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Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19

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Very-low-frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) measurements

in the Schirmacheroasen area, East Antarctica
P. Gnaneshwar, A. Shivaji 1, Y. Srinivas 2, P. Jettaiah, N. Sundararajan*
Centre for Exploration Geophysics, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, India
Received 1 August 2009; revised 9 June 2010; accepted 27 September 2010
Available online 20 November 2010

Abstract

To assess the feasibility of the very-low-frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) method in the Schirmacheroasen area of East
Antarctica, and to investigate its response, VLF-EM measurements were performed along four traverses. The preliminary results
reveal the locations of geological boundaries and shear zones/faults, which may indicate that VLF anomalies are due to shear zones
or alteration zones located along contacts between different rock types. The strength of the VLF anomaly decreases over the polar
ice cap. The inphase component of the VLF anomaly, when processed and interpreted with an analytic signal approach, yields
a depth range of 15e30 m, whereas Fraser and Hjelt filter analyses yield a depth range of 25e60 m. The VLF-EM responses along
all four traverses, along with their interpretations, are presented here as a case study.
Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V. and NIPR. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Antarctica; VLF-EM method; Inphase; Out-of-phase; Fraser filtering

1. Introduction Lambert Glacier region to the surface geology of the area.

McLean et al. (2009) studied geological exposures in the
The recent availability of geochronological data and Lambert Rift region and utilized airborne magnetic,
geological observations has led to a revision of our gravity, and ice radar data to interpret the distribution and
understanding of the geological setting of East Antarctica architecture of tectonic terranes that are largely buried
as the central continent of Gondwana (Ravikant, 2006; beneath a thick ice sheet. Although the free-air and
Reading, 2006; Santosh et al., 2009). For example, Bouguer gravity anomaly data for East Antarctica are
Reading (2006) linked the seismic structure of the strongly influenced by the sub-ice and mantle topog-
raphy, the interpretation of these geophysical data pro-
vides an insight into the distribution and geometry of four
* Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Earth tectonic blocks (McLean et al., 2009), supported by
Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Post Box 36, Postal Code 123, surface observations (e.g., lithological descriptions, iso-
Al Khod, Muscat, Oman. topic data, and structural mapping).
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Sundararajan). More than 95% of Antarctica is covered by a thick ice
1
Present address: Centre for Marine Living Resources & Ecology,
sheet, meaning that electromagnetic (EM) surveys play
Cochin 682 037, India.
2
Present address: Centre for GeoTechnology, Manonmaniam a vital role in unraveling the complexities of the subsur-
Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli 627 012, India. face geology, including the bedrock topography and

1873-9652/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier B.V. and NIPR. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.polar.2010.09.001
12 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19

subsurface structure (Behrendt and Wold, 1963; Bormann largest area of granulite facies rocks in the world, sit-
et al., 1986). Although many factors may hamper the uated approximately half way between the main
propagation of a very low frequency (VLF) signal mountain range and the present coastline. The rocks of
(including the presence of highly resistive ice sheets, the Schirmacher Range have undergone multiple epi-
wind-induced electrostatic noise, magnetic storms, and sodes of metamorphism, magmatisation, and deforma-
disturbed ionosphere activity), Wannamaker et al. (2004) tion (Sengupta, 1986). Banded gneiss is the dominant
provided a new view of the geology and geophysics below rock type in the Schirmacher Range; compositional
the South Pole region, based on high-quality magneto- variation in the gneisses reflects the non-uniformity of
telluric (MT) data acquired using specialized hardware. the metamorphic rocks. The rock sequences, intrusives,
In addition, Pfaffling et al. (2007) developed an algorithm and tectonites of the Schirmacher Range have been
that enables sea-ice thickness inversion of helicopter- classified into banded gneiss (thin and thick bands),
borne EM data; the accuracy and applicability of this augen gneiss, biotite gneiss, pyroxene granulites,
algorithm were validated by synthetic data and drillhole amphibolites, calcsilicates, dolorites, basalts, vein
data from East Antarctica. quartz, and pegmatites (Sundararajan and Rao, 2005),
The Indian scientific expeditions to Antarctica in as shown in a geological map of the Schirmacher Oasis
the early 1980s focused on the utility of magnetic area (Fig. 1).
anomalies in delineating structural features across
areas such as the Princess Astrid Coast (Arora et al., 3. VLF-EM measurements
1985). Magnetic mapping over the Schirmacheroasen
(Shirmacher Oasis) region revealed low-amplitude The theory that underlies the VLF-EM technique is
fluctuations, indicating weak magnetization and little well described in the literature (Paterson and Ronka,
spatial variation in the elevation of bedrock 1971; Phillips and Richards, 1975). The VLF-EM
(Bhattacharya and Majumdar, 1987; Gupta and Verma, technique is a passive method that uses radiation from
1986; Mittal and Mishra, 1985; Shikhar et al., 1988). ground-based military radio transmitters (used for
Although the VLF-EM method has been primarily navigation, of which there are about 42 worldwide)
used to map conductive ore deposits (Paal, 1965) it is operating in the VLF band (15e30 kHz) as the primary
useful in investigating the nature of shallow geological EM field. These transmitters generate plane EM waves
features at high resolution (e.g., Aina and Emofurieta, that can induce secondary eddy currents, particularly in
1991). Hence, the 13th and 15th Indian expeditions to electrically conductive elongate 2-D targets. Although
Antarctica performed VLF-EM measurements in the this range is very low for radio transmission, it is
Schirmacher Oasis region with the aim of establishing higher than that used in standard low-frequency EM
the utility (and understanding the response) of the VLF methods (1e3 kHz). Paal (1965) observed that radio
signal in this region, which is known to experience waves at VLFs could be used to prospect for conduc-
frequent magnetic storms. Accordingly, these expedi- tive mineral deposits. Subsequently, VLF transmitters
tions performed VLF-EM measurements (inphase and situated at several locations worldwide have been
quadrature components) along four traverses around the widely used as EM sources for near-surface geological
permanent Maitri research station (India) in East mapping (Ramesh Babu et al., 2007).
Antarctica. These data are analyzed in the present study. The VLF method generally yields considerable EM
anomalies, even over poor conductors such as sheared
2. Geology of the Schirmacher Range contacts, fracture zones, and faults. Hence, this method
has been the most popular tool for the rapid mapping of
The Precambrian basement of the East Antarctic near-surface geological structures (Parker, 1980; Phillips
shield is largely covered by ice, although limited and Richards, 1975; Saydam, 1981; Sundararajan et al.,
outcrops occur along the coastline. The Schirmacher 2006). The VLF-EM unit is a sensitive receiver,
Range is a rock oasis between the continental ice sheet covering the frequency band of the VLF-transmitting
and the coastal ice shelf, occupying an area of app- stations and capable of measuring the vertical compo-
roximately 35 km2 (70
440 3000 Se70
460 3000 S latitude, nents of the secondary field generated by lateral changes
11
240 400 Ee11
540 E longitude). The major mountains in conductivity in earth materials. Herein, that part of the
of Dronning Maud Land run for about 1000 km vertical field which is inphase with the horizontal field is
approximately parallel to the coast. The Schirmacher called the ‘inphase component’; that part which is out-of-
Range, which trends roughly eastewest, belongs to the phase with the horizontal magnetic field is called the
East Antarctic Charnockite Province, which is the ‘out-of-phase (quadrature) component’.
 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19 13

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Schirmacheroasen area, East Antarctica, showing the locations of VLF-EM traverses.

The equipment used for our survey was a VLF-R quadrature components are shown in Fig. 2(a). The data
Meter (Geonics Ltd, Canada). The device was tested in show two main cross-overs in the inphase and quadrature
terms of reception of a clear VLF response when operated profiles. The cross-over towards the southern end of the
in the Antarctic environment, which is known for traverse (peak-to-peak amplitude of 40% of the inphase
frequent magnetic storms that may hinder the trans- component) falls in a depression zone, possibly indi-
mission of VLF signals. To minimize contamination of cating a fault, as fault-related depression zones are
the VLF band by natural high-frequency radio noise from sometimes recognized as shear bands (Bormann et al.,
the ionosphere or aurora, measurements were repeated 1986). The other cross-over occurs near the middle of
twice. Use of the VLF-EM unit revealed that the the profile (240e280 m), corresponding to the southern
Australian broadcasting signal (NWC, frequency margin of the norite body. At the northern end of the
22.3 kHz) was clear enough to conduct a VLF-EM profile, the inphase signature and quadrature component
survey in the Schirmacher Oasis region. We performed show a large negative amplitude over an area of banded
measurements of inphase and quadrature components of gneisses.
the VLF-EM response along four profiles (Fig. 1). During
the survey, frequent repetitions of the measurements 3.2. Traverse-II
were made to assess the repeatability of the observations.
In the following sections, we briefly describe and inter- Traverse-II trends NEeSW across a narrow shear
pret the measured inphase and quadrature components of zone located adjacent to a lake at a site 1 km west of
VLF anomalies along the four traverses. Maitri station (M in Fig. 1). The shear zone, 1.5 m wide,
is mylonitized. The inphase signature shows a cross-over
3.1. Traverse-I at approximately 130 m along the traverse, coincident
with the shear zone (as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 2
Traverse-I crosses a hill of olivine-bearing norite (b)). The imaginary signature (quadrature component),
located adjacent to Taatvanett Lake (TL) (the Indian on the other hand, shows an inverse relationship with
name for this lake is Priyadarshini Lake) (Fig. 1). The topography, probably reflecting the terrain effect.
width of the norite body [dyke like body dominated by
orthopyroxene (hypersthene), calcic plagioclase and 3.3. Traverses-III and -IV
small grains of ilmenite (Simpson and Aslund, 1996).
Norite is medium-coarse grained and is characterised by Traverse-III (Fig. 3(a)) trends approximately NEe
a subhedral granular texture.] along the traverse is about SW and crosses a fault located near Trishul Hill (TH in
35 m. The traverse trends approximately NeS and is Fig. 1, 4 km west of Maitri). The fault has displaced
400 m long. The raw data profiles of the inphase and a 2-m-wide pegmatite vein that occurs within the banded
14 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19

Fig. 2. (a) VLF-EM inphase and quadrature components (Traverse-

I). (b) VLF-EM inphase and quadrature components (Traverse-II).

Fig. 3. (a) VLF-EM inphase and quadrature components (Traverse-

gneissic rock. The pegmatite ends abruptly against the III). (b) VLF-EM inphase and quadrature components (Traverse-IV).
fault plane; the pegmatite on the other side of the fault
cannot be seen because of ice cover. Traverse-IV (Fig. 3
(b)) was located in an ice-covered area, upon the polar ice differencing successive values of the inphase component
cap near ‘Dozer Point’ at Maitri station (DP in Fig. 1). along the profile. The Fraser filter shifts the data by 90
;
The level of the VLF signal on the polar ice cap is i.e., it transforms the anomaly such that those parts with
markedly reduced compared with that in areas of bare the maximum slope appear with the maximum ampli-
rock. The inphase signature indicates that the traverse tude. As a sequence of consecutive readings of inphase
crosses the boundary of the depression zone identified in data (Nabighian, 1982), referred to as M1, M2, M3 and
Traverse-I. M4, the term (M2  M1) not only shifts the dip angle but
also attenuates the spatial wavelengths. Numerical
4. Filtering procedure averaging of the weighted values of three adjacent sets of
such differences [i.e., (M2  M1)/4 þ (M3  M2)/2 þ
To overcome the effect of temporal variations in the (M4  M3)/4, which reduces to (M3 þ M4)  (M1 þ
magnetic field (e.g., due to changes in the wave guided by M2)] results in a reduced noise level.
the surface and bottom of the ionosphere), Fraser (1969) Karous and Hjelt (1983) made use of linear filtering in
devised a simple numerical filter (the Fraser filter) that analyzing VLF inphase data, which is an extension of the
converts cross-over of the current polarity into peaks by Fraser filter. The authors described the magnetic field
 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19 15

arising from a subsurface 2-D current distribution values. Negative parts on both sides of the conductor can
assumed to be located in a thin horizontal sheet of be caused either by the length of the filter or by a decrease
varying current density situated everywhere at a depth in current density due to current gathering, which is not
equal to the distance between measurement stations. This present in 2-D structures (Nabighian, 1982).
approach involves filtering the same dataset for various In its simplest form, the Fraser filter can be
depths and indicates the change in current density with expressed as
depth. The areas with high current density correspond to ðDz=2pÞIxðDx=2Þ ¼  0:205H2 þ 0:323H1
good conductors. In the absence of numerical modeling,
this filtering technique has found wide popularity  1:446H0 þ 1:446H1  0:323H2
because it provides a simple, readily implemented sch- þ 0:205H3 Ia ðDx=2Þ ð1Þ
eme for semi-quantitative analysis and target visualiza-
tion (Ramesh Babu et al., 2007; Sundararajan et al., where Δz is the assumed thickness of the current sheet,
2006). The apparent current density pseudo-section Ia is the current density, and Dx is the distance between
should provide a pictorial indication of the depths of data points (and also the depth to the current sheet). The
various current concentrations and hence the spatial values of H2 through H3 are the normalized vertical
distribution of subsurface geological features (Ogilvy magnetic field anomaly at each of the six data points.
and Lee, 1991). Over conductors, the inphase part of The location of the calculated current density is beneath
the equivalent current distribution has only positive the center of the six data points.

Fig. 4. (a) Analytic signal analysis of the VLF-EM inphase component (Traverse-I). (b) Analytic signal analysis of the VLF-EM inphase
component (Traverse-II).
16 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19

5. Processing and interpretation

Although the VLF method has been widely used in

recent decades to map shallow subsurface structures,
VLF anomalies are mainly interpreted based on anomaly
curves and monograms (e.g., Kaikkonen, 1979; Saydam,
1981). Filtering and subsequent contouring of the
observed responses are commonly employed to derive
qualitative information about the subsurface (Fraser,
1969; Karous and Hjelt, 1977, 1983). Multidimen-
sional numerical modeling and inversion are needed to
determine quantitatively the geometrical and physical
subsurface parameters from VLF anomalies. Because
there are no well-defined quantitative methods for inte-
rpreting VLF data, we employ an analytic signal app-
roach (Sundararajan, 1983), and the Fraser filter or Hjelt
filter, which are semi-quantitative in nature. Freely
available MATLAB-based software (Sundararajan et al.,
2006) was used to process the measured components of
VLF-EM signals. In the following sections, these
methods are briefly discussed and the inphase compo-
nent of VLF data (for all the traverses) is interpreted and
presented.
5.1. Amplitude analysis

Amplitude analysis of the VLF anomalies under

discussion involves computation of the Hilbert trans-
form of the inphase component of VLF profiles and
then the amplitude of the analytic signal, as discussed Fig. 5. (a) Analytic signal analysis of the VLF-EM inphase
component (Traverse-III). (b) Analytic signal analysis of the VLF-
previously (Nabighian, 1972; Sundararajan, 1983; EM inphase component (Traverse-IV).
Sundararajan and Srinivas, 1996; Sundararajan et al.,
2000). If v(x) and h(x) are the inphase component intersection of the anomaly and its Hilbert transform.
and its Hilbert transform, respectively, then the Alternatively, the shape, size, and width of the
analytic signal can be expressed as amplitude of the analytical signal can be related
aðxÞ ¼ vðxÞ  ihðxÞ: ð2Þ empirically to the depth of the causative bodies. In the
case of traverses IeIV, the evaluated depths range
Furthermore, the amplitude of the analytic signal from 15 to 30 m, which differ from the depths evalu-
can be given as ated based on magnetic data (Sundararajan and Rao,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 2005).
 2 
aaðxÞ ¼ vðxÞ þhðxÞ : ð3Þ
2

5.2. Fraser filter and Hjelt filter analyses

The amplitude defined above is a key factor in
precisely locating the origin of the causative in the An additional interpretative tool based on pseudo-
interpretation. The VLF anomaly (inphase compo- sections of the filtered outputs is applied in the present
nent), the Hilbert transform, and the amplitude of analysis. This tool is obtained by processing a single
Traverses-I and -II are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), data profile by either the Fraser filter or the Hjelt filter
respectively; the data for Traverses-III and -IV are (Karous and Hjelt, 1977), or by both at various lengths
shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b), respectively. The amplitude or spans. With increasing length of the filter, the
of the analytic signal analysis clearly indicates the responses from increasing depths become increasingly
presence of multiple bodies. The depth of the contact pronounced. Therefore, if the outputs are arranged on
can be estimated from the abscissa of the points of a section so that greater depths correspond to longer
 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19 17

Fig. 6. (a) Fraser-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-I). (b) Fig. 7. (a) Fraser-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-II). (b)
Hjelt-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-I). Hjelt-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-II).

filters, the section should approximately resemble the useful for obtaining a qualitative view of the structure,
current pattern in the ground. However, it must be particularly after filtering the data and analyzing the
emphasized that this is only an approximation of the current density across the section. For a more reliable
section (Wright, 1988). Thus, construction of the interpretation, VLF data alone are not sufficient;
pseudo-section consists of a number of steps, like
processing profiles with as many as number of levels
(approximately 5 or 6); at each level, in terms of
integer multiples of the station spacing (nDx; where n
is the number of levels and Dx is the station spacing).
Finally, the results separated by nDx at each level are
plotted one below the other, thereby forming a section.
The inphase components of all the traverses are
subjected to both Fraser filtering and Hjelt filtering,
using interactive MATLAB-based software (Ramesh
Babu et al., 2007; Sundararajan et al., 2006). The
corresponding pseudo-sections (plots of station interval
vs. depth) are shown in Figs. 6e9. The inferred depth
from the pseudo-sections ranges from 25 to 60 m,
thereby partially correlating with depths obtained from
analytic signal analysis, as discussed earlier.
Although it is known theoretically that the
conductor lies at the maximum of the negative gradient
(inflexion) of the VLF inphase component, we prefer
the cross-over of the inphase and quadrature compo-
nents as an indicator of a conductor (Sundararajan
et al., 2006), based on our earlier VLF-EM study of
groundwater (Sundararajan et al., 2007). The inter-
pretation of VLF data may be difficult because the
transmitted frequency may give rise to secondary fields Fig. 8. (a) Fraser-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-III). (b)
from many geological features. However, VLF data are Hjelt-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-III).
18 P. Gnaneshwar et al. / Polar Science 5 (2011) 11e19

Schirmacher Oasis region proved to be useful in terms of

geological mapping in a polar region. Although the
signal level of VLF anomalies was weak, various
geological bands were apparent. Analytic signal an-
alysis of the VLF-EM inphase component yields a depth
range of geological structures of 15e30 m. Fraser and
Hjelt filtered analyses of the inphase component yield
a deeper depth range. The VLF-EM method is a useful
tool, although with some limitations, for rapid and
economical mapping of geophysical structures. The
analysis of VLF-EM signals from more than one trans-
mitter may enhance the reliability of the results.

Acknowledgments

The authors offer their sincere and profound thanks

to all the reviewers for their useful comments and
many suggestions regarding revisions to the manu-
Fig. 9. (a) Fraser-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-IV). script. The corresponding author (NSR), extends his
(b) Hjelt-filtered inphase component (in %; Traverse-IV). grateful thanks to Prof. Kazuo Shibuya (National
Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo, Japan), Editor in
however, they can be appropriately used with other Chief, Polar Science for his keen interest and many
available geophysical data to reduce the non-unique- useful editorial suggestion to improve the manuscript.
ness of estimation of depth to conductors. The first two authors and the corresponding author
(NSR) are grateful to the then Department of Ocean
6. Discussion Development, Government of India, for providing the
opportunity to take part in the 14th and 15th Indian
In general, the inphase and quadrature components of Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica. The correspond-
all four traverses are relatively weak, due to the presence ing author (NSR) extends his thanks to Dr. Baskar
of the highly resistive ice sheet, wind-induced electro- Rao (Antarctica Study Centre, Goa) and Dr. A. Mitra
static noise, magnetic storms, and disturbed ionosphere for their help prior to and during the expedition. We
activity, among other factors. The sudden commencement thank Osmania University and in particular the
of geomagnetic storms is related to high-latitude electron Department of Geophysics for extending all possible
precipitation, in which case VLF anomalies are weak and assistance.
small in size. Despite the poor signal quality, the norite
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