 Adhesion is the grip or force of attachment, produced by

friction between the wheels and rails. Adhesion is

required to keep the wheels from slipping. It depends on
various factors and it applies a maximum limit on the
useful Tractive Effort (TE) for a given axle-load.

Coefficient of Adhesion
µ = Tmax / W
• Coefficient of adhesion (μ) is the ratio of "maximum value
of tractive effort (Tmax ) which can be transmitted to the
wheel" divided by the "effective value of load (W) on the
driving axle".

Tmax α W or Tmax = µ W , if T > Tmax wheel-slip starts.

Tmax
μ = ------------
W

• Max. Value of µ for steel on steel = 0.44 = 44% in most

ideal case.
• Therefore, if Tmax is to be increased, weight on driving-
wheel has to be increased, but track has the limitation of
maximum axle-load, therefore number of axles has to be
increased.
  Wheel slip in traction
 Wheel slide in braking
1. Wheel slip may lead to stalling, damage to rail and wheel.

2. Slip-stick oscillations create stress on components of axle

wheel assembly e.g. bearings, gear, pinion, axle, armature
shaft, commutator, carbon brushes.

3. Wheel slide eventually makes the wheel tread flat which, if

retained in service, hammer the rails. So immediate tyre turning
is required (loco is taken out of service)
The Wheel Slip Phenomenon
Maximum tractive or braking effort is obtained if each
powered wheel of the vehicle is rotting at such an angular
velocity that its actual peripheral speed is slightly higher
(motoring) or slightly lower (braking) than the true vehicle
speed.
i.e. the linear speed at which the
vehicle is traveling, usually
referred to as “ground speed” or
“track speed”. The difference
between wheel speed and track (or
“ground”) speed is referred to as
“slip speed” or Creep.
 Damaged Gears.

 Damaged gear profiles lead to other modes of oscillations.

 Damaged bearings.

 Cracks in bogie frames, supports and fixtures.

 Excessive wheel wear and rail-burns.

Rail Burn
Damaged Wheel
Damaged Rail Head
Extreme Damage
1. Effect of speed on adhesion :- As friction is maximum at
start and then reduces with speed, similarly adhesion is
maximum at start and then reduces with speed.

2. Rail condition and weather condition :-

• Dry leaves and coal dust also reduces adhesion.

• Wet rails reduce adhesion.

• Oily rails drastically reduce adhesion.

• A thin film of dust, etc. gets stuck to wheel-rim and

reduces adhesion-value of steel on steel.
• Moderate to heavy rain is better than drizzle for
adhesion.

• Sanding helps, but the sand should be fine, dry and

should fall on rail-head.

• Unevenness of rail-wheel contact,

• Due to worn-out rail or wheel,

• Loose track packing,

• Warp in wheel-rim,

• Difference in wheel-dia,
• irregular wheel tread profile,
• variations in track-levels,
• less contact area between rail & wheel at points &
crossings, and curves,

• The angle subtended between the wheel flange

and the gauge face of the rail is called “angle
of attack”.

• Increase in this angle by 1 deg. as on curves,

reduces the adhesion by half.
• Wheels mounted in a • The radial bogie reduces
conventional rigid bogie the angle of attack, and
cannot conform to curves. literally steers through
Their flanges bite into the curves, keeping wheels
gauge face of the rail, parallel to the direction of
wearing metal from both the track. This type of
surfaces bogie improves adhesion.
3.1 Effect Of Weight Transfer :-

When the loco is standstill on level gradient, its weight is

equally shared by all axles, but this condition is disturbed
when the loco or train is in a condition of run or
start/brake, due to turning moments.
SN Component Important Factors
1. Height of drawbar & centre-Pivot.
Body 2.Gap between loading points on front & rear
1
Reaction bogie.
3. Secondary Suspension.

1. Direction of TM noses.
Bogie
2 2. Height of centre pivot.
Reaction
3. Primary suspension.

1. Diameter of wheel.
TM Nose
3 2.Gap between TM nose and axle- centre.
Reaction
3. Direction of noses.
3.1a. Effect of Truck Draw Bar Pull :-
This results in reduction of load on leading bogie, and
corresponding increase in load for trailing bogie, as
explained on next slide.
3.1b. Effect of Traction Motor Nose:-

If the direction of nose is towards the direction of

motion of loco, the nose presses upward on bogie and
equal pressure acts downwards on axle bearing,
increasing pressure on axle. If the nose points opposite
the loco-motion, the load on the axle decreases.

TM Nose Force = N = (1092 / 2). (6 / 800) = 4.1 t

Weight transfer due to torque exerted by traction motor

If the direction of motion is

from left to right and

D = Diameter of driving wheel.

d = diameter of the gear wheel.
S = distance between the axle
and the nose.
T = Tractive effort at the rails.
The force at the gear teeth = TD/d and its direction is
downwards on the gear wheel and its reaction on the pinion
of the motor is upwards.

As a result of this, motor nose exerts an upward force F on

the bogie truck.

When the vehicle is moving in the direction towards which

the nose is pointing, the motor nose presses upwards on the
bogie truck and axle bearing presses downwards on the axle,
thus increasing effective axle-load. These forces are reversed
when the vehicle is moving in opposite direction to that in
which the nose is pointing.
 In WAM-4 and WAG-5, both nose-reaction and truck-
reaction are subtractive from the weight on leading axle,
hence there will be tendency of lifting or wheel slipping.
• In high-adhesion bogies of WAG-7, nose-reaction is adding
to the weight of leading axle, so better adhesion and less
chances of slipping occurs.
 Type of body- bogie connection

 Heights of draw-bar and centre-pivot

 Distance between loading points of front and rear bogies

 Primary and secondary suspensions

 Mounting of traction motors

 Direction of noses and distance between axle & armature

shaft and wheel diameter for “Axle hung and nose
suspended arrangement.”
3.2. Effect of Vertical Shocks :

 The contact between rail & wheel gets detached,

under the effect of instantaneous vertical shocks.
The extent of this detachment depends on elastic
reaction of suspension.

 Provision of better elastic suspension and damping

arrangement in a bogie, reduces the chances and
duration of such a loss of rail-wheel contact, thus
giving better adhesion.
WAG7 vs WAG5

 Primary Suspension of WAG-7, has sets of equalizers

hung directly on end axle boxes, and supported on middle
axle box through a link & compensating beam
arrangement. This ensures equal distribution of vertical
load on all 3 axles.

 WAG-5 has two different sets of equalizer beams, one

each between either end-axles and middle axle. These
distribute the load transmitted by springs supported on
respective equalizers.
 Secondary Suspension of WAG-7 has 4 nos. of side
bearers on each bogie, and are located such that they share
full vertical load leaving nil for centre pivot.

 In WAG-5, centre pivot takes 60% of vertical load, and

40% shared by 2 nos. of side bearers, arranged in
triangular fashion.

 WAG5 does not have the side bearers for shock

absorption.
4.1. Effect of performance characteristics of TMs :-

 The steepness of the TE vs. Speed characteristics of

TM, decides the time taken for arresting the wheel-
slip and better adhesion. Normally TE at any speed
should be lower than the maximum adhesive limit,
but if the maximum adhesive limit decreases due to
factors like dew or oil on rails, the wheels start
slipping, and speed increases, causing TE to fall.
 If this instantaneous fall in TE is too rapid, it may
become lower than the new adhesive limit and
slipping may be arrested, otherwise for a less steep
curve the slipping will continue a longer.
4.2 Effect of TM combination in series or in parallel :-

 Wheel-slipping of one axle causes the speed of that TM to

increase, in turn increasing the back-emf, thus reducing the
current.

 Now, if TM groups are in series, the current-reduction in

slipping TM will also cause current-reduction in other TM in
series with it, so developing slipping in additional TM.

 Whereas TMs in parallel will not be affected by slipping of one

TM.

 Hence 6-P combination of TMs give better adhesion than 2S-3P

combination.
4.3. Method of traction control :-

 Method of control of TM is by rheostatic in DC locos

and tap-changer method as in AC locos, sudden large
variation in TE in discrete steps and the average value
of TE becomes much less than the maximum
permitted by adhesive limit.

 Increased number of steps reduce the variation in TE

and hence the average value of TE rises and becomes
closer to maximum.

 Continuous step-less control, as provided in 3-phase

locos achieve better adhesion.
 Ripples in TE
due to DC series
motor in
conventional loco
Traction Motor Current

Tractive
Effort (TE)

Speed (v)

Voltage and Current in TM is

Increased in steps in DC series motor
It is smooth in Induction Motor (vvvf control)
5. Enginemanship :-

 The driver’s skill or enginemanship also affects the

adhesion while in motion.

 Sudden increase in TE may result in a value higher

than permitted by kinematic coefficient of adhesion
and may result in slipping and auto regression.

 Negotiating a gradient with necessary attacking

speed and timely use of sanders helps in
maintaining proper adhesion.
 When a locomotive is standing on a track, its weight is
normally shared by each driving axle.

 This weight share is disturbed and weight transfer takes

place from axles to others in locomotive due to the turning
moments.

 Turning moments may be produced by the traction motors

themselves as in the case of nose suspended motors or by
the draw-pull.
• Development of tractive-effort (TE) by locomotives
causes some wheels to offload while overloading
others. In other words weight transfer (or shift) takes
place from some wheels of the locomotive to the rest of
them.

• The magnitude and pattern of such weight transfer

depend on the geometrical features of
locomotive particularly its bogies.

• It is obvious that bogie weight transfer can never be

eliminated as long as mechanism of torque transmission
is through gear wheels.
Weight Transfer Due To Torque Exerted By Traction Motor
If the direction of motion is from left to right and

D = Diameter of driving wheel.

d = diameter of the gear wheel

S = distance between the axle and the nose

T = tractive effort at the rails.

• then the force at the gear teeth=TD/d and its direction is

downwards on the gear wheel and its reaction on the pinion
of the motor is upwards. As a result of this motor nose
exerts an upward force F on the bogie truck.
• When the vehicle is moving in the direction towards which
the nose is pointing, the motor nose presses upwards on the
bogie truck and axle bearing presses downwards on the
axle.

• These forces are reversed when the vehicle is moving in

opposite direction to that in which the nose is pointing.
M= Mass of locomotive at the centre of gravity.
T= Tractive effort exerted by the motor at each driving axle.
L= Bogie centre distance.
I= Bogie wheel centre distance.
H= Height of drawbar coupling above rail level.
h= Height at which tractive effort is exerted by the bogie on the locomotive body.
 Final weight distribution due to weight transfer between
bogies and between axles of the bogie is as follows;
 The weight transfer effect is reduced with the increase in
the bogie wheel centre distance. Due to safety
considerations of negotiating curves, points and crossings,
wheel centre distance of bogie ‘l can be adjusted only to a
limited extent. In the bogie employing nose suspended
motors, wheel centre distance is fixed by the diameter of
driving wheels and traction motor dimensions.
 While reducing the value of h’ will have desirable effect
on the weight transfer between the two axles of the bogie,
it will on the other hand increase the weight transfer effect
between the bogies. Weight transfer between the axles of
the bogie of conventional design is of the order of 15 to
20% of the adhesive weight of locomotive and weight
transfer effect between the bogies is only 1 to 3%. Thus
the overall effect due to the reduction in the value of ‘h’ is
to decrease the weight transfer considerably.
 Methods Of Reducing The Weight Transfer.

 The weight transfers in the case of trailing axle of leading

bogie and leading axle of trailing bogie are just opposite
to each other. Thus by effecting vertical coupling between
bogies by resilient component vertical reactions due to
weight transfer are made to cancel each other
 By means of low traction bars the point of application of
tractive effort by bogie on the locomotive body is virtually
brought down i.e. the value of ‘h’ is reduced. This design
feature is incorporated in the manufacture of bogies of
WAM1, WAG1 and WAG4 locomotives of Indian
Railways.
 The torque developed by traction motor (TM) is
proportional to the product of field flux and armature
current. A part of the TMs field is diverted through a
shunting resistor. Therefore torque produced by motor and,
consequently, TE at the corresponding wheels will be
lower. In this way, fields of TMs on off-loaded axles are
weakened while those of TMs on over-loaded axles are
working to their full strength.
 Thereby total TE of locomotive is so distributed among
axles that ratio of TE to weight is more or less equal for
all axles. This provides relief to offloaded axles that
would otherwise have this ratio unduly strained -
heightening the probability of wheel-slip. For same level
of limiting adhesion utilization (µ), higher TE can be
obtained from the locomotive.
 A spring-loaded switch named 'ZQWC' is provided on the
driver's desk. The driver is expected to use it by pressing it
until the train starts rolling while starting the train on up
gradients. This switch operates a relay 'QWC', which in
turn operates the shunting contactors to achieve shunting
of fields of desired TMs depending upon the direction of
motion.
 It may be noted that the driver is supposed to leave the
switch the moment locomotive has begun to roll.
Therefore this circuit is relevant only before the moment in
which back emf gets established.

 Both magnitude and pattern of weight transfer are

significantly different in the two cases. In WAG-5 axles
1,2 & 4 are offloaded while in WAG-7 axles 1,2&3 are
off-loaded. WAM-4 has almost identical pattern and
quantum of weight-transfer, as WAG-5 except its static
weight is lower by 1.0 t per axle.
Weight transfer in WAG5 and WAG7 locomotives
 Dynamic load is directly proportional to the TE.
Major differences between WAG-5 and WAG-7 in respect of
features having a bearing on the weight transfer are :

1. Traction motors (TM) are axle hung and nose suspended in

both bogies. But WAG-7 bogie has unidirectional noses
against two forward/ one reverse combination (and vice-versa
on second bogie) of WAG-5.

2. Primary suspension of WAG-7 consists of sets of equalisers

hung directly on end axles boxes and supported on middle
axle-box through a link and compensating beam arrangement.
This Special mechanism redistributes the loads equally on all
the three axles.
 WAG-5 has two sets of equaliser beams: one each between
either end axle and middle axle. These distribute the loads
transmitted by spring supported on the respective equalier
between the two axle boxes to which they are connected.

3. Unlike WAG-5, WAG-7 is provided with secondary

suspension comprising 8 side bearers-4 on each bogie. These
are designed to distribute the vertical load such that the two
closer to centre-pivot and the two away from it share the
vertical load in the ratio of 60:40.

4. The center pivot does not carry any vertical load. In WAG-5
two center pivot carry 60% of the vertical load and the rest is
shared by the four side-bearers equally.
1. Force:-
The application of force to a mass will cause it to
accelerate as governed by one of Newton's laws of
motion. The relationship is that the force necessary, is the
product of the mass and acceleration.
Force = Mass x Acceleration
(Tractive effort is a type of force, causing a loco or train to
move)
2. Energy:- The energy consumed in moving an object over
a distance is the product of the force required
and the distance.
Energy = Force x Distance
3. Power:- Power is the rate of energy usage, or energy per
unit time.
Power = Energy/Time
= (Force x Distance) / Time
= Force x (Distance / Time)
= Force x Speed
or HP = TE x Speed
 Tractive Effort (TE) is the force applied to the rail by
the wheel of the train to cause movement. The size of this
force is determined by the characteristic of the power
equipment installed on the train, and how the driver uses it.
Tractive Effort (TE) is a function of speed for a particular
setting of control.
• By necessity, this tractive effort is not constant throughout the
speed range, and most traction units have a characteristic that
looks Fig 1.

Fig.1 – Tractive Effort versus Speed Curve

• In the T-N characteristic shown in fig. 1, the TE is constant up to
20 mph, therefore in this speed range, from relationship of F = m
x a , as TE (or Force) is constant, the acceleration will be
constant. As a result of this, speed will build up uniformly with
time as shown below in fig-2.

Fig 2- Speed versus Time

• This is the region of Maximum
Tractive Effort, limited by
adhesion as shown on T-N
Curve. Above this speed, TE
falls, and in consequence, the
acceleration will start to fall
and speed will not build up so
quickly. The plot of speed with
time, now starts to curve as
shown next slide in Fig 3.
Fig. 3- Speed versus Time Graph
 So, in the example given, the maximum TE of the unit is
100kN, and hence the maximum power may be calculated
as follows:

 Speed in m/s = {(speed in mph) / 2.2} = 20/2.2 = 9.1 m/s

Power = Force x Speed = 100kN x 9.1 m/s = 910 kW

 As this is the power needed to actually move the train, it is

strictly referred to as the Maximum Power at Rail as
shown below in Fig.4.
Fig. 4 – Power – vs. –Speed Curve
 In reality, the total power drawn from the supply will be
greater than 910 kW, due to the need for additional auxiliary
loads and due to losses in the conversion process.

 It is highly unlikely that the equipment is capable of running

at this power level continuously, and for all types of
services. Again, for reasons of rating, the characteristic of
the equipment will not follow the curve of maximum power
at top speed, as indicated by the dip from 70mph onwards in
Figs 1 & 4. Consequently a continuous power rating will
often also be quoted.
 Continuous Power rating may be derived from a number
of factors based around the equipment characteristic and
will include assumptions of proportion of time, coasting is
done at a lower tractive effort demand by driver (driver's
controller).
 As, TE = loco weight x adhesion. It may be noted that
horsepower isn’t part of the calculation for TE.

1. Starting Tractive Effort - is the amount of tractive effort

that must be produced by the motive power to start moving a
train from a dead stop without slipping the wheels.

2. Continuous Tractive Effort - is the amount of tractive

effort required to keep a train in motion continuously for
long term without slipping the wheels or overheating the
traction motors & transmission.
3. Short Term Tractive Effort for X minutes - is the amount
of tractive effort required, for short term (for prescribed X
minutes), say to climb a grade. This will generally not
exceed 120% of the continuous TE for the prescribed short
period of time. It is limited by overheating of the traction
motors, of other power & transmission equipment on the
locomotive.
● As the DC motor starts to turn, the interaction of the magnetic
fields inside it causes it to generate a voltage internally. This
"back emf" opposes the applied voltage and the current that
flows is governed by the difference between the two.

● So, as the motor speeds up, and the internally generated voltage
rises, the effective voltage falls, less current is forced through
the motor and thus the torque falls.
● In order to continue accelerating the train, notches are
further increased, each notch increases the effective voltage
and thus increasing the current and torque for a little bit
longer until the motor again catches up. This can be felt by a
jerk of acceleration as the torque suddenly increases in
response to the new surge of current.

● The motor naturally stops accelerating at any notch-

position, when the drag or Resistance of the train
(increasing with speed) matches the torque produced by the
motors. This is called the “Balancing Condition”.
• Balancing Speed is the maximum speed for the given load,
on that gradient & curvature, and is the speed at the
intersection-point of TE-speed curve & Train Resistance-
speed curve.

• It is 95 mph on level, but

75mph on 1:100 gradient.
Force available to
accelerate the train is the
difference between TE and
train resistance.
Intersection of TE-vs-Speed Curve, with Train Resistance Curve
o It is the resistance offered to start or run a train of given
load at a given speed and on a given gradient. Train
Resistance during run is normally given by :-

R = a + bv + cv2, where v = speed

o The factors a, b and c characterize the particular train,

with "a" being the static friction, ”b” is due to mechanical
considerations, and ”c” is air resistance.
Fig.6- Train Resistance v/s Speed Curve
 It is normally expressed as the Specific Resistance in
kg/ton, which is the force or TE required to start or run a
loco or train, per ton weight of loco or train.
Types of train-resistances are :-
1. Resistance to start (a loco or loco+train) on straight
level track.
2. Resistance to run at a given speed on straight level
track.
3. Resistance due to gradient.
4. Resistance due to track-curvature.
 Physically there are three types of train services which in
traction system has to be looked after i.e.

 Urban System,

 Suburban System and

 Main Line System.

 While the distance in urban & suburban system is

comparatively smaller, but this requires frequent starting
and stopping.

 On main line the distance between stations are longer.

 A typical speed time curve of a main line train is depicted
in the diagram as below:-
1. 0a : This is notching up period and during this period, the
train is accelerated from the start. The average tractive effort
during this period remains the same and there is no
significant rise in the train resistance. Hence acceleration
remains constant.

2. ab: During this period, the difference of tractive effort and

train resistance accelerates the train depending upon the
torque speed characteristic of the traction Motor. The speed
of the train will continue to increase till the balancing speed
is achieved when tractive effort becomes equal to train
resistance and thereafter the train will continue to run at the
maximum speed.
3. bc : During this period the trains run at constant speed
with constant torque.

4. cd : This is called coasting period and during this period

the power supply is cut off to traction motor and train is
allowed to run under its momentum. The speed of the
train gradually falls due to train resistance.

5. de : This is called braking period and at the end of

coasting, brakes are applied to bring the train to a halt.
The speed- time curve is different for different types of
services by way of acceleration and retardation, maximum
speed attained, the period of free running and coasting.

Following table shows typical values of these parameters

for some representative services.
 Sub Urban Main Line Main Line
Type of Service
(Passenger) (Passenger) (Goods/Passenger)

Acceleration
1 to 4 0.5 to1 0.2 to 0.4
(kmph/sec)

Retardation
3 to 4 1.5 to 2 0.3 to 0.5
(kmph/sec)

Max. Speed
60 to 80 100 to 160 60 to 100
(kmph)
Type of Sub Urban Main Line Main Line
Service (Passenger) (Passenger) (Goods/Passenger)

Distance
10 to 15 kms for
between
1 to 3 pass. & 100 kms 50 to 100
stoppages
or more for Exp.
(kms)

Free running Free running is

Special Free running period
period is small & large or very
Features is very large
some times absent. large.
Patience is
power