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Published in IET Power Electronics

Received on 28th January 2008
Revised on 22nd April 2008
doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
ISSN 1755-4535
Static synchronous compensators

(STATCOM): a review
B. Singh1 R. Saha2 A. Chandra3 K. Al-Haddad3
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India
2
Central Electricity Authority, Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram, New Delhi 110 066, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), 1100 Notre Dame Oust, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, H3C1K3
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Fast acting static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), a representative of FACTS family, is a promising
technology being extensively used as the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt compensator for reactive power control
in transmission and distribution system. Over the last couple of decades, researchers and engineers have made
path-breaking research on this technology and by virtue of which, many STATCOM controllers based on the self-
commutating solid-state voltage-source converter (VSC) have been developed and commercially put in operation
to control system dynamics under stressed conditions. Because of its many attributes, STATCOM has emerged as a
qualitatively superior controller relative to the line commutating static VAR compensator (SVC). This controller is
called with different terminologies as STATic COMpensator advanced static VAR compensator, advanced static VAR
generator or static VAR generator, STATic CONdenser, synchronous solid-state VAR compensator, VSC-based SVC or
self-commutated SVC or static synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). The development of STATCOM controller
employing various solid-state converter topologies, magnetics configurations, control algorithms, switching
techniques and so on, has been well reported in literature with its versatile applications in power system. A
review on the state-of-the-art STATCOM technology and further research potential are presented classifying
more than 300 research publications.
1 Introduction transistor (IEGT), integrated gate commutated thyristor

(IGCT) or gate commutated thyristor (GCT) and so on, it
Line commutating thyristor device-based solid-state reactive has ushered a new family of FACTS controllers such as
power compensators were developed in the 1970s. These are static synchronous compensators (STATCOM) and unified
used either as thyristor switched capacitors or thyristor- power flow controller (UPFC) have been developed. The
controlled reactor (TCRs) or a combination thereof with self-commutating VSC, called as DC-to-AC converter, is
passive filters eliminating dominant harmonics generated the backbone of these controllers being employed to
from electronic switching phenomenon. These are basically regulate reactive current by generation and absorption of
a VAR impedance-type controllers, commonly known as controllable reactive power with various solid-state
static VAR compensator (SVC), where susceptance of the switching techniques. The major attributes of STATCOM
TCR is controlled by varying the firing angle. The are quick response time, less space requirement, optimum
technology is well matured, but its operational flexibility voltage platform, higher operational flexibility and excellent
and versatile applications are limited. dynamic characteristics under various operating conditions.
These controllers are also known as STATic COMpensator
With the advent of voltage-source converter (VSC) (STATCOM), advanced static VAR compensator (ASVC),
technology built upon self-commutating controllable solid- advanced static VAR generator (ASVG), STATic
state switches viz. gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), insulated CONdenser (STATCON), static var generator (SVG),
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), injection-enhanced gate synchronous solid-state VAR compensator (SSVC),
IET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297– 324 297
doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009
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VSC-based SVC or self-commutated SVC or static STATCOMs [73 – 91], (iv) multi-level and multi-pulse
synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). EPRI in USA is topologies [92 – 132], (v) control methodologies [133 – 227],
a pioneer to conduct research in this area and has been (vi) specific applications of STATCOMs [228 – 305], (vii)
instrumental to develop a number of existing STATCOM STATCOMs with energy source [306 – 313] and (viii)
projects in collaboration with power utilities/industries. STATCOM simulation techniques [314 – 320].
Power industries such as GE, Siemens, ABB, Alsthom,
Mitsubishi, Toshiba and so on, with their in-house R&D
facilities have given birth to many versatile STATCOM 2 Working principle of statcom
projects presently in operation in high-voltage transmission VSC is the backbone of STATCOM and it is a combination
system to control system dynamics under stressed of self-commutating solid-state turn-off devices (viz. GTO,
conditions. The VSC-based STATCOM has emerged as a IGBT, IGCT and so on) with a reverse diode connected in
qualitatively superior technology relative to that of the line- parallel to them. The solid-state switches are operated
commutating thyristor-based SVC being used as dynamic either in square-wave mode with switching once per cycle
shunt compensator. or in PWM mode employing high switching frequencies in
a cycle of operation or selective harmonic elimination
GTO-based VSCs (GTO-VSC), commercially available modulation employing low switching frequencies. A DC
with high power capacity, are employed in high power voltage source on the input side of VSC, which is generally
rating controllers with triggering once per cycle achieved by a DC capacitor and output, is a multi-stepped
[fundamental frequency switching (FFS)]. Although IGBT AC voltage waveform, almost a sinusoidal waveform. The
and IGCT devices are available with reasonably good turn-off device makes the converter action, whereas diode
power ratings, these are being mainly used in low-to- handles rectifier action. STATCOM is essentially
medium rating compensators operated under pulse-width consisting of six-pulse VSC units, DC side of which is
modulation (PWM) switching, that is, multiple switching connected to a DC capacitor to be used as an energy
(1 – 3 kHz) in a cycle of operation. Use of these switching storage device, interfacing magnetics (main coupling
devices in high power rating controllers is yet to be fully transformer and/or inter-mediate/inter-phase transformers)
commercialised and therefore its use is limited. In the that form the electrical coupling between converter AC
state-of-the-art STATCOM equipments, two major output voltage (Vc) and system voltage (Vs) and a controller.
topologies of VSC-bridges viz. multi-pulse and multi-level The primary objective of STATCOM is to obtain an
are the most common for operation under FFS or PWM almost harmonic neutralised and controllable three-phase
mode or selective harmonic elimination modulation. For AC output voltage waveforms at the point of common
high power rating STATCOMs, GTO-VSC is still the coupling (PCC) to regulate reactive current flow by
choice for operation under square-wave mode of switching, generation and absorption of controllable reactive power by
that is, once per cycle. A concept of multi-level voltage re- the solid-state switching algorithm. As STATCOM has
injection in DC circuit of VSC topology, as an alternative inherent characteristics for real power exchange with a
to high-frequency device switching adopted under PWM support of proper energy storage system, operation of such
control or instead of adopting higher multi-level topology controller is possible in all four quadrants of Q – P plane [2]
under FFS principle, has been reported to multiply the and it is governed by the following power flow relation
pulse-order several times without employing additional
!
VSCs. With commercialisation of this approach, there VV VV V2
would be a major saving of solid-state devices and magnetic S ¼ 3 s c sin a j3 s c cos a s ¼ P jQ (1)
XL XL XL
components.
A comprehensive review on the STATCOM technology where S is the apparent power flow, P the active power flow,
and its development are carried out in this paper. The Q the reactive power flow, Vs the main AC phase voltage to
paper includes ten sections viz. (i) working principle of neutral (rms), Vc the STATCOM fundamental output AC
STATCOM, (ii) solid-state switching devices and phase voltage (rms), X (¼ vL, where, v ¼ 2pf ), the
technology, (iii) STATCOM topologies and configurations, leakage reactance, L the leakage inductance, f the system
(iv) control methodologies and approaches, (v) component frequency and a the phase angle between Vs and Vc .
selection, (vi) specific applications, (vii) simulation tools,
(viii) latest trends and perspective research potentials (ix) Active power flow is influenced by the variation of a and
concluding remarks and (x) references. Based on the reactive power flow is greatly varied with the magnitude of
literature survey, Refs. [1 – 320] are classified into three the voltage variation between Vc and Vs . For lagging a,
categories such as texts [1 – 17], patents [18 – 40] and power (P) flows from Vc to Vs , for leading a, power (P)
research papers [41 – 320]. Based on the development of flows from Vs to Vc and for a ¼0, the P is zero and Q is
STATCOM technology, the articles [41– 320] have been derived from (1) as follows
classified into eight subgroups comprising of (i) state-of-
the-art technology [41 – 54], (ii) GTO-VSC based Vs
Q¼ (V Vs ) (2)
STATCOMs [55 – 72], (iii) PWM-VSC based XL c
298 IET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297– 324
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009 doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
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The AC voltage output (Vc) of STATCOM is governed by reactive power flow into the system. Phasor diagrams on
DC capacitor voltage (Vdc) and it can be controlled the operating principle are illustrated in (Figs. 3a– 3g). This
by varying phase difference (a) between Vc and Vs (and also aspect is well presented in [1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 15, 31, 32, 50,
by m, modulation index for PWM control). The basic two- 58, 59, 63, 73, 92, 96, 109, 116, 136, 140, 144, 160, 167,
level and three-level VSC configurations and respective AC 225, 235].
output voltage (Vc) waveforms corresponding to a square-
wave mode of operation are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2,
respectively. 3 State-of-the-art solid-state
switching devices and switching
Functionally, STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidal
current (I ) in quadrature (lagging or leading) with the line
technology
voltage (Vs), and emulates as an inductive or a capacitive In power converter circuits [41, 44, 47, 48, 51], various
reactance at the point of connection with the electrical controllable solid-state switches such as conventional
system for reactive power control, and it is ideally the thyristor, GTO, IGBT, IEGT, IGCT or GCT [164],
situation when amplitude of Vs is controlled from full bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and MOS field effect
leading (capacitive) to full lagging (inductive) for a equals transistor are employed for various applications such as
to zero (i.e. both Vc and Vs are in the same phase). The VSC, current-source converter and so on. Each device has
magnitude and phase angle of the injected current (I ) are different operating characteristics in respect to switching
determined by the magnitude and phase difference (a) frequency/speed, device ratings, turn-off and turn-on
between Vc and Vs across the leakage inductance (L), which timings, forward and reverses breakdown voltage, on-state
in turn controls reactive power flow and DC voltage, Vdc voltage drop, switching losses and so on. The conventional
across the capacitor. When Vc . Vs , the STATCOM is thyristor, a line commutating switching device available
considered to be operating in a capacitive mode. When commercially at very high power ratings, is a mature
Vc , Vs , it is operating in an inductive mode and for technology and forms basic switching element for SVC, a
Vc ¼ Vs , no reactive power exchange takes place. In the second generation FACTS controller being used as a
high rating STATCOM operated under fundamental dynamic reactive power compensator. This power
frequency switching, the principle of phase angle control semiconductor device has no turn-off capability and
(a) is generally adopted in control algorithm to compensate relatively high response time. The emerging technology is
converter losses by active power drawn from AC system solid-state controllable turn-off switches. These switches
and also for power flows in or out of the VSC to indirectly viz. GTO, IGBT, IGCT are being used extensively in
control the magnitude of DC voltage with charging or converter circuits for state-of-the-art FACTS controllers.
discharging of DC bus capacitor enabling control of Drive circuit requirements, switching frequency/speed,
Figure 1 Basic two-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its AC voltage output waveform in square-wave mode of operation
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Figure 2 Basic three-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its output AC voltage waveform in square-wave mode of operation
switching losses and cost of each device are the trade-off to and so on. Solid-state IGBT switching device is a relatively
use these devices effectively. Among the turn-off power new technology in power electronics is employed in
switches, GTO thyristor is a mature technology and medium-to-high power ratings PWM-based FACTS
commercially available at high power ratings. Its extensive controllers [41, 44, 47, 271] due to its high switching
applications in high power rating converter-cum- frequency and speed. Among the turn-off switches, IGCT is
compensator circuits have ushered in a new era of FACTS the most promising and emerging solid-state technology [47,
[42, 43, 52, 54, 63, 70, 296] controllers, for example, 48] and has the merits of low switching loss, higher
STATCOM [46, 228, 239, 252, 269, 280–282], UPFC switching frequency/speed, no snubber circuit requirements.
[252, 281], convertible static compensator (CSC) [278], IGCT-converter-based high power rating STATCOM
static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) [252, 281] [280] is under implementation stage at 138 kV Talega
Figure 3 STATCOM operating principle and control characteristics

a Capacitive mode
b Inductive mode
c Floating mode
d Capacitor charging mode
e Capacitor discharging mode
f VI characteristics
g V– Q characteristics
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sub-station in California. Because of relatively high cost, its a two-level multi-pulse topology is a mature topology and
commercial competitiveness is yet to be fully explored. commercially adopted in +100 MVA STATCOM at 500/
161 kV Sullivan S/S of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
Switching topologies such as PWM or power frequency US [231, 235, 239, 240] and in +80 MVA SVG at 154 kV
switching depend upon the type of solid-state devices used Inuyama switching station of Kansai Electric Power Co.
in STATCOM. Primarily, fundamental frequency method (KEPC), Japan [228]. An elementary six-pulse VSC which
of switching (pulsed one per line frequency cycle) and consists of three legs (phases) with two valves per leg and an
PWM techniques (pulsed multi times per half cycle) are electrostatic capacitor on the DC bus is illustrated in Fig. 1.
widely accepted methods. In PWM control, solid-state Each valve consists of a self-commutating switch with a
switches are operated many times at frequent intervals reverse diode connected in parallel. In square-wave mode,
within the same cycle of output voltage, and an improved eight possible switching states are possible with respect to the
quality of output AC voltage waveforms [in terms of low- polarity of DC voltage source (Vdc). A set of three quasi-
amplitude of low-order harmonics/low total harmonic square waveforms at its AC terminals, displaced successively
distortion (THD)] can be obtained. Based on the by 1208, is obtained using fundamental frequency switching
frequency and amplitude of triangular shape carrier signal modulation. The phase to neutral (0, +Vdc/3, +2Vdc/3) and
and modulating control signal, PWM converters are line-to-line voltage (0, +Vdc) of the converter shown in
designed, in general, to eliminate triplen and other low- Fig. 1 contain an unacceptable current harmonics causing
order harmonics (5th/7th), and by means of suitable severe harmonic interference to electrical system. To reduce
filter design, predominantly higher-order harmonics are THD, multi-pulse converter topology derived from the
reduced in the AC voltage output. As the converter combination of multiple number (N-numbers) of elementary
conduction and switching losses are a function of six-pulse converter units to be triggered at specific
switching frequency, the PWM technique is not displacement angle(s), is widely adopted, and output AC
generally adopted in high rating STATCOMs on voltage waveforms from each unit is electro-magnetically
account of high switching losses, whereas low-to- added with an appropriate phase shift by inter-phase
medium rating STATCOMs used in power distribution transformer(s) to produce a multi-pulse (6 N pulses)
system are built upon PWM control and such waveform close to sinusoidal wave.
STATCOMs are generally termed D-STATCOM [55,
61, 88, 90, 91, 117, 217, 243, 251, 260, 268, 274, 275, In a multi-pulse converter configuration, the displacement
307, 310]. Switching frequency [16] of solid-state angle between two consecutive six-pulse converter is 2p/
devices is one of the key factors in designing PWM-VSC (6N ) and three-phase voltage contains odd harmonics
and it can be typically 3 kHz for IGBT and 500 Hz for component of the order of (6Nk + 1), where k ¼ 1, 2,
IGCT or GCT. The various aspects of PWM-VSC 3, . . . . With the increase in pulse number, lower-order
based STATCOM have been presented in [73 – 91]. harmonics are neutralised and a very close to sinusoidal
However, soft-switching technique or rather zero-voltage AC output voltage waveform can be realised. Compared
switching applications in multiple voltage source square- with basic six-pulse converter, the multi-pulse configuration
wave converters have been proposed in the literature [73, of STATCOM increases the achievable VAR rating,
99] to considerably reduce switching losses and electro- improves the harmonic performance, decreases the DC side
magnetic interference. current harmonics and reduces significantly the overall
filter requirements. Basic two-level 12 (2 6-pulse),
As GTO is well-proven solid-state device and 24 (4 6-pulse) and 6N (N 6-pulse)-pulse converter
commercially available with power-handling levels as that of configurations are depicted in Figs. 4a – 4b, 5 and 6,
the conventional thyristor, GTO-VSC is the backbone of respectively. Basic configurations of magnetics in multi-
the high power rating STATCOMs [55– 72] that are used pulse converters are discussed in [92, 228, 235]. It is noted
extensively in high-voltage transmission system. The PWM that increase in pulse order increases the number of
technique in such converter circuit has been found to be electronics devices, magnetics and associated components
unpopular due to its higher gating energy requirements and and thus added to the cost. However, the high pulse-order
switching losses. Factoring this, STATCOMs built upon STATCOM enables to improve harmonics and operational
GTO-VSCs are designed primarily to operate it in a performances. Most industrial practices are to employ 48-
square-wave mode of operation. pulse configuration [46, 228, 131, 235, 239, 240, 252, 269,
278] where magnetics are designed generally in two stages
using transformers. The inter-phase transformers (as many
4 Statcom topologies and as VSCs) are employed to sum-up the output AC voltages
of converters, which is further stepped-up through a main
configurations coupling transformer to match with the main AC system.
Many VSC-based topologies and configurations are adopted in The typical two stages of magnetics architecture of the
the state-of-the-art STATCOM controllers and significantly, existing +80 MVA SVG [228] at the Inuyama switching
multi-pulse and/or multi-level topologies [46, 92–132] are station are depicted in Figs. 7a and 7b. The feasibility of
widely accepted in the design of compensators. For example, other magnetics configurations in 48-pulse compensator,
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Figure 4 Multi-pulse parallel and series converter configurations

a 12-pulse parallel converter configuration
b 12-pulse series converter configuration
which are proposed in the literature [46], are illustrated in Another variant of topology is a multi-level VSC structure
Figs. 7c and 7d. Out of the few multi-pulse topologies, 12- to generate multi-stepped voltage waveform close to
pulse, 18-pulse, 24-pulse and 48-pulse configurations are sinusoidal nature. Owing to the complex series-parallel
very common and based on which, many STATCOM connection of transformers windings/circuits in multi-pulse
power circuits are proposed in the literature [20, 21, 26, 36, converters, multi-level configurations have been receiving
38, 60, 61, 71, 86, 93, 111, 114, 143, 148, 167, 228, 235, increasing attention for high voltage and high power rating
298, 299, 309]. The EMTP models of 12-pulse and 24- applications. In multi-level topology, a synthesised stair-
pulse VSC-based STATCOMs are presented in [111, 167]. case voltage waveform is derived from several levels of DC
voltage sources obtained normally by using capacitor
Typically, 12-pulse two-level converter configurations voltage sources, and in this category, three-level converter
consisting of two elementary six-pulse bridges [55, 58, topologies with square-wave mode of operation is most
common [252, 280, 281]. An N-level topology is achieved
167], DC side of each is connected in parallel and its AC
side is either connected in series or in parallel are shown in by splitting of DC capacitors into (N 2 1) sections
Figs. 4a and 4b. Magnetics in a 12-pulse two-level produces N-level output phase voltage and a (2N 2 1) level
output line voltage waveform. When number of levels is
STATCOM is configured such that, one bridge is fed to
Y –Y transformer and the other bridge to a D– Y high enough, harmonic content in AC output voltage is
transformer maintaining thereby a phase shift of 308 reduced to low enough to avoid the need of filters. The
main features of multi-level converter are the low harmonic
between two sets of fundamental AC output p voltage
waveform. The converter side D-winding has 3 times the content of the output voltage compared with a square-wave
turns as the converter side Y-winding to keep the same pulse converter, decreased device voltage stress (a fraction
of the total DC bus voltage) and potentially higher
volts per turn in both the windings. The AC mains side
windings (Y ) are connected in series and can have any turn converter voltage and thus power rating. It is proposed in
ratios to increase or decrease the output voltages. The [95] that the multi-level topology employing capacitor
voltage synthesis technique is to be preferred to the multi-
combined output phase voltage leads to multi-stepped
voltage waveform and has 12-pulse waveform with pulse topology employing magnetic coupling technique.
harmonics of the order of (12k +1) that is, 11th, 13th, Three basic types of multi-level VSCs are reported in [95,
114, 123] viz. (i) multi-point clamped converter in which
23rd . . . and with amplitudes of 1/11th, 1/13th, 1/
23rd . . . of fundamental amplitude, respectively. three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) converter topology
is a matured technology [61, 114, 116, 153] and on this
Figure 5 24-pulse (4 6-pulse) converter configuration Figure 6 6N-pulse (N6-pulse) converter configuration
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Figure 7 Two stages of magnetics architecture and feasibility of other magnetics configuration in two-level 48-pulse (86-
pulse) STATCOM circuit
a Magnetics of 48-pulse, two-level +80 MVA STATCOM at Inuyama sw. station, KEPC
b 48-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
c Typical magnetics configurations of true 48-pulse STATCOM
d Magnetic configuration of Quasi 48-pulse STATCOM
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concept many STATCOM controllers have been three-level architecture is extensively adopted in high power
commercially developed. Contrary to two-level converters, rating STATCOMs being used in high-voltage
this three-level converter allows controlling of the transmission system. Interestingly, the first UPFC [252] of
magnitude of AC voltage by a variation of dead-angle (b) +160 MVA capacity, which has a STATCOM
maintaining fixed DC capacitor voltage. The second type is component, has been built using three-level NPC GTO-
chain converters based on standard H-bridge arrangements based converter configuration and it has been in service at
and the third is nested-cell converter or flying capacitor 138 kV Inez S/S of American Electric Power since 1997.
multi-level converter. Implementations of these converters A three-level IGBT-based NPC converter configuration
require the same number of switches for the same number with a rating of +36 MVA being operated as a back-to-
of levels, but there is a wide variation in terms of passive back inter-tie between Texas and Mexico with a
component requirements and operational and control functionality of STATCOM has been working since 2001
strategies. Such topologies are complex and therefore [271]. Three-level VSC topology is adopted in the
applications of these converters are limited. Typically, development of a versatile +200 MVA CSC at 345 kV
three-to-nine level converter topologies have been reported Marcy S/S, NY [278] and a +40 MVA STATCOM
in the literature [95, 119, 132]. For relatively slow [281] under 80 MVA UPFC project of Korea Electric
switching devices like GTO, application of three-level Power Corporation. In Gleenbrook 115 kV sub-station,
converter topology with fundamental frequency switching Northeast Utilities, +150 MVA STATCOM [282] is built
has got wide acceptability in designing STATCOM for upon GTO-based chain-link VSC configuration. Multi-
high power rating applications. A simplified scheme of level topology and various STATCOM circuit
three-level NPC converter comprising four-switches in configurations and related control strategies are presented
each converter leg and four-level single-phase NPC in the literature [61, 78, 82, 92, 95, 96, 98, 106, 108, 110,
converter configuration is given in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. 114, 119, 123]. A nine-level high power rating converter
topology with a combination of IGCT and IGBT-based
It is experienced that fundamental switching based 48- converter configurations, called hybrid approach, is
pulse converter topology is extensively used in high power proposed in [119].
rating STATCOMs due to its excellent operational and
harmonics performance, whereas low pulse-order The concept of multi-level voltage re-injection in DC
compensators such as 12-pulse, or 18-pulse or 24-pulse circuit of VSC topology is envisioned in [49, 66, 68, 69,
configurations under square-wave mode of operation are 72] to increase pulse-order (like conventional high-pulse
not adopted due to high impact of voltage harmonics, STATCOM) by minimising converters’ requirements and
causing unacceptable harmonic distortion. Such low-pulse magnetics. Simple configurations of voltage reinjection for
order and multi-pulse VSC topology-based STATCOMs two-level and three-level structurs are shown in Figs. 13
are proposed in [71, 298, 299] for voltage regulation, power and 14, respectively. Based on this principle, a model of
factor improvement in transmission system and these can 36-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [68] using only two
effectively improve harmonic performance by adopting a elementary six-pulse VSCs operated under FFS principle.
typical magnetics structure and simple control algorithm, A model of a 60-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [72]
the magnetics architectures of which are illustrated in using multi-level voltage re-injection in DC circuit of
Figs. 10a– 10c, 11a– 11c and 12a – 12b. Among the two- 2 6-pulse STATCOM operated under square-wave
level, 48-pulse GTO-VSC topology-based STATCOMs mode. With the advent of this innovative approach, basic
with GTO triggering under FFS principle, two most pulse-order is increased multi-fold improving harmonic
pioneering and practical compensators exist at the 154 kV
Inuyama switching station of KEPC and at 161/500 kV
Sullivan substation of TVA. In multi-level topology,
Figure 8 Single phase of a three-level NPC converter Figure 9 Single phase of a four-level NPC converter
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Figure 10 Interfacing magnetics of 12-pulse (26-pulse) two-level +100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM AC
voltage waveform at PCC
a Interfacing magnetics configuration-1 of 2 6 pulse converters
b Interfacing magnetics configuration-2 of 2 6 pulse converters
c 12-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
performance significantly. Instead of adopting VSC in the control is employed in a two-level converter structure,
design of STATCOM, the current-source converter where DC voltage (Vdc) is dynamically adjusted to above or
topology with multi-level current re-injection technique is equal to or below the system voltage for reactive power
focused in [50, 70], where a five-level current reinjection is control. In a three-level configuration, the dead-angle or
derived to meet harmonic standards. zero-swell period (b) is controlled to vary the converter AC
output voltage by maintaining Vdc constant. The control
system for STATCOM operated with PWM mode
5 Control strategies and employs control of a and m (modulation index) to change
the converter AC voltages keeping Vdc constant. The basic
approaches control architecture is shown in Fig. 15. For voltage
The control system is the heart of state-of-the-art regulation, two control-loop circuits namely inner current
STATCOM controller for dynamic control of reactive control loop and external/outer voltage control loop are
power in electrical system. Based on the operational employed in STATCOM power circuit. The current
requirements, type of applications, system configuration and control loop produces the desired phase angle difference of
loss optimisation, essential control parameters are the converter voltage relative to the system voltage and in
controlled to obtain desired performance and many control turn, generates the gating pulses, whereas the voltage
methodologies in STATCOM power circuits have been control loop generates the reference reactive current for the
presented in [133 – 227]. In a square-wave mode of current controller of the inner control loop. This control
operation, phase angle control (a) across the leakage philosophy is implemented with proportional and integral
reactance (L) is the main controlling parameter. This control (PI control) algorithm or with a combination of
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a Stage-I and stage-II Transformer magnetics
b (þ)2082 082 (2)208 under stage-II of magnetics
c 18-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage at PCC
a Interfacing magnetics layout
b 24-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
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Figure 13 Typical voltage re-injection circuit layout of two-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter configuration for
transforming into 36-pulse voltage waveform at PCC
proportional (P), integral (I ) and derivative (D) control In the process of designing and implementation of control
algorithm in d– q synchronous rotating frame. Figs. 16 and system, acquisition of many signals is involved. Initially,
17 illustrate the PI methodology for two-level and three- the essential AC and DC voltages and current signals
level GTO-VSC based STATCOM power circuits. The (instantaneous values/vectors) are sensed using sensors. In the
general mathematical approach, modelling and design of next step, these signals are synthesised by techniques such as
control systems for compensator circuits are proposed in d–q synchronous rotating axis transformation, alpha–beta
[136, 153, 167, 180, 181, 186– 188, 194, 202, 220]. stationery reference frame of transformation and so on. Phase
Figure 14 Typical voltage reinjection circuit layout of three-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter configuration for
transforming into 60-pulse AC voltage waveform at PCC
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Figure 15 Basic GTO-VSC based STATCOM operation and control architecture
locked loop circuit is normally employed to calculate phase and and are sensed using CTs and PTs or using other sensing
frequency information of the fundamental positive sequence devices. DC voltage across the capacitor and current on DC
component of system voltage which synchronises AC side are sensed using Hall effect and other sensing devices.
converter output voltage. Third step involves generation of
compensating command signals based on three kinds of state- Compensating signals derivation: The compensating signals
of-the-art control methodologies, linear, nonlinear and special are generally derived either in time domain or in
control techniques. Fourth step is to generate required gating frequency domain. Time-domain signals of instantaneous
signals for the solid-state devices. voltage and/or current vectors are sensed and decomposed
using widely popular method such as the d – q synchronous
Signal actuation: Instantaneous current and voltage signals such rotating axis transformation [80, 136, 137, 139, 160]. The
as system voltage are the basic input parameters to the controller transformed values are processed by various control
techniques like PI or PID controllers to derive the
compensating command signals [31, 32, 167, 235]. For
voltage regulation [137, 167, 178, 235] in power system,
the basic control is realised by controlling the injected
reactive current by the STATCOM. In PWM mode of
control [73, 74, 78, 80, 138, 160, 178], there are two
control strategies adopted viz. voltage control (VC)
technique and current control (CC) technique. The CC
techniques [73, 84], where error compensation and
voltage modulation determine the various switching states,
have been widely adopted with linear and/or nonlinear
control strategies. In the linear control methodologies,
stationery PI controller or ramp comparison current
control, synchronous vector PI control, state feedback
control, predictive control and deadbeat control are the
various approaches followed [73, 84, 151, 169]. The
nonlinear group of controllers [73, 84, 148, 157, 161,
175, 205] includes hysterisis control [75, 84, 165, 244],
delta modulation (DM) or pulse DM current control and
online optimised controller [84]. For improving
controllability and operational performance of STATCOMs
under various system conditions, fuzzy logic, neural network,
Figure 16 PI-control algorithm of two-level GTO-VSC based neuro-fuzzy artificial intelligence/rule-based techniques and
STATCOM power circuit related supplementary pre-compensators are introduced in
www.ietdl.org
Figure 17 Control algorithm of three-level GTO-VSC based STATCOM power circuit
the control of STATCOMs [73, 84, 154, 156, 161, 162, 166, state-of-the-art turn-off switches are presented in [16, 41, 45,
183, 201, 215, 218, 222]. For qualitative improvement of 47] such as GTOs: 6 kV, 6 kA; IGBTs: 6.5 kV, 2000 A [16]
electrical system, DSP-based indirect current control or 6.5 kV, 600 A or 4.5 kV, 900 A; IGCTs: 6 kV, 6 kA and
techniques [180–182, 193, 247, 273] have assumed a conventional thyristors – 8 kV, 3.5 kA. From Table 1, it is
significant role. Analytical analysis of various control seen that the self-commutating solid-state GTO device is the
parameters by space vector analysis has been presented in main power switching element used in most converter circuits
[31, 106, 136, 137–140, 160]. Mathematical models of of high power rating STATCOMs.
STATCOM controller to control system parameters during
asymmetric conditions have been proposed based on the In general, the nominal DC-link voltage has to be
sequence analysis [80, 148, 190] and an analysis on relatively a large value to generate converter output voltage
controlling unbalanced voltage conditions is presented in with amplitude similar to that of the AC system voltage
[159, 174]. on the secondary side of the coupling transformer [32] at
zero VAR generation and moderate variation from this
value for rated VAR output. Deriving DC capacitor rating
6 Component selection based on the peak-stored energy requirement is explained
in [58]. The DC capacitor design for static compensator
and ratings is greatly influenced by the ripple factor of the DC voltage
Based on the specific applications, operating requirements, and these aspects are depicted in [58, 123, 134, 135].
system configurations and control strategies, ratings of various Nevertheless, the capacitor size is optimised by
components of STATCOM such as DC capacitor, leakage considering the ripple on the harmonic level at the PCC
inductance of coupling transformers, converter VA ratings and also by taking into consideration the possibility of
and so on, are selected. Solid-state self-commutating switches resonance for a given coupling reactance [170]. The
(GTOs, IGBTs, IGCTs or the like) and a diode connected steady-state and transient-state characteristics of the
in parallel with reverse polarity constitute a valve in converter. controller and the quantum of AC ripple on the DC side
Based on the current and voltage ratings of controllable which is less during balanced conditions and significantly
switches or devices, a group of valves is connected in series to high during unbalanced situation are taken into
obtain the desired voltage rating (sum of rated voltages) of the consideration in determining the size of the capacitor. If
converter. The rms current ratings translate in restrictions on the controller exchanges real power with the system for a
the converter current at AC side and peak current ratings short time, the higher size of the capacitor needs to be
relate to the device turn-off capabilities. One or more provided. It is proposed in [4] that the requirement of
redundant valve is also provided for reliability reasons [145, DC-link component in PWM-mode operation is
235]. Typical maximum voltage and current ratings of various significantly smaller than those needed for a comparable
www.ietdl.org
Table 1 Self-commutating power semiconductor devices used in converters of high power rating statcoms
Sl. Station-utility-Year of operation STATCOM effective capacity Solid-state turn-off

device ratings
1 Inuyama- Kansai Electric Power Corp., +80 MVA (at that time called as static var generator- GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
Japan-1991 SVG)
2 Sullivan-Tennessee Valley Authority +100 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(TVA), US-1996
3 Inez-American Electric Power (AEP), +160 MVA (shunt part of unified power flow GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
US-1998 controller-UPFC)
4 Henan-Henan Power Administration, +20 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
China-1999
5 Marcy-New York Power Authority +200 MVA (+2 100 MVA converter units of GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(NYPA), US-2001 convertible static compensator-CSC)
6 East Clayodon-National Grid Company +75 MVA (re-locatable) GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
(NGC), UK-2001
7 Essex-Vermont Electric Power þ133/241 MVA GTO: 6 kV, 6 kA
Company (VELCO), US-2001
8 Kangjin-Korea Electric Power Corp. +40 MVA (shunt part of +80 MVA unified power GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(KEPCO)-2002 flow controller-UPFC)
9 Talega-San Diego Gas & Electric +100 MVA (+2 50 MVA) GCT: 6 kV, 6 kA
(SDG&E), California-2002
square-wave mode operation. Generally, the capacitor rating in controllers and solid-state-device rating techniques have been
the multi-pulse circuits decreases with the increasing number of presented in [20, 48, 58, 83, 135, 145, 309].
pulses. However, in multi-level converter topologies, the
capacitor rating is almost independent of the number of levels
and they are larger than the VA rating of the compensators. It 7 Specific application areas
is proposed in [123] that DC capacitor rating is 4–18 times
larger than the VA rating of the compensator in the multi-
of statcom
level topologies. STATCOM technology has multi-dimensional applications
[228 – 305] to control power system parameters in steady-
The selection of parameter for coupling reactance of state and dynamic system conditions. As a representative of
the transformer mostly determines the full VAR output of FACTS controller, STATCOM is a matured technology for
the converter, and it is typically not more than 15% of the power quality improvements [55, 61, 117, 260, 268, 274,
nominal system voltage [32]. The selection of the coupling 275], reactive power control, voltage regulation [78, 235],
reactance is heavily constrained by the harmonic power swings/oscillations damping [78, 237, 259, 266, 284,
requirements of the network and, in general, a high value is 286], damping torsional oscillations/SSR damping [202,
preferred to minimise the harmonic distortion at the PCC 250, 262], transmission line capacity enhancement, dynamic
[170]. However, for low leakage reactance, converter rating stability improvement including steady state, transient and
needs to be increased. voltage stability [175, 228, 255, 275, 277, 288, 291, 292,
295, 297, 300, 303], and for application under power system
faults [86, 159, 184, 304]. It is also used as hybrid
The converter loss is one of the significant aspect, which controllers in combination with passive elements [235, 273].
affects the overall efficiency of the controller [74]. The STATCOM has many interesting features such as high
converter loss increases almost proportionally with switching speed of response (sub-cycle), versatile controlling and
frequency and quadratically with the DC voltage. With the operational characteristics, ability to implement controllers
increase of modulation index (m), losses decrease and the of low/medium/high MVA ratings, low-space requirement,
system runs at higher DC voltage for a given reactive current. higher stability margins and so on. It is rapidly replacing the
For optimisation of converter operating losses, switching conventional forced-commutating reactive power controllers,
frequency should be low but m should be maximum. SVC and other slow-acting controllers in power system. In
Mathematical modelling and designing of passive components the field of distribution system, the acronym of this
of many prototype and/or commercial STATCOM controller is D-STATCOM [55, 61, 88, 90, 91, 117, 217,
www.ietdl.org
243, 260, 268, 274, 275, 307] being widely used for power- system dynamics during symmetrical and asymmetrical faults
quality improvement, custom power, voltage regulation, in high-voltage transmission system. In this context,
compensation and balancing of nonlinear loads and/or improving control algorithms employing fuzzy-logic or neural
unbalanced loads, load power factor improvement, harmonic network or neuro-fuzzy logic needs to be investigated for
elimination and so on. Versatile applications of achieving better controllability. In a system using multiple
D-STATCOM for system improvements in distribution level numbers of the state-of-the-art compensators at various
have been well documented in many references [251, 257, potential locations, coordinated control mechanism seems to
243, 256, 260, 263, 268, 274, 310]. Considerable be an interesting area of research in respect to capacity
improvement in electrical machine controls like self-excited optimisation of the compensators ensuring effective utilisation
induction generators (SEIGs) by hysteresis current control of the transmission assets and thus, saving in cost. The
technique and other nonlinear approaches have been concept of voltage re-injection principle in DC-link circuit of
presented in [181, 182, 244, 253, 272]. For harnessing non- STATCOMs operated at fundamental frequency switching is
conventional energy sources such as wind power, applications a good technique to be greatly utilised to improve harmonics
of STATCOMs and its controlling features to control SEIGs performance using less number of sold-state devices and
in wind farm are discussed in [217, 248]. In combination associated components in STATCOM power circuits.
with an energy storage system (battery or magnetic storage
device), STATCOM are being widely utilised [57, 306–313]
for power-quality improvements and also for uninterruptible
9 Simulation tools
power supply and real power exchange during emergency. Many experimental and prototype models of STATCOM
controllers have been reported in research publications.
In high-voltage transmission and high-power rating Simulation of various configurations/topologies, control
applications, many practical STATCOM controllers are strategies, magnetics, filter requirements, component level
in real-time applications and their multi-dimensional designing and so on, have been presented in [314–320] with
advantages are well realised [228, 235, 239, 252, 258, 269, the help of many standard software simulation tools.
278, 280, 281, 282, 301, 306]. STATCOM back-to-back MATLAB/SIMULINK/PSB, EMTP, PSCAD/EMTDC,
inter-tie [271] is a relatively new area of application to SPICE, EUROSTAG and so on, are some of the software
exchange power between two inter-ties and to improve tools being extensively used by researchers and engineers to
voltage stability. It is analogous to HVDC back-to-back simulate various power electronics devices in power system
system named as HVDC light with inherent MVAR circuits, electrical machines and so on. Detailed modelling of
supporting feature. STATCOM controllers and performance analysis and
sensitivities of various passive components under varying
system-operating conditions ensure the researchers and
8 Latest trends and future engineers to firm up the design parameters in pre-fabrication
stage. Employing EMTP simulation program, prototype
developments modelling of typical STATCOM controllers and analysis
IGCT and IGBT devices [47, 48] are the promising self- have been presented in [111, 167, 315, 316, 320]. A specific
commutating solid-state controllable switches that are modelling of D-STATCOM with IGBT converters are
increasingly being used in STATCOMs under PWM mode presented by using power system block set tool box under
of operation due to its low switching losses and fast response MATLAB environment [317, 318, 319].
time relative to GTO switches. Out of these two power
electronic devices, IGCT is the most promising technology
for high power rating STATCOMs. Owing to its qualitative
10 Conclusions
improvement and rapid commercialisation, these devices are STATCOM is the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt compensator
now available with reasonably higher power ratings. Design in FACTS family, which is widely used to control system
and development of high power ratings STATCOMs using dynamics under stressed condition. The self-commutating
IGCT-based VSCs with PWM mode of operation VSC built upon controllable solid-state devices (viz. GTO,
employing multi-pulse and/or multi-level topologies are the IGBT, IGCT and so on) with operation under FFS or PWM
promising area of research. Out of the various multi-level switching principle is the backbone of this compensator.
converter topologies, three-level configuration has been proven Many commendable features of STATCOM viz. four-
to be most practical. It is proposed that in multi-level quadrant operation in P–Q plane (in support of proper energy
topologies, beyond three levels, the controller design for source), high speed of response (sub-cycle), versatile
balancing voltages across the various segments of DC controlling and operational characteristics, optimum voltage
capacitors to be used as energy storage devices is difficult and platform and so on, have been reported in research
therefore higher-level converter configurations are rarely used. publications. STATCOM being a versatile reactive power
Evolving proper controller to meet such specific control compensator has taken the place of the line commutating
objective for multi-level STATCOMs is a potential area of SVC, a relatively slow-acting dynamic shunt controller. The
research. There is a further scope of improving the controller EPRI in USA, who is a pioneer to conduct research and
functions in STATCOMs which would enable to control evolve high power rating STATCOMs employing
www.ietdl.org
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Published in IET Power Electronics

Static synchronous compensators

1 Introduction transistor (IEGT), integrated gate commutated thyristor

Figure 3 STATCOM operating principle and control characteristics

Figure 4 Multi-pulse parallel and series converter conﬁgurations

Figure 15 Basic GTO-VSC based STATCOM operation and control architecture

Figure 17 Control algorithm of three-level GTO-VSC based STATCOM power circuit

Sl. Station-utility-Year of operation STATCOM effective capacity Solid-state turn-off

[16] ARRILLAGA J., LIU Y.H., WATSON N.R. : ‘Flexible power

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