Accepted Manuscript

Title: Thermobaric and enhanced blast explosives (TBX and EBX)

Author: Lemi Türker

PII: S2214-9147(16)30092-7
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2016.09.002
Reference: DT 204

To appear in: Defence Technology

Received date: 18-7-2016

Revised date: 21-9-2016
Accepted date: 21-9-2016

Please cite this article as: Lemi Türker, Thermobaric and enhanced blast explosives (TBX and
EBX), Defence Technology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2016.09.002.

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Thermobaric and enhanced blast explosives (TBX and EBX)

Lemi Türker*

Department of Chemistry, Middle East technical University, Ankara, Turkey

E-mail: [email protected]

Fax:+90-312 2103200

Phone:+90 312 2103244

Abbraviations

AMR : Adaptive mesh refinement

B/HMX : HMX-based explosive compositions
Δp: Overpressure
DDNP : Diazodinitrophenol
DECO : Detonation combustion
DOE: Design of explosives
EBX : Enhanced blast explosive
ESD: Electrostatic discharge
FAE : Fuel-air explosives
GAP : Glycidyl azide polymer
HE : High explosives
HoB : Heights of Blast
HTPB : Hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene binder
IHE : Insensitive high explosive
IM: Insensitive munition
IM: Insensitive munition
IPN : Isopropyl nitrate
MA : Mechanical activation/mechanically activated
MIC : Thermites/intermolecular composites
PTFE : Polytetrafluoroethylene
QSP : Quasi-static pressure
RDXph : Phlegmatized RDX
R-T : Rayleigh-Taylor
SDF : Shock dispersed fuel
SFAE : Solid Fuel-Air-Explosive
SIBEX : Shock insensitive blast enhanced explosives
TBX : Thermobaric explosive
TMD: Theoretical maximum density
TSE : Twin Screw Extruder
TBE: Thermobaric explosive

Abstract:

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 In this short review, excerption from the literature of thermobaric (TBX) and enhanced

blast explosives (EBX) which are concentrated on studies including their compositions,

properties, reactive metal components, their modeling and computations etc., have been

presented.

Keywords: Thermobaric explosives, Enhanced blast explosives, Reactive metals, High

explosives, Explosives.

1. Introductory

The last couple of decades have evidenced the emergence of a large number of weapon

systems. Most warheads currently in service use explosives to throw metal fragments and/or

shaped charge jets to destroy targets. Until recently, very few warheads relied on blast as

their primary output. New technologies have been developed now for warheads that claim to

possess enhanced blast performance.

Thermobaric weapons are classified as a subcomponent of a larger family of weapon

systems which are commonly known as volumetric weapons. The volumetric weapons

include thermobaric and fuel-air explosives (FAE, aerosol bombs in German). The term

"thermobaric" is a compound word derived from the Greek words "therme" and "baros"

meaning "heat" and "pressure" ( implying the effects of temperature and pressure on the

target), respectively. The characteristics of this category of weapons are mainly the creation

of a large fireball and good blast performance [1]. Both thermobaric and FAE devices operate

relying on some similar technical principles. In general, a thermobaric explosive (TBX)

consists of a certain central charge (called the core) which is usually a high explosive, and an

external secondary charge (fuel-rich formulation). Therefore, the detonation of TBX consists

of a dual action; 1) Firstly anaerobic action (without air oxygen) inside the conventional high

explosive core occurs; 2) Then aerobic delayed burning action of the fuel mixture of the outer

charge happens which depends mainly on the consumption of the surrounding air [2].

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 When a shell or projectile containing a fuel in the form of gas, liquid (aerosol) or dust

explodes, the fuel or dust-like material is dispersed into the air which forms a cloud. Its

occurrence does not depend on an oxidizer being present in the molecule. Then, this cloud is

detonated to engender a shock wave, characterized with extended duration that produces

overpressure expanding in all directions. In a thermobaric weapon, the fuel consists of a

monopropellant and energetic particles [3]. In operation, the aerosol is detonated within a

micro/millisecond in a manner similar to a conventional explosive like TNT or RDX.

Meanwhile the particles rapidly burn in the surrounding air later in time, thus resulting an

intense fireball and high blast overpressure action.

Although, the pressure wave, because of the explosive deflagration, is considerably

weaker in comparison to a conventional explosive such as RDX, the fuel can rapidly diffuse

into tunnels, caves or bunkers producing considerably high heat effect for habitants and /or

ammunition.

The explosion of an aerosol bomb consumes the oxygen from the surrounding air (the

explosive composition usually does not possess its own oxidizer). In contrast to general belief

of layman, its deadly effect is not simply due to the lack of oxygen caused but because of

barotraumo of the lungs arising from negative pressure wave following the positive pressure

phase of the explosion.

Thermobaric weapons contain monopropellant or secondary explosive and additionally

possess elements like B, Al, Si, Ti, Zr and C, mostly [1-5]. After the explosion of the main

charge of a thermobaric/enhanced blast explosive (TBX/EBX) occurs, the post-detonation

reaction (namely, burning of Al, etc.,) takes plays with air producing a huge “fireball” within

a microsecond.

Russia was the first country managed to develop such kind of weapons. RPO-A Schmel

rocket, infantry flame-thrower tested successfully in 1984, was the first thermobaric weapon

which contained a self-deflagrating mixture consisting of magnesium (Mg) and isopropyl

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nitrate (IPN). This simple thermobaric explosive produced high devastating pressure wave

through the Afghanistan caves and tunnel systems, causing huge damages in the subterranean

mazes of the region [4].

The shock waves of conventional explosives are localized and substantially decrease

while moving away from the explosion center. Thus, the conventional explosives have quite

limited effects on fortified individuals, hiding inside bunkers and/or caves, etc., [5]. Recently,

some thermobaric explosives (TBX) which are particularly highly metal-based systems have

been successfully designed to exploit the secondary combustion which is responsible for the

sustained overpressure and additional thermal effects [6,7]. During the detonation, ideal

molecular high explosives (HE) (such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), cyclo-1,3,5-

trimethylene-2,4,6-trinitramine (RDX), pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), and

cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (HMX)) all generate fast decaying blast waves of high

peak pressure but very short duration and are mainly designed for either to throw shrapnel

and shatter structures and/or penetrate armors. However, their effects are lethal only within

their close vicinity and possess obvious undesirable shortcomings for destroying hardened

targets such as caves, tunnels, etc. In order to overcome these shortcomings, great efforts have

been spent on the development of new weapons which are able to generate higher blast,

higher impulse and capable of using its energy not to destroy corners or walls only, but to

travel around them efficiently and collapse the hardened targets [8].

In confined spaces, TBXs can become as a source of lethal energy against soft targets

[8]. They exhibit a highly pronounced effect as they are able to add to the total impulse

within fraction of a millisecond inside a building or up to one second within a tunnel [8].

Because of this, TBXs have received great attention recently. The fuel burning via reaction

with the detonation products (after burning using oxygen from the air) raises the temperature

of the gaseous product cloud as well, and meantime strengthens the shock wave [8,9]

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 Needs for advanced thermobaric explosives have become one of the urgent requirements

when the aim is focused on destruction of targeted fortified structures, caves and bunkers.

Some highly metal-based systems have been designed to exploit the secondary combustion

involved and resulted from active metal particles they contain. Hence sustained overpressure

and additional thermal contribution can be achieved.

Barcz and Trzcinski reviewed some aspects of thermobaric and enhanced blast

explosives [10]. Therein, the thermobaric and enhanced fuel explosives are defined and

categorized as liquid and solid mixtures, and advanced compositions including layer charges.

In the article the explosive formulations are characterized in details and the methods used for

determination of explosion parameters as well as the results of experiments and computer

simulations are presented. The attention is particularly paid to understanding of the physical

phenomena accompanying the detonation process in such heterogeneous compositions with a

significant surplus of fuel [10].

In another article, Trzcinski and Maiz reviewed the available literature on thermobaric

explosives and enhanced blast explosives (high-destructive explosives) [8]. There, these types

of explosives are defined, their common features and differences were shown. Special

attention was spelled onto the physical phenomena accompanying the process of explosion of

such fuel-enriched heterogeneous explosives. They classified these materials as liquid and

solid mixtures and composite materials, including layered charges as in their previous article.

The considered explosives were characterized in details, methods of determination of their

blast parameters were discussed and the results of experimental tests were presented [8].

2. Thermobaric and enhanced blast explosives (TBX and EBX)

Since, the differences between TBX and EBX are usually small, therefore often these

two names are interchangeably used in the literature. However, EBX types are primarily used

to strengthen the blast wave, while TBX are employed to increase temperature and pressure of

the explosion [8]. Both in EBX and TBX, some anaerobic and aerobic reactions occur.

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However, in EBX formulations, the metallic fuel reacts mostly in the anaerobic stage without

participation of the oxygen from air, thus resulting in an important energy liberation which

participates in the process of sustaining of the initial blast wave and impulse. Whereas in

TBX, the aerobic metallic reactions dominate and the liberated combustion energy produced

yields a moderate pressure and high temperature relatively for a long time in the last stage of

the explosion after the detachment of the shock wave. On condition that the fundamental

physical and chemical phenomena of TBX and EBX can be understood clearly and controlled

consistently, brand new weapons of significant efficiency can be assembled. Then, a series of

weapon systems may be available in the future.

3. Formulation strategies

There has been a long bygone of studying the blast explosives, reactive metals and

associated metal combustion technologies. The achievements of the development of Solid

Fuel-Air-Explosive (SFAE) has been demonstrated 30–40% increase of internal blast over a

conventional explosive. SFAE is a singular event having combined mixing and initiation of

the reaction. In confined spaces, if the solid fuel is ignited early in the dispersion process,

transition to full detonation is not a requirement for enhanced blast occurrence. A series of

reflective shock waves generated by the detonation leads the hot detonation gases and metal

particles to be mixed and the metal particles are compressed at the same time. These actions

provide certain chemical kinetic support to maintain a hot environment, thus causing more

metal to ignite and burn. This later-time metal combustion process produces a significant

pressure rise over a longer time duration (10–50 msec). This phase is generally referred to as

after burning or late-time impulse which can occur outside of where the detonation occurred

and is responsible for more widespread damage.

Aluminum has been used as the metal of choice, due to its high heat of combustion, cost

and availability. Billets of SFAE made of aluminum, provide savings in volume with

increased fuel mass for blast performance. However, combustion efficiency has been an issue

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to be handled, especially in the case of high fuel content (35–60 wt %) with respect to the

total weight of explosive composition. Often poor combustion efficiency is observed in many

of the thermobaric warhead tests, which means the severe ineffectiveness of the weapon. This

is due to the high ignition temperature, 2200 ˚K, which is the typically required one for the

proper combustion of aluminum. As it is known, during the burning of aluminum, heat is

produced and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is formed. However, the complete burning of all the

metal requires maintaining the environment hot [11]. This requirement can be best fulfilled if

it is supported chemically by the combustion of other oxidizer species (i.e. AP or liquid nitrate

ester, IPN (isopropyl nitrate)) that are much easier to ignite (AP has an ignition temperature of

250 ˚C and IPN has a low flash point of 22 ˚C). In operation, the combustion of these

additives produce hot gases which support the burning of metal, thus 100 % combustion

efficiency can be attained. Metal composites, metal and oxidizer combined granules used in

these explosives can be produced easily from coating of particles with a binder with well

known techniques in the art [11,12].

In order to improve the metal combustion efficiency further, more reactive metals as

part of or as the entire metal fuel components are used. New reactive metallic materials such

as nano-sized aluminum to increase the reactivity, titanium and boron alloy to improve the

thermal output, and magnesium/aluminum alloy to lower the ignition temperature are among

the most promising and favorable approaches to increase the overall efficiency of metal

combustion. More powerful explosives such as CL-20, TEX etc., that are capable of elevating

the detonation pressure and temperature up are also shown to be extremely beneficial [11].

There exist some demand and interest in order to get new explosive formulations with new

reactive metals and metal composites to have 50–100 % higher blast energy as compared to

those composition such as Tritonal or PBX N109. Furthermore, the research for new

formulations and new warhead designs are expected to produce more powerful thermobaric

warheads in the future as compared to the already existing weapon systems.

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4. Operational stages and amendments

Blast weapons could have been designed to fill a gap in capability; they are generally

used for the attack of “soft” targets including personnel, both in the open and within

protective structures. With the increased number and range of these weapons, it is likely that

military forces will have to use them spreadingly in future conflicts.

Thermobaric explosives are generally fuel-rich compositions containing a nitramine

(RDX,HMX, etc) but they are characterized by the energy release occurring over a longer

period of time than standard explosives, thereby creating a long-duration pressure. It is

generally believed that the thermobaric explosives undergo the following stages upon

detonation. In the first stage, an initial shock (or blast) wave from the explosive causes the

nitramine to undergo anaerobic detonation (an essentially reduction reaction) occurring

within hundreds of microseconds to disperse the fuel particles. The anaerobic combustion of

fuel particles occurs in a second stage within hundreds of microseconds [12]. The anaerobic

combustion process happens along the detonation shock wave while consuming fuel particles

in close proximity to the detonating nitramine. In the third stage (afterburning), the fuel-rich

energetic material is subjected to aerobic combustion, which is initiated by the shock-wave-

mixing with oxygen of the surrounding air and it has a duration of several microseconds. The

nitramine residues are preferably present in the shock wave and undergoes anaerobic reaction

with the fuel particles to propagate the shock wave and increase dispersion of the fuel

particles [12].

When the explosion takes place in an airtight environment, the energy release of the

afterburning process can be subdivided into four types as;

(1) Earlier reports and articles [13-15] suggest that the metal powder in TBXs absorbs heat

but do not release energy on the detonation wave front. The reflection of metal powder with

the detonation products causes the first kind of afterburning.

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(2) The metal and the detonation products react with oxygen of condensed air. Because of

the large density gradient, the R-T (Rayleigh-Taylor) instability turbulent flow is

considered in order to explain this mixture and burning step [16,17].

(3) The air detonation wave, reflected by the wall of the airtight environment, reacts with the

high speed fireballs generated by the above process. Burning by the turbulent flow [18-20] is

increased and the boundary temperature of the fireball rises to reignite the mixture of the

metal and the detonation products.

(4) The burning ball crashes to the barriers or the walls [13,17] and the kinetic energy of the

medium in the ball is transferred into potential energy. The residual metal powder present

may be ignited to form a new burning region. Of these four types, it is believed that the

afterburning begins with the start of the detonation. It does not stop and even gets intense until

the detonation processes finish. The fireball and the blast produced in the earlier stages are

capable of reaching and turning corners and penetrate areas inaccessible to bomb fragments.

Blast waves are intensified when reflected by walls and other surfaces. That causes more

intense damage effect of TBXs as compared to that of high explosives in confined conditions.

The confined condition is important for TBXs. A limited space may be beneficial for the

rising of temperature and pressure produced by the reactions. In contrast the temperature and

pressure cannot be hold even reduced in the open environment, thus the result of damage

decreases and may be inferior to the equal conventional high explosives.

Thermobaric explosives typically are plastic bonded explosive (PBX) compositions, in

which typically a metallic fuel and an oxidizer or a nitramine are contained. However, one

drawback associated with the use of a PBX composition in a thermobaric weapon exists that

is sometimes incomplete combustion of metallic fuel occurs [12]. Due to the diminished

return of increasing fuel content, the fuel content is regulated so as not to exceed 35 weight

percent. More typically it is maintained within a range of 20 to 35 weight percent. Due to

this low fuel content, most successful traditional thermobaric weapons have been designed

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which are relatively large in size to furnish adequate fuel. Then, weight and size constraints

accompany the large size and weight of such weapons. Although decreasing the size of the

weapon can overcome this drawback, smaller thermobaric weapons tend to generate

insufficient overpressure to destroy targets “in the open”. It is also believed that TBX

compositions generally act like “high” or “underwater” explosives and they are characterized

by shock-propagated reactions. Note that shock propagated reactions can bounce off of walls

and succumb to rarefaction in closed spaces. The shock wave rarefaction causes a high degree

of mixing and multiple reactions, thus it can limit the effective range of the thermobaric

explosive, especially in closed or labyrinth-like spaces such as multi-room buildings or caves.

On the other hand, Dearden not only briefly describes fuel-air explosive blast weapons

but reviews a range of enhanced blast weapons that have been recently developed [21].

Additionally he discusses on the reasons why enhanced blast technologies may be

proliferating. Also approaching the subject from a different side he comments on how those

explosives could affect the Defense Medical Services [21].

5. Reactive metals and metal carbonyls

Yen and Wang reviewed several classes of reactive metals that have been considered for

energetic applications [2]. These include elemental metals, thermites/intermolecular

composites (MIC), encapsulated metals, metastable alloys and “surface activated” metals.

Properties, processing techniques, ignition and combustion characteristics of these materials

as well as their field performance of the reactive metals in explosive formulations were also

reported (if available). Finally, some reactive metals were identified in their review as

potential metals.

Metals having high combustion enthalpies attract attention as high energy density

materials. One of those metal additives is aluminum. Since the beginning of 20th century

aluminized explosives have been used in various formulations (e.g. Ammonal, Tritonal,

Hexal, aluminized plastic bonded explosives etc). However, the potential benefits expected

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from aluminum additives have not been fully exploited. This is mainly due to the character of

aluminum ( the high melting point having oxide layer covers the surface, thus causing long

ignition delays and slow combustion rate). Hence, researchers have attempted to overcome

these drawbacks by improving material processing and searching for new materials. One of

these material processing techniques is the mechanical activation (MA) which is a size

reduction process by milling techniques. Note that fine particles are usually more reactive

than relatively coarse ones. Reactive metals find application in air-blast and underwater

explosives. Due to the high heat released from reactions of metals with the decomposition

products of explosives in ambient air or water, a considerably huge increase in energy release

can be achieved. The active metal particles react over a much longer timescale than the

detonation of the explosive itself. Thus, they contribute great deal to the work done by the

expanding combustion products. It is known that in underwater applications, the reactions of

metals with water also contribute to the bubble energy [2].

In the past, not many other elemental metal powders besides aluminum are taken into

consideration for the formulation of explosives. Quite recently, boron has been considered for

the same purpose. The literature indicates that boron has the highest gravimetric and

volumetric heat of combustion compared to aluminum and many other metal fuels. When

boron was incorporated in HMX-based explosive compositions (B/HMX), it was observed

that slightly higher explosion heats (per unit mass) occur compared to aluminum-containing

ones (Al/HMX) in a bomb calorimetric test [22]. Lee et al. [23] studied the use of mixtures of

boron and aluminum in an explosive formulation (RDX/Al/B/HTPB, 45/10/20/25). The test

was conducted in a confined chamber and quasi-static pressure was measured. Note that

a quasi-static process is a thermodynamic process that happens slowly enough for the system

to remain in internal equilibrium. The authors found that the formulation, containing mixtures

of boron and aluminum performed 1.3 times better as compared to the formulation containing

pure aluminum (RDX/Al//HTPB, 45/38/17). This is the result despite the lower metal content.

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Therefore, it appears that boron is a potential candidate for use as fuel additive in energetic

compositions. Nonetheless, there is also some experimental effort indicating that the high

ignition temperature of boron is actually a drawback to its application [24]. Since, the boron

flame temperature is 2067 ˚C, while its boiling point is 3865 ˚C, boron burns at the particle

surface, which consequently turns into a covered surface coated with the viscous oxide

(B2O3) at such a high temperature. Because of that, this occurrence reduces the ability of the

fuel to mix with oxidizer well and leads to inefficient burning. Schaefer and Nicolich studied

the blast performance of boron-containing cast-cured, HMX-based explosive in a semi-

confined structure [25].

The results showed that the use of boron decreased the impulse by half when it partially

replaced a MgAl alloy powder [25]. Although the paper did not offer any explanation for its

poor performance, it is likely that the long ignition delay of boron caused it to act as an inert

diluent to the resultant overall explosive effect. Therefore, unless the ignition temperature can

be lowered considerably (through the use of some appropriate chemical/physical processes)

the full potential of boron cannot be harnessed [25].

Various reactive metals (Mg, Al, Ti, Zr) have also been tested as incendiary warheads

for a penetrator by Sandia National Laboratories [26,27]. Titanium and zirconium, which are

denser metal than magnesium and aluminum (a desirable factor for penetrators), were tested

in various forms (gravel, washer, sponge). The configuration of the test charges were

designed in such a way that cylindrical reactive metal casings (with and without external steel

case) filled with a high explosive core. The charges were initiated in a test cell, which

consisted of paper, newspaper, wood and plywood, and empty propane tanks. The course of

detonation, dispersion of particles and additional effects were monitored by a video camera.

From the qualitative results of these tests, it was found that zirconium is the best incendiary

metal. It was capable of starting fires inside the test cell causing lots of damage. Due to the

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numerous parameters such as explosive core, mass of explosive, % TMD of the casing etc.,

(that were varying in the test) direct comparisons were found to be difficult.

Although, many reactive metals till now have been studied in terms of combustion and

ignition kinetics, field performances of reactive metals in explosives are scarce. Based on the

limited reports available, also the charge configuration, charge sizes and test conditions are

different and hence cross comparison of the effects of reactive metals are difficult. However,

based on this review, it is apparent that some reactive metals could potentially perform better

than aluminum [28]. Metastable alloys also can have high heat releases, exceeding that of

aluminum, and approach those of boron. Metastable alloys also have lower ignition

temperature than pure metals. Dreizin’s work indicated that Al-Mg (50 wt-%: 50 wt-%) and

B-Ti (25 wt-%:75 wt-%) were found to be the most promising mechanical alloys based on

constant volume combustion chamber experiments [28].

On the other hand, encapsulating aluminum with reactive metals such as magnesium,

zirconium, and nickel or with polymers such as Teflon, Viton, and NC would also lower the

ignition temperature and bridge the gap between microsecond detonation reactions and

millisecond burning reactions. Thermites also may be used in some cases where obviously

there is oxygen deficiency. For greater energy, fuel-rich aluminum-based thermites can be

employed [2]. The availability/proximity of oxygen (by creating an intimate mix between the

oxide and the metal particle) will ensure a better compositions of aluminum. Of the thermites

tested, Al/MoO3 shows the greatest potential among the others because it has the highest

gravimetric heat of compositions and the lowest activation energy and ignition temperature.

However, the challenge is to obtain spherical or near spherical forms of these reactive

powders so that they could be loaded to high solid content (density) in explosive formulations.

It is worth mentioning that not only aluminum but recently some other metals have been

used in thermobaric/ enhanced blast explosives in different forms such as magnesium,

magnesium-aluminum, aluminum (Alcan, Alex), boron, coarse and fine silicon, titanium, and

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zirconium etc.,[29,30,31,32]. Also Chan et al., studied nanoparticle aluminum, boron,

titanium, magnesium, Al-Mg, hydrided Al-Mg, B-Mg, Al-B, and Ti-B alloys as fuels [11].

On the other hand, Kellett studied bimetallic particles composed of a core/shell structure

of differing metals. The core metal is from aluminum, boron, silicon, hafnium, magnesium, or

carbon. Whereas, the outer shell metal is from nickel, boron, titanium, zirconium, sulfur,

selenium, or vanadium [33]. Hafnium and zirconium show promise as incendiary materials

and for application in reactive fragments. However, their extreme electrostatic discharge

sensitivities (ESD) impose significant safety issues that limit their usage in energetic

applications. Due to that fact, aluminum-coated hafnium and zirconium were developed to

lower down the sensitivities of these metals to that of aluminum level [2]. Aluminum or boron

can be coated with more active metals such as magnesium to improve the ignition temperature

and the combustion time. A suitable technology has been developed the for coating a high-

melting-refractory-metal with a low-melting soft metal and applied the product, such as

magnesium-coated boron, for energetic applications. Boron, due to its high heat of oxidation

and low atomic weight, is one of the highest energy density having materials known.

Unfortunately, it is very difficult to ignite due to its inherent reactivity and oxide-surface-

coating. Whereas, magnesium, by comparison, is relatively easy to ignite, and by coating

boron particles with magnesium, it substantially increases the ignition characteristics. In this

application, the burning of magnesium heats the boron particles, as well as keeps the surface

relatively clear of formation of boron oxide which is a viscous liquid at high temperatures,

thus hinders the reaction [2].

On the other hand, Zimmermann studied transition metal carbonyl complexes as blast

enhancers and boosters for hollow charge explosives in order to burning [34]. The carbonyls

tested consist of Cr(CO)6, Mo(CO)6, W(CO)6, Fe(CO)5, Fe2(CO)9, and Fe3(CO)12 [34].

6. Mechanism of action

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 Fuel-air explosives (also called thermobaric explosives/weapons) with organic fuels have

been known since the 1960’s. Such composites have a high negative Gibbs free energy of

reaction, but exhibit only a moderate detonation pressure [35,36]. However, due to an

enhanced impulse, the blast effect of such explosives is much higher than that of ordinary

high explosives. In fuel-air explosives atmospheric oxygen is used as an additional oxidizer

for the explosives. Therefore metal fuels having high negative Gibbs free energy per mole of

consumed oxygen (e.g. Al), are also used as additives in thermobaric explosives. When a

warhead detonates, for instance inside the hull of a ship, in the first-hand the ship hull

experiences a shock loading and then a quasi-static pressure develops. The latter is

considered a determining factor for the structural damage. Optimal performance is achieved

when the quasi-static pressure is sufficiently high to destroy the dividing walls present

between the compartments of the ship structure. Afterburning may subsequently occur by

reactions with oxygen in the available air in the neighboring compartments [30,37,38]. A

proviso for this event is that the Al content and particle size will not reduce the effects of

fragments in a significant way. In open air, the afterburning becomes far from complete due to

the rapid expansion, thus cooling of the fireball. When the reaction products expand and mix

turbulently with the air, the temperature of the gases decreases rapidly, thus leading to

incomplete combustion process. Therefore, small metal particles are to be preferred because

they burn faster. Trzcinski et al., studied blast waves and found that the maximum impulse

occurred at an aluminum content of around 30 %. The peak value was reported as

approximately 15 % higher than that of pure RDX [39]. Furthermore, they asserted that the

overpressure peak of the incident wave was comparable to or lower (by 5 to 17 %) than that

of RDX. The conclusion was that in general the blast performance was only slightly

increased. However, it has been shown that for a gelled based metal-enhanced fuel-air

explosive (metal content of approximately 60 %), air blast surpasses the energy density of

conventional propylene oxide fuel-air type explosives. TNT equivalents of about 500 % have

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been observed [30]. Note that enhanced-blast weapons are primarily designed and effective to

demolish bunkers, caves and enclosed structures (see reference [40] for a review of

thermobaric weapons).

Transition to full detonation is not required in confined spaces to achieve an enhanced

blast. When an explosive charge detonates in a closed chamber reverberating waves (for a

short time) determine the pressure-time history in the chamber. After several reflections an

equilibrium pressure is reached, on condition that there is no heat loss to the chamber during

this short period of time.

In addition, for confined space and low loading densities sufficient oxygen is available

in the air to complete mixing. The post-explosive temperature is commonly between 2500 ˚K

and 4000 ˚K in confined spaces, and remains high for a long time, allowing the explosion

products and the available air to reach a thermodynamic equilibrium (the optimum aluminum

content for maximum blast effect is then at least 50 %). These results for confined spaces are

probably also applicable to conditions where the confinement is not entirely complete, (e.g., a

detonation chamber is connected to the open air by a tunnel).

However, for semi-confined explosions, the conclusion is not so obvious. It is

conceivable that walls will be blown out before aluminum will be appreciably mixed with air

and oxidized. Then, the energy of explosion depends on the available air oxygen to an extent

which is related to the oxygen deficiency. The addition of about 40 % aluminum to high

explosives like RDX or HMX leads to a significant enhancement of the calorimetric heat of

explosion (also called energy of explosion or energy of detonation) [39]. This enhancement is

typically around 40 %, which is substantially lower than predicted from the theoretical

calculations.

Furhermore, a set of explosions has been performed in a closed chamber having

different atmospheres in order to estimate the degree of afterburning of the detonation

products in confined or semi confined chambers. It has been found that the quasi-static

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pressures in closed compartments are much lower than the thermodynamically calculated

values, but may be around 20 % higher than of pure RDX when 45% Aluminum is added. The

pressure is indeed much higher than the pressure calculated by the assumption of inert

aluminum. This result indicates that it reacts with oxygen from the air in the chamber as well

as with RDX decomposition products [39]. It has been found that the quasi-static pressure in a

chamber filled with air is higher than the case if the chamber is filled with nitrogen or argon.

The analyses of the chamber residues after detonation (0.15 m3 chamber, 200 gram

explosive), have revealed that only in air, alumina constitutes the residues entirely. This

means that the aluminum has not reacted in the detonation/combustion wave is fully oxidized

in expanding and re-shocked RDX products, meanwhile consuming oxygen from air [36].

7. Composition and characterization

Various studies have shown that solid state fuel-air (enhanced-blast or thermobaric)

explosives seem to have very promising features. They can combine metal fragmentation and

metal acceleration effects with superior air blast impulse. Thus the consequence is much

better ordnance with improved effectiveness and combined modes of action on the targets.

Kolev and Tzonev presented the results of their practical solutions to these problems in

two types of solid state thermobaric explosives [41]. They have air blast TNT equivalent of

about 2.5 times and metal fragmentation capabilities similar to that of TNT. Both types of

compositions mentioned are thermally stable, cheap and technologically accessible for mass

production.

A widely used fuel in energetics is the micrometer-sized aluminum. However,

performance of propellants, explosives, and pyrotechnics could be significantly improved if

its ignition barriers could be disrupted. Sippel et al., reported the morphological, chemical and

thermal characterization of fuel-rich aluminum-polytetrafluoroethylene (70-30 wt %)(Al-

PTFE) reactive particles formed by high and low energy milling [42]. Average particle sizes

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of their samples ranged from 15-78 μm; however, the specific surface areas of the particles

ranged from approx. 2-7 m2g-1 due to milling induced voids and cleaved surfaces. The SEM

and energy dispersive spectroscopy revealed a uniform distribution of PTFE, providing

nanoscale mixing within the particles. The combustion enthalpy was found to be 20.2 kJ g-1,

though a slight decrease (0.8 kJ g-1) results from extended high energy milling due to α-AlF3

formation (note that PTFE is present). For high energy mechanically activated particles,

differential scanning calorimetry in argon atmosphere exhibited a strong peak standing for the

exothermic pre-ignition reaction that onsets near 440 °C and accompanied by a second, more

dominant exotherm that onsets around 510 °C. Scans in O2-Ar atmosphere have indicated

that, unlike physical mixtures, more complete reaction occurs at higher heating rates and the

reaction onset is drastically reduced (approx. 440 °C). The simple flame tests reveal that these

modified Al-polytetrafluoroethylene particles light readily unlike micrometersized aluminum.

Safety testing also shows that these particles possess high electrostatic discharge (89.9-108

mJ), impact (>213 cm), and friction (>360 N) ignition thresholds. The data imply that these

particles may be useful for reactive liners, thermobaric explosives, and pyrolants. In

particular, the altered reactivity, large particle size and relatively low specific surface area of

these fuel-rich particles make them an interesting and suitable replacement for aluminum in

solid propellants.

This work clearly shows that mechanical activation of fuel rich Al-PTFE mixtures can

result in micrometer-sized Al-PTFE composite particles with increased reactivity. The authors

have observed that use of mechanical activation process results in nanoscale mixing of

reactants with reaction behavior similar to that of nAl-nPTFE. Notably, high or low energy

mechanical activation results in significant shift of primary exotherm onset from 600 ˚C to

440 ˚C in anaerobic heating and from 540 ˚C to 440 ˚C in the presence of O2 [42]. For

composite particles formed with high energy mechanical activation, differential scanning

calorimetry in O2-Ar indicates that, unlike physical mixtures or those particles formed under

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low energy mechanical activation, more complete reaction occurs. At higher heating rates the

reaction onset is also drastically reduced (approx. 440 ˚C). Furthermore, results suggest that at

aerobic heating rates, greater than 50 Kmin-1, near complete heat release happens by

approximately at 600 ˚C instead of at higher temperature. While mechanical activation

drastically alters the reactivity of these particles, they are relatively insensitive to electrostatic

discharge (ESD), friction initiation and impact. In addition to having significantly modified

reaction behavior, the enthalpy of combustion of mechanically activated particles was found

to be as high as 20.2 kJg-1, so that it is approximately 60 % higher than the measured

combustion enthalpy of nAlnPTFE mixtures. Additionally, the large (15 to 78 μm) average

particle size and moderate specific surface areas (2 to 6.7 m2g-1) of composite particles

suggest that they will be far more useful than nanoparticles in high solids loaded energetics

and may age more favorably than nanoparticle mixtures. Their expectation is that further

reduction of particle specific surface area helps improvement of aging characteristics which

may be achieved by adding a small amount of binder (e.g., Viton A) during the milling

process or through crash deposition after mechanically activated particle formation. The

conjecture is that a lower fraction of PTFE may also prove to be advantageous for some

applications. These micrometer-sized activated fuel particles with modified ignition and

reaction characteristics are a promising alternative to nanoparticle solid propellant additives

such as nAl. With these particles, the authors expect similar propellant performance

improvement and particles becoming less detrimental to propellant rheological and

mechanical properties. When used as a replacement in solid propellants, these particles may

ignite far below the ignition temperature of micrometer-sized aluminum (>2000 ˚C) and the

expectation of the authors is that with these particles they may decrease ignition delay,

agglomerate size, and reduce condensed phase losses as well as lead to increased heat output

and enhanced burning rates [42]. Use of these fuel-rich Al-PTFE composite particles in

structural energetics (e.g., reactive liners), incendiaries, flares and other energetics could also

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likely lead to a better performance, far exceeding that of energetics which are made from

physical mixtures of micrometer- or nanometer-sized particles. Now, efforts have been

focused on the use of other fluorocarbon oxidizers. Study of the ignition and combustion of

these activated fuel particles at high heating rates is interesting too. Additionally Sippel et al.,

have been working to incorporate these materials into solid and hybrid propellants [42].

On the other hand, Simic et al., in their paper describe the effects of compositions on the

detonation properties and the parameters of the air shock wave front on a lightweight model

of cast thermobaric explosives (TBE, 400 g) [29]. This investigation, comprises 14

thermobaric explosive compositions (containing HMX, AP, Al, Mg, HTPB (hydroxy-

terminated polybutadiene binder) in different weight percentages. Theoretical and

experimental densities and porosities of TBE charges, and detonation velocities were

determined. Depending on the content of explosive, binding and component compositions, as

well as on the content of Mg/Al as a fuel, the basic parameters of the shock wave speed,

overpressure (Δp), maximum pressure (Put)max and TBE pressure impulse values were

determined at different distances from the explosion center. By using piezo-electric pressure

transducers, examination of the thermobaric effect was performed by means of measuring

overpressure in the shock wave front. The activation and the detonation of explosive charges

as well as the expansion process of detonation products were filmed by a Phantom V9.1 high

speed camera [29].

For the needs of investigation of the effects of composition on the detonation properties

and the parameters of the air shock wave front, new compositions of cast composite

thermobaric explosives have been developed having the mass fraction of components: 31-50

% of HMX, 15-20 % of HTPB - based binder, 21-30 % of Al, 0-9 % of Mg and 0-20 % of AP

(ammonium perchlorate). In the study 14 experimental TBE compositions were prepared.

The influence of the compositions and the ratio between the components on the detonation

properties and the parameters of the air shock wave were examined each time, on light-weight

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experimental models (~400g). The test results were compared with the parameters of the

standard charge (HMX/Al/HTPB = 50/30/20). The maximum overpressure values at all

measuring points were achieved with TBE-3 (45 % HMX, 10% AP, 21 % Al, 9 % Mg, 15 %

HTPB) and the lowest ones with TBE-1 (50 % HMX, 30 %Al, 20 % HTPB). At greater

distances from the explosion center, small differences in the values of the maximum

overpressure were recorded which were indicative of the influence of the composition on

Рmах values which had the most pronounced value in the area nearby the detonation site. It has

been obtained that all the compositions containing magnesium had higher values of

overpressure as compared to the standard charge. All the new compositions have higher

pressure impulses than the standard charge. Among these, the compositions named as TBE-3,

TBE-7, TBE-12 and TBE-1b are outstanding. They all have a higher content of the explosive

component, aluminum and combined with a greater percentage of magnesium. The TBE-3

composition possesses the most favorable characteristics of thermobaric explosive in

comparison to the other investigated compositions. It is characterized with higher detonation

velocity, higher overpressure and pressure impulse, thus it can be recommended as the

composition of choice for further research along this line [29].

Also the effect of the composition of cast composite thermobaric explosives on their

processability was investigated by Simic et al.,[43] . According to the experimental plan, 10

different thermobaric PBX explosive compositions (containing HMX, AP, Al, Mg, HTPB

binder in different mass percentages) were prepared by applying the casting technology.

The content of three components was varied: thermosetting hydroxy-terminated

polybutadiene binder (HTPB, 15-20 wt. %), ammonium perchlorate (0-20 wt.%), and

magnesium participation in a total metal content of 30 wt.% (i.e. 0-30 wt.% of aluminum was

replaced by pyrolitic magnesium). Both the impacts of composition and curing time on

viscosity were examined. Then, it was analyzed for how the changes of component content

affect the viscosity-time dependence for the three (upper mentioned ) components taken

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separate as well as combined. The densities of the samples taken from different segments of

explosive charges were determined. according to the standard method MIL 286B, and then the

porosities were determined as well [43].

Aluminum is commonly used as a fuel component due to its high heat of combustion,

cost and availability. It has a high ignition temperature (2200 ˚K). Thus, burning of all the

aluminum to completion requires maintaining of the hot environment. It can be managed if it

is supported by the combustion of other easily combustible metals and oxidizers, a

representative example is ammonium perchlorate (AP). It is much easier to ignite AP (AP has

an ignition temperature of 250 °C) compared to aluminum. The combustion of AP produces

hot gases which support metal burning effectively, so that a much higher combustion

efficiency can be obtained. Nowadays, aluminum is used in mixtures together with

magnesium for getting more complete combustion [11,44]. Magnesium, on the other hand, is

capable of catalyzing some polymerization reactions. It is reported that it has some influence

on HTPB polymerization [45,46]. HTPB was used as a binder in cast composite explosive

compositions examined in this investigation.

The investigation of processability was done for 10 different thermobaric PBX

explosive compositions, previously prepared. Throughout the study, viscosity-time

dependences, densities and porosities were all determined for the examined samples. The

mass concentration of the binder has the greatest effect on the rheological properties of the

examined compositions then the participation of Mg in the total metal content, and the

concentration of fine aggregates of AP at the expense of reducing the content of coarse

fraction HMX. A higher amount of Mg in compositions (with the same content of other

components) causes faster growth and higher values of viscosity, thus reducing the processing

time (castability) of the compositions, while a larger content of the binder and replacing HMX

by AP have a favorable effect. For the selected representative compositions, the measured

density values have shown to be very close to the theoretical values. There are also no

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significant variations between the values of density in different segments of experimental

explosive charges. Thus, it can be concluded that a very good homogeneity has been

achieved. The porosities of the examined explosives were low, which was a good qualitative

property for this kind of explosives. The values of porosity are lower for the compositions

containing a higher percentage of AP and Mg, and also having a higher content of the HTPB

binder. The TBE-4, TBE-5, TBE-8, TBE-9 and TBE-10 compositions have a moderate

viscosity gradient and therefore, good rheological properties. They all remain castable long

enough, so they have favorable processing characteristics, especially TBE-8 and TBE-9 are to

be noted as ones having the lowest porosities after curing. Taking this into consideration as

well as a good thermobaric effect that can be predicted based on their content of ingredients,

the explosive compositions mentioned above represent good candidates for industrial

production.

In the work of Newman et al., a pressable explosive composition was provided [12].

The composition included at least 40 wt.% of substantially uncoated fuel particles, a nitramine

which was mechanically blended with the substantially uncoated fuel particles, and a binder

coating the nitramine. Also the article provided a pressed thermobaric explosive formulation,

weapons compositions and methods for making the composition and the thermobaric

explosive.

The pressed thermobaric explosive should preferably possess at least one, and still more

preferably all, of the following characteristics; (a) a compressive strength greater than 42,000

psi, more preferably greater than 45,000 or 50,000 psi. (b) a frictional sensitivity less than

235 psig, (more preferably less than 420 psig, as measured by an ABL sliding friction test) ;

(c) a frictional sensitivity less than 360 N, (more preferably less than 252 N, as measured by

the BAM sliding friction test); and (d) an equal or lesser electrostatic discharge sensitivity

than that of RDX.

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 The method provided in the article comprises coating a nitramine with a binder. The

coated nitramine is mechanically mixed with substantially uncoated fuel particles in order to

provide a pressable explosive composition comprising at least 40 weight percent of the

substantially uncoated fuel particles (preferably about 1 to about 6 weight percent of the

binder). The explosive composition is preferably consolidated via pressing to provide a

pressed thermobaric explosive [12].

It is claimed that the substantially uncoated fuel particles preferably (yet optionally)

possess one or more of the following properties: relatively low melting point, a high heat of

combustion, high surface area (small particle size), and ammability. For the solid fuel

particles, they are preferably kept dry in the processing and in the pressable explosive

composition to maximize reactivity with air. The fuel particles are preferentially selected

from a set of aluminum, magnesium, magnalium, and various combinations of them. Of these,

aluminum and magnalium are particularly preferred. Note that magnalium is an alloy of

magnesium and aluminum which is usually but not necessarily prepared in a 1 :1 molar ratio.

In the pressing step, magnalium is generally more difficult to consolidate than aluminum.

Accordingly, a portion (e.g.,50 weight percent) of the magnalium is preferably preconditioned

with a wax composition in order to improve its cast consolidation capabilities. A preferred

embodiment is given as, a portion of the uncoated magnalium fuel particles treated with

Comp-D-2 Wax. Another example of a fuel particle is carbon powder, especially carbon

powder containing at least 4 weight percent volatile materials. An example of carbon powder

may include, not necessarily by limitation, bituminous coal and/or petroleum coke.

The selected nitramine should preferably have one or more of the following properties:

1) a high heat of combustion, 2) a high detonation pressure, and 3) a high detonation velocity.

In the article some representative nitramines, useful in the thermobaric explosive composition

of the invention are suggested as, for example, 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane

(RDX), 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7,-tetraazacyclooctane (HMX), and 2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-

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2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazatetracyclo-[5.5.0.05’903’11]dodecane (CL-20 or HNIW). Of these,

RDX and HMX are especially more preferred in use alone or in combination [12].

A thermobaric explosive composition provided by Baker includes coated fuel particles,

a nitramine and a binder [47]. The coated fuel particles preferably have a magnesium core and

an aluminum coating. Upon detonation, the nitramine disperses the coated fuel particles over

a blast area during a first overpressure stage. The aluminum coating of the fuel particles has a

suitable thickness so selected to provide necessary amount of aluminum, namely it should be

stoichiometrically less than an amount of ambient-air oxygen available in the blast area for

aerobic combustion with the aluminum during the first overpressure stage. Once exposed, the

magnesium cores may combust to increase the impulse generated in the first overpressure

stage. The article also provided some of manufacture techniques and related methods [47].

Smith described certain compositions that contain aluminum together with the high

explosive HMX or RDX [48]. The compositions were manufactured safely by means of a

water-slurry process, despite the fact that aluminum used reacts with water. The binder

system that was investigated is HyTemperature together with dioctyladipate (DOA) as the

plasticizer. This binder system was chosen because of the well-known good property of it for

usage in preparation of insensitive munitions (IM). The process yields granules suitable for

pressing and are characterized by composition, analysis, shape and bulk density. Also the

pressability of the compositions was investigated as a function of the particle size

distributions of the nitramine, the content of aluminum and the amount of binder. By using

sensitivity-reduced crystals of HMX or RDX, the compositions showed a significant decrease

in the shock sensitivity even though they were pressable compositions. This observation was

in agreement with what had been observed also for other pressable compositions that were

reported earlier. The water slurry process have also been used to obtain an analogous

composition designated and named as PBXIH-18 that contains the same binder system [48].

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 Chan and Gary described a solid fuel-air thermobaric explosive with improved

combustion efficiency exerting a relatively high blast pressure in an oxygen-poor

environment, such as a tunnel or other confined space [11]. The explosive considered consists

of: 1) a first grain, comprised of a high explosive, and 2) a second grain, of a metal fuel, in

which the second grain surrounds the first grain, at a 0.66-1.45 wt. ratio of second grain to the

first grain. The composition can also contain 4.0-6.0 wt.% of a binder, and 14.0-36.0 wt.%

ammonium perchlorate. The first grain typically contains 87-90 wt.% HMX, with energetic

binders selected from hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene, hydroxy-terminated

polycaprolactone, hydroxy-terminated polyethers, polyglycidyl azide, lauryl methacrylate,

and trifluoroethyl-terminated poly(1-cyano-1-difluoroamino)-polyethylene glycol. On the

other hand, suitable metal fuels include nanoparticle aluminum, magnesium, boron, titanium,

Al-Mg, hydrided Al-Mg, Al-B, B-Mg and Ti-B alloys.

Several different metal fueled thermobaric explosive charges were prepared and tested

by Hahma and coworkers [30]. Four different metals, namely magnesium, magnesium-

aluminum alloy, aluminum, and activated aluminum were selected as the metallic fuel.

Additionally, different solid and liquid organic fuels were used as the initiating fuel. The

dispersing charge was similar in all the experiments that contained plastic PETN, (20 % of

the main fuel weight). In the experimentation the air blast pressure was recorded at four

different distances. Then, the data were analyzed and TNT equivalences were determined.

The charges, that ignited the metal fuel were considerably more powerful than TNT while

those showing weaker blasts often did not ignite the metal fuel at all.

To select the most efficient enhanced blast formulations of the system containing

Hexogen/Aluminum/HTPB, Gerber et al., in a first step, calculated the heat of combustion,

the heat of detonation, and the difference of both the heat of afterburning [49]. The quotient

of the heat of afterburning and heat of detonation and a minimum of the heat of detonation

was useful factors to limit the possible formulations. A series of experiments were done in a

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combustion chamber and the results of pressure and temperature measurements were

presented [49]. The inert binder HTPB was compared with the energetic binder GAP. Also

the results of the enhanced blast formulations were compared with TNT and the composition

called PBXN-109 [49].

Various methods to prepare insensitive enhanced-blast explosive molding powders were

given by Newman et al.,[50]. The experimental protocol consists of ; 1) suspending energetic

solids and powder metals in a bulk fluid phase (e.g., a perfluorocarbon), 2) adding a

polymeric lacquer to the suspension to produce a supersaturated solution of energetic solids

and suspended metal powders, 3) final granulation to form a fluidized metalized energetic

molding powder, and 4) distillation removal of the organic solvent portion of the lacquer to

recover a wet metalized molding powder. The polymeric lacquer mentioned can be one

containing an elastomeric thermoplastic. The bulk phase fluid is recovered through

distillation. The wet molding powder is then dried to a powder containing a lacquer-polymer

having weight ratio of 14-18:1. The patented work of Newman et al., considers explosive

components including nitramines, oxidizers, nitrate esters, metals, and combustible powders,

such as ammonium perchlorate, trimethylolethane trinitrate, composite double-base

propellants, flaked aluminum powder, and bituminous coal powder [50].

The theory and performance for recently developed combined-effects aluminized

explosives were reviewed by Baker et al., [51]. Traditional high-energy explosives used for

metal pushing, incorporate high loading percent-ages of HMX or RDX. The traditional blast

explosives commonly used incorporate some percentage of aluminum. Although these high-

blast explosives produce increased blast energies in explosion, they are normally

characterized with reduced metal pushing capability, due to the relatively late-time aluminum

reaction. On the other hand, the combined effects aluminized explosives achieve both the

excellent metal-pushing effect and high blast energies. The enhanced metal-pushing capability

is because of the earlier exothermic conversion of aluminum to aluminum oxide as compared

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to the conventional blast explosives. Note that the traditional Chapman-Jouguet detonation

theory with completely reacted aluminum does not explain the observed detonation states

achieved by these combined-effects explosives [51]. It is demonstrated that eigenvalue

detonation theory explains the observed behavior. Both the high metal-pushing capability and

high blast are achieved by using these new explosives.

In order to quantify the contribution of aerobic and anaerobic aluminum reaction

contributing to blast and overpressure, aluminized RDX-based explosives were detonated

under controlled conditions while varying the particle size and atmosphere [52]. Early-time

reaction of aluminum acts to enhance the primary explosive blast, and this reaction is

approximately half aerobic and half anaerobic (i.e. compositions by detonation products

and/or nitridation), suggesting that very rapid early-time mixing occurs in explosive fireballs.

It was found that particle size effects were surprisingly negligible over the range of 3-40 μm.

The observation implies that conventional scaling laws for aluminum combustion provide less

insight than previously assumed. The data of quasi-static pressures obtained in the time period

from 5-10 microns after detonation have revealed that oxidation of aluminum is complete in

the presence of 20 % O2. However, in N2 environments, oxidation of aluminum only

proceeds to half its theoretical maximum, except for the smallest particles (3 μm ) for which

oxidation was almost complete. Thus, oxidation of aluminum in aluminized explosives is

robust in anaerobic environments. Therefore the simulation efforts cannot over neglect the

anaerobic channels, even though aerobic oxidation provides the greatest energy release.

In the article by Nicholich et al., high-performance aluminized explosive compositions

for high performance, high blast, low sensitivity explosive applications have been presented

[53]. The compositions include Cl-20, HMX, RDX, or another material as the explosive

ingredient, a binder system of cellulose acetate butyrate and bis-dinitropropyl acetyl and bis-

dinitropropyl formal, and aluminum. The explosive is preferably pressable and or/mixable to

permit formation of grains suitable for ordnance and similar applications including grenades,

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landmines, warheads, demolition, etc. It was found that the aluminum fully participated in the

detonation of above said explosive compositions, manifesting its energy into fully useable

metal-pushing energy which is suitable for shaped charges, explosively formed penetrators,

enhanced blast warheads, fragmentation warheads, multipurpose warheads, and so on. The

aluminum is substantially reacted at two volume expansions of the expanding gas, and fully

reacted prior to seven volume expansions of the expanding gas [53].

During the last couple of years, great efforts have been focused on the development of

new kinds of weapons which are able to generate high blast and temperature effects, namely

above mentioned thermobaric weapons. Also, a lot of research studies have intensely focused

on the comprehension of thermobaric effects, in order to enhance or prevent it. The blast

effect is mainly due to the ability of the detonation products to react with the oxygen of air.

This phenomenon called afterburning and substantially contributes to generate high pressure

impulses, especially in confined spaces. This is the reason why metallic particles, mainly

aluminum particles, are commonly used in thermobaric explosive compositions (TBX). In the

light of the recent studies, in France (SME Center de Recherche du Bouchet) a novel

enhanced-blast plastic-bonded explosive (EB-PBX) has been developed in order to generate

enhanced blast effects [54]. This new composition has been called B2514A. The

developmental stages of such a composition have been performed through different phases,

within the domain of small scale trials to large scale ones. A specific methodology was used

to examine and classify a large number of candidates. The most promising composition

experimentally has been tested at large scale to characterize its ability to generate blast

effects in comparison with PBX known for their blast effects [54].

The reaction of metal particles with the decomposition products of energetic materials

like water, carbon oxides and nitrous gases plays an important role in many pyrotechnics.

Often air is entered into the fumes can also burn the metal particles or other reaction products

in rival. This may lead to additional heat release, radiation or other desired effects in

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applications like ducted rockets, aluminized rocket propellants, blast-enhanced explosives

(SIBEX), incendiaries or countermeasure flares, etc. In order to investigate such reactions,

Weiser et al., considered a composite RDX, including 5% paraffin mixed with particles of

various reactive metals: aluminum (Alcan, Alex), magnesium, boron, coarse and fine silicon,

titanium, and zirconium [31]. In the experiments, RDX with paraffin was investigated as the

reference material. The pressed mixtures (as strands) were burned in a window bomb under

air atmosphere and under pure nitrogen at 0.3 MPa. The combustion was investigated using a

high-speed color camera, equipped with a macro lens and fast scanning emission

spectrometers operating in the range of 300 nm-14 μm. The data were collected and analyzed

to characterize different reaction zones, to identify the intermediate metal oxides and final

reaction products and combustion temperatures of condensed particles and gaseous species

(like water, and di-at. fuel oxides) formed during the transient combustion process as function

of time and position [31]. In the study, the different temperatures of reacting surfaces,

particles and reaction gas(es) were considered as main parameters to characterize the reaction

of fuel particles with RDX and additional air. The results have been discussed in comparison

to qualitative reaction kinetic and to thermodynamic equilibrium calculations with EKVI and

ICT-Thermodynamic Codes. The study showed a kind of ranking according to different

applications and the effect of air. In some cases the additional air resulted in a temperature

increase of several hundred kelvin. However, this effect is not only affected by the chemistry

of the filler but also by other factors, like the particle size ( those are also discussed in the

paper) [31].

Sheridan et al., studied and patented a thermobaric munition including a composite

explosive material, the composite explosive material having a high explosive composition and

a detonable energetic material dispersed within the high-explosive composition [55]. The

detonable energetic materials investigated were in the form of a thin film, the thin film having

at least one layer composed at least in part by a reducing metal and at least one layer

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composed at least in part by a metal oxide. The work included tailoring the blast

characteristics of high explosive composition to match a predetermined. time-pressure

impulse.

Anderson et al., considered the detonation properties of combined-effects explosives

[56]. In the development of new explosives, it is quite often necessary to balance a number of

factors contributing to performance while certain formulation constraints exist. In that sense,

statistical design of experiments (DOE) is a valuable tool for rapid formulation optimization

and minimization of hazardous and costly testings. During the development of metal-loaded

explosives, designed for the enhanced blast, it was discovered that upon proper formulation,

aluminum additives gave full reaction accompanied by volume expansions, which resulted in

extremely high Gurney energies equivalent to explosives LX-14 and PBXN-5 but with lower

loading of nitramines. The early aluminum oxidation can be described by eigenvalue type

detonations, where the fully reacted Hugoniot of the condensed phase aluminum oxide and

explosive products lies below the unreacted aluminum Hugoniot. Such an analysis describes

fully the agreement of aluminum consumption and volume expansions from 1-in. copper

cylinder expansion tests and an analytic cylinder model, as well as detonation calorimetry

with the early reaction of aluminum that also causes a shift in the gaseous reaction products to

higher enthalpy species, such as CO and H2, thus leading to further improvement in the

direction of augmentation of blast. Hence, both the mechanical energy (for fragmentation or

"metal-pushing") and blast (for structural targets) are available in a single explosive fill. Note

that this provides capability for combined metal-pushing and blast in a single explosive that

was not previously possible [56].

Multi-walled active explosive charges (especially the hollow charges that contain hollow

chambers within the explosives) contain metal carbonyls, either as pure substances or

granules, that are mixed with the inorganic fuels and are integrated within the closed container

of the explosive charge. Zimmermann patented some suitable metal carbonyls, which are

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considered as non-directional blast enhancers. They consist of Cr(CO)6, W(CO)6, Mo(CO)6,

Fe(CO)5, Fe2(CO)9, and Fe3(CO)12 [34]. It was claimed that the charges having those

carbonyls can be used for guided or unguided munitions or for gun ammunition.

It has to be mentioned that the search for novel and adaptive energetic materials requires

innovative combinations between the particle technology and nanotechnology [57].

Nowadays nanomaterials are the focus of increased interest, since they possess some

properties which highly differ from their macroscopic counterparts. Many applications

recently take the advantage of possession of the new functionalities and manufactured

nanoparticles [57]. In the recent years more attention has been paid not only to amelioration

of the microstructure of the energetic materials but also to the search of possible

modifications of materials that can be achieved by the application of proper coatings [58,59].

Parallel to these developments, the research on energetic nanomaterials is getting more and

more attention. Beside the synthesis of energetic nanomaterials, another area of interest is the

coating of energetic (nano)powders, in order to be able to modify their properties or to add

new functionalities to these particles. Modified energetic materials find various applications

in explosives, such as rocket and gun propellants, and pyrotechnic devices, etc. The modified

energetic materials are expected to yield enhanced properties, e.g., enhanced blast, a lower

vulnerability towards shock initiation, enhanced shelf-life and environmentally friendly

replacements of the currently used materials. An experimental setup for coating of the

existing powders was designed and constructed [57]. The experimental technique is based on

a special plasma application which, contrary to more general plasmas, can be operated at

relatively low temperatures. and ambient pressure. This allows the handling of heat-sensitive

materials, otherwise they would readily decompose or react at higher temperatures. The

facility used for the coating of energetic powders in the lower micron range is based on a

fluidized bed reactor in which the powder circulates. In this paper, an experimental technique

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was described in which CuO powders that were coated with a very thin, nanoscale deposit of

a SiO-contaning layer were tested first [57].

As mentioned above, this paper describes an experimental set-up in which a plasma

reactor has been combined with a fluidized bed [57]. Although this combination is known in

the literature, it uses a relatively cold plasma which allows the processing of several tens up

to one hundred grams of heat-sensitive materials, primarily energetic materials. The

applications can obviously be extended to other heat-sensitive materials, like pharmaceuticals.

The expected advantage of the plasma coating technique in combination with the fluidized

bed is the formation of a thin and homogeneous coating layer around particles. It is expected

that the coated materials will show different properties compared to conventional particles or

physical mixtures of different particles. First trials with the coating of CuO particles with a

polydimethyl siloxane containing layer, indeed confirm a change from hydrophilic to

hydrophobic properties of the powder as a result of the plasma treatment. Scanning He-ion

microscopy (SHIM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were applied to characterize

the samples. Especially SHIM showed the presence of very small, droplet-like deposits on the

CuO particles, with nanoscale dimensions (10–20 nm). The CuO samples treated during a

longer time, show indications of a thicker deposited layer. X-ray microanalysis has confirmed

the presence of Si atoms on the surface of the treated CuO samples. As a next step, their

intention was further extend the work to include other materials, e.g. aluminum particles and

energetic materials like explosives (RDX, HMX) or oxidizers (AP), metal/metal oxides

combinations (thermites). The coated particles would be characterized regarding the coating

efficiency, coating layer thickness, compatibility, reactivity, thermal properties, etc. The final

goal would be to apply the coated materials in either explosive, propellant or pyrotechnic

compositions in order to assess their properties (performance, munition effects, enhanced

blast, etc.) compared to conventional formulations.

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 The development of new energetic materials with enhanced-blast properties requires

better understanding of the factors such as particle type, size and particle/matrix distribution.

The article by Abadjieva et al., concentrates on coating of particles which opens new horizons

and possibilities in energetic materials engineering [60]. Functionalities as ingredient

compatibility, increased burning rates, and accelerated or delayed ignition become possible

upon applying suitable coatings. The development and production of a new class of shock-

insensitive, blast-enhanced explosives based on modified/functionalized (energetic) materials

require new technologies. The authors described a research program briefly. The program

included e.g. the development of coated materials like aluminum powder. Using plasma-

enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technology, test powder was coated with SiOx

containing layers (with HMDSO as a precursor) and fluorinated layers (with C2F6 as a

precursor). The results were presented and discussed in the article [60].

Lips et al., in their paper presented the development of an enhanced SIBEX (shock-

insensitive blast-enhanced explosives) explosive formulation with optimized properties to suit

a man portable weapon system with anti-structure capability [61]. The development

mentioned includes the down selection of four chemically and physically different SIBEX

types. Also they presented analysis assessment together with open-field testings.

Enhanced-blast charges gain more and more attention especially in connection with hard

target defeat applications. The IHE needs both a good blast performance and also a veritable

resistivity against high shocks during the perforation of a target. The new and appropriate

acronym "SIBEX" (Shock-Insensitive Blast-Enhanced Explosive) has been created for these

kinds of high explosives. In the course of a research program to design compositions with

enhanced blast output, a variety of charges have been fired in a detonation chamber [32]. The

quasi-static pressure build-up was measured as the only criterion for performance and the

primary shock wave has been disregarded. All the charges were loaded with a high portion of

micron-sized metal particles (usually aluminum and/or boron). The pressure did not always

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build up until it reached the equilibrium pressure, thus indicating that not all of the metal

powder burned within the relevant time frame. By comparing simple composite charges

(RDX/Metal/Binder) with shock-dispersed fuel (SDF) charges (comprised of a center core

made of a brisant explosive and a fuel-rich wrapping) it turned out that with SDF charges the

pressure buildup was considerably faster. Some of the highly metalized charges reached a

TNT equivalence lying between 1.5 and 1.7, on a performance scale relative to TNT and a

quasi-static pressure developed far beyond that of the known explosives currently in service.

In those tests, it could be shown that the supply of oxygen, i.e. the mixing of fuel with air, is

the limiting factor in fast pressure build-up. For improvements of the performance further, not

only the burning has to be enhanced particularly, but any means of accelerating the mixing are

required as well.

The compositions of different energetic metallic particles and corresponding coatings are

chosen in order to take advantage of the resulting exothermic reactions of alloying when the

metals are combined or alloyed through heat activation. Bimetallic particles composed of a

core/shell type structure of having different metals are to be properly chosen so that, upon

achieving the melting point (for at least one of the metals) a relatively great deal amount of

exothermic heat of alloying is liberated. In a typical embodiment, the core metal is aluminum

and the shell metal is nickel. Throughout the coating process the nickel may be deposited on

to the outer surface of the aluminum particles by using an electrolysis process of a suitable

metal salt solution with a reducing agent in an aqueous solution or a solvent media. The

aluminum particles may be pretreated with zinc to remove any aluminum oxide present on the

surface. The resulting bimetallic particles may be utilized as an enhanced blast additive by

being dispersed within an explosive material [33]. The core metal can be one of aluminum,

magnesium, boron, silicon, hafnium, or carbon. The outer shell metal is from nickel,

zirconium, boron, titanium, sulfur, selenium, or vanadium. In the first stage of the procedure,

11 ml of zincate solution is mixed (a zinc gluconate solution having an approximately pH of

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13 ) with 100 ml of deionized water. In the next step, the solution is stirred rapidly (with a

magnetic PTFE stirbar) and the solution is brought to 65 °C. Then 0.25 g of aluminum

powder composite is added (specifically, the grade H-60 aluminum powder). Then, the

solution is stirred for 45 s, and vacuum filtered through a 1.2 μm PTFE membrane. Finally,

the collected zinc coated aluminum particles are rinsed with deionized water. In the second

stage, those pretreated aluminum particles are nickel plated. For this step, 30 ml. of nickel

sulfate is mixed with 90 ml. of solution B (sodium hypophosphite), stirred with a PTFE

coated stirbar and then heated to approximately 90-95 °C. Next, 0.29 g of the zinc treated

aluminum powder is added and this temperature is maintained and the mixture is stirred until

the appropriate amount of nickel is deposited. Then the solution is vacuum filtered through a

1.2 μm PTFE membrane. Finally, the collected aluminum core/nickel shell particles are rinsed

with water, and then allowed to dry. The explosive material may be any type of explosive

material that can mix with the bimetallic particles of the present invention as an enhanced-

blast additive, e.g., octogen (HMX), hexahydrotrinitrotriazine (RDX), pentaerythritol

tetranitrate (PETN), picrate salts and esters, dinitrobenzofuroxen and its salts,

hexanitrohexaazoisowurtzitane (C-20), trinitrotoluene (TNT), glycidyl azide polymer (GAP),

diazodinitrophenol (DDNP), lead azide and other azide salts, lead styphnate and other

styphnate salts, triaminoguanidine nitrate, tetranitrodibenzole trazapentalente,

diaminohexanitrophenyl, triaminotrinitrotoluene (TATB), or plastic bonded explosives (PBX)

[33].

A processing technique was demonstrated by Visilikiv et al., which was based on the

synthesis of ceramic nanopowders and simultaneous impregnation with metallic nanoparticles

by multiple 'nano-blasts' of embedded cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) in preliminary

engineered multi-component nano-reactors [62]. The “nano-blasts” of impregnated RDX

deagglomerate the nanopowder due to the high energetic impacts of the blast waves, while the

decomposition of compounds. Their solid-solubility is enhanced by the extremely high local

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temperature generated during the nano-explosions. The investigators applied this technique to

produce nanosized agglomerate-free 8 mol. % yttria-doped cubic zirconia aggregates with an

average size of 53 nm impregnated with 10 mass% of platinum particles of 2-14 nm.

The same authors also published a similar article to demonstrate a unique processing

technique which was based on engineering of the multi-component ceramic nanopowders and

composites with precise morphology by nano-explosive deagglomeration/calcinations [63].

As mentioned above, multiple nanoexplosions of impregnated cyclotrimethylene trinitramine

(RDX) deagglomerate the nanopowder (due to the highly energetic impacts of the blast

waves) while the solid-solubility of one component into the other is enhanced by the

extremely high local temperature generated during the nano-explosions. They applied this

technique to produce nanosize agglomerate-free ceriagadolinia solid solution powder with

uniform morphology and an average aggregate size of 32 nm, and as said before 8 mol. %

yttria-doped zirconia aggregates with an average size of 53 nm impregnated with platinum (2-

14 nm).

Lin et al., investigated the explosion characteristics of nano-aluminum powders with

particle sizes of 35, 75, and 100 nm in a 20-liters spherical explosion chamber [64]. The

results have indicated that the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of pressure

rise mainly depend on the dust concentration. For dust concentrations below 1000 g/m3, the

maximum explosion pressure increases gradually to a maximum value with increasing the

dust concentration. Whereas, after the dust concentration increases above 1250 g/m3, the

maximum explosion pressure starts to decrease. The trends of the maximum rate of pressure

rise follow the same pattern with increasing dust concentration. They found the lower

explosion concentration limits of nano-aluminum powders with sizes of 35, 75, and 100 nm as

to be 5, 10, and 10 g/m3, respectively, whereas the lower explosion concentration limit of

ordinary aluminum powders is about 50 g/m3.

The investigation has revealed that;

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• For the nano-aluminum powders, the maximum explosion pressure was higher

approximately by 0.2 MPa than that of ordinary aluminum powders at the same dust

concentrations. Meanwhile, the maximum explosion rate of pressure rise for the nano-

aluminum powders was found to be higher than that of ordinary aluminum powders by a

factor of 2 to 6.5.

• The lower explosion concentration limits of the nano-aluminum powders with particle sizes

of 35, 75, and 100 nm were found to be 5, 10, and 10 g/m3, respectively. These values were

far lower than those of the ordinary aluminum powders (50 g/m3).

The review article on cast aluminized explosives by Vadhe et al., considers the

thermobaric PBX compositions [65]. Thermobaric (TB) compositions are most suitable to

modern warfare threats. Indian researchers (the Naval Surface Warfare Center Indian Head

Division (NSWC IHD) and the Talley Defense Systems (TDS)) developed some solid

thermobaric compositions containing a moderate-to high aluminum content for lightweight

shoulder-launched penetrating or anti-cave warhead for the M72 LAW system [66]. Various

compositions developed by them with PBXIH-135 as the baseline composition are

summarized below (Table 1). The composition, PBXIH-135 (HMX/Al/Poly urethane) present

in Table 1 is one of the best examples categorized under thermobaric warhead systems. Thus,

these insensitive munitions can be used effectively against bunkers, hard surfaces tunnels and

caves. It is worth mentioning that supersonic missiles and bombfill of the “General Purpose”

category (500 and 2000 pound) demand insensitive munitions.

Hall and Knowlton [67] reported some thermobaric compositions based on wax, HTPB,

or GAP as a binder. The challenge of their study was to determine comparative thermobaric

characteristics for some chosen compositions in confined tests. They observed the highest

impulse and average peak pressure for GAP based compositions. Ti/HTPB based

compositions have been found to be superior to the corresponding aluminum-based

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compositions in terms of the average peak pressure and impulse. The above mentioned

researchers also studied compositions containing GAP in combination with propriety

energetic plasticizers and achieved the average impulse up to 975 kPa.msec. Hall and

Knowlton [67] also reported gelled thermobaric compositions incorporating 60–70 %

Mg/Al/Ti/Zr as a fuel with 20–30 % energetic liquid nitromethane (NM) and isopropyl nitrate

(IPN). The NM-based compositions exhibited a higher impulse, as compared to IPN-based

compositions. Also AN/AP/HMX composites were incorporated as oxidizer/energetic

components. The researchers found some compatibility for all the combinations. The best

results were obtained with the 30/30/40 NM/Al/HMX combination in terms of the average

peak pressure (0.5 MPa) and average impulse (802 kPa.msec) [67].

The thermobaric weapons are employed to produce pressure and heat effects instead of

armor penetrating or fragmentation damage effects [5]. These weapons as mentioned before

are particularly effective in enclosed spaces such as tunnels, buildings, and field fortifications

[68,1]. The reactivity of them requires aluminum ( or other reactive metals) to be employed in

explosive ordnance in the form of fine powder (added to explosives) to enhance their blast

effect [69,65]. Generally, the main affection of the large aluminum mass fraction improves

spatial mixing of components in explosives with oxidizing gases in the detonation products,

thus resulting in the release of more efficient afterburning energy. Although, the effect of

aluminum in thermobaric explosives has been well identified, the high ignition temperature

of aluminum is a key step in its application in TBXs. It is known that the reaction of

aluminum and oxygen is affected by various factors such as the dispersion of aluminum

particles, the scale of the aluminum particles or the coated/uncoated particles. Investigations

have focused to improve the whole impact of TBXs. Hence, the search for additional

materials which can release high enthalpy like aluminum [11] is a promising strategy to

improve the energy of TBXs. Mechanistically, the reaction of a thermobaric explosive is

divided into three stages and the parameter σ is introduced to explain the differences of the

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three stages. Because the combustion and detonation of TBXs do not only rely on chemistry,

but also are affected by a lot of other parameters such as the charge mass, charge geometry,

etc, there are various thermobaric models introduced in to the literature to simulate the

propagation of the detonation products with the surrounding environment. Xing et al., in their

paper emphasize the basic theory of the reaction mechanism of TBXs. Concentrating on the

relative details on the explosion of TBXs with aluminum the parameter, σ , for TBXs was

defined as [5]

σ =ΔV/ V- βΔH/Cp

where Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure, ΔH is the heat changing term when the

reaction proceeds, β is the thermal expansion coefficient and V is the volume of the system.

According to the theory on flow in a reactive medium [70], parameter σ reflects the rate of

transformation of chemical bond energy to molecular and bulk translation energy. Note that

the parameter σ is introduced to estimate the detonation occurrence. By this method, the first

stage is a detonation process in contrast to the last stage. This is in coincidence to the

experimental phenomenon that the third stage of the process is afterburning. Actually, the

mixture is heated up by the detonation process and the afterburning process becomes intense

when the detonation processes finish. However, one should keep in mind that the confined

environment is as important as the ignition temperature factor in the explosion of TBXs.

Some novel “high-blast”, or thermobaric, explosives were tested by Schaefer and

Nicolich as potential replacements for the more conventional iso-Propyl nitrate-magnesium

mixtures [4]. However, high-blast explosives produce a moderate, long-lasting pressure wave

that, travels down corridors, around corners and through doorways. Hence, these explosives

resemble fuel-air explosives more than the ideal high explosives. High-blast, or thermobaric,

explosives initially disseminates the under-oxidized detonation products and the unreacted

fuel into the ambient air. Then the mixture of fuel and ambient oxygen self ignites to create an

explosion with a long pressure wave. In the work of Schaefer and Nicolich, various

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formulations were examined at several binder systems, with different high explosives, and

metal-fuel types, in different sizes, and shapes, in which the reaction was kept slow enough to

disperse the fuel but not so slow as to dissipate and extinguish itself [4]. The cast-cured

explosives of high explosives and metal-fuels in a binder, were capable of meeting the project

goals. The cured binder system disperses well and creates desirable detonation products that

easily undergo combustion. It has been found that the Mg-Al alloy represents a good low-

temperature initiator and is necessary for a good performance. The intimate contact between

these two metals in the alloy should be a likely reason that these formulations work better

than those containing boron or titanium. It was observed that flake form of aluminum yields

better outcome than spherical aluminum. The authors reported that in their work metals like

boron, titanium, and thermites did not help performance; similarly, neither CL-20 or TNAZ

worked as well as HMX or RDX [4].

8. Tests and methods

In the development and engineering of weapons and energetic materials various tests are

to be performed. Su et al., provided a method for quantitative evaluation of energy release of

thermobaric explosives based on implosion test [71]. The method determines the temperature

and pressure to get the quality of explosives, the amount of oxygen needed for explosives to

meet the requirements, the quasi-static pressure inside the tank to get quasi-static pressure

peaks of thermobaric explosives, and finally to get the thermobaric explosive effect of

temperature and pressure tests.

In their article, Li et al., have described a similar invention that is helpful in the field of

explosives, and provides a testing method again based on implosion tests for quantitative

evaluation of thermobaric effect of thermobaric explosives [72]. Using pressure sensors,

thermocouples and baseline TNT, the test method enables one to evaluate the temperature and

pressure of explosion in the tank, the explosion overpressure curve, thermocouple temperature

response curve, quasi-static pressure curve (inside the tank). Then by the test data processing,

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they have obtained the peak overpressure, response thermocouple temperature peak, impulse,

quasi-static pressure peaks, calculated temperature, pressure characteristic parameters of TNT

to explosives ratio, the temperature and pressure effects of temperature and pressure

evaluation of explosives. The described present invention uses an explosive canister as an

evaluation test vehicle and TNT with the same quality as the base. Then, it evaluates

quantitatively the thermobaric effect, and provides technical basis for development of a

thermobaric warhead and evaluating explosive power.

Zhong et al., described a multi-wavelength temperature-measuring system based on the

atomic emission spectroscopy to measure the transient high temperature during the explosion

process of thermo-baric explosives [73]. The time resolution of the measurement system

could achieve in μs scale. In the experiments, by measuring the explosion temperature of

thermobaric explosives, they managed to obtained the curves of temperature vs. time relation.

There exist two temperature peaks corresponding to the oxygen-free reaction and oxygen

dependent reaction phases of the thermobaric explosive explosion process, respectively. The

results showed that the relative error of the measured temperature is less than 2.6 %,

supporting a good repeatability. As compared with the double line of atomic emission

spectroscopy, the multi-wavelength temperature-measuring system described in the study can

minimize the errors resulting from the selection of spectral lines.

Through the years passed, aside from chemical weapons, also warheads have been

designed to generate either fragments or blast shock waves as their primary damage

mechanism. Thermobaric explosives (TBXs) have been predominantly used in a blast role

(rather than for their fragmentation characteristics), due to their enhanced blast effect, which

is a direct result of the secondary combustion of additives [74]. The shock wave generated by

the detonation of TBXs is of a lower amplitude, but has a longer period, than that of

conventional secondary explosives.

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 The work by Jaansulu and coworkers reports on an investigation in which using a flash

x-ray imaging technique, the ability of TBXs to shatter metal casings and to propel the

resulting fragments have been reported [74]. During the investigation, three casing materials

were used. Those were AISI 1026 steel, gray cast iron and ductile iron while two different

TBX compositions were employed with C4 serving as a benchmark. The fracture behavior of

the casings, as a function of explosive fill and material characteristics, was mostly as

expected. They used C4 (RDX/plasticizer (91/9)), TBX-1 (monopropellant/magnesium) and

TBX-3 (monopropellant/aluminum/RDX). One TBX formulation exhibited a run distance to

detonation. The well known Gurney equation was employed to get a correlation and compare

the final fragment velocities. It was found that in the case of two of these TBX compositions,

as compared to similar amount of C4, a larger fraction of the available energy of explosive

was converted to mechanical energy to propel the fragments. This fraction of energy was

influenced by the confinement of the detonation products as well as the ignition delay of the

metal powders. These two factors had a greater influence on the fragment velocities than did

material characteristics. They also investigated and discussed the fragmentation

characteristics, influence of explosive material, fragmentation velocity, influence of casing

thickness etc. [74].

Within the testing experiments, the X-ray images captured the fracture behavior of the

casings as a function of fill and material characteristics. The casings fragmented as expected.

The X-ray images also provided information on the run-up distance of the explosive fills used.

The run distance for the TBX-3 formulation, containing liquid monopropellant, aluminum

powder, and RDX, is about 20 mm. The run distance for the TBX-1 formulation

(monopropellant/magnesium) is less than 20 mm, such that no indications of asymmetric

expansion are observed. Note that the Gurney equation assumes that the fraction of energy

propelling the fragments of any charge is roughly the same. The results obtained in this work

have found to be consistent with the conclusion that a larger fraction of energy is available in

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TBX(liquid propellant/metal) formulations. Furthermore, this fraction of energy is dependent

upon the confinement of the detonation products as well as the ignition delay of the metal

powders used. It has been firmly concluded that those two factors have a substantial influence

on the fragment velocities of the casing than do material characteristics of it [74].

In the investigation by Fair, a technique called “Twin Screw Extruder” (TSE) was used

[75]. The failures in manufacturing of advanced explosives containing large amounts of metal

powders to improve performance, such as PAX-3, has proven how difficult the production

stage is. According to the article, the old manufacturing processes had low yield which

resulted in a high cost per unit and questionable product uniformity. A group of researchers

(TSE team) was mentioned who were investigating the use of a TSE machine to mix and

extrude an aluminum base explosive, (PAX-3). The TSE team had successfully demonstrated

this concept on a new formulation (coded 02-02-06). This material had been processed using a

smaller concentration of green solvents in comparison to the conventional batch processing

and additionally, the product was more uniform. The TSE method mentioned above uses a

base material consisting of coated HMX (PAX-2 or PAX-2A), made by conventional means,

and reprocessing it into its aluminized corollary. The article claims that this manufacturing

process is extremely flexible allowing for the reformulation of a base material into a number

of different explosives with designed and tailored characteristics. It was also claimed that this

new technology cut the cost of manufacturing. The loss of organic solvents to the

environment and waste treatment requirements would also be greatly reduced. It is anticipated

that the concentration of the organic solvents to be employed will be reduced by as much as

50% as compared to traditional batch processes [75].

Hahma et al., tested certain thermobaric explosives and described their TNT-equivalents

[76]. Thermobaric charges with four different liquid fuels and several powder fuels were

prepared and fired and their TNT equivalences in the open field were determined. The test

results have showed that the shock wave component of thermobaric explosion mostly

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originated from an anaerobic processes. The fuel component was deemed critical for the

generation of a thermobaric explosion. Throughout the tests, only IPN (iso-Propyl nitrate)

demonstrated some advantageous properties and a reliable ignition of the fuel and metal

powder components in all proportions tested. IPN was also found to be the only fuel able to

create effective, aerobic explosions even with excessive amounts of metal powder producing

enormous overpressure pulses. The powder fuel seemed to be critical for the ignition delay in

the aerobic stage. The activated aluminum showed the most promising properties followed by

Elektron (92:7:1 Mg-Al-Zn alloy), phosphorus and boron. Note that metal combustion rate is

a critical parameter in generating high pressure levels in the aerobic stage.

According to Pahl and Kaneshige the temperature of the particles in thermobaric

explosives, is a parameter of importance in determining when and to what extent aluminum

particles participate in the expanding detonation products cloud [77]. In this paper, an

experimental technique using 2-color pyrometry was used to measure the temperature and its

spatial variation. The details of the diagnostic technique was presented along with the light

intensity and estimated temperature data obtained from tests of certain aluminized-explosives

[77].

The article by Trzcinski and Maiz reviews the available literature on thermobaric

explosives and enhanced-blast explosives (high-destructive explosives) [8]. These types of

explosives are defined, their common features and differences are shown. The review

discussed the data excerpted from the literature based on various test ( including small scale

tests, larger scale tests, blast ability tests, underground tests, closed chamber tests, sensitivity

tests, cylinder tests, particle size tests etc).

Klahan et al., investigated spectroscopically the afterburn reactions during explosions of

enhanced blast explosives in a detonation chamber and in free field experiments [78]. Via

concatenation of the spectra of three different spectrometers, a wide spectral range is

accessible for investigation. Hence, it fits to the thermal continuum as well as to the water

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emission bands of the spectra to estimate the combustion temperature and water vapor content

which could be improved. Then, different charges can be characterized by the obtained

combustion temperature and the reaction course.

Years long experience has indicated that metal-based reactive composites have great

potential as energetic materials due to their high energy densities and potential uses as

enhanced-blast materials. However these materials can be difficult to ignite with typical

particle size ranges. Although, mechanical activation of reactive powders increases their

ignition sensitivity, yet it is not entirely understood how the role of refinement of

microstructure due to the duration of mechanical activation influences the impact ignition and

combustion behavior of these materials. Mason et al., studied impact ignition and combustion

behavior of mechanically-compacted activated Ni/Al reactive powder in one of their work

on microstructure refinement by using a modified assay shear impact experiment [79]. They

obtained some properties such as the impact ignition threshold, combustion velocity and

ignition delay time, as a function of milling period. It was found that the mechanical impact

ignition threshold decreases from an impact energy of greater than 500 J to an impact energy

of ca. 50 J as the dry milling time increases. It was observed that during the mechanical

activation process the largest jump in the sensitivity was between the dry milling period of 25

% of the critical reaction milling time (tcr) (4.25 min) and 50 % tcr (8.5 min) which

corresponding to the time at which nanolaminate structures begin to form. The differential

scanning calorimetry analysis have indicated that this jump in the sensitivity to thermal and

mechanical impact was dictated by the formation of nanolaminate structures, which reduce

the temperature needed to begin the dissolution of nickel into aluminum. It was shown that a

milling time of (50 % - 75 % critical reaction milling time) may be near optimal when taking

into account both the increased ignition sensitivity of mechanically-activated Ni/Al and

potential loss in reaction energy for longer milling times applied. In the same range for all

milling times considered which were less than the critical reaction milling time, some ignition

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delays were observed due to the formation of hotspots ranging from 1.2 to 6.5 ms. During the

investigation the combustion velocities were found to be ranged from 20-23 cm/s for

thermally-ignited samples and from 25-31 cm/s for impacted samples at an impact energy of

200-250 J [79].

The investigation of metal particles (nanometer sized) is important for various

applications in blast enhanced explosives, particles in high performance ceramics and rocket

propellants and pyrotechnics. Methods of thermal analysis are often applied to investigate the

controlled compositions of metal particles also in various atmospheres. The results of various

investigations based on methods of thermal analysis on the study reactions of Al and Ti

particles in nitrogen as well as in carbon dioxide have been reported [80]. Aluminum reacts to

form AlN in nitrogen and to Al2O3 in carbon dioxide, however it is delayed at higher

temperature compared to a reaction in air. Ti uses also the residual oxygen in these

atmospheres to form rutile structure in the case of nitrogen and it might in addition use carbon

dioxide as an oxidizer. Both of them occur at higher temperatures compared to the

compositions in air. The researchers attained some preliminary approaches to get some

insight to mechanisms and kinetic parameters but the efforts do currently not give satisfying

results, however might be successful in future work [80].

In 2006 the "afterburn effect" of SIBEX explosives (Shock Insensitive Blast enhanced

Explosives) was tried to be simulated using the FEM code AUTODYN 6.1z. Unfortunately,

the data library of AUTODYN 6.1z includes no material data and models of SIBEX.

Evaluation of technical literature shows that up to maximum 15 ms after the detonation the

pressure behavior of SIBEX is similar to the behavior of conventional high explosives

(example TNT). Shortly after the fumes, reactions seem to cause the appearance of the

"afterburn effect". Only TNT fumes were in the period of max. 15 ms after the detonation,

then it was simulated in different environments. TNT fumes simulations show that close to

reflective surfaces of the room (walls, floor and/or ceiling) the fumes get a dynamic

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movement resulting to the pressure reflections (exchange/transfer of momentum) and the

connected interexchange of impulse. Maximum 15 ms after the detonation, the fumes are

located in the middle of the room, independent of the place of detonation in the room (with or

without windows/doors). The dynamics of fumes in open air and inside of rooms are not the

same. To validate the fumes dynamics, a test room was equipped with different measuring

sensors. In collaboration with the German-French Research Institute Saint-Louis (ISL) the test

room has been equipped not only with numerous pressure and temperature sensors, but also

with high speed heat flux sensors for the first time. The parallel installation of the measuring

sensors led researchers to get an exact determination of the hot fumes cloud. Meantime,

optical validation tests were conducted at the Fraunhofer Ernst-Mach-Institute (EMI) using a

laboratory scale (1:10) setup. The measurements and video recordings confirm, in principle,

the existence of the fumes dynamics of TNT in rooms and thus validate the simulation results

of AUTODYN 6.1z.[81].

Generally the incorporation of solid fuel particles to explosive formulations reduces the

detonation velocity, but can enhance the blast performance. That is the case when prompt

combustion of the particles occurs in the detonation products and the surrounding air is early

enough to support the shock [82]. The degree to which fuel particles burn effectively highly

depends on their dispersal throughout the explosion field and access to oxidizers. To

distinguish the factors affecting the dispersal of fuel particles from those controlling their

combustion, the investigators began by analyzing the dispersal of equivalent mock inert

particles [82]. For that purpose solid glass spheres embedded in detonating small explosive

charges were monitored by using high-speed digital shadowgraphy. Two different sets of

particle sizes, 3 and 30 μm, and different mass fractions in the explosive compositions were

considered for testing. The shadowgraphs and pressure measurements obtained were

compared to the predictions of a newly developed multiphase numerical model. Reactive

aluminum particles in the range of 1-120 μm in diameter were also analyzed. It was observed

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that during the first 50 μs of the expansion, the general trend for both the reactive and inert

particles is such that for the smaller particles expand near or beyond the leading shock wave

to a greater extent than the larger particles. Expansion beyond the initial shock from the

detonation is presumed to occur when particles agglomerate. The results have found to be

consistent with the predictions of the numerical models, highlighting the contributions of

simple factors such as particle size and density in the early time expansion and mixing of

fuels for enhanced-blast applications [82].

The fireball characteristic parameters of the thermal-baric explosive (TBX) and

conventional explosives were measured by the method of IR imaging technique by Kan et al.

[83]. The data obtained indicate that the temperature and pressure of explosives much larger

than conventional explosives. The occurrence of the secondary explosion of TBX was

recorded by high speed camera. When the blast processes of TBX and Composition-B were

compared, it was found that the secondary explosion has certain enhancement function on

TBX blast fireball [83].

Note that the explosive compositions include separate acceptor and explosive phases.

The acceptor phase contains a halogenated polymer and a reactive metal which are capable of

reacting at high temperatures and pressures whereas the explosive phase includes a non-

metalized explosive. A portion of the explosive phase surrounds the acceptor phase, and

detonation of the explosive phase exposes the acceptor phase to high temperatures. and

pressures which permit the metal and halogenated polymer to react efficiently and produce

much greater temperatures and pressures. The explosives produce a detonation pressure range

greater than 200 kilobars at the Chapman-Jouget (C-J) condition [84]. Lund and Braithwaite

consider explosives having enhanced air blast and some tests on them [84].

Baker et al., have described a methodology and an apparatus for the study of both

detonation and deflagration characteristics of complex compositions, especially pyrotechnics.

Those generally provide nonideal detonation, high-velocity deflagration, and various

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phenomena such as transitions from one to the other, as well as the effects of intrinsic factors

such as particle size, stoichiometry, and sensitizer and inert additives and extrinsic factors

such as initiation type and energy, size, and confinement [85]. The described apparatus was

used to assess compositions for blast-enhanced explosives as well as for insensitive-

explosives.

The increased interest in thermobaric weapons has driven a need to develop and evaluate

brand new thermobaric explosives (TBXs) more efficiently. For that purpose Nammo Talley

company traditionally developed and evaluated TBXs using theoretical thermochemical codes

on new compositions which was followed by a down-selection of potential candidates based

on the results. In the experiments, one to two pounds of charges of the candidates were tested

in an instrumented and reinforced-concrete enclosure to characterize thermobaric

performance in the real-world. The researches claim that this approach has worked well when

there was a series of several formulations to test. However, enclosure testing is costly when

performing single evaluations due to the personnel required for setup, testing, and teardown.

Furthermore, the thermochemical codes cannot always predict real-world TBX effects, which

occasionally yields unexpected enclosure test results. Therefore, an opportunity was realized

to develop a new method which was capable of characterizing thermobaric compositions

better, before they were tested in the enclosure. For this aim, in 2005, Nammo Talley

collaborated with Parr Instruments to design and fabricate a detonation calorimeter to aid in

the development and evaluation of TBX. The detonation calorimeter can quickly and

economically characterize gram-size TBX samples prior to testing in the enclosure. The

detonation calorimeter, due to the adiabatic environment it provides, gives a more precise

total energy output value than the enclosure. The energy released from a TBX detonation in

the calorimeter under various atmosphere conditions can be readily quantified. The energetic

contributions of both the detonation itself and subsequent combustion of the fuel rich

detonation products and thermobaric fuels can be differentiated. This is useful in determining

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the effects of addition enhanced fuels to TBX compositions. To optimize the thermobaric

performance, the company has tested a series of conventional explosives, enhanced blast

compositions and some experimental thermobaric compositions. In this paper, Hall et al.,

discusses the development and operation of the detonation calorimeter and provides a

summary of the test results for energetic compositions evaluated [86].

In the work of Li and Hui, the IR thermography method was used to investigate the

detonation temperature of certain thermobaric explosives (TBE) [87]. The experimental

results have showed that the temperature of TBE's detonation was higher than that of TNT

with the same weigh. The duration of high temperature and the volume (the high

temperature) were 2-5 and 2-10 times as much as those of TNT, respectively. This implies

that TBE is superior to the traditional high explosive on the temperature field. The high-

temperature environment formed by the explosive explosion is sufficient to maintain the after

burning of the aluminum powder, which can provide further assistance to boost up the blast

wave.

Collet et al., have developed a specific model which is able to reproduce the experimental

blast effects [54]. This model is claimed to reproduce the expansion of the detonation

products in a room, as well as the shock wave reflections and the interaction between

detonation products and air leading to the formation of afterburning products. This model was

called DECO (detonation combustion). In order to be able to simulate large scale trials, in the

study the DECO was associated with an adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) technique. This

coupling enables one to simulate the behavior of detonation products generated by 1 kg of

explosive in 8 × 8 × 8 m3 room with a reasonable number of nodes.

Lips and Rittel in their study, investigated the development of an enhanced SIBEX

(shock-insensitive blast-enhanced explosives) explosive formulation with optimized

properties to suit a man-portable weapon system with anti-structure capability [61]. The

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development includes the down selection of four chemically and physically different SIBEX

types, having analysis assessment together with open-field testing.

In the work of Tricinsky et al., the confined explosion of an annular layered charge

composed of a phlegmatized RDX (RDXph) core and an external layer consisting of

aluminum powder or a mixture of ammonium perchlorate (AP) and aluminum was studied

[9]. Experiments were carried out in entirely and partially closed structures, i.e., in the

explosion chamber of 150 dm3 in volume and in the 40 m3 volume bunker with four small

holes and a doorway. In the mixtures, two types of aluminum powder were used. The

overpressure signals from two piezoelectric gauges located at the chamber wall were recorded

and the influence of aluminum contents and particle size effect on a quasi-static pressure

(QSP) were studied. Moreover, the solid residues from the chamber were analyzed by using

SEM, TG/DTA and XRD techniques to determine their composition and structure. The

pressure and light histories of the samples recorded in the bunker enable the researchers to

determine the blast wave characteristics and time-duration of light output. The effect of the

charge mass and aluminum particle size on blast wave parameters were investigated. For

comparison, tests for phlegmatized RDX (RDXph) and TNT charges were also carried out.

The so called “layered-charges” consist of cylindrically loaded layers of energetic

materials. Usually a core charge is a classic high explosive and outer layers consist of a

mixture of fuel and oxidizer or the fuel itself [11,88,89]. Such materials are classified as

enhanced-blast explosives (EBX) or thermobaric explosives (TBX). The fuel burning in the

products of detonation or oxygen from the air raises the temperature of the cloud of gaseous

products and strengthens the blast wave. Differences between the effects of the explosion of

TBX and EBX are usually small and therefore often these names are used interchangeably.

However, since EBX is primarily for strengthening blast wave, while TBX is to provide an

increase in temperature and pressure of the explosion, the classification of charges to a

specific type depends on how the fuel is burned after the ending of the detonation. In

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materials like EBX, anaerobic combustion reactions, (or combustion without oxygen from the

air) occurs. This means that after passing of the detonation wave, most of the fuel burns in

atmosphere of the products of detonation. In materials like TBX, reactions of the fuel and

oxygen from the air dominate. This process is described as aerobic burning [52,75].

Analysis of the results obtained in the work involving layered-charges leads to the

following conclusions:

1. The parameters of the incident blast wave increased by only 25–30 % after the explosion of

larger layered-charges inside the bunker despite the fact that the charge weight increased

twice.

2. The blast wave parameters increase with the increase of aluminum contents, particularly in

the case of charges with larger diameter core. This means that burning of aluminum, and

additional heat strengthens the blast wave already during the detonation products expansion.

3. Due to the dynamic changes in overpressure the question was not answered how the

particle size of aluminum affected the blast wave parameters of the tested charges.

4. The increase in the total pressure impulse in the bunker (determined for the time of about

40 ms) for almost all large charges was about 80–100 % in relation to small charges weighing

two times less. The highest impulses were obtained for charges with the outer layer of pure-

aluminum powder.

5. Light output time of explosion of the layered-charges was 3–4 times longer than the

RDXph core.

6. As compared to the core, the application of the outer layer in the charges caused twofold

increase in quasi-static pressure inside the chamber filled with air.

7. The values of a ratio of the quasi-static pressure to the average pressure obtained from

thermochemical calculation showed that only part of the aluminum burned up during the

measurement time of overpressure in the chamber (40 ms).

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8. Lack of oxygen from air caused that the quasi-static pressure (QSP) in the chamber filled

with argon decreased with increasing aluminum contents in mixtures with AP.

9. From the TG/DTA and XRD analysis of the chamber residue it follows that the aluminum

powder is almost completely burned after the explosion of the layered-charges in air.

The characterization of the properties of blast enhanced explosives, and in particular the

mechanisms involved in the secondary reaction phase, requires the application of specially

adjusted measurement techniques. Beside the standard pressure and blast measurement

techniques, the Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology, ICT, applies a variety of

optical and spectroscopic methods like emission spectroscopy and Background Oriented

Schlieren (BOS) methods. In addition, thermodynamic calculations are used to select

powerful enhanced-blast explosive formulations. Several characterization methods and

techniques have been presented by Kessler et al., [90].

In order to improve understanding of how aluminum contributes in non-ideal explosive

mixtures, cast-cured formulations have been analyzed in a series of cylinder tests and plate-

pushing experiments [7]. This study of Manner et al., describes the contribution of 15 %

aluminum (median size of 3.2 mm) vs. lithium fluoride (an inert substitute for aluminum; <5

mm) in cast-cured HMX formulations in different temperature regimes. Experimentally, small

cylinder tests were performed to analyze the detonation and wall velocities (1–20 ms) for

these formulations. Near-field blast effects of 58 mm diameter spherical charges were

measured at 152 mm and 254 mm using steel plate acceleration. Pressure measurements at

1.52 m gave information about free-field pressure at several milliseconds. While the observed

detonation velocities for all formulations were within uncertainty, significantly higher

cylinder wall velocities, plate velocities, and pressures were observed for the aluminum

formulations at or greater than 2 ms.

Actually, in the work, they have studied the detonation and post-detonation environment

for a series of cast-cured formulations using HMX and aluminum or LiF as an inert substitute.

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Using cylinder tests and plate-pushing experiments, they have been able to map out the effects

of aluminum reactions in three different temperature and experimental regimes, from 1 ms to

1.8 ms. In the cylinder tests, no significant difference was observed in detonation velocities

between the aluminum and LiF-containing formulations, and the measured cylinder wall

velocities for HMX-Al and HMX-LiF were identical at 1 ms. However, at 2 ms, wall velocity

was 13% higher for HMX-Al than for HMX-LiF, and increased to 20 % at 20 ms. The plate

tests were performed to observe blast effects and aluminum reactions at longer timescales

(100–200 ms), and the measured plate velocities were up to 31 % higher for HMX-Al than for

HMX-LiF. The free field pressure measurements showed 38 % higher pressures for HMX-Al

than for HMX-LiF at 1.52 m (1.5 and 1.8 ms). Overall, this work shows that aluminum

reactions in HMX explosives can occur as early as 2 ms, and may continue to increase

expansion as late as several milliseconds [7]. Collectively, this work gives a clearer picture of

how aluminum contributes to detonation on timescales from 1 ms to about 2 ms, and how the

post-detonation energy release contributes to wall velocities and blast effects. The

experiments have indicated that significant aluminum reactions occur after the CJ plane, and

continue to contribute to expansion at late times [7].

9. Calculations and modeling

Mohamed et al., have reported a novel approach for the chemical composition

optimization using thermochemical calculations in order to achieve the highest explosion

power [91]. Shock wave resulted from thermobaric explosives (TBX) was simulated using

ANSYS AUTODYN 2D hydrocode. Nanoscopic fuel-rich thermobaric charges were prepared

by the pressing technique and static field tests were conducted. Comparative studies of

modeled pressure-time histories to practical measurements were carried out. A good

agreement between the numerical modeling and experimental measurements was observed,

particularly in terms of the prediction of wider overpressure profile which is the main

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characteristics of TBX. The wider overpressure profile of TBX was ascribed to the secondary

shock wave resulted from fuel combustion. The shock wave duration time and its decay

pattern were acceptably predicted by means of the calculations. Effective lethal fire-ball

duration of 50 ms was achieved and evaluated using an image analysis technique. The

extended fire-ball duration was correlated to the additional thermal loading due to active

metal fuel combustion. The tailored thermobaric charge exhibited an increase in the total

impulse by 40-45% compared with reference charge [91].

Mohamed et al., also used Explo5 steady-state equilibrium program to calculate the

explosive characteristics and performance parameters for a number of thermobaric explosive

formulations based on mono propellant or nitromethane, as an explosive filler and aluminum

powder as a fuel metal. Based on the results of Explo5 program, three thermobaric

compounds were selected and prepared in test cartridges of 5 kg for each. Blasting field area

was designed to test three prepared thermobaric charges and a reference charge of the same

weight. The pressure-time history, using 12 pressure transducers located at different distances

from the explosion center was measured. The explosion events were monitored by a high

speed camera while the pressure-time history was registered by data acquisition measuring

system. Test results demonstrated that the positive phase impulse of the tested thermobaric

explosive charges increased by 40-45 % and 30-33 % for formulation based on

monopropellant and nitromethane, respectively as compared with reference charge [92].

In the work of Zhong et al., the descriptive parameters of explosion fireball of a

thermobaric explosive and TNT were measured by an IR imager. According to the

experimental data, a dynamic model of fireball thermal radiation was studied, and the change

of the size of fireball and its position were quantitatively described. Based on the dynamic

model used, the thermal damages by the thermobaric explosive and TNT fireballs were

analyzed. The results showed that the thermal dose of the thermobaric explosive was 3.6-4.8

times as much as that of TNT, which indicated that the thermobaric explosive had advantages

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in the thermal damage effect. Compared with a static model, the dynamic model was found to

be more reasonable to estimate the thermal effect of explosive fireball, since it could describe

the movement of fireball [93].

Kim and Su reported a significant progress of the modeling and simulation for the

secondary combustion of the thermobaric explosives (TBX) [94]. They developed some

Eulerian-Lagrangian models for the detonating blast propagation as well as for the

combustion of aluminum metal particles. Some experiments in a confined chamber and open

field were carried out for the model validation and for the understanding of the important

physics associated in TBX flow. The results showed that in the confined chamber, an

excellent agreement of the pressure history was precisely validated and the secondary

combustions by aluminum vapor were mostly contributed by the anaerobic reaction

mechanism. By applying to open field application, they demonstrated that their developed

modeling and simulation calculations were also capable of resolving the detailed blast

propagation mechanisms and emphasizing that the aluminum burning law was the most

important parameter for TBX performance [94].

The afterburning from explosion of a TNT charge containing aluminum particles

(TNT/Al) at three “Heights of Blast” (HoB), was investigated in order to demonstrate that

numerical simulations could facilitate evaluation of the performance of enhanced-blast

explosives (EBX). The simulations were conducted by using a two-phase Large Eddy

Simulation model in Euler-Lagrange form, incorporating the interaction between phases by

means of a two-way coupling. The “finite rate Arrhenius chemistry” is used for the purpose of

simulating afterburning, hence enabling the examination of contributions of heat release from

carbon and aluminum afterburning reactions. The simulation results have indicated that

aluminum afterburning in EBX charges was dependent on the mixing intensity, which was

established by instabilities through shock-mixing layer interaction. As the shock propagation

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pattern is different for all Heights of Blast, the mixing intensity in its turn varies with

“Heights of Blast” [95].

Grys and Trzcıńskı used the thermodynamic code (ZMWNI) for the determination of the

chemical equilibrium composition of a non-ideal heterogeneous system [96]. Computations of

combustion, detonation and explosion parameters for some explosives were performed as well

as isentropes expansion of products and detonation energy were estimated. Moreover, the

non-equilibrium calculations were carried out, in which various assumptions were done such

as the chemical inertness of one from the components of explosive composition as well as no

heat exchange between the components and the detonation products. At the end, some

calculated detonation characteristics were compared with the experimental ones [96].

They also described in detail the thermochemical program ZMWNI they used for the

calculations. The results of exemplary calculations were presented to verify the ZMWNI

program. The code can calculate the parameters of combustion, explosion and detonation

of condensed energetic materials as well as determine the curve of expansion of

detonation products in the form of JWL isentrope [97] and the energy of detonation [98].

Moreover, the ZMWNI code is presented as capable of determine the non-equilibrium states

for frozen composition or for different temperature of components.

The results were compared with those of obtained from the CHEETAH code. In

particular, the calculated adiabatic combustion temperature, JWL isentrope and detonation

energy were shown. Moreover, new possibilities of the program, i.e., the non-equilibrium

calculations, are demonstrated. Finally, some experimental data are confronted with the

results obtained from the ZMWNI calculations. In the last years some European standards

have been implemented in Poland and they are recommended for determination of explosion

and combustion parameters. The presented program enables one to calculate combustion,

explosion and detonation characteristics and it can be modified according to the procedures

described in the standards.

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 Moxnes et al., in their work first theoretically studied the different energetic measures of

aluminized explosives by applying the rules of thermodynamics [35]. Thereafter, they applied

a well-known thermodynamic computer code to calculate various energetic quantities at

different aluminum contents and freezing temperature. Energy concepts for aluminized

explosives such as the calorimetric energy of explosion, enthalpy of explosion, work of

explosion and Gibbs free energy of explosion were analyzed and compared to experimental

values. They also studied the work of Carnot which is relevant for thermobaric effects. It was

found that for highly aluminized explosives (e.g. 50 % Al), the work of Carnot was of the

same size as the work of explosion. They could conclude that neither of the quantities, such as

change in free energy, enthalpy nor internal energy of explosion should be considered as good

measures of effectiveness of aluminized explosives [35].

A great deal of effort has been made in parallel to numerical simulations. French

researchers have developed a specific model which is able to reproduce the experimental blast

effects [54]. This model can reproduce the expansion of the detonation products in a room, the

shock wave reflections and the interaction between detonation products and air leading to the

formation of afterburning products. This model was called DECO (detonation combustion). In

order to be able to simulate large scale trials, the DECO was associated with an adaptive mesh

refinement (AMR) technique. Thus, this coupling enabled Collet et al., to simulate the

behavior of detonation products generated by 1 kg of explosive in 8 × 8 × 8 m 3 room with a

reasonable number of nodes (4.106) [54].

On the other hand, while experimenting with SIBEX explosive, Lips et al., also

numerically modeled and made some tests with it within a multi room bunker complex [61].

The results were analyzed and screened to an optimized SIBEX composition for application in

a shoulder launched weapon (SLW) system.

Arnold and Rottenkolber, while studying combustion of boron-loaded explosives,

applied a single phase hydrocode model with idealized kinetics (which had been previously

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developed) in order to model some of the detonation chamber trials [32]. Though the model

is strictly applicable only to charges with fast-burning fuels, it was also applied to a charge

with high boron content.

Manner et al., performed plate tests ( as mentioned above) to observe blast effects and

aluminum reactions at longer timescales (100–200 ms), and measured plate velocities up to

31 % higher for HMX-Al than for HMX-LiF. The free field pressure measurements showed

38 % higher pressures for HMX-Al than for HMX-LiF at 1.52 m (1.5 and 1.8 ms). They made

CTH calculations for the plate velocities. The hydrocode calculations were performed to

determine how non-ideal behavior affected the plate test results while trying to find out the

role of aluminum in the detonation and post-detonation expansion of selected cast HMX-

based explosives [7].

10. Epilogue

The present short review article considers thermobaric explosives (TBX) and enhanced

blast explosives (EBX) and outlines various studies including their compositions, properties,

and reactive metal components involved as well as studies on their modeling and

computations etc. These explosives of mentioned type constitute a sub-family of volumetric

weapons. Differences between TBX and EBX are usually small and therefore often these two

names are used interchangeably. They are fuel-enriched heterogeneous explosives. Unlike

ideal high explosives, they are designed to produce a long-lasting pressure wave which are

able to travel through corridors, propagate around corners and through obstacles. They are

extremely effective and destructive in enclosed spaces due to their ability to produce a high

level of quasi-static pressure (QSP). A much higher total energy output is provided by TBX

and EBX explosions comparing to conventional explosives.

The explosion process of those types of explosives consists of three stages: initial stage,

anaerobic stage, and aerobic stage. Both the kind and amount of the metals added to TBXs

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and EBXs are essential. They are influencing on the ignition temperatures of them.

Aluminum has been used for this purpose for a long time. Although the precise reaction of

aluminum with detonation products is not understood completely to this day, it is widely

accepted that the consumption of aluminum takes place over a longer time scale, as compared

to TNT, RDX, or HMX. The aluminum consumed on the sonic (Chapman–Jouguet) surface

can support the detonation front. The positive effect is observed for high explosives both with

positive or negative oxygen balance, provided that there is a higher content of hydrogen and a

lower content of carbon in a molecule. Recently some other reactive metals alone or together

with aluminum employed in these explosives.

If the fundamental physical and chemical phenomena of TBX and EBX could be

understood well and controlled effectively, various new weapon systems of significant

efficiency may emerge and be available to the war-fighter in the future.

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Table 1. Explosive compositions considered.

Explosive Composition ρ/(g·cm-3)

PBXIH-135 HMX/Al/HTPB 1.68

PBXIH-135EB HMX/Al/PCP-TMETN 1.79

PBXIH-136 RDX/AP/Al/PCP-TMETN 2.03

PBXIH-18 HMX/Al/Hytemperature/DOA 1.92

PBXIH-18 mod. 1 HMX/Al/Hytemperature/DOA 1.77

PBXIH-18 mod. 2 HMX/Al/Hytemperature/DOA 1.84

HAS-4 HMX/Al/HTPB 1.65

HAS-4 EB HMX/Al/PCP-TMETN 1.73

Talley Mix 5672 Al/Zr/IPN/Ethyl Cellulose 2.21

(32/40/26.75/1.25)

Excerpted from ref. [65]

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