC piping system using solvent cementing techniques.
This method has been and can be used successfully following the piping and cement
manufacturer’s directions. ASTM D 3138 standard specifies the use of only one single
transition joint needed to connect an ABS and PVC piping system. The standard is intended
for joints between ABS and PVC materials in low pressure applications only (25 psi or less).
One-step Cementing
Just recently, several PVC piping system manufacturers have supported a one-step solvent
cementing procedure where priming the pipe is not necessary. This cementing method is
typically recommended only for DWV applications with up to a 4-inch diameter. The major
advantages of this joining method are that it reduces the amount of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), reduces the cost of joining products, and reduces potential damage
from unintended primer spillage. Check with the piping and fitting manufacturer and your
local building codes for acceptance of this type of joining system.
Key Points of Safety and Use
 Use approved eye protection when doing any job.
 Pipe, fittings, and cement should be exposed to the same temperature for at least
one hour prior to cementing.
 Use only appropriate sized natural bristle brushes with a width of one-half of the
pipe diameter, approved daubers, and/or rollers to apply cement/primer.
 Some pipe system joints may be prepared without a primer. Check the
manufacturer’s instructions and local codes.
 When joining in unusual conditions—temperatures below 40°F or above 90°F—
carefully follow the cement manufacturer’s instructions.
 Use the appropriate cement for the piping material, wall thickness, and local
codes.
 Always thoroughly shake cement and primer containers before use.
 Observe the “use prior to” date on cement containers.
 Discard cements if they become gelled, lumpy, and/or stringy.
 Apply cement in open or well-ventilated environments and avoid prolonged
breathing of solvent vapors. In some cases, personal protective equipment may
be required.
 Keep cements, primers, and curing work pieces away from all sources of ignition,
heat, sparks, and open flame. Store cement cans tightly closed and out of areas of
extreme heat or cold. The solvents in cement and primers are highly flammable.
 Avoid skin contact with primers, cleaners, and cements. Wear proper gloves
impervious to and unaffected by the solvents.
 Appropriate joint-drying time should elapse before moving or testing the
cemented pipe system (see manufacturer’s guidelines or ASTM
recommendations).
 Don’t be stingy using cement and primer—use the proper amount.
 When cementing ball valves, carefully cement the pipe into the valve with the
ball open at a 45° angle. Leave valve open until cure time has elapsed.
 Do not take shortcuts; follow manufacturer’s instructions completely.
 For safe handling of solvent cements and primers, refer to ASTM Standard F402
or PPFA’s bulletin Safe Handling of Solvent Cements and Primers.
 Always work safe!
WARNING
WHEN JOINING PVC PIPING SYSTEM COMPONENTS USING
SOLVENT CEMENT, THE SAFE HANDLING PROVISIONS OF ASTM
F402 MUST BE FOLLOWED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
USING APPROVED GLOVES AND EYE PROTECTION AND
WORKING IN A WELL-VENTILATED ENVIRONMENT. FAILURE
TO FOLLOW THIS WARNING COULD LEAD TO LIFE
THREATENING INJURIES.
Flanging
When flanging PVC systems, similar flanging practices are used as with most other materials.
For PVC systems to be successful, the attached flanged hubs must be properly cemented to
the pipe as described in the solvent cementing section of the Design Guide.
Advantages
 Can join dissimilar piping materials
 Can disassemble sections for inspection and maintenance
 Can fix leaks easily
 Can prefabricate a system for field installation
 Can test the system immediately if cemented flange hub is fully cured
Concerns
 High initial cost
 Dissimilar material (gaskets) may contact fluid
 Not dimensionally compact
 Limited to 150 psi working pressure
Joining Method
To properly flange PVC piping, see the following instructions shown in Figure 60.
Figure 60. Flanging
Use soft, full-face gaskets Install the flange making sure the pipe
compatible with handled liquid and is bottomed-out to the flange stop. Use
thermoplastic material. lubricated bolts and flat washers.
Pull down all bolts gradually to a Tighten bolts by pulling down on the nuts
uniform tightness. Maintain flange diametrically opposite each other with a torque
surfaces parallel within 1/16-in. wrench at manufacturers' bolt torque values.
during tightening.
Key Points
 Make certain the system pressure does not exceed the working pressure of the
flange—normally 150 psi.
 Use a torque wrench and follow manufacturers’ bolting pattern and torque
requirements when tightening nuts/bolts.
 Heavy flat washers should be used under both bolt heads and nuts on flanges to
be joined. (Check with manufacturer for proper size washers.)
 Use lubricated bolts (lubricant to be material-compatible).
 Do not use ring gaskets; use chemically compatible full-face gaskets with a 55-80
durometer hardness.
 Avoid joining PVC flanges to metal flanges with an excessively raised inner lip.
 Do not direct bury flanged connections.
 Maintain flange surfaces parallel within 1/16-in. during tightening.
Figure 61. Flange Bolt Tightening Pattern
(Tighten bolts evenly; follow numerical sequence)
12-Bolt Pattern
8-Bolt Pattern
4-Bolt Pattern
Threading
Direct threading of PVC pipe must only be used for Schedule 80 or 120. For critical
applications use threaded PVC joints only if necessary. If threading is required, consider
using transition unions or threaded fitting adapters.
Advantages
 Can disassemble
 Can fix leaks easily
 Can join dissimilar materials
 Can prefabricate a system for field installation
 Can test the system immediately
Concerns
 Requires more expertise assembling sizes larger than 2-in. diameter
 Reduces the working pressure of the system 50%
 Threads are the weakest part of the piping system
 Special threading tools are required
 Thicker pipe (Schedule 80 or 120) is required
 Thread sealants must be compatible to PVC
Joining Method
To properly thread PVC pipe see following instructions as shown in Figure 62.
Figure 62. Threading
Insert plug into pipe end to prevent Turn threading dies slowly, keeping
distortion of pipe walls. speed constant. Use an approved
thread-cutting lubricant.
After threading pipe, use Teflon tape Screw fittings onto pipe and tighten
or approved sealer/lubricant (ft. with strap wrench. Avoid excessive
instructions). torque. One to two threads past
hand-tight is adequate.
Key Points
 Use only schedule 80 pipe or thicker.
 Threading dies must be clean and sharp.
 Use strap wrenches or other non-metal tightening device.
 Threaded pipe will reduce working pressure of the system 50%.
 Do not subject threaded joints to repeated or severe strain.
 Use Teflon tape or manufacturer’s approved thread sealant.
 Do not thread male metal piping into plastic female connections.
Other Joining Systems
The Design Guide has listed the most common aboveground joining methods for PVC piping
systems. There are several other PVC joining methods for specifically designed applications
that are briefly covered.
Gasketed-Bell and Spigot

A popular method for joining underground PVC piping is with a gasketed bell and spigot
joint. There are thousands of miles of successfully installed piping using this easy, safe, and
cost-effective method of joining. This joining method requires no fancy or expensive tools,
and in most cases, the gasket is permanently installed in the bell at the factory. One of the
advantages of this joining system versus solvent cementing is that the system can be tested
immediately after being joined.
Figure 63. Gasketed Joint Assembly
Step A. Clean the bell making certain the beveled Step B. Apply lubricant to beveled spigot only.
spigot end and the gasket grove are Lubricant used must be approved for
aligned and free from dirt. potable water service and recommended
by pipe manufacturer.
Step C. Assembly of small diameter pipe may be Step D. Push lubricated end past the gasket into
accomplished using only manual force. the bell until reference mark is even with
The block and bar method of assembly is the bell lip. Over-insertion of spigot end
recommended for larger diameter piping past the reference mark may create a
requiring a greater insertion force. stress condition that could result in a joint
failure or leakage.
Mechanical Radius Cut/Rolled-Grooved with Metal Gasketed Coupler
This system is similar in many ways to a flanged system in that it can be prefabricated and is
easy to assemble and disassemble. These systems require rather expensive and sophisticated
tools to “notch” the pipe (many times the grooves are made at the factory). Grooving (cut-
grooving in particular) will reduce the working pressure of the pipe, and due to the pipe
tolerances at pipe diameters above 8 inches, it may be difficult at times to fabricate a groove
with acceptable tolerances. Joining instructions for cut and roll grooving of PVC pipe is
shown in Figure 64 and Figure 65.
Figure 64. Mechanical Radius Cut-Groove with Metal Gasketed Coupler
Attach pipe to vise after cutting &

beveling pipe end.
Use approved pipe

tool to cut-groove
pipe end.
Finished Cut-groove Pipe End
Figure 65. Mechanical Roll-Groove with Metal Gasketed Coupler
Use approved pipe tool roll-groove

pipe end.
Roll-grooving of Pipe End
Finished Rolled-Groove Pipe End
Ring Gasket to Fit in Grooved Pipe Affix gasket to pipe.

End
Place compression coupling over Tighten compression bolt to desired

gasket. torque.
Mechanical Cut-Groove with Plastic Spline and Coupler
Similar to the cut/rolled system with a metal gasket coupler however, the coupling for this
system is PVC, which aids in preventing corrosion and chemical attack. There are no
expensive tools required for this joining method. Most of the applications for this system are
in mines where acidic waters need to be pumped from mining locations to other sites and in
emergency situations where flooding occurs. Figure 66 shows the proper joining method for
this piping system.
Figure 66. Mechanical Cut-Grooved with Plastic Spline and Coupler
Pipe is manufactured with a groove Coupling is machined with an internal

on the pipe OD. groove for the spline, an internal groove
for the O-Ring, and a pipe stop.
Insert coupling onto pipe end using Insert nylon spline into the
a rubber mallet to bottom out. overlapping grooves.
Transition Joints
Elastomeric couplings with compression clamps: Couplings and/or transition fittings
are available for joining cast-iron soil pipe to PVC. These specialty fittings are needed due to
the dissimilar outside diameter of these piping materials. For joining steel pipe to PVC (both
made to Schedule 40 dimensions), the standard Cast Iron Soil Piping Institute (CISPI)
hubless coupling is satisfactory. Plastic adapter fittings are also made that provide a contour
with a raised ridge to provide a better gripping area for the elastomeric coupling.
Figure 67. Cast Iron and PVC Transition Using Elastomeric Coupling and Clamps
Threaded adapters: Threaded adapters are used to join a component with standard tapered
pipe thread to PVC pipe. The PVC portion may be either spigot or socket, and the threaded
portion may be either external or internal NPT threads. PTFE tape or compatible sealant is
used to lubricate and seal the treaded joint. For metal threaded connections to PVC,
metal/PVC adapters are available and will assist greatly in preventing splitting or leaking of
the threaded joints.
Figure 68. Transition Fittings
Cast Iron soil pipe hub adapters: Cast iron hub to PVC spigot transition joints using
oakum and lead wool as a sealant in DWV applications are becoming less used and may be
completely replaced by a type of compression gasket. For more information on this
transition fitting, consult with the fitting and/or pipe manufacturer.
Heat Fusion
PVC can be and is heat fused in very controlled environments where temperature and
pressure have to be carefully monitored. Many fabricated large diameter fittings and other
fabrications are made using this joining method. Recently, one pipe manufacturer has
developed and is marketing a PVC field-joined heat fusion system mostly used for
underground and slip-lining applications. It is too early to determine if this system will be a
major factor in future PVC underground (or aboveground for that matter) applications.
4
Chapter
INSTALLATION
PVC piping installation, due to the product’s lightweight, durability, ease of joining, absence
of expensive and potentially dangerous joining tools, and minimal or no on-site theft, makes
PVC one of most environmentally and economically sound piping systems in use today.
Installation practices for PVC piping, except for joining methods, differ very little from
those of installing other piping systems. There are some slight differences however, and
novice installers should contact an experienced plastic piping representative to educate the
installing crew in proper joining techniques. In large critical projects, it may be advisable to
certify the competency of each pipe fitter or hire the services of an experienced installation
supervisor.
Work Crew
The size of the work crew is shown in Table 17 depends on the following:
 Crew’s experience
 Pipe diameter and length of piping system
 Installation weather conditions
 Construction schedule
 Type of joining method
 Local labor requirements
Table 17. Recommended Crew Size for PVC Pipe Installation
Pipe Diameter (in.) No. of installers (minimum)

½-2 1
2½ - 3 2
4-8 3
10 and above 4
Installation - 67
Storage and Handling
PVC piping is tough and resilient, and does not require special treatment; however, like
other piping materials, common sense and due care should be used when storing and
handling PVC piping products.
Storage
Where possible, pipe should be stored inside. If impossible, store the pipe on dry level
ground free from sharp objects. If various wall thicknesses of pipe are stored together, the
pipe with the thickest walls should be on the bottom. If storing the pipe in pallets, the pallet
cross-members should be stacked on one another not more than two pallets high. If the pipe
is stored in racks, it should be continuously supported along its length or at a minimum of
supports every three feet. To lessen the effects of the sun and help prevent heat build-up,
the pipe should be in a shaded area with proper ventilation.
Figure 69. Pipe Storage
Summary of points to remember when storing PVC pipe are as follows:
 For prolonged outside storage, put pipe and fittings under an opaque, light-
colored tarpaulin or in a well ventilated shed. This will minimize warpage and
possible surface discoloration.
 Some pipe manufacturers ship pallets of pipe with an opaque wrap. Leave the
wrap on until ready to use.
 Palleted pipe may be multi-stacked with the wooden frame for each pallet
abutting the pallet above.
68 - Installation
 Pipe rack storage should be free from sharp metallic burrs and edges and away
from heat sources such as radiator steam pipes. Pipe racks should have
appropriate support to prevent pipe from sagging.
 Belled pipe, if stored for extended periods, should have alternate rows of bells
inverted so the loading on the bell is minimized.
Handling
When receiving the pipe, do a thorough inspection to make sure no damage occurred during
transportation. Pipe received in a closed trailer should be inspected as the trailer is opened.
Take extra time to ensure that the pipe has not been damaged by other materials that might
have been stacked on top of the piping.
PVC pipe is lighter in weight than metal pipe, and handlers may be tempted to throw the
pipe around carelessly. This should be avoided. The pipe should never be dragged or pushed
from a truck bed. Removing pallets of pipe should be done with a properly sized forklift one
pallet at a time. The pipe should never be lifted or moved by inserting the forks of a forklift
into the pipe ends. Loose pipes require special handling to prevent damage. Avoid contact
with sharp objects that could gouge the pipe. Keep in mind that PVC pipe becomes more
brittle as the temperature decreases. Therefore, take extra care when handling the pipe below
50°F.
Summary of points to remember are as follows:
 Do not carelessly drop pipe from truck when unloading.

 Use a load distributor when moving small OD pipe.
 Protect piping from impact abuse, especially in cold weather.
 Use soft pads on truck bottoms that have metal edges.
 Use 3- or 4-inch wide nylon or rope slings for pipe lifting.
 Discard piping that has been run over by vehicles.
Aboveground Installation
The major considerations in installing PVC piping versus other non-plastic piping are as
follows:
 Expansion/Contraction
 Support spacing
 Outdoor weathering
 Avoidance of compressed air and gases
 Impact protection
 High heat areas
 Air admittance valves
 Fire stops
 Recyclability
Installation - 69
Expansion/Contraction
PVC piping systems expand and contract with temperature changes more than metallic
piping systems. However due to the fact that plastic systems are less rigid than metal
systems, PVC will absorb repeated flexing and develop less force than metal piping when
exposed to temperature changes.
In cases involving extreme temperature ranges, long, straight pipe runs, and in installations
where pipe is restrained so that it can move only in one direction, special provisions may be
required. A primary concern is the connection between a long straight and a fixed-in-place
fitting. Generally, when installing PVC piping systems with long runs of pipe and
temperature change of 30°F or more, allowance must be made for thermal movement. The
temperature during installation must also be considered and accounted for during design.
PVC has the capacity to absorb some stresses that may be placed on the system, but without
proper planning, pipe expansion/contraction can create problems. Provision for thermal
movement must be included in the system design. Often, changes in direction that occur
naturally in the piping system may be used for handling the thermal piping travel. If this is
impossible, expansion loops, offsets, or piston-type expansion joints will be needed.
In DWV systems, special consideration should be given between a long, straight branch line
and a stack fitting. Because the stack is comparatively rigid and is held in place by the floor
penetrations, provision for the branch line expansion must be made so that excessive force
is not exerted on the stack wye or tee branch. Unlike tees and wyes, 45- and 90-degree
elbows can absorb more stress and are used in offsets or at changes in directions.
A professional piping design engineer should review and sign-off on all piping plans to
ensure a well designed piping system by calculating the estimated amount of thermal
expansion and contraction for a particular project. Once the amount of expansion and
contraction is determined, the installer can compensate for this phenomenon by using the
following methods:
 Expansion loop
 Offset
 Change in direction
 Piston type expansion joint
 Bellows and/or rubber expansion joints
70 - Installation
Figure 70. Expansion Loop
Restraint
Movement Movement
Guide Guide
Figure 71. Offset
Movement
Guide
Movement Guide
Installation - 71
Figure 72. Change in Direction
Movement
Guide
Guide
Figure 73. PVC Flanged Piston-Type Expansion Figure 74. Bellows Expansion Joint
Joint
For vertical stacks in DWV or storm drainage systems in above-grade multi-story

applications, compensation for expansion/contraction or building settling is recommended.
This can be accomplished by installing a horizontal offset or expansion joint at a minimum
of every other floor.
Secure aboveground vertical DWV or storm-drainage piping at sufficiently close intervals to

maintain proper alignment and to support the weight of the piping and its contents. Support
the stack at its base, and if over two stories in height, support the stack at its base and at
each floor with approved riser clamps. Anchor the stacks so that movement is directed to
the offset or expansion joint. Expansion joints should be installed in the neutral position.
Compensation for thermal movements is usually not required for venting systems.
When installing the expansion loop, no rigid or restraining supports should be placed within
the leg lengths of the loop. The loop should be installed as closely as possible to the mid-
point between anchors. Piping support guides should restrict lateral movement and direct
axial movement into the loop. The loops, offsets, and change of direction should be
constructed of solvent-cemented joints only. If multiple loops are necessary, space
accordingly.
72 - Installation
Support Spacing
As in all piping systems, adequate support for aboveground installations is very important.
Support spacing is a function of the pipe size, operating temperatures, the location of heavy
valves or fittings, and the mechanical properties of the pipe material. When selecting the
proper metal hanger, choose those that do not compress, distort, cut, or abrade the PVC
piping.
Generally, all piping should be supported with an approved hanger at intervals sufficiently
close to maintain correct pipe alignment and to prevent excessive sagging or grade reversal.
Pipe should also be supported at all branch ends and at all changes of direction. Listed below
are other important support issues.
 Concentrated loads should be supported directly to eliminate high stress

concentrations.
 In piping systems where large fluctuations of expansion and contraction can
occur, hangers must be placed as not to restrict the thermal movement.
 Hangers should provide as much bearing surface as possible and be free of sharp
edges or burrs.
 Do not place PVC piping systems next to steam or other high temperature pipe
lines or heat emitting products.
 Support spacing for horizontal PVC piping systems is determined by the
maximum operating temperature the system will encounter.
 Hangers should not restrict axial movement.
 To determine support for vertical lines, it is recommended that an engineer
design the support system based on the vertical load involved.
Outdoor Weathering
Although PVC piping has compound additives that minimize attack from the sun’s rays,
almost all pipe manufacturers recommend that PVC piping exposed to long periods of
outdoor use be protected. Studies show that the effect of ultraviolet aging of PVC pipe
causes a reduction in the impact strength, but the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength
are virtually unaffected. The fact that these properties are unaffected signifies that structural
integrity and pressure capacity of PVC pipe remain unchanged. UV degradation does not
continue after installation when exposure to UV radiation is terminated.
Usually, the most cost effective method of “environmental proofing” the piping system is to
apply a thin shield such as paint, coating, or wrapping to the pipe exterior. If using paint, use
a water-based light-color paint. Of course, burial provides complete protection.
Installation - 73
Compressed Air/Gases
TEST PVC PIPING SYSTEMS, OR ANY PORTION THEREOF, WITH
Impact Protection
In aboveground PVC piping applications that experience high vehicle traffic such as fork
lifts or dollies, protect the piping from accidental impact by using a metal cover or the use of
a more impact resistance piping material transitioned to the PVC at safer impact areas.
High Heat Environments

PVC can handle most applications not exceeding 140°F. However, if there are other piping
systems or mechanical equipment that can exceed 140°F (steam lines or hot water heaters
for example) and contact PVC, there needs to be protection of the PVC piping using
insulation or a more heat resistant piping material to transition from the heat source to the
PVC pipe.
Air Admittance Valve (AAV)

AAVs are available for DWV systems in sizes that fit vents from 1¼ inches to 4 inches.
Most manufacturers have very detailed instructions on how to install their products. The
following are key guidelines for successful AAV installations:
 When installed on single fixtures or branches, AAVs should be located a

minimum of 4 inches above the weir of the fixture trap.
 Valve should be located to allow adequate air to enter the valve.
 Valve should be installed in the vertical upright position. The maximum offset
from the vertical position should not exceed 15 degrees.
 Stack type AAVs are acceptable only in engineered drainage systems.
 When a horizontal branch connects to a stack more than four branch intervals
from the top of the stack, a relief vent should be provided.
 A minimum of one vent should extend outdoors to the open air for every
building plumbing drainage system.
 Valve should be installed after the drainage system rough-in test.
 Valve should not be used as a vent terminal for any sump vent.
 Valve should not be used to vent a special waste or chemical waste system.
 Valve should not be located in a supply or return plenum.
 The maximum height of drainage stack being vented by a stack type AAV should
be six branch intervals.
 Protection of the AAV with insulation material is recommended if exposed to
extreme temperatures.
 AAV should only be used in low pressure DWV systems.
74 - Installation
Figure 75. An Installed Air Admittance Valve
Fire Stops
Building codes specify the fire ratings required in the building structure. All penetrations
must be fire stopped using approved methods. PVC piping meets all applicable building
code requirements and fire ratings when installed properly. It is recommended that piping
installers become familiar with fire-stop techniques, systems, and materials, and how to
properly select and install them so that the project meets the requirements of the building
codes. The PPFA publication, Plastic Piping in Fire Resistive Construction, lists in its Design
Compendium 450 designs for plastic piping showing various manufacturers, type of
penetration medium, ASTM tests results, pipe diameter, and E814 test ratings. In Appendix
E there are listings of over a dozen PVC fire-stop design installations tests.
Aboveground Installation Summary of Key Points
 Have a knowledgeable crew handling and joining PVC piping.

 Handle and store the piping products properly.
 Be aware of expansion and contraction considerations.
 Use proper support spacing and hangers.
 Keep hangers and anchors close to elbows.
 Use anchors and guides when necessary.
 Properly support plastic valves.
 Do not test or transmit compressed air or gases in PVC pipe.
 Eliminate all air from the piping system.
 Protect pipe from being damaged by moving vehicles.
Installation - 75
Underground Installation
The majority of all PVC piping is used in underground applications due to its durability,
installation ease and safety, environmentally soundness, and cost-effectiveness. A recent
independent research study confirms that PVC has the lowest break rate of any installed
water main material in use. Cast iron piping has a break rate 50 times that of PVC while
ductile iron has a break rate more than 10 times that of PVC. The AWWA Research
Foundation performed a study using highly specialized computer modeling to estimate the
life of various underground piping materials and found that PVC piping was rated a
minimum of 100 years while concrete and ductile iron piping were rated at 85 and 60 years
respectively. Most of the Design Guide is focused on aboveground applications for
commercial and industrial use. For a more detailed study of PVC underground installation
techniques, refer to Uni-Bell’s Handbook of PVC Pipe or Uni-Bell’s website: www.uni-bell.org.
Trench Preparation/Depth/Cover
The individual project will determine the proper line and grade for the trench; however,
several points to keep in mind for trenching and burial procedures are as follows:
 The width of the pipe zone should be as narrow as practical but have adequate
room to join the pipe in the trench if required, be able to snake the pipe to
compensate for expansion and contraction and to provide the necessary fill and
compaction. See Table 12 in the Engineer Design section for suggested trench
widths.
 Use trench supports to protect workers when necessary
 The trench bottom should be smooth and provide continuous uniform support.
If smooth bottom trenches are difficult to construct naturally, foundation
bedding should be installed as required by an engineer.
 Trench depth is determined by the pipe’s service requirements but in any event
the pipe should always be installed 6 to 12 inches below the frost line.
 Based on standards of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), for live loads of Highway H20, use a
minimum cover of 12 inches or one pipe diameter, whichever is greater
providing a minimum soil stiffness of E = 1000. For the same soil stiffness value
for heavy truck or train traffic (live loading-Railway E80), use a minimum cover
of 36 inches or one pipe diameter, whichever is greater.
 If the pipe is buried too deeply, it may not be cost or loading effective.
Bedding and Backfilling

Sub-soil conditions vary widely from place to place; however, the pipe backfill should always
be stable, provide protection for the pipe, and be free of any large sharp rocks or other
objects. Other points to keep in mind are:
 The pipe should be surrounded with an aggregate material that is easily worked
around the sides of the pipe. Backfilling should be performed in layers of 6
inches with each layer being sufficiently compacted to 85 to 95%.
76 - Installation
 The use of a mechanical tamper is recommended for compacting sand and gravel
backfill, which contain a significant amount of fine-grained material. If a tamper
is not available, use manual compacting.
 Don’t tamp the initial backfill layer until all joints are visually inspected and the
piping is left to settle and normalize dimensionally.
 The trench must be completely filled. The backfill should be in uniform layers to
prevent unfilled spaces or voids.
 Make certain large rocks, stones, frozen clods, or other debris be removed from
the backfill.
 Heavy tampers or rolling equipment should only be used to consolidate only the
final backfill.
Pipe Placing and Snaking
The piping system should be placed in the trench using ropes and skids, slings on a backhoe
bucket or by hand. Throwing or dropping the pipe into the trench could cause damage. Be
especially careful of handling pipe in cold weather as the material becomes less impact
resistant.
After the PVC pipe has been joined using solvent cementing, it is recommended to snake
the pipe in the trench. When snaking the pipe, be careful not to apply any undue stress that
will disturb the uncured joint. Snaking allows for any anticipated thermal movement that will
take place in the newly joined pipeline. Table 18 and Figure 76 show suggested offset loops
for buried PVC pipe.
Table 18. Loop Offset (in.) for Contraction
Maximum Temperature Variation, °F (°C), Between Time of Joined Pipe and Final Use
Loop
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length
(5.6) (11.1) (16.7) (22.2) (27.8) (33.4) (38.9) (44.5) (50.0) (55.6)
(ft)
20 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
50 7 9 11 13 14 16 17 18 19 20
100 13 18 22 26 29 32 35 37 40 42
Figure 76. Pipe Snaking
PIPE CENTERLINE
OFFSET
OFFSET
LOOP LENGTH
2 LOOP LENGTHS
When laying long runs of piping at elevated temperatures, it is advisable to begin working
from a fixed point such as the entry or exit of a building and work away from that point,
Installation - 77
testing and backfilling. This procedure should allow the piping to assume soil temperature
progressively as work continues.
Thrust Blocking
PVC gasket-bell and spigot pipe in buried piping systems have to contend with thrust forces
occurring at any point in the piping system where the directional or cross-sectional area of
the waterway changes. These forces can be handled by means of concrete thrust blocks or
encasements. This is accomplished by pouring concrete into appropriately sized forms at
each point the thrust forces will develop. The concrete must be placed between the fitting
and the undisturbed native soil at the side of the trench. Do not use pre-formed cement
blocks for thrust blocking. Solvent-cemented buried piping does not require thrust blocking.
See Figure 77 for various types of poured concrete thrust blocking.
Figure 77. Various Types of Poured Concrete Thrust Blocking
MAXIMUM
FORCE
MAXIMUM
FORCE MAXIMUM
FORCE
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM
FORCE
FORCE
CONCRETE PROTECTIVE COVERING
78 - Installation
System Testing
Once the piping system has been assembled and initially backfilled, the system must be
tested for leaks as shown in the Testing section of the Design Guide. Be certain the pipe is
sufficiently backfilled to prevent movement during testing. Once the test is passed, the
system can be covered.
Pipe Relocation
It is good practice to precisely map out the underground piping system after finishing the
project. Since PVC is basically non-conductive, laying a conductive wire over the pipe or in
the trench before final backfilling will facilitate accurately locating the pipe in the future.
Underground Installations Summary of Key Points

 Use as narrow a trench as possible and use trench support to protect workers
when necessary.
 Do not direct bury mechanical connected piping (threaded, flanged, or grooved).
 Make certain the trench depth is a minimum of 12 inches below the frost line.
 Snake all small diameter pipe in trenches.
 Soil surrounding pipe and backfill should be free of any rocks or sharp objects.
 Be sure that solvent-welded joints are dry before handling or creating other pipe
movement.
 If thrust blocking is required, use only poured-in-place concrete into undisturbed
soil. Do not use wood or precast concrete blocks.
 Record precisely or lay conductive wire to be able to accurately locate
underground pipe.
WARNING: IMPROPER INSTALLATION OR MISUSE OF

TAPPING TOOLS MAY CAUSE RUPTURES IN PVC PIPING
SYSTEMS UNDER HIGH PRESSURE WHICH COULD LEAD
TO LIFE THREATENING INJURIES AND SEVERE
PROPERTY DAMAGE.
Installation - 79
80 - Installation
5
Chapter
TESTING AND REPAIR

All piping systems should be tested to ensure a leak-free and long lasting installation. The
caveat with PVC testing and repair is to explicitly follow manufacturer’s instructions taking
no shortcuts.
Testing PVC piping systems is similar to testing other piping systems except that the testing
medium in virtually all cases is water and NOT COMPRESSED AIR OR GASES. Once a
PVC system has been certified acceptable, future maintenance and repair will be rare due to
the piping materials durability and joint integrity.
Water Testing
Site water pressure testing is required for most piping systems. In most cases, the piping
system is tested to withstand the design working pressure, plus a safety margin. (In many
applications the safety margin is 150% of the working pressure.) PVC piping should be
HYDROSTATIC (water) TESTED only. Testing with air or gas can result in catastrophic
failures causing property damage and life threatening human injuries.
One exception to the prohibition against air testing PVC piping systems involves sanitary
drainage systems with ordinary trap seal pull testing. This testing method is performed after
the DWV system is completed and air tested with all of its traps filled with liquid water, and
the trap seals are then tested with pressure or vacuum in the normal operational pressure
range of the system, typically between one to two inches of water column. Precautions must
be taken to ensure the traps do not freeze before or during the testing.
When testing, the installers should properly restrain the piping system at all bends, changes
of direction, and the end of pipe runs. Also, concealed joints should remain uncovered until
the required testing is performed and approved. If a solvent welded joint system is involved,
follow the cure time listed in this Design Guide’s solvent cemented joining section before fully
testing.
Testing and Repair - 81

Testing Procedure
1. Field inspect the installed piping system for evidence of mechanical abuse or suspect
joints.
2. Divide the system into convenient test sections not to exceed 1,000 feet in length.
3. Slowly fill the pipe section with water at a velocity of one fps or less making certain any
entrapped air is vented from the system high points.
4. Do not pressurize at this stage. leave the tested section for a least one hour to allow
equilibrium temperature to be achieved.
5. Check the system for leaks, and if clear, make sure to remove any remaining air in the
system before increasing the pressure up to 50 psi (for pressurized piping systems). For
DWV piping systems hydrostatic testing, pressures of 10 feet of head of water is normal.
6. Leave the tested section pressurized for ten minutes. If the pressure gage shows a
decline, inspect for leaks. If no leaks occur, gradually increase the pressure to 1½ the
normal working pressure.
7. Leave the tested section pressurized for a period not to exceed one hour. During this
time, the pressure should not change.
Summary of Key Points

 Test all piping systems before putting them into service.
 Do not test PVC pipe with compressed air or gas.
 Before testing the system, make sure the air is removed from the pipe.
 When testing a solvent-welded system, ensure the solvent-welded joints are fully
cured.
 In dual-containment piping systems, test both the carrier and containment pipe.
In some cases, the containment pipe many be air tested up to a maximum of 5
psi. (Check with the manufacturer.)
 Minimize surge pressures when filling the system to be tested.
 The test pressure should be no more that 1½ times the designed maximum
system operating pressure, or at the rating of the lowest rated system component
(whichever is lower).
 Test underground piping systems before completely backfilling, leaving all joints
exposed during testing.
 If testing at high pressures, only the personnel required for the test should be at
the test site.
 Testing personnel should be properly equipped with protective eyewear,
clothing, and other safety items.
DO NOT CONVEY COMPRESSED AIR OR GASES OR
PRESSURE TEST PVC PIPING SYSTEMS, OR ANY PART
THEREOF, WITH COMPRESSED AIR OR GASES. FAILURE TO
FOLLOW THIS WARNING COULD LEAD TO LIFE-
THREATENING INJURIES AND SEVERE PROPERTY
DAMAGE.
82 - Testing and Repair

Repair
A PVC piping system properly installed in an approved application requires no repairs. In
fact, as mentioned earlier in the Design Guide, the durability of PVC is one of the major
reasons for its popularity and use. However, installation environments change and human
error occurs which can cause the need to repair any piping system.
Mechanically joined piping systems using threading and flanging techniques are repaired
similarly to non-plastic piping systems. However, in solvent-welded joining systems, there is
a unique repair method for minute leaks called back or fillet welding.
Back Welding (fillet welding)

If small leaks do occur in cemented piping systems, back welding may be of use. If the
leaking joint provides a steady and heavy stream of fluid, do not back weld but rather cut out
and replace the joint. Welding of PVC uses PVC welding rod and hot gas (air or nitrogen) to
make a surface weld. The plastic weld, unlike metal, is not as strong as the parent material.
For this reason fillet welding as a repair technique is recommended for very minor leaks in
low pressure piping systems only. Before repairing a leaking joint make certain the joint to be
welded is completely dry. Only skilled plastic welders should repair joint leaks. Adhesive-type
repair kits are also available, (Check with pipe and/or fitting manufacturers.) Instructions for
back welding are as follows.
Figure 78. Repairing Plastic Piping Systems

Table 19 lists the welding rod diameter and number of welding passes per pipe size.
Table 19. Welding Rod Diameter and Number of Passes
Pipe Size (in.) Rod Diameter (in.) No. of Passes

½-¾ 3/32 3
1-2 1/8 3
2½ - 4 3/16 3
6-8 3/16 5
10 - 12 3/16 5
Source: Adapted from IPEX, Inc.
Pipe Repair Kits

There are a few manufacturers that offer field repair kits for plastic and non-plastic piping.
These kits normally include a hand-moldable epoxy “plug,” urethane rich knitted fiberglass
water-activated tape and gloves. No special tools are required. Most of the repair kits are
certified to ANSI/NSF 61. Depending on the installation weather conditions, the tack free
time is 3 to 5 minutes while the cure time for testing the repair is usually a minimum of 30
minutes. Contact repair kit and piping manufacturer to ensure material compatibility and
possible temperature or pressure limitations. Figure 79 demonstrates the repair of a leaking
PVC pipe.

Steady leak from PVC pipe Water activating urethane FRP tape
wrapped around the epoxy plug
Wrapping plug with several layers of FRP Final wrapping of repair

Notice the leak has stopped. Notice the use of latex gloves during installation.
The finished product repair requires curing before testing.
Figure 79. Pipe Repair

Underground Joint Repair
If you take into account the cost of materials and labor costs, usually the installer is better
off cutting out the defective joint and replacing it with new piping materials especially for
underground piping. However, there are gasketed repair couplings available that have been
successfully used to repair damaged piping sections. The advantage of these couplings is that
no solvent cement is used in the installation allowing immediate testing of the system after
the repair has been made.
Figure 80. Compression Coupling
Pipe Thawing
PVC piping is used for water distribution piping within buildings and for water service lines.
These two areas of application are somewhat different so that when freezing occurs, they
can be treated in the following ways.
Building Distribution Piping: When freezing occurs within the wall or in the crawl space,
thawing should be done as soon as possible since complete freezing may cause the pipe to
rupture.
Several methods of thawing may be used depending on the accessibility of the pipe and the
availability of the devices. PVC piping should be limited to 140°F and the pipe temperature
can be judged by grasping it firmly with the bare hand. For most people, 140°F is the
maximum acceptable hand contact temperature. Do not pour boiling water on the pipe! Do
not use an open flame heating source!
The following methods of applying heat have been used successfully:
1. Expose the piping in the area the freeze has occurred as much as possible and direct a
small fan into that area to circulate warmer air from the occupied space into the wall
cavity, in which the pipe is frozen.
2. If the frozen section of pipe is accessible, wrap it with a cloth saturated with hot water.
As the cloth cools, remove it; dip it in hot water again and rewrap.

3. If the frozen section of pipe is fully or partially accessible, blow heated air directly on the
area where freeze occurred utilizing a low capacity heater/blower such as a hair dryer.
It may be possible to use other means of heating, provided the temperature of the plastic
piping at any point does not exceed those mentioned above. It should be noted that PVC
has much lower thermal conductivity than metals, and therefore the rate of heat transfer
from the exterior surface to the ice inside the pipe will be low. Thus, slightly more time is
required to thaw the ice in the pipe. The technique described below can be used for
distribution piping under most conditions.
Water Service Lines: If there is an outside underground water meter, this should be
checked first because it may be the point at which freezing has occurred. If there is reason to
believe that the meter is frozen, call the Utility Department for assistance.
Buried pipe should always be installed well below the frost line. However, if a buried line
freezes and the condition is localized, the pipe can be exposed and then thawed with hot
water. If the exact location of the ice plug cannot be established and the line terminates in a
basement or crawl space, it may be possible to cut the line there and feed a small diameter
tube into the pipe. By pouring or pumping warm or hot water into the small tube, it is
possible to melt the ice plug.
The ice plug can also be melted with a resistance-heating element inserted into the pipe.
Take a 3/8" or 1/2" diameter rod-type DC resistance heating element and fasten it securely
to an electrician’s steel fish tape. CAUTION: Follow the heater manufacturer’s instructions
to eliminate the possibility of electrical shock. Feed the element into the service line until the
element hits the ice plug. The heating element will melt through the ice plug as it is moved
forward. Continue to penetrate the ice plug until flow is established. If penetration is
stopped, pull the element back. Do not leave the heater element in the pipe.
Other techniques for thawing can be devised, but the most economical method is
prevention. Thermostatically controlled heat tapes may be useful for permanent protection
in certain areas if insulation does not provide adequate protection.

6
Chapter
APPLICATIONS
Plastics are the leader in pipe usage in North America with PVC having approximately
two-thirds of the total plastic piping market. Why? Because it is durable, easy and safe to use,
environmentally sound, and cost-effective.
The most voluminous applications of PVC piping is for underground use in such markets as
mains and distribution for potable water, sewer, drainage, irrigation, reclaimed/gray water,
and swimming pools. The Design Guide will touch on these applications but mainly
aboveground PVC commercial and industrial applications will be discussed.
Commercial Applications
PVC piping can be and has been used in most commercial projects such as:
Airports Office Buildings

Apartments Prison/Jails
Banks Research Centers
Condominiums Restaurants
Health Care Facilities Resorts/Spas
Hotels/Motels Retail Shops/Centers
Hospitals Schools
Landfills Sports Arenas
Marinas Warehouses
The lack of training and education of the engineering and construction community, as well
as some local code restrictions, have caused PVC piping systems to be underused in many
construction projects, especially in aboveground applications. Hopefully, the Design Guide
will assist engineers and installers to be more knowledgeable and comfortable with designing
future projects with one of the most popular piping materials in the world—PVC.
Applications - 89
Plumbing and Mechanical Piping Systems
PVC piping systems are listed in all major building plumbing and mechanical codes and
standards in North America and abroad. Listed below in Table 20 are organizations that are
involved with PVC piping standards.
Table 20. Standard Organizations for PVC Piping
Abbrev Standard Organization

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASAE American Society of Agriculture Engineers
ASTM ASTM International
AWWA American Water Works Association
BNQ Bureau de Normalisation du Quebec
BOCA Building Officials and Code Administrators
CSA CSA International
DHUD Department of Housing and Urban Development
DOD Department of Defense (Military Standards)
FS Federal Specifications
HUD Housing and Urban Development
IAPMO International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials
ISO International Standards Organization
NAPHCC National Association of Plumbing, Heating, Cooling Contractors
NFGS Naval Guide Specifications (Department of the Navy)
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NSF NSF International
SBCCI Southern Building Code Congress International
UL Underwriters Laboratories
USACE Department of the Army
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
PVC piping is specified in plumbing or mechanical building codes for the following
applications.
90 - Applications
Pressure Systems
Building service lines: These PVC piping systems consist of cold potable water lines
including water main and service lines to the building water meter and booster pump (if
required). PVC is usually the preferred material in these applications.
Figure 81. Building Service Lines
Site utility systems: These rugged PVC piping systems comprise temporary de-watering
lines, slip-lining of existing failing non-plastic piping systems, temporary drinking water lines,
and temporary irrigation lines.
Figure 82. Site Utility Systems
Applications - 91
Reclaimed and gray water systems: Purple colored or stripped PVC piping is used for
non-potable water applications handling reclaimed and gray water. These piping systems are
becoming more vital in green-build building systems as non-potable water may be reused for
irrigation or other non-potable services. The purple colored PVC piping makes it almost
impossible for a plumber to mistakenly mix potable with non-potable water.
Figure 83. Reclaimed and Gray Water Systems
Pool, spa, and fountains: Many commercial structures incorporate swimming pools, spas,
and fountains to enhance a property’s value to existing and potential tenants in apartments,
condos, and resort areas. PVC pressure piping is used throughout these applications.
Figure 84. Pool, Spa and Fountains
92 - Applications
Turf irrigation: PVC pressure piping systems are used in most commercial landscaping
projects where large areas of precise irrigation are required.
Figure 85. Golf Course Irrigation
Condenser water: Commercial air-conditioning systems use water-cooled or evaporative

condensers—a device that transfers unwanted heat out of a refrigeration system to either air
or water that absorbs the heat and transfers it to a disposal site. PVC makes an excellent
condenser water piping material.
Figure 86. Outdoor Condenser Return Lines
Applications - 93
Chilled water: A chilled water air conditioning system has no refrigerant in the unit itself.
The refrigerant is contained in a chiller, which is located remotely. The chiller cools water,
which is piped to the air conditioner to cool the space. PVC chilled water piping can easily
handle the lower temperature water with unmatched durability. Most chilled water systems
are closed-loop and often contain bactericides or chemical treatment compounds. Make sure
these additives are compatible with the PVC piping system.
Figure 87. Chilled Water Lines
Water tower intake and outtake: Not only is PVC piping used for water intake and
outtake lines to water towers but also in many instances in roof-top water tanks, the actual
spray header and nozzles are made of PVC components.
Figure 88. Cooling Tower Pumping System
94 - Applications
Non-pressure Systems
Venting: To protect against fixture trap siphonage, back-pressure, and air circulation,
PVC— both cellular-core and solid-wall piping—is a natural for vent piping.
Figure 89. Drainage, Waste, and Vent Piping at a Commercial Job Site
Sanitary drainage: PVC piping from 1¼ to 12-inch diameter is available for commercial
building sanitary drainage systems.
Figure 90. Sanitary Drainage
Applications - 95
Building sewer: PVC sewer pipe sizes are available to handle the largest amount of drained
fixture units in any commercial complex.
Figure 91. Building Sewer
Indirect wastes: Indirect wastes from applications other than standard sanitary wastes
include but are not limited to the following:
 Food and beverage handling establishments

 Bar and fountain sink traps
 Sterilizers
 Drip or drainage outlets
PVC is acceptable in handling almost all of these indirect waste lines.
Figure 92. Piping for Restaurant Grease Traps
96 - Applications
Storm/Roof drainage: Rainwater piping within the interior of a building is easily
transmitted to designated sewers or rain harvesting systems using PVC piping systems.
Figure 93. Storm/Roof Drainage
Condensate drain: In air-condition systems when air is cooled, water is removed from the
air. The condensate that results is captured in a drain pan under the cooling coil and is
discharged to a designated drainage system. The minimum pipe size for this application is ¾
inch and can increase in diameter depending on the refrigeration tonnage. PVC piping has
been used for decades in this drainage application.
Figure 94. Rooftop Piping with Condensate Drain
Applications - 97
Subsoil drainage: Subsoil drains placed around the perimeter of buildings with spaces
below grade are 3-inch minimum in diameter perforated pipe. PVC perforated piping is a
stocked item and has ideal durability for underground use.
Figure 95. Subsoil Drainage
Rain harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of

rainwater. In the past, rainwater harvesting has been used in arid and semi-arid areas
providing drinking water, water for livestock, and water for irrigation, as well as a way to
replenish ground water levels. Many buildings being designed today incorporate some type
of rain harvesting whenever possible. PVC piping is a natural for these systems.
Figure 96. Manifold Piping Connecting Rain Harvesting Barrels
98 - Applications
Industrial Applications
PVC piping and air handling products are ubiquitous and have been and are used
successfully in dozens of industrial applications. The following applications are a partial
listing of some of the more popular markets for PVC.
Air Pollution Control

Process piping and ducting applications to include:
 Cooling and washing tower

 Absorption tower
 Sulfuric acid mist elimination
 Waste liquor
 Waste lye
 Neutralization
 Calcium sulfate
 Cleaning agent
 Absorbed liquid thickener
Figure 97. Air Handling System
Applications - 99
Amusement and Theme Parks
Process piping applications to include:
 Water rides
 Fountains
 Water supply
 Waste water treatment
Figure 98. Water Slide Park
Aquariums
Process piping to include:
 Fresh water
 Salt water
 Aeration
Figure 99. Aquarium Piping with FRP Wrapped Fittings
100 - Applications
Chemical Process
Process piping and ducting to include all chemically compatible flows at temperatures 140°F
and below and working pressures usually below 150-psi. Also included:
 Waste and water treatment

 Air pollution control
 Double containment piping systems
Figure 100. Process Piping
Desalinization
 Seawater intake and outlet

 Fresh water
 Reverse osmosis
 Electro-dialysis
Figure 101. Desalinization Piping
Applications - 101
Electronics and Semiconductors
Process piping and ducting to include:
 Deionized water
 Etching solutions
 Plating solutions
 High purity water
 Water and waste treatment
 Double containment
Figure 102. Electronics and Semiconductors
Environmental Protection
Process piping to include: Figure 103. Odor Control Piping at Landfill
 Methane release
 Reclaimed water
 Rain harvesting
 Acid accumulation
 Odor control
 Zebra mussel control
 Landfill leachate
102 - Applications
Fish Hatcheries and Farms
Process piping to include: Figure 104. Fish Farm Piping Systems
 Fresh water
 Salt water
 Feed
 Circulation
Food and Beverage

Process piping to include: Figure 105. Food and Beverage
 Brine
 Vinegar
 Auxiliary water
 Chemical bleaching
 Citrus acid
 Corn syrup
 Acidic juices
 Hot sauce
 Beer, wine, and sodas
Marine
Process piping to include: Figure 106. Piping for Drinking Water at Marina
 Fresh water
 Salt water
 Refrigeration
Applications - 103
Mining
Process piping to include: Figure 107. Mining
 Slurries
 Leaching
 Acids
 Chemical mineral
extraction
 Decant
 Tailings
 Impoundment
 Water supply
Photography
Process piping to include: Figure 108. Photography Chemical Manifold Lines
 Reservoirs
 Film rollers
 Developers
 Stabilizers
 Bleaching
 Dielectric shield
 Waste and water
treatment
104 - Applications
Steel Processing
 Coke
 Galvanizing
 Pickling
 Tin
 Wire drawing
Figure 109. Steel Pickling Process
Applications - 105
Surface Finishing (Plating)
 Transfer feed
 Rinse
 Light and heavy metal salt plating solutions
 Galvanizing
Figure 110. Plating of Faucets
106 - Applications
Swimming Pools (Municipal and School)
 Filtration
 Backwash
 Main drain
 Chlorine
 Inflow
 Outflow
Figure 111. Municipal Swimming Pool Filtration System
Applications - 107
Waste and Water Treatment Plants
 Chemical feed
 Batch treatment
 Neutralization
 Filter press
 Diatomaceous earth cleaning
 Waste water
 Neutralized water
 Clean water
Figure 112. Bleach Process Piping
For additional commercial and/or industrial applications, contact the PPFA.
108 - Applications
7
Chapter
BUILDING CODES, STANDARDS,

AND SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS
The under utilization of PVC piping in commercial and industrial applications is changing
as specifying engineers and installers realize the economic and environmental benefits PVC
offer their clients.
Building Codes
Most plumbing codes around the world recognize and include PVC piping where applicable
in residential and commercial construction. In the United States there are several plumbing
codes adopted by states as shown in Figure 113. Most of the codes share much in common
including those of the Canadian Standards Association; however, it is the responsibility of
the design engineer and installer to ensure that all piping systems are in accordance with local
codes.
Figure 113. 2006 State Plumbing Code Adoptions
ICC International Plumbing Code
IAPMO Uniform Plumbing Code

PHCC-NA National Standard Plumbing
Code
No Statewide Code Adoption or
Dominant Model Code Adoption
State Written Code
Building Codes, Standards, and Sample Specifications - 109

This Design Guide is, in part, a tool to facilitate the learning experience for engineers,
installers, and building code officials for them to fully understand where and how PVC may
be used in commercial and industrial applications. The following section will offer sample
engineering specifications and applicable standards for many of the applications mentioned
in Chapter 6 of the Design Guide.
Standards
There are dozens of standards required for PVC piping systems referenced in the various
plumbing codes. In Table 21, a listing of the pertinent standards for PVC is shown. These
standards are constantly reviewed and may be updated as more data is known and made
available of the industry’s manufacturers’ products and research. The latest revision of each
standard applies.
Table 21. Mandatory Referenced Plumbing Standards for PVC Pipe
Standard No. Standard Title Application

ASME B31.1 Power piping Piping
ASME B31.9 Building services pressure piping Piping
ASTM D1784 Rigid PVC compounds Piping
ASTM D 1785 PVC Sch. 40, 80, and 120 Piping
ASTM D 2241 PVC pressure-rated pipe Piping
ASTM D 2464 PVC threaded fittings Sch. 80 Piping
ASTM D 2466 PVC Sch. 40 fittings Piping
ASTM D 2467 PVC Sch. 80 fittings Piping
ASTM D 2564 PVC solvent cements Joints
ASTM D 2665 PVC DWV pipe and fittings Piping
ASTM D 2672 Solvent Cementing IPS pipe Joints
ASTM D 2729 PVC sewer pipe and fittings Piping
ASTM D 2855 Making PVC solvent cemented joints Joints
ASTM D 3034 PSM PVC sewer pipe and fittings Piping
ASTM D 3138 Transition joint-PVC to ABS Joints
ASTMD 3139 Elastomeric seals-pressure Joints
ASTM D 3212 Elastomeric seals-DWV Joints
ASTM D 3138 Cement for transition ABS/PVC joints
ASTM D 3139 Use of flexible elastomeric seals-pressure Joints
ASTM D 3212 Use of flexible elastomeric seals-drainage Joints
110 - Building Codes, Standards, and Sample Specifications

Standard No. Standard Title Application
ASTM E 84 Surface burning characteristics Misc.
ASTM E 814 Fire tests of fire stops Misc.
ASTM F 402 Safe handling of cements and primers Joints
ASTM F 477 Elastomeric seals Joints
ASTM 480 Well casing pipe and couplings Piping
ASTM F 480 PVC well casing pipe and couplings Piping
ASTM F 656 Primers for PVC pipe and fittings Joints
ASTM F 789 PS-46 and PS-115 PVC gravity sewer pipe Piping
ASTM F 794 PVC gravity sewer pipe/controlled ID Piping
ASTM F 891 PVC coextruded pipe w/ cellular core Piping
ASTM F 913 Elastomeric seals for joining pipe Joints
ASTM F 949 PVC corrugated sewer pipe w/smooth ID Piping
ASTM F 1803 PVC gravity pipe and fittings Piping
ASTM F 1866 PVC drainage and DWV fabricated fittings Piping
ASTM F 1970 PVC special engineered fittings and valves Piping
AWWA C900 PVC pressure pipe 4 in. thru 12 in. Piping
AWWA C907 PVC pressure fittings 4 in. thru 8 in. Piping
CSA B 137.2 PVC molded gasketed fittings Piping
CSA B 137.3 Rigid PVC pressure pipe Piping
CSA B 181.2 PVC DWV pipe and fittings Piping
CSA B 182.2 PVC sewer pipe and fittings Piping
CSA B 182.4 PVC profile sewer pipe and fittings Piping
CSA B 137.2 PVC molded gasketed fittings Piping
NFPA 255 Test method of surface burning Misc.
NSF 14 Plastic piping components Piping
NSF 61 Drinking water system components Misc.
UL 723 /
Test of flammability Misc.
ASTM E 84

Sample Specifications General
Pipe
The sample specifications will cover those products listed in the applications section for
aboveground use and will include the following PVC IPS diameter piping systems:
 Schedule 80
 Schedule 40 solid wall
 Schedule 40 DWV cellular core
 SDR Pressure Rated
 Reclaimed water
The listed specifications are for plain or bell-end pipe to be joined by solvent cementing
methods. For belowground, use Schedule 40 solid wall, and SDR piping is available for
gasketed-bell and spigot joining. Other PVC belowground piping is available but not covered
in the specifications; this includes AWWA, perforated drain, PIP irrigation, gravity sewer,
and well casing.
Other PVC piping products that may be used aboveground but not covered in these
specifications are clear, double-containment, and high purity.
Fittings
Fittings for aboveground piping products are IPS diameter suitable for Schedule 80,
Schedule 40 and DWV. DWV fittings are designed for drainage, wasting, and venting
applications with limited working pressure ratings. PVC Schedule 40 and 80 fittings are
pressure rated by most manufacturers to the similar working pressure as the pipe under
normal conditions. Some fitting manufacturers recommend a maximum design pressure of
60% of the equivalent sized pipe. The pressure capabilities of fabricated fittings may very
with each fabricator. If there is critical pressure application, it is prudent to check with the
pipe and fitting manufacturer to ensure a properly designed system.
Valves
Ball, check, butterfly, globe, gate, diaphragm, relief, and many other PVC valves are available
for use with pressure piping systems of PVC Schedule 40, 80, and SDR (IPS). Most of these
products meet ASTM and NSF standards and are available in various elastomeric
diaphragms, o-rings, seals, and gaskets depending on the fluid being handled.

PVC Schedule 80 Piping Systems Specification
Applications
To be used in all pressurized commercial and industrial process piping where applicable.
These applications would include industrial processes, condenser water, chilled water, and
double-containment.
Scope
This specification covers PVC Schedule 80 pipe, fittings, and valves in IPS size where
temperatures do not exceed 140°F. The pipe, fittings, and valves shall meet or exceed all
applicable ASTM and NSF standards.
Materials and Products

Pipe shall be manufactured from virgin rigid PVC compound and shall comply with the
material requirements of ASTM D 1784, have a cell classification of 12454, and be in
accordance to the requirements of NSF 61 for use in potable water. The piping system
components should conform to NSF Standard 14 and the following ASTM standards:
 Pipe ASTM D 1785 / CSA B 137.3

 Fittings-socket ASTM D 2467
 Fittings-threaded ASTM D 2464
 Valves ASTM F 1970
 Solvent cement ASTM D 2564
 Primer ASTM F 656
Markings
PVC 80 pipe is marked as prescribed in ASTM D 1785 and NSF 14. The marking includes
the following: Manufacturer, Nominal Pipe Size, IPS PVC, and the Schedule and Pressure
Rating @ 73°F (23°C), ASTM D 1785, NSF 14, and NSF 61 Potable.
Installation
Installation shall comply with the piping component manufacturer’s latest installation
instructions and conform to all local plumbing, building, and fire code requirements. Solvent
cement joints shall be made in a two-step process using approved primer and cement.
Installers shall strictly follow manufacturer’s joining instructions. Only use compatible
materials coming in contact with PVC piping such as fire stopping, rubber pipe supports,
thread sealants, or other possible aggressive chemical agents. Systems shall be hydrostatically
tested after installation to 1½ times the system working pressure. Do not test with
compressed air or gas.

PVC Schedule 40 Pressure Piping Systems
Specification
Applications
To be used in pressure and non-pressure piping systems where applicable. These
applications would include sanitary drainage, roof/storm drainage, vents, site utility systems,
condensate drain, pool/spa/fountain, cold water distribution, rain harvesting, condenser
water, chilled water, and double-containment.
Scope
This specification covers PVC Schedule pipe, fittings, and valves in IPS size where
temperatures do not exceed 140°F. Pipe may be dual-marked as Schedule 40 and DWV. The
pipe, fittings, and valves shall meet or exceed all applicable ASTM and NSF standards.


Markings
PVC 40 pipe is marked as prescribed in ASTM D 1785 and NSF 14. The marking includes
the following: Manufacturer, Nominal Pipe Size, IPS PVC, and the Schedule and Pressure
Rating @ 73°F (23°C), ASTM D 1785, NSF 14, and NSF 61 Potable.
Installation
Installers shall strictly follow manufacturer’s joining instructions. Only use compatible
tested after installation to 1½ times the system working pressure in pressure piping systems
and less in DWV applications. Do not test with compressed air or gas.

PVC Schedule 40 Dual Marked Pipe and PVC
DWV Fittings
Applications
To be used in non-pressure piping systems where applicable. These applications would
include sanitary drainage, roof/storm drainage, and vents.
Scope
This specification covers PVC Schedule 40 Pipe and DWV fittings in IPS size where
temperatures do not exceed 140°F. The pipe and fittings shall meet or exceed all applicable
ASTM and NSF standards.

Pipe and fittings shall be manufactured from virgin rigid PVC compound with a Cell Class
of 12454 PVC as identified in ASTM D 1784 for pipe and ASTM D 2665 for fittings. Both
pipe and fittings shall be manufactured in accordance to the requirement of NSF 61 for use
in potable water. The pipe and fittings should conform to NSF Standard 14 and the
following ASTM standards:

 Fittings ASTM D 2665 / CSA B 181.2
 Solvent Cement ASTM D 2564
Markings
If PVC DWV pipe is dual marked as prescribed in ASTM D 1784 (Sch. 40) and ASTM D
2665 (DWV), the markings are as follows: Manufacturer, Nominal Pipe Size, IPS PVC, and
the Schedule and Pressure Rating @ 73° F (23°C) ASTM D 1784 and ASTM D 2665 PVC-
DWV, PVC Schedule 40, NSF 14, and NSF 61 Potable. (Note: This piping product could be
triple marked if used for well casing per ASTM F 480.)
Installation
cement joints shall be made in a two-step process using approved primer and cement. In
particular applications (4-inch diameter size and below) a one-step cementing process can be
used with manufacturer and local code approval. Installers shall strictly follow
manufacturer’s joining instructions. Only use compatible materials coming in contact with
PVC piping such as fire stopping, rubber pipe supports, thread sealants, or other possible
aggressive chemical agents. Systems shall be hydrostatically tested after installation to less
than 5 psi. Do not test with compressed air or gas.

PVC Cellular Core Pipe and DWV Fittings
Applications
To be used in non-pressure piping systems where applicable. These applications would
include sanitary drainage, roof/storm drainage, and vents.
Scope
This specification covers PVC Schedule pipe, fittings, and valves in IPS size where
temperatures do not exceed 140°F. The pipe, fittings, and valves shall meet or exceed all
applicable ASTM and NSF standards.

Pipe shall be manufactured from virgin rigid PVC compound with a Cell Class of 11432 as
identified in ASTM D 4396 and fittings shall be manufactured from virgin rigid PVC
compounds with a Cell Class of 12454 as identified in ASTM D 1784. The piping system
 Pipe ASTM F 891

 Fittings-DWV ASTM D 2665 / CSA B 181.2
Markings
PVC Cellular Core Pipe is marked as prescribed in ASTM F 891. The marking is as follows:
Manufacturer, Nominal Pipe Size, IPS PVC-DWV, ASTM F 891, and NSF 14.
Installation
cement joints shall be made in a two-step process using approved primer and cement. In
particular applications, a one-step cementing process (4-inch diameter and below) can be
used with manufacturer and local code approval. Installers shall strictly follow
manufacturer’s joining instructions. Only use compatible materials coming in contact with
PVC piping such as fire stopping, rubber pipe supports, thread sealants, or other possible
aggressive chemical agents. Systems shall be hydrostatically tested after installation to less
than 10 psi. Do not test with compressed air or gas.

PVC SDR Pressure Piping Systems
Applications
To be used in pressure piping systems where applicable. These applications would include
site utility systems, pool/spa/fountain, cold water distribution, water mains, rain harvesting,
condenser water, and chilled water.
Scope
This specification covers PVC SDR pipe, fittings, and valves in IPS size where temperatures
do not exceed 140°F. The pipe, fittings, and valves shall meet or exceed all applicable ASTM
and NSF standards.

Rigid PVC compound used in the manufacture of piping systems shall comply with the
material requirement of ASTM D 1784, have a cell classification of 12454 and be in

Markings
PVC SDR/PR pipe is marked as prescribed in ASTM D 2241 as follows: Manufacturer,
Nominal Pipe Size, IPS PVC, SDR #, and/or the pressure rating in psi for water @ 73°F
(23° C), ASTM D2241, and NSF 61 Potable.
Installation
Installers shall strictly follow the manufacturer’s joining instructions. Only use compatible
tested after installation to 1½ times the system working pressure in pressure piping systems.
Do not test with compressed air or gas.

PVC Reclaimed Water Piping Systems
Applications
To be used in reclaimed water projects for pressure applications.
Scope
The specification covers PVC Scheduled 40 and SDR pressure rated plain-end pipe and pipe
where temperatures do not exceed 140°F. Piping shall meet all applicable ASTM and NSF
standards.

accordance to the requirements of NSF 61 for use in potable water. All reclaimed piping
should be purple in color or with three parallel purple stripes the length of the pipe. The
piping should conform to NSF Standard 14 and the following ASTM Standards:
 PVC 40 Pipe ASTM D 1785 / CSA B 137.3

 PVC SDR Pipe ASTM D 2241
 Fittings ASTM D 2466
 Cement ASTM D 2564
Markings
PVC Reclaimed Water Pipe is marked as prescribed by the ASTM standard of pressure or
schedule of the pipe being specified and marked accordingly except will be purple in color
and the warning: “Reclaimed Water-Do not Drink” affixed on two sides of the pipe exterior
no less than every five feet.
Installation
Installation shall comply with the selected piping system manufacturer’s latest installation
instructions and conform to all local plumbing and building code requirements.

Other PVC Piping System Products
PVC is unmatched with other plastic piping materials when it comes to the breath of
complementary products. Besides the standard pressure and DWV piping systems, there are
dozens of other products as shown. For more information on these and other products,
contact the PPFA.
Accessory Equipment
Figure 114. Accessories
Deburring Tool Pipe Cutter
Strap Wrench
Gaskets
Primer/Cement/Applicators/Pipe Cutters/Deburrers/Welders and Rod/Strap Wrenches/

Threaders and Dies/Bolts, Nuts and Gaskets/Vises
Ducting Systems
Figure 115. Hoods and Ducting
Duct/Fans/Hoods/Blowers/Scrubbers/Scrubber Packing/Dampeners

Fabrications
Figure 116. Fabricated Fitting
Manifolds/Double-Containment/Large-Diameter Fittings/Pump and Filter Units/Work

Stations/Round and Rectangular Ducting/Nuts and Bolts
Filters and Strainers

Figure 117. Strainers
Bag-Filters/Cartridge-Filters/Wye-Strainers/Basket-Strainers

Flow Monitoring Devices
Figure 118. Flow Meters
Vortex Sensors/Rotor Sensors/Gage Guards/Sight Glasses
Pumps
Figure 119. Pumps
Barrel-Drum/Diaphragm/Flexible Liner/Horizontal Centrifugal/Magnetic Drive/

Metering/Peristaltic/Submersible/Vertical Centrifugal

Sheet and Rod and Profiles
Figure 120. Rods and Profiles
Normally 4 X 8 ft. sheets with various thicknesses/Rod and Profiles
Special Piping and Fitting Systems

Figure 121. High Purity Water Systems
Clear/Double-Containment/Perforated/Well-Casing/Reclaimed/Low Extractable/Piston-
type Expansion Joints/Van-Stone Flanges/Underground Sprinkler Swing Joints

Tanks and Tank Accessories
Figure 122. Tank-Filter-Pump Station
Fabricated Tanks/Tank Adaptors/Vacuum Breakers
Valves
Figure 123. Valves
Angle/Ball/Butterfly/Check/Diaphragm/Float/Gate/Globe/Goose-Neck/Laboratory/
Multiport/Needle/Pressure Relief/Pressure Regulator/Solenoid

8
Chapter
PVC PIPING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Most scientific studies show that PVC piping systems are unmatched in providing economic
and energy savings as well as being environmentally sound.
With many articles promoting sustainable and green building construction, it’s timely to
reflect on how PVC piping systems fit into the goal of providing more eco-friendly
residential, commercial, and industrial construction projects. This section of the Design Guide
will attempt to address and point out how PVC compares with other piping materials in
making a light footprint on the planet’s environment plus dispel many unfounded myths.
Resin
PVC resin is made (by weight) from 43% ethylene (a derivative of a fossil fuel based
feedstock) and 57% from chlorine. PVC production uses less energy, generates fewer
emissions, and requires fewer natural resources than many other piping materials. And since
salt (where chlorine is derived) is a relatively inexpensive material and one of the most
abundant resources on earth, PVC is more sustainable and price competitive compared to
other piping materials.
Fossil Fuels
Depending on the region of the world, ethylene is made from oil, gas, or coal feedstocks,
which offer a rather large selection of existing natural resources. In addition, a growing
number of on-stream ethylene plants instead of using fossil fuels as its feedstock are using
bio-feedstocks such as sugar cane to produce ethylene, one of PVC’s major ingredients. If this
process method proves to be economically and environmentally sound, the reduction of the
dependence on fossil fuels to produce PVC can soon be a reality. Only plastic piping
materials can be produced from bio-feedstocks.
Chlorine
Chlorine is one of the most abundant elements in the world, is a major ingredient in building
materials, packaging, and pharmaceuticals, and arguably, has saved more lives in its use of
disinfecting water for drinking purposes than any other world health initiative—ever!
Chlorine is derived from an inexhaustible source—ocean water. In some instances, the salt is
taken out of the water using electro-dialysis desalinization, which extracts chlorine with the
resulting unsalted water being processed for potable water.
PVC Piping and the Environment - 125

Durability
There is no projected end life for many PVC installations. Some of the first PVC piping that
was installed in Germany is still operational after almost 75 years. It is practically inert in
most above and underground environments. PVC piping is immune to corrosion, scaling,
rusting, and pitting and is very resistant to abrasion, as well as bacteria, fungi, and chemical
attack. Independent studies have shown that PVC municipal piping systems are
performance rated at a minimum of 100 years usage while concrete and ductile iron piping
were rated at 85 and 60 years respectively. Longer durability means fewer leaks, better water
conservation, and less cost.
Easy and Safe to Install
Due to its light weight, standard 20 foot lengths, simple method of joining, lack of expensive
tools, no hot plates or open flames needed, no corrosive protection needed, lack or
minimum insulation requirements, variety of joining methods, ease of product identification,
and ease of fabrication, PVC piping is most likely the easiest and safest piping material to
install. This benefit ensures less likelihood of reportable on-site accidents, less chance of
property damage, more easily trained installer crews, and faster project completion rates
compared to other piping materials.
Cost Effectiveness
Higher costs means less investment in new or remodeled construction, higher
unemployment rates, higher inflation rates, and other undesirable factors affecting the
growth and prosperity of all people and communities. It seems no matter what category of
costs you consider, PVC comes up on top. Product, labor, installed, maintenance, insurance,
theft, and shipping costs are almost always less using PVC compared to any other non-
plastic piping systems.
Economic Benefits of Polyvinyl Chloride Piping Systems
According to a study sponsored by the Vinyl Institute and the American Chemistry Council,
the use of PVC, when compared to other piping materials, has a total estimated economic
savings well over $9 billion. These savings include material costs, installation costs, and those
costs that are due to more frequent replacement, maintenance and repair requirements than
are required for PVC piping systems. In other words, to substitute aluminum, cast iron,
concrete, copper, ductile iron, or other piping materials for PVC results in substantial cost
premiums. For more information on this study and PVC products in general go to the
website of the Vinyl Institute and the Chlorine Chemistry Division of the American
Chemistry Council.
Recyclable
PVC is totally recyclable, but because most PVC piping systems are still in use, not much
PVC pipe has been required to be recycled. PVC is a thermoplastic, which means that the
material can be constantly heated and reformed making it ideal for recycling. Therefore, any
processing scraps developed in production start-up, shutdown, and quality control testing
samples are routinely reground and introduced back into the production process. There is
less than 1% scrap non-recycled materials in most PVC piping plants. Presently, end-of-life
use or post consumer PVC piping is being sent to land fills or incineration with a relatively
small amount being recycled. This form of disposing PVC pipe after use will change in the
126 - PVC Piping and the Environment

future as a result of aggressive industry plans to recycle as much PVC, in all forms, for reuse
as possible. With PVC’s lightweight, durability, chemical resistance, ease of manufacturing,
and cost effectiveness, many millions of pounds of PVC will be recycled into useful products
in the years to come.
Joint Integrity
PVC piping can be joined in several different ways—flanging, threading, compression
couplings, bell and gasket, heat fusion, and solvent cementing to name a few. The two most
popular joining methods are solvent cementing and gasketed-bell and spigot. When properly
installed, these two joining systems have working pressures equal to or greater than the pipe
or fitting. And, the piping joint integrity is unbeatable. One other reason for PVC’s record of
exceptional performance is that there are fewer joints than with other non-plastic piping due
to its standard 20-foot pipe lengths. And fewer joints means fewer leaks.
Plasticizers
To make PVC material flexible and pliable (such as tubing and packaging) plasticizers known
as phthalates are added to the final compound. This resin additive is being vilified by many
environmentalists as a very harmful chemical compound although there are many studies
that dispute their claims. Unfortunately, all PVC material gets tossed into the fray with other
headline news. This issue, however, is not relevant to rigid PVC piping since it is
UNPLASTICIZED and has been for over five decades. In some places of the globe, the
acronym UPVC is listed for pipe and stands for “unplasticized” PVC. Again, rigid PVC
piping does not contain phthalates or any other plasticizers!
Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM)
In the early 1970’s, there were reports that VCM, an intermediate material in the vinyl
production chain, was present in excessive quantities in a few manufacturing facilities. The
vinyl industry acted quickly in cooperation with OSHA and the EPA completely re-
engineering vinyl production facilities, which has resulted in reducing VCM emissions by
over 99%. For the last several decades, PVC resin and product processing plants have some
of the best employee safety and health results of any manufacturing industry.
Hydrogen Chloride Gas Emissions
When vinyl (PVC) is burned, hydrogen chloride gas is emitted. Yet, when wood and other
building materials burn, lethal carbon monoxide is emitted. With any residential, industrial,
or commercial structure you name, there are much more harmful fumes given off by other
construction materials than by PVC. Why? Because PVC piping represents less than 2% by
weight of most buildings.
Dioxins
Dioxins are compounds that are suspected of being human carcinogens. Several uninformed
anti-progressive proponents argue that PVC is the major polluter of the environment with
dioxins. Nothing could be further from the truth. The largest contributors of dioxin
discharge, according to EPA findings, are forest fires, wood burning fireplaces, coal-fired
utilities, metal smelting, diesel trucks, sewage sludge, and burning of trash. Studies estimate
that the entire PVC industry produces about 13 grams of dioxin a year (that’s less than a half
ounce). Another irrefutable fact is that dioxin levels in the USA have decreased 90% in the
past 30 years while vinyl production has increased 300% during the same time period.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
LCA is a scientific process that analyzes a product from cradle to grave and beyond. This
process results in determining the environmental impacts of the entire product cycle in a
quantitative manner. LCA has been recognized as one of the most important criteria in
evaluating competitive materials by several greenbuilding rating organizations. With many
European LCA reports completed and preliminary USA LCA product inventories being
examined, it seems PVC piping, compares quite favorably to other non-plastic piping
materials.
Manufacturing Industry Safety
According to 2006 statistics provided by the U.S. Bureau of Labor, the combination of PVC
and other plastic piping manufacturing facilities, plastic pipe resin, compound and additive
providers, and petrochemical extraction and refining facilities have significantly fewer
reported employee illness and injury rates than other non-plastic piping industries. In
addition, the plastic piping industry has a third fewer reported employee illness and injury
rates compared to the average of all U.S. industries.
Boon to Trees and Animals
PVC should be embraced as one of the significant products that affords protection to the
flora and fauna of our planet. The introduction and growth of PVC siding, decking, fencing,
window siding, pipe, faux auto panel trim, and other products have saved the destruction of
millions of trees. As a substitute for products that were predominantly made from animal
hides and ivory tusks, PVC has prevented the killing of untold numbers of animals. The
large growth and acceptance of PVC in reducing the need for tree harvesting and the
slaughtering of animals are largely due to the durability, cost-effectiveness, and lack of
maintenance required of PVC products.
World Health Issues
The United Nations estimate that more than 6,000 children a day (that’s over 2 million a
year) in the world die due to unsanitary drinking water and waste control. To address this
issue, many PVC piping companies and associations (PPFA included) have either donated or
sold, at cost, product and engineering services to dozens of non-profit organizations to
improve the lives and hopes of third world country citizens. Because PVC pipe is
lightweight, durable, easy and save to install, and cost-effective, most humanitarian and other
engineering firms have realized that in designing potable water and sanitary waste systems,
PVC piping is the material of choice.
Water – A Scarce Resource
Experts estimate that 700 water main breaks a day (over 250,000 a year) occur in North
America wasting over 2.2 trillion gallons of potable water. The loss of revenues to the over
60,000 North American water utility companies total over $3 billion a year. To fix these
aging mains, the U.S. government estimates that $23 billion a year for the next 20 years is
needed. The American Water Works Association Research Foundation in a survey
concluded that the life expectancy rating of PVC surpassed any other tested pipe material. A
two year Canadian study found that for each 100 kilometers of water distribution pipe
installed, PVC had only 0.7 breaks per year compared to 35.9 breaks for cast iron and 9.5
breaks for ductile iron. Communities around the world are favoring PVC water main and
128 - PVC Piping and the Environment

distribution systems due to this material's documented track record of unsurpassed durability
and joining integrity.
One Final Word
Greenness and sustainability touches us all in practically everything we do—whether it is the
car we drive, the house we live in, the vacations we take, the products we buy, or the hobbies
that relax us. But no matter what we do, we need to leave a better tomorrow for the next
generation. In this regard, comparing all the known facts and history of PVC, the use of
PVC piping will continue now and in the future to provide a minimum footprint on the
environment and a very positive impact on our planet.

9
Chapter
OTHER PLASTIC PIPING SYSTEMS

Plastic is and has been the fastest growing piping material in most markets it competes for
decades due to its many inherent features and benefits.
Although PVC dominates the plastic pipe market underground, aboveground applications
use many other plastic materials that handle applications that are not suited to the physical or
mechanical properties of PVC. Although the materials have different properties than PVC,
similar calculations and formulas are used in determining temperature-pressure relationships,
expansion and contraction, support spacing, and other design issues. Manufacturers of the
non-PVC plastic piping systems have detailed engineering information for their systems
facilitating the task of the pipe design engineer.
This section of the Design Guide will give a brief outline of six plastic piping materials other
than PVC used in commercial and industrial applications: ABS, CPVC, PE, PEX, PP, and
PVDF. For free technical information and a more in-depth look at these materials, see the
PPFA website www.ppfahome.org.
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
General
ABS is a blend of polymers in which the minimum butadiene content is 6%, the minimum
acrylonitrile content is 15%, the minimum styrene content is 15% and the maximum
contents of all other monomers is not more than 5% plus other additives. It has been used
as a piping material for over 55 years. ABS pipe and fittings for DWV use are made from
compounds meeting the requirements of ASTM D 3965 Cell Classification 4-2-2-2-2 for
pipe, and 3-2-2-2-2 for fittings. ABS pipe and fittings for pressure use are made from
compounds meeting the requirements of ASTM D 3965 with cell classification 4-3-2-3-2 for
pipe and fittings.
ABS pipe is available in solid wall and cellular (foam) core construction in Schedule 40
dimensions. These two forms may be used interchangeably for DWV applications. Cellular
core construction involves the simultaneous extrusion of three layers into the pipe wall—a
solid outer layer, a foam intermediate layer, and a solid inner layer. The three-layer pipe is
130 - Other Plastic Piping Systems

lighter and more cost-effective for most DWV applications. The primary method of joining
ABS piping systems is using solvent cementing.
Features and Benefits

 Temperature range is -40°F (-40°C) to 158°F (70°C) for pressure applications
and 176°F (80°C) for drainage applications
 No primer required to join
 High impact resistance
 Available in solid wall (only in Canada) and cellular-core piping
Applications
 Drain, waste and vent systems
 HVAC systems
 Industrial processing systems
 Mining slurries
 Special formulated compressed air / insert gas lines
Figure 124. Process Piping Figure 125. DWV Piping
Code Status
ABS pipe and fittings are recognized as acceptable for use in DWV systems in all major
model plumbing codes.
Other Plastic Piping Systems - 131

Chlorinated Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC)
General
CPVC is a resin made by post-chlorination of PVC. CPVC as a piping material has been
successfully installed for almost 50 years. The additional chloride in the PVC polymer allows
the maximum service temperature of CPVC to be extended an additional 60-70°F. CPVC
compounds meet the requirements of ASTM Class 23447 as defined in ASTM Specification
D 1784.
CPVC potable hot and cold water systems from ¼ to 2 inches in size are available in copper
tube size (CTS) dimensions and sold in straight lengths and coils (smaller diameter piping)
and capable of handling applications up to 100 psi and 180°F. For potable water systems
above 2 inches, Sch 40 or Sch 80 piping is available up to a maximum diameter of 24 inches.
In fire suppression (fire sprinkler) systems, CPVC SDR 13.5 systems are available and
capable of handling working pressures of 175 psi at 150°F. These systems have been
successfully in use for almost three decades.
Chemical Waste Systems of CPVC have been introduced in North America in the last
several years in sizes from 1-½ to 12-inch. The product size range, ease of joining, and
maximum temperature limit of 220°F are several features that have allowed CPVC to gain
market inroads.
CPVC is used in dozens of industrial applications and has very similar properties to PVC but
can withstand higher temperatures. All the features and benefits mentioned for PVC also
apply to CPVC piping systems. Also, similar to PVC, CPVC industrial piping systems are
comprised of many fluid and air handling products such as pipe, fittings, valves, pumps,
duct, rod, sheet, rod, fans, scrubbers, and other fluid handling products.
Recently, there has been a composite small diameter CPVC piping system introduced
consisting of an interior and exterior pipe wall of CPVC, extruded around a metal tube. As
of mid 2008, there has been no inclusion of this piping product in any building codes or
standards.
The primary method of joining CPVC piping systems is solvent-cementing.

 Good up to 180-210°F depending on application
 Complete fluid and air handling ducting component systems
 Coils in small diameter CTS piping
 Complete fire suppression system
 Hot and cold water distribution systems up to 24" pipe diameter
Applications
 Hot and cold water distribution
 Chemical and industrial processing systems
 Fire suppression systems
 Chemical waste systems
Figure 126. Hot/Cold Water and Fire Sprinkler Figure 127. Process Piping
Code Status
Plumbing applications: CPVC piping for potable hot and cold water distribution systems
is recognized in all model plumbing codes.
Plenum installation: CPVC plumbing pipe may be safe for installation in return air
plenums; however, the installation must be approved by the local jurisdiction. Testing
indicates that water-filled CPVC in diameters 6 inches or less will pass the 25/50 flame
smoke developed requirements for non-metallic material in return air plenums. CPVC fire
sprinkler pipe tested and listed in accordance with UL 1887, Fire Test of Plastic Sprinkler Pipe
for Flame and Smoke Characteristics, meets the requirements of NFPA 90A for installation in
return air plenums.

Polyethylene (PE)
General
PE, the most popular plastic resin in the world, is the second most widely used
thermoplastic piping material and has been successfully used in piping applications for 60
years. It is produced by the polymerization of ethylene meeting the requirements of Grades
PE 10, PE24, and PE34 as noted in ASTM D 3350. PE materials used for water service are
often designated by a material designation codes such as PE2406 or PE3408. The material
designation code is defined as follows:
 PE is the abbreviation for polyethylene.

 The first digit represents the density of the PE. The number “2” represents a
medium-density material. The number “3” represents a high-density material.
 The second digit “4” represents the slow crack growth requirement of the
thermoplastic which is defined in ASTM D 3350 as ether the ESCR
(environmental stress crack) test in ASTM D 1693 or the PENT (polyethylene
notched tensile) test in ASTM F 1473. For water service pipe the “4” represents
an ESCR.
 The third and fourth digits represent the hydrostatic design stress (HDS) for
water @ 73°F (23°C) divided by one hundred.
PE pipe is available in many forms and colors. For example, black or a solid color pipe,
black pipe with coextruded color striping, black or natural pipe with a coextruded colored
layer, and gas pipe, which is usually yellow or orange in color. The primary method of
joining PE piping is heat fusion, although in small diameters for low pressure applications,
mechanical joining is often used.

 Broadest range of pipe diameters
 Tough and very abrasive resistant
 Smaller pipe diameters available in coils
 High performance compounds go up to 200°F
 Complete piping system for natural gas distribution
 Preferred material for slip-lining in existing non-plastic municipal water and
sewer lines
 Complete piping system for low leak (drip) irrigation
 Resistant to freeze damage
Applications
 Potable water service systems
 Forced main sewer
 Intake and outtake power plant piping
 Slip-lining

 Natural gas distribution systems
 Drainage (smooth and corrugated exterior)
 Conduit
 Geothermal systems
 Industrial processing systems
 Irrigation systems
Figure 128. Piping in Ice Skating Rink
Figure 129. Power Plant Intake Piping Line
Code Status
PE is recognized by most model codes for water service lines and natural gas distribution.

Cross-linked Polyethylene (PEX)
General
PEX is a thermoset material made up of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) that is
permanently linked by a process called crosslinking. The crosslinking process gives the
piping material long-term stability and physical properties that allow for a constant pressure
rated system at varying ranges of temperatures unlike thermoplastic piping materials. PEX
has a 30-year plus history of successful use in Europe and has been used in North America
for almost 25 years.

 Uses mechanical connections only
 Can use manifolds to speed up installation and improve performance
 Resistant to freeze damage (in most cases it can be frozen and thawed with no
pipe damage)
 Available in coils
 Is flexible
Applications
 Potable hot and cold water distribution systems
 Radiant floor heating systems
 Snow and ice melt systems for driveways and ramps
 Turf conditioning services
 Fire suppression systems
Figure 130. Radiant Floor Heating Figure 131. Permafrost Protection
Code Status
All major plumbing codes permit the use of PEX piping/tubing.

Polypropylene (PP)
General
PP is the lightest weight piping material with very good chemical resistance, even to many
organic solvents. It is made by the polymerization of propylene. PP has two classifications.
Type I is the most commonly used PP piping material; it is a homopolymer having better
rigidity and strength but lower impact resistance than Type II. Type II PP is composed of
copolymers of propylene and ethylene or other olefins. Type II has improved toughness
over Type I material. In chemical drainage applications, heat stabilizers and flame retardant
additives are added to PP to retard flammability and thermal aging. PP is also used in many
more corrosive and higher temperature applications (180°F) than PVC. The primary method
of joining PP piping systems is with heat fusion.

 Good up to 180°F
 Handles a broad range of chemical solutions
 Complete chemical drainage system with 30+ years in use
 Can be joined by butt-fusion, socket-fusion, or electro-fusion
 Complete air handling and fluid handling component systems
Applications
 Chemical drainage systems
 Hot and cold water distribution (mostly outside North America)
 Industrial process systems
 High purity water
 Gravity sewers
Figure 132. Lab Waste Drainage and High Purity Water Systems

Figure 133. PP Fabricated Semiconductor Process Work Station
Code Status
PP chemical waste drainage is accepted in most model codes in North America.

Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
General
PVDF is a homopolymer produced by the polymerization of vinylidine with fluoride. It has
excellent chemical and solvent resistances, broad working temperature ranges, unexcelled
resistance to weathering effects, and good strength. Unpigmented (no additive colorization)
PVDF is the preferred piping material in many semiconductor plants in applications
handling high and ultra-high purity water systems. Of all the commonly used piping systems,
PVDF is the most chemically resistant, handles the highest temperature (up to 275°F) and
has the lowest flame and smoke development characteristics.

 Good up to 275°F
 Low fire spread and smoke development ratings
 Can be plenum rated
 The broadest range of chemical resistance of most piping systems
 Complete chemical drainage systems
 Excellent weathering characteristics
 The preferred piping material in high and ultra-high piping systems
 Can be joined using butt-fusion, socket fusion, and electro-fusion
Applications
 Chemical drainage systems
 Chemical processing systems
 High and ultra-high purity water systems
 Pulp and paper
 Nuclear waste processing
 Food and pharmaceutical processing
 Air plenum usage (PVDF has a maximum flame spread index of 25 and a
maximum smoke development index of 50)
 Steam
 Petroleum fuel lines

Figure 134. High Purity Water Piping System
Figure 135. Sanitary Piping System in Plant
Code Status
PVDF chemical drainage systems are accepted in most model codes and are ideal for any air
plenum installations.

APPENDIX A: PVC PRODUCT
SAFETY WARNINGS
PVC piping, when installed and tested properly, is one of the most durable piping systems
available. Yet, PVC has physical characteristics different than other piping materials that
need to be addressed for a safe and long lasting installation. In the Design Guide there are
steps showing the proper techniques of safely joining, installing and testing PVC piping
systems. However, it is imperative that the manufacturer’s joining, installation and testing
instructions be completely followed. If you do not follow their instructions, it could cause
life threatening personal injuries or severe damage to property. There is no subject more
important than user safety. Therefore, the Design Guide offers below commonly listed
warnings that are shown in most PVC product manufacturer’s literature. These safety
warnings do not profess to deal with all possible situations or risks that may be encountered
in the use of PVC piping systems.

TEST PVC PIPING SYSTEMS, OR ANY PART THEREOF, WITH
IMPROPER INSTALLATION OR MISUSE OF TAPPING TOOLS

MANY CAUSE RUPTURES IN PVC PIPING SYSTEMS UNDER HIGH
PRESSURE, WHICH COULD LEAD TO LIFE THREATENING
INJURIES AND SEVERE PROPERTY DAMAGE.
WARNING
WHEN JOINING PVC PIPING SYSTEM COMPONENTS USING
SOLVENT CEMENT, THE SAFE HANDLING PROVISIONS OF ASTM
F402 MUST BE FOLLOWED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
USING APPROVED GLOVES AND EYE PROTECTION AND
WORKING IN A WELL-VENTILATED ENVIRONMENT. FAILURE
TO FOLLOW THIS WARNING COULD LEAD TO LIFE
THREATENING INJURIES.
Contact the manufacturer of the relevant PVC piping system or its components regarding
these warnings or any other safety concerns or questions.
Appendix A: PVC Product Safety Warnings - 141

142 - Appendix A: PVC Product Safety Warnings
APPENDIX B: ABBREVIATIONS
AND ACRONYMS
Plastic Materials
Abbreviation Definition
ABA acrylonitrile butadiene acrylate
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
ADC allyl diglycol carbonate
AES acrylonitrile ethylene styrene
ASA acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylic
CA cellulose acetate
CAB cellulose acetate butyrate
CN cellulose nitrate
CP cellulose propionate
CPE chlorinated polyethylene
CPET crystallized polyethylene terephthalate
CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
CTFE chlorotrifluorethylene
DAP diallyl phthalate
EC ethyl cellulose
ECTFE ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene
EEA ethylene-ethyl acrylate
EMA ethylene-methyl acrylate
EPM ethylene propylene copolymer
EPS expandable polystyrene
ETFE ethylenetetrafluoroethylene
EVA ethylene-vinyl acetate
EVAC ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer
FEP fluorinated ethylenepropylene
FPVC flexible polyvinyl chloride
FRP fiberglass-reinforced plastics
Appendix B: Abbreviations and Acronyms - 143

Plastic Materials
GFR glass fiber reinforced
HDPE high-density polyethylene
HIPS high-impact polystyrene
HMW-HDPE high-molecular-weight high-density polyethylene
LCP liquid crystal polymers
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene
LMDPE linear medium density polyethylene
MBS methacrylate-butadiene-styrene
MDI methylene diisocyanate
MDPE medium-density polyethylene
MMA methyl methacrylate
MPPO modified polyethylene oxide
OPET oriented polyethylene terephthalate
OPP oriented polypropylene
OSA olefin-modified styrene-acrylonitrite
PA polyamide
PAI polyamideimide
PAMS poly alpha methylstyrene
PAN polyacrylonitrile
PARA polyarylamide
PAS polyarylsulfone
PB polybutylene
PBT polybutylene terephthalate
PC polycarbonate
PCT polycyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate
PCTFE polychlorotrifluoroethylene
PCU polycarbonate urethane
PDAP poly diallyl phthalate
PFA perfluoroalkoxy
144 - Appendix B: Abbreviations and Acronyms

Plastic Materials
PE polyethylene
PEEK polyetheretherketone
PEI polyetherimide
PEK polyetherketone
PEO biaxially oriented polyethylene
PES polyethersulfone
PET polyethylene terephthalate
PEX cross-linked polyethylene
PFA perfluoroalkoxy
PFPE polyperfluoropolyether
PI polyimide
PMMA polymethyl methacrylate
PP polypropylene
PPA polyphthalamide
PPFR polypropylene flame retardant
PPO polyphenylene oxide
PPS polyphenylene sulfide
PS polystyrene
PSO polysulfone
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene
PTMT polytetramethylene terephthalate
PUR polyurethane
PVAL polyvinyl alcohol
PVB polyvinyl butyral
PVC polyvinyl chloride
PVC-O polyvinyl chloride-molecular oriented
PVC-u polyvinyl chloride-unplasticized
PVCA polyvinyl chloride-acetate
PVDC polyvinylidene chloride
PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride

Plastic Materials
PVF polyvinyl fluoride
RTRP reinforced thermosetting resin pipe
RPVC rigid polyvinyl chloride
RTPU rigid thermoplastic polyurethane
SAN styrene-acrylonitrile
SB styrene-butadiene
SBR styrene-butadiene rubber
SMA styrene-maleic anhydride
SPU segmented polyurethane
ULDPE ultra low density polyethylene
SR styrene rubber
TFE tetrafluoroethylene
TPE thermoplastic elastomer
TPO thermoplastic olefin
UHMWPE ultrahigh-molecular weight polyethylene
UHMW-HDPE ultrahigh-molecular weight high-density polyethylene
VCE polyvinyl chloride-ethylene
VCEMA polyvinyl chloride-ethylene-methyl acrylate
VCMA polyvinyl chloride-methyl acrylate
VCVAC polyvinyl chloride-vinyl acrylate
VCVDC polyvinyl chloride-vinylidene chloride
VCM vinylidene chloride monomer
VDC vinylidene chloride
XLPE cross-linked polyethylene

Association and Agency Acronyms
Acronym Definition
AASHTO American Association of State Highways & Transportation Officials
ACC American Chemical Council
AGA American Gas Association
ANSI American National Standards Institute, inc.
APGA American Public Gas Association
API American Petroleum Institute
APWA American Public Works Association
ASAE American Society of Agriculture Engineers
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASDWA Association of State Drinking Water Administrators
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
ASHRAE Engineers
ASHVE American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASNP American Standard National Plumbing
ASPE American Society of Plumbing Engineers
ASSE American Society of Sanitary Engineers
ASTM ASTM International, formerly American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTPHLD Association of State and Territorial Public Health Laboratory Directors
AWWA American Water Works Association
AWWRF American Water Works Research Foundation
BEES Building for Environmental and Economic Stability
BOCA Building Officials and Code Administration International, Inc.
BNQ Bureau de Normalization du Quebec
BS British Standards Institution
CABO The Council of American Building Officials
CERF Civil Engineering Research Foundation
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CGSB Canadian Government Specifications Board
CPPA Corrugated Plastic Pipe Association

Acronym Definition
CS Commercial Standard
CSA CSA International, formerly Canadian Standards Association
DIN Deutsches Institut fur Normung
DOD Department of Defense
DOT-OPSO Department of Transportation-Office of Pipeline Safety Operations
DOT-TSI U.S. Department of Transportation-Transportation Safety Institute
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FDA Federal Drug Administration
FHA Federal Housing Federation
FM Factory Mutual
FS Federal Standards
GPTC Gas Piping Technology Committee
GTI Gas Technology Institute
HSB Hydrostatic Stress Board
HUD Housing and Urban Development
IAPMO International Associations of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
IAPD International Association of Plastic Distribution
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials
ICC International Codes Council
IMC International Mechanical Code
IPC International Plumbing Code
IRC International Residential Code
ISO International Standards Organization
LEED Leadership on Energy and Environmental Design
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
MCAA Mechanical Contractors Association of America
MIL Department of Defense-Military Standard
MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society of Value and Fittings Industry
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NAHB National Association of Home Builders

Acronym Definition
NAPHCC National Association of Plumbing, Heating, Cooling Contractors
NASSCO National Association of Sewer Service Companies
NASTT North American Society for Trenchless Technology
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NFGS Naval Guide Specifications
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NRWA National Rural Water Association
NSF NSF International, formerly National Sanitary Foundation
NSPC National Standard Plumbing Code
NSPI National Swimming Pool Institute
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
NUCA National Utility Contractors Association
NWRA National Water Resources Association
NWWA National Well Water Association
PDI Plumbing and Drainage Institute
PHCC National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors
PPFA Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association
PPI Plastic Piping Institute
PS Product Standard
SBCC Southern Building Code Congress
SCA Standards Council of Canada
SCS Soil Conversation Service of U.S. Department of Agriculture
SIA Sprinkler Irrigation Association
SPE The Society of Plastic Engineers
SPI The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
SRI Southwest Research Institute
UL Underwriters Laboratories, Inc
UMC Uniform Mechanical Code
Uni-Bell Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association

Acronym Definition
UPC Uniform Plumbing Code
USASI United States of America Standards Institute
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USGBS U.S. Green Building Council
VI Vinyl Institute
VMA Value Manufacturers Association of America
VPS Voluntary Product Standards
WEF Water Environment Federation
WUC Western Underground Committee

APPENDIX C: CHEMICAL
RESISTANCE
The chemical resistance data included in this appendix is a collection of the best present
information of PVC’s chemical resistance to over 750 chemicals. Most of the data is based
on material test specimens immersed in a laboratory environment and to a lesser degree on
field experience. There are many variables that may affect PVC’s performance with each of
the chemicals. This is a major reason that no company or other association and organization
can guarantee the performance of any particular application. For any critical application,
perform a test with manufacturer provided samples that duplicate the expected field
conditions as closely as possible.
A major condition that can affect chemical resistance performance is when a PVC piping
system experiences thermal or mechanical stress. Besides stress other accelerating factors
that could affect chemical resistance are: chemical concentrations, combinations of
chemicals, flow velocity and system internal working pressures.
Chemical Resistance Codes

When testing PVC’s chemical resistance, the manufacturer’s normal criteria for determining
the resistance to chemical attack is based on immersed PVC samples being measured for
swelling or weight loss and elongation at break. As a rule, swelling fewer than 3% or weight
loss under 0.5% with no significant change in elongation at break will successfully qualify
PVC to be recommended at a particular temperature. When testing specimens, if the
swelling increases to over 8% or a weight loss of greater than 5.0% and/or elongation at
break decreases 50% or greater, PVC is not normally recommended.
Chart Notes
 Material tested: Polyvinyl Chloride Type 1 Grade 1
 Temperature: Number reflects the maximum recommended temperature
in °F
 NR = Not Recommended
 * * = Incomplete Data
 Chemical resistances of listed gases are for non-pressure environments
 Under certain temperature conditions, PVC piping with liquid hydrocarbons
such as gasoline and jet fuels should be limited to short-term exposure
Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Temperature Temperature
Acetaldehyde NR Ammonium Metaphosphate 140
Acetamide ** Ammonium Nitrate 140
Acetate Solvent, Crude NR Ammonium Persulphate 140
Acetate Solvent, Pure NR Ammonium Phosphate 140
Appendix C: Chemical Resistance - 151

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Acetic Acid, 10% 140 Ammonium Sulfamate **
Acetic Acid, 20% 140 Ammonium Sulfate 140
Acetic Acid, 50% 73 Ammonium Sulfide 140
Acetic Acid, 80% 73 Ammonium Thiocyanate 140
Acetic Acid, Glacial 73 Ammonium Tartrate 140
Acetic Anhydride NR Amyl Acetate NR
Acetone NR Alcohol, Amyl NR
Acetonitrile NR Amyl Chloride NR
Acetophenone NR Aniline NR
Acetyl Chloride NR Aniline Chlorohydrate NR
Acetylene NR Aniline Hydrochloride NR
Acetyl Nitrile NR Anthraquinone Sulfonic Acid 140
Acrylic Acid NR Antifreeze * *
Acrylonitrile NR Antimony Trichloride 140
Adipic Acid (Sat'd) 140 Aqua Regia 73
Allyl Alcohol 73 Aromatic Hydrocarbons NR
Allyl Chloride NR Aragon * *
Alums 140 Arsenic Acid 140
Aluminum Acetate ** Aryl Sulfonic Acid 140
Aluminum Ammonium 140 Asphalt NR
Aluminum Chloride 140 Barium Carbonate 140
Aluminum Chrome 140 Barium Chloride 140
Aluminum Fluoride 73 Barium Hydroxide 140
Aluminum Hydroxide 140 Barium Nitrate 73
Aluminum Nitrate 140 Barium Sulfate 140
Aluminum Oxychloride 140 Barium Sulfide 140
Aluminum Potassium Sulfate 140 Beer 140
Aluminum Sulfate 140 Beet Sugar Liquids 140
Amines ** Benzaldehyde 73
Ammonia 140 Benzalkonium Chloride NR
Ammonia, Gas 140 Benzene NR
Ammonia, Aqua, 10% NR Benzene, Benzol NR
Ammonia, (25% Aqueous NR Benzene Sulfonic Acid 140
Solution)
Ammonia Hydroxide 100 Benzoic Acid (Sat'd) 140
Ammonia Liquid (Concentrated) NR Benzyl Chloride **
Ammonium Acetate 140 Benzyl Alcohol NR
Ammonium Benzoate ** Bismuth Carbonate 140
Ammonium Bifluoride 140 Black Liquor 140
Ammonium Bisulfide 140 Bleach, Industrial (15% CI2) 140
Ammonium Carbonate 140 Bleach, 12.5% Active CI2 140
Ammonium Chloride 140 Bleach, 5.5% Active CI2 140
Ammonium Citrate ** Borax 140
Ammonium Dichromate 73 Boric Acid 140
Ammonium Fluoride, 10% 140 Brake Fluid **
Ammonium Fluoride, 25% 73 Breeders Pellets, Derive. Fish 140
152 - Appendix C: Chemical Resistance

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Ammonium Hydroxide 73 Brine 140
Ammonium Metaphosphate 140 Bromic, Acid 140
Ammonium Nitrate 140 Bromine NR
Ammonium Persulphate 140 Bromine, Liquid NR
Ammonium Phosphate 140 Bromine, Vapor 25% 140
Bromine, Water 140 Caustic Soda 140
Bromine, Water, (Sat'd) 73 Cellosolve 73
Bromobenzene NR Cellosolve Acetate 73
Bromotoluene NR Chloracetic Acid 73
Butadiene 140 Cloracetyl Chloride 73
Butane 140 Chloral Hydrate 140
Butanol, Primary NR Chloramine 73
Butonol, Secondary NR Chloric Acid, 20% 140
Butyl Acetate NR Chlorinated Solvents NR
Butyl Alcohol 140 Chlorinated Water, Up to 3500 140
ppm
Butyl Carbitol ** Chlorinated Water, Above 3500 NR
ppm
Butyl Cellsolve (2-butoxyethanol) 73 Chlorine Gas, Dry NR
Butyl Chloride ** Chlorine Gas, Wet NR
Butynediol 73 Chlorine, Liquid NR
Butylene 73 Chlorine, trace in air **
Butyl Phenol 73 Chlorine Dioxide (sat'd aqueous **
sol.)
Butyl Phthalate NR Chlorine Water (Sat'd) 140
Butyl Stearate 73 Chlorobenzene NR
Butyric Acid NR Chlorobenzene Chloride NR
Butyric Acid, Up to 1% 73 Chloroform NR
Butyric Acid, Over 1% ** Chloropicrin NR
Cadmium Acetate ** Chlorosulfonic Acid 73
Cadmium Chloride ** Chlorox Bleach Solution, 5.5% 140
CI2
Cadmium Cyanide 140 Chromic Acid, 10% 140
Cadmium Sulfate ** Chromic Acid, 30% 73
Caffeine Citrate 73 Chromic Acid, 40% 73
Calcium Acetate 73 Chromic Acid, 50% 73
Calcium Bisulfide NR Chromium Nitrate **
Calcium Bisulfite 140 Chromium Potassium Nitrate 73
Calcium Carbonate 140 Chromium Potassium Sulfate **
Calcium Chlorate 140 Citric Acid (Sat'd) 140
Calcium Chloride 140 Citric Acid, 10% 140
Calcium Hydroxide 140 Citrus Oils **
Calcium Hypochlorite 140 Coconut Oil 140
Calcium Nitrate 140 Cod Liver Oil **
Calcium Oxide 140 Coffee 140
Calcium Sulfate 140 Coke Oven Gas NR

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Camphor Crystals 73 Copper Acetate, (Sat'd) 73
Cane Sugar Liquors 140 Copper Carbonate 140
Caprolactam ** Copper Chloride 140
Caprolactone ** Copper Cyanide 140
Caprylic Acid ** Copper Fluoride 140
CarbitolTM NR Copper Nitrate 140
Carbon Bisulfide NR Copper Salts 140
Carbon Dioxide, Wet 140 Copper Sulfate 140
Carbon Dioxide, Dry 140 Corn Oil 140
Carbon Disulfide NR Corn Syrup 140
Carbonic Acid 140 Cottonseed Oil 140
Carbon Monoxide 140 Creosote NR
Carbon Tetrachloride NR Creosol NR
Castor Oil 140 Cresylic Acid, 50% 140
Caustic Potash 140 Crotonaldehyde NR
Crude Oil 73 Ethyl Chloride NR
Cumene ** Ethyl Chlorohydrin NR
Cupric Chloride ** Ethylene Bromide NR
Cupric Fluoride 140 Ethylene Chloride NR
Cupric Sulfate 140 Ethylene Chlorohydrin NR
Cuprous Chloride 140 Ethylene Diamine NR
Cyclohexane NR Ethylene Dichloride NR
Cyclohexanol NR Ethyl Ether NR
Cyclohexanone NR Ethylene Glycol, Up to 50% 140
Decalin NR Ethylene Glycol, Over 50% 140
D-Limonene ** Ethylene Oxide NR
Desocyephedrine 73 Fatty Acids 140
Detergents 140 Ferric Acetate 140
Detergent Solution, Heavy Duty 140 Ferric Chloride 140
Dextrine 140 Ferric Hydroxide 140
Dextrose 140 Ferric Nitrate 140
Diacetone Alcohol NR Ferric Sulfate 140
Diazo Salts 140 Ferrous Chloride 140
Dibutyl Ethyl Phthalate NR Ferrous Hydroxide 140
Dibutyl Phthalate NR Ferrous Nitrate 140
Dibutyl Sebacate 73 Ferrous Sulfate 140
Dichlorobenzene NR Fish Oils 140
Dichloroethylene NR Fluorine Gas NR
Diesel Fuels 140 Fluoboric Acid 140
Diethylamine NR Fluorosilicic Acid, 30% 140
Diethyl Cellosolve ** Formaldehyde, 35% 140
Diethyl Ether 73 Formic Acid, Up to 25% 73
Diglycolic Acid 140 Formic Acid, Anhydrous 73
Dill Oil NR Freon F-11 140
Dimethylamine 140 Freon F-12 140
Dimethylformamide NR Freon F-21 NR

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Dimethyl Hydrazine NR Freon F-22 NR
Dioctyl Phthalate (DEHP) NR Freon F-113 140
Dioxane NR Freon F-114 140
Dioxane, 1.4 NR Fructose 140
Disodium Phosphate 140 Fruit Juices, Pulp 140
Distilled Water 140 Furfural NR
Divinylbenzene NR Gallic Acid 140
Dowtherm A NR Gas, Manufactured 73
Dursban TC ** Gas, Natural 140
EDTA, Tetrasodium ** Gasoline, Leaded NR
Epsom salt 140 Gasoline, Unleaded NR
Epichlorohydrin NR Gasoline, Sour NR
Esters NR Gasoline, Refined NR
Ethanol, Up to 5% 140 Gelatin 140
Ethanol, Over 5% 140 Gin 140
Ethers NR Glucose 140
Ethyl Acetate NR Glycerin 140
Ethyl Acetoacetate NR Glycerin, Glycerol 140
Ethyl Acrylate NR Glycolic Acid 140
Ethyl Benzene NR Glycol Ethers 140
Ethyl Bromide NR Grape Sugar, Juice 140
Green Liquor 140 Lauric Acid 140
Halocarbons Oils ** Lauryl Chloride 140
Heptane 140 Lead Acetate 140
Hexane 73 Lead Chloride 140
Hexanol 140 lead Nitrate 140
Hydraulic Oil 73 Lead Sulfate 140
Hydrazine NR Lemon Oil **
Hydrobromic Acid, Dilute 140 Ligroine NR
Hydrobromic Acid, 20% 140 Lime Sulfur 73
Hydrobromic Acid, 50% 140 Limonene **
Hydrochloric Acid Dilute 140 Linoleic Acid 140
Hydrochloric Acid, 18% 140 Linoleic Oil 140
Hydrochloric Acid, 20% 140 Linseed Oil 140
Hydrochloric Acid Conc., 37% 140 Linseed Oil, Blue 73
Hydrocyanic Acid, 10% 140 Liqueurs 140
Hydrofluoric Acid, Dilute 73 Lithium Bromide (Brine) 140
Hydrofluoric Acid, Up to 3% 73 Lithium Chloride 140
Hydrofluoric Acid, 30% 73 Lithium Sulfate 140
Hydrofluoric Acid, 40% 73 Lubricating Oil, ASTM #1, #2, 140
#3
Hydrofluoric Acid, 50% 73 Lux Liquid NR
Hydrofluoric Acid, 100% NR Lye Solutions 140
Hydrofluosilicic Acid, 50% 140 Machine Oil 140
Hydrogen 140 Magnesium Carbonate 140
Hydrogen Cyanide 140 Magnesium Chloride 140

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Hydrogen Fluoride NR Magnesium Citrate 140
Hydrogen Peroxide, Dilute 140 Magnesium Fluoride **
Hydrogen Peroxide, 30% 140 Magnesium Hydroxide 140
Hydrogen Peroxide, 50% 140 Magnesium Nitrate 140
Hydrogen Peroxide, 90% 140 Magnesium Oxide **
Hydrogen, Phosphide 140 Magnesium Salts, Inorganic **
Hydrogen Sulfide, Dry 140 Magnesium Sulfate 140
Hydrogen Sulfide, Aqueous Sol. 140 Maleic Acid 140
Hydroquinone 140 Maleic Acid (Sat'd) 140
Hydroxylamine Sulfate 140 Malic Acid 140
Hypochlorous Acid 140 Manganese Sulfate 140
Inks ** Mercuric Acid **
Iodine NR Mercuric Chloride 140
Iodine Solution, 10% NR Mercuric Cyanide 140
Iodine in Alcohol NR Mercuric Sulfate 140
Iron Salts ** Mercurous Nitrate 140
Isopropanol 140 Mercury 140
Isopropyl Alcohol 140 Methane 140
Isopropyl Ether NR Methanol 140
Isooctane NR Methoxyethyl Oleate 73
Jet Fuel, JP-4 NR Methyl Acetate NR
Jet Fuel, JP-5 NR Methyl Amine NR
Kerosene NR Methyl Bromide NR
Ketones NR Methyl Cellosolve NR
Ketchup 73 Methyl Chloride NR
Kraft Liquor 140 Methyl Chloroform NR
Lactic Acid, 25% 140 Methyl Ethyl Ketone NR
Lactic Acid, 80% 73 Methyl Formate **
Lard Oil 140 Methyl Isobutyl Ketone NR
Methyl Methacrylate NR Oxygen 140
Methyl Sulfate 73 Ozone 140
Methyl Sulfuric Acid 140 Ozonized Water **
Methylene Bromide NR Palm Oil **
Methylene Chloride NR Palmitic Acid, 10% 140
Methylene Chlorobromide NR Palmitic Acid, 70% 73
Methylene Iodine NR Paraffin 140
Methylisobutyl Carbinol NR Peanut Oil **
Milk 140 Pentachlorophenol NR
Mineral Oil 140 Peracetic Acid, 40% NR
Molasses 140 Perchloric Acid, 10% 73
Monochloroacetic Acid, 50% 140 Perchloric Acid, 70% NR
Monochlorobenzene NR Perphosphate 73
Monoethanolamine NR Petrolatum 140
Morpholine ** Petroleum Oils, Sour 73
Motor Oil 140 Petroleum Oils, Refined 140
Muriatic Acid, Up to 30% HIC 140 Phenol NR

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Naphta ** Phenylhydrazine NR
Naphthalene NR Phenylhdrazine Hydrochloride NR
n-Heptane NR Phosgene, Liquid NR
Natural Gas 140 Phosgene, Gas NR
Nickel Acetate 73 Phosphoric Acid, 10% 140
Nickel Chloride 140 Phosphoric Acid, 50% 140
Nickel Nitrate 140 Phosphoric Acid, 85% 140
Nickel Sulfate 140 Phosphoric Anhydride 73
Nicotine 140 Phosphorous Pentoxide 73
Nicotinic Acid 140 Phosphorous, Red 73
Nitric Acid, 10% 140 Phosphorus Trichloride NR
Nitric Acid, 30% 140 Phosphorus, Yellow 73
Nitric Acid, 40% 140 Photographic Solutions 140
Nitric Acid, 50% 73 Phthalic Acid, 10% 73
Nitric Acid, 70% 73 Picric Acid NR
Nitric Acid, 100% NR Pine Oil **
Nitric Acid, Fuming NR Planting Solutions, Brass 140
Nitrobenzene NR Planting Solutions, Cadmium 140
Nitroglycerine NR Planting Solutions, Chrome 140
Nitrous Acid 10% 140 Planting Solutions, Copper 140
Nitrous Oxide 73 Planting Solutions, Gold 140
Nitroglycol NR Planting Solutions, Indium 140
Nonionic Surfactants 140 Planting Solutions, Lead 140
1-Octanol ** Planting Solutions, Nickel 140
Ocenol ** Planting Solutions, Rhodium 140
Oils and Fats 140 Planting Solutions, Silver 140
Oils, Edible ** Planting Solutions, Tin 140
Oils, Vegetable ** Planting Solutions, Zinc 140
Oils, Sour Crude ** Polyethylene Glycol **
Oleic Acid 140 Polypropylene Glycol **
Oleum NR Potash 140
Olive Oil 140 Potassium Acetate **
Oxalic Acid (Sat'd) ** Potassium Alum 140
Oxalic Acid, 20% 140 Potassium Aluminum Sulfate 140
Oxalic Acid, 50% 140 Potassium Amyl Xanthate 73
Potassium Bicarbonate 140 Silver Chloride **
Potassium Bichromate 140 Silver Cyanide 140
Potassium Bisulfate 140 Silver Nitrate 140
Potassium Borate 140 Silver Sulfate 140
Potassium Bromate 140 Soaps 140
Potassium Bromide 140 Sodium Acetate 140
Potassium Carbonate 140 Sodium Aluminate 140
Potassium Chlorate 140 Sodium Alum 140
Potassium Chloride 140 Sodium Arsenate 140
Potassium Chromate 140 Sodium Benzoate 140
Potassium Cyanide 140 Sodium Bicarbonate 140

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Potassium Dichromate 140 Sodium Bichromate 140
Potassium Ethyl Xanthate 73 Sodium Bisulfate 140
Potassium Ferricyanide 140 Sodium Bisulfite 140
Potassium Ferrocyanide 140 Sodium Borate 140
Potassium Fluoride 140 Sodium Bromide 140
Potassium Hydroxide 140 Sodium Carbonate 140
Potassium Hydroxide, 50% 140 Sodium Chlorate 73
Potassium Hypochlorite 140 Sodium Chloride 140
Potassium Iodine 73 Sodium Chlorite NR
Potassium Nitrate 140 Sodium Chromate **
Potassium Perborate 140 Sodium Cyanide 140
Potassium Perchlorate, (Sat'd) 140 Sodium Dichromate 140
Potassium Permanganate, 10% 140 Sodium Ferricyanide 140
Potassium Permanganate, 25% 73 Sodium Ferrocyanide 140
Potassium Persulphate, (Sat'd) 140 Sodium Fluoride 140
Potassium Phosphate ** Sodium Formate **
Potassium Sulfate 140 Sodium Hydroxide, 15% 140
Potassium Sulfite 140 Sodium Hydroxide, 30% 140
Potassium Tripolyphosphate ** Sodium Hydroxide, 50% 140
Propane 140 Sodium Hydroxide, 70% 140
Propanol, Up to 0.5% ** Sodium Hypobromite **
Propanol, Over 0.5% ** Sodium Hypochlorite, 15% 73
Propargyl Alcohol 140 Sodium Hypochlorite (Set's) 73
Propionic Acid, Up to 2% ** Sodium Iodine 140
Propionic Acid, Over 2% ** Sodium Metaphosphate 140
Propyl Alcohol 140 Sodium Nitrate 140
Propylene Dichloride NR Sodium Nitrite 140
Propylene Glycol, Up to 25% 140 Sodium Palmitrate Solution, 5% 140
Propylene Glycol, Up to 50% 140 Sodium Perborate 140
Propylene Oxide NR Sodium Perchlorate 140
Pyridine NR Sodium Peroxide 140
Pyrogallicia Acid 73 Sodium Phosphate, Alkaline 140
Quinone ** Sodium Phosphate, Acid 140
Quaternary Ammonium Salts ** Sodium Phosphate, Neutral 140
Rayon Coagulating Bath 140 Sodium Silicate 140
Salicylic Acid 140 Sodium Sulfate 140
Sea Water 140 Sodium Sulfide 140
Selenic Acid 140 Sodium Sulfite 140
Silicic Acid 140 Sodium Thiosulfate 140
Silicone Oil 73 Sodium Tripolyphosphate **
Solicylaldehyde NR Titanium Tetrachloride **
Sour Crude Oil 140 Toluene, Toluol NR
Soybean Oil ** Toluene-Kerosene, 25%-75% NR
Stannic Chloride 140 Tomato Juice 140
Stannous Chloride 140 Toxaphene-Xylene, 90%-100% NR
Stannous Sulfate ** Transformer Oil 140

Maximum Maximum
Chemical Chemical
Starch 140 Transformer Oil, DTE/30 **
Stearic Acid 140 Tribute **
Stoddard's Solvent NR Tributyl Citrate 73
Strontium Chloride ** Tributyl Phosphate NR
Styrene ** Trichloroacetic Acid 140
Succinic Acid 140 Trichloroethane NR
Sugar 140 Trichloroethylene NR
Sulfamic Acid NR Triethanolamine 73
Sulfate Liquors 140 Triethylamine 140
Sulfite Liquors 140 Triethylpropane 73
Sulfur 140 Trisodium Phosphate 140
Sulfur Chloride ** Turpentine 140
Sulfur Dioxide, Dry 140 Urea 140
Sulfur Dioxide, Wet 73 Urine 140
Sulfur Trioxide 140 Vaseline NR
Sulfur Trioxide, Gas 73 Vegetable Oil 140
Sulfur Acid, 10% 140 Vinegar 140
Sulfur Acid, 20% 140 Vinegar, White 140
Sulfur Acid, 30% 140 Vinyl Acetate NR
Sulfur Acid, 50% 140 Water 140
Sulfur Acid, 60% 140 Water, Acid Mine 140
Sulfur Acid, 70% 140 Water, Deionized 140
Sulfur Acid, 80% 140 Water, Demineralized 140
Sulfur Acid, 90% 73 Water, Distilled 140
Sulfur Acid, 94% NR Water, Potable 140
Sulfur Acid, 98% NR Water, Salt 140
Sulfur Acid, 100% NR Water, Sea 140
Sulfurous Acid NR Water, Sewage 140
Tall Oil 140 Water, Swimming pool 140
Tannic Acid, 10% 140 WD 40 **
Tannic Acid, 30% ** Whiskey 140
Tanning Liquors 140 White Liquor 140
Tar NR Wines 140
Tartaric Acid 140 Xylene NR
Terpenes ** Zinc Acetate **
Tetraethyl Lead 73 Zinc Bromide 140
Tetrahydrodurane NR Zinc Carbonate **
Tetrahydrofuran NR Zinc Chloride 140
Tetralin NR Zinc Nitrate 140
Tetra Sodium Pyrophosphate 140 Zinc Oxide **
Texanol ** Zinc Phosphate **
Thionyl Chloride NR Zinc Stearate **
Thread Cutting Oils 73 Zinc Sulfate 140
Source: Adapted from Charlotte Pipe, IPEX, NIBCO, and Plastic Pipe Institute data

APPENDIX D: PVC PIPING
FRICTION-LOSS TABLES
Source: Adapted from Charlotte Pipe Data
Appendix D: PVC Piping Friction-Loss Tables - 161

162 - Appendix D: PVC Piping Friction-Loss Tables

Appendix D: PVC Piping Friction-Loss Tables - 163

164 - Appendix D: PVC Piping Friction-Loss Tables

APPENDIX E: PARTIAL LISTING
OF FIRE STOP INSTALLATIONS
Source: PPFA’s “Firestopping Plastic Pipe in Fire Resistive Construction”
Wall Penetration – 2 Hour Rating
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION INFORMATION
PRODUCT(S) PENETRATING ITEM(S) HOLE ANNULAR ADDITIONAL INSTALLATION BACKING ASTM E 814
SIZE SPACING MATERIALS AND AIDS MATERIAL RATING
FILL MIN. WIRE STEELE

OTHER TYPE SIZE INSULATION MAX. MIN. MAX. OTHER TYPE DEPTH T F
MAT’L THICK. MESH SLEEVE
caulk 3/4" none PVC/CPVC up to none 3 5/8" 5/8" 5/8" none none none Foam N/A 1 1/2 2
both SCH 40 2" backer
sides closed/open rod
PEX up to
SDR 9 1"
These instructions are for the installation of through-penetration fire stop system in a
minimum 5" thick steel or wood stud fire rated gypsum wallboard partitions as listed by
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Refer to above drawings and System Configuration
Information for component details.
1. Clean all hole, pipe and insulation surfaces in penetration area to remove loose debris,
dirt, oil, wax, grease, old caulking, and the like.
2. Install backing material by firmly packing annular space with foam backer rod from both
sides of wall. Recess backing material at least 3/4" in from both sides of wall to
accommodate the required fill depth of caulk.
3. Gun, trowel and/or pump firestopping sealant to minimum 3/4" depth on both sides of
wall. Trowel sealant surfaces flush with wall surfaces and to a smooth defect-free finish.
Appendix E: Partial Listing of Fire Stop Installations - 165

Floor Penetration – 1 Hour Rating

caulk 1/4" none PVC, ABS up to none 4 3/4" 0" 1/4" none none none none N/A N/A 1
top (foam or 4"
Max. solid core) I.D.
Extent SCH 40 up to
bottom CPVC 1"
SDR17 PEX
(or heavier),
closed or
vented
These instructions are for the installation of through-penetration fire stop system in a wood
floor/ceiling and chase wall construction as listed in the individual L500 floor designs and
U300 wall designs, respectively by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Refer to above drawings
and System Configuration Information for component details.
1. Cut hole in wood floor and top plates to required size to accommodate pipe penetration
and allowable annular spacing. Do not exceed maximum specified hole diameter.
2. Install up to 4" I.D. ABS, PVC or CPVC (foam or solid core) vented (DWV) or closed
(pressure) pipe or up to 1" I.D. PEX tubing. Support pipe rigidly on both sides of
floor/ceiling.
3. Gun, trowel and/or pump sealant to a 1/4" depth in annular space of penetration(s) on
top of wood floor and a 3/8" bead at all zero annular spaces. Trowel sealant surfaces
flush with floor surface and to a smooth defect-free finish.
166 - Appendix E: Partial Listing of Fire Stop Installations

4. Gun, trowel and/or pump sealant to a maximum extent depth in the annular space of
wood plates and 3/8" bead at all zero annular spaces. Trowel sealant surfaces flush with
bottom of top plates and to a smooth defect-free finish.
Wall Penetration – 1 Hour Rating

caulk Max. none PVC/CPVC up to none 3 5/8" 5/8" 5/8" none none none none N/A 1 1
extent SCH 40 2"
closed/open up to
PEX 1"
SDR 9
1. Clean all hole, pipe and insulation surfaces in penetration area to remove loose debris,
dirt, oil, wax, grease, old caulking, and the like.
2. Gun, trowel and/or pump firestopping sealant to the max. extent in the annular space
on both sides of wall. Trowel sealant surfaces flush with wall surfaces and to a smooth
defect-free finish. Apply 1/2" diameter caulking bead around perimeter of pipe on both
sides of wall and tool smooth.

Wall Penetration – 1 or 2 Hour Rating

pipe none none ABS or up to none 5" 1/4" 1/4" none none minimum none N/A 0 2 or 1
collar PVC/CPVC 4" For For 1 7/8"
(foam or I.D. pipe pipe laminating
solid core) 3" or 3" or screws
SCH 40 less less
(or heavier), 0" 1/2"
closed or
vented
1. Cut hole in gypsum wallboard in required size to accommodate pipe penetration and
allowable annular spacing. Do not exceed maximum specified hole diameter.
2. Install up to 4" I.D. ABS or PVC/CPVC(foam or solid core) vented (DWV) or closed
(pressure) pipe. Support pipe rigidly on both sides of wall.
3. Clean all hole and pipe surfaces in penetration area to remove loose debris, dirt, oil, wax,
grease, old caulking, and the like.
4. Install appropriate size Pipe Collar for corresponding plastic pipe diameter on both sides
of wall. Secure collar in place through anchor tabs with minimum 1 7/8" gypsum
laminating screws.

Wall Penetration – 1 or 2 Hour Rating

Wrap 1" none ABS or up to none 3" 5/16" 5/16" none none none none N/A 0 2 or 1
Strip both PVC/CPVC 2"I. D.
sides pipe, up to
SCH 40 1"
(or heavier)
closed/vented
PEX SDR 9
2. Tightly wrap 1 layer of 1" wide Wrap Strip around pipe and secure with tie wire. Recess
into annular space such that 1/4" extends beyond the surface of the wall on each side.


pipe none none ABS or Up to none 5" 0" 1/2" none none 1/4"x1 1/4" none N/A 3 3
collar PVC/CPVC 4” I.D. concrete
(foam or anchor
solid core) screws
SCH 40
(or heavier),
closed or
vented
minimum 4 1/2" thick lightweight or normal weight (100-150 pcf) concrete or hollow-core
floors as listed by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Refer to above drawings and System
Configuration Information for component details.
1. Cut hole in concrete floor in required size to accommodate pipe penetration and
allowable annular spacing. Do not exceed maximum specified hole diameter.
2. Install up to 4" I.D. ABS or PVC/CPVC(foam or solid core) vented (DWV) or closed
(pressure) pipe. Support pipe rigidly on both sides of floor.
4. Install appropriate size Pipe Collar for corresponding plastic pipe diameter on bottom
side of floor. Secure collar in place through anchor tabs with 1/4"x1 1/4" TapConTM
concrete anchor screws.


pipe None none ABS or 3" or none 5" 1/4" 1/4" none none minimum none N/A 2 2
collar PVC/CPVC 4" 1 1/4"
& (foam or I.D. wood
1000 1/4" solid core) screws
SCH 40
(or heavier),
closed or
vented
floor/ceiling construction as listed by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Refer to above
drawings and System Configuration Information for component details.
2. Install 3"or 4 " I.D. ABS or PVC/CPVC(foam or solid core) vented (DWV) or closed
(pressure) pipe. Support pipe rigidly on both sides of floor/ceiling.
3. Gun, trowel and/or pump sealant to a 1/4" depth in annular space on top of wood
floor. Trowel sealant surfaces flush with floor surface and to a smooth defect-free finish.
4. Install appropriate size Pipe Collar for corresponding plastic pipe diameter on bottom
side of wood plates. Secure collar in place through anchor tabs with 1 1/4" wood screws
in conjunction with 1/4" x 5/8" washers.


wrap 1" none ABS or up to none 6" 1/2" 3/4" none none none none N/A 2 2
strips PVC/CPVC 4" I.D. (Plates) (Plates)
& (foam or
caulk 1/4" solid core) up to 5" 1/4" 1/4"
SCH 40 1" (Ply- (Ply-
(or heavier), wood) wood)
closed/vented
PEX SDR 9
floor/ceiling construction as listed by Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Refer to above
drawings and System Configuration Information for component details.
2. Install up to 4 " I.D. ABS or PVC/CPVC(foam or solid core) vented (DWV) or closed
(pressure) or up to 1" Crosslinked Polyethylene (pressure) pipe. Support pipe rigidly on
both sides of floor/ceiling.
3. Gun, trowel and/or pump sealant to a 1/4" depth in annular space on top of wood
floor. Trowel sealant surfaces flush with floor surface and to a smooth defect-free finish.
4. Tightly wrap 3 layers of 1" wide Wrap Strip around pipe from bottom side of top plates
and recess into annular space flush with bottom surface of top plates. For pipes less than
3", use 2 layers of 1" wide wrap strips.

APPENDIX F: CONVERSION
CHARTS & USEFUL FORMULAS
Source: Adapted from IPEX, Inc. and NIBCO, Inc.
Charts
Table E-l Pipe Capacity
Table E-2 Weights of Water
Table E-3 Decimal & Millimeter Equivalents of Fractions
Table E-4 Volume Conversion
Table E-5 Pressure Conversion
Table E-6 Flow Conversion
Table E-7 Temperature Conversion
Table E-8 Length Conversion
Table E-9 Area Conversion
Table E-10 Weight Conversion
Table E-11 Density Conversion
Table E-12 Energy Conversion
Table E-13 Power Conversion
Table E-14 Dimensions, Weights, & Pressure Ratings for PVC Pipe
Formulas
 Area of a Circle
 Circumference of a Circle
 Length of Circular Arc
 Area of Circle Sector
 Equation of a Circle (cartesian coordinates)
 Equation of a Line (quadratic formula)
 Basic Trigonometric Functions
 Area of an Ellipse
 Circumference of an Ellipse
 Area of a Triangle
 Area of a Trapezdid
 Area of a Parallelogram
 Surface Area of a Sphere
 Volume of a Sphere
 Surface Area of a Cylinder
 Volume of a Cylinder
 Surface Area of an Elliptical Tank
 Volume of an Elliptical Tank
 Surface Area of a Cone
 Volume of a Cone
 Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid
 Volume of a Rectangular Solid
Appendix F: Conversion Charts & Useful Formulas - 173

Charts
Table E-l. Pipe Capacity
Table E-2. Weights of Water
174 - Appendix F: Conversion Charts & Useful Formulas

Table E-3. Decimal & Millimeter Equivalents of Fractions
Table E-4. Volume Conversion

Table E-5. Pressure Conversion

Table E-6. Flow Conversion

Table E-7. Temperature Conversion
Table E-8. Length Conversion
Table E-9. Area Conversion

Table E-10. Weight Conversion
Table E-11. Density Conversion
Table E-12. Energy Conversion

Table E-13. Power Conversion

Table E-14. Dimensions, Weights, & Pressure Ratings for PVC Pipe

Table E-14. Dimensions, Weights, & Pressure Ratings for PVC Pipe (cont.)

Formulas

GLOSSARY OF PLASTIC AND
PIPING TERMINOLOGY
Definitions shown are from industry literature sources including the Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association,
“Plastic Piping Systems” authored by David A. Chasis and others.
Abrasion: Wear or scour by hydraulic traffic.
Abutment: A wall supporting the end of a bridge or span, and sustaining the pressure of
the abutting earth.
Acceptance test: An investigation performed on an individual lot of a previously qualified

product, by or under the observation of, the purchaser to establish conformity with a
purchase agreement.
Acid vent: A pipe venting an acid waste system.
Acid waste: A pipe that conveys liquid waste matter having a pH of 6.9 or less.
Acme Thread: A screw thread, the profile of which is between the square and V threads,
used extensively for feed screws. The included angle between the flanks of the thread is 29°
as compared to 60° for the unified thread.
Acrylonitrile- butadiene-styrene (ABS) pipe and fitting plastics: Plastics containing

polymers and/or blends of polymers, in which the minimum butadiene content is 6%, the
minimum acrylonitrile content is 15%, the minimum styrene and/or substituted styrene
content is 15%, and the maximum content of all other monomers is not more than 5%: they
also contain lubricants, stabilizers, and colorants.
Adapter fitting: (1) Any of various fittings designed to mate or to fit to each other two
pipes or fittings that are different in design, when connecting the two together would
otherwise not be possible. (2) A fitting that serves to connect two different tubes or pipes to
each other, such as copper tube to iron pipe.
Additive: A substance added in a small amount for a special purpose such as to reduce
friction, corrosion, and the like.
Adhesive: A substance capable of holding materials together by surface attachment.
Aerial sewer: An unburied sewer (generally sanitary type) supported on pedestals or bents
to provide a suitable grade line.
Aging: The effect of exposing plastics to the environment for a length of time. The
specific effect and degree of aging depend on the moisture, temperature, and composition of
the environment in addition to the length of exposure.
Glossary of Plastic and Piping Terminology - 185

Air vent: Small outlets for preventing gas entrapment.
Ambient temperature: The prevailing temperature in the immediate vicinity, or the

temperature of the medium surrounding an object.
Anchor: A device used to fasten or secure pipes to the building or structure.
Angle of bend: In a pipe, the angle between radial lines from the beginning and end of the
bend to the center.
Angle of Repose: The angle which the sloping face of a bank of loose earth, gravel, or
other material, makes with the horizontal.
Anhydrous: Free of water, especially water of crystallization.
Annulus or Annuli: The gap between the penetrating item and the outside edge of the
hole (fire stops).
Antioxidant: A compounding ingredient added to a plastic composition to retard the

degradation of the plastics’ properties caused by contact with oxygen (aid), particularly at or
exposure to high temperatures.
Artificial weathering: The exposure of plastics to cyclic laboratory conditions involving

changed in temperature, relative humidity, and ultraviolet radiant energy, with or without
direct water spray, in an attempt to produce changes in the material similar to those
observed after long-term continuous outdoor exposure. (Note: The laboratory exposure
conditions are usually intensified beyond those encountered in actual out-door exposure in
an attempt to achieve an accelerated effect. This definition does not involve exposure to
special conditions such as ozone, salt spray, industrial gages, and the like.)
Backer Rod: A cylindrical polyurethane or polyethylene foam material used to provide

support and set the proper depth of material for gunned or troweled in place sealant (fire
stops).
Backfill: That portion of the trench excavation that is replaced after the buried pipe line has
been laid with the material above the pipe (up to the original earth line).
Backfill Density: Percent compaction for pipe backfill (required or expected).
Backing Material: Combustible or noncombustible material used to provide support for

gunned or troweled in sealant or caulk.
Ball check valve: A device used to stop the flow of media in one direction while allowing
flow in the opposite direction. The closure member used is spherical or ball shaped.
186 - Glossary of Plastic and Piping Terminology

Ball valve: A valve with a ball-shaped disk with a hole through the center of the ball,
providing straight-through flow. A quarter-turn of the handle fully opens or closed the valve
for quick shut off.
Base (course): A layer of specified or selected material of planned thickness, constructed

on the subgrade (natural foundation) or subbase for the purpose of distributing load,
providing drainage or upon which a wearing surface or a drainage structure is placed.
Baume gravity: Arbitrary scale for measuring the density of liquids: the unit used is the
“Baume” (Be) degree. The scale uses an inverse ration of the specific gravity (sp. Fr.) scale:
140
sp. gr. = ______________
130 + Be degree
(for liquids lighter than water)

145
sp. gr. = ______________
145 - Be degree
(for liquids heavier than water)
This permits the translation of Baume gravity to specific gravity. For instance, when floated
in pure water, the Baume hydrometer indicated 10o Be, while the specific gravity scale reads
1.00. The Baume scale is employed by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards for all liquids
except oils.
Beam loading: The application of a load to a pipe between two points of support; it is
usually expressed in pounds and the distance between the centers of supports.
Bedding: The earth or other material on which a pipe or conduit is supported.
Bell and spigot joints: One side of the fitting or pipe is belled or socket; the other end is
plain-ended pipe.
Bell end: The enlarged portion of a pipe that resembles the socket portion of a fitting and
that is intended to make a joint by inserting a piece of pipe into it. Joining may be
accomplished by solvent cements, adhesives, or mechanical techniques.
Berm: The space between the toe of a slope and excavation made for Bedding – The earth
or other material on which a pipe or conduit is supported.
Binder: The part of adhesive composition responsible for adhesive forces.
Biological Corrosion: Corrosion that results from a reaction between the Pipe material
and organisms such as bacterial, algae, and fungi.

Blister: The elevated part of the surface of a plastic caused by trapped air, moisture, solvent;
it can be caused by insufficient adhesive, inadequate curing time, or excessive temperature or
pressure.
Bond: The attachment at the interface or exposed surfaces between an adhesive and an
adherent; to attach materials together with adhesives.
Branch: Any part of a piping system other than a main, riser, or stack.
Branch interval: A length of soil or waste stack corresponding in general to a story height-
but in no case less than 8 ft (2.4 m) – within which the horizontal branches from one floor
or story of a building are connected to the stack.
Branch tee: A tee having one side branch.
Branch vent: A vent connecting one or more individual vents with a vent stack or stack
vent.
British thermal unit (Btu): The quantity of energy needed to heat one pound of water
from 59o F to 60o F at a standard barometric pressure: 1 Btu = 0.252 kcal = 0.000293 kWh.
Brittleness Temperature: Temperature at which 50% of the tested specimens will fail
when subjected to an impact blow.
Bubble tight: The condition of a valve seat that, when closed, prohibits the leakage of
visible bubbles.
Building Sewer: The conduit that connects building wastewater sources to the public or
street sewer, including lines serving homes, public buildings, commercial establishments, and
industrial structures. The building sewer is referred to in two sections: (1) the section
between the building line and the property line, frequently specified and supervised by
plumbing or housing officials; and (2) the section between the property line and the street
sewer, including the connection thereto frequently specified and supervised by sewer, public
works, or engineering officials (Referred to also as “house sewer,” “building connection,)’
“service connection,” or “lateral connection”).
Bulk density: Density of a molding material in loose form, such as granular of nodular, in
units of g/cm3 or lb/ft3.
Bulkhead fitting: A fitting fixed to a vessel wall that allows fluids to flow through the wall
and adapts pipe or tubing to the vessel. One end is usually smooth (inside vessel), and the
other end is usually threaded.
Bull head tee: A tee, the branch of which is larger than the run.

Burst pressure: The pressure that can be applied slowly to a valve, fitting, or pipe at room
temperature for 30 sec without causing rupture.
Burst strength: The internal pressure required to break a pipe or fitting. This pressure will
vary with the rate of buildup of the pressure and the time during which the pressure is
maintained.
Bushing: A fitting used to connect a pipe to a female fitting of a larger size.
Butt Fusion: A method of joining thermoplastic pipes wherein the ends of the two pieces
to be joined are heated to the molten state and then quickly pressed together.
Butt weld joint: A welded pipe joint made with the ends of the two pipes butting each
other.
Butterfly valve: A device deriving its name from the winglike action of the disk, which
operates at right angles to the flow. The disk impinges on the resilient seal with low
operating torque.
By-pass: An auxiliary loop in a pipeline that divers flow around a valve or other piece of
equipment.
By-pass valve: Valve by which the flow or liquid or gas in a system may be directed past
some part of the system through which it normally flows (e.g., an oil filter in a lubrication
system).
Caisson: A watertight box or cylinder used in excavating for foundations or tunnel pits to
hold out water so concreting or other construction can be carried on.
Camber: Rise or crown of the center of a bridge, or Bowline through a culvert, above a
straight line through its ends.
Capacity: The maximum or minimum flow obtainable under given conditions of media,
temperature, pressure, velocity, and the like. Also, the volume of media that may be stored
in a container or receptacle.
Capillary: The action by which the surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid, is
elevated or depressed depending on the relative attraction of the molecules of the liquid for
each other and for those of the solid.
Cathode: The electrode of an electrolytic cell at which reduction is the principal reaction
(Electrons flow toward the cathode in the external circuit). Typical cathodic processes are
cations taking up electron and being discharged, oxygen being reduced, and the reduction of
an element or group of elements from a higher to a lower valence state.
Cathodic Corrosion: An unusual condition (especially with Al, Zn, Pb) in which corrosion
is accelerated at the cathode because the cathodic reaction creates an alkaline condition that
is corrosive to certain metals.

Cathodic Protection: Preventing corrosion of a pipeline by using special cathodes (and
anodes) to circumvent corrosive damage by electric current. Also a function of zinc coatings
on iron and steel drainage products - galvanic action.
Cavitation: Formulation and sudden collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquid; usually resulting
from local low pressures - as on the trailing edge of a propeller; this develops momentary
high local pressure.
Cell Classification: Method of identifying thermoplastic materials, such as Polyvinyl

Chloride, as specified by ASTM, where the Cell Classification is based on these six
properties for PVC are: Density, Melt Index, Flexural Modulus, Tensile Strength at Yield,
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance, and Hydrostatic Design Basis.
Cement: A dispersion of “solution” of unvulcanized rubber or a plastic in a volatile solvent.

This meaning is peculiar to the plastics and rubber industries and may or may not be an
adhesive composition. (See also Adhesive and Solvent cement.)
Centipoise: Unit of absolute viscosity; it equals one hundredth of a poise.
Centistoke: Unit of kinematic viscosity; it equals one hundredth of a stoke. Kinematic

viscosity in centistokes multiplied by the specific gravity equals absolute viscosity in
centipoises.
Char: A grayish black, crusty material formed by burning organic type sealants (fire stops).
Chase: A recess in a wall in which pipes can be run.
Check valve: Device that permits flow in only one direction in pipeline.
Chemical waste system: Piping that conveys corrosive or harmful industrial, chemical, or
processed wastes to the drainage system.
Chemical resistance: (1) The effect of specific chemicals on the properties of plastic
piping with respect to concentration, temperature, and time of exposure. (2) The ability of a
specific plastic pipe to render service for a useful period in the transport of a specific
chemical at a specified concentration and temperature.
Circuit vent: A branch vent that serves two or more traps and extends from in front of the
last fixture connection of a horizontal branch to the vent stack.
Classification: A series of procedures, usually administered by an independent testing

laboratory, by which the consumer is protected and assured that the product that was tested
is the same as the product purchased.
Cleaner: Medium strength organic solvent such as methylethyl ketone used to remove
foreign matter from plastic pipe and fitting joint surfaces.

Cleanout: A plug or cover joined to an opening in a pipe that can be removed to clean or
examine the interior of the pipe.
Close nipple: A nipple twice as long as a standard pipe thread.
Closed System: A piping system that is sealed, typically carrying fluids under pressure, such
as hot and cold water distribution.
Coefficient of expansion: The increase in unit length, area, or volume for a unit rise in
temperature.
Cohesion: The molecular attraction that holds the body of a sealant or adhesive together.
The internal strength of an adhesive or sealant (fire stops).
Cohesive Failure: Failure characterized by rupture within the sealant adhesive or coating
(fire stops).
Cold Bend: To force the pipe into a curvature without damage, using no special tools,
equipment or elevated temperatures.
Cold flow (see Creep).
Collector Sewer: A sewer located in the public way collects the wastewater’s discharged
through building sewers and conducts such flows into larger interceptor sewers and
treatment works. (Referred to also as “street sewer.”)
Combined Sewer: A sewer intended to serve as both a sanitary sewer and a storm sewer,
or as both an industrial sewer and a storm sewer.
Combined waste and vent system: A specially designed system of waste piping,
embodying the horizontal wet venting of one or more floor sinks or floor drains by means
of a common waste and vent pipe, adequately sized to provide free movement of air above
the flow line of the drain.
Combustion: Burning or rapid oxidation.
Common vent: A vent that connects at the junction of two fixture drains and serves as a
vent for both fixtures. Also, known as a dual vent.
Compaction: The densification of a soil by means of mechanical manipulation.
Companion flange: A pipe flange used to connect with another pipe flange or with a
flanged valve or fitting. It is attached to the pipe by threads, welding, or other methods and
differs from a flange that is an integral part of a pipe or fitting.
Compatibility: The capability of two or more materials when placed in contact or close
proximity with one another to maintain their usual physical or chemical properties, or both.

Composite Pipe: Pipe consisting of two or more different materials arranged with specific
functional purpose to serve as pipe.
Compound: The admixture of a polymer or polymers with other ingredients such as fillers,
softeners, plasticizers, catalysts, pigments, dyes, curing agents, stabilizers, or antioxidants.
Compression fitting: A fitting designed to join a pipe or tube by means of pressure or

friction.
Compression joint: A multipiece joint with cup-shaped threaded nuts, which, when
tightened, compress tapered sleeves so that they form a tight joint on the periphery of the
tubing they connect.
Compression strength: The crushing load at failure of an item divided by the number of
square inches of resisting surface. (Figures are given in thousands of pounds.)
Concentric: Having a common center; a pipe centered in the middle of a through-

penetration hole results in a concentric annulus (fire stops).
Condensate: Water that has liquefied from steam.
Conductivity: A measure of the ability of a solution to carry an electrical current.

Conductivity varies both with the number and type of ions the solution carries.
Continuous vent: A vent that is a continuation of the drain to which it connects.
Continuous waste: A drain from two or three fixtures connected to a single trap.
Control valve: Variable opening valve used with a control instrument to maintain a
predetermined flow rate, pressure, temperature, or level. The valve can be electric,
electrohydraulic, or air operated.
Copolymer: Formed form two or more monomers. (See also Polymer).
Corrosion: The destruction of a material or its properties because of a reaction with its
(environment) surroundings.
Corrosion Rate: The speed (usually an average) with which corrosion progresses (it may be
linear for a while); often expressed as though it was linear, in units of mdd (milligrams per
square decimeter per day) for weight change, or mpy (milligrams per year) for thickness
changes.
Corrosion-erosion: Corrosion which is increased because of the abrasive action of a

moving stream; the presence of suspended particles greatly accelerates abrasive action.
Collar: A galvanized sheet metal restricting device used in conjunction with plastic pipe. Its
function is to direct and control the intumescent action of the fires stopping material (fire
stops).

Corrosion: Deterioration in metals caused by oxidation or chemical action.
Creep: The dimensional change, with time, of a material under continuously applied stress
after the initial elastic deformation. The time dependent part of strain due to a constant
stress.
Cross: A pipe fitting with four branches in pairs, each pair on one axis, and the axes at right
angles.
Cross-linking: Generation of chemical linkages between long-chain molecules; cross-

linking can be compared to two straight chains joined together by links. The rigidity of the
material increases with the number of links. The function of a monomer is to provide these
links.
Cross-over: A fitting with a double offset-shaped like the letter “U” with the ends turned
out-used to pass the flow of one pipe past another when the pipes are in the same plane.
Crown: That part of the trap in which the direction of flow is changed from upward to
downward.
Crown vent: A vent pipe connected at the topmost point in the crown of a trap.
Dead end: A branch leading from a soil, waste, or vent pipe; building (house) drain; or
building (house) sewer that is terminated at a developed distance of 2 ft (0.6 m) or more by
means of a plug or other closed fitting.
Deflection temperature: The temperature at which a specimen will deflect a given distance
at a given load under prescribed conditions of test (formerly called heat distortion).
Degradation: Deleterious change in a plastic’s chemical structure.
Destiny: Mass of a fluid per unit volume.
Deterioration: Permanent adverse change in the physical properties of a plastic.
Developed length: The length along the center line of the pipe and fittings.
Dew point: The temperature at which liquid first condenses when a vapor is cooled.
Diameter: Unless specifically stated, the nominal diameter as designated commercially.
Diaphragm: A flexible disk used to separate the control medium form the controlled
medium; it actuates the valve stem.
Diaphragm valve: A valve used for controlling flow by a flexible elastometric disk.

Diffusion: The movement of a material, such as a gas or liquid, in the body of a plastic. If
the gas or liquid is absorbed on one side of a piece of plastic and given off on the other side,
the phenomenon is called permeability. Diffusion and permeability are not due to holes or
pores in the plastic, but are caused and controlled by chemical mechanisms.
Dimension ratio: The diameter of a pipe divided by the wall thickness. Each pipe can
have two dimension ratios depending on whether the pipe’s outside or inside diameter is
used. In practice, the outside diameter is used if the standards requirement and
manufacturing control are based on this diameter. The inside diameter is used when this
measurement is the controlling one.
Disk: The part of a valve that actually closes off the flow.
Dispersion: Heterogeneous mixture in which finely divided material is suspended in the

matrix of another material; as in the distribution of finely divided solids in a liquid or a solid
(e.g., pigments or fillers).
Displacement: The volume or weight of a fluid, such as water, displaced by a floating

body.
Double offset: Two changes of direction installed in succession or series in continuous

pipe.
Double ported valve: A valve having tow ports to overcome line pressure imbalance.
Double sweep tee: A tee made with “easy” (long-radius) curves between body and branch.
Drain: Any pipe that carries wastewater or water-borne wastes in a building drainage
system.
Drainage fitting: A type of fitting used for draining fluid from pipes. The fitting makes a
smooth and continuous interior surface for the piping system.
Dry bulb temperature: The temperature of air as measured by an ordinary thermometer.
Dual vent (see Common vent).
Ductile Failure: A failure mode that exhibits material deformation (stretching, elongation,
or necking down) in the area of the break.
Durometer hardness: A material’s hardness as measured by the Shore Durometer.
Eccentric: Off center; an eccentric annulus results when a pipe is not centered in the hole
(fire stops)
Effluent: Outflow or discharge from a sewer us sewage treatment equipment.
Elastic Modulus: A measure of the stress buildup associated with a given strain.

Elasticity: Property of materials that tends to retain or recover their original shape and size
after undergoing deformation.
Elastomer: A material under ambient conditions that can be stretched and, upon release of
the applied stress, returns with force to approximately its original size and shape.
Elevated temperature testing: Tests on plastic pipe above 23oC (73o F).
Elbow (EII): A fitting that makes an angle between adjacent pipes. The angle is 90o,
unless another angle is specified.
Elongation: (strain) The increase in length of a material stressed in tension.
Elongation: Extension produced by a tensile stress.
Embankment (or fill): A bank of earth, rock or other material constructed above the
natural ground surface.
Embrittlement: Loss of ductility of a material resulting from a chemical or physical change.
End connection: A reference to the method of connecting the parts of a piping system
(i.e., threaded, flanged, butt-weld, socket weld).
Environmental stress cracking: Cracks that develop when the material is subjected to
stress in the presence of specific chemicals.
Erosion: The gradual destruction of a material by the abrasive action of liquids, gases,
solids, or mixtures of these materials.
Exfiltration: The leakage or discharge of flows being carried by sewers out into the ground
through leaks in pipes, joints, manholes, or other sewer system structures; the reverse of
“infiltration.”
Expansion joint: Joint used in the connection of long lines of pipe; the expansion joint
contains a bellows or telescopelike section to absorb the thrust or stress resulting from
linear expansion or contraction of the line owing to changes in temperature or to accidental
forces.
Expansion loop: A large radius bend in a pipe line to absorb longitudinal thermal
expansion in the line.
Extrusion: Method of processing plastic in a continuous or extended form by forcing the

heat-softened plastic through an opening shaped like the cross section of the finished
product.

F Rating: A firestop shall be considered as meeting the requirements for an F rating when it
remains in the opening during the fire test and hose stream test within the following
limitations: The firestop shall have withstood the fire test for the rating period without
permitting the passage of flame through openings, or the occurrence of flaming on any
element of the unexposed side of the firestop. During the hose stream test, the firestop shall
not develop any opening the would permit a projection of water from the stream beyond the
unexposed side (ASTM E 814) (fires stops).
Fabricate: Method of forming a plastic into a finished article by machining, drawing, and
similar operations.
Face-to-face dimensions: The dimensions from the face of the inlet port to the face of
the outlet port of a valve or fitting.
Fatigue Strength: The stress to which a material can be subjected for a specified number
of fatigue cycles.
Female thread: Internal thread in pipe fittings, valves, and the like, for making screwed
connections.
Filler: A relatively inert material added to a plastic to modify its strength, permanence,
working properties, or other qualities, or to lower costs.
Filter: A device through which fluid is passed to separate contaminates.
Filter element: A porous device that performs filtration.
Finishing: Removal of any defects from the surfaces of plastic products.
Fire Endurance: A measure of the elapsed time during which a material or assembly
continues to exhibit fire resistance under specified conditions of test and performance. As
applied to elements of building, it shall be measured by the methods and criteria defined in
ASTM E 119 Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials (fire stops).
Fire Rated or Fire Resistance: (1) A system which has been tested by a qualified laboratory in
accordance with the appropriate ASTM test standard and has met the mechanical and
endurance requirements of that standard. (2) The property of a material or assembly to
withstand fire or give protection from it. As applied to elements of buildings, it is
characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to continue to perform a given structural
function, or both. Systems are rated for 1, 2, 3 or 4 hours, based on the results of the fire
test (fire stops).
Fire Resistance Classification: A standard rating of fire-resistance and protective

characteristics of a building construction or assembly (ASTM E 119) (fire stops).
Firestop: A through-penetration firestop is a specific combination of components or

materials that fill the opening around wall, floor or ceiling penetrating pipes and their means
of support for the purpose of preventing the spread of fire (fire stops).

Fire Test Standard: Fire test standards are procedures intended to measure and describe
the response of material, products, and systems to sources of heat or flame under controlled
conditions. These tests are intended to provide information useful for such purposes as
product development, quality control, and specification description. They are not intended
to be used alone to provide a measure of the fire hazard of materials, products or systems.
Fire test standards are separate and distinct from fire hazard standards, which are used to
describe, measure, assess or control the behavior of materials, products and systems in the
relevant environment (fire stops).
Fitting: A device or connection that allows a pipe to change direction or size.
Fixture: A device or appliance at the end of a water supply distribution pipe line.
Flammability: The time a specimen will support a flame after having been exposed to it for
a given period of time.
Flange: In pipe work, a ring plate on the end of a pipe at right angles to the end of the pipe
and provided with holes for bolts to allow fastening the pipe to a similarly equipped
adjoining pipe. The resulting joint is called a flanged joint.
Flanged ends: A valve of fitting having flanges for joining to other piping elements.
Flanged ends can be plain faced, raised face, large male and female, large tongue and groove,
small tongue and groove, or ring joint.
Flange faces: Pipe flanges that have the entire surface of the flange faced straight across
and use either a full face or ring gasket.
Flash point: Temperature at which enough of a material is vaporized to produce a flash f

burning vapor.
Flexural Modulus: The ratio, within the elastic limit, of the applied stress in the outermost
fibers of a test specimen in three point static flexure, to the calculated strain in those
outermost fibers (ASTM D 790).
Flexural strength: The pressure in pounds necessary to break a given sample when the
pressure is applied to the center of the sample that has been supported at its ends.
Flow coefficient or C: Valve coefficient of flow representing the flow rate of water in
gallons per minute that will produce a 1 psi pressure drop through the valve.
Fluorocarbon resins: Material made by the polymerization of monomers composed only

of carbon and fluorine.
Foot valve: Check valve located at the inlet end of the suction line at a pump that allows
the pump to remain full of liquid when not in service.

Forming: A process in which the shape of plastic pieces such as sheets, rods, or tubes is
changed to a desired configuration. (Note: The use of the term “forming” in plastics
technology does not include such operations as molding, casting, or extrusion, in which
shapes or pieces are made from molding materials or liquids.)
Fouling: An accumulation of deposits. This term includes accumulation and growth of

marine organisms on a submerged metal surface and also includes the accumulation of
deposits (usually inorganic) on heat exchanger tubing.
Full port valve: A valve in which the resistance to flow, in the open position, is equal to an
equivalent length of pipe.
Fungi resistance: The ability of plastic pipe to withstand fungi growth or their metabolic
products or both under normal conditions of service or laboratory tests simulating such
conditions.
Fusion point: Temperature at which solid and liquid states of a substance can exist
together in equilibrium (also called melting or freezing points).
Galvanic Cell: A cell consisting of two dissimilar metals in contact with each other and
with a common electrolyte (sometimes refers to two similar metals in contact with each
other but with dissimilar electrolytes; differences can be small and more specifically defined
as a concentration cell).
Gate valve: Valve with a sliding blank that opens to the complete cross section of the line;
used for complete opening or complete shutoff of the flow in pipes. It is not used for
throttling or control.
Glass transition temperature: The range of temperatures in which a plastic changes from
a rigid to a soft state. (Note: values will depend on the method of test. It is sometimes
referred to as softening point.)
Glass Transition Temperature: The temperature below which a plastic is more brittle and
glassy.
Globe valve: Valve used for throttling that does not have a straight-through opening.
Grade: The slope or fall of a line of pipe in reference to a horizontal plane. In drainage, it is
expressed as the fall in a fraction of an inch or percentage slope per foot (mm/m) length of
pipe.
Ground Water Table (or level): Upper surface of the zone of saturation in permeable rock
or soil. (When the upper surface is confined by impermeable rock, the water table is absent.)
Haunch: That portion of the pipe barrel extending below the pipe springline.
Haunching: Area from the bedding to the spring line of pipe. Provides the majority of
load carrying of underground pipe and also provides side support for flexible and rigid pipe.

Head (Static): The height of water above any plane or point of references (the energy
possessed by each unit of weight of a liquid, expressed as the vertical height through which a
unit of weight would have to fall to release the average energy posed). The standard inch-
pound unit of measure is feet of water. The relation between pressure in psi and feet of head
at 68°F is 1 psi = 2.310 ft of head.
Heat capacity: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a given mass by
1°. This quantity is based on either 1 mole or a unit mass of material.
Heat of fusion: Heat needed to change a quantity of solid to a liquid, without a change in
temperature.
Heat joining: Making a pipe joint by heating the edges of the parts to be joined so that
they fuse and become essentially one piece with or without additional material.
Home-run: A plumbing design that utilizes a central manifold and distribution piping to
each hot and cold water fixture.
Hoop stress: The tensile stress, usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi), in the
circumferential orientation in the wall of the pipe when the pipe contains a gas or liquid
under pressure.
Hot soils: Soils having a resistivity of less than 1000 ohm-cm; they are generally very
corrosive to base steel.
Hydraulic gradient: The amount of inclination of a drainage line between the trap outlet
and the vent connection, not exceeding one pipe diameter in this total length.
Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB): One of a series of established stress values specified in
Test Method D 2837 “Standard Test Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Basis for
Thermoplastic Pipe Materials” for a plastic compound obtained by categorizing the LTHS
determined in accordance with Test Method D 2837. HDB refers to the categorized LTHS
in the circumferential, or hoop direction, for a given set of end use conditions. Established
HDBs are listed in PPI TR-4.
Hydrostatic design stress: The estimated maximum tensile stress in the wall of the pipe in
the circumferential orientation owing to internal hydrostatic pressure that can be applied
continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will not occur.
Hydrostatic strength (quick): The hoop stress calculated by means of the ISO equation at
which the pipe breaks due to an internal pressure buildup, usually within 60-70 sec. (See also
ISO equation).
Ignition Temperature: Temperature at which the vapors emitted from a material will
ignite either without exposure to a flame (self-ignition) or when a flame is introduced (flash
ignition).

Impact, Izod: A specific type of impact test made with a pendulum-type machine. The
specimens are molded or extruded, with a machined notch in the center. (See also Izod
impact strength.)
Impact strength: Resistance, or mechanical energy absorbed by plastic part, to shocks such
as dropping and hard blows.
Impact, tup: A falling weight (tup) impact test developed specifically for pipe and fittings.
There are several variables that can be selected.
Intumesce: To swell, enlarge inflate or expand as with heat. Intumescent fire stopping
sealants swell to close gaps or voids in through-penetration openings when exposed to
high heat conditions (fire stops).
Infiltration: The water entering a sewer system, including building sewers, from the
ground, through such means as defective pipes, pipe joints, connections, or manhole walls.
Infiltration does not include, and is distinguished from inflow.
Inhibitor: Material that retards chemical reaction or curing.
Injection Molding: The process of forming a material by melting it and forcing it, under
pressure, into the cavity of a closed mold.
Interceptor Sewer: A sewer which receives the flow of collector sewers and conveys the
wastewaters to treatment facilities.
ISO equation: An equation showing the relations among stress, pressure, and dimensions
in pipe, namely,
S = P(ID + t)
2t
or P(OD – t)
2t
where S = stress
P = pressure
ID = average inside diameter
OD = average outside diameter
t = minimum wall thickness
Isobaric process: A constant-pressure process.
Isometric process: A constant-volume process.
Isothermal process: A constant-temperature process.
Izod impact strength: The resistance a notched test specimen has to a sharp blow from a
pendulum hammer. (See also Impact, Izod.)

Joint: The location at which two pieces of pipe or a pipe and a fitting are connected. The
joint may be made by a mechanical device, such as threads or ring seals, or by heat fusion
and cementing.
Load factor: The percentage of the total connected fixture unit flow that is likely to occur
at any point in the drainage system. Load factor represents the ratio of the probable load to
the potential load and is determined by the average rates of flow of the various kinds of
fixtures, the average frequency of use, the duration of flow during one use, and the number
of fixtures installed.
Long-term burst: The internal pressure at which a pipe or fitting will break due to a
constant internal pressure held for 100,000 hr (11.43 years).
Long –term hydrostatic strength: The estimated tensile stress in the wall of the pipe on
the circumferential orientation (hoop stress) that when applied continuously will cause
failure of the pipe at 100,000 hr (11.43 years). These strengths are usually obtained by
extrapolation of log-log regression equations or plots.
Lubricant: A substance used to decrease the friction between solid faces, and sometimes
used to improve processing characteristics of rubber or plastic compositions.
Manifold: A device having a series of ports that are used to connect distribution lines for
several fixtures.
Manning’s Formula: An equation for the value of coefficient c in the Chezy Formula, the
factors of which are the hydraulic radius and a coefficient of roughness: an equation itself
used to calculate flows in gravity channels and conduits.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS): A document required by law describing the health
and safety aspects of a material as it pertains to its properties, health effects, hazards,
handling and disposal.
Melting Point: That temperature at which the plastic transitions to a completely

amorphous state.
Mineral Fiber: A noncombustible insulation material made from mineral fibers. It is also
known as mineral wool or safing material. It is typically used as a backing and filler material
in through-penetrations (fire stops).
Modulus: The ration of stress to strain. Also, the tensile strength at a given elongation.
Modulus of Elasticity (E): ASTM D 638 The ratio of stress (nominal) to corresponding
strain below the proportional limit of a material.
Moment, Bending: The moment that produces bending in a beam or other structure. It is
measured by the algebraic sum of the products of all the forces multiplied by their respective
lever arms.

Modulus: The load in pounds per square inch, kilograms (force) per square centimeter, or,
in SI, the modern metric system, megapascals (Mpa) of initial cross-section area necessary to
produce a stated percentage elongation; this value is used in the physical testing of rubber or
plastics. It is a measure of stiffness, and is influenced by pigmentation, state of cure, quality
of raw rubber, and other factors. The modulus at any given elongation is shown by stress-
strain curve.
Molding, blow: Method of forming plastic articles by inflating masses of plastic material
with compressed gas.
Molding compression: Process of shaping plastic articles by placing material in a confining

mold cavity and applying pressure and usually heat.
Molding, high pressure: Molding or laminating with pressures in excess of 200 psi.
Molding, injection: Process of making plastic articles from powdered or granular plastics
by fusing the material in a chamber under pressure with heat and forcing part of the mass
into a cooler cavity where it solidifies; used primarily with thermoplastics.
Molding, low pressure: Molding or laminating with pressures below 200 psi.
Molding, transfer: Process of molding plastic articles from powered, granular, or

performed plastics by fusing the material in a chamber with heat and forcing the mass into a
hot chamber for solidification. Used primarily with thermosetting plastics.
Monomer: Reactive material that is compatible with the basic resin. Tends to lower the
viscosity of the resin. Simplest repeating structural unit of polymer.
Needle valve: Valve with a cone seat and needle-point plug to control small and accurate
flows.
Non-Pressure Pipe: Pipe designed for gravity-conveyed medium that must resist only
intermittent static pressures and does not have a pressure rating.
Non-Sag Sealant: A compound that exhibits little or no flow when applied in vertical or
inverted joints (fire stops).
Nonrigid plastic: Plastic whose apparent modulus of elasticity is not greater than 10,000
psi at room temperature in accordance with the Standard Method of Test for Stiffness in
Flexure of Plastics.
Notch Sensitivity: The extent to which an inclination to fracture is increased by a notch,

crack, scratch, or sudden change in cross-section.
Nylon plastics: Group of plastics comprised of resins that are primarily long-chain
synthetic polymeric amides. These resins have recurring amide groups as an integral part of
the principle polymer chain.

Offset: A combination of pipe, pipes, and/or fittings that join two approximately parallel
sections of the line of pipe.
Olefin plastics: Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of olefins or

copolymerization of olefins with other unsaturated compounds, the olefins being in greatest
amount by weight. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polybutylene are the most common
olefin plastics encountered as pipe.
Open System: An open system or sometimes referred to as a vented system is a piping

system which allows air flow to the exterior of the building to prevent back flow or vacuum.
Out-of-Roundness: The allowed difference between the maximum measured diameter and
the minimum measured diameter (stated as an absolute deviation).
Outdoor exposure: Plastic pipe placed in service or stored so that it is not protected from
the elements of normal weather conditions, i.e., the sun’s rays, rain, air, and wind. Exposure
to industrial and waste gases, chemicals, engine exhausts, and the like, are not considered
normal “outdoor exposure.”
Permanence: The property of a plastic that describes its resistance to appreciable changes
in characteristics with time and environment.
Permeability (see Diffusion).
pH: A scale ranging from 0 to 14 that ranks how acidic or alkaline a liquid is; fluids with a
pH below 7 is considered acidic and fluids with a pH above 7 is consider alkaline.
Pitch: The amount of slope or grade given to horizontal piping and expressed in inches of
vertically projected drop per foot (or mm/m) on a horizontally projected run of pipe.
Pitting: Highly localized corrosion resulting in deep penetration at only a few spots.
Pipe stiffness: A measure of how a flexible conduit will behave under burial conditions.
Plastic (n): A material that contains as an essential ingredient an organic substance of large
molecular weight, is solid in its finished state, and, at some state in its manufacture or in it’s
processing into finished articles, can be shaped by flow.
Plastic (adj.): The adjective plastic indicates that the noun modified is made of, consists of,
or pertains to plastic. (Note 1: This definition may be used as a separate meaning to the
definitions contained in the dictionary for the adjective “plastic.” Note 2: The plural form
may be used to refer to two or more plastic materials, for example, plastics industry.
However, when the intent is to distinguish “plastic products” from “wood products” or
“glass products,” the singular form should be used. As a general rule, if the adjective is to
restrict the noun modified with respect to type of material, “plastic” should be used; if the
adjective is to indicate that more than one type of plastic material is or may be involved,
“plastics” is permissible.)

Plastic conduit: Plastic pipe or tubing used as an enclosure for electrical wiring.
Plastic pipe: A hollow cylinder of plastic material in which the wall thickness is usually
small compared to the diameter and in which the inside and outside walls are essentially
concentric. (See also Plastic tubing.)
Plastic, semirigid: Plastic having apparent modulus of elasticity in the range of 10,000-
100,000 psi at 23°C, as determined by the Stanford Method of Test for Stiffness in Flexure
Plastics.
Plastic tubing: A particular size of plastic in which the outside diameter is essentially the
same as that of copper tubing. (See also Plastic pipe.)
Plastic welding: Joining of finished plastic components by fusing materials either with or
without the addition of plastic from another source.
Plasticate: Softening by heating or kneading.
Plasticity: Property of plastics that permits the material to undergo deformation

permanently and continuously without rupture from a force that exceeds the yield value of
the material.
Plasticize: Softening by adding a plasticizer.
Plasticizer: Material added to a plastic to increase workability and flexibility. Plasticizers

tend to lower the melt viscosity, the glass transition temperature, and or the elastic modulus.
Plough-in Piping: Installation procedure that splits the earth and pulls the pipe into
position.
Plug valve: Valve mainly used in gas service; consisting of a rotating cylindrical plug in a
cylindrical housing with an opening running through the plug.
Polybutylene: A polymer prepared by the polymerization of butane-1 as the sole monomer.

(See also Polybutylene plastics.)
Polybutylene plastics: Plastics based on polymers made with butane-1 as essentially the
sole monomer.
Polyethylene: A polymer prepared by the polymerization of ethylene as the sole monomer.

(See also Polyethylene plastics.)
Polyethylene plastics: Plastics based on polymers made with ethylene as essentially the
sole monomer. (Note: In common usage for this plastic, polyethylene plastics essentially
means no less than 85% ethylene and no less than 95% total olefins.)
Polymer: A compound formed by the reaction of simple molecules having functional

groups that permit the combination to proceed to high molecular weights under suitable

conditions. Polymers may be formed by polymerization (addition polymer) or
polycondensation (condensation polymer). When two or more monomers are involved, the
product is called a copolymer.
Polymerization: A chemical reaction in which the molecules of a monomer are linked

together to form large molecules whose molecular weight is a multiple of the original
substance. When two or more monomers are involved, the process is called
copolymerization heteropolymerization.
Polyolefin: A polymer prepared by the polymerization of an olefin(s) as the sole

monomer(s). See also Polyolefin plastics and Olefin plastics.)
Polyolefin plastics: Plastics based on the polymers made with an olefin(s) as essentially the
sole monomer(s).
Polypropylene: A polymer prepared by the polymerization of propylene as the sole

monomer. (See also Polypropylene plastics and Propylene plastics.)
Polypropylene plastics: Plastics based on polymers made with propylene as essentially the
sole monomer.
Polystyrene: A plastic based on a resin made by polymerization of styrene as the sole

monomer. (See also Styrene plastics.) (Note: Polystyrene may contain minor proportions of
lubricants, stabilizers, fillers, pigments, and dyes.)
Polyvinyl chloride: A resin prepared by the polymerization of vinyl chloride with or

without the addition of small amounts of other monomers.
Polyvinyl chloride plastics: Plastics made by combining polyvinyl chloride with colorants,
fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, other polymers, and other compounding
ingredients, other polymers, and other compounding ingredients. Not all of these modifiers
are used in pipe compounds.
Powder blend (See Dry-blend).
Pressure: When expressed with reference to pipe, the force per unit area exerted by the
medium in the pipe.
Pressure rating: The estimated maximum pressure that the medium in the pipe can exert
continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will not occur.
Pressure tubing: Tubing used to convey fluids at elevated temperatures and/or pressures.
Suitable for head applications, it is fabricated to exact outside diameter and decimal wall
thickness in sizes ranging from ½ to 6 in. outside diameter inclusive and to ASTM
specifications.
Primer: Coating that is applied to a surface before application of an adhesive, enamel, and
the like; its purpose is to improve bonding.

Propylene plastics: Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of propylene or
copolymerization of propylene with one or more unsaturated compounds, the propylene
being in greatest amount by weight.
Pump: Mechanical device for transporting liquids in pipelines; major types are centrifugal,
reciprocating, turbine, rotary, and proportioning.
Qualification test: An investigation, independent of a procurement action, performed on a

product to determine whether or not the product conforms to all requirements of the
applicable specification. (Note: The examination is usually conducted by the agency
responsible for the specification, the purchaser, or facility approved by the purchaser, at the
request of the supplier seeking inclusion of his or her product on a qualified products list.)
Quick burst: The internal pressure required to burst a pipe or fitting due to an internal
pressure buildup, usually within 60-90 sec.
Quick Burst Test: (ASTM D 1599) An internal pressure test designed to produce rupture
(bursting) of a piping component in 60-70 seconds determined in accordance with ASTM D
1599.
Reinforced plastic: According to ASTM, those plastics having superior properties over
those consisting of the base resin, owing to the presence of high-strength fillers embedded in
the composition. Reinforced fillers are usually fibers, fabrics, beads, or mats made of fibers.
Relief valve: Safety device for automatic release of fluid at a predetermined pressure.
Resin: A solid, semisolid, or pseudosolid organic material that has an indefinite and often
high molecular weight, exhibits a tendency to flow when subjected to stress, usually has a
softening or melting range, and usually fractures conchoidally (radially).
Reworked material (thermoplastic): A plastic material that has been reprocessed, after
having been previously processed by molding, extrusion, and the like, in a fabricator’s plant.
Reworked Plastic: A plastic from a manufacturer’s own production that has been
reground or pelletized for reuse by that same manufacturer.
Riser: A water supply pipe that extends vertically one or more stories to transport water to
fixtures or branches.
Roughness Coefficient: A factor in the Kutter, Manning, and other flow formulas
representing the effect of channel (or conduit) roughness upon energy tosses in the fl owing
water.
Rubber: A material that is capable of recovering from large deformations quickly and
forcibly. (See also Elastomer.)

Saddle Fitting: A fitting used to make lateral connection to a pipe in which a portion of
the fitting is contoured to match the OD of the pipe to which it is attached.
Sample: A small part or portion of a plastic material or product intended to be

representative of the whole.
Sanitary Sewer: A sewer intended to carry only sanitary and industrial wastewaters from
residences, commercial buildings, industrial parks, and institutions.
Schedule: A pipe size system (outside diameters and wall thickness) originated by the Iron
Pipe Industry.
Sealant: A material that has the adhesive and cohesive properties to form a seal (fire stops).
Sealant Backing: A compressible material placed in a joint before applying a sealant (fire
stops).
Self-extinguishing: The ability of a plastic to resist burning when the source of heat or
flame that ignited it is removed.
Self-Leveling Sealant: A compound that exhibits flow sufficient to seek gravitational

leveling (fire stops).
Service factor: A factor that is used to reduce a strength value to obtain an engineering
design stress. The factor may vary depending on the service desired and the properties of
the pipe.
Shelf life: Period of time over which a material will remain usable during storage under
specified conditions such as temperature and humidity.
Socket Fusion Joint: A joint in which the joining surfaces of the components are heated,
and the joint is made by inserting one component into the other.
Softening range: The range of temperature in which a plastic changes from a rigid to a soft
state. (Note: Actual values will depend on the method of test. It is sometimes referred to as
softening point.)
Solvent cement: In the plastic piping field, an adhesive that contains a solvent which
dissolves or softens the surfaces being bonded so that the bonded assembly becomes
essentially one piece of the same type of plastic.
Specific gravity: Weight of a unit of fluid volume.
Specimen: An individual piece or portion of a sample used to make a specific test. Specific
tests usually require specimens of specific shape and dimensions.
Spool piece: A measured length of piping usually flanged on both ends.

Stabilizer: A compounding ingredient added to a plastic composition to retard possible
degradation on exposure to high temperatures, particularly in processing. An antioxidant,
for example, is a specific kind of stabilizer.
Stack: The vertical main of a system of soil, waste, or vent piping extending through one or
more stories.
Standard dimension ratio (SDR): A selected series of numbers in which the dimension
ratios are constants for all sizes of pipe.
Standard Time/Temperature Curve: A graphical representation derived from prescribed

time-temperature relationships and used to control burn test furnace temperatures with
progressing time (fire stops).
Steel Sleeve: A form used when pouring concreted to provide space for a penetrating item.
Also may be used inside hollow construction walls to prevent firestopping materials from
entering wall cavities unnecessarily (fire stops).
Stiffness factor: A physical property of plastic pipe that indicates the degree of flexibility of
the pipe when subjected to external loads.
Strain: The ratio of the amount of deformation to the length being deformed caused by the
application of a load on piece of material.
Stress crack: An internal or external crack in a plastic caused by tensile or shear stresses
less than the short term tensile strength of the material. The development of such cracks is
frequently related to, and accelerated by the environment to which the material is exposed.
More often than not, the environment does not visibly attack, soften or dissolve the surface.
The stresses may be internal, external, or a combination of both.
Strength: The stress required to break, rupture, or cause a failure.
Street elbow: Pipe fitting with a male thread on one end and a female thread on the other
end.
Structural Sealant: A sealant capable of transferring dynamic or static loads, or both across
joint members exposed to service environments typical for the structure involved (fire
stops).
Styrene plastics: Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of styrene or

copolymerization of styrene with other unsaturated compounds, the styrene being in greatest
amount by weight.
Styrene-rubber (SR) plastics: Compositions based on rubbers and styrene plastics, the
styrene plastics being in greatest amount by weight.

Styrene-rubber (SR) pipe and fitting plastics: Plastics containing at least 50% styrene
plastics combined with rubbers and other compounding materials, but not more than 15%
acrylonitrile.
Substrate: A material upon which film, treatments, adhesives, sealants, membranes, and
coatings are applied (fire stops).
Sustained pressure test: A constant internal pressure test for 1000 hr.
T Rating: A firestop shall be considered as meeting the requirements for a T rating when it
remains in the opening during the fire test and hose stream test within the following
limitations: The transmission of heat through the fires during the rating period hall not have
been such as to raise the temperature of any thermocouple on the unexposed surface of the
fires or on any penetrating item more than 325°F above its initial temperature. Also, the
firestop shall have withstood the fire test for the rating period without permitting the
passage of flame through openings, or the occurrence of flaming on any element of the
unexposed side of the fires. During the hose stream test, the firestop shall not develop any
opening that would permit a projection of water from the stream beyond the unexposed side
(fire stops).
Tank adapter (See Bulkhead fitting).
Temperature: A measure of the degree of hotness of a material detected most commonly

with a liquid-in-glass thermometer.
Tensile strength: The capacity of a material to resist a force tending to stretch it.
Ordinarily, the term is used to denote the force required to stretch a material to rupture, and
is known variously as “breaking load”, “breaking stress,” “ultimate tensile strength,” and
sometimes erroneously as “breaking strain.” In rubber and plastics testing, it is the load in
pounds per square inch, kilograms per square centimeter, or newtons per square millimeter
in modern SI metric, of original cross-sectional area, supported at the moment of rupture by
a piece of test sample on being elongated.
Thermal conductance: Also called “conductance,” it is the amount of heat transmitted by

a material divided by the difference in temperature of the surfaces of the material. Where
heat is transferred by several mechanisms through a structure of mean cross-sectional area
Am, conductance equals the gross rate of heat transfer divided by the temperature drop
between its faces.
Thermal conductivity: Measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat; measured in

flow of Btus per hour through a unit cross section or unit thickness with 1°F of temperature
difference across this thickness. For refractory and insulation materials, typical units are
Btu-in./ft2-hr-°F. Other acceptable units are Btu-ft2-°F.
Thermal expansion: An increase in volume of linear dimensions caused by heating the

material.
Thermal shock: Denotes a sudden temperature change.

Thermal Stabilizers: Compounds added to the plastic resins when compounded that
prevent degradation of properties due to elevated temperatures.
Thermoelasticity: Rubberlike elasticity that a rigid plastic displays; it is caused by elevated

temperatures.
Thermoplastic (n): A plastic that repeatedly can be softened by heating and hardened by
state can be shaped by flow into articles by molding or extrusion.
Thermoplastic (adj.): Capable of being repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by

state can be shaped by flow into articles by molding or extrusion. (Note: Thermoplastic
applies to those materials whose change upon heating is substantially physical.)
Thermoset (n): A plastic that, when cured by application of heat or by chemical means,
changes into a substantially infusible and insoluble product.
Thermoset (adj.): Pertaining to the state of a resin in which it is relatively infusible.
Thermosetting: Capable of being changed into a substantially infusible or insoluble

product when cured by application of heat or by chemical means.
Tolerance: The total range of variation permitted; the upper and lower limits between
which a dimension must be maintained.
Tooling: The act of compacting and contouring a sealant in a joint (fire stops).
Tooling Time: The time interval after application of a one-component sealant or after
mixing and application of multi-component sealant during which tooling is possible (fire
stops).
Trap: A fitting or device designed and constructed to provide, when properly vented, a
liquid seal that will prevent the back passage of air without materially affecting the flow of
sewage or waste water through it.
Through Penetration: Consist of three items: 1) wall or floor construction, 2) penetrating

item or absence thereof, 3) the hold or void (fire stops).
Tuberculation: Localized corrosion at scattered locations resulting in knob-like mounds.
Tubing (plastic): A particular size of plastic pipe in which the outside diameter is
essentially the same as that of copper tubing.
Ultraviolet Stabilizers: Compounds that when mixed with thermoplastic resins selectively
absorb ultraviolet rays protecting the resins from ultraviolet attack.

Urethane plastics: Group of plastics composed of resins derived from the condensation of
organic isocyanates with compounds containing hydroxyl groups.
UV Degradation: Sunlight contains a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation. The

ultraviolet radiation that is absorbed by a thermoplastic material may result in actinic
degradation (i.e., a radiation promoted chemical reaction) and the formation of heat. The
energy may be sufficient to cause the breakdown of the unstabilized polymer and, after a
period of time, changes in compounding ingredients. Thermoplastic materials that are to be
exposed to ultraviolet radiation for long periods of time should be made from plastic
compounds that are properly stabilized for such conditions.
Vacuum: Any pressure less than that exerted by the atmosphere; it may be termed a
negative pressure.
Vacuum forming: Fabrication process in which plastic sheets are transformed to desired
shapes by inducing flow; accomplished by reducing the air pressure on one side of the sheet.
Valve: A device that regulates the flow of fluids through piping by opening, closing, or
obstructing ports or passageways.
Valve positioner: Auxiliary servo device that allows precision positioning of a control valve
stem. It is used in conjunction with a standard valve operator (e.g., a diaphragm motor). Its
purpose is to overcome stuffing box friction and stem thrust caused by fluid pressure.
Van Stone flange: A fitting flange whose drilled back plate turns 360° in order to facilitate
the joining of one flange to another flange.
Velocity: Time rate of motion in a given direction.
Velocity head: Velocity pressure expressed in feet of column of the flowing of the flowing
fluid.
Vinyl chloride plastics: Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of vinyl
chloride and copolymerization of vinyl chloride with other unsaturated compounds, the vinyl
chloride being in greatest amount by weight.
Vinyl Plastics: Compositions of polymers and ingredients that are based on polymers of
vinyl chloride, or copolymers of vinyl chloride with other monomers, the vinyl chloride
being in the greatest amount by mass.
Virgin material: A plastic material in the form of pellets, granules, powder, floc, or liquid
that has not been subjected to use or processing other than that required for its original
manufacture.
Viscosity: A measure of the tendency of a fluid to resist shear. The unit of viscosity is the
poise, which is defined as the resistance (in dynes per square centimeter of its surface) of one
layer of fluid to the motion of a parallel layer one centimeter away and with a relative
velocity of one centimeter per second.

Water absorption: The percentage of water absorbed by an immersed specimen in a given
time.
Waterhammer: The forces, pounding noises, and vibration that develop in a piping system
when a column of incompressible liquid flowing through a pipe line at a given pressure and
velocity is stopped abruptly.
Waterhammer arrester: A device, other than an air chamber, designed to provide

protection against excessive surge pressure.
Weathering: Exposure of a plastic to outdoor conditions.
Weld-or knit-line: A mark on a molded plastic formed by the union of two or more
streams of plastic flowing together.
Wire Mesh: Galvanized steel hardware cloth used to support backing material in gypsum
wallboard and hollow concrete block construction (fire stops).
Working (“pot”) Life: The time interval after opening a container of a single component
sealant or after mixing the components of a multi-component sealant, during which
application and tooling is possible (fire stops).
Working Pressure (WP): The maximum anticipated, sustained operating pressure applied
to the pipe exclusive of transient pressures.
Yield value: Also called yield stress; force necessary to initiate flow in a plastic.
Young’s modulus of elasticity: The modulus of elasticity in tension. The ratio of stress in
a material subjected to deformation.

The Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association
800 Roosevelt Road • Building C, Suite 312
Glen Ellyn, IL 60137-5833
Phone 630.858.6540 • Fax 630.790.3095
www.ppfahome.org
 PPFA, 2008/2009
All Rights Reserved

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PVC PIPING SYSTEMS FOR

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL

Plastic Pipe and Fittings Association

Using the Design Guide

Other PPFA Educational Materials

Definitions ................................................................... 1 Static Electricity ................................................. 45

History ........................................................................ 4 Underground Design ................................................ 46

Material Characteristics .............................................. 6 Pipe Stiffness..................................................... 47

Physical Characteristics ............................................. 8 Soil Stiffness ...................................................... 47

Safety and Systems Design ..................................... 11 Pipe Loading...................................................... 47

Features and Benefits ................................................... 13 Trench Design ................................................... 47

Durability .................................................................. 13 Minimum Cover for Pipe .................................... 48

Safe and Easy to Install ............................................ 17 Risers ................................................................ 48

Environmentally Sound............................................. 20 Joining Methods ............................................................ 49

Cost Effective ........................................................... 23 General Piping Practices .......................................... 49

Engineering Design ....................................................... 27 Solvent Cementing ................................................... 52

Design Piping Practices............................................ 27 Flanging .................................................................... 58

Chemical Resistance ......................................... 28 Threading ................................................................. 59

Pipe Operating Pressure ................................... 29 Other Joining Systems ............................................. 61

Types of Pipe..................................................... 29 Gasketed-Bell and Spigot .................................. 61

Other PVC Piping Systems................................ 30 Mechanical Radius Cut/Rolled-Grooved with

Table of Contents – iii

Thrust Blocking.................................................. 78 PVC SDR Pressure Piping Systems ...................... 117

System Testing.................................................. 79 PVC Reclaimed Water Piping Systems .................. 118

Water Testing ........................................................... 81 Other Plastic Piping Systems...................................... 130

Repair ....................................................................... 83 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) ................... 130

Applications .................................................................. 89 Chlorinated Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) .............. 132

Commercial Applications .......................................... 89 Polyethylene (PE)................................................... 134

Pressure Systems ............................................. 91 Polypropylene (PP) ................................................ 137

Non-pressure Systems ...................................... 95 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).............................. 139

Industrial Applications .............................................. 99 Appendix A: PVC Product Safety Warnings................ 141

PVC Schedule 40 Dual Marked Pipe and PVC DWV

Table 2. PVC Piping Physical Properties .................................................................................................................................. 12

Table 5. Chemical Resistance of PVC to Typical Broad Chemical Groups* ............................................................................. 28

Table 6. Schedule 40 and 80 Pipe Pressure Ratings (psi at 73°F) ........................................................................................... 30

Table 7. Temperature Correction Factors for PVC Piping ......................................................................................................... 31

Table 8. Operating Pressure of Valves, Unions, and Flanges................................................................................................... 31

Table 9. PVC Pipe Thermal Expansion (in.).............................................................................................................................. 35

Table 10. Support Spacing of PVC 40 and 80 Pipe .................................................................................................................. 39

Table 12. Minimum Trench Widths ........................................................................................................................................... 48

Table 13. Joint Moving Set Times ............................................................................................................................................. 54

Table 14. 10% Pressure Testing Cure Times ........................................................................................................................... 54

Table 15. 100% Pressure Testing Cure Times ......................................................................................................................... 55

Table 16. Number of Cemented Joints per Container Size ....................................................................................................... 56

Table 18. Loop Offset (in.) for Contraction ................................................................................................................................ 77

Table 19. Welding Rod Diameter and Number of Passes ......................................................................................................... 84

Table 20. Standard Organizations for PVC Piping .................................................................................................................... 90

Figure 2. Resin................................................................ 2 Figure 11. Double Containment Piping ........................... 7

Figure 3. Compounds ..................................................... 2 Figure 12. Tensile Testing Machines .............................. 8

Figure 4. Extruder ........................................................... 3 Figure 13. Izod Testing Machine ..................................... 8

Figure 22. Cemented Joints .......................................... 15 Figure 62. Threading..................................................... 60

Table of Contents – vii

Thermoplastic: A plastic that can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by

Polymer: A substance consisting of molecules characterized by the repetition of one or

Compound: A mixture of a thermoplastic resin with other additives or ingredients. All