6 Soc Sci EM Term 3

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
STANDARD SIX
TERM - III
VOLUME - 3
SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department Of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018
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Scheme in Trimester Pattern)
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possess all
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Research and Training
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STANDARD SIX
TERM - III
VOLUME - 3
HISTORY
VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 85 22-11-2018 15:28:30

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CONTENTS
History
Unit Titles Page No.
Society and Culture in Ancient Tamizhagam:
1. 87
The Sangam Age
2. The Post-Mauryan India 100
3. The Age of Empires: Guptas and Vardhanas 112
4. South Indian Kingdoms 128
Geography
1. Asia and Europe 143
2. Globe 171
3. Understanding Disaster 188
Civics
1. Democracy 196
2. Local body 203
3. Road Safety 212
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Unit 1
Society and Culture in
Ancient Tamizhagam:
The Sangam Age
Learning Objectives
• To understand that Sangam Tamil literature is the main source for the study of
ancient Tamil society
• To know the rule of Muvendars (Three Great Kings) – the Chera, Chola and the
Pandya kings – and their contemporary minor chieftains
• To gain an understanding of the administrative system and the socio-economic
conditions of Tamizhagam
• To learn about the Kalabhra period
The Sangam Age

The word ‘Sangam’ refers to the association ArumugaNavalar (Jaffna), U.V.Swaminatha
of poets who flourished under the royal Iyer and Damodharam Pillai (Jaffna) strove
patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai. hard and spent many years in retrieving and
The poems composed by these poets are publishing the Tamil classics and the ancient
Tamil texts, which were originally present as
collectively known as Sangam literature.
palm leaf manuscripts.
The period in which these poems were
composed is called the Sangam Age.
Sources
Inscriptions Hathigumpha Inscription of King Karavela of Kalinga,
Pugalur (near Karur) Inscription, Ashokan Edicts II and
XIII, and inscriptions found at Mangulam, Alagarmalai
and Kilavalavu (all near Madurai)
Copper Plates Velvikudi and Chinnamanur copper plates
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Coins Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the

chieftains of Sangam Age as well as the Roman coins
Megalithic Monuments Burials and Hero stones
Excavated Materials Adichanallur, Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Puhar, Korkai,
from Alagankulam, Uraiyur
Literary Sources Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai (eight anthologies),
Pathupattu (ten idylls), PathinanKeezhkanakku (a
collection of eighteen poetic works), Pattinapalai and
Maduraikanji. Epics Silapathikaram and Manimegalai.
Foreign Notices The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Pliny’s Natural
History, Ptolemy’s Geography, Megasthenes’s Indica,
Rajavali, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa
Tholkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar. It represents the quality of Tamil language and the
culture of Tamil people of the Sangam Age.
Time Span 3rd century BC (BCE) to c. 3rd century AD (CE)
Tamizhagam Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north to

Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south,
Bounded by sea on the east and the west.
Age Iron Age
Culture Megalithic
Polity Kingship
Dynasties ruled The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas
George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University of California, has

said that Tamil is as old as Latin. The language arose as an entirely independent
tradition with no influence of other languages.
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Cheras famous of the Chola kings. He defeated

the combined army of the Cheras,
Muvendars (Three Great Kings) controlled
Pandyas and the eleven Velir chieftains
the territories of Tamizhagam during the
who supported them at Venni, a small
Sangam Age. The Tamil word ‘Vendar’
village in the Thanjavur region. He
was used to refer to three dynasties,
converted forests into cultivable lands.
namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
He built Kallanai (meaning a dam made of
The Cheras ruled over the central and
stone) across the river Kaveri to develop
north Travancore, Cochin, south Malabar
agriculture. Their port Puhar attracted
and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. The
merchants from various regions of the
Pathitrupathu (a collection of ten decades
Indian Ocean. The Pattinapaalai, a poetic
of verses) provides information about the
work in the Pathinenkeezhkanakku, gives
Chera kings. It is known that the Chera
elaborate information of the trading
king Senguttuvan went on a military
activity during the rule of Karikalan.
expedition to North India. He brought
stones from the Himalayas for making the
idol of Kannagi, an epic character from Kallanai
Silappathikaram . He introduced pattini It was a dyke, built with
cult. CheranSenguttuvan’s younger stones. It was constructed
brother was IlangoAdigal. He was the across the Kaveri to divert
author of Silappathikaram. Another Chera water throughout the
delta region for irrigation.
king, CheralIrumporai, issued coins in
When it was built, Kallanai irrigated an
his name. Some Chera coins bear their
area of about 69,000 acres.
emblem of bow and arrow.
Prominent Chera Rulers

UdayanCheralathan
Imayavaramban NetunCheralathan
CheranSenguttuvan
CheralIrumporai
Cholas
Prominent Chola Rulers
The Chola kingdom of Sangam period Ilanchetsenni
extended upto Venkatam (Tirupathi) KarikalValavan
hills. The Kaveri delta region remained Kocengannan
the central part of the kingdom. This KilliValavan
area was later known as Cholamandalam. Perunarkilli
KarikalValavan or Karikalan was the most
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Pandyas kings issued many coins. Their coins have

elephant on one side and fish on another
The Pandyas ruled the present-day southern
side. MudukudimiPeruvazhuthi issued coins
Tamil Nadu. The Pandya kings patronized the
to commemorate his performance of many
Tamil poets and scholars. Several names of
Vedic rituals.
Pandya kings are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Nedunchezhiyan is hailed as Prominent Pandya Rulers
the most popular warrior. He defeated the Nediyon
combined army of the Chera, Chola and five Nanmaran
Velir Chieftains at Talayalanganam. He is MudukudumiPeruvazhuthi
praised as the lord of Korkai. Pandya country Nedunchezhiyan
was well known for pearl hunting. Pandya
Pala
r
S.
Pen
Marakkanam
nar
Arikamedu
Ka
ve
ri Kaveripumpattinam
C H O L A S
Urayur Nagapattinam
Musiri
Pe
riya
r S
A
Y
D Va
N Madurai igai
CH
A
P
ER
Tama Alagankulam
rapa
rani
AS
Korkai
R
I
L A
Kanyakumari
N
K
A
The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars
CHERAN CHOLAN PANDIYAN
• Adhavan • Senni • Maran
• Kuttuvan • Sembiyan • Valuthi
• Vanavan • Killi • Sezhiyan
• Irumporai • Valavan • Tennar
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Royal Insignia
Sceptre (kol), drum (murasu) and white umbrella (venkudai) were used as the symbols
of royal authority.
Muvendar Garland Port Capital Symbols
Palmyra Muziri/ Vanchi/

Cheras
flower Tondi Karur
Bow and arrow
Fig (Athi) Uraiyur/

Cholas Puhar
flower Puhar
Tiger
Pandyas Margosa Korkai Madurai
(neem) flower
Two Fish
Minor Chieftains – seven patrons (KadaiyezhuVallalgal). They

Ay, Velir and Kizhar were Pari, Kari, Ori, Pegan, Ay, Adiyaman
and Nalli. They were popular for their
Apart from three great kings, there were
generous patronage of Tamil poets.
several brave independent minor chieftains.
The name ‘Ay’ is derived from the ancient Tamil Kizhar was the village chief.
word ‘Ayar’ (meaning shepherd). Among Ay
chiefs of Sangam Age, Anthiran, Titiran and Sangam Polity
Nannan were the important names. Kingship
The kingship was hereditary. The king

was called Ko. It is the shortened form
of Kon. Vendan, Kon, Mannan, Kotravan
and Iraivan were the other titles by which
the king was addressed. The eldest son
of the reigning king generally succeeded
to the throne. The coronation ceremony
was known as arasukattilerudhal or
mudisoottuvila. The crown prince was
known as komahan, while the young ones
The Velirs–Vellalars– constituted the were known as Ilango, Ilanchezhiyan and
ruling and land-owning class in the ancient Ilanjeral. King held a daily durbar (naal-
Tamizhagam. The famous Velirs were the avai) at which he heard and resolved all
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the disputes. The income to the state was (shield), tomaram (lance), spears, bows and
through taxation. Land tax was the main arrows. Tomaram is mentioned as a missile
source of revenue and it was called ‘Irai’. to be thrown at the enemy from a distance.
This apart, the state collected tolls and The place where the weapons were kept
customs (sungam), tributes and fines. was known as paddaikottil. The forts were
The kings and soldiers wore the protected by deep moats and trenches. The
heroic anklet (Veera kazhal). On the anklet, war drum was worshipped as a deity.
the name and achievement of the wearer
Law and Justice
were blazoned. Spies were used not only
to find out what was happening within the The king was the final authority for appeal.
country, but also in foreign countries. In the capital town, the court of justice was
A wound in the back was considered called Avai. In the villages, Mandram served
a disgrace and there are instances of as the place for dispensing justice. In civil
kings fasting unto death because they cases, the method of trial followed was to
had suffered such a wound in the battle. call upon the plaintiff to thrust his hand
into a pot containing a cobra. If the cobra
The Court bit him, he was sentenced; if the cobra did
not bite him he was considered innocent
The king’s court was called Arasavai. The
and acquitted. Punishment was always
king occupied a ceremonious throne in the
severe. Execution was ordered for theft
court called Ariyanai. In the court, the king
cases. The punishment awarded for other
was surrounded by officials, distinguished
crimes included beheading, mutilation of
visitors and court poets. The rulers had
the offending limbs of the body, torture
five-fold duties. They were encouraging
and imprisonment and imposition of fines.
learning, performing rituals, presenting
gifts, protecting people and punishing the
criminals. Ambassadors were employed by Local Administration
the kings. They played a significant role. The The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
king was assisted by a number of officials. Mandalam was divided into Nadus . Kurrm
They were divided into Aimperunguzhu was subdivision of Nadu. The Ur was a
(five-member committee) and Enberaayam village, classified into perur (big village),
(eight-member group). Sirur (a small village) and Mudur (an old
village) depending upon its population,
Army
size and antiquity. Pattinam was the
The king’s army consisted of four divisions, name for a coastal town and Puhar was
namely, infantry, cavalry, elephants and the general term for harbour town.
chariot force. The army was known as
‘Padai’. The chief of the army was known Important Towns
as Thanaithalaivan. The prominent weapons Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Muziri,
used during this period were sword, kedayam Vanji or Karur and Kanchi.
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Thinai (tract)-based Sangam Society
The land form was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).
Eco-region
(thinai) Landscape Occupation People Deity
Kurinji Palmyra flower Hunting /gathering Kuravar/kurathiyar Murugan
Mullai Forest region Herding Aayar/aaichiyar Maayon
Marutham Riverine track Agriculture Uzhavan/uzhathiyar Indiran
(plains)
Neithal Coastal region Fishing/saltmaking Parathavar/ nulathiyar Varunan
Palai Parched land Heroic deeds Maravar/Marathiyar Kotravai
Land was classified according to its Sangam period were Sivan, Mayon (Vishnu),
fertility. Marutham was called menpulam Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai. The Hero
(fertile land). It produced paddy and stone (natukkal) worship was in practice.
sugarcane. The rest of the landscape, Buddhism and Jainism also co-existed.
excluding Neithal, was called vanpulam
Veerakkal/Natukkal
(hard land), and it produced pulses and dry
grains. The ancient Tamils had a great respect
for the heroes who died in the battle
Status of Women field. The hero stones were erected to
commemorate heroes who sacrificed their
There was no restriction for women in
lives in war.
social life. There were learned and wise
women. Forty women poets had lived
and left behind their valuable works.
Marriage was a matter of self-choice.
However, chastity (karpu) was considered
the highest virtue of women. Sons and
daughters had equal shares in their
parents’ property.
Caste did not develop in
Women Poets of Sangam Age Tamizhagam as it did in the northern
Avvaiyar, VelliVeethiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar, India. Varuna system (occupation-based
AathiManthiyar, PonMudiyar.
caste) came to the Dravidian south
comparatively late.
Religious Beliefs and Social
Divisions Dress and Ornaments
The primary deity of the Tamils was Seyon The rich people wore muslin, silk and fine
or Murugan. Other gods worshipped during cotton garments. The common people
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also part of the population. Weaving was

the most common part-time occupation
of the farmers and a regular full time job
for many others.
Festivals and Entertainments
People celebrated several festivals. The

harvest festival, (Pongal) and the festival
of spring, kaarthigai, were some of them.
wore two pieces of clothes made of Indira vizha was celebrated in the capital.
cotton. The Sangam literature refers to There were many amusements and
clothes, which were thinner than the skin games. This included dances, festivals,
of a snake (Kalingam). Women adorned bull fights, cock fights, dice, hunting,
their hair plaits with flowers. Both men wrestling and playing in swings. Children
and women wore a variety of ornaments. played with toy cart and with the sand
They were made of gold, silver, pearls, houses made by them.
precious stones, conch shells and beads.
The People were fond of using aromatic Trade
perfumes.
Trade existed at three levels: local,
overland and overseas. The extensive and
Arts
lucrative foreign trade that Tamizhagam
There are many references to variety enjoyed during this period stands
of musical instruments such as drum, testimony to the fact that Tamils had been
flute and yazh. Karikalan was master of great seafarers. Warehouses for storing
seven notes of music (EzhisaiVallavan). the goods were built along the coast. The
Singing bards were called panar and chief ports had light houses, which were
vraliyar. Dancing was performed by called KalangaraillanguSudar. Caravans
kanigaiyar. Koothu (folk drama) was the of merchants carried their merchandise
most important cultural practice of the to different places in oxen-driven carts.
people of Sangam Age. They developed Barter system was prevalent.
the concept of Muthamizh (Iyal, Isai,
Naatakam). Malabar Black Pepper
When the Mummy of Ramses II of the
Occupation Egypt was uncovered, archaeologists
found black pepper corns stuffed into his
The major occupations of the people were:
nostrils and in his abdomen (as a part
agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing and
of embalming process practised in olden
hunting. Other craftsmen like carpenter, days).
blacksmith, goldsmith, and potters were
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There were two kinds of markets or Trade Contact with Overseas

bazaars in the leading cities like Puhar and Countries
Madurai. In Madurai they were Nalangadi Archaeological excavations have
(the morning bazaar) and Allangadi (the confirmed the trading relations between
evening bazaar). In these markets large the Tamizhagam and the countries such
varieties as well as large quantities of goods as Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, South
were sold and purchased. East Asia and Sri Lanka.
Major Ports: Musiri, Tondi, Korkai
Kalabhras
Main Exports
salt, pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spices, Towards the end of the 3rd century AD
diamonds, saffron, precious stones, (CE), the Sangam period slowly went into
muslin, sandal wood a decline. Following the Sangam period,
the Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil
Main Imports
country for about two and half centuries.
Topaz, tin, wine, glass, horses
We have very little information about
Kalabhras. They left neither artefacts
Silk supplied by Indian merchants to
nor monuments. But there is evidence
the Roman Empire was considered
of their rule in literary texts. The literary
so important that the Roman emperor
Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight sources for this period include Tamil
in gold. NavalarCharithai, Yapernkalam and
Periapuranam. SeevakaChinthamani and
Kundalakesi were also written during
Muziris – First Emporium this period. In Tamizhagam, Jainism and
The Roman writer Pliny the Elder writes of Buddhism became prominent during
Muziris in his Natural History as the ‘first this period. Introduction of Sanskrit
emporium (shopping complex) of India’. A and Prakrit languages had resulted in
temple of Augustus was built at Muziris,
the development of a new script called
which had a Roman colony.
Vattezhuththu . Many works under
A papyrus document (now in Vienna PathinenKeezhkanakku were composed.
museum) of 2nd century BC (BCE) records
Trade and commerce continued to flourish
the agreement between two merchants’
during this period. So the Kalabhra period
shippers of Alexandria and Muziris.
is not a dark age, as it is portrayed.
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Elsewhere
Gateway Pyramid Colosseum

Han Dynasty – China Mayan Civilisation Roman Civilisation – Italy
206 BC(BCE) – 220 AD(CE) Central America 3rd BC(BCE) – 1st AD(CE)
Summary Archaeological excavations have

confirmed the trading relations
The word ‘Sangam’ refers to the
between Tamizhagam and many
association of poets who flourished
foreign countries.
under the royal patronage of the
Pandya kings at Madurai. Towards the end of the 3rd century
AD (CE), the Sangam period slowly
Muvendars – the Cheras, Cholas and
started to decline. The Kalabhras
the Pandyas–controlled the territories of
occupied the Tamil country. Evidence
Tamizhagam during the Sangam Age.
of their rule is available in Jain and
Apart from three great monarchs, Buddhist literature.
Tamil country was ruled by several
independent minor chieftains.
GLOSSARY
Strove - tried hard - கடும் முயற்சி

Dynasty - a line of hereditary rulers - ராஜ வம்சம்
Commemorate - to honour the memory of - கெளரவிப்பதற்காக
Royal insignia - symbols of power - அரச சின்னம்
Patronage - support given by a patron - ஆதரவு
Blazoned - displayed vividly - வெளிக்காட்டுதல்
Acquitted - released - விடுதலை
Bards - poets singing in praise of princes - புலவர்கள்
and brave men
Warehouses - a large building for keeping goods - சேமிப்புக் கிடங்கு
Portrayed - described elaborately - சித்தரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளது
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EXERCISE.
I. Choose the correct answer
Pattini cult in Tamil Nadu was introduced by __________________.

1.
a. PandyanNeduncheliyan b. CheranSenguttuvan

c. IlangoAdigal d. Mudathirumaran
Which dynasty was not in power during the Sangam Age?
2.
a. Pandyas b. Cholas

c. Pallavas d. Cheras
The rule of Pandyas was followed by _____________
3.
a. Satavahanas b. Cholas

c. Kalabhras d. Pallavas
The lowest unit of administration during the Sangam Age was______________
4.
a. Mandalam b. Nadu

c. Ur d. Pattinam
What was the occupation of the inhabitants of the Kurinji region?
5.
a. Plundering c. Cattle rearing

c. Hunting and gathering d. Agriculture
II. Read the Statement and tick the appropriate answer
1 Assertion (A): The assembly of the poets was known as Sangam.
Reason (R): Tamil was the language of Sangam literature.
a. Both A and R are true. R is the correct explanation of A.
b. Both A and R are true. R is not the correct explanation of A.
c. A is true but R is false.
d. Both A and R is not true.
2. Which of the following statements are not true?
a. Karikala won the battle of Talayalanganam.
b. The Pathitrupathu provides information about Chera Kings.
c. The earliest literature of the Sangam age was written mostly in the form of prose.
a. 1 only
b. 1 and 3 only
c. 2 only
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3. The ascending order of the administrative division in the ancient

Tamizhagam was
a. Ur˂ Nadu ˂ Kurram ˂ Mandalam
b. Ur ˂ Kurram ˂ Nadu ˂Mandalam
c. Ur ˂Mandalam ˂ Kurram ˂ Nadu
d. Nadu ˂ Kurram ˂ Mandalam ˂Ur
4. Match the following dynasties with the Royal Insignia

Chera
a. - 1. Fish
Chola
b. - 2. Tiger
Pandya
c. - 3. Bow and arrow
A. 3 2 1
B. 1 2 3
C. 3 1 2
D. 2 1 3
III. Fill in the blanks

The battle of Venni was won by ____________________.
1.
The earliest Tamil grammar work of the Sangam period was_____________.

2.
_______________built Kallanai across the river Kaveri.

3.
The chief of the army was known as _________________

4.
Land revenue was called ______________

5.
IV. True or False

The singing bards of the Sangam age were called Irular.
1.
Caste system developed during the Sangam period.

2.
Kizhar was the village chief.

3.
Puhar was the general term for city.

4.
Coastal region was called Marudham.

5.
V. Match
Thennar
a. Cheras
Vanavar
b. Cholas
Senni
c. Velir
Adiyaman
d. Pandyas
VI. Answer in one or two sentences
Name any two literary sources to reconstruct the history of ancient Tamizhagam.
1.
What was Natukkal or Virakkal?
2.
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Name five thinais mentioned in the Sangam literature.

3.
Name any two archaeological sites related to Sangam period.

4.
Name the seven patrons (KadaiyeluVallalgal).

5.
Name any three Tamil poetic works of Kalabhra period.

6.
VII. Answer the following
Discuss the status of women in the Sangam Society.

1.
VIII. HOTs
KarikalValavan is regarded as the greatest Chola king. Justify.

1.
The period of Kalabhra is not a dark age. Give reasons.
2.
IX. Map Work
Mark and colour the extent of Chera, Chola and Pandya empires on the river map
1.
of South India.
Mark the following places.

2.
a. Korkai b. Kaveripoompattinam c. Musiri

d. Uraiyur e. Madurai
X. Life skill
Collect and paste the pictures of landscape and find out the eco-region to which it
belongs. Write the important crops grown and occupation of the people there.
XI Answer Grid
Mention two epics of Name the two groups of Name any two women
the Sangam period. officials who assisted the poets of the Sangam
Ans: king. period.
Ans: Ans:
Name any three major What constituted Silapathikaram was written

ports of Sangam age. Muthamizh? by_____________
Ans: Ans:
Talayalanganam is Which eco-region was called The light houses

related to which Pandya menpulam? in the ports are
king? Ans: called_____________
Ans: Ans:
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Unit 2
The Post-Mauryan
India
Learning Objectives
• To acquire knowledge of the history of dynasties and kingdoms that

emerged after the breakup of the Mauryan Empire
• To gain an understanding of the polity, society, economy, and culture of various kingdoms
that were established in the south, north and north-west of India
• To become familiar with their contributions to early medieval India
Introduction It has to be noted here that, though

Magadha ceased to be the premier state
The break-up of Mauryan Empire resulted
of India, it continued to be a great centre
in the invasions of Sakas, Scythians,
of Buddhist culture.
Parthians, Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks
and Kushanas from the north-west. In the
Sources
south, Satavahanas became independent
after Asoka’s death. There were Sungas Archaeological Sources
and Kanvas in the north before the Inscriptions
emergence of Gupta dynasty. Chedis
(Kalinga) declared their independence. Ayodhya Inscription
of Dana Deva
North Persepolis, Nakshi
North West Sungas and
Kanvas
Rustam Inscriptions
Indo- Greeks,
Sakas, Moga(Taxila copper plate)
Parthians &
Post Mauryan Junagadh/Girnar Inscription
Kushanas
India
Nasik Prasasti
South
Inscription of Darius I
Satavahanas
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Coins follower of Vedic religion.

He performed two
Coins of Satavahanas
Asvamedha yagnas (horse
Coins of Kadphises II
sacrifices) to assert his
Roman coins imperial authority.
Literary Sources During the Sunga period, stone was

replaced by wood in the railings and the
Puranas gateways of the Buddhist stupas as seen
Gargi Samhita in Bharhut and Sanchi.
Harshacharita of Banabhatta
Mahabhasya of Patanjali Pushyamitra was succeeded by his
Brihastkatha of Gunadhya son Agnimitra. This Agnimitra is said to be
the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitra.
Madhyamika Sutra of Nagarjuna
The drama also refers to the victory of
Buddhacharita of Asvaghosha Vasumitra, Agnimitra’s son, over the
Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa Greeks on the banks of the Sindhu river.
The weak successors of Sungas
Foreign Notice
constantly faced threats from the Indo-
Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist Bactrians and Indo-Parthians. The Sunga
monk and traveller dynasty lasted for about one hundred
years. The last Sunga king was Devabhuti.
The Sungas and Kanvas He was killed by his own minister Vasudeva
in the North Kanva. Vasudeva established the rule of
Kanva dynasty in Magadha.
The Sungas
The last Mauryan emperor, Brihadratha, Importance of the Sunga Period

was assassinated by his own general, The Sungas played an important role in
Pushyamitra Sunga, who established his defending the Gangetic Valley from the
Sunga dynasty in Magadha. Pushyamitra encroachments of the Bactrian Greeks.
made Pataliputra as his capital. Pushyamitra, and then his successors,
Pushyamitra’s kingdom extended revived Vedic religious practices and
westward to include Ujjain and Vidisha. promoted Vaishnavism. Sanskrit gradually
He successfully repulsed the invasion of gained ascendancy and became the court
Bactria king, Menander. But Menander language.
managed to keep Kabul and Sindh.
Pushyamitra thwarted an attack Patanjali, the second grammarian in
Sanskrit, was patronized by Pushyamitra.
from the Kalinga king Kharavela. He also
conquered Vidarba. He was a staunch
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Though Pushyamitra persecuted Satavahanas in the South

Buddhists, during his reign the Buddhist
The Kushanas in the north and the
monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were
Satavahanas (Andhras) in the south
renovated and further improved. The
flourished for about 300 years and 450
Great Stupa of Sanchi and the railings,
years, respectively. Simuka, the founder
which enclose it, belong to the Sunga
of the Satavahana dynasty, is said to have
period.
ruled for twenty-three years. His successor
was his brother Krishna. The latter and his
King Kharavela of Kalinga was a
nephew Satakarni ruled for ten years each,
contemporary of the Sungas. We get
establishing an empire, holding control over
information about Kharavela from the
Hathigumba Inscription.
a vast area stretching from Rajasthan in the
northwest to Andhra in the southeast and
from Gujarat in the west to Kalinga in the
east. Satakarni is said to have performed
two horse sacrifices (Asvamedha yagna),
indicative of his imperial position.
Hathigumba Elephant cave Inscription
The Kanvas
The Kanva dynasty produced four kings

and their rule lasted only for 45 years. Coin of Satavahanas
The history of Magadha after the fall of
GautamiputraSatakarni was the
the Kanvas is devoid of any significance
greatest ruler of the family. In the Nasik
until the emergence of the Gupta
prashasti, published by his mother
dynasty.
GautamiBalasri, GautamiputraSatakarni
The Kanva rulers were is described as the destroyer of Sakas,
Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas (Parthians).
Vasudeva
The extent of the empire is also mentioned
Bhumi Mitra
in the record. Their domain included
Narayana Maharashtra, north Konkan, Berar, Gujarat,
Susarman Kathiawar and Malwa. His ship coins are
The last Kanva ruler Susarman was suggestive of Andhras’ skill in seafaring and
assassinated by his powerful feudatory their naval power. The Bogor inscriptions
chief of Andhra named Simuka, who suggest that South India played an
laid the foundation of the Satavahana important role in the process of early state
dynasty. formation in Southeast Asia.
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stupas in Amaravati. A bronze statue

of the standing Buddha discovered in
Oc-Eo (an archaeological site in Vietnam)
resembles the Amaravati style. The later
Satavahana kings issued lead or bronze
coins depicting ships with two masts. A
stone seal discovered in NakhonPathom
Coins of GautamiputraSatakarni
in Thailand has the same design.
Contributions of Gandhara, Madhura, Amaravati,
Satavahanas Bodh Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut were
Literature known for splendid monuments and art.
The Mathura School of Sculpture produced
The Satavahana king Hala was himself
images and life-size statues of the
a great scholar of Sanskrit. The Kantara
Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain deities.
school of Sanskrit flourished in the Deccan
in second century B.C. Hala is famous as
the author of Sattasai (Saptasati), 700 Indo-Greeks,
stanzas in Prakrit. Indo-Parthians, Sakas and
Kushanas
Art and Architecture
Indo-Greeks and Indo-Parthians
The Satavahana rulers were great builders.
They began constructing Buddhist After the conquest of north-western India
and the Punjab region, Alexander the
Great left the conquered territories under
The world-famous life-size statues of Buddha provincial governors. Two of its eastern
at Bamyan valley on the mountains of the
satrapies, Bactria and Parthia, revolted
erstwhile northwestern frontiers of ancient
under their Greek Governors and declared
India (currently in central Afghanistan
and recently destroyed by the Talibans),
their independence. The satrapy of Bactria
were carved out of the solid rocks by the became independent under the leadership
dedicated artists of the Gandhara School of of Diodotus I and Parthia under Arsaces.
Art during the post-Mauryan period.
After the decline of the Mauryan
empire, the Greek rulers of Bactria and
Parthia started encroaching into the
northwestern border lands of India. The
Bactrian and Parthian settlers gradually
inter-married and inter-mixed with the
indigenous population. This facilitated the
establishment of Indo-Greek and Indo-
Parthian colonies along the north-western
Buddha at Bamyan valley
part of India.
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Rulers of Indo Greeks

Demetrius I – He was the son of Greco-
Bactrian ruler Euthydemus.
He was king of Macedonia from 294 to
288 BC (BCE). Numismatic evidence
proves that Demetrius issued bi-lingual
square coins with Greek on the obverse
and Kharosthi on the reverse. Scholars
are not able to decide which of the three,
named Demetrius, was the initiator of the
Yavana era, commencing from second Demetrius Menander
century BC (BCE) in India.
Menander– He was one of the best known Indo-Greek kings. He is said to have ruled a large
kingdom in the north-west of the country. His coins were found over an extensive area ranging
from Kabul valley and Indus river to western Uttar Pradesh. MilindaPanha, a Buddhist text, is a
discourse between Bactrian king Milinda and the learned Buddhist scholar Nagasena. This Milinda
is identified with Menander. Menander is believed to have become a Buddhist and promoted
Buddhism.
Contributions of Sakas
Indo-Greeks
The Indo-Greek rule in India was ended
Coinage: Indo-Greek rulers introduced by the Sakas. Sakas as nomads came
a die system and produced properly in huge number and spread all over
shaped coins with inscription, symbols northern and western India. The Sakas
and engraved figures on them. Indians were against the tribe of Turki nomads.
learnt this art from them. Sakas were Scythians, nomadic ancient
Sculpture: The Gandhara School of Iranians, and known as Sakas in Sanskrit.
Indian Art is heavily indebted to Greek Saka rule was founded by Maos
influence. The Greeks were good cave or Mogain in the Gandhara region and
builders. The Mahayana Buddhists learnt his capital was ‘Sirkap’. His name is
the art of carving out caves from them and mentioned in Mora inscription. His coins
became skilled in rock-cut architecture. bear images of Buddha and Siva.
Rulers of Indo-Parthians (Pahlavas)

Indo-Parthians came after the Indo-Greeks and the Indo-Scythians who
were, in turn, defeated by the Kushanas in the second half of the first century
AD (CE). Indo-Parthian kingdom or Gondopharid dynasty was founded by
Gondophernes. The domain of Indo-Parthians comprised Kabul and Gandhara.
The name of Gondophernes is associated with the Christian apostle St.Thomas.
According to Christian tradition, St.Thomas visited the court of Gondophernes
and converted him to Christianity. St.Thomas
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Rudradaman was the most first century BC(BCE), the yueh-chi tribes
important and famous king of Sakas. His were composed of five major sections,
Junagadh/Girnar inscription was the first of which the Kushanas attained political
inscription in chaste Sanskrit. In India, ascendancy over others.
the Sakas were assimilated into Indian By the beginning of Christian era, all
society. They began to adopt Indian the yueh-chi tribes had acknowledged the
names and practise Indian religious supremacy of the Kushanas; they had shed
beliefs. their nomadic habits and settled down in
the Bactrian and Parthian lands, adjacent
to the north-western border of India.
The Kushanas overran Bactria
and Parthia and gradually established
themselves in northern India. Their
concentration was mostly in the Punjab,
Rajaputana and Kathiawar. Kushana rulers
were Buddhists. Takshashila and Mathura
continued to be great centres of Buddhist
Junagadh Inscriptions learning, attracting students from China
and western Asia.
The Kushana Kings

Kanishka
Kanishka was the greatest of all the

Kushana emperors. He assumed the
sovereignty in 78 AD and proclaimed
his rule by the foundation of a new era,
which later became Saka era.
The Kushana capital initially was
Kabul. Later, it was shifted to Peshavar or
Coin of Rudradaman Purushpura.
The Sakas appointed kshatrapas

or satraps as provincial governors to
administer their territories.
Kushanas
The Kushanas formed a section of the
yueh-chi tribes, who inhabited north-
western China in the remote past. In the Coin of Kanishka
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Rulers Contributions
Kadphises I He was the first famous military and political leader of the
Kushanas. He overthrew the Indo-Greek and Indo-Parthian
rulers and established himself as a sovereign ruler of Bactria.
He extended his power in Kabul, Gandhara and upto the
Indus.
Kadphises II
He maintained friendly relationship with the emperors of

China and Rome and encouraged trade and commerce
with the foreign countries. Some of his coins contained the
inscribed figures of Lord Siva and his imperial titles were
inscribed in the Kharosthi language.
Conquests monk from Pataliputra. Though a great

Kanishka conquered and annexed warrior and an empire-builder, Kanishka
Kashmir. He waged a successful war was as equal as the exponent and
against Magadha. He also waged a war champion of Mahayanism.
against a ruler of Parthia to maintain Kanishka made Buddhism as the
safety and integrity in his vast empire state religion and built many stupas
on the western and south-western and monasteries in Mathura, Taxila and
border. After the conquest of Kashmir many other parts of his kingdom. He sent
and Gandhara, he turned his attention Buddhist missionaries to Tibet, China and
towards China. He defeated the Chinese many countries of Central Asia for the
general Pan-Chiang and safeguarded propagation of Buddha’s gospel.
the northern borders of India from
He organised the fourth Buddhist
Chinese intrusion.
Council at Kundalavana near Srinagar
His empire extended from Kashmir to sort out the differences between the
down to Benaras, and the Vindhya various schools of Buddhism. It was only
mountain in the south. It included in this council that Buddhism was split
Kashgar, Yarkhand touching the borders into Hinayanism and Mahayanism.
of Persia and Parthia.
Art and Literature
Religious Policy Kanishka was a great patron of art
Kanishka was an ardent Buddhist. and literature. His court was adorned
Kanishka’s empire was a Buddhist empire. with a number of Buddhist saints and
Kanishka adopted Buddhism under the scholars, like Asvaghosha, Vasumitra and
influence of Asvaghosha, a celebrated Nagarjuna.
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KASHMIR
KUSHANA EMPIRE W E
Taxila In
Peshawar du
s S
GANDHARA
Kushana Empire
us
Ind
Indraprastha
Mathura
Ya
m
G
un
an
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a aput
ge
m
SIND Sarnath Brah
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Patliputra
Prayaga
Sanchi
Narmada
Junagadh Mahanadi
Tapti
Go
da BAY
va A
ri N
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LI
K
A BENGAL
Kr
ARABIAN
ish
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SEA
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Kr
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ab
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Cauve
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CHOLAS
CHER
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Map not to scale

I N D I A N O C E A N
artists was the carving of sculptures of

Asvaghosha was the celebrated author of Buddha.
the first Sanskrit play, Buddhacharita.
Buddhist learning and culture
He founded the town of was taken to China and Mongolia from
Kanishkapura in Kashmir and furnished the Takshashila. The great Asiatic culture
capital of Purushapura with magnificent mingled with Indian Buddhist culture
public buildings. during the Kushana’s time.
The Gandhara School of Art Kanishka’s successors were weak

flourished during his time. The most and incompetent. Kushana empire rapidly
favourite subject of the Gandhara disintegrated into number of small principalities.
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Elsewhere
Kushana Empire corresponded with the last

days of the Roman Republic, when Julius
Caesar was alive. It is said that Kushana
Emperor sent a great embassy to Augustus
Caesar.
Augustus Caesar Julius Caesar
Summary
The break-up of Mauryan empire The Kushanas in the north and the
resulted in the invasions of Sakas, Satavahanas (Andhras) in the south
Scythians, Parthians, Indo-Greeks flourished for about 300 years and
and Kushanas from the north-west. 450 years, respectively.
The last Mauryan emperor, Brihadratha, Rudradaman was the most important
was assassinated by his own general, and famous king of Sakas.
Pushyamitra Sunga, who established The best known of the Kushanas was
Sunga dynasty in Magadha. Kanishka who was an ardent follower
The history of Magadha after the of Mahayana form of Buddhism.
fall of the Kanvas is devoid of any Gandhara Art developed during this
significance until the emergence of period.
the Gupta dynasty.
GLOSSARY
repulsed driven back by force விரட்டியடிக்கப்பட்டது

thwarted prevent from accomplishing something முறியடிக்கப்பட்டது
encroachments intrusion on a person’s territory, rights etc, ஆக்கிரமிப்புகள்
renovated Restored(something old, especially a building) புதுப்பிக்கப்பட்டது
to a good state of repair
assimilate absorb (information, ideas or culture) fully ஒன்றிப்போதல்
ardent enthusiastic or passionate தீவிர
magnificent impressively beautiful அற்புதமான
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EXERCISE
The last Mauryan emperor was killed by_________.

1.
(a) Pushyamitra (b) Agnimitra
(c) Vasudeva (d) Narayana
_________ was the founder of Satavahana dynasty.

2.
(a) Simuka (b) Satakarani
(c) Kanha (d) Sivasvati
_________ was the greatest of all the Kushana emperors.

3.
(a) Kanishka (b) Kadphises I
(c) Kadphises II (d) Pan-Chiang
The Kantara School of Sanskrit flourished in the _________ during 2nd century
4.
BC.
(a) Deccan (b) north-west India
(c) Punjab (d) Gangetic valley
Sakas ruled over Gandhara region _____________ as their capital.

5.
(a) Sirkap (b) Taxila
(c) Mathura (d) Purushpura
II. Match the statement with the reason and tick the appropriate answer
1. Assertion (A): Colonies of Indo-Greeks and Indo-Parthians were established along

the north-western part of India.
Reason (R): The Bactrian and Parthian settlers gradually intermarried and intermixed
with the indigenous population.
a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.

b) Both A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is correct but R is not correct.
d) A is not correct but R is correct.
2. Statement I:
Indo-Greek rulers introduced die system and produced coins with
inscription and symbols, engraving figures on them.
Statement II: Indo-Greek rule was ended by the Kushanas.
a) Statement I is wrong, but statement II is correct.

b) Statement II is wrong, but statement I is correct
c) Both the statements are correct.
d) Both the statements are wrong.
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3. Circle the odd one

Pushyamitra,Vasudeva, Simuka, Kanishka
4. Answer the following in a word
1. Who was the last Sunga ruler?

2. Who was the most important and famous king of Sakas?

3. Who established Kanva dynasty in Magadha?

4. Who converted Gondophernes into Christianity?


_________ was the founder of Indo-Parthian Kingdom.
1.
In the South, Satavahanas became independent after ________ death.

2.
Hala is famous as the author of ____________.

3.
___________ was the last ruler of Kanva dynasty.

4.
Kushana's later capital was___________.

5.
IV. State whether True or False
Magadha continued to be a great centre of Buddhist culture even after the fall of
1.
the Mauryan Empire.
We get much information about Kharavela from Hathigumba inscription.
2.
Simuka waged a successful war against Magadha.
3.
Buddhacharita was written by Asvaghosha.
4.
V. Match the following
i) Patanjali - 1. Kalinga

ii) Agnimitra - 2. Indo-Greek
iii) King Kharavela - 3. Indo-Parthians
iv) Demetrius - 4. Second grammarian
v) Gondophernes - 5. Malavikagnimitra
a) 4 3 2 1 5 b) 3 4 5 1 2 c) 1 5 3 4 2 d) 2 5 3 1 4
VI. Find out the wrong statement from the following
The Kushanas formed a section of the yueh-chi tribes who inhabited north-
1.
western China.
Kanishka made Jainism the state religion and built many monasteries.
2.
The Great Stupa of Sanchi and the railings which enclose it belong to the Sunga
3.
period.
Pan-Chiang was the Chinese general defeated by Kanishka.
4.
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VII. Answer in one or two sentences

What happened to the last Mauryan emperor?
1.
Write a note on Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitra.
2.
Name the ruler of Kanva dynasty.
3.
Highlight the literary achievements of Satavahanas.
4.
Name the places where Satavahana’s monuments are situated.
5.
Give an account of the achievements of Kadphises I.
6.
Name the Buddhist saints and scholars who adorned the court of Kanishka.
7.
VIII. Answer the following

Who invaded India after the decline of the Mauryan empire?
1.
Give an account of the conquests of Pushyamitra Sunga.
2.
Write a note on GautamiputraSatakarni.
3.
What do you know of Gondopharid dynasty?
4.
Who was considered the best known Indo-Greek King.Why?
5.
Who were Sakas?
6.
Give an account of the religious policy of Kanishka.
7.
IX. HOTs
The importance of Gandhara School of Art.
1.
Provide an account of trade and commerce during the post-Mauryan period in
2.
South India.
X. Activity
Prepare an album with centres of archaeological monuments of Satavahanas and
1.
Kushanas.
Arrange a debate in the classroom on the cultural contribution of Indo-Greeks
2.
Sakas and Kushanas.
XI. Answer Grid
Who wrote Brihastkatha? Name the Satavahana ruler who

performed two Asvamedha sacrifices.
Ans. ____________ Ans. ____________
How many years did the Satavahanas rule Who laid the foundation of Saka era?
the Deccan?
Ans. ____________ Ans. ___________
What was the favourite subject of the Where did Kanishka organise the fourth
Gandhara artists? Buddhist Council?
Ans. _____________ Ans. ______________
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Unit 3
The Age of Empires:
Guptas and Vardhanas
Learning Objectives
• To know the establishment of Gupta dynasty and the empire-building

efforts of Gupta rulers
• To understand the polity, economy and society under Guptas
• To get familiar with the contributions of the Guptas to art, architecture, literature,
education, science and technology
• To explore the signification of the reign of HarshaVardhana
Introduction Sources
By the end of the 3rd century, the powerful Archaeological Sources
empires established by the Kushanas in the Gold, silver and copper coins issued
north and Satavahanas in the south had by Gupta rulers.
lost their greatness and strength. After the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of
decline of Kushanas and Satavahanas, Samudragupta.
Chandragupta carved out a kingdom and The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription.
establish his dynastic rule, which lasted
Udayagiri Cave Inscription, Mathura
for about two hundred years. After the
Stone Inscription and Sanchi Stone
downfall of the Guptas and thereafter and
Inscription of Chandragupta II.
interregnum of nearly 50 years, Harsha of
Bhitari Pillar Inscription of
Vardhana dynasty ruled North India from
Skandagupta.
606 to 647 A.D (CE).
The Gadhwa Stone Inscription.
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Madubhan Copper Plate Inscription

Lichchhavi was an old gana–sanga and
Sonpat Copper Plate
its territory lay between the Ganges and
Nalanda Inscription on clay seal the Nepal Terai.
Literary Sources
Vishnu, Matsya, Vayu and Bhagavata Samudragupta (c. 335–380)

Puranas and Niti Sastras of Narada
Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta I,
Visakhadatta’s Devichandraguptam
was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
and Mudrarakshasa and Bana’s
The Prayog Prashasti, composed by
Harshacharita
Samudragupta’s court poet Harisena
Dramas of Kalidasa
was engraved on Allahabad Pillar. This
Accounts of Chinese Buddhist monk Allahabad Pillar inscription is the main
Fahien who visited India during the source of information for Samudragupta’s
reign of Chandragupta II. reign.
Harsha’s Ratnavali, Nagananda,
Priyadharshika
Hiuen-Tsang's Si-Yu-Ki
Foundation of the Gupta Dynasty
Sri Gupta is considered to be the founder of

the Gupta dynasty. He is believed to have
reigned over parts of present-day Bengal
and Bihar. He was the first Gupta ruler to
be featured on coins. He was succeeded by
his son Ghatotkacha. Both are mentioned
as Maharajas in inscriptions.
Chandragupta I
(c. 319–335 AD(CE))
Allahabad Pillar
Chandragupta I married Kumaradevi
of the famous and powerful Lichchhavi
Prashasti
family. Having gained the support of this
Prashasti is a Sanskrit word, meaning
family, Chandragupta could eliminate
commendation or ‘in praise of’. Court
various small states in northern India
poets flattered their kings listing out
and crown himself the monarch of a
their achievements. These accounts were
larger kingdom. The gold coins attributed later engraved on pillars so that the people
to Chandragupta bear the images of could read them.
Chandragupta, Kumaradevi and the
legend ‘Lichchhavayah’.
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Consolidation of Gupta Dynasty Qutub Minar is believed to have been built

by Vikramaditya. Fahien, a Buddhist scholar
Samudragupta was a great general and
from China, visited India during his reign.
when he became emperor, he carried
Vikramaditya is said to have assembled the
on a vigorous campaign all over the
greatest writers and artists
country and even in the south. In the
(Navaratna [Nine Jewels])
southern Pallava kingdom, the king who
in his court. Kalidasa is said
was defeated by Samudragupta was
to be one among them.
Vishnugopa.
Samudragupta conquered nine
kingdoms in northern India. He reduced Navaratna in the court
of Vikramaditya
12 rulers of the southern India to the
status of feudatories and forced them to Kalidasa Sanskrit poet
pay tribute. He received homage from the Harisena Sanskrit poet

rulers of East Bengal, Assam, Nepal, the Amarasimha Lexicographer
eastern part of Punjab and various tribes Dhanvantri Physician
of Rajasthan. Kahapanaka Astrologer
Sanku Architect
Samudragupta was a devotee of Vishnu. Varahamihira Astronomer
He revived the Vedic practice of performing
Varauchi Grammarian and
horse sacrifice to commemorate victories
Sanskrit scholar
in wars. He issued gold coins and in one
of them, he is portrayed playing harp Vittalbhatta Magician
(veenai). Samudragupta was not only a
great conqueror but a lover of poetry and The surnames of Chandragupta II
music and for this, he earned the title were Vikramaditya, Narendrachandra,
‘Kaviraja’. Simhachandra, Narendrasimha, Vikrama
Devaraja, Devagupta and Devasri.
Srimeghavarman, the Buddhist king Chandragupta II was succeeded

of Ceylon, was a contemporary of by his son Kumaragupta I, who built the
Samudragupta.
famous Nalanda University.
Kumaragupta’s successor
Chandragupta II (c.380 - 415) Skandagupta had to face a new threat
Chandragupta II was the son of in the form of the invasion of Huns. He
Samudragupta. He was also known as defeated them and drove them away. But
Vikramaditya. He conquered western Malwa after twelve years, they came again and
and Gujarat by defeating the Saka rulers. broke the back of the Gupta Empire. The
He maintained friendly relationship with the last of the great Guptas was Baladitya,
rulers of southern India. The iron pillar near assumed to have been Narasimha Gupta I.
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spheres. The Gupta king was assisted by a

Fahien council of mantris (ministers). The council
During the reign of consisted of princes, high officials and
Chandragupta II,
feudatories. A large number of officials
the Buddhist monk
were employed by the Gupta rulers to carry
Fahien visited India.
on the day-to-day administration of the
His travel accounts
provided us country. High-ranking officials were called
information about dandanayakas and mahadandanayakas.
the socio-economic, The Gupta Empire was divided into
religious and moral
provinces known as deshas or bhuktis.
conditions of the people of the Gupta
They were administered by the governors,
age. According to Fahien, the people of
Magadha were happy and prosperous, designated as uparikas. The province
that justice was mildly administered and was divided into districts such as vishyas
there was no death penalty. Gaya was and they were controlled by the officers
desolated. Kapilavasthu had become a known as vishyapatis. At the village level,
jungle, but at Pataliputra people were there were functionaries such as gramika
rich and prosperous. and gramadhyaksha.
The extensive empire shows the
important role of military organisation.
He was himself attracted towards
Seals and inscriptions mentioned
Buddhism. He was paying tribute to
military designations as baladhikrita and
Mihirakula but was distressed by his
mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry
hostility towards Buddhism. So he
and cavalry respectively). The system
stopped paying tribute. Though Baladitya
of espionage included spies known as
succeeded in imprisoning him, Mihirakula
dutakas.
turned treacherous and drove away
Baladitya from Magadha. After Baladitya,
the great Gupta Empire faded away. Society and Economy
The last recognised king of the Gupta Land and Peasants

Empire was Vishnugupta. Nitisara , authored by Kamandaka,
emphasises the importance of the royal
Gupta Polity treasury and mentions various sources
The divine theory of kingship (the concept of revenue. The military campaigns of
that king is the representative of God on kings like Samudragupta were financed
earth and so he is answerable only to God through revenue surpluses. Land tax was
and not to anyone else) was practised the main revenue to the government. The
by the Gupta rulers. The Gupta kings condition of peasants was pathetic. They
wielded enormous power in political, were required to pay various taxes. They
administrative, military and judicial were reduced to the position of serfs.
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N
EMPIRE OF GUPTAS
W E
S
Taksasila Empire of gupta
Ancient towns
Purushapura Temples
Buddhist temple
Stupas
Cave temple
Indraprastha
Mathura Kapilavastu a
p utr
ma
Kushinagar ah
Br
Ayodhya
Prayaga Nalanda
Ujjayini
Kashi GayaRajgriha
I N D I A
Valabhi Bharut
Sanchi
Girnar
BAY
OF
Ajanta A
G BENGAL
G
Ellora N
od
L I
KA Puri
av
Kri
ar
ARABIAN shn
i
Nagarjunakonda a Vengi
SEA
Amaravati
S
VA
L LA
PA
An
da m
CHOLAS
Lakshad weep isla
an
CH
Tanjore
and n ic obar
E
(I N D I A )
RA
(I N D I A )
Madurai
S
S
YA
ND
is l
n
A
ds
P
an
SRI
ds
LANKA
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
Classification of land during Gupta

Trade and Commerce
period
Kshetra cultivable land The contribution of the traders for
Khila waste land the development of Gupta’s economy
Aprahata jungle or forest land was very impressive. There were two
types of traders, namely Sresti and
Vasti habitable land
Sarthavaha .
Gapata Saraha pastoral land
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Nalanda University
Nalanda University flourished under
the patronage of the Gupta Empire
in the 5th and 6th centuries and later
under emperor Harsha of Kanauj.
At Nalanda, Buddhism was the main
subject of study. Other subjects like
Yoga, Vedic literature and Medicine
were also taught.
Hiuen Tsang spent many years
studying Buddhism in the University.
Eight Mahapatashalas and three large Nalanda University
libraries were situated on the campus.
Nalanda was ravaged and destroyed by Mamluks (Turkish Muslims) under Bhaktiyar
Khalji.
Today, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Who were the Huns? Huns were the nomadic

tribes, who, under their great Attila, were
terrorising Rome and Constantinople. Associated
with these tribes were the White Huns who came
to India through Central Asia. They undertook
regular invasions and were giving trouble
to all Indian frontier states. After defeating
Skandagupta, they spread across Central India.
Their chief, Toromana, crowned himself as king.
After him, his son Mihirakula ruled the captured
territories. Finally, Yasodharman, ruler of Malwa in Portrayal of Toromana,
the Hun chief, in coins.
Central India, defeated them and ended their rule.
Sresti Sarthavaha gold, copper, iron, horses and elephants.

Lending money at a high rate of interest
Sresti traders Sarthavaha traders
was in practice during Gupta period.
usually settled were caravan
at a standard traders who carried The Guptas developed roadways
place. their goods to connecting different parts of the country.
different places Pataliputra, Ujjain, Benaras, Mathura
were the famous trade centres. Ports in
Trade items ranged from daily western (Kalyan, Mangalore, Malabar) and
products to valuable and luxury goods. eastern (Tamralipti in Bengal) coasts of
The important trade goods were pepper, India facilitated trade.
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Society
Samudragupta introduced the Gupta
monetary system. Kushana coins provided
The society that adhered to four varna
inspiration to Samudragupta. The Gupta system was patriarchal. According to
gold coins were known as Dinara. Guptas laws of Manu, which was in force, women
issued many gold coins but comparatively should be under the protection of their
fewer silver and copper coins. However, father, husband or eldest son. Polygamy
the post-Gupta period saw a fall in the was widely prevalent. The kings and
circulation of gold coins, indicating the
feudatory lords often had more than one
decline in the prosperity of the empire.
wife. Inscriptions refer to Kubernaga
and Dhrubaswamini as the queens of
Metallurgy Chandragupta II. Sati was practised
Mining and metallurgy were the most during the Gupta rule.
flourishing industries during the
Gupta period. Slavery
The most important evidence of Slavery was not institutionalised in India,
development in metallurgy was the as in the West. But there are references
Mehrauli Iron Pillar installed by King to the existence of various categories of
Chandragupta in Delhi. This monolithic slaves during the Gupta age.
iron pillar has lasted through the
centuries without rusting. Religion
There was revival of Vedic religion

The metals used by them were: iron, gold,
copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell- metal, and Vedic rites. Samudragupta and
mica, manganese and red chalk. Kumaragupta I performed Asvamedha
Yagna (a horse sacrifice ritual). We
notice the beginning of image worship
and the emergence of two sects, namely
Vaishnavism and Saivism, during the
Gupta period. Buddhism also continued
to flourish though it split into two sects,
namely Hinayana and Mahayana.
The Guptas were the first to construct

temples, which evolved from the earlier
tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned
with towers and elaborate carvings, these
Mehrauli Iron Pillar temples were dedicated to all Hindu deities.
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The most notable rock-cut caves are found Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and
at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra), Bagh Brahmagupta were foremost
(Madhya Pradesh) and Udaygiri (Odisha). astronomers and mathematicians
The structural temples built during this of the time. Aryabhatta, in his book
period resemble the characteristic features Surya Siddhanta, explained the true
of the Dravidian style. causes of solar and lunar eclipses.
Two remarkable examples of Gupta He was the first Indian astronomer
metal sculpture are (i) a copper image of to declare that the earth revolves
Buddha about 18 feet high at Nalanda around its own axis.
and (ii) Sultanganj Buddha seven-and-a- Dhanvantri was a famous scholar
half feet in height. The most important in the field of medicine. He was a
examples of the Gupta paintings are specialist in Ayurveda. Charaka was
found on the Fresco of the Ajanta caves a medical scientist. Susruta was the
and the Bagh cave in Gwalior. first Indian to explain the process of
surgery.
Literature
Though the language spoken by the people Vardhana Dynasty

was Prakrit, the Guptas made Sanskrit the
The founder of the Vardhana or
official language and all their epigraphic
Pushyabhuti dynasty ruled from
records are in Sanskrit. The Gupta period
Thaneswar. Pushyabhuti served as a
also saw the development of Sanskrit
military general under the Guptas and
grammar based on the grammar of Panini
rose to power after the fall of the Guptas.
and Patanjali who wrote Ashtadhyayi and
With the accession of Prabakaravardhana,
Mahabhashya respectively.
the Pushyabhuti family became strong
A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, and powerful.
Chandrogomia, composed a book on
Rajavardhana, the eldest son
grammar titled Chandravyakaranam.
of Prabhakaravardhana, ascended the
Kalidasa’s famous dramas were Sakunthala,
throne after his father’s
Malavikagnimitra and Vikramaoorvashiyam.
death. Rajavardhana's
Other significant works of Kalidasa were
sister Rajayashri's
Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambava
husband, Raja of Kanauj,
and Ritusamhara.
was killed by the Gauda
ruler Sasanka of Bengal.
Mathematics, Astronomy and Sasanka also imprisoned Rajayashri.
Medicine Rajavardhana, in the process of retrieving
Invention of zero and the consequent his sister was treacherously killed by
evolution of the decimal system were the Sasanka. This resulted in his younger
legacy of Guptas to the modern world. brother Harshavardhana becoming king
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EMPIRE OF HARSHAVARDHANA
N by Chalukya king Pulikesin II. The
W E kingdom of Harsha disintegrated
S
rapidly into small states after
KASHMIR
Harsha’s empire his death in 648 AD (CE). He
Harsha’s capital
maintained a cordial relationship
us
Other cities
with the rulers of Iran and China.
d
In
Thaneswar
Indraprastha
tra
Kanauj pu
Mathura ma
ah
Ya
Br
Ga a
Harsha met the Chinese traveller,

m
ng
un
Prayaga
Udaipur Kashi
Nalanda Hiuen Tsang, at Kajangala near
Vidisha
I N D I A
Budh Gaya Rajgrika Rajmahal (Jharkhand) for the first
VALLABHI
Ujjayini Ma
ha
Tamralipti
time.
na
di
Ajanta
BAY
CHALUKYAS
OF
EASTERN BENGAL
Go
A
CHALUKYAS G
da
N
ARABIAN LI
Administration
va
Vengi KA
ri
SEA
Pattadakal
Badami The emperor was assisted by a

council of ministers. The prime
An
da m
PALLAVAS
Lakshad weep isla
minister occupied the most

an and n ic ob ar i
Kaveri
Tanjore
(I N D I A )
CHOLAS
(I N D I A )
important position in the council

S
YA
Madurai
ND
n
PA
s la
ds
of ministers. Bhaga, Hiranya and

ds n
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale Bali were the three kinds of tax

collected during Harsha’s reign.
of Thaneswar. The notables of the Kanauj
Criminal law was more severe than
kingdom also invited Harsha to take its
that of the Gupta age. Life imprisonment
crown. After becoming the ruler of the
was the punishment for violation of the
both Thaneswar and Kanauj, Harsha
laws and for plotting against the king.
shifted his capital from Thaneswar to
Kanauj. Perfect law and order prevailed
throughout the empire. Harsha paid great
Conquest of Harshavardhana attention to discipline and strength of the
army. Harsha built charitable institutions
The most popular king of the vardhana
for the stay of the travellers, and to care
dynasty was Harshavardhana. Harsha
for the sick and the poor.
ruled for 41 years. His feudatories
included those of Jalandhar, Kashmir,
Nepal and Valabhi. Sasanka of Bengal
remained hostile to him.
It was Harsha who unified most of
northern India. But the extension of
his authority in the south was checked Coins of Harsha
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Religious Policy He was noted for his policy of

religious toleration and used to worship
Harsha was the worshipper of Shiva in the
the images of Buddha, Shiva and Sun
beginning, but he embraced Buddhism
simultaneously. He summoned two
under the influence of his sister Rajyashri
Buddhist assemblies, one at Kanauj and
and the Buddhist monk and traveller
another at Prayag.
Hiuen Tsang. He belonged to Mahayana
school of thought. Harsha treated Vedic
scholars and Buddhist monks alike and The assembly at Kanauj was attended
distributed charities equally to them. He by 20 kings. A large number of Buddhist,
was the last Buddhist sovereign in India. Jain and Vedic scholars attended the
assembly. A golden statue of Buddha was
As a pious Buddhist, Harsha stopped the consecrated in a monastery and a small
killing of animals for food. statue of Buddha (three feet) was carried
in a procession.
In the assembly at Prayag, Harsha
distributed his wealth among the
Hiuen Tsang, the ‘prince of pilgrims’,
Buddhists, Vedic scholars and poor
visited India during Harsha’s reign. His Si-
people. Harsha offered fabulous gifts to
Yu-Ki provides detailed information about
the Buddhist monks on all the four days of
the social, economic, religious and cultural
the assembly.
conditions of India during Harsha’s time.
Hiuen Tsang tells us how Harsha, though a
Buddhist, went to participate in the great
kumbhamela held at Prayag. Art and Literature
Harsha, himself a poet and dramatist,

gathered around him a best of poets
and artists. Harsha’s popular works are
Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadharshika.
His royal court was adorned by Banabhatta,
Mayura, Hardatta and Jayasena.
Temples and monasteries
functioned as centres of learning. Kanauj
became a famous city. Harsha constructed
a large number of viharas, monasteries
and stupas on the bank of the Ganges.
The Nalanda University, a university
and monastery combined, was said to
have had 10,000 students and monks in
residence, when Hiuen Tsang visited the
Hiuen Tsang
university.
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Elsewhere
Chandragupta I was the contemporary of Constantine the Great, the Roman Emperor,
who founded Constantinople.
Harsha’s time coincided with a early days of Tang Dynasty of China. Their
capital(Xi’an) was a great centre of art and learning.
Constantine the Great King of Tang Dynasty
Summary The Guptas were the first to construct

temples which evolved from the
Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta
earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines
dynasty
Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta and
Brahmagupta were foremost astronomers
Chandragupta II were the great kings
and mathematicians of the time
of Gupta dynasty
Harsha was a prominent ruler of
Vishnugupta was the last recognised
Vardhana dynasty and was elevated
king of Gupta Empire
to the position of an emperor
Divine Right Theory of kingship was
Harsha was a great artist and
practised by the Gupta rulers
dramatist and contributed to the
Mining and metallurgy were the most development of literature and art
flourishing industries during the
Hiuen Tsang visited Nalanda and wrote
Gupta Period
his useful travel accounts, which help
The society that adhered to four varna us understand the condition of India
system was patriarchal during Harsha’s reign
There was a revival of Vedic religion Harsha, though a strong follower of
and Vedic rites Buddhism, also promoted Vedic religion
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GLOSSARY
Engraved carved/inscribed ப�ொறிக்கப்பட்ட

(செதுக்கிய)
Flattered lavish insincere praise and compliments
upon (someone) especially
to further one’s own interest முகஸ்துதி
Collapse fall சரிவு
Pathetic pitiful பரிதாபகரமான
adhered to abide by, bound by பின்பற்றப்பட்ட
pastoral land land or farm used for grazing cattle மேய்ச்சல் நிலம்
Portrayed depicted in a work of art or literature சித்தரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளது
Desolated made unfit for habitation பாழடைந்த
EXERCISE
__________ was the founder of Gupta dynasty.
1.
(a) Chandragupta I (b) Sri Gupta
(c) Vishnu Gopa (d) Vishnugupta
Prayog Prashasti was composed by __________
2.
(a) Kalidasa (b) Amarasimha
(c) Harisena (d) Dhanvantri
The monolithic iron pillar of Chandragupta is at __________
3.
(a) Mehrauli (b) Bhitari
(c) Gadhva (d) Mathura
__________ was the first Indian to explain the process of surgery.
4.
(a) Charaka (b) Sushruta
(c) Dhanvantri (d) Agnivasa
___________ was the Gauda ruler of Bengal.
5.
(a) Sasanka (b) Maitraka
(c) Rajavardhana (d) Pulikesin II
II. Match the statement with the reason and tick the appropriate answer
1. Assertion (A): Chandragupta I crowned himself as a monarch of a large kingdom
after eliminating various small states in Northern India.
Reason (R): Chandragupta I married Kumaradevi of Lichchavi family.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are correct but R is not correct explanation of A.
(c) A is correct but R is not correct.
(d) A is not correct but R is correct.
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2. Statement I: Chandragupta II did not have cordial relationship with the rulers of
South India.
Statement II: The divine theory of kingship was practised by the Gupta rulers.
(a) Statement I is wrong but statement II is correct.
(b) Statement II is wrong but statement I is correct.
(c) Both the statements are correct.
(d) Both the statements are wrong.
3. W h i c h o f the following is arranged in chronological order?

(a) Srigupta – Chandragupta I – Samudragupta – Vikramaditya
(b) Chandragupta I – Vikramaditya - Srigupta – Samudragupta
(c) Srigupta – Samudragupta – Vikramaditya -Chandragupta I
(d) Vikramaditya - Srigupta – Samudragupta - Chandragupta I
4. Consider the following statements and find out which of the following
statement(s) is / are correct
1. Lending money at high rate of interest was practised.
Pottery and mining were the most flourishing industries.
2.
(a) 1. is correct (b) 2. is correct
(c) Both 1 and 2 are correct (d) Both 1 and 2 are wrong
5. Circle the odd one

Kalidasa, Harisena, Samudragupta, Charaka.
1.
Ratnavali, Harshacharita, Nagananda, Priyadharshika.
2.

__________, the king of Ceylon, was a contemporary of Samudragupta.
1.
B uddhist monk from China __________, visited India during the reign of

2.
Chandragupta II.
__________ invasion led to the downfall of Gupta Empire.
3.
__________ was the main revenue to the Government.
4.
The official language of the Guptas was .
5.
__________, the Pallava king was defeated by Samudragupta.
6.
__________ was the popular king of Vardhana dynasty.
7.
Harsha shifted his capital from ___________ to Kanauj.
8.
IV. State whether True or False

Dhanvantri was a famous scholar in the field of medicine.
1.
The structural temples built during the Gupta period resemble the Indo-Aryan style.
2.
Sati was not in practice in the Gupta Empire.
3.
Harsha belonged to Hinayana school of thought.
4.
Harsha was noted for his religious intolerance.
5.
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V. Match the following

A
a. Mihirakula 1 Astronomy
b. Aryabhatta 2 Kumaragupta
c. Painting 3 Skandagupta
d. Nalanda University 4 Caravan trader
e. Sartavaga 5 Bagh
(a) 1, 2, 4, 3, 5 (b) 2, 4, 1, 3, 5 (c) 3, 1, 5, 2, 4 (d) 3, 2, 1, 4, 5
B
a) Bana 1 10,000 students
b) Harsha 2 Prayag
c) Nalanda University 3 Harshacharita
d) Hiuen -Tsang 4 Ratnavali
e) Buddhist Assembly 5 Si-Yu-Ki
(a) 4, 3, 2, 1, 5 (b) 5, 2, 1, 3, 4 (c) 3, 5, 1, 2, 4 (d) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5
VI. Answer in one or two sentences
Who was given the title Kaviraja? Why?

1.
What were the subjects taught at Nalanda University?
2.
Explain the Divine Theory of Kingship.
3.
Highlight the achievement of Guptas in metallurgy.
4.
Who were the Huns?
5.
Name the three kinds of tax collected during the Harsha’s reign.
6.
7. Name the books authored by Harsha.
VII. Answer the following briefly
Write a note on Prashasti.

1.
Give an account of Samudragupta’s military conquests.
2.
Describe the land classification during the Gupta period.
3.
Write about Sresti and Sarthavaha traders.
4.
Highlight the contribution of Guptas to architecture.
5.
Name the works of Kalidasa.
6.
Estimate Harshvardhana as a poet and a dramatist.
7.
VIII. HOTs
The gold coins issued by Gupta kings indicate__________.
1.
(a) the availability of gold mines in the kingdom
(b) the ability of the people to work with gold
(c) the prosperity of the kingdom
(d) the extravagant nature of kings
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The famous ancient paintings at Ajanta were painted on __________.

2.
(a) walls of caves (b) ceilings of temples
(c) rocks (d) papyrus
Gupta period is remembered for __________.

3.
(a) renaissance in literature and art (b) expeditions to southern India
(c) invasion of Huns (d) religious tolerance
What did Indian scientists achieve in astronomy and mathematics during the
4.
Gupta period?
IX. Student activity

Stage any one of the dramas of Kalidasa in the classroom.
Compare and contrast the society of Guptas with that of Mauryas.
X. Life Skills
Collect information about the contribution of Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and

1.
Brahmagupta to astronomy.
Visit a nearby ISRO centre to know more about satellite launching.
2.
XI. Answer Grid
Who was Toromana? Name the high ranking officials of Gupta

Ans. Empire.
Ans.
Name the Gupta kings who Name the book which explained the causes for
performed Asvamedha yagna. the lunar and solar eclipses.
Ans. Ans.
Name the first Gupta king to find a Which was the main source of information to
place on coins. know about the Samudragupta’s reign?
Ans. Ans.
Harsha was the worshipper __________ University reached its fame during
of____________ in the beginning. Harsha period.
Ans. Ans.
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ICT CORNER
HISTORY - THE AGE OF EMPIRES:
GUPTAS AND VARDHANAS
This activity
�� is to explore
�� Maps. You can know
about countries, capitals, flags and cities in all the
��
continents��!
using an Educational Interactive game
Settera Map Quiz.
Steps:
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Free map Quiz page will appear on the screen.
Step 3: Scroll down and You can select any continent or Country (ex. India Cities)
Step 4: Explore various places on the map, play and create customized quiz
activities.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Step 4
*Pictures are indicatives only.
Browse in the link

Web: https://online.seterra.com/en/ (or) scan the QR Code
Mobile : https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.seterra.free
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Unit 4
South Indian
Kingdoms
Learning Objectives
• To know the southern Indian states that emerged after the fall of the
Mauryan Empire
• To acquire information of the ruling dynasties such as Pallavas,
Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas and their domains
• To understand their contribution to society and culture with reference to literature, art
and architecture
• To become familiar with the artistic and architectural splendour of Mamallapuram shore
temple, Ellora monuments and Elephanta cave temples
South Indian Kingdoms control over the greater part of India in this
period.
By the early 7th century, synchronising
with the Harsha’s reign in the north, the The Pallavas
far south had come under the control of The Pallava kings ruled around the
the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Pallava prosperous agrarian settlement and
sovereignty included the domains of the important trade centre of Kanchipuram on
Cholas and the Pandyas. The latter were the southeast coast of India. Kanchipuram
then emerging as ruling dynasties in their was well known to Chinese and Roman
respective river valley regions. Much of the merchants. From the flourishing trade centre
central and eastern Deccan was under the of Kanchipuram, the later Pallavas extended
Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), who were their sovereignty over all the Tamil-speaking
then pushed away by the Rashtrakutas. regions during the 7th and 8th centuries.
The medieval period in India was marked The central part of their kingdom, however,
by thee mergence of regional centres of was Thondaimandalam, a large political
power. There was no single imperial power region comprising northern parts of Tamil
like Mauryas or Guptas who exercised Nadu and the adjoining Andhra districts.
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PALLAVA TERRITORIES
Ujjain
Narmada Mahanadi
Nagpur
God Bay of
ava
ri
Bengal
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris
Masulipatnam
Sea
Pallava Territories
KANCHI
CauvVellore
ery
Anda
Mamallapuram
Laks
man and Nicobar

hadw
PANDYA
eep
Madurai
Indian Ocean
Sources
Inscriptions Mandagapattu Cave, Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II
Copper Kasakudi Plates

Plates
Literature Mattavilasa Prahasana, Avanthi Sundarakatha, Kalingathu Parani,
Periya Puranam, Nandi Kalambagam
Foreign Accounts of Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang
Notice
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Pallava Genealogy
(Prominent Kings) Narasimhavarman I’s army general
was Paranjothi. Popularly known as
There were early Pallava rulers who were Siruthondar (one of the 63 Nayanmars),
feudatories of Satavahanas. Simhavishnu, son Paranjothi led the Pallava army during
of Simhavarman II (around 550 AD (CE), created the invasion of Vatapi. After the victory
a strong Pallava kingdom after destroying the he had a change of heart and devoted
Kalabhras. He defeated many kings in the himself to Lord Siva
south including the Cholas and the Pandyas. –PeriyaPuranam

His able son was Mahendravarman I. He was
succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman I. Narasimhavarman II (c. 695–722),
The other prominent Pallava rulers were also known as Rajasimha, was a great
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha and military strategist. He exchanged
Nandivarman II. The last Pallava ruler was ambassadors with China. His reign was
Aparajita. comparatively free from any political
Mahendravarman (c.600–630AD disturbance. Therefore, he could
(CE)) contributed to the greatness of the concentrate on temple-building activities.
Pallava kingdom. Mahendravarman I was During his reign, the famous Kailasanatha
a follower of Jainism in the early part of his temple at Kanchipuram was built.
rule. He was converted to Saivism by the
Saivite saint Appar (Tirunavukkarasar). Name of the King Title/s Adopted
He was a great patron of art and
Simhavishnu Avanisimha
architecture. He is known for introducing
Mahendravarma I Sankirnajati
a new style to Dravidian architecture,
Mattavilasa
which is referred to as ‘Mahendra style’. Gunabhara
Mahendravarman also wrote plays, Chitrakarapuli
including (c.620) MattavilasaPrahasana. Vichitra Chitta
(The Delight of the Drunkards) in Sanskrit, Narasimhavarma I Mamallan, Vatapi

which denigrates Buddhism. Kondan
Mahendravarman’s reign involved

Pallava’s Contribution
constant battles with the Western Chalukya
to Architecture
kingdom of Badami under Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin seems to have defeated Pallava period is known for architectural
Mahendravarman in one of the battles and splendour. The Shore Temple and various
taken over a large part of his territory (Vengi) other temples carved from granite
in the north. His son Narasimavarma I monoliths and the Varaha cave (7th
(c. 630–668) avenged the defeat by century) at Mamallapuram, are illustrious
capturing Vatapi, the capital of Chalukyas. examples of Pallava architecture. In 1984,
He set Vatapi on fire, killing Pulakesin in the Mamallapuram was added to the list of
process. UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Pallava architecture can be classified as The most important among the

1. Rock-Cut temples – Mahendravarman
Mamalla style of architecture is the open
style art gallery. Several miniature sculptures
such as the figure of lice-picking monkey,
2. Monolithic Rathas and Sculptural
elephants of huge size and the figure
Mandapas – Mamallan style
of the ascetic cat have been sculpted
3. Structural Temples – Rajasimhan
beautifully on the wall of a huge rock.
style and Nandivarman style
The fall of the River Ganga from the head
Mahendra Style of Lord Siva and the Arjuna’s penance are
The best example of MahendraVarma notable among them. The Great Penance
style monuments are cave temples at panel is considered to be the world’s
Mandagapattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, largest open-air bas relief.
Dalavanur, Tiruchirapalli, Vallam,
Tirukazhukkundram and Siyamangalam.
Arjuna’s Penance
Cave Temple Mandagapattu

Rajasimha Style
Mamalla Style
Narasimhavarma II, also known as
The five rathas (chariots), popularly called
Rajasimha, constructed structural temples
Panchapandavar rathas, signify five different
using stone blocks.The best example for
style of temple architecture. Each ratha has been
the structural temple is Kailasanatha
carved out of a single rock. So they are called
temple at Kanchipuram. This temple was
monolithic. The popular mandapams (pillared
built by using sand stones. Kailasanatha
pavilions) they built are Mahishasuramardhini
temple is called Rajasimheswaram.
mandapam, Thirumoorthi mandapam and
Varaha mandapam.
Panchapandavar Rathas Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple
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Nandivarma Style times and it attracted students from all

parts of India and abroad.Vatsyaya who
The last stage of the Pallava architecture
wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at
is also represented by structural temples
Kanchi (Gatika).
built by the later Pallavas. The best
example is Vaikunda Perumal temple at The treatise on Dakshin Chitram
Kanchipuram. (Paintings of South India) was
compiled during the reign of
Mahendravarma I.
The great Sanskrit scholar, Dandin,
lived in the court of Narasimhavarma I.
Dandin composed Dashakumara
Charita.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived
in the time of Simhavishnu. Bharavi
wrote Kiratarjuniya, an epic in verses.
Kanchi Vaikunda Perumal Temple
Tamil literature had also flourished
Society and Culture during the Pallava rule. Thevaram
composed by Nayanmars and
The Pallavas supported Jainism, Buddhism Nalayradivyaprabantham composed
and the Vedic faith. They were great patrons by Azhwars, which are still chanted
of music, painting and literature. Some of by devout people. Perundevanar, who
the Pallava kings patronised the Azhwars was patronized by Nandivarman II,
and Nayanmars. These exponents of Bhakti translated the Mahabharata into Tamil
Cult preached a new form of Vaishnavism as Bharathavenba.
and Saivism. Among the Saivites were
Appar and Manikkavasakar. Among the Pallava Art
Vaishnavites were Nammazhvar and Andal.
The Bhakti movement aimed at preaching a The Pallava kings had also patronised fine
popular faith, in which prayers in Tamil were arts. The music inscriptions in Kudumianmalai
preferred to those in Sanskrit. Women were and Thirumayam temples show Pallavas’
encouraged to participate in the religious interest in music. The famous musician
congregations. The Tamil devotional cult Rudracharya lived during Mahendravarma I.
was competitive with Buddhism and Jainism. The sculptures of this period depict many
Therefore the latter suffered a gradual images in dancing postures.
decline in most parts of Tamil country.
The Chalukyas
Education and Literature The Chalukyas ruled larger parts of west
Gatika (monastery or centre of learning) and centre of South India, consisting of
at Kanchi was popular during the Pallava Maratha country with Vatapi (Badami) as
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their capital. There were three distinct but The Chalukyas of Vatapi
closely related and independent Chalukya
Pulakesin I, a petty chieftain of Pattadakal
dynasties. They were (1) Chalukyas of
in the Bijapur district, took and fortified
Badami, (2) Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern
the hill fort of Vatapi around 543 AD (CE).
Chalukyas) and (3) Chalukyas of Kalyani
He soon conquered the territory between
(Western Chalukyas). These Chalukyas
the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and
held Harsha in the north, the Pallavas
the Western Ghats. His son Kirtivarman I
in the south and Kalinga (Odisha) in the
(c. 566 to 597) brought the Konkan coast
east.
under Chalukya control. Pulakesin II
(c.610 to 642) emerged as the most
Sources powerful ruler of the dynasty. The
Inscriptions Badami Cave Inscription Persian (Iran) king Khusru II sent an
of Mangalesha embassy to the court of Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin succeeded in seizing parts of
Kanchi Kailasanatha
Gujarat and Malwa. He defied the North
Temple Inscription
Indian ruler Harsha and according to an
Pattadakal Virupaksha agreed understanding Narmada river
Temple Inscription was fixed as the boundary between the
Aihole Inscription of two. About 624, Pulakesin II conquered
Pulakesin I the kingdom of Vengi and gave it to his
Foreign Accounts of Chinese brother Vishnuvardhana, the first Eastern
Notice traveller Hiuen Tsang Chalukya ruler.
During 641–647 the Pallavas
ravaged the Deccan and captured Vatapi,
Aihole Inscription: It is found at but the Chalukyas had recaptured it
Meguti Temple in Aihole (Bagalkot district, by 655. Vikramaditya I (655 to 680)
Karnataka). It is written in Sanskrit by and Vikramaditya II, the successor of
Ravikirti, a court poet of Chalukya king
Vikramaditya I captured Kanchipuram
Pulakesin II. It makes a mention of the
but spared the city. Kirtivarman II,
defeat of Harsha Vardhana by Pulakesin II.
the successor of Vikramaditya II was
defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of
the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani
They were the descendants of Badami

Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern-
day Basavakalyan). In 973, Tailapa II,
a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling
from Bijapur region defeated Parmara of
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Malwa. Tailapa II occupied Kalyani and

his dynasty quickly grew into an empire
under Somesvara I. Somesvara I moved
the capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires
of southern India, the Western Chalukyas
and the Chola dynasty of Thanjavur,
fought many fierce battles to control the
fertile region of Vengi. During the rule of
Vikramaditya VI in the late 11th century,
vast areas between the Narmada River in
the north and Kaveri River in the south
came under Chalukya control.
Contributions to Art and

Architecture
As supporters of both
Saivism and Vaishnavism,
the Chalukyas contributed
Cave Temple Badami
richly to art and
architecture. A new style
of architecture known as Vesara was
developed. Vesara is a combination of
south Indian (Dravida) and north Indian
(Nagara) building styles. They perfected
the art of stone building without mortar.
They used soft sandstones in construction.
They built a number of rock-cut
cave-temples and structural temples Kalleshwara Temple - Bagali
dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brahma.
Vikramaditya II. Their cave temples are
The structural temples of Chalukyas exist
found at Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. The
important stone temples are the Vishnu The cave temples at Badami contain
temples at Badami and Aihole and the fine sculptures of Vishnu reclining on Sesha
Virupaksha or Siva Temple at Pattadakal in Nag; Varaha, the Boar; Narasimha or the
Bijapur district in present-day Karnataka. lion-faced man; and Vamana, the dwarf.
The Vishnu temple at Badami was built The Kasi Vishweshvara Temple at Lakkundi,
by Mangalesa of the Chalukya Dynasty the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the
and contains the Aihole inscription of Kalleshwara Temple at Bagali and the
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Mahadeva Temple at Itagi represent well- Badami. Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga. He

known examples of the architecture of consolidated and extended the Rashtrakuta
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. power. He was a great patron of art and
Chalukyas adopted the Vakataka architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at
style in paintings. Some of the frescoes of Ellora was built by him.
the caves of Ajantha were created during
Rashtrakuta Kings
the reign of Chalukyas. The reception given
to the Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta
depicted in a painting at Ajanta. dynasty was Amogavarsha. He built a
new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed
Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage in Karnataka) and Broach became the
Site) is a small village in Bagalkot district port. Amogavarsha (c. 814–878) was
of Karnataka. It has ten temples. Out of converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jain
them, four were built in northern style monk. Krishna II, who succeeded his
(Nagara), while the rest six are in the
father Amogavarsha, suffered a defeat in
southern (Dravida) style. Virupaksha
the battle of Vallala (modern Tiruvallam,
Temple and Sangameshwara Temple are
in Dravida Style and Papanatha temple is Vellore district) at the hands of Cholas
in Nagara style. The Virupaksha temple is under Parantaka in c. 916. Krishna III
built on the model of Kanchi Kailasanatha (c. 939–967) was the last able ruler
temple. Sculptors brought from Kanchi of Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated
were employed in its construction. the Cholas in the battle of Takkolam
(presently in Vellore district) and
captured Thanjavur. The Chalukyas under
Krishna III contested with other ruling
dynasties of north India for the control of
Kanauj. He built Krishneshwara temple at
Rameshwaram.Govinda III was the last
ruler to hold the empire intact. After his
death, the Rashtrakuta power declined.
Contribution of
The Rashtrakutas Rashtrakutas to literature,
art and architecture
The Rashtrakutas ruled not only the Deccan
but parts of the far south and the Ganges Literature
plain as well from 8th to 10th century AD(CE). Kannada language became more
They were of Kannada origin and their mother prominent. Kavirajamarga composed by
tongue was Kannada. Dantidurga was the Amogavarsha was the first poetic work in
founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty. He was an Kannada language. Court poets produced
official of high rank under the Chalukyas of eminent works in Kannada. The three
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gems of Kannada literature during the Elephanta Island

period were Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna.
Originally known as Sripuri and called
Adikavi Pampa was famous for his creative
Gharapuri by the local people, Elephanta
works Adipurana and Vikramarjunavijaya.
is an island near Mumbai. The Portuguese
The life of Rishabadeva, the first Jain
named it as Elephanta, after seeing the
Tirthankara is depicted in Adipurana.
huge image of an elephant. The Trimurthi
In Vikramarjunavijaya Pampa’s patron,
(three-faced) Siva icon is an illustrative
Chalukya Arikesari, is identified with
of the sculptural beauty portrayed in
Arjuna, epic hero of Mahabharatha.
the Cave Temple of Elephanta. There
are impressive images of dwarapalakas
Art and architecture (entrance guards) at the entrance of the
The Rashtrakutas made significant Temple.
contribution to Indian Art. The art and
architecture of the Rashtrakutas can be
found at Ellora and Elephanta.
Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora

(near Aurangabad, Maharashtra)
Kailasanatha Temple was one of the 30

temples carved out of the hill at Ellora.
It was built during the reign of Krishna I.
The temple is known for its architectural
Elephanta Cave
grandeur and sculptural splendour. The
temple covers an area of over 60,000 Pattadakal
sq. feet and vimanam (temple tower)
Rashtrakutas built temples in the complex
rises to a height of 90 feet. This temple
of Pattadakal. The Jain Narayana temple
has resemblance to the shore temple at
and the Kasi Vishwesvara temple were
Mamallapuram. The Kailasanatha temple
built by Rashtrakutas.
portrays typical Dravidian features.
Kailasanatha Temple – Ellora Jain Narayana Temple
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Elsewhere
Leshan Giant Buddha Baghdad

(71 metre tall) The greatest city of Islamic Empire
Built during Tang dynasty in China, of 8th to 10th centuries AD (CE).
(713 and 803 AD (CE)).
Summary
By the early 7th century, South India The Chalukyas contributed richly to
had come under the control of Pallavas art and architecture. A new style of
of Kanchi and Chalukyas of Badami architecture known as Vesara style
Pallava period is known for architectural developed during their period
splendour. Pallava architecture can The Rashtrakutas also made significant
be classified as rock-cut temples, contribution to Indian art. Their art and
structural temples. monolithic rathas architecture can be found at Ellora cave
and mandapams and Elephanta island
GLOSSARY
feudatories being subject to a sovereign சிற்றரசர்கள்

ambassador envoy தூதுவர்
granite a very hard rock கருங்கல்
ravaged severely damaged சூறையாடிய
descendants offspring வழித்தோன்றல்கள்
reclining leaning back சாய்ந்திருக்கக்கூடிய
EXERCISE
Who among the following built the VaikundaPerumal temple?

1.
a. Narasimhavarma II b. Nandivarma II
c. Dantivarman d. Parameshvaravarma
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Which of the following titles were the titles of Mahendra Varma I?

2.
a. Mattavilasa b. Vichitra Chitta
c. Gunabara d. all the three
Which of the following inscriptions describes the victories of Pulakesin II?

3.
a. Aihole b. Saranath c. Sanchi d. Junagath
II Read the statement and tick the appropriate answer
Statement I: Pallava art shows transition from rock-cut monolithic structure to
1.
stone built temple.
Statement II: Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram is an example of Pallava

art and architecture.
a. Statement I is wrong. b. Statement II is wrong.
c. Both the statements are correct d. Both the statements are wrong.
Consider the following statement(s) about Pallava Kingdom.
2.
Statement I: Tamil literature flourished under Pallava rule, with the rise in

popularity of Thevaram composed by Appar.
Statement II:
Pallava King Mahendravarman was the author of the play
MattavilasaPrahasana.
a. I only b. II only
c. Both I and II d. Neither I nor II
Consider the following statements about the Rashtrakuta dynasty and find out
3.
which of the following statements are correct.
1. It was founded by Dantidurga.
2. Amogavarsha wrote Kavirajmarga.
3. Krishna I built the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.
a. 1only b. 2 and 3
b. 1 and 3 d. all the three
Which of the following is not a correct pair?

4.
a. Ellora caves - Rashtrakutas
b. Mamallapuram - Narasimhavarma I
c. Elephanta caves - Ashoka
d. Pattadakal - Chalukyas
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Find out the wrong pair.

5.
a. Dandin - Dasakumara Charitam
b. Vatsyaya - Bharathavenba
c. Bharavi - Kiratarjuneeyam
d. Amogavarsha - Kavirajamarga
III Fill in the blanks
_____________defeated Harsha Vardhana on the banks of the river Narmada.

1.
_____________destroyed Vatapi and assumed the title VatapiKondan.

2.
_____________was the author of Aihole Inscription.

3.
_____________was the army general of Narasimhavarma I

4.
The music inscriptions in ____________and ____________show Pallavas’ interest

5.
in music.
IV Match the following.\
Pallavas
1. - Kalyani
Eastern Chalukyas
2. - Manyakheta
Western Chalukyas
3. - Kanchi
Rashtrakutas
4. - Vengi
V State True or False
The famous musician Rudracharya lived during Mahendravarma I.

1.
The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Pulakesin II.

2.
Mamallapuram is one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

3.
Thevaram was composed by Azhwars.

4.
The Virupaksha temple was built on the model of Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple.
5.
VI Answer in one or two sentences
Name the three gems of Kannada literature.

1.
How can we classify the Pallava architecture?

2.
What do you know of Gatika?

3.
Panchapandavar rathas are monolithic rathas.Explain.

4.
Make a note on Battle of Takkolam.

5.
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VII Answer the following
Examine Pallavas’ contributions to architecture.

1.
Write a note on Elephanta island and Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.

2.
VIII HOTs
Give an account on Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.

1.
IX Life Skills
Collect temple architecture pictures of Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas and

1.
identify the distinguishing features of each period.
Field Trip :
2.
Plan a trip to any place of historical importance.

X Activity
Sketch the biography of Mahendravarma

a.
I and Pulakesin II.
See the picture and write a few sentences

b.
on it.
XI. Answer Grid
Give examples for the Name the new style of What does Aihole
structural temples of Pallava architecture developed inscription mention?
period. during Chalukya period.
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Who built the Kailasanatha Name the sculptural Where do structural

temple at Ellora? mandapas of Mamallan temples of Chalukya exist?
style of architecture.
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Name two Saivite saints Who was the founder of What were the
and Vaishnavite saints who Rashtrakuta dynasty? titles adopted by
practised bhakticult during Ans: Narasimhavarma I?
Pallava period? Ans:
Ans:
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ICT CORNER
HISTORY - South Indian Kingdoms
This ��
activity for��
Interactivity Map is a
UNESCO World Heritage Sites helps to know
��
about ancient Heritage Sites
learn��!
Steps:
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: World Heritage Centre page will appear on the screen.
Step 3: Double click or Zoom any tagged sites or places. (ex. Mamallapuram)
Step 4: You can see collective pictures, videos and more details.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: http://www.elections.in/ (or) scan the QR Code
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GEOGRAPHY
TN_GOVT_GEOGRAPHY_VI_Std_Ch 1.indd 146 22-11-2018 19:39:48

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit 1
ASIA AND EUROPE
Learning Objectives
• To understand the location, extent and political divisions of the
continents of Asia and Europe
• To know about the physical features and drainage of these two
continents.
• To understand the climate and natural vegetation of these
continents.
• To discuss the economic activities and resources.
• To appraise the cultural mosaic of both the continents.
• To gain the skill of locating the given places on the map.
Students: Good morning, Teacher. Students: Asia.
Teacher: G
ood morning, students! Did Teacher: E
xactly. In the first term, you
you celebrate the English New have learnt about how many
Year well? continents are in the world and
their names. In this lesson, we
Students: Yes madam.
are going to learn in detail about
Teacher: O
k. English is the native of Asia and Europe. Let us explore
which country? these two continents.
Students: Britain. This lesson disscusses about the
Teacher: G
ood. Do you know which location, boundaries, physical and political
continent is it located in? divisions of Asia and Europe. The major
rivers, climate and natural vegetation
Students: Europe.
are highlighted in this lesson. It also
Teacher: V
ery good. Which is our home explains about how economic activities are
continent? determined by the resources.
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The cultural mosaics of Asia and Europe Boundaries

are great eye openers for learners in terms
Asia is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean
of European and Asian cultures.
in the north, Pacific Ocean in the east,
PART A. ASIA Indian Ocean in the south and the Ural
Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, Red Sea,
Asia is the largest and the most Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea and Black
populous continent in the world. It covers Sea in the west.
about 30 percent of the world’s land
area and about 60 percent of the world’s The Suez Canal separates Asia from
population. Most of the land of Asia lies in Africa. The narrow Bering Strait separates
the northern hemisphere. It has different Asia from North America.
types of physical and cultural features. Political Divisions
Lofty mountains, plateaus, plains, islands
and peninsulas are the major physiographic There are forty eight countries in Asia.
features of Asia. Many perennial rivers flow The countries are grouped into several
through different parts of Asia. These river realms based on landscape and political
valleys are the cradles of ancient civilizations status such as
(Indus valley, Mesopotamian and Chinese
1.East Asia 2.Southeast Asia 3.South Asia
civilizations). Let us know more about our
4.Southwest and 5.Central Asia
home continent.
Location and Area Physiographic Divisions
Asia extends from 10˚11' South to Asia is the land of long mountain
81˚12' North latitudes and from 26˚2' East ranges, snow capped high mountains, vast
to 169˚40' West, longitudes. It spreads for plateaus, extensive plains, river valleys and
an area of 44 million km2. sea coasts. These diverse physical features
encourage the people of this continent to
N
Location of Asia
W E
Arctic Ocean S
Arctic Circle Arctic Circle
Asia
North Europe
America Atlantic
Pacific Ocean
Ocean Pacific Ocean
Tropic of Cancer
Africa
Equator Indian Ocean
South
Tropic of Capricorn America
Australia
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
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N
W E
S
1. The Northern Lowlands

Fact :
The most extensive lowland in Asia is
There are 12 landlocked countries the Siberian plain. It extends from the Ural
in Asia. Among these, only one
Mountains in the west to the Verkhoyansk
is doubly landlocked which means
Range in the east.
it is surrounded entirely by other
landlocked countries. Find out the 2. The Central Highlands
doubly landlocked country. The central highlands stretches from
Turkey to the Bering Strait. There are two
involve in diverse economic activities. The
knots found in Asia. They are 1. The Pamir
physiography of Asia can be divided into
Knot 2.The Armenian Knot.
five major groups. They are;
1. The Northern lowlands 'Knot' refers to the

convergence of mountain
2. The Central High Mountains
ranges
3. The Southern Plateaus
4. The Great Plains and The Hindukush range, the Sulaiman

range, the Himalayan range and the
5. The Island Groups Tian Shan range radiate from the Pamir
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Asia Mountains Arctic Ocean N

Bering W E
Sea
S
hern
Nort nds
a
Lowl
ns
tai
Europe Japa
n
n
ou
lM
Plateau of
a
Bla
Ur
ck Mongolia
PontineAsea Japan
Taurus rmen Alta
sea ian
i M Sea
Kno ian ts
sp
t Tien shan
Ca
Elburz H Yellow
Iran indukush Pamir Pacific Ocean
Plateau Knot Plateau ofKunlun Sea
K
Zagros an Hi arako Tibet
ma r a Taiwan
m lay m
u lai as
S
Philippines
Arabian Sea Bay of
Bengal
Africa
Laksh dia)
Andaman &
(In
Nicobar
ad w
LEGEND (India)
p Srilanka Singapore
ee
Low lands
Plateaus
Mountains &Plateaus Not to Scale
Main mountain ranges Indian Ocean
Mountain Ranges radiate from the Pamir and the Armenian Knot
Knot. The Hindukush range continues 2. The plateau of Iran (Elburz to Zagros
westward as the Elburz, whereas the mt)
Sulaiman range continues south west
3. The plateau of Tibet (Kunlun to
as the Zagros range. The Elburz and the
Himalayas )
Zagros converge at the Armenian knot.
The Taurus and the Pontine ranges
Tibet is called the ‘Roof
radiate from the Armenian knot. The other
of the world’ and it is
important mountain ranges are the great
also known as the third
Khingan, the Altai, the Verkoyansk
pole because of its cold weather,
and the Arakan yoma. The Himalayan
largest reserve of freshwater and
mountain range is the highest mountain
inhospitable environment.
range in the world Mt. Everest (8848 m)
is the highest peak in Asia, as well as the
world. HOTS :
The Khyber Pass is located in the

The lowest point in the world is located
Sulaiman range, the Bolan Pass is
in Dead Sea in Asia. Intermontane plateaus
located in Toba Kakar range. What is
are found in these mountain ranges. The
the importance of these two passes?
important plateaus are
1. The plateau of Anatolia (Pontine to

Taurus )
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3. The Southern Plateaus of Maldives and Lakshadweep in the

The southern plateaus are relatively Arabian Sea. Bahrain is in the Persian
lower than the northern plateaus. The Gulf. Sri Lanka is an island, which is
four important southern plateaus are the located in the Bay of Bengal.
Arabian Plateau (Saudi Arabia), Deccan
Plateau (India), Shan Plateau (Myanmar) A group of islands is
and the Yunnan Plateau (China). Among called an archipelago.
these plateaus, the Arabian Plateau is the The largest archipelago is
largest Plateau. Indonesia.
4. The Great Plains

The great plains are formed by the major
rivers of Asia. They are the West Siberian
plain (Ob and Yenisey), Manchurian
Plain (Amur), Great Plain of China
(Yangtze and Sikiang), Indo-Gangetic
Drainage
Plain (Indus and Ganga), Mesopotamian
plain (Tigris and Euphrates) and the The rivers of Asia originate mostly from
Irrawaddy plain (Irrawaddy). the central highlands. The Ob, Yenise and
Lena are the major rivers that flow towards
5. The Island Groups
the north and drain into the Arctic Ocean.
Numerous islands are found in the These rivers remain frozen during winter.
Pacific coast of Southeast Asia. Kuril, On the other hand, South Asia has many
Taiwan, Singapore and Borneo are the perennial rivers (e.g.) Brahmaputra,
important island groups. Indus, Ganga and Irrawaddy which
The Philippines, Japan islands and originate from the snow covered high
Indonesia are the major archipelagos in mountains that do not freeze during winter.
Asia. Smaller archipelagos are also located The Euphrates and Tigris flow in West
in the Indian Ocean such as the islands Asia. The Amur, Huang He, Yangtze
Major Rivers of Asia

S. Name of the Origin Outflow Length in
No River Km
1 Yangtze Tibetan plateau East China sea 6,350
2 Huang He Tibetan plateau Gulf of Pohai 5,464
3 Mekong Tibetan plateau South China sea 4,350
4 Yenisei Tannuala Mountain Arctic Ocean 4,090
5 Ob Altai Mountain Gulf of Ob 3,650
6 Brahmaputra Himalayas Bay of Bengal 2,900
7 Indus Himalayas Arabian sea 3,610
8 Amur Confluence of Shika and Tatar Strait 2,824
Argun rivers
9 Ganga Himalayas Bay of Bengal 2,525
10 Irrawaddy North Myanmar Bay of Bengal 2,170
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and Mekong rivers flow in the south and monsoon winds bring heavy rainfall to
south eastern parts of Asia. Yangtze is the India, Bangladesh, Indo-China, Philippines
longest river in Asia. and Southern China (1500 mm to 2500
mm). In India, Mawsynram (11871
mm) receives the highest rainfall. So, this
place is called the wettest place in the
world.
The areas found in and around the
equator have uniform climate throughout
the year. There is no winter. The average
River Yangtze temperature is 27°C and the mean rainfall
is 1270 mm.
The Three Gorges dam
HOTS :
has been constructed
across the river Yangtze. There is no winter in the equatorial
It is the largest power region. Why?
station dam in the world. It fulfills ten
percent of power needs of China. The west and central parts of Asia have
hot, dry climate. The temperature is very
high during the day and very low during
the night. Rainfall varies from 25 mm to
200 mm. The West coastal fringe of Asia
(along the Mediterranean Sea) receives
rainfall in winter and is warm in summer.
Deserts are found along the western

Climate
part of Asia. The major hot deserts are the
Asia exhibits a variety of climate. The Arabian (Saudi Arabia) and Thar (India
northern part of Asia experiences severe and Pakistan) deserts. The cold deserts
long winter and cool summer. (Winter of Asia are Gobi and Taklamakan. The
-37°C and Summer 10°C). Precipitation largest desert in Asia is the Arabian Desert.
is in the form of snow (250 mm to 300
Natural Vegetation
mm).The north eastern part of Asia
experiences cold winter and warm summer Natural vegetation depends upon
and a moderate rainfall of 50 mm to rainfall, temperature and soil. As Asia
250 mm. stretches from the equator to poles, all
types of vegetation are found here. Some
The south, south east and eastern
rare species are found in Asia. (Orang-
parts of Asia are strongly influenced by
Utan, Komodo Dragon, Giant panda ).
monsoon winds. Summer is hot and humid
while winter is cool and dry. The summer The Asian flora and fauna are listed below:
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The Natural Regions (Flora & Fauna)
Sl. Climate Location Flora Fauna

No.
1 High Indonesia, Evergreen trees - Rhinoceros, Tiger,
Temperature, Malaysia, Mahogany, Rubber, Babirusa, Orangutan,
High rainfall Singapore Rosewood, Sal Komodo Dragon
Sri Lanka
2 Summer India, Vietnam, Deciduous trees – Tiger, Elephant, Indian
rainfall, Dry Cambodia, Teak, Sandal wood, Cobra, viper
winter Thailand, Bamboo
Southern China
3 Extreme Arabian desert, Cactus, Dates (Oa- Bactrian Camel, The
temperatures North, North sis), Thorny shrubs, Sand grouse, desert
West India Babul tree oryx
4 Dry winter, East China, Cherry, Apricot, Giant Panda, Japanese
Warm Japan, North and Plum macaque
summer South Korea
5 Warm Israel, Lebanon, Figs, Olives, Citrus Lynx, Jackrabbit
Summer and Turkey, Syria fruits
winter rainfall
6 Long and dry Siberia, Coniferous trees - Siberian Tiger, Brown
winter, short Himalayas Pine, Fir, Spruce bear, Wolf
and cool
summer
7 Permanent Beyond the snow Lichen, mosses Polar bear, Lemming,
snow cover line Grass Reindeer, Arctic fox
Orang-Utan Tiger Bactrian Camel
Panda Wolf Lynx
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Petroleum: Petroleum is a mineral oil.

Fact : The largest petroleum reserves are found in
A Desert is a large area that gets South West Asia. The important petroleum
very low rainfall and very few plants producing countries are Saudi Arabia,
and animals. There are two types of Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, Qatar and
deserts found in Asia, Hot and cold
UAE. South China, Malaysia, Brunei,
deserts.
Indonesia, India, Russia are the other
important petroleum producing countries
Rub’al Khali desert is the in Asia.
largest, continuous sandy
desert in the world.It is
found in the southeastern
part of Saudi Arabia.
Resource Base and Economic

Activities of Asia
Mineral Resources Coal mine in India
Asia has a variety of mineral deposits. It Bauxite is found in India and

holds an important place in the production Indonesia. India is the largest producer
of Iron, Coal, Manganese, Bauxite, of Mica in the world. Tin is found in
Zinc, Tungsten, Petroleum, Tin etc. Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and
Indonesia.
Oil and Natural Gas found in the west
Asian countries. One third of the world’s Agriculture
oil is produced in Asia. Among the west
Only about 18 percent of the total area
Asian countries, Iran has a considerable
is cultivable in Asia. Agriculture is the chief
wealth of mineral resources. The important
occupation of the people here. The river
minerals found in Asia are:
valleys in the South, South East and East
Iron Ore: Asia has the largest deposits of Asia have rich alluvial soil. Agriculture is
iron ore in the world. China and India are intensively practised in the riverine plains of
the important iron ore deposit countries Asia. However, some areas are not suitable
of Asia. Turkey, Philippines, Malaysia, for agricultural practices. India has the
Thailand, Myanmar etc., are a few other largest area of arable lands in Asia. Most
countries that have iron ore deposits. of the west Asian countries cultivate their
crops where the ground water level is nearer
Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel. Asia has the to the surface. Iraq practices agricultural
largest deposits of coal in the world. China activities based on the availability of rainfall
and India are the largest producers of coal and supply of water from Euphrates and
in Asia. Tigris rivers.
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Rice and Wheat are the staple food The major cotton producing countries are
crops in Asia. China and India are the India, China, Russia and Kazakhstan.
leading producers of rice in the world. India, Pakistan, China and Bangladesh
Other important rice producing countries are the leading producers of jute.
are Myanmar, Japan, Bangladesh and
The tropical wet and dry climate is
Thailand. Monsoon Asia is suitable for
suitable for sugarcane cultivaiton in
rice cultivation because of the abundant
Asia. India, Indonesia and Philippines
rainfall, fertile plains and availability of
are the major producers of sugarcane.
labour. Thailand is called the Rice bowl
Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Palm trees and
of South East Asia.
Cocoa are the important plantation crops.
India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam,
Banaue rice terrace: Malaysia and Indonesia are importantan
The Banaue rice terraces
producers of plantation crops. Malaysia
were built 2000 year
and Thailand are the leading producers of
ago by the Ifugaos
people in the Philippines. It is located natural rubber.
approximately about 1524 m above Dates are produced in west Asia,
sea level. among the countries Iran is the largest
producer of dates in the world.
Wheat is grown in the temperate Cocoa Tree

regions of Asia. Russia, India, China
Fishing
and Pakistan are the leading producers
of wheat in Asia. Millets like Bajra, Fishing is an important economic activity
Jower, Ragi and Sorgham are grown in in Asia. It is prevalent in open seas as well as
the drier parts of Asia. These are widely inland water bodies. China and Japan are
cultivated in India, Pakistan and a few the leading fishing nations. In Cambodia,
gulf countries. Apart from these, pulses, Tonle Sap lake is one of the world’s richest
spices and oil seeds are also cultivated in sources of fresh water fishing. Bay of Bengal
various parts of Asia. is the major fishing ground for India, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Fishing
Jute and cotton are the important is the mainstay of the national economy
natural fibres cultivated in Asia. One third in Maldives. Pearl fishing (Bahrein) is
of the world’s cotton is produced by Asia. popular in the eastern coast of Arabia.
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Industrial Regions runs between Osaka and Tokyo in Japan

at a speed of 352 km/h. The Indian railway
In China, Manchurian, Shanghai-
network is the second largest railway
Wuhan, Peking—Shenyang, Guangdone-
network in Asia.
Hongkong regions are the major industrial
regions. In Japan, the major regions Waterways
are Tokyo, Yokohama and Osaka-Kyoto
The Cape of Good Hope route
regions. In India, Mumbai, Ahmedabad,
connects Europe to South Asia. The
Coimbatore, Bengaluru and Chottanagpur
Trans Pacific route connects the ports
are the important industrial regions.
of eastern Asia to the ports of western
Trasport American countries. The Suez Canal
route passes through the heart of the
Transport is the backbone of the
world trade route and connects Europe
economic development of a region. Many
with South and Southeast Asia. Tokyo,
Asian countries are developing their
Shanghai, Singapore, Hong Kong,
transport network for their economic
Chennai, Mumbai, Karachi and Dubai
progress. Roadway is the most common
are the important seaports in Asia.
mode of transport in Asia.
Roadways
The Asian Highway connects Tokyo in

the east to Turkey in the west, Russia in
the north to Indonesia in the south and
the total length of road is 1,41,000 km.
It passes through 32 countries. The Asian
Highway 1(AH 1) is the longest highway
among the Asian Highway Network (20557
km). It connects Tokyo to Turkey. The Shanghai Port
Asian Highway 43 (AH 43) runs from Agra CULTURAL MOSAIC OF ASIA
in India to Matara in Sri Lanka (3024 km).
Population
Railways
Asia is the most populated continent
The Trans - Siberian Railways in the world. Approximately six-tenth of
(9258 km) is the longest rail route in the the world’s population lives in Asia. The
world. It is a transcontinental railway population is unevenly
line which connects Leningrad and distributed because of
Vladivostok. The Trans Asian Railway various physical features.
links Singapore and Istanbul in Turkey. China and India alone
The Shinkansen, bullet train is the covers three fifth of
world famous super express train that Asia’s population. Apart
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from these two countries, Bangladesh, Indonesian, Japanese, Arabic, Korea,

Indonesia, Japan, Pakistan and Vietnamese and Hindi are the most
Philippines have more than 100 million widely spoken languages in Asia.
populations. The population density in
Art and Architecture:
Asia is 143 persons per Km2. India,
Japan, Bangladesh and Singapore have Asia is the home land of three
high population density. River plains and civilizations.(Mesopotamian, Indus valley
industrial regions have high density of and Chinese civilizations).These three
contributed to the architectural works at an
population, whereas low density is found in
early stage.
the interior parts of Asia.
Among the seven wonders of the world,
two are located in Asia (The Tajmahal
HOTS :
in India, The Great wall of China).The
Few countries in Asia have high
people of Yemen built a mud skyscraper
population. Give reasons.
thousands of years ago. Ankorwat in
Cambodia, Buddhist Temple in East
and Southeast Asia, Mosques in west Asia
ANKORWAT: It is a and the temples and forts in India are fine
world heritage site. It was examples of Asian architecture.
built by king Suriya Varma
II in 1100 AD (CE) at Food:
Cambodia. 'Ankorwat' means 'the Rice, Wheat, Maize and Barley are
city of temples' in Khmer language. the staple food in Asia. Dairy products,
It is the largest Hindu Temple in the
fruits and nuts are also consumed. In East
world.
Asia, bread and noodles are the staple food
where rice is not available. Tea, Coffee
and green tea are the chief beverages. In
West Asia, meat, herbs and olive oil are the
prime ingredients in their food.
Dance and Music:
Religion & Language:
Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism

Christianity and Sikhism are the
major creeds in Asia. The minor creeds
Zoroastrianism, Jainism, Shintoism, kabuki
Confucianism and Taoism are also In Asia, Yangee, Dragon Dance,
practised in Asia. Mandarin, English, Kabaki are popular in East Asia Ram
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Thai in Thailand, Bhangra, Kathak Holi and Mahara Sankaranthi / Pongal

and Bharathanatyam in India are also in major parts of India and Sukkoth in
important dances in Asia. Sufi music and Israel are the important harvest festivals
Arabic classical music are common in of Asia. The snow sculpture festival,
west Asia. Tinikling is the national dance Chinese New Year, Thaipusam, Diwali,
of Philippines. Taiwan Lantern festival, Songkran,
winter light festival are also some of the
Festivals:
famous festivals in Asia.
Land of contrasts
Asia is the biggest continent. It has

different types of land features such as
mountain, plateau, plain, valley, bay, island
etc. It also has different climatic conditions
from the equator to polar region. Apart
from this, many races, languages, religions
Mid Autumn festival
and cultures are followed by people who
The mid autumn festival / moon live in Asia. So, Asia is called 'the land of
festival in China, Taiwan and Vietnam. contrasts'.
Part – B Europe
N
Location of Europe
W E
Arctic Ocean S
Arctic Circle Arctic Circle
Asia
North Europe
America Atlantic
Pacific Ocean Ocean Pacific Ocean
Tropic of Cancer
Africa
Equator Indian Ocean
South
Tropic of Capricorn America
Australia
Not to Scale
Southern Ocean
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Europe is the sixth largest continent Europe is found in the northern

in size and the third largest in population hemisphere and it covers an area of 10.5
in the world. It has diverse landforms and million sq.km. It is surrounded by the
people. It is the birth place of western Arctic Ocean in the North, the Black Sea
civilizations (Roman and Greek), and Mediterranean Sea in the south, the
democracy and Industrial Revolution. Atlantic Ocean in the west and the Ural
It is the most developed continent in the mountains in the east. So it looks like a
world. Let us explore the continent. giant peninsula.
Location and size
Europe spreads from 34º 51' North HOTS :

latitude to 81º 47' North latitude and Europe is called as the 'Peninsula of
from 24º33' West longitude to 69º 03' Peninsulas', Justify.
East longitude. The Prime Meridian 0º
longitude passes through Greenwich in
England.
Political Divisions
N
W E
S
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most beautiful fjord coast. It was created

European Union :
by glaciations in the past. This region has
The European Union
a lot of lakes, which serve as reservoirs
(EU) is an economic
for producing hydroelectricity. Norway
and political union of 28
member countries for their welfare. It and Sweden are the largest producers of
has own flag and the common currency, hydroelectricity in the world.
the Euro (€).
Fact :
Fact : Fjord : A fjord is a narrow and deep

sea inlet between steep cliffs. It helps
The Netherlands : About 25 percent in the following ways.
of the Netherlands lies below sea level.
So they have built dikes. They have 1. It reduces the speed of wind,
reclaimed new land from the sea with irrespective of its direction.
the help of dikes. These reclaimed 2. The force of sea waves are also
lands are called polders. controlled.
Hence, areas with fjords are best
suited for natural harbours.
Physical Divisions
Europe has diversified physical features
such as mountains, plains, plateaus,
Fjord coast in Norway
peninsulas, bays, islands and river basins.
2. The Central Plateaus
It can be divided into four physical divisions.
The plateaus are found in east west
1. The North Western Highlands
direction across central Europe. Many rivers
2. The Central Plateaus/High land in Europe such as, the Danube, the Volga
3. The Alpine Mountain system and the Tagus originate from this plateau.
The important plateaus of this region are
4. The North European plains
The Pennines (England), The Meseta
1. The North Western highlands (Spain), The Central Massif and Jura
(France). The Black forest (Germany) in
This region includes the mountains
these region has rich mineral resources.
and plateaus of Norway, Sweden, Finland,
The Pennines is called the backbone of
Scotland and Iceland. This region has the
England.
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Black forest: The lush The Matterhorn :

and dark coloured fig The pyramid-shaped
and pine trees give black Matterhorn mountain is
colour to this region. located in the Swiss Alps
a height of 4478 m. It is popular for
its shape.
3. The Alpine Mountain System:
The alpine mountain system consists

of a chain of young fold mountains found in
the southern part of Europe. The important
mountain ranges are the Sierra Nevada,
the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines,
the Dinaric Alps, the Caucasus and the
Carpathian. The Pyrenees forms a natural
boundary between Spain and France.
The highest peak in Europe is Mt. 4. The North European plain

Elburz (5645 m) in the Caucasus range. The north European plain stretches
The Mont Blanc (4,807 m) found in the from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the
Alps is the second highest peak in the Ural mountains in the east. On the north, it
Alpine System. is surrounded by the Baltic Sea and on the
South by the alpine mountain. It is narrow
in the West and wide towards the East.
Major European rivers such as the

Seine, the Rhine, the Danube and the Don
criss-cross this region and deposit their
alluvium.
The Andalusian Plain, The

Hungarian Plain and the Wallachian
Plain are also found in this region. It has
Mont Blanc rich deposits of coal and iron ore. The north
European plain is densely populated region
There are several active volcanoes and cities like Paris, Moscow and Berlin
found in the Alpine mountain system. Mt. are located here.
Etna, Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Stromboli Drainage
are the important volcanoes found in The rivers play an important role in the
Europe.Earthquakes are common in this development of Europe. These rivers are
region. The Stromboli is called the 'light used to irrigate farmland and also help to
house of the Mediterranean'. produce electricity.
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The Important Rivers in Europe

S.
Rivers Length (Km) Source Out flow
No
1 Volga 3,692 Valdes plateau Caspian Sea
2 Danube 2,860 Black forest Black Sea
3 Dnieper 2,145 Valdai Hills Black Sea
4 Rhine 1,230 Alps (Switzerland) North Sea
5 Rhone 813 Swiss Alps Mediterranean Sea

6 Po 652 Cottian Alps Adriatic Sea
7 Thames 346 Kemble North Sea
Source w.w.w.worldatlas.com
Most of the rivers originate in the Alps mild, generally humid climate, influenced
and the central plateau of Europe. These by the North Atlantic Drift. In central
rivers are useful for inland navigation in and eastern Europe, the climate is humid
central and Eastern Europe. The Volga continental-type. In the northeast,
is the longest river in Europe. The river subarctic and tundra climates are found.
Danube passes through nine countries in The whole of Europe is subject to
Europe. the moderating influence of prevailing
westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean.
limate Divider: The

C
Alps mountain separates
the Mediterranean climate
from the cold climate of
the north.
River Danube
HOTS : Fact
Why are European rivers suitable for North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean
inland navigation? current which brings warmth to the
western Europe. The westerly wind
Climate further transports warmth across Europe.
The climate of Europe varies from

the subtropical to the polar climate. The
Natural vegetation
Mediterranean climate of the south
has warm summer and rainy winter. The The natural vegetation of Europe can
western and northwestern parts have a be classified as follows:
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1. Tundra Europe is an industrially developed

2. Taiga or Coniferous continent in the world. It has great
diversity in its topography, climate and
3. Mixed Forest soil. These interact to produce varied
4. Mediterranean Forest patterns of agricultural activities such
5. Grassland as Mediterranean agriculture, Dairy
farming, mixed livestock and crop
The Arctic and northern Scandinavian farming and horticulture (Truck
highland have Tundra type of vegetation
Farming)
made up of lichens and mosses.
Coniferous Forest
Tulip Flower Garden
Coniferous or Taiga vegetations are
found to the south of the Tundra region in Wheat is the dominant crop throughout
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Poland Europe. Barley, Oats, sugar beet, rye,
and Austria. Pine, fir, spruce and larch are potatoes and hay are also common crops.
the important tree varieties of taiga forest. Corn (maize) is an important crop in the
lower Danubian lowlands and southwestern
The mixed forest comprising of birch,
European Russia, France and Italy. Rice
beech, poplar, oak and maple trees
(northern Italy) and citrus fruits, olive
found in the western part of Europe
trees (Spain, Sicily) depend on irrigation.
particularly in western France, Belgium,
Denmark, Britain etc. Mediterranean
trees like cypress, cork, oak, olive
and cedar are found along the borders of
the Mediterranean Sea. Eastern Europe is
covered by grasslands (Steppe).
Resources Base and Economic
Activities of Europe
Availability of resources, efficient
educated work force, research, contact Olive tree
with other nations and innovations have The northernmost countries grow few
transformed Europe into a modern and cereals (mainly oats) and concentrate on
economically developed continent in the animal husbandry, especially cattle and
world. dairying. Mixed farming and the use of well-
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tried crop rotations are widely practised. and Dutch bicycles, Swedish and Finnish
Viticulture is mostly practised in Italy, glass, Parisian perfumes and fashion goods
France and Germany. and Swiss precision instruments.
Cultural Mosaic of Europe

Europe is the third most populous
continent, after Asia and Africa. The
population of Europe was 742 million in
2018, which accounted for 9.73% of the
world’s population. The population density
in Europe is 34 persons / km2.
High population density is often

associated with the coalfields of Europe.
Vineyard Other populous areas are sustained
As for industrial crops, European by mining, manufacturing, commerce,
Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus are large offering large market, labour forces and
producers of flax and hemp, sugar beets productive agriculture. Monaco, Malta,
and sunflower seeds. Tobacco is grown San Marino, and the Netherlands are
in Belarus and is also important in Bulgaria, the most densely populated countries;
Italy, and Macedonian Greece. Iceland and Norway have very low density
of population. In general, population is
European Russia, Sweden and Finland
scantiest in the mountain regions, some
are the major producers of softwood and
highlands, arid parts of Spain and the
hardwood. Fishing is a large industry in
Arctic regions of Russia. Monaco has the
Norway, Iceland, Russia, Denmark, the
highest density of population in Europe
United Kingdom, the Netherlands etc., The
(26,105 persons / km2) as well as in the
Dogger Bank in North Sea is an important
world. Iceland has a very low density of
fishing ground in Europe.
population (3 persons/ km2).
Industries
Religion & Language
Europe produces a significant portion of
the world’s steel and iron ore. Shipbuilding, Europe is a continent of great linguistic
motor-vehicle and aircraft construction are and cultural difference. English, Spanish,
widely distributed all over Europe. Europe Portuguese, French, Italian and Slavic are
is also a large producer of pharmaceutical the broadly spoken languages in Europe.
drugs. Christianity is the major religion in Europe.
A wide range of small-scale industries A considerable number of Hindus, Muslims
(i.e., those that produce nondurable and Jews are spread throughout Europe.
goods) is found throughout Europe. Some More than 90 percent of the people belong
countries have a reputation for specialty to the Caucasoid race.
goods, as in the case of English, Italian,
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European art and architecture mostly
reveals the ordinary human being and is
popular all over the world. Acropolis, the
Colosseum, the statue of David, The
thinker, Eiffel tower, Big Ben, Pisa
Tower and Mona Lisa are some of the
master pieces of art and architecture in
Europe.
The Colosseum
Food and Festivals
Bread, fish, meat, potatoes and dairy

products are the staple food in Europe.
The Europeans celebrate both religious and
holiday festivals. Christmas, Easter, Good
Friday, the Saint Day, Redentore, Tomatina
and Carnival are the important festivals of
Europe. They play Rugby, foot ball, basket
The Thinker
ball, ice hockey and skiing. Bull fighting in
Spain is the world's attractive game.
Big Ben in London

Tomatina Festival
A Comparison of Asia and Europe
Asia and Europe are integrated

geographically and separated politically.
Europe is the giant peninsula of Asia.
Both the Himalayas (Asia) and the Alps
(Europe) were formed during the same
geological period. The Steppe grass lands
Eiffel Tower and coniferous forests are spread over
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several hundred kilometres from Europe these two continents had trade relationship
to Asia. Generally, the plains are found in through the silk route and the spice
the northern part and the mountains in the route. Despite the various geographical
southern part in both the continents. The similarities, these two continents have
two continents are the homeland of ancient striking differences.
civilizations. From the ancient period,
Asia Europe
1. It is the largest continent, both by area 1. It is the smallest continent by area and
and population. the most developed.
2. It extends from 10° 11’ S to 81° 12’ N 2. It extends from 34° 51’ N to 81° 47’N
latitudes. That is, from the equatorial latitudes. That is, from the sub-tropical
region to the polar region. region to the polar region.
3. It is located on the eastern hemisphere 3. It is located at the centre of the earth.
4. The Bering Strait separates Asia and 4. The Strait of Gibraltar separates Europe
North America. from Africa.
5. The Arabian, Indo China, India and 5. The Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian and
Korea are the important peninsulas in Balkan are the important peninsulas in
Asia. Europe.
6. The important parallels such as the 6. Only the Arctic Circle passes through it.
Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Arctic Circle
pass through it.
7. All kinds of climatic conditions are 7. It lies largely in the temperate zone.
found here. It also enjoys the distinctive It enjoys the distinctive Mediterranean
monsoon type of climate Southern Asia type of climate. Southern Europe
receives summer rainfall. receives winter rainfall.
8. Both hot and cold deserts are located 8. There are no deserts here.
here.
9. It has a variety of mineral deposits . 9. Mineral resources are limited, except
for coal & iron.
10. P
lantation crops such as tea, rubber 10.
Citrus fruits, olives and grapes are
and dates are largely cultivated in Asia. cultivated mostly in Asia.
11. A
majority of people in Asia are 11.
A majority of people in Europe are
involved in primary activities. involved in secondary and tertiary
activities.
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Recap Glossary
•
Asia is the largest and the most • Beverage – a drink other than water
populous continent in the world. It •
Perennial – Continuing throughout
is divided into five physical divisions. the entire year
• From the equator to the poles, all • Monsoon wind – The seasonal wind
types of climate are found in Asia. of the Indian ocean
• The treeless polar region to dense • Tundra – A vast, flat, treeless Arctic
equatorial forest are found in Asia.
• Riverine – Situated beside a river
•
Iron ore, coal, petroleum, Bauxite,
• Staple food – food that makes up the
mica, tin, zinc etc. are the chief
dominant part of people’s diet
minerals found in Asia.
• Irrigation – The artificial application
•
Rice, wheat, sugarcane, jute,
of water to land
cotton, tea, coffee and dates are the
• Husbandry – The care, cultivation
important crops.
and breeding of crops and animals
• Asia is the birthplace of all religions.
•
Viticulture – The cultivation of
• Europe is the sixth largest continent. It
grapevines
is divided into four physical divisions.
•
The European rivers play a Vital • Steppes – a large area of flat
role to the country economy. unforested grassland in Siberia.
•
Europe experiences a cool •
Polder – A piece of low lying land
temperate climate. reclaimed from the sea
•
Mixed farming is the most widely • Race – a group of people who have
practised type of agriculture in Europe. similarities in biological traits.
•
Coal and Iron ore are a cheap • Horticulture – the art of garden cultivation
minerals found in Europe. and management (vegetables, fruits and
• Christianity is the major religion in flowers)
Europe.
Exercise
I Choose the best answer.
1. Which is not the western margin of

2. The Intermontane
Asia?
______ plateau is
(a) Black Sea
found between Elbruz and Zagros.
(b) Mediterranean Sea
(a) Tibet (b) Iran
(c) Red Sea
(c) Deccan (d) The Yunnan
(d) Arabian Sea
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3. Equatorial climate : Choose the correct option:

(i) Uniform throughout the year. (a) These regions are found near the
(ii) The average / mean rainfall is equator
200 mm. (b) It is influenced by the North
(iii) The average temperature is 10°C. Atlantic Drift
(iv) Of the statements give above, (c) It is surrounded by mountains
(a) i alone is correct (d) All of the above
(b) ii and iii are correct 8. Which of the following statements is

(c) i and iii are correct incorrect?
(d) i and ii are correct (a) Europe produces electricity from
4. Match list I correctly with list II and hydel power
select your answer from the codes (b) All the rivers of Europe originate
given below. in the Alps
(c) Most of the rivers in Europe are
List – I List – II
used for inland navigation
A. Malaysia 1. Figs
(d) The rivers of Europe are perennial
B. Thailand 2. Rubber
in nature
C. Korea 3. Teak
D. Israel 4. Cherry 9. Choose the incorrect pair.
(a) The Meseta - Spain
Codes
(b) The Jura - France
A BC D
(c) The Pennines - Italy
(a) 2, 3, 4, 1
(d) The Black Forest - Germany
(b) 4, 3, 2, 1
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 10. Which country in Europe has a very
low density of population?
(d) 2, 3, 1, 4
(a) Iceland (b) The Netherlands
5. India is the leading producer of
(c) Poland (d) Switzerland
_____________.
(a) Zinc (b) Mica II Fill in the blanks.
(c) Manganese (d) Coal 1. The Taurus and the Pontine ranges
6. The natural boundary between Spain radiate from the _________ knot.
and France is _____________. 2. The wettest place in the world is
(a) The Alps (b) The Pyrenees _________
(c) The Carpathian (d) The Caucasus 3. Iran is the largest producer of
_________ in the world.
7. The western and north-western
4. Europe connected with south and south
Europe enjoys mild and humid climate.
east Asia by _________ sea route.
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5. The national dance of Philippines is

_________.
6. The second highest peak in Europe is
_________.
1
7. The type of climate that prevails in the
central and eastern parts of Europe is 3 2 4
_________.
8. The important fishing ground in North
Sea is _________.
9. The density of population in Europe is
A. Indo – Gangetic plain
_________.
B. Manchurian plain
10. The river _________ passes through C. Mesopotamian
nine countries of Europe. D. Great plains of China
III Match The Following Match the plains with the notation on the
1. Mesopotomian - Highest map and select the correct answer using
Plain Rainfall the codes given below.
2. Mawsynram - Norway Codes:
3. Rice Bowl of - Spain A B C D
southeast asia (a) 2 1 4 3
4. Fjord Coast - Euphrates & (b) 2 1 3 4
Tigris (c) 1 2 3 4
5. Bull Fighting - Thailand (d) 1 4 3 2
3. In the given outline map of Asia, the
IV Let us learn
shaded areas indicate the cultivation of
1. Assertion (A): Italy has dry summers
and rainy winters
Reason (R): It is located in the
Mediterranean region
(a)
Both A and R are individually true
and R is the correct explanation for A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but
R is not the correct explanation for A
(c) A is true, but R is false
(d) A is false, but R is true (a) sugarcane (b) Dates
2. Places marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the given (c) Rubber (d) Jute

map are noted for the following plains.
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V Answer in Brief 4. Although Western Europe is located in

the high latitudes, it has a moderate
1. Name the important intermontane
climate.
plateaus found in Asia.
VIII Answer in Paragraph
2. Write a short note on monsoon
climate. 1. Give an account of the drainage
system in Asia.
3. How does physiography play a vital
2. Describe the mineral sources found in
role in determining the population of
Asia.
Asia?
3. What are fjords? How do they protect
4. Name the ports found is Asia.
harbours from bad weather conditions?
5. Asia is called the ‘Land of Contrasts’- 4. Describe the climatic divisions of
Justify. Europe.
6. Name the important mountains found
IX Map Skill
in the Alpine system.
7. What are the important rivers of Mark the following in the outline
Europe? map of Asia and Europe.
8. Name a few countries which enjoy the Asia : Ural mountain, Himalayas, Pamir
Mediterranean type of climate. knot, Gobi Desert, Arabian Peninsula,
9. Give a short note on the population of Deccan plateau, River Yangtze, River Ob,
Europe. Aral Sea and Lake Baykal.
10. Name the important festivals Europe : The Pyrenees, Black forest,
celebrated in Europe. Apennines, Hungarian Plain, Caucasus
Mountain, River Volga, River Danube, Strait
VI Distinguish
of Gibraltar, Lake Ladoga, North Sea
1. Intermontane plateaus and southern
X Activity
plateaus.
2. Cold desert and hot desert 1. Complete the following.
3. Tundra and Taiga. I belong to ____ district. My district

4. The North western highlands and the is famous for the following: 1. ____,
Alpine mountain range. 2. ____ and 3. ____. The boundaries
of my districts are ____ in the north,
VII Give Reasons
____ in the east, ____ in the south
1. Asia is the leading producer of rice. and ____ in the west. It spreads for
2. Asia is the largest and most populous an area of ____ km2. There are ____
continent in the world. taluks and ____ villages in my district.

____, ____, ____ are the important
3. Europe is called ‘a giant peninsula’.
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mountain / plain / plateaus (If all, districts may write the variety of fish).
mention all features). The rivers ____, The total population is ____. We
____, ____ criss – cross my district. celebrate ____, ____, ____ festivals.
____, ____, ____ are common trees
2. I f you get a chance to settle in Europe,
and wildlife such as ____, ____, ____
which country would you choose? List
are found here. ____, ____, ____
out the reasons why?
are important minerals available in
my district. Based on this ____, ____ 3. Choose any region is Asia. In the map
industries are located here. The major of Asia, mark its distribution of natural
crops are ____, ____, ____. (Coastal vegetation and wildlife.Paste related
pictures.
Reference
1. Douglas L. Johnson, Viola Haarmann, Merril L. Johnson, David L. Clawson (2012), World
Regional Geography, A Development Approach, PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi,
India.
2. JohnCole, (2010), Geography, of the world’s Major Regions, Routledge, London.
3. Majid Husain (2017), Indian and world Geography McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited, New Delhi, India.
Web Links
1. https://www.whatarethe 7continents.com
2. www.natural history on the Net.com
3. www.worldatlas.com
4. www.internetgeographynet
5. www.worldometers.info
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ICT CORNER
Geography - Asia and Europe
Through this activity you will know about

கண்ட ஆக்க நகர்ைவ
in their proper location on the map of
அறிேவாமா!
Asia and Europe.
Steps:
Step -1 Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step -2 Click the “Search” box and text Asia and Europe.
Step -3 Click the “+” “-” button to zoom in and out.
Step -4 Click the “Full screen” option to appear full screen mode.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: http://earth3dmap.com/#?l=asia (or) scan the QR Code
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Unit 2
GLOBE
Learning Objectives
• To understand the four cardinal directions.
• To learn about the shape of the Earth.
• To understand about the model of the Earth - the globe.
• To understand the significance of lines of latitudes and longitudes.
• To know how standard time is calculated around the world.
Surya and Poovendhan are very good Surya: Why are you coming so late,
friends who study in the sixth standard Poovendha?
and live in a beautiful village called
Poovendhan: Please bear with me, Surya!
Thirunandriyur. Surya lives in South Street, Come, let’s go.
while Poovendhan lives in North Street.
Every day they go to school together. One Surya: What took you so long?
day......... Poovendhan: You live on South Street.
But, I have to come from
the North Street, which
is so far away from here.
That’s why I’m late.
Surya: Yes, that’s true. But wherever we

live, don’t you remember that we
all live on planet Earth?
Poovendhan: Yes! Yes! I do remember,

Even our Ponni Miss
taught us about the Solar
System.
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Surya: B
ut, I have a doubt …. Surya: A model of the earth, Madam?
Please explain!
Poovendhan: T
ell me, what is it?
Teacher: Sure, Surya.
Surya: W
e can see our house, the things
around us, the people, animals and The teacher asks all the students to sit
birds with our eyes. But, why can’t down and starts explaining.
we see our Earth as a whole?
Directions
Poovendhan: H
aven’t you seen it?
The directions on the ground are
Surya: No, I haven’t. Have you ever
always shown with respect to the North. If
seen it?
we know the North, then it is easy to find
Poovendhan: Y
es, in our school only. the other directions, namely South, East
and West. These are the four cardinal
Surya: D
id you say, in our school?
directions.
Poovendhan: Y
es, on our Ponni Miss’
table. Big and spherical!
Surya: O
h! Yes! Like a ball on a stand?
Poovendhan: Exactly! That is our Earth
Surya: B
ut........ But, our teacher said that
our Earth is in the Milky Way
Galaxy. But you say that our Earth
is on our teacher’s table. I am so
confused. Come, let’s go and ask
Ponni Miss.
We know that the Sun rises in the East
The bell rang as they reached school. They and sets in the West. If we stand facing
attended the morning assembly and went the sun in the morning, then we face the
to the classroom. During the social science east. The west is towards our back. The
period, Surya asks Ponni Miss to clear his left hand points towards the north and the
doubts. right hand points towards the south. We
should always keep this in mind.
Surya: Good morning, Miss.
Globe
Teacher: Good morning.
We live on the planet Earth, which is
Surya: M
adam, you told us on the other
found third from the Sun. Since the Earth is
day that our Earth is in the Milky
huge and we live on a very small area, we
Way galaxy.
are not able to see the Earth as a whole.
Teacher: Y
es, it is true. This is the model But, when we travel to space, we can see
of the Earth. the Earth as a whole.
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Lines on the Globe
There are imaginary lines which

are drawn on the globe horizontally and
vertically to find a location and calculate
distance and time. These imaginary lines are
called lines of latitudes and longitudes.
So, in order to see the shape of the

Earth as a whole and to know its unique
features, a three dimensional model of the
Earth was created with a specific scale.
The surface area of the

Earth is 510.1 million
square kilometres.
Ptolemy, a Greco – Roman
The Earth which is spherical, is flat at
mathematician, astronomer and
the poles and bulges at the Equator. The
geographer, was the first person to
Earth cannot be compared with any other
draw the lines of latitude and longitude
geometrical shape as it has a very unique
on a map.
shape. Hence, its shape is called a geoid
(earth shaped). In his book, ‘Geographia’ a detailed
description about the Earth’s surface,
The Earth moves around the Sun. It
its size and circumference and many
also rotates from the West to East on its
locations based on the lines of latitude
axis at an inclination of 23 ½°. The globe
and longitude are given.
is also inclined at an angle of 23 ½°. The
axis is an imaginary line. It is not actually
found on the Earth. Latitudes
The imaginary lines which are drawn

■■The first globe was
horizontally on East - West direction on
created by the Greeks
the Earth are called the lines or parallels
in the year 150 AD(CE).
of latitudes. The 0° line of latitude
he Indian astronomer Aryabhatta -
■■ T
which divides the Earth into two halves is
I has mentioned in his book.
known as the Equator. From the Equator,
‘Aryabhatta Sidhantha’. ‘The
parallel lines are drawn towards the
stars in the sky seem to move
North and South poles at equal intervals.
towards the West because of
The latitudinal extent between 1° line of
the Earth’s roation on its axis’.
latitude on Earth is 111 km.
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90 0N Activity :
orth
0 0 Equa
tor
90 0S Draw a circle on a paper. Draw a

outh
horizontal line across the middle of a
circle. Keeping this line as 0°, draw
Since the Earth is geoid shaped, the lines on both sides with an equal
length of the lines of latitude decreases interval of 15° with the help of a
from the Equator towards the South and protractor. The lines you have drawn
North Poles. The 90° North and South Poles are lines of latitudes.
are not found as lines, but as points.
North Pole
900
750 North
750
The lines of latitude that are drawn 600 600 Latitude
450 450
horizontally between the Equator and 300 300
the North Pole are called ‘Northern 15 0

150
latitudes’ and those which are found Equator 00 00 Equator
150 150
between the Equator and the South Pole 30 0 300
are called ‘Southern Latitudes’. The 450 450
600 600 South

lines of latitude consist of 89 parallels in 750 0 75
90
0
Latitude
South Pole
the Northern Hemisphere and 89 parallels
in the Southern Hemisphere, one at the
Equator and the two poles are found as Northern Hemisphere
points. Totally, there are 181 parallels
N
found on earth.
he Equator is the longest

T
W Equator E
of all lines of latitude.
Hence, it is also known as
‘The Great Circle’.
S
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The area of the Earth found between

■■0°N and S – 23½°N and
the Equator (00) and the North Pole (90°N)
S lines of latitudes are
is called the Northern Hemisphere.
called – Low latitudes
Southern Hemisphere
■■ 3½°N and S – 66½°N and
2
S lines of latitudes are called –
N Middle Latitudes
■■ 6½°N and S – 90°N and S
6
lines of latitudes are called –
W E
Equator High Latitudes
(Source : A Dictionary of Geography – Susan
S Mayhew, Oxford University Press,

Fifth edition -2015)
The area of the Earth from the equator

(0°) to the South Pole (90°S) is called the The Sun’s rays do not fall equally on all
Southern Hemisphere. parts of the earth. They fall vertically over
the Equator and slanting towards the poles.
The location of any country or place is
Thus, all the places on earth do not have
based on this division of the hemispheres. the same amount of temperature. Based
on the amount of heat received from the
Sun, the lines of latitude help in dividing
HOTS
the earth into different climatic zones.
Based on the latitudinal extent, in
which hemisphere is India located? 900 N
Frigid zone 661/20 N
Important lines of latitude Temperate zone

231/20 N
Torrid zone
The earth rotates on its axis at an 00
inclination of 23½°. It also revolves around Torrid zone
231/20 S
the sun while rotating. Based on the angle
Temperate zone
at which the sun’s rays fall on the earth,
661/20 S
certain lines of latitude gain significance. Frigid zone
900 S
North Pole 90oN

Torrid Zone
Arctic Circle 661/2oN The region from the Equator towards
Tropic of Cancer 231/2oN
the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Tropic
Equator 0o
of Capricorn (23½°S) is called the Torrid
Tropic of Capricorn 231/2oS
Zone. The Sun’s rays fall vertically over this
Antartic Circle 661/2oS
region and the average temperature is very
South Pole 90oS
high. Hence this region is known as the
Torrid Zone.
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Temperate Zone longitude is called the Prime Meridian.

There are 180 lines of longitude towards
From the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N)
the East and West from the Prime
to the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and from
Meridian. So, there are totally 360 lines
the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) to the
of longitude. These lines converge at
Antarctic Circle (66½°S), the Sun’s rays fall
the poles. The 180° W and 180° E line of
slantingly. Moderate temperature prevails
longitude are the same line.
in this region. Hence, this region is called
Temperate Zone.
90 0N
Frigid Zone orth
From the Arctic Circle (66½°N) to the
North Pole (900N) and from the Antarctic
Circle (66½°S) to the South Pole (90°S),
the Sun’s rays fall further inclined, through
idian
out the year. The temperature is very low.
e Mer
Hence, this region is known as Frigid
0 0 Prim
Zone.
Some lines of latitude

are also called by the
following names in Tamil. 90 0 So
uth
Latitude - ahalangu
(அகலாங்கு)
The lines of longitude that are found
Longitude - nettangu
between the Prime Meridian and the
(நெட்டாங்கு)
180° East line of longitude are called
Equator - nilanaduvarai
(நிலநடுவரை) ‘Eastern Longitudes’ and the lines of
Tropic of Cancer - kadagavarai longitude that are found between the
(கடகவரை) Prime Meridian (0°) and the 180° West
Tropic of Capricorn - magaravarai line of longitude are called ‘Western
(மகரவரை) Longitudes’. Two opposite meridians
(Source: Ariviyal Kalanjiyam, form a great circle
The Tamil University)
The lines of longitude
Longitudes are found as semi circles
covering 111 km at the
The imaginary lines drawn vertically
Equator, 79 km at 45° latitude and no
connecting the North Pole and the
space between the lines at the poles.
South Pole are called lines or meridians
of longitude. These lines of longitude
are seen as semi circles. The 0° line of
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Eastern Hemisphere
Activity :
N
00 Prime Meridian
W E
The part of the Earth between the 0°

line of longitude and the 180° East line
of longitude is known as the Eastern
Take a ball and a thin iron wire. Pierce
Hemisphere.
the ball with the wire from one end
to the other end through the middle. Western Hemisphere
Remove the wire. Draw circles around
the points. Name the northern most N
point as North Pole and the southern
00 Prime Meridian
most point as South Pole. The angle
of a circle is 360°. Mark points on W E
the circle at an interval of 15° using
a protractor. Then draw lines joining
these points on the top and bottom of
S
the ball. The lines that you have drawn
are lines of longitudes. The part of the Earth from 0° line of
North Pole
longitude to 180° West line of longitude is
called as Western Hemisphere.
Activity
Based on the longitudinal extent,

Meridian
Prime
in which hemisphere is our country

located? Look at the globe and answer.
150 165 165 150
135 180 135
120 120
105 105
West 90 90 East Significant Lines of Longitude
75
75
60
45
30 45
60 Greenwich Meridian
15 0 15 30
The Royal Astronomical Observatory is

Meridian
Prime
located at Greenwich near London in

West East England. According to the International
Longitude South Pole Longitude
Meridian Conference held in 1884 in
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Washington DC in the U.S.A. all nations

agreed on choosing the Greenwich Meridian
as the international standard meridian
(0°). This line of longitude is called the
Prime Meridian and it is also known as the
Greenwich Meridian because it passes
through Greenwich.
International Date Line

The 180o line of longitude has been 1800
Line of
fixed as the International Date Line, drawn Longitude
on the Pacific Ocean between Alaska and

Russia through Bering Strait. If a person
crosses this line from the West to East, he
loses a day. On the other hand, when he
crosses from the East to West, he gains a
day. Based on this, the date is fixed for
different countries or regions of the world.
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The International Date

Line is not straight. If the
line is drawn straight, two
places in the same country would have
different dates. So the International
Date Line is found zigzag in certain
places to avoid confusion.
165E 180 165W 150W 135W Earth grid
N
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE To locate a place exactly on earth, the
East Siberian Sea latitudinal and longitudinal extensions are
ARCTIC OCEAN
Wrangel
Beaufort Sea
required.
Island
Chukchi
Sea Longitude and Time
RUSSIA U.S.A
As many as 360 lines of longitude
Bering Sea are drawn to connect the North and South
Aleuan Islands Poles around the Earth 180° on the Eastern
Hemisphere and 180° on the Western
Internaonal Date Line
NORTH NORTH Hemisphere. Time is calculated on the

PACIFIC PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
basis of the lines of longitude.
Fact
HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS
MARSHALL ■■ he Earth takes one day to
T
ISLANDS
rotate on its axis.
LINE
KIRIBATI
(GILBERT
ISLA
ISLANDS) KIRIBATI
■■ 1 day = 24 hours
SOLOMON
NDS
ISLANDS
FIJI
■■ 1 hour = 60 minutes
Internaonal Date Line
TONGA FRENCH POLYNESIA

(FRANCE) ■■ 4 hours = 24 x 60 = 1440
2
KERMADEC
ISLANDS minutes
Tasman NEW ■■ The angle of the earth = 360 °

Sea ZEALAND
■■ 360 ° = 360 Longitudes
Not to Scale
■■ 360 ° = 1440 minutes
1440
■■ So 1 ° = 360 = 4 minutes
Earth Grid ■■ In 4 minutes = 1°rotation

60
■■ I n 60 minutes = = 15°
The imaginary lines of latitude and 4
longitude form a grid like pattern on the rotation
surface of the earth, known as the ‘Earth ■■ So, in an hour (60 minutes) the
grid’ or ‘Geographic grid’. earth rotates 15°
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Local Time calculated keeping a particular meridian

as a standard one.
When the sun is overhead on a
particular line of longitude, it is 12 noon The meridians are selected in multiples
at all the places located on that line of of 15° or 7 ½°. It is done in such a way
longitude. This is called local time. that the variation of standard time from the
The Sun is overhead on a line of Greenwich is expressed either as 1 hour or
longitude only once in a day. So the local ½ an hour.
time differs for every line of longitude. Indian Standard Time
When the Sun is overhead the 68E 72 76 80 84 88 92
N
94E
Greenwich Meridian at 12 noon, it is the 36N

W E
36N
S
local time of that place. The world time is
calculated by this standard line of longitude. 32 PAKISTAN
32
It is known as the Greenwich Mean Time
8230’
CHINA
(GMT). 28 NE
9725’
PA
L
For example, if the time is 12 noon at BHUTAN
Greenwich Meridian, it is 12:04 p.m. at 687’ BANGLADESH

24
1°E line of longitude and 11:56 a.m. at 24 Tropic of Cancer
1°W line of longitude. So, as one moves 20

20
towards the east from any meridian the time ARABIAN BAY OF
SEA BENGAL
increases. And if one moves towards the 16 16
west from any meridian, time decreases.

12
12
1. The word meridian is

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS
derived from the Latin 8N
LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
8N
word ‘Meridianus’. It 72 76

84 88 92
645’
means mid day. (Medius – Middle, I N D I A N O C E A N

Not to Scale
dies – day). So, meridian means the INDIAN STANDARD MERIDIAN
position of the Sun found overhead at The longitudinal extent of India is from
a place at noon. 68°7’ E to 97°25’ E. As many as twenty
2. a
.m. means 'anti Meridiem' (anti – nine lines of longitude pass through India.
before) – Before Noon. Having 29 standard time is not logical.
Hence 82½° E line of longitude is observed
3. p
.m. means 'post Meridiem' (Post
as the Prime Meridian to calculate the
– after/later) – After noon. Indian Standard Time (IST).
The 82½° E line of

Standard Time
longitude passes through
Local time is calculated when the sun is Mirzapur near Allahabad
overhead at noon. Many lines of longitude in Uttar Pradesh. This is located at
may pass through a country. Countries may an equal distance from Ghuar Mota
or may not observe a common time. The in Gujarat and Kibithu in Arunachal
standard time of a country or a part of it is Pradesh.
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Time Zones
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The world has 24 time zones. Some

countries have a great longitudinal extent. globe and maps are known as lines
So they have more than one standard time. of longitude or meridians.
Example: Russia has 7 time zones. 3. The 0° line of latitude is called the
Equator.
Activity: 4. The 0° line of longitude is called

the Greenwich Meridian or the
1. W
hat is the difference in time
Prime Meridian.
between the GMT and IST?
5. The part of the Earth from the
2. I f it is 5 a.m. at New York City, USA. Equator (0°) to North Pole (90°)
what would be the time at New is called the Northern Hemisphere
Delhi, the capital of India? and from the Equator (0°) to South
Pole (90°) is called the Southern
3. I f it is 12 Midnight at London, what
Hemisphere.
would be the time in India?
6. The part of the Earth from the
4. T
he standard time of Sydney city Greenwich Meridian (0°) to 180°
in Australia is found to be at a East line of longitude is called
difference of _________ hours from the Eastern Hemisphere and from
that of the GMT. Equator (0°) to 180° West line
of longitude is called the Western
5. M
r. Senthamizh travels by flight from Hemisphere.
Chennai to London. He boarded the
7. Lines of latitude are circles which
aeroplane at 9a.m After 12 hours of
are drawn at a distance of about
travel, at what time (GMT) would
111 km. The poles are shown as
he have reach London? points.
8. Lines of longitude are drawn as

semi circles. The distance between
We saw about the lines of latitude and
the lines of longitude at the Equator
longitude drawn on the globe. Besides is 111 km. It is found at a distance
these, physical land forms, seas, oceans, of 79 km at 45° latitude and they
countries etc., are also found on the globe converge at the poles.
9. Lines of latitude do not merge,

Wrap up
while lines of longitude converge
1. The imaginary lines drawn at the poles.
horizontally from the East to West
10. Time is calculated on the basis of
on the globe and maps are called
the lines of longitude. The 180° line
lines of latitude or parallels.
of longitude is the International
2. The imaginary lines drawn vertically Date Line.
from the North to South on the
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Glossary Exercises
1. Globe –A
model of the
I Fill in the blanks.
earth
1. The line of latitude which is known as
2. Lines of – I maginary lines
the Great Circle is ______________.
Latitude / drawn horizontally
Parallels on the Earth from 2. The imaginary lines drawn horizontally
the East to West on Earth from the West to East are
3. Lines of – I maginary line called ____________.
Longitude / drawn vertically on 3. The 90° lines of latitude on the Earth
Meridians the Earth from the
are called _____________.
North to South
4. The Prime Meridian is also called
4. Geoid –T
he shape of the
______________
Earth
5. The world is divided into ____________
5. Hemisphere –D
ividing the earth time zones.
on the basis of 0°
II Choose the best answer
lines of latitude
and longitude with 1. The shape of the Earth is _____________
regard to directions
a) Square b) Rectangle
6. Equator –T
he line of latitude c) Geoid d) Circle
drawn horizontally
2. The North Pole is
at the centre of the
Earth a) 90° N Latitude
7. Tropic of –2
3 ½° N line of b) 90° S latitude
Cancer latitude
c) 90° W Longitude
8. Tropic of –2
3 ½° S line of d) 90° E longitude
Capricorn latitude
3. The area found between 0° and 180° E
lines of longitude is called
9. Arctic Circle –6
6 ½° N line of
latitude a) Southern Hemisphere
b) Western Hemisphere
10. Antarctic – 66 ½° S line of
Circle latitude c) Northern Hemisphere
d) Eastern Hemisphere
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4. The 23 ½° N line of latitude is called 9. The total number of lines of latitude are
_____________
a) 171
a) Tropic of Capricorn
b) 161
b) Tropic of Cancer c) 181
c) Arctic Circle d) 191
d) Antarctic Circle 10. The total number of lines of longitude
5. 180° line of longitude is are
a) Equator a) 370
b) International Date Line b) 380
c) 360
c) Prime Meridian
d) 390
d) North Pole
III Circle the odd one
6. The Sun is found overhead the
Greenwich Meridian at 1. North Pole, South Pole, Equator,
International Date Line.
a) 12 midnight
2. Tropic of Capricorn, Tropic of Cancer,
b) 12 noon
Equator, Prime Meridian.
c) 1 p.m. 3. Torrid Zone, Time Zone, Temperate
d) 11 a.m. Zone, Frigid Zone
7. A day has _____________. 4. Royal Astronomical observatory,

Prime Meridian, Greenwich Meridian,
a) 1240 minutes International Date Line.
b) 1340 minutes 5. 10° North, 20° South, 30° North, 40°
c) 1440 minutes West
d) 1140 minutes IV Match the following.
8. Which of the following lines of longitude A B

is considered for the Indian Standard
Time? 0° line of latitude Pole
a) 82½° E International
0° line of longitude
b) 82½° W Date Line
180° line of
c) 81½° E Greenwich
longitude
d) 81½° W 90° line of latitude Equator
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V Examine the following statements 4. India is located in this hemisphere

based on lines of longitude.
1. The Earth is spherical in shape.
5. The network of lines of latitude and
2. The shape of the Earth is called a geoid.
longitude.
3. The Earth is flat.
VIII Answer briefly
Look at the options given below and
1. What is a geoid?
choose the correct answer
2. What is local time?
a) 1 and 3 are correct
3. How many times would the sun pass
b) 2 and 3 are correct
overhead a line of longitude?
c) 1 and 2 are correct
4. What are lines of latitude and longitude?
d) 1,2 and 3 are correct
5. Name the four hemispheres of the
VI Examine the following statements Earth.
Statement I : The lines of latitude on IX Give reasons

Earth are used to find the location of a
1. The 0° line of longitude is called the
place and define the heat zones on Earth.
Greenwich Meridian.
Statement II : The lines of longitudes
2. The regions on Earth between North
on Earth are used to find the location of a
& South lines of latitude (66 ½°) and
place and to calculate time.
poles (90°) is called Frigid Zone
Choose the correct option
3. The International Date Line runs zigzag.
a) Statement I is correct; II is wrong
X Answer in detail
b) Statement I is wrong; II correct
1. What are the uses of globe?
c) Both the statements are correct
2. How are the hemispheres divided on the
d) Both the statements are wrong basis of lines of latitude and longitude?
Explain with diagrams.
VII Name the following
3. What are the significant lines of latitude?
1. The imaginary lines drawn horizontally
Explain the zones found between them.
on Earth.
4. Explain: Indian Standard Time.
2. The imaginary lines drawn vertically on
Earth.
3. The three dimensional model of the

Earth.
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XI Activity
There are five positions marked on the grid given below. Look at them carefully and fill
the blanks with reference to the lines of latitude and longitude. The first one is done for
you.
1. The latitudinal and longitudinal reference of point A 40° N 30° W
50W 40W 30W 20W 10W 0 10E 20E 30E 40E 50E
50N
Prime Meridian
40N A
30N
20N B
10N C
Equator
0
10S
20S E
30S
40S D
50S
Earth Grid
2. The latitudinal and longitudinal reference of point B __________________

3. The latitudinal and longitudinal reference of point C __________________
4. The latitudinal and longitudinal reference of point D __________________
5. The latitudinal and longitudinal reference of point E __________________
Reference
1. Goh Cheng Leong, Certificate Physical and Human Geography (2009), Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, India.
2. A Dictionary of Geography – Susan Mayhew, Oxford University Press,
Fifth edition -2015.
3. அறிவியல் களஞ்சியம் (த�ொகுதிகள்), தஞ்சை தமிழ்ப் பல்கலைக்கழக வெளியீடு.
4. The earth shape and gravity (1965) Oxford Degman Press.
5. Strahler, Physical Geopraphy 4th Edition (1965) New York MC Graw – Hill Book Co.
Web Links
1. https://www.britannica.com
2. https://www.latlong.net
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ICT CORNER
Geography - Globe
Throughகண்ட ஆக்க நகர்ைவ

this activity you will know about
the globe model.
Steps:
Step -1 Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step -2 Click the red “hot spot” area to see the main landmarks of the globe.
Step -3 In the view box Click the “Core” option to view the Earth's inner layers.
Step -4 Drag and rotate the Globe you can rotate the Globe.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/earth/overview/
(or) scan the QR Code
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Unit 3
Understanding
Disaster
Learning Objectives
• To understand the meaning of disaster.
• To know about the types of disasters.
• To know a few key concepts in Disaster Management and orient

them to the words used in media.
• To understand Tsunami and flood.
• To understand about Forecasting, Emergency Operation Centre etc.,
This lesson explains about the various most severe droughts, famines, cyclones,
natural disasters and man-made disasters. earthquakes, chemical disasters, rail
It also deals with the precautionary and accidents and road accidents. The high
mitigation measures taken to avoid the loss density of population in the developing
of lives and materials. countries, especially in the high risk coastal
Disaster is a very common areas, results in millions of people getting
phenomenon in the human society. It affected by natural disasters, especially in
has been experienced by people since recurring disasters like floods, cyclones,
time immemorial. Though its form may storm surges, etc.
be varied, it has been a challenge for Disaster
society. The latest development which
has been discovered in the World Disaster ‘A disaster is a serious disruption
Reports recently is that, the disasters have of the functioning of a society involving
increased in frequency and intensity. India human and material loss. Disaster is
is one of the most disaster prone countries broadly classified into natural and man-
in the world. It has some of the world’s made disasters.
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Natural Disasters
Earthquake Volcanoes Tsunami Cyclones
Floods Landslide Avalanches Thunder & lightning
DISASTERS Tsunami
Tsunami are waves generated by
earthquake, volcanic eruptions and
Man-made Disasters
Natural Disasters underwater landslides.

(DUWKTXDNHV )LUH
Cyclones:
9ROFDQRHV 'HᚔUXFWLRQRIEXLOGLQJV A low pressure area which is encircled
7VXQDPLV $FFLGHQWVLQLQGXᚔULHV
by high-pressure wind is called a cyclone.
&\FORQHV $FFLGHQWVLQWUDQVSRUW
)ORRGV 7HUURULVP Floods
/DQGVOLGHV 6WDPSHGH

An overflow of a large amount of
$YDODQFKHV
7KXQGHU OLJKWQLQJ water, beyond its normal limits, especially
on the rainfed areas is called a flood.
Earthquake Landslide
The movement of a mass of rocks,
The sudden shaking of the earth
debris, soil etc., downslope is called a
at a place for a short spell of time is
landslide.
called an earthquake. The duration of
the earthquake may be a few seconds Avalanche
to some minutes. The point where an A large amount of ice, snow and
earthquake originates is called its ‘focus’. rock falling quickly down the side of a
The vertical point at the surface from the mountain is called an Avalanche.
focus is called ‘epicentre’. Thunder and lightning
Volcanoes Thunder is a series of sudden electrical
discharge resulting from atmospheric
Volcanoes are openings or vents conditions. This discharge results in
where lava, small rocks and steam erupt sudden flashes of light and trembling
onto the earth’s surface. sound waves which are commonly known
as thunder and lightning.
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Man-made disasters
Fire Destruction of buildings Accidents in industries
Accidents in Transport Terrorism Stampede
Fire Tsunami and floods

Massive forest fires may start in hot and A killer Tsunami hit the south east
dry weather as a result of lightning, and Asian countries on the 26th of December,
human carelessness or from other causal 2004. A massive earthquake with a
factors. magnitude of 9.1 -9.3 in the Richter scale
Destruction of buildings epicentre in the Indonesian island of
Demolition of buildings by human Sumatra. It triggered one of the biggest
activites. Tsunamis the world had ever witnessed.
The massive waves measuring up to 30
Accidents in industries
Chemical, biological accidents that
occur due to human error. (e.g.) Bhopal
gas tragedy
Accidents in Transport
Violation of road rules, carelessness
cause accidents.
Terrorism
The social unrest or differences in
principles leads to terrorism.
Stampede
The term stampede is a sudden rush
of a crowd of people, usually resulting in
injuries and death from suffocation and
trampling.
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metres that killed more than 2,00,000 Floods

people of Asia. In India, over 10,000
people were killed by this disaster. Tamil Floods are high stream flows, which
Nadu alone accounted for 1,705 deaths. overlap natural or artificial banks of a
All the coastal districts were affected, river or a stream and are markedly higher
Nagapattinam was the worst hit in the than the usual flow as well as inundation
state of Tamil Nadu. Fishermen, tourists, of low land.
morning walkers, children playing in Types of floods
beach and people living on the coast Flash floods: Such floods that occur
were unprepared for the waves. So they within six hours during heavy rainfall.
lost their life and the most of the loss of River floods: Such floods are caused
lives and damage to property was within by Precipitation over large catchment
500 metres of the shore. After that the areas or by melting of snow or sometimes
Indian government set up a Tsunami both.
Early Warning System at Indian National Coastal floods: Sometimes floods
Centre for Ocean Information Services are associated with cyclone high tides
(INCOIS), Hyderabad in 2007. and tsunami.
Tsunami - Do’s and Don’ts Causes of floods

• You should find out if your home, ¾¾ Torrential Rainfall.
school etc., are in valunarable areas ¾¾ Encroachment of rivers bank.
along sea shore. ¾¾ Excessive rainfall in catchment.
¾¾ Inefficient engineering design in
• Know the height of your street above the construction of embankments,
sea level. dams and canals.
• Plan evacuation routes and practise Effects of floods
your evacuation routes. ¾¾ Destruction of drainage system
• Discuss tsunamis with your family. ¾¾ Water pollution
Review safety and preparedness ¾¾ Soil erosion
measures with your family. ¾¾ Stagnation of water
¾¾ Loss of agricultural land and cattle
• If you see the sea water receding, you
¾¾ Loss of life and spread of contagious
must immediately leave the beach and diseases.
go to higher ground far away from the
beach. Do’s
¾¾ To find out if the settlement area
• Don't go to the coast to watch the is to be affected by flood or not.
Tsunami. ¾¾ Keeping radio, torch and additional
• Dont try to surf the tsunami waves. batteries, storing drinking water,
dry foods items, salt and sugar.
• Be aware facts about tsunami. Safeguarding materials like
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kerosene, candle, match box,

clothes and valuable things. CASE STUDY
¾¾ Keeping umbrella and bamboo Chennai flood – 2015
poles.
¾¾ Keeping first aid box and strong
ropes to bind things.
¾¾ To dig canals from the farm land, to
drain the excessive water keeping
sand bags etc.,
Don’ts
¾¾ Try to connect electricity once it is
cut. Chennai is one of the largest
¾¾ Operate vehicles metropolitan cities in India, which
¾¾ Swim against floods
lies on the south eastern coast. The
¾¾ Avoid going on excursions.
north east monsoon along with tropical
¾¾ Neglect flood warning messages
cyclone hits Chennai every year and
During floods gives heavy cyclonic rainfall. In 2015,
¾¾ Cut off gas connection and November and December due to heavy
electricity. rain, the devastating floods that hit
¾¾ Keep sand bags on drainage holes Chennai and other parts of Tamil Nadu
and bathroom holes. claimed more than 400 lives and caused
¾¾ Leave immediately through the enormous economic damage. The
known passage or prescribed Government of India and Tamil Nadu
passage have taken a lot of action to reduce loss
¾¾ Drink hot water. of life and minimize human sufferings.
¾¾ Use bleaching powder to keep your
environment hygienic. for disaster risk reduction. Campaigns,
¾¾ Before using match sticks and participatory learning, informal education,
candles, ensure that there is no and formal school based interventions.
gas leakage.
Forecasting and Early Warning
¾¾ Don’t eat more food when you are
affected by diarrhoea. Weather forecasting, Tsunami early
¾¾ Don’t try to take anything that warning system, cyclonic forecasting and
floats in flood. warning provide necessary information
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) which help in reducing risks during
disasters.
Disaster Risk Reduction: The practice
School Disaster Management
of reducing disaster risks through
Committee, Village Disaster Management
systematic efforts to analyze and manage
Committee, State and Central government
the causal factors of disasters. There are
institutions take mitigation measures
four key approaches to public awareness
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together during disaster. 4. Chennai, Cuddalore and Cauvery delta

Newspaper, Radio, Television and are frequently affected by floods. Give
social media bring updated information reason.
and give alerts on the vulnerable area, risk,
5. Differentiate: Landslide – Avalanche
preparatory measures and relief measures
including medicine. II Answer in a paragraph
1. What is flood? Explain the do’s and

Glossary
don’ts during floods.
Mitigation: The lessening of the
III Activity
adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. Make a flood plan
Forecast: Definite statement or
On a piece of paper, draw your
statistical estimate of the likely occurrence
village/town map roughly. Locate your
of a future event or conditions for a
home,school and playground on the map.
specific area.
Then draw the rivers/stream/lake and
Rainfed: Supplied primarily with road, located nearest to your village/
rainwater. town. Answer the questions listed below.
Magnitude: A measure of the amount 1.
Which areas and roads would be
of energy released by an earthquake. mostly affected by flood?
Contagious: Transmissible by direct 2. Can you find out evacuation route?
or indirect contact .
3. I f you live in a flood-prone area,
Catchment: The action of collecting what are the precautionary
water, especially the collection of rainfall measures you have to take during
over a natural drainage area. heavy rains?
4. W
hat are things that you should
Exercise
have in your ‘Go- Kit’ / ‘Drive -away
I Answer in brief kit’?
5.Make a list of emergency numbers.
1. Define Disaster
(‘Go-Kit’ - A kit prepared by and for
2. What are the two an individual or group who expects to
types of disasters? develop it in alternative locations during
Give examples. emergency)
3. Write a short note on ‘Thunder and

lightning’
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ICT CORNER
Geography - Understanding Disaster

கண்ட ஆக்க நகர்ைவ
prevention activities before cyclone
through a game.
Steps:
Step -1 Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the “storm safe” game page.
Step -2 Click the “play” icon to enter the game page
Step -3 Click the “continue” button start the game.
Step -4 Drag and put weightless things in the house.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: http://www.vicses.com.au/stormsafe-game/ (or)
scan the QR Code
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CIVICS
6th_CIVICS_DEMOCRACY_English Term_III Chapter 1.indd 195 22-11-2018 16:26:44

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Unit 1
DEMOCRACY
Learning Objectives
• To know the meaning of democracy
• To know the types of democracy
• To know and appreciate the structure of our constitution
• To know the aims of democracy
‘குடிதழீஇக் க�ோல�ோச்சும் மாநில மன்னன்

அடிதழீஇ நிற்கும் உலகு’
The world will constantly embrace the feet of the great king who rules over his subjects with love.
The teachers of Nallur Government High said this and paused, everyone looked at him
School were doing the final preparations for in wonder.
the programme ‘Let’s know the society’. The “Democracy should be found everywhere,
Singaravelar Hall was filled with students. The
shouldn’t it? So I am going to converse with all
Headmaster Mr. Jeeva welcomed the Chief
of you,” he said. He requested to give a
Guest of the day, Advocate Mr. Rajasekaran.
microphone to the students. Mr. Rajasekar said,
When he brought the chief guest to the hall,
the students observed silence. “First let me ask you a question. Do you
Mr. Britto, the history teacher welcomed know what kind of society did the early man
the gathering. The chief guest, Mr. Rajasekaran live in?”
stood up to address the students. “In the beginning, they were hunters and
“Beloved brothers and sisters! I thank gathered food. Later, they settled near rivers
you for inviting me to this programme. I’m not and practised agriculture,” said Deepika, a
going to speak on this occasion.” When he sixth standard student.
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The students answered together, “After

centuries of struggle and many sacrifices, we
got freedom from British colonialism.”
“We adopted democracy as our ruling
system when our country got freedom,” said
Rajasekaran.
Devarajan asked him, “What is
democracy?”
“When you start a Sports Club, you’ll
share the responsibilities. Then you would
enjoy its benefits, but share the income and
expenditure, wouldn’t you?”
“Yes, when man started to live in groups, “Yes sir”
tribes were formed. Every tribe had its own
chief. These groups fought among themselves Democracy is
for land, water and other resources. Those ‘Government of the
who emerged victorious, formed kingdoms by people, by the people,
uniting the other tribal groups. These for the people’
kingdoms later integrated to form empires.”
– Abraham Lincoln
Arun questioned, “So the chief would
have become the king, wouldn’t he?” “Similarly, the citizens of a country select
“Yes, that was how monarchies ruled by their representatives through elections. Thus,
kings were formed.” they take part in the direct governance of a
country. This is termed Democracy. In a
Suganya asked, “Was this how monarchy
democratic form of government, a
emerged in our country too?"
considerable amount of power lies with the
“Yes, this was how the system of people of that nation. People can participate
monarchy formed throughout the world. Also, in the politics of the country and decision
our country was ruled by kings and emperors making processes. There are different types
and then came under the British rule.” of democracy.”
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“Types of democracy!” “Yes, this system is actually known as

“Yes, there are various types of Direct Democracy,” said Rajasekaran.
democracy in practice around the world. “What do you mean by Representative
Among those, direct democracy and Democracy?”
representative democracy are the most “Imagine that your Sports Club has more
popular forms of government.” number of members now. Is it possible for
hundreds of them to gather and discuss to
The birth place of take various decisions?”
democracy is Greece.
“No sir”
“In that case, all the members should be
“What is Direct Democracy?” asked
represented by a group of representatives,
Sirajudeen.
shouldn’t they?”
“In a Direct Democracy, people have the
“Yes,” agreed the students in union.
power to frame laws. If we consider your
Sports Club as an example, you all can discuss
DEMOCRACY
and amend laws and rules. The perspective
of each member is considered and each one
Representative
expresses his view. But how will you take a Direct Democracy Democracy
final decision?” - Switzerland – India, USA,
England
“The choice of the majority will be
accepted. The others will also give their
Laws & Rules Laws & Rules
consent,” said Selva.
Elected
In a Direct Representatives
D e m o c r a c y,
only the Votes Votes
citizens can
make laws. All
changes have
to be approved
The people The people
by the citizen. The politicians only rule
over parliamentary procedure.
Switzerland has had a long history of a “Those group members will administrate
successful direct democracy. the sports club on behalf of all the other
members. To select these representatives,
elections are held. For example, many contest
HOTS for the post of the Head, Secretary, Treasurer
Is it possible to practise Direct Democracy in India? and members of the administration group.
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In the end, those who gain the maximum “Yes. In a highly populated country like
number of votes will be given the posts. On India, if people want to live peacefully, they
behalf of the other members, they obtain the have to follow certain rules and regulations,
power to take decisions in a democratic rights and duties properly. Hence, the
manner. This is termed as Representative constitution of India guides us in all these
Democracy.” aspects and plays an important role in
maintaining law and order.”
REPRESENTATIVE
DEMOCRACY In 2007, the UNO
General Assembly resolved
to observe 15th September as
Parliamentary Presidential the International Day of Democracy.
Democracy Democracy
• India • USA
“What are the rights given in our
• England • Canada Constitution?”
“Our Constitution ensures freedom,
“What is meant by democratic decision
equality and justice to everyone.”
making?” questioned Judith.
“What other features are found in our
“In the system of democracy, the power
constitution?”
to take decisions does not lie with the Head.
On the contrary, a group holds the power, but “It defines the political principles, the
adheres to the rules and regulations. All the structure of the government institutions and
members of the group hold open discussions methods to follow these rules and regulations,
and take final decisions only when everyone the powers and responsibilities. And also, it
is convinced. This is called democratic way of fixes the Rights and Duties and the Directive
decision making.” Principles of the citizens.Thus our constitution
provides a structure to us.”
“Are there rules and regulations to
govern our country like the rules and “Is the constitution of India such a
regulations of this group?” detailed one?” asked Tamizhselvi in
amazement.
“Indian Constitution is the longest written
constitution in the world. It is drafted by the
Drafting Committee of the Constituent
Assembly headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
That is why we call him the ‘Chief Architect
of our Constitution’ Rajasekaran concluded.
The students clapped with joy and
thanked him for the simple explanation of
democracy.
Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly
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Aims of Democracy responsibility to protect the welfare of the

Democracy is defined as “Government of people.
the people, for the people and by the people.”
World Democracy
New zealand is the first country to allow
women to vote (1893). Voting rights to
women were given in 1918 and 1920 in the
UK and USA respectively. At the same time,
the wealthy alone were given the voting
rights in India. Many leaders like Mahatma
Gandhi kept insisting on giving voting rights
In a democracy, the power is vested in to all. Now in India, all the people above 18
the hands of the people. For that, the people years of age enjoy Universal Adult Franchise.
should have rights to take decisions. Everyone
cannot participate in decision making. So, the The world statistical
representative government elected by the data on democracy declares
people to form a democratic system, all those that 79% of the Indian
who attain the age of 18 are given the voting citizens have faith in the democratic
rights to elect the representatives. At the system. Hence, India ranks first among
the democratic countries of the world.
same time, the representatives have the
Oldest Democracies in the World
Sl. No. Democracy Period Location Significance

Greek 5th century Foundation of political
1 Greece
Democracy BC (BCE) philosophy
Roman
300 BC – 50 Italian Peninsula, Loads of expansions of the
2 Empires
BC (BCE) Rome growth of civilization
Democracy
San Merinos Earliest written constitution
3 AD (CE) 301 Italy
Democracy still in effect
The oldest and longest
The Iceland
4 AD (CE) 930 Thingvellir functioning parliament
Democracy
in the world.
The Isle Between Great
Self governing possessions
5 of Man’s AD (CE) 927 Britain and
of the crown
Democracy Ireland
British 13th Century
6 England Magna Carta of 1215
Democracy AD (CE)
AD (CE) United States of The oldest standing
7 US Democracy
1789 America democracy
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3. ________ is celebrated as the

International Democracy Day.
a. September 15 b. October 15
1. Democracy -
a government formed by
c. November 15 d. December 15
the people
4. Who has the right to work in a direct
2. Election -
a process by which a
Democracy?
representative is chosen
a. Men b. Women
3. Decision - to make up one’s mind
c. Representatives d. All eligible voters
4. Government -
a group of people with a
authority to govern a country II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Direct Democracy is practised in ________
2. The definition of democracy is defined
by ________.
• "Government of the people, by the people
for the people" is defined as democracy. 3. People choose their representatives by
giving their ________.
•
Direct democracy and Representative
democracy are the types of democracy. 4. In our country ________ democracy is
in practice.
• Our constitution ensures freedom, equality
and justice to everyone. III. Answer the following.
• Indian constitution is the longest written 1. What is Democracy?
constitution in the world. 2. What are the types of democracy?
• In India, all the people above 18 years of 3. Define: Direct Democracy.
age enjoy Universal Adult Franchise.
4. Define: Representative Democracy.
EXERCISES 5. What are the salient features of our
I. Choose the correct constitution that you have understood?
answer.
IV. HOTs
1. Early man settled near
1. Compare and contrast direct democracy
________ and practiced
and representative democracy.
agriculture.
a. plains b. bank of rivers V. Activity.
c. mountains d. hills 1. Find out your area's representative’s
names and write down
2. The birth place of democracy is ________
a. MP b. MLA 3. Local body member
a. China b. America
2. Discuss about the merits and demerits of
c. Greece d. Rome
democracy.
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ICT CORNER
Civics - Democracy
Through��
this activity you will know about
��
structure of government of India and
��!
political systems.
Steps:
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step 2: Click the “political systems” to know government of India.
Step 3: Click the “English” button the map will appear.
Step 4: Choose and click “Tamilnadu” to know about the state government.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: http://www.elections.in/ (or) scan the QR Code
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Unit 2
LOCAL BODIES –
RURAL AND URBAN
Learning Objectives
• To know about the structure and functions of rural and urban local
bodies.
• To know about the Grama Sabha and the purpose of Grama Sabha
meeting.
• To understand the special features of Panchayatraj.
• To know about the participation of women in local bodies.
• To know about the election of local body and will observe the forthcoming election.
Nandhini is in standard VI. It was her She was about to read the next heading,
custom to read the headlines in the but she had a doubt and asked her father.
newspaper loudly to her parents “Father, what is a corporation?”
Mr. Namburajan and Mrs. Manimegalai.
“The Government of Tamil Nadu will
They would clear her doubts. Sometimes,
declare certain municipalities based on
children from their neighbourhood would
population and high revenue. That’s how
also join her and each one will read an article
Nagercoil has to be declared as a corporation
loudly. As it was a Saturday, Johnson, Maran
too”, said her father Namburajan.
and Anwar were also in Nandhini’s house.
Nandhini started to read an article from the “Oh, if that is so, are there other
newspaper. corporations that exist already?”
“Nagercoil Municipality to become “Yes, there are twelve corporations in

corporation soon” Tamil Nadu”, said Namburajan.
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The List of corporations in Tamil Nadu “There are villages as well as cities in
1. Chennai 2. Madurai 3. Coimbatore Tamil Nadu, aren’t there?”
4. Tiruchirapalli 5. Salem 6. Tirunelveli “Yes, father”.
7. Erode 8. Thoothukudi 9. Tiruppur “Won’t the needs of villages and cities
10. Vellore 11. Dindigul 12. Thanjavur differ? Our constitution has provided certain
structures to fulfill the needs of the people.
CHENNAI
VELLORE Accordingly, the urban local bodies are
categorized into City Minicipal Corporations,
Municipalities and Town Panchayats, while
SALEM
ERODE the rural local bodies are categorised into

COIMBATORE TIRUPPUR TIRUCHIRAPALLI Village Panchayats, Panchayat Unions and
THANJAVUR
District Panchyats. These are together known
as local bodies.”
DINDIGUL
MADURAI
Bay of Bengal
“Oh, are there so many divisions?”
TIRUNELVELI “Yes, I’ll tell you about them. Didn’t I tell

I
UD
H UK you about the City Municipal Corporations?”
OT
T HO
NOT TO SCALE
“Yes, father”.
The Chennai “Those areas which have a population

of more than one lakh and a high amount of
Corporation which was
revenue and is found in the level below the
founded in 1688 is the
City Municipal Corporation is called a
oldest local body in India. Municipality.
• Walajahpet
Municipality (Vellore
District) is the first
Municipality in Tamil Nadu.
• Kanchipuram District has the

most number of municipalities.
“You mentioned something about

“Father, what about the place we live in” towns”.
enquired Maran. “A Town Panchayat has about 10,000
“We live in a Panchayat, Maran”. population. A Town Panchayat is between
a village and a city.
“What is a Panchayat?”
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There is something special about the also elected. A Block Development Officer
Town Panchayat. Can anyone tell me what is (BDO) is the administrative head, of a
it?”, asked Namburajan. Everyone was gazing Panchayat Union.
at him. But none answered.
The services are provided on the
“Well, I’ll tell the answer myself. Panchayat Union level.
Tamil Nadu was the first state to
Villupuram District
introduce a town Panchayat in the whole of
India”. has the highest number of
Panchayat Unions (22),
All were amazed on hearing it.
while The Nilgiris and Perambalur
A City Municipal Corporation has a
Commissioner, who is an Indian Districts have the lowest number (4).
Administrative Service (IAS) officer.

Government officials are deputed as District Panchayat
Commissioners for the municipalities. A District Panchayat is formed in every
The administrative officer of a Municipality
district. A district is divided into wards on the
is an Executive Officer (EO).
basis of 50,000 population. The ward
“You mentioned about Panchayats and members are elected by the Village
Panchayat Unions”. Panchayats. The members of the District
The Village Panchayats are the local Panchayat elect the District Panchayat
bodies of villages. They act as a link between Committee Chairperson. They provide
the people and the government. Villages are essential services and facilities to the rural
divided into wards based on their population. population and the planning and execution of
The representatives are elected by the people. development programmes for the district.
The Elected Representatives The local bodies are governed by the

1. Panchayat President representatives elected by the people. The
constituencies are called wards. People
2. Ward members
elect their ward members.
3. Councillor
The Mayor of the City Municipal
4. District Panchayat Corporation and the Municipal Chairperson
Ward Councillor are the elected representatives of the people.
Panchayat Union. The people elect them. The Corporation
Many village Panchayats join to form a Deputy Mayor and the Municipal Vice
Panchayat Union. A Councillor is elected Chairperson are elected by the ward
from each Panchayat, isn’t it? Those councillors councillors” finished Namburajan.
will elect a Panchayat Union Chairperson “What are the benefits of local bodies,
among themselves. A Vice Chairperson is uncle?”
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“There are many benefits. The services assign these works to their subordinate
provided can be divided as obligatory officers or other servants. Thus, they all work
functions and discretionary functions. These in various levels to get these public works
are provided by the local bodies. done”.
Functions of the village Panchayat “Will the Government provide funds for
Obligatory Functions these services, father?”
• Water supply “The Government directly allots funds
• Street lighting for these works. The local bodies also collect
• Cleaning roads revenue”.
• Drainage & sewage pipes system
Revenue of the Village Panchayat
• Laying down roads
• Activation of Central and State • House tax
Government schemes • Professional tax
Discretionary Functions • Tax on shops
• parks • Water charges
• Libraries • Specific fees for property tax
• Playgrounds, etc. • Specific fees for transfer of
immovable property
Functions of the City Municipal
• Funds from Central and State
Corporation
Governments, etc.
• Drinking water supply
Revenue of the City Municipal
• Street Lighting
Corporation
• Maintenance of Clean Environment
• Primary Health Facilities • House Tax
• Laying of Roads • Water Tax
• Building flyovers • Tax on shopping complexes
• Space for markets • Professional Tax
• Drainage System • Entertainment Tax
• Solid waste management • Vehicle Charges
• Corporation schools • Funds by Central and State
• Parks Government, etc.
• Play grounds
Activity
• Birth and Death registration, etc.
“So, who does all these works?” • Distinguish between rural and
urban revenue and functions.
“As per the decisions taken in the city
• Find out from your home: The taxes
Hall meetings, the commissioner or officers paid by your family.
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“How are the Grama Sabha meetings These are called Special Grama Sabha
held, uncle?” asked Maran. meetings.
“Grama Sabha meetings? In movies, I Activity

have seen elders sitting under trees and
The teacher guides the student to visit
discussing important matters and take the Grama Sabha meeting.
decisions,” said Johnson.
“Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat
“No, no, both are different. A Grama Raj as the foundation of India’s political
Sabha is formed in every Village Panchayat. system, as a form of government, where
It is the only permanent unit in the Panchayat each village would be responsible for its own
Raj System. Grama Sabha meetings are held affairs. The Panchayat Raj Act was enacted
even in smaller villages. The Grama Sabha is on April 24, 1992”.
the grass root level democratic institution in a
Village Panchayat”. April 24 is National
Panchayat Raj Day.
Special features of Panchayat Raj

• Grama Sabha
• Three tier local body governance
• Reservations
• Panchayat Elections
• Tenure
• Finance Commission
Those who have attained the age of 18 • Account and Audit, etc
“Thank you very much, uncle. We really
years and whose names are found in the
learnt a lot about local bodies”, said the
electoral roll of the same Panchayat can take
children gratefully.
part in a Grama Sabha meeting. The Grama
Sabha meetings are conducted four times a “I’m very happy that I could share so
year. Officers like the District Collector, the much with you today. That’s enough of
Block Development Officer, teachers etc., also reading newspapers. Go out and play now”,
participate in this meeting. The people can said Namburajan.
freely express their needs and grievances”. The children ran out to play joyously.
When are these meetings convened?
Activity
January 26, May 1, August 15 and
The Central Government gives awards
October 2.
to the best performing Village
Apart from these days, the meetings can Panchayats. Find out if your village has
be convened as per need or during emergency. received such awards.
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Role of women in the Local Self

Think it over
Government
• Do you think the above numbers
All local bodies have a reservation of 33%
are stable? Find out about the recent
for women. In the 2011 Local Bodies election,
changes.
38% seats were won by women. As per the
• What is the number of votes cast by
Tamil Nadu Panchayats (Amendment) Act,
rural and urban voters in a local body
2016, 50% reservation for women is being
election?
fixed in Panchayat Raj institutions.
Activity HOTS
Why are there only 31 district panchayats, but
Find out about the ward members of
32 districts?
your area. Talk to the women members
and discuss about their participation
and experiences. Works carried out by local bodies
durings natural disasters and out
Local Body Election break of diseases.
The tenure for the representatives of local

self Government is 5 years. The election to the
Local Bodies is held once in five years by the
State Election Commission. Every state has a
State Election Commission. The Tamil Nadu
State Election Commission is situated in
Koyambedu, Chennai.
Tamil Nadu
Village Panchayats - 12,524
Panchayat Unions - 385
District Panchayats - 31
Town Panchayats - 561
Municipalities - 125
City Municipal Corporations - 12
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2. _________ is National Panchayat Raj Day.

a) January 24
b) July 24
Corporation - மாநகராட்சி
c) November 24
Municipality - நகராட்சி d) April 24
Town Panchayat - பேரூராட்சி 3.
The oldest urban local body in India is
Village Panchayat - கிராம ஊராட்சி __________.
Panchayat Union - ஊராட்சி ஒன்றியம் a) Delhi

b) Chennai
c) Kolkata
d) Mumbai
•
Local bodies are structures to fulfill the 4.
__________ District has the highest
needs of people. number of Panchayat Unions.
• Panchayat, Panchayat Union and District a) Vellore

Panchayat are rural local bodies. b) Thiruvallore
c) Villupuram
•
Town Panchayat, Municipality and
d) Kanchipuram
Corporation are urban local bodies.
• Grama Sabha is the only permanent unit 5.
The head of a corporation is called a
in a village Panchayat. __________.
• Panchayat Raj System strengthened the a) Mayor

local bodies. b) Commissioner
c) Chair Person
• The election of local bodies take place in
d) President
every five years.
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. __________ is the first state in India to

Exercises
introduce town Panchayat.
I. Choose the correct
answer. 2. The Panchayat Raj Act was enacted in the
1.
________ is set up with several village year __________.
panchayats
3. The tenure of the local body representative
a) Panchayat Union is __________ years.
b) District Panchayat
c) Taluk 4.
__________ is the first municipality in
d) Revenue village Tamil Nadu.
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III. Match 7. List out a few means of revenue of village

Panchayats.
1. Grama Sabha - Executive Officer
8.
When are Grama Sabha meetings
2. Panchayat Union - State Election
convened? What are the special on those
Commission
days?
3. Town Panchayat - Block Development
9. What are the special features of Panchayat
Officer
Raj system?
4. Local body election - Permanent Unit
10. What is the importance of Grama Sabha?
IV. Answer the following.
V. HOTs
1. Is there any corporation in your district?
1. Local bodies play an important role in the
Name it.
development of villages and cities. How?
2. What is the need for local bodies?
VI. Activities
3.
What are the divisions of a rural local
1.
Prepare a questionaire to interview a
body?
local body representative.
4. What are the divisions of a Urban local
2. Discuss; If there is a contribution to the
body?
improvement of your school by local body
5. Who are the representatives elected in a representatives
Village Panchayat?
3.
If I were a local body representative,
6. List out a few functions of corporations. I would.....
4. Find out the number of local bodies in
your district and list them.
Name
Village Panchayat District Town
of the Municipality Corporation
Panchayat Union Panchayat Panchayat
District
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ICT CORNER
Civics - Local body
��
��
the local body structure of India.
��!
Steps:
Step 2: Click the “panchayat Raj” to know about panchayat rules and acts.
Step 3: Click the “Scheme” to know about state and central schemes of
panchayat raj.
Step 4: Click the “map” option to know how many panchayat raj in tamilnadu.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: https://www.tnrd.gov.in/index.html (or) scan the QR Code
211

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Unit 3
ROAD SAFETY
Learning Objectives
• To understand about the importance of road safety.
• To know about the road rules and traffic signals.
• To learn about the road safety measures and strategies and ensure the
safety of lives.
‘Caution and care, make accident rare’
Traffic rules are the laws that govern how, Parents and teachers ensure the safety of
when and why you are allowed to drive any the children at home and school. But who
vehicle. The traffic safety course education keeps them safe on the road? Therefore
plays an important role in shaping the attitude
educating children about road safety is very
and behaviour of children and young people
important. Teaching about road safety to
ensuring to become responsible drivers,
children can be started as soon as they are old
passengers, pedestrians and cyclists.
Keeping the children safe at all times can enough to step out of the home.
be tricky when you cannot be with them always.
Three types of traffic signs – Mandatory, Cautionary and Informatory
I. Mandatory road signs are the ones that give order regarding do's and don’ts and are to
be followed strictly. These are generally circular in shape.
No entry One Way No right turn No left turn No U turn
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II Cautionary road signs are the ones that warn the road user regarding the road situation
ahead. Cautionary signs are generally in triangular shape.
Narrow Bridge Cross road School Left hand curve Men at work
III Informatory road signs are the ones that give information regarding directions, destination,
etc. Informatory signs are generally rectangular in shape.
Petrol Pump Hospital Eating Place Parking Railway station
Blue circles give a positive instructions, about what is to be done.
Red rings or circles give negative instructions. What should not be

done.
Know your signals • You may turn left while the signal is
What do the three colours red, red, if it is not prohibited by a sign.
amber and green signify? But give importance to pedestrians
and other traffic.
AMBER means CAUTION-You may move
on if the amber appears after you have
already crossed the stop line or when you
feel that your stopping may cause accident.
Anyhow be extra careful.
GREEN means GO – Proceed ahead ensuring
RED means STOP- Wait behind the stop line.
that the way is clear.
• If there are no lines, stop before the
• You can make a right or left turn if
traffic light at the intersection so
not prohibited by signs, but take
that traffic light is clearly visible.
special care and give way to
• Wait until a green signal appears pedestrians crossing the road.
before proceeding.
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• GREEN ARROW means that you can

go in the direction shown by the
arrow.
Cross roads and pedestrian
crossing
Children have a tendency just to sprint
across the street, as they like. Educate the
children to never run across or along the
road. Children can get distracted easily and
leave their parent’s hand to run or sprint
away.
Pedestrian
Children should cross only at pedestrian
crossing. Do's
• Walk on any side of the road if there
Pedestrian Crossing
are footpaths.
The pedestrian
crossing was instituted in • On roads without footpath walk on
Britain in 1934. The roads were marked your extreme rightside facing the
by dotted lines. On the pavement there oncoming traffic.
were striped Belisha beacon light poles • Use zebra crossing, foot over bridge &
named after Britain’s Minister of transport subways to cross the roads.
L. Horre-Belisha . The Zebra crossing
with black and white stripes was
developed after the Second World War.
Road signs, markings, traffic signals

and other traffic devices are there to guide
the road users and hence are the languages
of the road. Every road user, whether a
pedestrian, two-wheeler rider, driver of four-
wheeled vehicle should have knowledge
regarding these traffic controlling devices
• Where such facilities are not available
and should be aware of what they signify.
be extra cautious while crossing the
Traffic signs are there to regulate
road.
traffic, warn about hazards and to
• Children below 8 years of age should
guide the road user.
cross the road with the help of elders.
Always use pavements • Cross the road when the vehicles are
Children must use the pavements when at a safe distance.
walking on the road. • Wear light coloured dresses during
night.
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Don’ts Don’ts
• Don’t cross the road hastily by running.
• Don’t cross the road in front of or in
between parked vehicles.
• Don’t try to cross the road from blind
corners, turnings where you are not
visible to the vehicle drivers.
• Don’t jump over the railings to cross
road. • Don’t indulge in any kinds of stunts
• Don’t load the cycle with another
Staying safe on a bicycle person or heavy goods.
Most children use bicycle to go to • Don’t ride holding onto other fast
schools. So they should be aware of the moving vehicle.
road rules and road safety. Moreover they While commuting in School
should maintain their bicycles in good
transportation
condition.
Dos
• Get up early and start early from home.
• Board the bus from the designated
bus stop in a queue.
• Once inside the bus, behave properly.
• Hold on to the railings of the bus.
• Alight only at the designated bus stop.
• Get down only when the bus has
stopped completely.
Do's • If the driver is not following the road
• Cycle must be fitted with standard safety norms, bring it to the notice of
gadgets – bell, brakes, rearview mirror, school authorities/parents or traffic
both front and back mudguard painted helpline.
white, reflective tapes affixed at the Don’ts
front and back.
• Cycle on the extreme left side of the
road or use service road, if available
• Avoid busy roads.
• Keep a safe distance from fast
motorized vehicles.
• Give proper indications before stopping
or turning.
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• Do not rush or run to catch your bus. Exercise

• Do not stand on the steps of the bus. I Answer the
• Do not make noise that may distract
the driver. following
• Do not put any part of the body outside 1. Prepare slogans for
the bus. road safety
• Do not get in or get down from a 2. Identify the following signs.
moving bus.
As pillion rider/co-passengers
a. b.
c. d.
• Always wear helmet/seatbelt.
• Do not indulge in talking with the
driver.
• Children above 12 years of age should 3. Discuss about the statistics of 2017
occupy the back seat. accidents data.
4. Debate: Is wearing helmet necessary?
Play at safe places
5. Draw posters related to road safety.
• Do not play on roads.
• Look for a playground or vacant land
to play
• Do not play around a vehicle parked
inside your school premises/colony or
near your residence.
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ICT CORNER
Civics - Road Safety.
��
Through this activity you will know abut
��
safety rules and Road safety.
��!
Steps:
Step 2: Click the “Start” icon to enter the game page.
Step 3: Choose and Click any game you can start the game.
Step 4: Play and Finish the Game Step by Step.
Step 4
Browse in the link

Web: https://www.sdera.wa.edu.au/programs/smart-steps/izzy-games/
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HISTORY – Class VI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Domain Experts Lesson Writers

Dr. Manikumar K.A. Gomathi Manickam S.
Professor (Retd.), B.T. Asst.,
Dept. of History, GHSS, Old Perungalathur, Chennai.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli Dist. S. Rajeswari
B.T. Asst.,
Reviewer GHSS, Nellikkuppam, Kanchipuram.
Dr. S. Ravichandran
Associate Professor (Retd.), Content Providers
Raju’s College, Rajapalayam. P. Sadasivam,
Asst. Professor, Madras Christin Collage,
Tambaram, Chennai.
Dr. Cinthia Jude,
Asst. Professor, Stella Maris Collages,
Cathedral Rd, Poes Garden, Chennai.
Dr.K. Suresh
B.T. Asst.,
Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS, Chennai.
Sanjeevi Gnanasekaran
P.G. Asst., NSM VPS HSS
Devakottai.
Academic Co-ordinators N. Devarajan
Sujatha M. B.T. Asst., GHSS, Kattur,
Senior Lecturer, The Nilgiris.
DIET, Chennai.
S. Gnana Dhinakaraj
Joy Christy N. B.T. Asst., GHS, Umayalaparancheri,
B.T. Asst., Kanchipuram.
T. Kallupatti Block, Madurai.
ICT Co-ordinator
Nagaraj D.
BT Asst., (History),
GHSS, Rappoosal, Pudukottai.
Art and Design Team QR Code Management Team

M. Saravanan, B.T,
G.G.H.S.S, Puthupalayam,
Illustration Vazhapadi, Salem.
K.T. Gandhirajan, Chennai. V. Padmavathi, B.T,
Tamil Virtual Academy. GHS, Vetriyur, Ariyalur.
Layout M. Murugesan, B.T,
Arockiyam Felix PUMS. Pethavelankottagam,
Wrapper Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
Kathir Arumugam
QC
Jerald Wilson
Arun Kamaraj P
Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
Illustration & Image Credits

https://www.reddit.com
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki
https://i.imgur.com/G30peRx.jpg
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GEOGRAPHY – Class VI
Domain Experts Authors

Dr. Jegankumar R. Dr. Yasodharan Suresh
Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography,
Dept. of Geography, Bharathidasan University, Trichy Dist. Madras Christian College, Tambaram (E), Chennai.
Mr. Senthilvelan, Anjukam A.
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Geography, B.T. Asst., (Geo.),
Govt. Arts College, (Autonomous) GGHSS, Thuraiyur, Trichy Dist.
Kumbakonam.
Rajabarathi N.
BRTE, Block Resource Centre Uthiramerur, Kancheepuram Dist.
Reviewers Muthu R.
Kumaraswamy. K. B.T. Asst., (Geo.),
UGC BSR Emeritus Professor, GHSS, Kannigaipair, Thiruvallur Dist.
Department of Geography,
Bharathidasan University, Trichy Dist. Grena Janet M.
B.T. Asst., (Geo.),
Mr. M.K. Mariapillai, R.C. Govt., GHSS, Ondipudur, Coimbatore Dist.
Associate. Professor, Dept. of Geography,
Periyar EVR College, Trichy.
QR Code Management Team

Academic Co-ordinator M. Saravanan, B.T,
Sujatha M G.G.H.S.S, Puthupalayam,
Senior lecturer, DIET, Chennai. Vazhapadi, Salem.
V. Padmavathi, B.T,
GHS, Vetriyur, Ariyalur.
ICT Coordinator
M. Murugesan, B.T,
C. Chinnadurai. PUMS. Pethavelankottagam,
SGT, PUMS,
Sanar palayam, Mulanur Block, Tirupur. Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
Art and Design Team

Illustration
R. Muthukumar
Layout Designers
S. Santhosh Kumar
Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam
QC
Arun Kamaraj P
Yesu Rathinam
Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
Typist
M. Kalpana
P. Kumutha
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CIVICS – Class VI
Domain Expert Authors

Dr. Kottai Rajan Shanthi N.
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Political Science, S.G.T.,
Periyar Govt. Arts College, Cuddalore. Govt. High School, Palavedu, Thiruvallur.
S. Balabarathi,
Reviewer journalist, Writer,
Appanasamy M. Chennai.
Advisor,
TNTB & ESC, DPI Campus, Chennai. Saravanan Parthasarathy
Writer/Translator, Okkur, Sivagangai.
Academic Co-ordinators
Sujatha M.
Senior Lecturer,
DIET, Chennai. ICT Co-ordinator
Radha A. Dr. Asir Julius,
B.T. Asst., Asst. Professor, SCERT
GHSS, Mosur, Vellore. DPI Campus, Chennai.
QR Code Management Team

M. Saravanan, B.T,
G.G.H.S.S, Puthupalayam,
Vazhapadi, Salem.
V. Padmavathi, B.T,
GHS, Vetriyur, Ariyalur.
M. Murugesan, B.T,
PUMS. Pethavelankottagam,
Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
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www.tntextbooks.

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department Of School Education

6th Science_IIIrd Term English Book_Unit_1.indd 1 19-11-2018 15:01:38

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

(Published under New Education

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

6th Science_IIIrd Term English Book_Unit_1.indd 2 19-11-2018 15:01:38

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 85 22-11-2018 15:28:30

3. The Age of Empires: Guptas and Vardhanas 112

4. South Indian Kingdoms 128

3. Understanding Disaster 188

2. Local body 203

3. Road Safety 212

E - Book Assessment Digi - links

Lets use the QR code in the text books ! How ?

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 86 22-11-2018 15:28:30

The Sangam Age

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 87 22-11-2018 15:28:30

Coins Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the

Time Span 3rd century BC (BCE) to c. 3rd century AD (CE)

Tamizhagam Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north to

Age Iron Age

Dynasties ruled The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas

George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University of California, has

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 88 22-11-2018 15:28:30

Cheras famous of the Chola kings. He defeated

Prominent Chera Rulers

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 89 22-11-2018 15:28:30

Pandyas kings issued many coins. Their coins have

The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars

CHERAN CHOLAN PANDIYAN

• Adhavan • Senni • Maran

• Kuttuvan • Sembiyan • Valuthi

• Vanavan • Killi • Sezhiyan

• Irumporai • Valavan • Tennar

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 90 22-11-2018 15:28:31

Muvendar Garland Port Capital Symbols

Palmyra Muziri/ Vanchi/

Fig (Athi) Uraiyur/

Minor Chieftains – seven patrons (KadaiyezhuVallalgal). They

The kingship was hereditary. The king

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 91 22-11-2018 15:28:31

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 92 22-11-2018 15:28:31

Thinai (tract)-based Sangam Society

The land form was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 93 22-11-2018 15:28:31

also part of the population. Weaving was

Festivals and Entertainments

People celebrated several festivals. The

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 94 22-11-2018 15:28:32

There were two kinds of markets or Trade Contact with Overseas

VI History 3rd Term_English version CHAPTER 01.indd 95 22-11-2018 15:28:32

Gateway Pyramid Colosseum

Summary Archaeological excavations have

Summary Archaeological excavations have