ENTOMOLOGY

DEGREE THIRD YEAR WITH EDUCATION

 What Did the Insects Come From
• The Evolution of the Insect Form
Some of the earliest arthropods (or, for that
matter, animals) to walk on land and breathe
air were the scorpions, centipedes, and
millipedes. These found themselves on land as
much as 400 million years ago. The oldest
insect fossils date back to the Carboniferous
and exhibit wings and other advanced features
which suggest tens of millions of years of
evolution before the Carboniferous.
 The Evolution of the Insect Form

• The most primitive-looking of the insects alive

today, such wingless species as the silverfish, have
lead biologists to believe that insects may have
evolved from a creature similar to the Annelida.
This supposed ancestor had a segmented, worm-
like body with a pair of feet on each segment and
may have looked something like the creature in
the photo above (a member of the phylum
Onychophora, this creature has a worm-like body
with a head and antennae and one pair of stubby,
telescoping legs on each segment).
 Why is important to study Insects
• They transmitting various types of human and animal diseases. Like malaria,
Diarrhoea, sleeping sickness, dengue fever, yellow fever etc (Death)
• They transmitting Agriculture diseases like early blight in tomato, mosaic
viruses. They also cause economic loss eg fruit flies, stored grain beetles
• We use as food for human and live stock eg Senene in Bukoba. Very high
protein content free from cholesterol.
• We use for Biological control in agriculture and animals eg lady bird beetles
against Aphids, Dragon flies against mosquito larva, Cotesia flavipes feed on
maize stemborers
• We use for research development, eg Bees and many hymenopterans.
• We use for chemotherapy eg honey bees for people suffered from stroke
• Insect and other arthropods causes economic losses in agriculture and animals
• Insect such as Bees used for honey production and hence create job
opportunity
 Why is important to study Insects
• Insect and other arthropods are parts of our food web and
ecosystem. Eg insect feed on plants and other vertebrates and
invertebrates, but birds feed on insect and other organism

• Forensic entomologists are called into homicide investigations

when time of death is unknown and their evidence is usually
presented in court as expert testimony. First method based on
the predictable development of larval Diptera, known as the
blow fly

• Insect such as Moth Bombis mori used for production of

natural silk and use for commercial in India.

• Indigenous people use insect for detection of environment. Eg

use of safari ants to detect rainy seasons in Zanzibar
• Pollination agents: Bees, wasp, butterflies
 What is entomology
• What is entomology? Simply put, entomology
is a branch of science which deals with
everything about insects and other related
arthropods.
• At some 1.3 million described species, insects
account for more than two-thirds of all known
organisms, date back some 400 million years,
and have many kinds of interactions with
humans and other forms of life on earth.
Insect History

The book which we are glad to introduce to the public

has grown up from the multi-authored book in Russian,
Rohdendorf B.B., Rasnitsyn A.P. (eds.) 1980. Historical
development of the class Insecta (Trans. Paleontol. Inst.
Acad. Sci. USSR. 175. Nauka Press, Moscow, 270 pp.).

However, it has overgrown it considerably, at least in the

volume, to take 2.3 million symbols plus more than 500
illustrations (black-and-white photos and line drawings
of the fossils, as well as phylogenetic trees), and it is
updated as much as we can do. The manuscript is
accepted for publication by the Kluwer Academic
Publishers (Dordrecht, The Netherlands).
 Insect Morphology
• The morphology of insects is the study and description
of the form and structure of insects. Terminology is
related to that of the morphology of other arthropods.
• There is a large variation in the modifications that have
been made by various taxa to the basic insect body
structure.
• This is a result of the high rate of speciation, short
generations, and long lineages of the class of insects.
These modifications allow insects to occupy almost every
ecological niche, use a staggering variety of food sources,
and possess diverse lifestyles.
Insects (from Latin insectum, a calque of Greek
ἔντομον [éntomon], "cut into sections") are a
class (Insecta) of hexapod invertebrates within
the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous
exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and
abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound
eyes and one pair of antennae
 Insect Morphology
• Insect body sizes range from 0.3 mm in the case of
mymarid wasps, parasites on insect eggs, to the 30-
cm wingspan of the American owlet moth Thysania
agrippina (family Noctuidae).
• Insects are by far the most successful group in the
Arthropoda. They differ in significant ways from the
other classes of Hexapoda, such as Protura,
Collembola, and others, which are now considered by
some authorities to be more basal than insects.
 Insect Morphology
• Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an exoskeleton, a hard-
jointed outer covering made mostly of chitin.
• The segments of the body are organized into three distinctive but
interconnected units, or tagmata: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen. The
head supports a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, if
present, one to three simple eyes (ocelli), and three sets of variously
modified appendages that form the mouthparts.
• The thorax has six segmented legs (one pair each for the prothorax,
mesothorax and the metathorax segments making up the thorax) and two or
four wings (if present in the species).
• The abdomen (made up of 11 segments, some of which may be reduced or
fused) has most of the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive
internal structures. There is considerable variation and many adaptations in
the body parts of insects, especially wings, legs, antenna, and mouthparts.
 Insect Head
• Head Orientation
– The orientation of the head with respect to the rest of
the body varies.
1. The Hypognathous type with the mouthparts in a
continuous series with leg eg many primitive insects
and most vegetarians sp living in open place.
2. The Prognathous type the mouthparts point forwards
and found in carnivorous insect sp which actively
pursue their prey eg Coleoptera
3. The Opisthorhynchous type mouth part shown an
elongated proboscis slopes backwards between front
legs eg many Heteroptera and Homoptera.
Insect Head Orientation
Prognathous
• Mouthparts are pointing forward.
•Mouthparts are anterior in position.
• Long axis is horizontal.
•Mostly carnivore insects have this type of orientation.
•Ex: Stick insect
Hypognathous
•Mouthparts are pointing downward.
•Mouthparts are ventral.
• Long axis is vertical.
• Mostly herbivore insects
• Ex: Grasshopper
Opisthognathous
•Mouthparts are pointing backward.
• Mouthparts are directed down between coxae of legs.
•This is known as proboscis.
• Long axis is horizontal.
•Ex: Plant sucking bugs
 Head Grooves
• The head is continuously sclerotised capsule with no outward
appearance segmentation
• Head marked by number of grooves commonly called SUTURE.
• Grooves marking the line of fusion of two distinct plates
• Grooves with purely functional are called Sulci
• Grooves found between maxillae and labium are known as
postoccipital suture.
• Frontoclypeal sulcus act as a brace between the anterior
mandibular articulation.
• At each end of this sulcus is a the anterior tentoral pit
• Immature insects nearly always have a line along the dorsal
midline of the head divide line of the face and form an inverted Y
called Vertex
 Insect Head
• Head appendages
– Antennae
– Eye
– Mouth Parts
The head of an insect is composed of a series of segments, which are
specialized for food gathering and manipulation, sensory
perception, and neural integration. The head bears the eyes
(compound eyes and ocelli), antennae, and mouthparts. The
anterior part of the head is the frons. The anterior area below the
dorsum of the head, between and behind the eyes is the vertex.
The area below the compound eye, on the side of the head, is the
gena. The liplike sclerite is the clypeus.
Function of biting and chewing
mouth parts
Head appendages
 Five Primary Parts of the Insect
Mouth
Mandibulate
• The clypeus (liplike sclerite)
• The upper lip or labrum (longitudinally)
• Two jaw-like structures, or mandibles (right
angles to the body)
• The maxillae (sing. maxilla)(right angles)
• The lower lip or labium (longitudinally)
 Functions
• Mandibles-save to cut a and grind the food. They
equipped with tooth like ridges. Also crash food in
some insect. It has two paired of jaws. In
phytophagous are bluntly toothed and often bear a
molar near the base of biting margin.
• Maxillae- There are paired, their appendages refers
to maxillary pulp and equipped to chemosensory
sensilla. It function is help manipulating and guiding
food towards the mouth
 Functions
• Labrum- (Upper lip) is a simple plate hinged to
clypeus. It overties the base of the mandibles and
forms parts of the roof of preoral food cavity. Its
main function is testing the food by use of
chemoreceptor.
• Labium- (lower lip) it is divided into two primary
regions (1) Proximal postmentum and (2) Distal
prementum and the line of division btw the two
being the labial suture. The main function is acts as
sensory organ- Mechanoreceptor.
 Head glands and mouth parts
• Biting and chewing
Piercing-sucking mouthparts are used Siphoning mouthparts lack stylets
to penetrate solid tissue and then suck and are used to suck liquids.
up liquid food. Examples: Butterflies, moths and
skippers (order Lepidoptera), bees
Examples: Cicadas, aphids, and other
(order Hymenoptera). Larval
bugs (order Hemiptera), sucking lice
Lepidoptera have chewing
(order Phthiraptera), stable flies and
mouthparts
mosquitoes (order Diptera).
Sponging mouthparts are
used to sponge and suck
liquids.
Examples: House flies and
blow flies (order Diptera).
 Head Glands
• Mandibular glands
• Maxxillary glands
• Pharyngeal gland
• Labial glands (Salivary glands)
 Mandibular glands
• Occurs in winged and wingless insects
• Found in subclass Apterygota wingless and Pterygota -winged
• Also order coleoptera eg beetles, Dictyoptera eg cockraches
and isoptera eg termittes.
• Mandibular glands are sca like found in the head , open near
the base of mandibles, it is a longer in the queen of bees and
workers bees and smaller in drones
• It is responsible for producing alarm pheromones for workers
bees and ants, but in Dictyoptera producing enzymes amylase
 Maxillary glands
• Found in subclass Apterygota , Neuroptera and
Hymenoptera
• Also found in Heteroptera, Protura and Colembolla
• It function is lubrication of mouthparts and in
heteroptera (carnivorous insects) is producing toxin
to kill the prey.
• In Orthoptera such as Crickets Cnemotettix miniatus
produce spinning silk This silk is used to reinforce
their burrows in sandy areas
 Pharyngeal Glands
• Mostly found in Hymenoptera.
• They are well develop in worker bees and queen
bees and absent from drones. They occurs as one
glands at each side of head. In coil tube consist of
longer number of solid lobules which undergo
changes during development of worker bees. It is
associate with changes of bees behaviour where
workers as nurses and involving feeding of young
larvae.
 Labial glands
• Just like malphigian tube connected to alimentary glands and
posses a pair of glands lies btw the midgut
• Each has a duct and each duct gland run anterior and unite
usually within the head and form a single duct.
• The functions differs in various insects and some insects
function is not determined.
• In Lepidoptera and hymenoptera larvae, they secrets silk and
use for making larvae nest and pupal capsule
• In blood sucking this gland secrets anticoagulin which keeps in
ingested blood in liquid form
 Insect Eyes
• Located on each side of the head of most insect, prominently
compound eyes, which consist of many hexagonal elements.
• These elements known as facets, number of facets vary from
few to many as 28,000 in dragon fly (Odonata).
• The ocelli eye area located between compound eye on the
front of the head.
• Most often are very small and have a single lens. In immature
insect eg, caterpillars (lepidoptera), have only simple eye and
other insect may not have eyes at all eg in some spp of
Collembola
 Insect Eyes
• Arthropod eyes are called compound eyes because they are
made up of repeating units, the ommatidia, each of which
functions as a separate visual receptor.
• Each ommatidium consists of
• a lens (the front surface of which makes up a single facet)
• a transparent crystalline cone
• light-sensitive visual cells arranged in a radial pattern like the
sections of an orange
• pigment cells which separate the ommatidium from its
neighbors.
 Insect Eyes
• There may be thousands of ommatidia in a compound
eye with their facets spread over most of the surface
of a hemisphere.
• Grasshopper eyes, with relatively few ommatidia must
produce a coarse, grainy image. The honeybee and
dragonfly have many more ommatidia and a
corresponding improvement in their ability to
discriminate ("resolve") detail.
• Even so, the resolving ability of the honeybee eye is
poor in comparison with that of most vertebrate eyes
and only 1/60 as good as that of the human eye; that
is, two objects that we could distinguish between at 60
feet could only be discriminated by the bee at a
distance of one foot
 Insect Eyes
• Flicker effect. The compound eye is excellent
at detecting motion. As an object moves
across the visual field, ommatidia are
progressively turned on and off. Because of
the resulting "flicker effect", insects respond
far better to moving objects than stationary
ones. Honeybees, for example, will visit wind-
blown flowers more readily than still ones.
 Insect Eyes
• Resolution and Sensitivity
Arthropods that are apt to be active in dim light (e.g.,
crayfish, praying mantis) concentrate the screening
pigments of their ommatidia into the lower ends of
the pigment cells. This shift enables light entering a
single ommatidium at an angle to pass into adjacent
ommatidia and stimulate them also. With many
ommatidia responding to a single area in the visual
field, the image becomes coarser. The praying mantis
probably can do little more than distinguish light and
dark in the evening.
 Insect Eyes
• Color vision
• Some insects are able to distinguish colors. This requires two
or more pigments, each of which absorbs best at a different
wavelength. In the honeybee,
• four of the visual cells in each ommatidium respond best to
yellow-green light (544 nm)
• two respond maximally to blue light (436 nm)
• the remaining two respond best to ultraviolet light (344 nm)
• This system should enable the honeybee to distinguish colors
(except red) and — as the image shows — behavioral studies
verify this. Ultraviolet vision
Insect Antennae

Suza
Antennae function almost exclusively in sensory perception. Some of the
information that can be detected by insect antennae includes: motion and
orientation, odor, sound, humidity, and a variety of chemical cues. Antennae
vary greatly among insects, but all follow a basic plan: segments 1 and 2 are
termed the scape and pedicel, respectively. The remaining antennal segments
(flagellomeres) are jointly called the flagellum
Aristate antennae are
pouch-like with a
lateral bristle.
Examples: House and
shore flies (order
Diptera).

Capitate antennae are

abruptly clubbed at
the end.
Examples: Butterflies
(order Lepidoptera).

Clavate antennae are

gradually clubbed at the
end.
Examples: Carrion beetles
(order Coleoptera).
Adult carrion beetles
feed on decaying animal
matter or maggots.
Filiform antennae have
a thread-like shape.
Examples: Ground and
longhorned beetles
(order Coleoptera),
cockroaches (order
Blattaria).

Geniculate antennae are

hinged or bent like
an elbow.
Examples: Bees and ants
(order
Hymenoptera).

Lamellate or clubbed
antennae end in
nested plates.
Examples: Scarab
beetles (order
Coleoptera).
Pectinate antennae have
a comb-like shape.
Examples: Fire-colored
beetles and fireflies
(order Coleoptera).

Plumose antennae have

a feather-like shape.
Examples: Moths (order
Lepidoptera) and
mosquitoes (order
Diptera).

Serrate antennae have a

saw-toothed shape.
Examples: Click beetles
(order Coleoptera).

Setaceous antennae
have a bristle-like
shape.
Examples: Dragonflies
and damselflies
(order Odonata).
Order Isoptera: Termite, Coptotermes
formosanus, Gerald J. Lenhard, Order Isoptera: Termite, Reticulitermes sp.,
Louisiana USDA Forest Service - Wood Products Insect
Lab Archives

Moniliform have a beadlike shape.

Examples: Termites (order
Isoptera).
.Order Isoptera: Termite,
Coptotermes formosanus,
 Insect Neck
• The neck or cervix is a membranous region which give freedom of
movement. It extend from the occipital foramen at the back of the
head to prothorax and its possible present posterior part of the labial
and anterior part of prothoracic segment.
• Lateral in the neck membrane are the cervical sclerites. In
Schistocera (Orthoptera) the lateral cervical sclerites articulates with
occipital condyle. Posterialy cerevical sclerites and movement is
restricted to the vertical plane. Sclerites restrict movement of head.
• Finally the posterior cervical sclerites connects with the prothoracic
episternum.
• Muscles arrising from postoccipital and pronutum are inserted on the
cervical sclerites
 Thorax of Insect
• The second (middle) tagma of an insect's body is
called the thorax. This region is almost exclusively
adapted for locomotion - it contains three pairs of
walking legs and, in many adult insects, one or two
pairs of wings.
• Structurally, the thorax is composed of three body
segments: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax.
These segments are joined together rigidly to form a
"box" that houses the musculature for the legs and
wings.
The thorax can be conveniently divided into three separate and normally easily visible
sections called from the front, the 'prothorax' the 'mesothorax' and the 'metathorax'.
This leads to the nota and pleura being named 'Pronotum', 'Mesonotum',
'Metanotum' and 'Propleuron', 'Mesopleuron' and 'Metapleuron'. Within the whole
class insecta the form and shape of the thorax shows considerable variation
depending on the needs of each species. In species that are strong fliers, for example,
the Mesothorax may become greatly enlarged.
 Thorax of Insect
• Each segment has a dorsal sclerite, the notum (pronotum,
mesonotum, and metanotum) which may be further subdivided
into an anterior scutum and a posterior scutellum. The ventral
sclerite of each segment is the sternum (prosternum,
mesosternum, and metasternum).
 Thorax of Insect
• The side of each segment is called the pleuron -- it is usually divided by a
pleural suture into at least two sclerites:; an anterior episternum and a
posterior epimeron. The pleural suture marks the location of an internal ridge
of exoskeleton (an apodeme) that strengthens the sides of the thorax. Ventrally,
this apodeme forms a point of articulation with the basal leg segment (the
coxa). In thoracic segments that bear wings, the pleural apodeme runs dorsally
into the pleural wing process, a finger-like sclerite that serves as a pivot or
fulcrum for the base of the wing.
 Insect wings
• Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly. Their wings develop as
evaginations of the exoskeleton during morphogenesis but they become fully
functional only during the adult stage of an insect's life cycle.

• The wings may be membranous, parchment-like, heavily sclerotized, fringed

with long hairs, or covered with scales.

• Most insects have two pairs of wings -- one pair on the mesothorax and one
pair on the metathorax (never on the prothorax).

• Wings serve not only as organs of flight, but also may be adapted variously as
protective covers (Coleoptera and Dermaptera), thermal collectors
(Lepidoptera), gyroscopic stabilizers (Diptera), sound producers (Orthoptera),
or visual cues for species recognition and sexual contact (Lepidoptera).
 Insect wings
• In most cases, a characteristic network of veins runs
throughout the wing tissue. These veins are
extensions of the body's circulatory system.
• They are filled with hemolymph and contain a tracheal
tube and a nerve.
• In membranous wings, the veins provide strength and
reinforcement during flight.
• Wing shape, texture, and venation are quite
distinctive among the insect taxa and therefore highly
useful as aides for identification.
 Wings adaptations and modifications:

Characteristic Appearance Order(s)

Elytra -- hard, sclerotized front wings Coleoptera

that serve as protective covers for and
membranous hind wings Dermaptera

Hemelytra -- front wings that are

Hemiptera:
leathery or parchment-like at the base
Heteroptera
and membranous near the tip
Generalized Costa (C) – the leading edge of the wing
Subcosta (Sc) – second longitudinal vein (behind the costa), typically unbranched
Insect Wing Radius (R) – third longitudinal vein, one to five branches reach the wing margin
Media (M) – fourth longitudinal vein, one to four branches reach the wing margin
Cubitus (Cu) – fifth longitudinal vein, one to three branches reach the wing margin
Anal veins (A1, A2, A3) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus
 Wings Venation and Diversity
• Venation of insect wings, based on the Comstock–Needham system
• In some very small insects, the venation may be greatly reduced.
• In Chalcidoidea (Chalcid wasps), for instance, only the subcosta and
part of the radius are present.
• Conversely, an increase in venation may occur by the branching of
existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of
additional, intercalary veins between the original ones, as in the
wings of Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets).
• Large numbers of cross-veins are present in some insects, and they
may form a reticulum as in the wings of Odonata (dragonflies and
damselflies) and at the base of the forewings of Tettigonioidea and
Acridoidea (katydids and grasshoppers respectively).
Wings Diversity
Wings Diversity
 Wings
• The most obvious function of insect wings is for flying. Indeed the wings on insects
are one of the reasons for the success of this group of organisms. Wings allow
insects to escape predators, find food plants, catch prey, find mates, and move to
new territories.

• the number of wings varies depending on the species of insect, the stage of
development of the insect, and in the case of ants and termites the caste.

• Most scientists believe that the earliest insects were wingless. Similar to the
wingless insects we know today as silverfish and collembola. Somewhere along the
evolutionary trail insects began to acquire the ability to fly.

• Probably using a flap of some sort extending from the body or a gill that is present
in some aquatic insects the insects were able to glide. Similar to the way flying
squirrels use a flap of skin to glide.
 wings
• In ants and termites wings are present on reproductive
forms. They use wings to find mates and to move to
new habitat to establish a nest. Once those activities
have been accomplished the queen will chew off her
wings. The wings are now useless and just get in the
way as the queen moves in the underground tunnels
of a nest. The wing muscles don't go to waste though.
She reabsorbs the muscle tissue to feed her new
brood.
• Insects with wings have four with the exception of one
major group. Flies have only two wings. The back
wings have become club-shaped organs known as
halteres. These organs function to aid the insect in
stability as it flies.
 Functions of insect wings
• While the most important function of insect wings is flight these appendages do
have other functions.

• One such is physical protection of the insect in general and the back pair of wings
in particular.

• Take beetles for example. The order name for the beetles is Coleoptera. Coleoptera
literally means sheath wing which is in reference to the first set of wings on beetles
called elytra. Elytra are shell like and provide a cover for the insect much like the
shell of a turtle.

• The membraneous hind wings are also protected by the elytra when the insect is not
in flight.
• Wings are also sensory organs-Hairs concentrated along the major veins and
braches

• Species toxonomy-identification of insect species and arranging in Order, family,

genus, species etc.
 Functions of insect wings
The wings of insects are also sites for coloration in insects. Think
of the butterflies. These wings have the color patterns that we
have come to admire. It is the scales of the wings of butterflies
that provide the color. In the beautiful morpho butterflies of the
rainforest regions the scales actually create the color by the angle
of light reflection. So at times the insect is bright blue but when
observed from another angle it appears a drab gray.
Moths, which for the most part are active at night, use the color
of their wings to their advantage.
The drab outer wings helps moths blend into the environment
and avoid detection by moth predators. But when discovered
some moths might expose the back wings which are bright
colored, sometimes with eye spots, in order to startle the
predator and allow the moth to escape.
 Functions of insect wings
• Crickets use their wings to produce sound. The
familiar chirp of the house or field cricket is the
result of rubbing one hind wing against the other.
Very much like dragging a fingernail file along the
teeth of a comb.
• Wings allow insects to go places, find good things,
and get out of trouble. But wings also protect the
insect, are a site for color and used to produce
sound. To most insects a wing is a handy thing to
have.
• Sound production-occurs in some insect like in order
Orthoptera- Field crickets
 Insect legs
• The fore-legs are located on the prothorax, the mid-legs on the
mesothorax, and the hind legs on the metathorax. Each leg has
six major components, listed here from proximal to distal: coxa
(plural coxae), trochanter, femur (plural femora), tibia (plural
tibiae), tarsus (plural tarsi), pretarsus.

• The femur and tibia may be modified with spines. The tarsus
appears to be divided into one to five "pseudosegments" called
tarsomeres. Like the mouthparts and antennae, insect legs are
highly modified for different functions, depending on the
environment and lifestyle of an insect.
University of Florida
EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
 Types of legs

Fossorial
Cursorial

Raptorial

Natatorial
Saltatorial
 Types of legs
• Ambulatory legs are used for walking. The
structure is similar to cursorial (running) legs.
• Cursorial legs are modified for running. Note
the long, thin leg segments.

Examples: Bugs (order Hemiptera), leaf beetles beetles (Corder oleoptera).

Cockroaches (order Blattaria), ground and tiger beetles (order Coleoptera
 Types of legs
• Fossorial fore legs are modified for digging.
• Examples: Ground dwelling insects; mole
crickets (order Orthoptera) and cicada nymphs
(order Hemiptera).
 Types of legs
• Natorial legs are modified for swimming. These legs have long
setae on the tarsi.
• Examples: Aquatic beetes (order Coleoptera) and bugs (order
Hemiptera).

Order Coleoptera:
Predaceous diving beetle,
Rhantus sp
 Types of legs
• Raptorial fore legs modified for Order
grasping (catching prey).Examples: Mantodea:
Mantids (order Mantodea), ambush Carolina
bugs, giant water bugs and water mantis,
scorpions (order Hemiptera). Stagomantis
carolina

Saltatorial hind legs

adapted for jumping.
These legs are
characterized by an Grass hopper
elongated femur and tibia.
Examples: Grasshoppers,
crickets and katydids
(order Orthoptera).
House cricket, Acheta domestica
 Insect Cuticle
• The Cuticle In all insects there is a thin layer of cuticle with
special properties and is comprised of following layers : 1.
Epicuticle 2. Exocuticle 3. Endocuticle NOTE It can be as thin
as 1 µm in the hindgut and over gills (e.g. Ephemeropteran
larvae) and as thick as 200 + µm (elytra of large Coleoptera ).
• There is always an epicuticle layer and the epidermal cell
layer, but the exocuticle and endocuticle may be greatly
reduced or absent in particular parts of the cuticle of the same
or different insects.
• Often there are additional cuticle layers within one or more of
the three principal layers as evidenced by electron density in
cross sections viewed in the transmission electron microscope.
 Insect Cuticle
• The insect outer skeleton, the cuticle, is made up of two layers;
the epicuticle, which is a thin, waxy, water-resistant outer layer
and contains no chitin, and the layer under it called the
procuticle.
• This is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has
two layers, the outer is the exocuticle while the inner is the
endocuticle.
• The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous
layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, criss-crossing each other
in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and
sclerotized
 The Epicuticle
• The Epicuticle Complex and the outermost layer and probably the
most important layer. Responsible for water proofing and general
impermeability of cuticle. Produced by epidermis and dermal
glands. Insects needing a renewable layer Soil dwelling insects due
to erosion of the cuticle by abrasion.

• Significance of each layer of epicuticle :

Significance of each layer of epicuticle 1. Cement layer : Outermost
layer. Closely associated with wax layer and may serve to protect it.
Not found in all insects. 2. Wax layer: Hydrocarbons constitute 90%
of this layer. Important to insects for water loss, thus waterproofing
of cuticle. In some(e.g., Fulgoridae and scales), the insects produce a
large bloom of wax on outside. Bees have special glands, wax
glands, on ventral abdominal segments 4-7 that produce wax, which
is then formed into flakes used by the bees to make their cells
 The Exocuticle :
• The Exocuticle The exocuticle contains chitin and protein. It
lies just beneath the epicuticle .
• It is highly sclerotized and is therefore hard and rigid. Layers
within the exocuticle may refract light in such a way to
produce structural colors in some insects.
• Many of the iridescent greens and blues of insects are
structural colors due to refracted light rather than to pigments.
• The thickness of the exocuticle is variable and species specific.
Adult insects generally have a thicker and more sclerotized
exocuticle than larval insects.
 The Endocuticle
• The Endocuticle Is continually being synthesized (in a
dark/light way-24 hrs) and often is laid down in layers,
thus can often be used to age-grade some insects.
• Contains most of the chitin, which is broken-down at the
molt by chitinase .
• Little cross-linking of proteins, thus most is broken-down
at molting and reabsorbed.
• In soft-bodied insects and regions of flexibility (in the
intersegmental membranes), this layer is well developed
and not the exocuticle .
 Insect Cuticle
• The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects,
especially the larval stages (e.g., caterpillars). Chemically,
chitin is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a
derivative of glucose.
• In its unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient
and quite tough.
• In arthropods, however, it is often modified, becoming
embedded in a hardened proteinaceous matrix, which forms
much of the exoskeleton.
• In its pure form, it is leathery, but when encrusted in calcium
carbonate, it becomes much harder.
• The difference between the unmodified and modified forms
can be seen by comparing the body wall of a caterpillar
(unmodified) to a beetle (modified).
 Insect Cuticle and its Functions
• From the embryonic stages itself, a layer of columnar or cuboidal epithelial
cells gives rise to the external cuticle and an internal basement membrane.
• The majority of insect material is held in the endocuticle.

• The cuticle provides muscular support and acts as a protective shield as the
insect develops. However, since it cannot grow, the external sclerotised part
of the cuticle is periodically shed in a process called "moulting".

• As the time for moulting approaches, most of the exocuticle material is

reabsorbed. In moulting, first the old cuticle separates from the epidermis
(apodysis).
• Enzymatic moulting fluid is released between the old cuticle and epidermis,
which separates the exocuticle by digesting the endocuticle and sequestering
its material for the new cuticle.

• When the new cuticle has formed sufficiently, the epicuticle and reduced
exocuticle are shed in ecdysis.
 Insect Cuticle and its Functions
• The cuticle, like the skin in vertebrates act as defense against the invasion
of parasites.
• As the seat of a body coloration, the integument is important in providing
camouflage, signals recognition of opposite sex.
• Cuticle is important in body temperature regulation
• It characteristically makes insects becoming stuck to water surface when
exposed cuticular regions are hydrophilic and enable to move on the water
surface. In the case of mosquito larvae the cuticle is hydrophobic
• Its also acts as sensory structures are by virtue of their location, eg
Antennae, Setae, spines etc. perception of environment. Provide
pheromones for locations and attracting males
• Act as sound production in sense sexually. Wings and legs produce
sounds for sexes.
• Provide body shape for different insects
 Insect Cuticle
• The four principal regions of an insect body
segment are: tergum or dorsal, sternum or
ventral and the two pleura or laterals.

• Hardened plates in the exoskeleton are called

sclerites, which are subdivisions of the major
regions - tergites, sternites and pleurites, for
the respective regions tergum, sternum, and
pleuron
 Integumentary system
• External Integumentary. Processes Spines, setae and other
external integumentary structures associated with a given
species typically are arranged in characteristics constant
pattern . The study of such pattern for identification purposes
is called Chaetotaxy.

• Internal structure. Insect Physiology is essential to know

medically important. It provides the foundation necessary to
understand how blood is digested and assimilated, interaction
between ingested microorganisms and insects, why certain
chemicals act as toxin to insects. Also how insect control
might be developed for particular kind of insect.
 Functions of The Integument
• Functions of The Integument Protection of internal organs and
tissues.
• Protective barrier against entry of pathogens, pesticides, parasites,
and predators.(At the molt, these parasites are expelled with the old
exocuticle. Parasitic expulsion)
• Preventive barrier against water loss. Provides for the insect the
sensory “windows to the outside world” Also lines the tracheae,
tracheoles, salivary glands and portions of reproductive tract.

• At the molt, all of this is shed. Protective barrier for foregut and
hindgut. Integument functions in locomotion, feeding, excretion,
protection from desiccation, breathing.
 Integumentary process
• The integument is composed of 3 basic layers. The epidermis,
the singe layer of cells and 2 noncelullar layers, the cuticle and
basal lamina.
• The cuticle is on outside and is secreted by epidermis cells.
Epidermis secreting cuticle to out side. It is separated from
himossil from 0.5 micromole thick layer of
mucoplysaccharide which are refers as basement membrane
• The membrane is sustained by verson glands and refers to
Oenocytes.
• The glands believed to produced cement layer during the time
of ecdayosis. Change of larval instars.
• Oenocytes is responsible for curticular hydrocarbon (lipids)
particularly waxes comprises outer surface of skin of cuticle. It
is regards as secretory epithelium.
 Insect Abdomen
• An insect's abdomen is the third functional region (tagma) of
its body; the abdomen is located just behind the thorax.
• In most insects, the junction between thorax and abdomen is
broad, but in some groups, the junction is very narrow
(petiolate) giving the appearance of a "wasp-waist".
• Entomologists generally agree that insects arose from
primitive Arthropod ancestors with eleven-segmented
abdomens.
• Some present-day insects (e.g. silverfish and mayflies) still
have all of these segments (or remnants of them), but natural
selection in more advanced (or specialized) groups has
contributed to a reduction in the number of segments -
sometimes to as few as six or seven (e.g. beetles and flies).
 Insect Abdomen count…
• Each segment of the abdomen consists of a dorsal sclerite,
the tergum, and a ventral sclerite, the sternum, joined to
one another laterally by a pleural membrane.
• The front margins of each segment often "telecope" inside
the sclerites of the preceding sement, allowing the
abdomen to expand and contract in response to the
actions of skeletal muscles.
• In many adult insects, there is a spiracle (opening to the
respiratory system) near the pleural membrane on each
side of the first eight abdominal segments. Some
spiracles may be permanently closed, but still represented
by a dimple in the sclerite.
 Insect Abdomen count…
• At the very back of the abdomen, the anus (rear
opening of the digestive system) is nestled between
three protective sclerites: a dorsal epiproct and a pair
of lateral paraprocts.
• A pair of sensory organs, the cerci, may be located
near the anterior margin of the paraprocts. These
structures are tactile (touch) receptors.
• They are usually regarded as a "primitive" trait
because they are absent in the hemipteroid and
holometabolous orders.
 Abdominal segments orientation
• Basic number of segments are 11, counted as 11 when you
add a post segmental telson become 12, but actual is 11.
• The anterior segments have spiracles on each side which set
in pleural membranes or in the side of tergum and sternum.
• Visceral or pregenital segments: In female segment 1-7 while
in male segment 1-8.
• Genital segements: in male segment 9 and female segment 8-
9. Female the 8 segment has structure called 1st Vulvifer
sclerite which give rise to ventral ovipositor. ( segment is
simple genitalia pores.
• Post genital segment: segments 10-11 in both sexes
 Insect Abdomen count…
• The insect's genital opening lies just below the
anus: it is surrounded by specialized sclerites that
form the external genitalia.
• In females, paired appendages of the eighth and
ninth abdominal segment fit together to form an egg-
laying mechanism called the ovipositor.
• These appendages consist of four valvifers (basal
sclerites with muscle attachments) and six valvulae
(apical sclerites which guide the egg as it emerges
from the female's body).
 Insect Abdomen count…
• In males, the genital opening is usually enclosed in a
tube-like aedeagus which enters the female's body
during copulation (like a penis).
• The external genitalia may also include other
sclerites (e.g. subgenital plate, claspers, styli, etc.)
that facilitate mating or egg-laying.
• The structure of these genital sclerites differs from
species to species to the extent that it usually prevents
inter-species hybridization and also serves as a
valuable identification tool for insect taxonomists.
 Other abdominal structures may also be present in some
insects
• Pincers - In Dermaptera (earwigs), the cerci are heavily
sclerotized and forceps-like. They are used mostly for defense,
but also during courtship, and sometimes to help in folding the
wings.
• Median caudal filament - a thread-like projection arising from
the center of the last abdominal segment (between the cerci). This
structure is found only in "primitive" orders (e.g. Diplura,
Thysanura, Ephemeroptera).
• Cornicles - paired secretory structures located dorsally on the
abdomen of aphids. The cornicles produce substances that repel
predators or elicit care-giving behavior by symbiotic ants.
• Abdominal prolegs - fleshy, locomotory appendages found only
in the larvae of certain orders (notably Lepidoptera, but also
Mecoptera and some Hymenoptera
 Other abdominal structures may also be present in
some insects
• Sting -- a modified ovipositor, found only in the females of aculeate
Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and predatory wasps).
• Abdominal gills -- respiratory organs found in the nymphs (naiads) of
certain aquatic insects. In Ephemeroptera (mayflies), paired gills are
located along the sides of each abdominal segment; in Odonata
(damselflies), the gills are attached to the end of the abdomen.
• Furcula -- the "springtail" jumping organ found in Collembola on the
ventral side of the fifth abdominal segment. A clasp (the tenaculum) on
the third abdominal segment holds the springtail in its "cocked" position.
• Collophore -- a fleshy, peg-like structure found in Collembola on the
ventral side of the first abdominal segment. It appears to maintain
homeostasis by regulating absorption of water from the environment.
Hormonal Control of Molting &
Metamorphosis

Zo 3o3
 Metamorphosis
• Metamorphosis is a biological process by
which an animal physically develops after
birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and
relatively abrupt change in the animal's body
structure through cell growth and
differentiation. Some insects, fishes,
amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans, cnidarians,
echinoderms and tunicates undergo
metamorphosis, which is usually accompanied
by a change of habitat or behavior.
 Simple Metamorphosis: Thysanura (Silverfish)

Simple metamorphosis: The

immature insects and the adults
are similar in appearance, and
differ mostly in size.
Simple Metamorphosis: Heteroptera (True Bugs)
 Gradual Metamorphosis
The third type is "gradual" metamorphosis seen in such orders as t
grasshoppers (Orthoptera), termites (Isoptera), thrips (Thysanopte
and true bugs (Hemiptera). This life cycle starts as an egg, but each
growth, or nymphal stage looks similar, except it lacks wings and th
reproductive capacity that the adult possesses.
Gradual meta

egg nymphs adul

 Metamorphosis
• Incomplete/gradual/simple and complete metamorphosis differ
in the number of life cycle stages an organism will go through
during its transformation from egg to adult.
• Complete metamorphosis has four distinct life cycle stages:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The larva can be worm-like,
although you can still see the six legs. The larvae eat
constantly and grow rapidly. A hard, protective case forms
around the larva; this is the pupa stage.
• Incomplete/gradual/simple metamorphosis only has three
life cycle stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph looks
similar to, but is a smaller version of, the adult. The nymph is
also wingless.
 Hormonal Control of Molting &
Metamorphosis
• When an immature insect has grown sufficiently to
require a larger exoskeleton, sensory input from the
body activates certain neurosecretory cells in the brain.

• These neurons respond by secreting brain hormone

which triggers the corpora cardiaca to release their store
of prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) into the
circulatory system.

• This sudden "pulse" of PTTH stimulates the prothoracic

glands to secrete molting hormone (ecdysteroids).
Hormonal Control of Molting & Metamorphosis

Molting hormone affects many cells throughout the body,

but its principle function is to stimulate a series of
physiological events (collectively known as apolysis)
that lead to synthesis of a new exoskeleton.
During this process, the new exoskeleton forms as a soft,
wrinkled layer underneath the hard parts (exocuticle
plus epicuticle) of the old exoskeleton.
The duration of apolysis ranges from days to weeks,
depending on the species and its characteristic growth
rate.
Once new exoskeleton has formed, the insect is ready to
shed what's left of its old exoskeleton. At this stage, the
insect is said to be pharate, meaning that the body is
covered by two layers of exoskeleton.
 Hormonal Control of Molting &
Metamorphosis
• As long as ecdysteroid levels remain above a critical
threshold in the hemolymph, other endocrine structures
remain inactive (inhibited).

• But toward the end of apolysis, ecdysteroid concentration

falls, and neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia begin
secreting eclosion hormone.
• This hormone triggers ecdysis, the physical process of
shedding the old exoskeleton.

• In addition, a rising concentration of eclosion hormone

stimulates other neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia
to secrete bursicon, a hormone that causes hardening and
darkening of the integument (tanning) due to the formation
of quinone cross-linkages in the exocuticle (sclerotization).
 Hormonal Control of Molting &
Metamorphosis
• In immature insects, juvenile hormone is secreted by the
corpora allata prior to each molt.

• This hormone inhibits the genes that promote development of

adult characteristics (e.g. wings, reproductive organs, and
external genitalia), causing the insect to remain "immature"
(nymph or larva).

• The corpora allata become atrophied (shrink) during the last

larval or nymphal instar and stop producing juvenile
hormone. This releases inhibition on development of adult
structures and causes the insect to molt into an adult
(hemimetabolous) or a pupa (holometabolous).
 Hormonal Control of Molting &
Metamorphosis
• At the approach of sexual maturity in the adult stage,
brain neurosecretory cells release a brain hormone that
"reactivates" the corpora allata, stimulating renewed
production of juvenile hormone.

• In adult females, juvenile hormone stimulates production

of yolk for the eggs.

• In adult males, it stimulates the accessory glands to

produce proteins needed for seminal fluid and the case of
the spermatophore. In the absence of normal juvenile
hormone production, the adult remains sexually sterile.
 Summary of Molting
• Molting primarily under control of hormones called Juvenile
Hormone (JH). Production is mediated by brain hormone called
Ecdysone Hormone. High titter of JH suppressed adult characteristics.
• Molting process begins when epidermis cells respond to hormonal
changes by increases rate of proteins synthesis.
• This quickly results to APOLYSIS= separation of epidermal cell from
endocuticle.
 Reproductive system of generalized
insect
• The reproductive organs of insects are similar
in structure and function to those of
vertebrates: a male's testes produce sperm
and a female's ovaries produce eggs
(ova). Both types of gametes are haploid and
unicellular, but eggs are usually much larger in
volume than sperm.
 Reproductive system Count…..
• Most insect species reproduce sexually -- one egg from a
female and one sperm from a male fuse (syngamy) to produce
a diploid zygote.
• But there are also many species that reproduce by
parthenogenesis, asexual reproduction in which there is
growth and development of an unfertilized egg.
• Some species alternate between sexual and asexual
reproduction (not all generations produce males), others are
exclusively parthenogenetic (no males ever occur).
 Generalised Female Reproductive System

• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries

which are subdivided into smaller units called ovarioles,
where the eggs are produced.
• During egg production (called oogenesis), the germ cells in
the germarium divide by mitosis to form oocytes (eggs).
• The oocytes undergo meiosis and continue to increase in size
by absorbing yolk produced by adjacent cells.
• As the oocytes grow they are pushed downward by the
continual cell division in the germarium. Thus the oocytes
form chains, with the youngest/smallest cells at the top and
mature/large cells at the bottom.
 Generalised Female Reproductive System
• Once mature, an egg leaves the ovary via the lateral
oviduct and continues through the common oviduct
which opens into a genital chamber (called the bursa
copulatrix).
• This is where the male deposits his spermatophore
during copulation.
• The female uses peristaltic contractions to move the
spermatophore into the spermatheca, where it is stored
until it is needed.
• The spermathecal gland produces nutrients in order to
keep the sperm alive in the spermatheca, where sperm
can survive for weeks, months or even years.
 Generalised Female Reproductive System
• When the egg enters the genital chamber it
passes across the spermatheca and stimulates
the release of sperm cells onto the egg surface.
• The sperm cells enter the egg through the
micropyle, a small opening on the egg surface,
and when the nuclei of sperm and egg fuse, the
egg is fertilised.
• Oviposition (egg laying) soon takes place
following fertilisation.
 Generalised Male Reproductive System

• The male reproductive system includes a pair of

testes, each of which is comprised of testicular
tubes, where sperm is produced.
• Germ cells at the distal (top) end of the testicular tube
divide by mitosis to form spermatocytes.
• The spermatocytes divide again by meiosis to form
haploid spermatids which increase in size as they are
pushed down toward the base of the testicular tube by
continual cell division.
• When they reach the base of the tube, the spermatids
have developed into mature spermatozoa.
 Generalised Male Reproductive System
• Mature sperm leave the testes via the vasa
deferentia (sing. vas deferens) and
accumulate in the seminal vesicles, which
store the sperm until it is required during
mating.
• During copulation sperm moves from the
seminal vesicles to the ejaculatory duct and
passes to the female via the intromittent
organ, or penis (called an aedeagus).
Generalised Male Reproductive System

• The accessory glands have two major

functions:
1. Manufacture seminal fluid to nourish the
mature sperm stored in the male
reproductive system.
2. Produce spermatophores, pouch like
structures that encapsulate the sperm to
protect them while being delivered into the
female's body during copulation.
Egg structure

Zo 303
Entomology
 Egg structure
• In most insects, life begins as an independent egg. This
type of reproduction is known as ovipary.
• Each egg is manufactured within the female's genital
system and is eventually released from her body through
an ovipositor, a tube-like, saw-like, or blade-like
component of her external genitalia.
• Production of eggs by the female's body is called
öogenesis and the egg-laying process is known as
oviposition
 Egg structure
• Oviposition, the process of the egg passing from the
external genital opening or vulva to the outside of the
female. Often associated with behaviors such as digging
or probing into the egg laying site.
• Usually the egg are deposited on or near the food
required by the offspring upon hatching
• Each insect species produces eggs that are genetically
unique and often physically distinctive as well --
spherical, ovate, conical, sausage-shaped, barrel-shaped,
or torpedo-shaped. Yet regardless of size or shape, each
egg is composed of only a single living cell -- the female
gamete
 Egg fertilization
• An egg's cell membrane is known as the vitelline membrane. It is a
phospholipid bilayer similar in structure to most other animal membranes.
It surrounds the entire contents of the egg cell, most of which consists of
yolk (food for the soon-to-develop embryo).

• The cell's cytoplasm is usually distributed in a thin band just inside the
vitelline membrane (where it is commonly called periplasm) and in diffuse
strands that run throughout the yolk (cytoplasmic reticulum).

• The egg cell's nucleus (haploid) lies within the yolk, usually close to one
end of the egg. Near the opposite end, the öosome (a region of higher
optical density) may be visible as a dark region in the more translucent
yolk.

• The egg's anterior/posterior polarity is determined by the relative positions

of the nucleus and the öosome.