The evolution of man began about 15 million years ago when the first known man

walked this earth. Humans today developed through many stages of evolution from
primates that are now extinct. This evolutionary process from the primates who walked
on all four limbs to the humans today who walk on two hind limbs has been a very long
one.

The genus of the human being today is called Homo and the man today is called
as Homo sapiens. From simple life forms that were unicellular to the development of
multicellular organisms gave rise to the vertebrates. The vertebrates began evolving that
led to the development of mammals. Among the mammals, humans are most closely
related to primates such as the orangutan

The family to which human beings belong is called Hominidae. It was in the
Miocene age that the family Hominidae split from the Pongidae(apes) family.
Dryopethicus was the first in the evolution of man in the stages of evolution and some
believe him to be the common ancestor of man and apes.

Q. 3 Define the term ‘culture’, trace the origin, development and spread of culture
in Pakistan with reference to the Indus Valley Civilization.

CULTURE
 Origin
The word 'culture' comes from the Latin cultus, which means 'care', and from the
French colere which means 'to till' as in 'till the ground'. There are many terms that stem
from the word culture.

 Definition
There is no exact meaning of culture. It is decribed in many ways. Following are
some of them.

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 "Culture" refers to the collective belief systems, values, attitudes, meanings and
attitudes expressed by a group of people. Human nature is determined, to a large
extent, by culture and the ideals that are expressed through cultural norms.
 "Culture" is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,
encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts
 "Culture" is the collective norms, rituals, and behaviors that a group of people share,
but as the anthropologist Clifford Geertz defines it also includes symbols being
transmitted through time within a system.
 "Culture" is the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes
an institution or organization
 "Culture" is the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious,
or social group
 "Culture" is the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded
collectively.
 "Culture" is the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or society

 Explanation
Culture defines how groups and individuals relate to people within the same
culture and people of different cultures. It appears in the form of language, religion,
biases and behaviors of communities. Culture is passed down from generation to
generation through shared knowledge and communication. It is through culture that
individuals understand their role within their society and develop a mindset that
conforms to the values and behaviors of other members of their culture.

Subcultures are another form of culture. They are most common in environments
where there are a lot of people from a wide range of cultures who all live together. For
instance, in the United States, subcultures of the predominant American culture include
African-Americans, Asian-Americans and Mexican-Americans. Each subculture has its own
set of standards, values and attitudes that share similarities and differences with the
predominant culture. Often, people conform to the norms of subcultures in order to
align themselves with people that come from their common ancestral background and
experience.

SPREAD OF CULTURE IN PAKISTAN

With Reference To The Indus Valley Civilization
 Introduction

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 Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BC), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient
riverine civilization that flourished in the Indus river valley in Pakistan. Another name for
this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first excavated city of Harappa.

The ruins of Harappa were first described by Charles Masson in his Narrative of
Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and Punjab,1826-1838; however, its
significance was not realized until muchlater. Moreover, in 1857, British engineers
unwittingly employed bricks from the Harappa ruins in the construction of the East
(British) Indian Railway line connecting Karachi and Lahore. More than half a century
later, in 1912, Harappan seals—with the then unknown symbols—were discovered by J.
Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921/22,
and resulting in the discovery of the hitherto unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahni. By
1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but minor campaigns continued, such
as that led by Mortimer Wheeler in 1950.

The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 BCE to 1900
BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures—Early Harappan and
Late Harappan, respectively—the entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have
lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for the
periodization of the IVC: Phases and Eras. The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and
Late Harappan phases are also called the "Regionalisation," "Integration," and
"Localisation" eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching back to the
Neolithic Mehrgarh II period.

 Decade Of The 1940s

Greatness is created through synthesis, and when old ideas are challenged by new
paradigms. The decade of the 1940s saw the North East states of British India challenged
by secular Muslim nationalism. What does that mean to us? We are still in the process of
understanding it. But in doing so, we have relied on too many easy answers. Our
national identity is based on repudiation; we choose to identify ourselves in the negative:
we are not India. Our inability to step forward is because we have failed to create any
synthesis from the social and political currents available to us. Let us then challenge our
paralysis and press forward with our inquiry — let us seek to imagine who we are, and
who we could be.

 Our Heritage Back In The Indus Valley Civilization

Our history does not start with 1947, nor with Muhammed bin Qasim’s (in)
famous and glorified conquest of Sindh. Those events are important but form an
incomplete story of our past. Our heritage goes back to the Indus Valley Civilization, one
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of the first people to build the great cities of Moenjadaro and Harappa, a complex
language and mathematical system, and centers of commerce in Asia. The source of this
great civilization was the Indus River whose mighty banks nourished and fed its people.
Today it is not nuclear weapons that protect our country but the Indus, whose artery
and tributaries provide the life flow of our country. By remembering that we are the
heirs of the Indus Valley Civilization, we can shift our focus from the anti to the river
itself. We can concentrate on protecting our environment and saving the river that is
literally the lifeblood of the country, and the source of our food and electricity. We are a
natural nation bound by the Indus, if the Indus dries out the country will collapse.

This doesn’t mean that we completely ignore the advent of the Mughals, the
conquest of the British, the height of Hindu-Muslim unity during the war of
independence and its subsequent breakdown, despite the best efforts of members of the
leadership class. And of course, the bloodshed in the years leading to Partition – events
which concluded that religion was going to play a role, however so undefined, in the
consciousness of the masses of Pakistan.

While religion comes from the same source, it is up to different countries and
peoples on how to interpret it to enrich their lives. That is why the Islam practiced in
Saudi Arabia is different from the one practiced in most of Pakistan.

 Relationship Between the Pre-Islamic, Pre-

Christian Indus Valley Civilization To Today’s
Islamic Republic Of Pakistan
These two strands of the secular and religious deliberately create a powerful
contradiction. Contradictions are good because they deny any single understanding of
morality and create a vibrant society through debate and compromise.

Embracing our Indus past will enable us to reject Arab cultural imperialism in the
name of religion, and will help us discard the Two-Nation Theory. We will be focused
not on fighting wars with India, but in making the greatest cities in the world. Cities like
those of the past, which valued trade and commerce and became the hub of Indo-
Persian-Chinese commerce. Let our market places be flooded by people from all over the
world and be a blend of cultures. We will be a country that celebrates diversity; ethnic
diversity of the many languages and cultures around the ecosystem of the great river, and
religious diversity, for it will be a country for (all types of) Muslims, Christians, Hindus,
Buddhists, Sikhs who can respect this ecosystem. It will be a country that empowers its
minorities. And once religion is prevented from being abused we can truly reconcile it
with modernity and our legacy of British constitutionalism.

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 Once our conscious awakens to this idea, we will be a renewed nation. On the
crumbling edifices of Moenjadaro and Harappa we will once more build great cities, and
build a great country.

 Conclusion
Thus, the Indus Valley Civilization came to an end. Over the course of several
centuries, the Aryans gradually settled down and took up agriculture. The language
brought by the Aryans gained supremacy over the local languages: the origin of the most
widely spoken languages today in south Asia goes back to the Aryans, who introduced
the Indo-European languages into the Indian subcontinent. Other features of modern
Indian society, such as religious practices and caste division, can also be traced back to
the times of the Aryan migrations. Many pre-Aryan customs still survive in India today.
Evidence supporting this claim includes: the continuity of pre-Aryan traditions; practices
by many sectors of Indian society; and also the possibility that some major gods of the
Hindu pantheon actually originated during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization and
were kept "alive" by the original inhabitants through the centuries.

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 http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0005/meaning.php

https://www.reference.com/world-view/meant-term-culture-7e2e1a7d7ba04a04

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture

https://www.ancient.eu/Indus_Valley_Civilization/

https://www.dawn.com/news/1429490

https://www.dawn.com/news/728611

http://ancientpakistan.info/pakistan-history-timeline/indus-valley/

Q. 3 Write short notes on the followings;

a) Gandhara Art
b) Epigraphy in Pakistan
c) Coins of Pakistan

a) GANDHARA ART
Treasure trove of arte facts belonging to the ancient Gandhara civilisation that
existed from the middle of the first millennium BCE to the beginning of the second
millennium CE, in what is present-day northern Pakistan and Afghanistan, were
unearthed from the 3,000-year-old epic city known as Takshashila, Taksasila or the
modern Taxila and are housed in the National Museum in Karachi.

The history of Gandhara shows political rule of multiple dynasties over the
centuries. Being a strategically located city and the centre of ancient trade routes, Taxila
suffered repeated ownership conflict and was destroyed and rebuilt multiple times.
However, the arte facts discovered from the excavated ancient site of Taxila show a
remarkable uniformity of native cultural traditions that persisted through the
Achaemenid, Greek, Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Scythian, Parthian, Kushan, Han and Hindu
dynasties, up to the Muslim conquest in the beginning of the mediaeval period.

A rich collection of relics housed in the National Museum in Karachi depicts the
Gandharan civilisation’s complex cultural history as well as its evolving artistic traditions

The Greek historian Arrian speaks of Taxila as one of the most flourishing among
the cities that lay between the River Indus and Hydaspes (presently Jhelum) at the time
of Alexander the Great. Strabo, the Greek geographer, philosopher and historian who

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lived in south-western Asia during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the
Roman Empire, tells us that Taxila was thickly populated and extremely fertile, as the
mountains gradually subsided into plains. Another Greek historian, biographer and
essayist, Plutarch, remarked on the richness of the soil. Buddhist pilgrim and seventh-
century traveller Hsiian Tsang also writes in a similar strain of the land’s fertility, its rich
harvests, flowing streams and luxuriant vegetation.

Gandhara art presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. Earlier at
Bharhut and Sanchi, the Buddha’s presence was represented by symbols, such as the pipal
tree, the wheel of life, footprints, and an empty throne. The Gandhara style was
profoundly influenced by 2nd-century Hellenistic art and was itself highly influential in
central and eastern Asia. Ivories and imported glass and lacquer-ware attest to the
cosmopolitan tastes and extensive trade that characterized the period. Stupas and
monasteries were adorned with relief friezes, often carved in dark schist, showing figures
in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies.

The Gandhara School lasted at least locally until the Muslim invasions in the 7th
and 8th centuries. The architecture is mainly of stone, frequently adorned with sculpture
in either schist or stucco. The monuments take the form of Buddhist stupas and
monasteries. The sculptures are almost entirely Buddhist: many of the details and motifs
find close parallels in the contemporary art of Rome. The schools of Gandhara and
Mathura influenced each other, and the general trend was away from a naturalistic
conception and toward a more idealized, abstract image. The Gandharan craftsmen
made a lasting contribution to Buddhist art in their composition of the events of the
Buddha’s life into set scenes.

https://www.dawn.com/news/1391608

https://storyofpakistan.com/gandhara-art

b) COINS OF PAKISTAN
In 1948, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 pice, 1⁄2, 1 and 2 annas, 1⁄4,
1⁄ and 1 rupee. 1 pie coins were added in 1951. In 1961, coins for 1, 5 and 10 pice were
2

issued, followed later the same year by 1 paisa, 5 and 10 paise coins. In 1963, 10 and 25
paise coins were introduced, followed by 2 paise the next year. 1 rupee coins were
reintroduced in 1979, followed by 2 rupees in 1998 and 5 rupees in 2002. 2 paise coins
were last minted in 1976, with 1 paisa coins ceasing production in 1979. The 5, 10, 25
and 50 paise all ceased production in 1996. There are two variations of 2 rupee coins:

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most have clouds above the Badshahi Masjid but many do not. The one and two rupee
coins were changed to aluminium in 2007.

Paisa denominated coins ceased to be legal tender in 2013, leaving the 1 Rupee
coin as the minimum legal tender. On 15 October 2015, the Pakistan government
introduced a revised 5 rupee coin with a reduced size and weight and having a golden
color, made from a composition of copper-nickel-zinc, and also in 2016 a Rs.10 coin was
introduced into circulation.

Secondary groups are diverse. Some are large and permanent; others are small
and temporary. Some are simple; others are complex. Some have written rules; others do
not.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_rupee

Q. 4 What do you know about the terms, ‘Social Organisation’ and ‘Social
Structure’? Highlight the elements of social structure in light of prescribe
reading materials.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 Definitions
Duncan Mitchell: "Social organization means the interdependence of parts which is
essential characteristic of all enduring collective entities, groups, communities and
societies."

Ogburn & Nimkoff. "An organization is an articulation of different parts which

perform various functions, it is an active group device for getting something done."

Broom and Selznick, "an organization means technical arrangement of parts."

Social organization means social relationship among groups. Individuals and groups
interrelated together create social organization. It is the result of social interaction among
people. It is the network of social relationship in which individuals and groups
participate. All the social institutions are social organizations. Associations, clubs and all
other formal groups are organizations. Social systems are also based on' social
organizations. In an organized body; its members get into one another on the basis of
roles and status. The interaction among the members sets them into organizations. The
mode of such interaction is called social organization.

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  Explanation
In an organized society, there is stability and change. Stability is the condition of
equilibrium among the parts of society. It is the state of smooth functioning. During this
condition; the social problems decrease in society. Change is the dynamic condition of
society. An organized society is also changing for the fulfillment of social needs. Abrupt
changes in the form of revolution disrupt the existing social order and disorganization
occurs in society.

The examples of organization can easily be understood from the organs of human
body which are technically joined together called organization of parts in human body.
The parts of a table are prepared separately by the carpenter and then fitted together in
a technical order. This table is an organized body. It means organization is arranging of
parts into its whole. Similarly, social group is an organization of individuals into a social
unit. The individuals set themselves at their positions (status) and by interaction (role)
they make a social group. It means they are fitted themselves into the group according to
their positions. This participation individuals into group is social organization.

 Relationship of Social Organization,

Status and Role
The individuals in a social organization perform their activities according to their
social positions called status. The activities done in an organization are called roles of the
members, Even individual performs his roles according to his status. Therefore, status and
role are the basis of social participation in an organization. An organized body if formal
has its roles and status assigned to its members and offices bearers. The office-bearers like.
President, Vice-President, Secretary in an organization have their roles and status defined
in the rules and regulations of that body. United Nations Organization (U.N.O) all trade
unions and professions associations are the social organizations in which role and status
of the participants are defined

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Social structure refers to the way a society is organized. It is about the way that
various parts of society fit together and work together. Different scholars identify
differen elements of a social structure. Among these elements are such things as:

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  Institutions. These are established patterns of human relationships. These include
things like family and politics that provide set ways for us to interact with one
another.

 Social groups. These are smaller groups that have something in common with one
another. This could be something as small as a family or as large as a religion.

 Status. Within each social group, people have different statuses. You can, for
example, be the child in a family or you can be the husband.

 Roles. These are the expectations that go with your status. If you are a child in a
family you are expected to obey your parents, for example, but are not generally
expected to help support the family.

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/social-groups-and-organizations/social-
organizations

http://www.studylecturenotes.com/basics-of-sociology/what-is-social-organization-meaning-
definition-of-social-organization

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