Chapter 2 Design of Water Treatment Plants PDF

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
2.1 OBJECTIVES FOR TREATING DRINKING WATER

i) The most important requirement drinking water must meet, is that it is free from organisms and
chemical substances which might be injurious to health.
ii) Drinking water should be of such a composition that consumers do not question its safety. This
requirement implies that turbidity, colour, taste and odour should be low, and macro-organisms
(e.g. worms, aquatic and fly nymphs) should be absent.
iii) Drinking water should be suitable for housekeeping. For this reason:
 The iron and manganese content should be low, because these substances colour during
washing (iron causes a brown and manganese a black colour).
 Hardness should be low, because water with a high hardness causes scale formation in
water-heaters by precipitation of Calcium carbonate. Moreover a high hardness of the
water implies that a high dose of detergent is required for washing
iv) Drinking water should not be aggressive to materials like lead, copper, asbestos cement,
concrete, cast iron, galvanized steel, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and PE (polyethylene) since
pipes, tubes and apparatus used in distribution systems and plumbing installations may consist
of these materials. Pipes, tubes and apparatus affected by water cause many problems. Mention
some??
v) Drinking water should be free of any disagreeable taste or odour. Consumers do not like to be
supplied with water that does not have a good taste and odour. Moreover, drinking water that
has any disagreeable taste or odour is unsuitable for making tea, coffee, soup etc.
2.2 RAW WATER ASPECTS

2.2.1 Water resources
The water cycle-technically known
as the hydrologic cycle, is the
continuous circulation of water
within the Earth’s hydrosphere, and
is driven by solar radiation (Figure
1). This includes the atmosphere,
land, surface water and
groundwater. As water moves
through the cycle, it changes state
between liquid, solid, and gas
phases. Water moves from
compartment to compartment, such
as from river to ocean, by the
physical processes of evaporation,
precipitation, infiltration, runoff,
and subsurface flow. Movement of
Figure 1: The Hydrologic Cycle
water within the water cycle is the
subject of the field of hydrology.
Summaries of the most common features of different water sources and their development are given in
Tables 2.1 and 2.2. There will always be exceptions and this should be borne in mind when reading the
tables.
CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 1

Table 2.1: Surface water source (Source: WEDC Report)
Type of Source
Characteristic Lakes and ponds Lowland rivers & streams High land streams
 Depends on size and level of  Large river flows generally  Can be seasonal
recharge stable  Some streams dry up
Features of
 Yield can reduce during the  Some rivers dry up completely in the dry season
yield
dry season completely in the dry
season
 Bacteriologically poor to  Generally bacteriologically  Often bacteriologically better
good in large ponds and poor than lowland streams
lakes, poor to fair in smaller  Often high turbidity  Turbidity depends on the
Features of
water bodies especially in the rainy geology and soil conditions
quality
 Can have high mineral levels season
 Turbidity can be good but can
also be variable
 Sedimentation, assisted  Sedimentation, assisted  Only Disinfection required
sedimentation, filtration, sedimentation, filtration, for low turbidity mountain
Possible Disinfection and /or other Disinfection and/ or other streams Sedimentation,
treatment  Only Disinfection required  Will vary with location assisted sedimentation,
requirements for low turbidity water filtration, Disinfection and/ or
 Will vary with location other for high turbidity
streams
 Generally accessible  Generally accessible  Topography may make
 There can be large changes in  There can be large changes access difficult
Accessibility
water level which can make in water level which can
access difficult make access difficult
 Difficult to protect, especially  Difficult to protect,  Difficult to protect, especially
if large perimeter especially to control up to control up stream usage
 Need to fence off the area and stream usage  Need to fence off the area and
use guards to restrict contact  Need to fence off the area use guards to restrict contact
Protection with water to certain areas and use guards to restrict with water to certain areas
requirements  Must provide alternative contact with water to  Must provide alternative
access to water for existing certain areas access to water for existing
users  Must provide alternative users
access to for existing users  Protection also required from
moving boulders
Storage  Storage required for  Storage required for  Storage required for
requirements treatment and supply treatment and supply treatment and supply
 Moderate to high  Moderate to high  Moderate to high depending
Capital cost
 Pumping and treatment depending on method used on method used
per person
equipment costs high  Pumping and treatment  Pumping and treatment
served
equipment costs high equipment costs high
 Maintenance of abstraction  Maintenance of abstraction  Maintenance of abstraction
filters, structures and pumps filters, structures and filters, structures and pumps
O&M physical and for treatment systems pumps and for treatment and for treatment systems
requirements  Treatment operation and systems  Treatment operation and
monitoring  Treatment operation and monitoring
monitoring
 Fuel or electricity to power  Fuel or electricity to power  Fuel or electricity to power
O&M
pumps pumps pumps if required
consumable
 Pump spare parts  Pump spare parts  Pump spare parts
requirements
 Treatment chemicals  Treatment chemicals  Treatment chemicals
 Problems will be caused if  Care must be taken to  Care must be taken to ensure
the source is protected but no ensure sufficient yield sufficient yield remains for
alternative is provided for remains for down stream down stream users (domestic,
local users (domestic, farmers users (domestic, farmers farmers and animals)
Impacts of and animals and animals)  Care must be taken with
development  Reducing water level may  Care must be taken with disposal of sludge
reduce local ground water disposal of sludge
table
 Care must be taken with
disposal of sludge
Table 2.2: Ground water and rainwater sources
Type of Source
Characteristic Deep borehole Dug well Spring catchments Rainwater catchments
 Yield depends on  Yield depends on aquifer  Steady for artesian flow Variables
aquifer type, wet type, depth of well, height  Some springs dry up in  New supplies
surface area and of water table and wet the dry season unavailable during the
quality of borehole surface area
Features of development 
 Can be high but not as high Springs sometimes dry season
yield  Can be high &stable as deep boreholes move location  More appropriates for
if not over pumped  Can be seasonal small users such as
medical centers or
institutions
 Generally good  If well lining is adequately  Good quality;  Depends on cleanliness
quality sealed, and well is capped Exception to this could of catchment structures
bacteriologically and a pump issued then be spring in areas of  Low in minerals and
 Can taste bad from quality can be good highly fissured rocks turbidity if collection
Features of
iron, manganese and  If unprotected then  Generally low turbidity system is clean
quality
low levels of microbiological quality is  Heavy air pollution and
dissolved oxygen likely to be poor volcanic activity can
 Low turbidity  Also can have chemical modify the water
proteins e.g., nitrates quality
 Disinfection  Disinfection  Disinfection  Sedimentation (for
Common  Possibly aeration and  If pumped and unacceptable solids introduced from
treatment sedimentation or turbidity then assisted catchments) and
requirements filtration if removing sedimentation or filtration disinfection
iron and manganese could also be used
 Can be difficult to  Can be difficult to locate  Generally requires  Good for small users
locate groundwater groundwater and access piped transmission from  Difficult to access large
and access initially initially higher areas volumes
Accessibility
 Often difficult to reach
spring and to protect
without damage
 Lining, capping and  Well head wall, lining,  Requires a spring box at  Catchment structures,
drainage along the cover and drainage around the eye of the spring covered tanks and
borehole well and appropriate cut off protection from
Protection drainage upstream contaminated runoff
requirements  Farming or similar
activities should be
limited uphill of the
stream
 May require storage  Additional storage not  Requires storage for  Requires storage for
for treatment and commonly used when users treatment and supply treatment and supply
supply draw directly from the well  Additional storage is
Storage  Disinfection takes place in needed if rainwater is
requirements the well in this situation required during the dry
 If pumping occurs then season
storage may be required for
treatment and supply
 High  Low to moderate depending  Fairly low  Low-moderate for roof
on water lifting device and  Costs increase with catchments (if roof cost
Capital cost
excavation method pipe distances is not included) &
per person
moderate-high for
ground catchments
 Maintenance of  Maintenance of pumping or  Maintenance limited to  Catchment structures
pumping equipment other water-lining structural repairs of require lining
and protection equipment and structural spring box and  Treatment operations
structures repairs surroundings and monitoring
O&M
 Treatment operations  Treatment operations and  If the spring is located  Disinfection
Physical
and monitoring monitoring below the populations,
requirements
 Fuel or electricity to  Hand power only or same as then maintenance of
power pumps deep borehole pumping equipment
 Pump spare parts  Pump spare parts  Treatment operations
 Disinfectants  Disinfectants and monitoring

Type of Source
Characteristic Deep borehole Dug well Spring catchments Rainwater catchments
 Fuel or power for
transmission if gravity
cannot be used
 Disinfection
 Depletion of aquifers  Depletion of aquifers can  Care must be taken to Care must be taken with
can affect other water affect other water supplies ensure all users disposal of sludge
supplies  Care must be taken with (including those
Impact of
disposal of sludge downstream) have
abstraction
access to the supply
 Will need to limit
farming activities uphill
2.2.2 Raw water quality
2.2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2.2 Groundwater quality
Composition of groundwater is dependent on:
 soil composition (humic substances and minerals, etc)
 contamination from the surroundings
 quality of the water to be infiltrated (rain, surface water)
 retention time of the water.
Due to the presence of oxygen, two different types of groundwater are distinguished:
Anaerobic (anoxic) groundwater
Oxygen present in the water during percolation is consumed. After disappearance of oxygen (electron
acceptor), other compounds can accept electrons, forming dissolved substances like Fe 2+, Mn2+, reduction
of NO3- to NH4+, SO42- to H2S and CO2 to CH4.
Aerobic (oxic) groundwater
Reduced substances are not or hardly present. Depending on the catchment area, a simple treatment system
or even no purification at all is needed.
Naturally, groundwater may contain the following constituents:
Microorganisms: no pathogenic organisms or bacteria
Typical components: Fe2+, Mn2+, NH4+
Positive ions: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, H+
Negative ions: NO3-, SO42-, Cl-, F-, HCO3-
Dissolved gases: O2, H2S, CH4, CO2, N2
Organic matter: Natural organic matter (NOM)
Inorganic matter: SiO2
Mineralisation of organic matter results in the formation of CO2 (aggressivity).
2.2.2.3 Surface water quality
Surface water can be taken from streams, rivers, lakes or irrigation canals. Water in such surface sources
originates partly from groundwater outflows and partly from rainwater that has flowed over the ground to
the receiving bodies of surface water. The groundwater outflows will bring dissolved solids into the surface
water; the surface run-off is the main contributor of turbidity and organic matter, as well as pathogenic
organisms. In the surface water bodies, the dissolved mineral particles will remain unchanged but the
organic impurities are degraded through chemical and microbial processes. Sedimentation in impounded or
slow-flowing surface water results in the removal of suspended solids. Pathogenic organisms will die off
due to lack of suitable food. However, new contamination of surface water is likely to take place as a result
of waste influents and algal growth. In sparsely populated areas, clear water from rivers and lakes might
require no treatment to make it suitable for drinking.
2.2.3 Water source selection

Table 2.3: Selection matrix
CRITERIA GROUNDWATER SURFACE WATER GW SW
Drinking water quality required now in Good Moderate + ±
relation to raw water
Future (stricter regulations) Decrease due to pollution of raw water ± -
Quantity of Now Enough Enough + ++
raw water Future Max withdraw Enough ± ++
available
Raw water recovery Wells cheap, long mains Intake expensive, shorter mains
Treatment Low High
Investment ± -
Costs Running costs (O& M,
process control,
interest+depreciation, ± -
personnel, chemical & power
consumption)
Impact on the environment ± -
The process of choosing the most suitable source of water for development into a public water supply
largely depends on the local conditions.
2.2.4 Water Abstraction
An intake structure usually consists of an opening, a strainer/screen or grating through which the water
enters and a conduit conveying the water (usually gravitationally) to a sump or a well (Figure 2). This
water abstraction is the first activity at a water
treatment plant. The water sources from which
the water is abstracted can be classified as
groundwater and surface water as discussed
previously.
2.2.4.1 Groundwater abstraction
The basic ground water intake structure is a
Casing
well. There are many types of wells
Cement Grouting
categorised depending on method and depth of (To stop potential
construction. surface
Drilled wells contamination) Motor/pump
These consist of steel or a PVC casing (submersible)
extended into the ground until a water-bearing
(aquifer) stratum is reached. If the aquifer
supplies ample and clean water, a screen Screen
surrounded by a gravel pack is installed. The
pumped water is filtered by the gravel pack.
Gravel pack
Drilled wells range from 100-250mm in
diameter with depth down to 50m but wells up
to 600-700m exist.
Driven wells Figure 2: Basic groundwater intake structure
This consists of a well point (a pointed screen)
of 30-50mm diameter of a galvanised pipe, which is driven into
the ground until the screen is below the ground water table (Figure
3). They cannot be used if the water table is more than 7-8m below
the pump. Their capacity is limited often only 1-2m3/hr, as they
have no gravel pack to protect the well screen against blocking by
flowing particles. Pumping a high velocity water jet back into the
screen to wash the blocking particles away regenerates the well.
Washed or jetted wells
These have diameters of 100-300mm created using a central jet of
water in a casing with a ball valve at the end. The well may be 80-
100m deep. It is suitable for unconsolidated formations and fast to
drill.
Dug wells
A dug well is usually cased with concrete pipes or concrete brick
masonry with a diameter of 1-5m. Most dug wells are not lined at
all and normally cave in (collapse). Maximum depths of 60m are
reported.
Bored wells
Typical diameters are 50-400mm which are seldom deeper than
25m. The casing often of concrete or steel pipes screwed together
as the hole is being bored. The capacity of this well is usually low.
Screen
Pointed end
(solid steel)
Figure 3: Driven well

Ball
valve
Gravel/
sand
Figure 5: Lining for a dug well

Figure 4: Central jet of water in a
casing with a ball valve at the end
Combination well
The most common type is a combination of dug and drilled wells. Where circumstances allow, the capacity
of a dug well can be improved by drilling horizontal wells/collector drains radially to the aquifer. This
increases collection area. Wells may also be drilled near the riverbanks or at the sides of lakes or seas so as
to have a good recharge and to increase quality of surface water. Such approaches include infiltration
galleries.
Springs
These are shallow ground water abstraction points. They are thus subject to water quality deterioration as a
result of land use activities in the vicinity of the well. They occur where the water table strikes the ground.
Springs may be artesian or gravitational. They may be constructed with or without a spring box. The latter
is advantageous in providing multiple outlets for users in a community and accesses for community water
disinfection.
2.2.4.2 Intake Structures for Surface Water
Selection of the type of water intake structure for surface water systems depends on a number of factors:
 The source of the supply (impounded reservoir, lake, river)
 Fluctuations in the water level of the source
 The nature of the intake surrounding (water depth; bottom characteristics; effects of currents,
floods and storms upon structure, other water uses like navigation; scouring and deposition, etc.
 The location of pollutant sources
 Existence of floating materials e.g., oils, vegetable matter, logs, etc.
 Accessibility for continuous maintenance and operation (this may necessitate a duplicate or
standby structure
Surface water intake structures may be from:

 Impounding reservoirs (variable water quality at different depths coupled with water level changes,
necessitating various inlet ports at different heights: inlet should be about 1 m below the water
surface);
 Lake intakes which may require a study of currents and wind effects, a consideration of settlement
patterns along the shore, pollution sources, etc. intake should be at least 2.5 m above the bottom to
prevent large quantities of silt from being carried into the water, and care should be taken to reduce
influent velocities to about ≤ 0.15 m/s otherwise large amounts of matter, etc may be carried in.
Lake uses like navigation should be considered.
 River intakes where the water should normally have a depth allowing a submergence of at least 1
m. There is need to remove silt form the vicinity of the ports. Screens are usually needed and used
to exclude large floating matter.

GENERAL NOTES:
A good screen should: Have sufficient structural strength to withstand pressure of ground formation; Have
adequate open area to allow unimpeded flow from aquifer towel; Have openings/slots sized so that the well
can operate sand free; Be resistant to corrosion; Be reasonably costed.
Screen materials include: Stainless steel/galvanised, Brass, Bronze, Copper and Hard plastics.
The open area ratio varies from 1-30%.
Gravel packs have high permeability and screens of sand and fine particle. They are required if the soil
characteristics of the aquifer are such that d10 < 0.3mm and D60/D10= coefficient of uniformity of less than
3. They should be made of clean, rounded grains. Newer designs have the gravel ribs on the surface of the
screen.
2.2.4.3 Criteria for locating intake structures for surface water sources
- The intake structure should be as near as possible to the treatment plant
- The elevation of the intake should be as high upstream as possible because the quality of water
upstream is usually better than downstream.
- Locate the intake as far away as possible from pollution sources
- The location should be stable with minimal scouring and deposition
- Select a deeper rather than a shallower location but should not be too deep
- In case of a river, the intake velocity should not be more than 0.1ms-1 and should not exceed the
velocity of the river
- The design period should not be less than about 25 years.
2.2.4.4 Maintenance and operation requirements (O&M)
- Access to the intake should be easy.
- It is preferable to construct two or more identical intake structures to allow maintenance of one
intake while the other(s) is/are working.
- It is also preferable to be able to control the intake velocity and the water quality.
2.2.4.5 Some Examples of Surface Water Intake Structures
i) Intake through a pipe
Fixed level intake Manhole
Max. water level Screens
To pump
Min. water level house/sump
Screen
This is simple and economical but it is affected by the river water level. It can be easily damaged by river
traffic and floating matter.
Its disadvantages are:
 the intake can only take in water when the level is above the screen
 It is impossible to control the quality of the water at the inlet
 There is need to protect it from water traffic.

Adjustable Intake
Max water level
To pump
Min water level house/sump
Flexible pipe
Its advantages are that:

 It is more flexible to selection of water quality
 It is more expensive to build and maintain
Intake at the river bottom

This is similar to fixed intake but it is less susceptible to damage by river traffic and floating debris
however it is obviously unsuitable for areas where sedimentation and scouring can occur.
Low water level
Screen
Pipe line above water and supported on a structure

It is applied where the
bottom and embankment To pump house
profile is not stable due to
Support
scour or erosion where
the ground conditions are
weak and may induce
settlement. It is Screen
susceptible to damage by
river traffic and floating Piles
debris. It is more
expensive to construct but
maintenance is easy.

ii) Intake through bottom galleries
To pump house /sump
They are normally used where the river level varies greatly or where no structures are allowed. A filter bed
with gravel can be used to help reduce the amount of suspended matter. There must be no scouring or
sedimentation
iii) Intake through a concrete box structure
High water level
Low water level

Inlets with valves
Coarse screen
To pump house /sump
This is a solid, long life intake structure with a possibility of inspection and sample taking at this end of
intake.
iv) Two step intake with a storage reservoir
This intake structure has the advantage of better reliability with respect to both quality and quantity.
Valve chamber
Lake/river Max
Min Max water level
Min water level
RESERVOIR
To plant
2.2.5 Functions of a raw water reservoir

i) Water quantity management
- bridging periods of low river discharges
- having water available in case of emergencies
- damping fluctuations intake flows
ii) Water quality management
The aim is to avoid or eliminate peaks of polluted river water to be transported to the treatment plant; and
improvement of several water quality parameters.
● Prevention of spoiling the water quality in the raw water reservoir through peak of polluted river water
- selective intake
- introduction of small analysis reservoir prior to large main reservoir
● Prevention of abrupt changes in quality of water to the treatment plant by equalisation
- mixing of incoming water of poor quality with good water stored in the reservoir
- blending of water to the treatment plant with effluents of several small reservoirs
● Improvement of raw water quality through stay in the reservoir
- reduction of pathogenic organisms and suspended matter
- increase of oxygen
- decrease of CO2 and hardness
- increase of pH
- removal of NH+4 and biodegradable organic matter
- removal of volatile organic solvents
- reduction of heavy metals (adsorbed on suspended particles)
Processes that take place in reservoirs are: evaporation, sedimentation, aeration, oxidation, etc. Reservoirs
act as a pre-treatment step.
2.3 A REVIEW OF TREATMENT PROCESSES
2.3.1 Introduction
The aim of water treatment is to produce potable water that is, water that is fit for human consumption.
Water treatment processes are selected according to the quality of the raw water and the parameters that are
to be removed. Common Treatment Methods are summarised in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Common water treatment methods

Objective of treatment Possible treatment processes
1.Removal of suspended and colloidal Micro straining, Sedimentation, Coagulation, Floatation, Slow
matter and colour sand filtration, Rapid sand filtration
2. Disinfection Chlorination, Ozonation, Ultra violet radiation, Slow sand
filtration
3.Removal of taste, odour and organic Activated carbon filtration, Aeration
micro pollutants
4. pH Correction Limestone filtration, Add bases like NaOH, CaO or Ca(OH)2,
Na2Co3(soda ash)
5. Removal of volatile components Aeration, Biological filters
6. Softening, demineralisation Ion exchange, CaCO3-Na CO3 (lime soda)
7. Desalination Distillation, Electro dialysis, Reverse osmosis
Table 2.5 shows the effectiveness of different water treatment units in the removal of different parameters.

Table 2.5: Effectiveness of water treatment processes in removing various impurities
Treatment process/ water Aeration Chemical Sedimentation Rapid Slow sand Chlorination
Quality Parameter Coagulation & Filtration Filtration
Flocculation
Dissolved Oxygen Content + 0 0 - -- +
Carbon Dioxide Removal - 0 0 + ++ +
Turbidity Reduction* 0 +++ + +++ ++++ 0
Color Reduction 0 ++ + + ++ ++
Taste and Odour Removal ++ + + ++ ++ +
Bacterial Removal 0 + ++ ++ ++++ ++++
Iron and Manganese ++ + + ++++ ++++ 0
Removal
Organic Matter Removal + + ++ +++ ++++ +++
+++ = Increasing Positive Effect
0 = No Effect
- = Negative Effect
*Turbidity of water is caused by the presence of suspended matter scattering and absorbing light rays, and thus giving
the water a non-transparent milky appearance.
Common treatment processes for groundwater and surface water are summarized in Table 2.6 and 2.7
respectively.
Table 2.6: Treatment of Groundwater

Aeration for Aeration for Plain (Rapid) Safety-or post-
Water Quality Increasing O2 reducing CO2 Sedimentation Filtration Chlorination
Aerobic, fairly hard, not corrosive o
Aerobic, soft and corrosive x o
Anaerobic, fairly hard, not corrosive, x o
no iron and manganese
Anaerobic, fairly hard, not corrosive, x o x o
with iron and manganese
Anaerobic, soft, corrosive, no iron x x o
and manganese
Anaerobic, soft, corrosive with iron x x o x o
and manganese
(x = necessary, o - optional)
Table 2.7: Treatment of Surface Water

Treatment process/ water Pre- Chem. Sedimentation Rapid Slow and Safety-or
Quality chlorination Coag. & Filtration Filtration Post-
floc. Chlorination
Clear and unpolluted o
Slightly polluted low turbidity o x o
Slightly polluted, medium o x x o
turbidity
Slightly polluted, high turbidity x x x x o
Slightly polluted many algae x x x x x
Heavily polluted, little turbidity x x x o
Heavily polluted, much x x x x x
turbidity
(x = necessary, o - optional)
2.3.2 Approach to Process Design for a Water Treatment Plant

After identification of the source and location of intake structures, the following should be done to achieve
a proper design of a treatment plant.
i) Determination of raw water quality parameters to be improved
- Consider raw water quality in question (be critical with data analysis and acceptance)
- Consider the quality standards and requirements for drinking water
- Compare both and decide which parameters should be improved

ii) Develop the required treatment process
- Which treatment method is required for each parameter?
- Which chemicals?
- Which process conditions?
- Need for treatment?
- Arrange the treatment options in a logical sequence
- Present in comprehensive block diagrams
- Predict achieved water quality after each step and after overall treatment (by calculation or
estimation)
- Determine the design capacity for each purification process
- Determine the number of production lines and individual units
- Put into a process layout diagram
iii) Design of devices
- Select a suitable device for use in each treatment step
- Calculate main dimensions
- Determine the water transport though the plant (rough hydraulic calculation, head losses, etc)
- Draw hydraulic profile/longitudinal cross sections
- Determine number and capacity of each pump
- Design the devices (include inlet/outlet structures, materials, etc)
iv) Make an estimate of the investment and running costs and hence prepare a BOQ
2.3.3 Pre-treatment of Raw Water

After abstraction, raw water may undergo a pre-treatment process before it enters the plant. The first
process is usually screening.
a) Screening:
Coarse and fine screens are usually made of parallel bars constructed onto a rectangular frame at
specific openings. There are three main types of screens depending on the spacing, namely;
(i) Coarse screens with spacing 50-150mm: These are meant to keep back large impurities
like fish, branches, logs, dead animals etc. They are usually located at the furthest point of
the intake.
(ii) Medium screens with spacing 20-50mm: These keep off large impurities like fish, leaves
etc.
(iii) Fine screens have openings of 5-20mm and keep off the finer impurities.
The entry of fish in particular can also be prevented with electrical shock devices. Fine screens are usually
built in pairs to allow the set to be cleared while the other one is on duty. Raw water screens usually retain
little material therefore the screen can be set up at a steep angle of 60-75o.
A typical arrangement of the screen is as shown.
Dip or floating
To pump house
boom
Fine screens
Foot valve

b) Storage in a reservoir (open): This allows settlement of large particles, die-off of algae, bacteria
and viruses in a process called self-purification. The extent of self-purification depends on the
retention time of water in the reservoir. Aeration of the water naturally or by forced mixing can be
done at this stage. Chemicals like CuSO4 can be added to kill algae. Sunshine also destroys certain
bacteria and viruses with Ultra Violet light.
c) Storage in a Sump tank (covered): Allows settlement of large particles and limits algal growth.
d) Pre-chlorination/pre-oxidation: The purpose of chlorination is to oxidise organic matter as well as
iron and manganese (if present) in raw water. Pre-chlorination is used to supplement aeration for
treatment of raw water containing significant levels of iron and manganese where aeration alone is
not sufficient to remove them. Pre-chlorination also improves coagulation as well as colour removal.
e) Micro straining: Here, the algae, zooplankton, phytoplankton and shrimps are mechanically strained
out of the water using a wire cloth mesh wound round a rotating drum (Figure 6). The raw water is
discharged to collection channels. Micro-strainers remove floating and even colloidal matter.
Backwashing with jets of water, must be done intermittently to unblock wire mesh. Micro strainers
are expensive to install, operate and maintain and should therefore be discouraged as much as
possible.
Wash water jets for cleaning
Waste tray channel
Rotation
Inlet pipe
Raw water
Mat of retained
material
Wire cloth
Micro strained water
Figure 6: A microstrainer
2.3.4 Aeration and Gas Transfer

Gas transfer is the phenomenon where gas molecules are exchanged between a liquid and a gas at a gas-
liquid interface. The liquid of interest in our case is water. Aeration occurs when air is brought into close
contact with water. The main aims of aeration are to:
i) increase the concentration of the gas in the liquid phase (absorption) provided saturation of the
liquid with the gas has not been reached; or
ii) decrease the concentration of the gas in the liquid when the liquid phase is over saturated
(desorption, or stripping of gas).
In nature, aeration and gas transfer occur for example:
i) In surface water bodies during oxygen transfer (self-purification)
ii) Release of methane and hydrogen sulphide under anaerobic conditions as in swamps
iii) Release of taste and odour producing substances which are volatile and of low concentration in
air
In Public Health Engineering, the aeration process is used in water treatment as in the following examples:
Water treatment:
i) Uptake of oxygen to oxidize Iron (II) and Mn (II) to facilitate their removal from groundwater.
ii) Removal of CH4, H2S and other volatile constituents and taste and odour foreign substances.
iii) Partial removal/stripping of carbon dioxide to approach the carbonate equilibrium with respect
to calcium.
iv) Addition of chlorine or ozone to water for disinfection.
NOTE: Daily iron intake of 10mg for adult men and 15mg for adult women is adequate for growth
(haemoglobin formation) and body metabolic processes. Whereas iron deficiency in the body is associated
with anaemia and low intelligence quotient especially in children, excess level in domestic water supplies
are connected with staining of clothes and utensils, blackening of food and bitter taste, while overload in
the body is linked to hemochromatosis, a genetic disorder which causes diabetes, impotence and liver
failure. Between 2 to 3 mg daily intake of manganese is enough for formation of connective tissue and
bone, growth and other body metabolism. Excess manganese consumption has been linked to
malfunctioning of the central nervous system, reduction in haemoglobin regeneration, Parkinsonism,
abortion and stillbirth in women, and contributes to aesthetic defects similar to that of iron.
2.3.4.2 Type of Aerators
Aeration aims at maximising the opportunity of interfacial contact between the gas phase and the liquid
phase. There are four types of aerators in practice.
Gravity Aerators
These are principally used in water purification plants for absorption of gases. The trickling filter illustrates
the application of the principle in wastewater treatment. Gravity aerators include the following:
i) Cascades: the available difference in head of the water is divided into steps. Cascade aerators are the
simplest to construct and the cheapest to maintain. They can also be concealed as municipal water
fountains.
- 4 to 6 trays
Obstacle to create turbulence - Capacity 0.01 m3/m/s
- Large space requirement
than tray aerators but less
head loss
- No maintenance needed
Aerated water
Ripple plates
ii) Inclined Planes: These are equipped with
ripple-plates to break up a sheet of water for
surface renewal.
Outlet

iii) Multiple tray aerators or Vertical stacks: through which the droplets fall and an up-drift of air
ascends in counter-current flow.
Perforated pipe discharging
water downward
Contact area
Air supply
Collecting pan
Stack of perforated trays. (e.g.,

ferrocement or plastic pipes with
OR:
holes or small diameter plastic pipes
or parallel wooden slates)
30-50cm 4-8 trays trickle rate

cm of 0.02m3/s/m2
Collection
Spray aerators
Water is sprayed in form of fine droplets into the air thus creating a large gas to liquid interface for gas
transfer. They are used for the desorption of carbon dioxide in the course of water treatment. In sewage
treatment, spray aeration is used during the distribution of sewage over trickling filters. The efficiency
depends on the design of the nozzle.
Inlet pipes
Tower
Nozzles
Plan view
Air Diffusers or Bubble Aerators

Compressed air is injected into water through orifices or nozzles in the air piping system or through porous
tubes, plates, boxes or domes to produce bubbles of various sizes. They are mainly used for absorption of
gases especially oxygen. Oxygenation of groundwater during treatment and oxygenation of activated
sludge are examples of application of diffusers in water and wastewater treatment.

Air bubbles
i) Inka Diffuser
Water
surface Perforated plate Thin water layer Advantages:
- Small air requirements
Water in Water out 0.3 – 0.5 m3 air/m3 water
- Low space requirements
compared with the spray
aerators
Disadvantages:
- Clogging
- Compressor maintenance
Air in
ii) Venturi aerators and well aerators are other types of air diffusers. These use a partial vacuum of a stream
of water at a restriction to suck, entrain and diffuse air into the stream.
Air supply
Venturi
Throat (very high

Raw water velocity): Aerated water
Pressure lower
than atm. pressure
Mechanical aerators
These create turbulence and entrainment of air by mechanical means. They are the most common for large-
scale projects but are expensive to construct and maintain.
There are two types of mechanical aerators:
i) A horizontal revolving shaft with combs, blades or angles attached to it dipping into the water.
Water is dispersed upwards into
the air thus creating large interface
between air and water and
increasing oxygen/air transfer rates
ii) Turbine or Cone aerators-2 types:

a) Updraft type (surface aerators) where a motor pumps
water upwards at the surface at a low head. As the water
above falls back, it entrains air bubbles and this enhances
aeration.
Pump
b) Downdraft type: This makes use of the negative

air flow
head produced by the rotating element for the
aspiration of air.

2.3.4.3 Design and Performance Parameters of Aerators
An aerator is designed to achieve the required gas transfer from or into the water. The rate at which the gas
M
mass M is transferred into water ( ) is governed by Fick’s Law of gas transfusion:
t
M C
  D. A. l [g/s]
t X
Where: D is Coefficient of molecular diffusion

A is the area of interface between the gas and the liquid
CL is the gas concentration in the liquid
X is the distance from the interfacial area into the liquid body
C l
is the concentration gradient.
X
The equation simplifies into: M = K2 A (Cs – CL)
K2 is the total gas transfer coefficient = constant = 2. A D ( t exposure) at temperature T [m3/h]
Cs is the saturation concentration
CL is the concentration of the gas in the liquid phase
CL is kept as low as possible in the design and operation of aerators, to minimize costs. (C s – CL) is the
driving force for the air transfer. The lower the concentration in the water, the higher the driving force.
In most cases, the determination of the various variables (A, K, texposure, etc) is not feasible. For example for
the cascade aerator, it will be difficult to determine either the time of exposure of a drop of water to the air,
or the area A. Consequently, the design and performance of different aerators can be achieved from one of
three practical approaches/ parameters namely the Gas Transfer Coefficient, the Efficiency Coefficient and
the Oxygenation Capacity. A brief discussion on these follows.
Gas Transfer Coefficient

The overall gas transfer coefficient K2 may be derived from equation (i) below.
C = Cs – (Cs – Co) e-K2t …………………………………..(i)
Where Cs = Saturation concentration of the gas in water at that temperature

Co = Initial concentration of the gas in water
C = concentration of the gas at any time t.
K2 = overall gas transfer coefficient; which will be a characteristic of the aerator
Equation (i) can be re-arranged as

Cs - C K t ………………………………(ii) or
e 2
C s  Co
Cs - C
ln   K 2t …………………………………..(iii)
C s  Co
The overall gas transfer coefficient K2 is a complex constant which also has several components as
discussed earlier. It can more easily be determined experimentally by plotting equation (iii). In attempting
to evaluate K2, knowledge of the saturation concentration Cs under the experimental steady state conditions
is required. Temperature, dissolved substances and pressure (partial pressure of the gas in air) are factors
that influence Cs and may cause deviation from tabulated values. If Cs is not estimated correctly, there
would be deviations from the expected straight-line relationship. This approach is used for example for
cone and bubble aerators, or for batch reactors where the oxygen content of the water can be monitored
with time.

EXAMPLE 1
In an oxygenation experiment, the oxygen concentration was determined in intervals of 120 seconds as
stated in the table below:
Time (t) seconds C (g/m3) (Cs – C)/ (Cs – Co) ln (Cs – C)/ (Cs – Co)
0 3.8
120 5.2
240 6.3
360 7.2
480 7.9
600 8.4
720 8.8
840 9.2
960 9.5
Assuming that the saturation concentration of oxygen under the laboratory conditions is Cs = 10.5g/m3
(i) Plot a graph of ln[(Cs – C)/ (Cs – Co)] Vs time.
(ii) Estimate the value of K2 from the graph.
(iii) Comment on the validity of your estimate.
The Efficiency Coefficient

With some transfer operations for example cascades, weirs etc, it is impossible to determine the parameter t
contained in equation (i). If a constant time tk is assumed for the aeration step under steady state conditions
of operation, we can generalize the above formula as follows:
Let Co be the gas concentration at the inlet of the aerator; and Ce be that of the effluent, then according to
equation (i)
[Cs – Ce]/ [Cs – Co] = e –K2 k = constant = 1- K…………………… (iv)
t
The efficiency coefficient K can be defined as K = [Ce – Co] / [Cs – Co]……….. ………..(v)
It can be shown that for a cascade aerator with n steps, K = (1- Ks/n) n
Where Ks = efficiency of a single step of the cascade.
n = number of steps
K = 1- e –K2 tk
EXERCISE 1
A spray aerator was found to remove 10g/m3 of CO2 at an initial carbon dioxide content of 22 g/m3 CO2.
Determine:
i) the efficiency coefficient K.
ii) the effluent concentration of raw water containing 38 g/m3 of carbon dioxide when sprayed under
the same hydraulic conditions.
(Assume a saturation concentration Cs = 1.0g/CO2/m3)
The Oxygenation Capacity

A third approach to describe the rate of gas transfer is used in the field of oxygenation of water or mixed
liquor of the activated sludge tanks. Due to the consumption of oxygen by the microbes present in the
sewage, aeration does not lead to an increase of oxygen concentration but rather to establishment of
equilibrium between the oxygen supply and consumption, leading to a certain oxygen concentration. The
oxygenation capacity of an aeration system is defined as the rate of oxygen transfer at:
i) A temperature of 10oC
ii) Pressure of 101.3 KPa (one atmosphere)
iii) An oxygen concentration C = 0 g/m3

Accordingly the oxygenation capacity OC = K2V Cs1 g O2/s
Where: V = Volume of water in the process (m3)
Cs1 = Oxygen saturation concentration in pure water at temperature of 10oC
and P = 101.3Kpa amounting to 11.3 gO2/m3
Note that the coefficient Cs1 refers to the oxygen saturation concentration in water under the experimental
conditions. The influence of temperature on the oxygenation capacity (OC) is commonly accounted for by:
OC = K2VCs1 (D10/DT) I/2
Where D = Coefficient of diffusion and is given in m2/s (Table 2.8).
Table 2.8: Coefficient of Diffusion of gases in water

Gas D x 10 –9 (m2/s)
o
10 C 20oC 30oC
Nitrogen 1.27 1.64 2.20
Oxygen 1.39 1.80 2.42
Methane 1.16 1.50 2.02
CO2 1.30 1.68 2.26
H2S 1.09 1.41 1.90
H2 3.98 5.13 6.90
The correction factor can be estimated from the equation.

(D10/DT) ½ = 1.038 0.5(10 – t)
Therefore (D10/DT) ½ = 1.0188(10 – t)
EXERCISE II
An aeration tank with a volume of 250m3 is equipped with a surface aerator. Assume complete mixing in
the aeration tank. In order to determine the oxygenation capacity of this aeration system, the tank is filled
with pure water at 10oC. The aerator is put into operation for a test under normal condition p = 101.3 Kpa.
The following observations are made.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5
O2 conc. (g/m3) 2.00 3.85 5.33 6.51 7.46 8.22
The energy consumption during the test is 1.5 KW/hr

Calculate:
a) The expected oxygen concentration after 5 minutes
b) The expected oxygen concentration after 15 minutes
c) The oxygenation capacity of the system in gO2/m3.s
2.3.5 Coagulation and Flocculation
2.3.5.1 Definitions
i) Coagulation is the addition of a chemical or coagulation that can destabilize the surface charges of
colloids and enhance agglomeration (flocculation).
ii) Flocculation refers to process where a solute comes out of solution in the form of floc. The term is
also used to refer to the process by which fine particulates are caused to clump together into floc.
iii) Flocculants, or flocculating agents, are chemicals that are used to promote flocculation by causing
colloids and other suspended particles in liquids to aggregate, forming a floc. Flocculants are used in
water treatment processes to improve the sedimentation or filterability of small particles.
Many flocculants are multivalent cations such as aluminium or iron. These positively charged molecules
interact with negatively charged particles and molecules to reduce the barriers to aggregation. In addition,
many of these chemicals, under appropriate pH and other conditions, react with water to form insoluble

hydroxides which, upon precipitating, link together to form long chains or meshes, physically trapping
small particles into the larger floc. Factors such as pH, temperature and salinity can induce flocculation or
influence flocculation rates. The following chemicals are used such as flocculants:
 Aluminium chlorohydrate  Iron (II) sulphate
 Aluminium sulphate  Sodium aluminates
 Calcium oxide  Sodium silicate
 Iron (III) Chloride  Moringa Oleifera as a natural flocculant
The terms flocculant and coagulant are sometimes used interchangeably, but it is more accurate to use the
term coagulant for a chemical that contributes to molecular aggregation. Usually dissolved substances are
aggregated into microscopic particles by a coagulant and then these particles may be flocculated into a
macroscopic floc with a flocculant. In general, coagulants will have higher net charge and a lower
molecular weight than flocculants.
After coagulation and/or flocculation, the subsequent treatment processes are sedimentation, or direct
filtration. Substances that are removed by coagulation/flocculation are those that cause colour and
turbidity. Turbidity substances included eroded matter, algae and debris. Colour-causing materials include
leachate from decomposing organic matter (humic substances), leaves, soil and peat.
In conventional water treatment systems, the process of coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, filtration
and disinfection are combined to clarify the water and remove/inactive microbiological contaminants such
as viruses, bacteria and cysts and cysts of pathogenic protozoa. Although the removal of microbiological
contaminants continues to be an important reason for using coagulation, a newer objective, the removal of
natural organic material (NOM) to reduce the formation of disinfection by-products, is of growing
importance.
2.3.5.2 Removal of suspended solids and colloids
Without doubt, the largest and most evident contribution to water pollution is made by the presence of
various solids. This solid fraction needs to be removed in order to eliminate a wide range of problems,
chiefly: the clogging of piping and coolant systems, abrasion caused to pumps and measuring equipment
and the wear of various items of equipment, which have serious implications for the running and
maintenance costs of manufacturing units. Where drinking water and effluents are concerned, an additional
factor is the need to comply with official regulations.
Two different principles are applied for the separation of solids from water:
 The direct use of gravity in the form of straightforward sedimentation, where the determining factors
are the size and specific weight of the particles, or by floatation, where air bubbles systematically
introduced into the suspension attach themselves to the particles.
 Filtration or screening
However, the unsophiscated application of these principles comes up against the difficulty caused by the
wide range of particle sizes, even for a specific type of pollution. Table 9 below lists materials and
organisms with their average size and a rough indication of the time needed for these particles to settle
vertically through one metre of water under the effect of gravity alone.
Good quality water may contain tens of millions of particles of micron size. Despite their number, these
particles will have a total weight of less than 0.1mg. It follows from the above figures that the quality of
water is a relative concept and that it is necessary, bearing in mind the requirements to specify the
acceptable level of residual pollution. Table 9 underlines the very slow natural settling rate of fine, or so-
called colloidal particles, which make up a large part of the pollution and are a specific cause of turbidity.
Any treatment requires as a preliminary step, a change in the conditions such that the particles can coalesce
between themselves to form large agglomerates, which are easy to remove.

Table 9: Materials/organisms of various average size and associated estimate of the time needed for them
to settle
Particle diameter (mm) Material/Organism Settling time through 1m of
water (estimate)
10 Gravel 1 second
1 Sand 10 seconds
0.1 Fine sand 2 minutes
0.01 Clay 2 hours
0.001 Bacteria 8 days
0.0001 Colloidal particle 2 years
0.00001 Colloidal particle 20 years
Source: Degrémont, 1979; Note: 10-3 to 1mm – suspended/non filterable solids; 10-3 to 10-6mm – Colloidal particles;
10-6 to 10-9mm – Dissolved solids
This coalescence does not take place naturally, since colloidal suspensions are characterized by specific
forces, which hold the matter in the dispersed state, with a remarked degree of stability over time. This
stability is due to salvation or the protective action of certain adsorbed substances as well as to the over-
riding effect of electrostatic forces, which act to repel the particles away.
2.3.5.3 Why Coagulation and Flocculation are Necessary
i) Very fine materials do not settle easily on their own due to low gravitational forces and hence the
need to agglomerate them into larger (heavier) particles that can settle.
ii) Colloidal particles (micrometers) have electrostatic charges on their surfaces that lead to their
repulsion and stabilization in the suspension in the water. This is due to the presence of a double
layer of ions around each particle (Figure 7).
Fixed layer
+ +
+ +
Diffuse layer + - +
+ -+ + +- +
+ -+- -+- +
+ - + + - +
+ - - + Nernst (E) potential
+ + +
Potential Zeta (Z) potential
Distance from surface of particle
Figure 7: Conceptual representation of an electrical double layer around a colloidal particle

Coagulants have the capacity to compress the double layer of ions thus canceling the repulsive forces
hence enabling particles to flocculate. The flocs can then grow to a sufficient size that can be removed in
sedimentation or direct filtration.
Nernst Potential (E): Is the potential difference between the wall of the particle and the bulk of the liquid.
It is a thermodynamic potential.
Zeta Potential (Z): Is the potential difference between the surface separating the fixed and moving parts
from the bulk of the liquid. It is an electrokinetic potential. Z depends on both E and the thickness of the
double layer. Its value determines the extent of the electrostatic forces of repulsion between the particles
and their probability of adhesion. Z is estimated by:
k
Z
D
Where  = dynamic viscosity, D = dielectric constant of the medium,  = mobility of the particle in
S/cm, Z is expressed in mV.

k depends on the relative value of the particle diameter and the thickness of the double layer of ions.
k Formula
Relatively large particle 4π Helmholtz
Small particle, roughly spherical 6π Huckel
NOTE: Chemical treatment of water should be avoided when ever possible (because chemicals are
potential pollutants). Chemical coagulation should only be applied when other processes cannot achieve
the desired result.
2.3.5.4 Typical Coagulants
The most common coagulants are aluminium sulphates (alum Al2(SO4)3.14H2O) and iron salts mostly
chloride (FeCl3). Synthetic organic electrolytes have also been used either on their own or in combination
with other coagulants to catalyze the process. Fe salts have advantage over Al salts (although the latter is
most common) since effective coagulation with ions occurs over a wider pH range (Refer to jar-test ahead).
2.3.5.5 Mechanisms of Coagulation/Destabilization
i) Reduction of the surface potential by the use of hydrolyzing agents’Al3+, Fe3+, polymers, etc
ii) Compression of the electric double layer by addition of non-hydrolyzing counter ions e.g. Na+, Mg2+,
Ca2+, etc. resulting in the reduction of the zeta potential.
iii) Enmeshments in precipitation where by smaller particles are trapped by the precipitation and co-
settle.
iv) Inter particle bridging-where the formed pseudo positive charge (due to the addition of Al and Fe
salts and the formation of the Al(OH)3 and Fe(OH)3 adsorb colloids and co-settle gravitationally.
High valency coagulants are mostly used due to their higher reactive power of coagulation. The effective
power for uni-:, di-: tri-valent is in the ratio 1:30:1000 hence the use of Al and Fe salts.
Hydrolysis
Fe3+ + 6H2O Fe(H2O)63+ [Fe(H2O)5OH ]2+ +H+
[Fe(H2O)2(OH)4] +4H Fe(H2O)3(OH3) + 3H+ [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2]+ +2H+
The above equation shows that coagulation is pH dependent. The pH value plays a very important part in
the study of coagulation and flocculation phenomena. To illustrate: a part of the charge carried by the
colloidal particles, which have adsorbed OH- ions is destroyed by an increase in the concentration of H+
ions, and this reduces the stability of the colloidal suspension.
Similarly, it is preferable to work with a pH value inside the range corresponding to the minimum
solubility of the metallic ions of the coagulant used.
As far as the aluminium salts are concerned, the minimum concentration of Al 3+ ions in solution is
achieved with a pH-value of between 6.5 and 7.5. Outside this range, and depending on the mineralization
of the water, a higher concentration of dissolved aluminium is liable to be found. In some exceptional
cases, the water to be treated contains a large quantity of matter rich in aluminium compounds. A simple
increase in the pH value brings about the coagulation of the compounds. For the iron salts, the pH range is
much wider, and minimum solubility is reached as soon as the pH value exceeds 5.5.
2.3.5.6 Optimisation of coagulant dose – The Jar Test
Good coagulation requires proper mixing of an optimum coagulant dose in water. The optimum dose
depends on:-
 Nature and composition of raw water
 Type of the coagulant
The optimum dose cannot be computed for particular raw water and hence a laboratory test (jar test, Figure
8) is used to determine this quantity.

A six-jar sample of water series (equal volumes) is placed on a special multiple stirrer. The samples are
dosed with a range of coagulant doses e.g. 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, mg/l and then stirred vigorously for 1
minute. Gentle mixing for about 10 minutes follows this.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 8: A schematic of a jar test apparatus
During this process, flocculation (floc formation and growth) takes place. The samples are then left to
stand for about 30 to 60 minutes, during this time sedimentation or settling takes place. The samples are
then tested for turbidity (or any other parameter of interest) and the lowest dose that gives a satisfactory
clarification is selected.
Turbidity
Required amount
Minimum amount
Optimum dose Coagulant dose
A second test is done in which the optimum dose identified in the 1st test is applied to all the water samples
adjusted to a range of different pH. Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation are allowed to occur as
before. The optimum pH is then determined as that pH range which gives a satisfactory clarified water
quality.
Coagulant
dose (mg/l) Al salt pH = 6.5-7.5
Fe salt pH= 5.5-9.0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
pH
4
Rapid Mixing for Coagulation

This aims at the immediate dispersal of the entire dose of chemicals throughout the water mass. There are
two groups of mixing devices:-
i) Hydraulic rapid mixers - these employ channel chambers with baffles producing turbulent flow
conditions, e.g. overflow weirs, hydraulic jumps etc.
(a) Baffled channel (b) Overflow weir
Baffles (450) Coagulant Over flow weir
addition
Feed point
NB: The weir can also be used to measure flow

(c) Hydraulic Jump
Plan view
Feed point of coagulant
(c) Static mixing devices Feed point
Inline mixing
ii) Mechanical mixers
Electric motor
Coagulant
feed
To flocculation basin
Water inlet
The required power for mixing is imparted by turbines, propellers and impellers. They are less suitable for
small treatment plant than hydraulic ones since they require a reliable and continuous supply of power.
Gentle mixing /flocculation
A. Mechanisms of Agglomeration
There are two methods of agglomeration:
i) Peri- kinetic flocculation: This is agglomeration where no additional mixing is induced. The
transport phenomenon is a result of Brownian motion with the formed flocs colliding with each
other to form larger particles. This is a natural process and occurs for example in raw water
reservoirs.
ii) Ortho-Kinetic Flocculation: This is a phenomenon in which the transport mechanism in induced
by mixing and it is what takes place during coagulation/flocculation. In a mono-disperse colloidal
suspension; the number of collisions leading to agglomeration is given by
dn 2 Gd 3 n 2

dt 3
where  -fraction of collisions leading to agglomeration
G - mean velocity gradient [s-1]
d - diameter of particles
n- number of particles
G is the measure of the amount of energy required to transport the particles within the water and it is
estimated by the equation of Camp and Stein (1943):

1/ 2
 E 
G 
V 
Where E is energy/second or power (watts)
 is absolute viscosity (kg/m.s or Ns/m2)
V is the volume of the water body in m3 in which energy is dissipated
B. Types of Gentle Mixing Devices (Flocculators)

There are two classifications of gentle mixing devices.
i) Mechanical Flocculators
Mixing is achieved by paddles or rakes which are fitted to a vertical (in a square tank) or horizontal shaft.
The design and placement of the shafts and paddles should be done judiciously to avoid hydraulic short
circulating.
Mechanical flocculator design

The theory is based on the drag force of water on the rotating paddles and is given by the equation of Camp
and Stein:
r 2
Fd  Cd A l
2
Where Fd is drag force kgm/s
A is the project bed area of the paddle in the direction of motion m2
 l is the mass density of water in kg/m3
 r is the relative velocity of the paddle in m/s
Cd is the drag coefficient and is a function of the material and shape of the paddle
r 2
But from E = distance/time; G = Fd  r = Cd A l
2
1/ 2
C A l r 3 
 G d 
 2V 
The relative velocity r is mostly in the ranges of 0.5 – 0.75 m/s;The drag coefficient Cd is about 1.2 for
common shapes of the particle;The total area of the paddles should be less that 20% of the area of the
chamber;The maximum velocity of the paddles should not exceed 1.2 m/s in the direction of rotation.
WHY?
For both types of flocculators, the value of G = 10 – 100 s-1 and t is 15-45 minutes. The most important
parameter considered in the design is the G t value which is commonly between 2x10–4 – 2x105. The
product G t gives a measure for the number of particle collisions and thus for the floc formation action.
ii) Hydraulic Flocculators
Different hydraulic structures result into a stirring or mixing effect. Examples are channels with baffles and
gravel bed flocculators (direct filters).

V1 h
V2 1 4
2 3 n
They may be vertically or horizontally placed with the efficiency of the system dependent on the depth of
the water in the channel. The energy input/power will be equal to the power or energy lost and is
proportional to the head loss of the system.
E = Qg h
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
 E   Qgh    gh 
Given G    then on substitution for E, G    resulting in G   
V   V   t 
since Q/V =1/t; where t = retention time
The total head loss h is given by

2 2
nv1 mv
h   2  normal friction losses
2g 2g
Where: m = n-1, n being the number of direction changes, and m = number of baffles.
v1 is the baffle velocity usually in the range of 0.1–0.3 m/s
v2 is the velocity at the turns (baffle slot) usually between 0.4 – 0.6 m/s;
t is the retention time which should be 10 – 25 min
The spacing should be greater than 45cm to facilitate cleaning
Hydraulic mixers compared to mechanical mixers are with the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
i) Cheap to operate and maintain.
ii) No additional energy in case of mechanical mixers where energy is needed to drive the
propellers.
Disadvantages
i) Lack of flexibility or possibility for adjustments in case of varying raw water quality
ii) Lack of flexibility for changing production capacity of the treatment plant
iii) Cleaning difficulties
iv) Relatively high head losses
2.3.6 Sedimentation
Sedimentation and floatation are treatment processes whereby the water to be treated is kept in a tank for a
considerable length of time. With a large cross-sectional area of the tank, the velocity of flow will be small,
creating a state of virtual quiescence. Under the influence of gravity, particles with a mass density greater
than that of the surrounding liquid move downwards (sedimentation), while those with a lower mass
density move upwards (floatation). The suspended particles present in the water are retained, either as
scum layer at the water surface, or as a sludge layer at the tank bottom. The larger the particles, and the
higher their density relative to that of the surrounding liquid, the faster the rate of settling.
2.3.6.2 Types of settling
There are three (3) types of particle settling encountered in water treatment:
i) Discrete settling: Occurs when the amount of natural aggregation of the settling particles is
negligible, as for example, with sand grains. Particles, which during settling, do not change in size,
shape and mass, and which do not influence each other by being too close, are referred to as discrete
particles. Horizontal flow basis give the best results for the removal of discrete particles. The tanks
should ideally be long, narrow, shallow and rectangular in section.
ii) Hindered settling: Occurs in water where there are closely packed particles, the water dispersed by
the particles may cause additional friction and the settling velocity is reduced. Hindered settling
becomes noticeable when the concentration of suspended soils is greater than 2,000mg/l. This
situation of high concentration of suspended solids may happen in river water during high flooding
and heavy rainfall.
iii) Flocculent Settling: Occurs where aggregation of the settling particles exists, for example with
organic impurities in the water and in municipal wastewater. In this case, the settling of particles
adhere to each other and grow in size and thus deviate from the settling characteristics represented
by stoke’s law. Flocculent settling may be enhanced by chemical coagulation, for example by using
Aluminium Sulphate (alum) or Iron (III) chloride.
Discrete, hindered and flocculent settling are shown in Figure 8.
Hindered
Distance
Discrete
Flocculent
Time
Figure 8: Settling of different particles in water
Settling Theory-Discrete Settling
The excess of the net gravitational force over the drag force causes the settling of a particle:
Net Gravitational force Fg= (ρs - ρw) gν ---------------------------------------- (1)
Where ρs and ρw are the mass densities of the particle and water respectively, g is the constant (9.81 m/s 2)
and ν the volume of the particle.
The Newton fictional drag force is
Fd = ½ CDρwS2A --------------------------------------- (2)
With the velocity coefficient CD dimensionless number, S the terminal velocity or settling velocity of the
particle and A its projected area in the direction of motion. Equating the two forces gives the settling
velocity of the particle:
2  s   w gV
Thus S= --------------------------------------- (3)
C D W A
For a sphere of diameter D, A=πd2 /4, ν=πd3 /6, so that (spherical; volume = 4/3πr3), the settling velocity
will be given by
4 s   w gd
S= --------------------------------------- (4)
3CD  w
The value of CD depends on the magnitude of Reynolds (Re) number for the settling.
Re = Sd/ ν --------------------------------------- (5)

Where ν is the kinematic viscosity of the surrounding liquid (water). For pure water, the kinematic
viscosity ν (m2/s), which is temperature dependent, is given in table below.
Temp. (oc) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
ν x 10-6 m2/s 1.79 1.52 1.31 1.15 1.01 0.9 0.8 0.73 0.66
Interpretation of the settling velocity equation -The velocity of a particle will increase with:
a) a decreasing value of the drag coefficient, CD
b) an increasing particle mass density, ρS
c) a decreasing liquid mass density, ρw
d) an increasing particular diameter, d
The drag coefficient CD takes on different values depending on whether the flow regime surrounding the
particle is laminar or turbuletnt. The drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number and depends on the
particle shape. For spherical particles, CD is approximated by the following equation (upper limit of Re =
104).
24 3
CD    0.34 ----------------------------------------------- (6)
Re Re
For Reynolds numbers less than 0.3, the first term in equation (6) predominates and substitution of this
drag term into equation (4) yields Stoke’s Law:  s   w gd 2
S
Shortfalls of the Settling Theory
18w
Of the factors in the settling velocity equations (4) and (5), the temperature and mass density of the liquid,
mainly water can easily be determined. However, the particle density and diameter d cannot readily be
determined. A spread of particles of various densities and diameters exist in practice, thus limiting the
practical value of equation (4). We shall therefore look at alternative ways to establish the value for the
settling velocity.
EXERCISE III
a) Calculate the settling velocities for particles with diameters:-
i) 10-6m
ii) 10-4m
iii) 10-3m
iv) 10-1m
given that the water temperature is 10oC, g=9.81m/s2 and ρS=2000Kg/m3.
What are your conclusions as far as settling out these particles in a tank of 4m depth is concerned?
b) Calculate the settling velocities for particles with diameters
i) 10-2mm
ii) 10mm
at temperatures of 0, 20 and 400c respectively.
c) What do you find to be a more significant influence on settling velocities: particle size or temperature?
Discrete Settling In Continuous Horizontal Flow Basins: Frequency Distribution of Settling Velocities
Because of the difficulty, or even impossibility of determining the weight and shape of the various particles
in practice, the theory is usually disregarded, and the frequency distribution of the velocities of the particles
as they settle is measured directly in the laboratory in a test referred to as the column test.
A container immersed in a constant temperature bath is filled with a respective sample of the suspension to
be tested and stirred gently to distribute the particles over the full depth. The test starts when the water has
come to rest. By means of sampling tubes, water samples are taken at different depths and analysed for
suspended solids, colour, aluminium, BOD or any other parameter that can be reduced by settling. When a
sample is taken at depth h and time t, no particle with a settling velocity in excess of h/t will be found,
while all particles with a settling velocity less than h/t are present in their original concentration. Provided
that an adequate number of samples is taken and analysed, an easy and accurate determination of the
settling velocities can be obtained in this way.
Table 10: Results of a typical experiment with discrete particles for sampling depths of 0.5m and 1.25m
t(s) 0 900 1,800 2,700 3,600 5,400 7,200
h = 0.5 h/t (x10-3ms-1) 0.556 0.278 0.185 0.139 0.069 0.069
c 86 57 25 8 3 0 0
100 c/co 100 66 29 9 4 0 0
h = 1.25 h/t (x10-3ms-1) 1.389 0.965 0.463 0.347 0.174 0.174
c 86 83 63 49 37 6 6
100 c/co 100 96 73 57 42 7 7
The factor c refers to the concentration of a measurable parameter while 100c/co refers to the proportion of
this parameter in solution or in water. The value h/t represents the settling velocity. A plot of the
cumulative frequency distribution of settling velocities can be made in a chart.
Example II
Using data in table above, plot a graph of 100c/co against h/t (m/s). A plot of the combined graphs is shown
below. Comment on the graph
h=0.5 m h=1.25 m
100
80
60
100C/Co
40
20
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40
x10-3ms-1
h/t (= S)
Quiescent Settling
When a water is left standing for a time To in a tank of depth H, all particles with a settling velocity larger
than So=H/ To will have completely disappeared. Particles with a settling velocity S<So are partly removed.
Only those particles at the depth h’ =STo from the bottom will also be removed. The removal rate of these
particles depends on their relative velocities as shown:
r (removal ratio) = h’/H = STo/SoTo =S/So ----------------------------------------- (6)
Note: The higher the velocity, the faster they are removed (hence smaller retention time. For a smaller
retention time, is the removal ratio high or low?).
When an amount of Q m3/s must be clarified by settling in fill and draw tanks, a detention time To
necessitates a volume
V = QTo = AH ---------------------------------------- (7)
Where A is the surface area and H the depth of the basin. The removal ratio (r) depends on the factor So.
So = H/To = Q.H/A.H = Q/A -------------------------------------- (8)
With a fixed capacity Q, the removal ratio consequently only depends on the surface area A and is
independent of the tank depth H. So is called the settling velocity or the overflow rate of the tank. This
of course, is true only for prismatic (uniform) section tanks.
The general velocity frequency distribution curve from column test is as follows:

(a) (b)
100% 100%
1 po  s
80 dp 80 r
so
60 60
PO PO
40 40
20 20
0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5

SO x 10-3m/s SO x 10-3 m/s
Hence for a given tank design for S = So, r, the removal ratio can be determined.
For a given tank, T = V/Q, and you have So = Q/A; In that tank all particles with S  So are 100% removed
= (1- po).
The remaining particles are removed in proportions of the ratio of their settling velocities to that of the tank
overflow rate:
r = 1  po  
po s
0 so
dp
1
 1  po  
p0
so  0
sdp
But since s is rather variable the equation of curve is not well established. Hence graphical approach is
used (Figure (b) above, with Po in decimal)). Another approach used is gravimetric.
2.3.6.3 Types of Sedimentation Tanks
There are two types categorized according to the direction of flow as follows:
i) Horizontal flow tanks
a) These may be either rectangular
Sludge scraper Outlet zone

Inlet zone
Uniform water Weir
distribution
over depth and νo
width Settling
Zone
Sludge Sludge zone

hopper L

b) Or Circular tanks. Again these may either be:
Centre feed type
Outlet zone
Settling zone
Peripheral feed type

D
Inlet zone
Settling zone
Slope = 6-10%
D
Outlet zone
DW = S – 10%D DW
ii). Vertical flow tanks (Circular) – may either be:

Cylindrical
Overflow
wiers
(effluent)
X – Area A
Sludge blanket
Influent, Q Sludge bleed line
Conical
Sludge bleed
Influent

2.3.6.4 Common Sedimentation Tank Characteristics (in the absence of column test results)
So = 0.2-1 m/hr
T = 1-3 hrs
L:B = 3 to 8
Depth = 1.5 –2.0 m
The efficiency of both the circular and rectangular tanks is the same given ideal conditions and is
dependent on the overflow rate So = Q/BL
i) For vertical flow tanks, water flows upward and particles moving downwards due to their weight.
An eqilibrium is established where particles remain motionless at particular height.
ii) A particulate layer or sludge blanket is formed and later traps and filters even smaller particles in
the water as it flows upwards thereby increasing the efficiency of sludge removal.
iii) The overflow rate has to be controlled in order to maintain the blanket therefore intermittent or
non-uniform flows should be avoided.
iv) In the absence of the sludge blanket, the efficiency of the vertical flow tanks would be less than
that for horizontal flow tanks since it will be only those particles whose settling velocity will be
greater than So that will be removed.
Continuous horizontal flow basins
The flow of water in horizontal basins has only a limited influence on the settling process. It gives
clarification efficiencies approaching that of quiescent settling. With vertical flow basins, the movement of
water is of paramount importance. For vertical flow tanks, all the particles with settling velocity less than
So = Q/A = H/To are entrained by the flowing water and cannot be kept back, thus limiting the removal
ratio. With horizontal flow tanks, particles with a settling velocity S<So are still partly retained, thus
increasing the removal ratio.
A rectangular horizontal flow basin should ideally have the following characteristics:
i) The direction of flow should be horizontal, with equal velocities everywhere in the basin.
ii) The particles in the water should be uniformly dispersed at the inlet of the basin.
iii) The particles are not re-suspended
The basin should have
i) An inlet zone to disperse the influent flow and suspended matter uniformly over the full cross-
sectional area of the basin.
ii) A settling zone in which the suspended particles settle within the following water
iii) An outlet zone to collect the clarified liquid evenly over the cross-sectional area of the basin
iv) A sludge zone at the bottom to store the removed solids without the danger of re-suspension.
The efficiency of the ideal basin, as mentioned before, depends on the surface area and the rate of flow,
which together constitute the surface loading or overflow rate So
The above requirements and removal efficiencies also hold true for non-rectangular basins for example
circular tanks, provided the depth remains constant.
Factors that affect Basin Efficiency
i) Turbulence
To avoid basin turbulence, Re ( = VoR/2T) should be less than 2000. For a rectangular basin,
R= BH/(B + 2H); Vo = Q/BH or Re = Q/ν(B +2H) < 2000. This necessitates wide, deep basins.
ii) Bottom Scouring
Although So is equal to Q/BL and therefore independent of H, when the depth decreases too much, it
increases the horizontal velocity or displacement velocity to levels where the settled material may be
picked up and carried from the sludge zone.
No reduction in basin efficient is anticipated for Vo<Vs where Vs is scoring velocity. For rectangular tanks
(Vo/So = L/H), the antiscouring velocity requirement is that L/H<Vs/Vo. For circular tanks Vo = Q/πDwH for
Vo <Vs

8   s   w 
Vs    gd
   w 
Where V s is scoring velocity,  is the friction/porosity factor which is equal to 0.04 for discrete “sand”
particles and 0.06 for sticky particles,  is the hydraulic friction factor which is approx. 0.03.
40   s   w 
For  = 0.05 and λ = 0.03; Vs    gd
3   w 
Although flow should proceed under quiescent conditions, a relatively high horizontal velocity Vo is
desirable to obtain stable flow conditions as noted in the next section.
iii) Basin Instability (Non-Uniform Velocity and Short Circuiting)
Even under regular flow and non disturbing conditions, friction drag on the walls and flow of basin retard
movement of the water leading to less than average velocities in these regions and higher than average
values in the middle of the tank. This means that some of the water will leave the tank in less than the
theoretical detention time To and some will take longer.
Unequal supply of raw water and non-uniform abstraction of clarified water over the width and depth of
the basin due to currents caused by wind and density differences etc, will also lead to disturbances that
create differential velocities and retention time.
Short-circuiting in horizontal plane
Of these are sections of the basin with stagnant water or eddying currents caused by unequal distribution of
incoming water or wind induced currents. This results in a reduced effective surface area of the basin
which increases the average overflow rate and hence reduced particle removal efficiency.
Basin Instability is controlled by the Froude number, Fr.
V2
Fr   10 5
gR
Stability in the tank is promoted if the basin has a big So and big L. The Froude number should be as large
as possible although increasing it infinitely will cause turbulence and re-suspension. In practice, the L: B
ratio is between 6:1 and 10:1 and as a fast approximation, H = 1/12 L0.8. H and L are in metres.
Tank Modifications
1. Use of baffles: They can be either longitudinal or round-the-bend.
(a) Longitudinal (b) Round-the-bend
This increases the kinetic velocity,

which increases both Re, and Fr
This is accepted, as the increase in
Fr is effected by Vo2
Re = VoR/ν, Fr = Vo2
R = BH/2nH + B; R decreases.
Hence Re reduces and Fr increases

2. Tray-Settling Tanks
S = So/2 So = Q/BL
This system improves the efficiency of removal of

S = So/2 particles as the overflow rate reduces. The system
has the main problem of sludge removal.
3. Tilted Plate Separators

This increases BL, which reduces So and
hence improves the efficiency of
removal of particles.
Overall So = Q/nA (where n is a

multiplication factor which is a
function of the position and type of
the tilted plates)
Scum/sludge
removal zone
Short-circuiting can be diminished by judicious design:
 Supplying and abstracting water uniformly over the depth and width of the basin: preventing
concentrated inlets with high velocities of flow.
 Mixing the inlet water intimately with the tank contents to avoid density currents.
 Short-circuiting can also be diminished by a wide selection of basin site and orientation and use
of windscreens for example, hedges.
 In the settling zone, stable flow conditions should be ensured-those which can withstand the
wind and the density current effects.
Inlet and Design Considerations
The Inlet is designed to ensure uniform flow over the whole area.
The Outlet is designed for non-turbulence to ensure that particles, which are already settled adjacent to this
zone, are not re-suspended. To achieve this, Q/weir length <5HSo.
For a rectangular tank;

Q/nB < 5HSo
Inlet
Overflow weirs
For a circular tank, prove that D/H < 20
Sludge Deposition in Sedimentation Tanks
S = So S < So
H S > So
l So = Q/Blo; Sl = Q/Bl
lo
Consider the cumulative frequency curve:
At l, all particles with S > Sl will already have been
removed 100%. The remaining particles will be
removed in proportions of their settling velocities
over the whole length from the tank inlet. Hence the Pl
removal rate of these particles at this distance beyond r1
length l, will be proportional to their settling
velocities.
If the discharge into the sedimentation tank is Q, then
the quantity of SS removal per time = Q.r.Cin; [g/s].
The average sludge deposition rate = (Q.r.Cin)/BL
Sl
In practice, it is how much sludge in m3/m/d that you
look for but not g/m3/s. Thus the required conversions are:
 To convert dry solids into sludge (gravimetric)
 To convert sludge volume into depth (gravi-volumetric)
The required data for the conversions are:
 The dry solids content in the total sludge by weight, p %
 Mass density of the dry solids,  s (carry out tests in laboratory on solids to determine their
density)
Approach
(1) To determine the average wet sludge deposition rate
rQCin 100 24 x3600
* * [kg sludge/m2.d]
BL p 1000
2) To convert the kg sludge into volume; this is divided by the density of the sludge
MT MT MT
Bulk density  d   
VT VS  VW pM T 1  p M T

s w
1 s w s w
  
p (1  p) p w   s (1  p) p(  w   s )   s
( 
s w
100 s  w
 (recall what p is and hence how it is exp ressed here)
p(  w   s )  100 s
The average sludge deposition/accumulation rate, a is therefore given as

 r.Q.Cin  100
 BL * 86.4 p
a   
100 S W
pW   S   100 s
yielding:
86.4.r.Q.Cin  1 100  p 
a     [m / d ]
BL  S pW 

EXERCISE IV
River water contains suspended particles with a concentration of 120g/m3. The cumulative frequency
distribution of these particles shows a straight line with the following characteristics
5% have S > 0.8 x 10-3 m/s
0% have S < 0.1x 10-3 m/s
A sedimentation tank of a height of 3.5 m, breadth of 15m is required to clarify this water to achieve an
efficiency of 90%. The flow rate of the influent is 0.22 m3/s. Calculate, for ideal settling conditions:
a) The length of the tank
b) The length of the effluent weir to be applied.
c) Values of Reynolds and Froude number for the horizontal movement. Comment on your results
(Water temperature is 20oc).
d) Determine the frequency distribution of the settling velocities of the suspended particles in the effluent
(this is similar to what would happen in a 2-stage tank).
e) Determine the sludge deposition rates at distance of 5, 10, 35 and 90m respectively from the inlet.
Comment on your results
2.3.7 Filtration
2.3.7.1 Definition
Filtration is the process of water purification in which water is allowed to pass through a bed of filtering
media, usually sand and gravel. The purified water in form of filtrate is collected at the bottom through an
under drain system. The filter media are very efficient in retaining finer colloidal particles including
bacteria and viruses.
2.3.7.2 Mechanisms of filtration
Filtration is based on several simultaneously occurring phenomena:
 sedimentation in the pore spaces of the filtration media
 mechanical straining of undissolved suspended particles (screening effect);
 charge exchange, flocculation and adsorption of colloidal matter (boundary layer processes);
 bacteriological-biological processes within the filter.
Table 11: General features of construction of slow sand and rapid rate filters
Item Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters
Rate of filtration 0.05 to 0.3 m3/m2/hr 5 to 15 m3/m2/hr
Depth of bed 0.3 m of gravel; 1.0 – 15 m of sand 0.5 m of gravel; 0.75 m of sand
Size of sand Effective size 0.1-0.35m Effective size 0.45-2m
Coefficient of uniformity 2-3 Coefficient of uniformity <1.3
Length of run 20 to 30 to 120 days 12 to 24 to 72 hours
Penetration of suspended Superficial (only the top layer is cleaned) Deep (whole bed is washed)
matter
Preparatory treatment of Normally aeration, but flocculation and Flocculation and sedimentation may
water sedimentation can be included be essential
Method of cleaning i) Scraping off surface layer of sand and Scour by mechanical rakes , sir
washing removed sand scour and removal of dislodged
ii) Washing surface sand in situ by material by upward flow
travelling washer
Cost Construction Higher Lower
Operation Lower Higher
Depreciation Lower Higher
Amount of wash water 0.2 – 0.6% of filtered water 1 – 6 % of the water filtered
Drainage system Collection of filtered water towards outlet, by either:
- layer of gravel or crushed rock; grain size 25-50 mm; depth, 0.15 m
- system of bricks, concrete slabs or porous material. See Fig. 2: lateral drains
and main drain sloped toward outlet.
- system of perforated pipes, water and pressure-proof materials: PVC, cast iron,
asbestos cement, locally available porous material

Filters are divided into two principally different types: slow sand or biological filters (v=0.1-0.3m3/m2/h =
2-7m3/m2/day) and rapid filtration (v = 5-15 m3/m2/h=120-360 m3/m2/day). In-between types also exist.
Depending on the filtration rate, different mechanisms are operative within the filter.
Generally, a filter consists of a filter medium (inert medium e.g., quartz sand; or chemically activated
medium, e.g., burnt material); support bed (gravel) and under-drain system; and influent and effluent pipes,
wash and drain lines, control and monitoring appurtenances.
2.3.7.3 Slow Sand Filtration
Slow sand filtration is accomplished by passing raw water slowly and gravitationally through a medium of
fine sand. On the surface of the sand bed, a thin biological film develops after some time of ripening
(different from the rapid filter). This film consists of active microorganisms and is called
“Schmutzdecke,”or filter skin. It is responsible for the bacteriological purification effect. The slow sand
filter is therefore also called “surface filter” or “biological filter.”
Mechanisms of Slow Sand Filtration
The principle purification processes taking place during slow sand filtration are:
Sedimentation: The water body sitting on top of the filter bed acts as a settling reservoir. Settleable
particles sink to the sand surface.
Mechanical straining: The sand acts as a strainer. Particles too big to pass through the interstices between
the sand grains are retained.
Adsorption: The suspended particles and colloids that come in contact with the surface of the sand grains
by following the passage of the water are retained by:
 adhesion to the biological layer (Schmutzdecke),
 physical mass attraction (Van der Waals force), and
 electrostatic and electrokinetic attractive forces (Coulomb forces).
On account of these forces, an agglomerate of opposite charged particles forms within the top layer of
sand. This process needs some time of ripening to fully develop.
Biochemical processes in the biological layer (Schmutzdecke):
 partial oxidation and breakdown of organic substances forming water, CO2 and inorganic salts,
 conversion of soluble iron and manganese compounds into insoluble hydroxides which attach
themselves to the grain surfaces,
 killing of E. Coli and of pathogens.
Organic substances are deposited on the upper layer of sand, where they serve as breeding ground and food
for bacteria and other types of microorganisms (assimilation and dissimilation). These produce a slimy,
sticky, gelatinous film which consists of active bacteria, their wastes and dead cells and partly assimilated
organic materials. The dissimilation products are carried away by the water to greater depth. Similar
processes occur there. The bacterial activity gradually decreases with depth. Different types of bacteria are
normally found at various depths.
Algae can contribute to the breakdown of organic material and bacteria. They can improve the formation of
the biological layer (filter skin). In uncovered filters, growth of algae is driven by photosynthesis. The
presence of large amounts of algae in the supernatant reservoir of a filter generally impedes the functioning
of the filter. Dead cell material may clog the filter. Increased consumption of oxygen due to the presence of
dead cell material increases the possibility that anaerobic conditions will occur. There is always a diurnal
variation in the oxygen content due to growth and decay of the algae mass. When algae growth is strong,
the algae must be either removed regularly or the filter must be covered.
Query: Briefly explain why a slow sand filter is sometimes called a biofilter.
The conditions necessary for those biochemical processes are:
- sufficient ripening of the biological layers,
- uniform and slow flow of water through the filter, approx. 0.1 to 0.3 m/h,
- a depth of the filter bed of 1 m (0.5 m is needed solely for the biochemical process) of specific
grain sizes,
- sufficient oxygen in the raw water (at least 3 mg/l) to induce biological activity.
Range of Application
Table 12: Range of application of slow sand filters according to the raw water quality
Water Quality Parameters Purification Effect
Bacteria Pathogenic bacteria and E. Coli removed at 99 -99.9 %*; cysts, helminth-eggs and
Schistosoma-larvae removed completely.
Viruses Complete removal.
Organic substances Complete removal.
Color Partial removal.
Turbidity Significant reduction; average turbidity of raw water should not be greater than 10
NTU. At higher turbidity, pretreatment necessary to prevent clogging of filter.
Substances difficult to degrade e.g., detergents, phenols, pesticides. Only minor degradation possible.
biologically
* At MPN-contents greater than 1000 E. Coli/100 ml, raw water should subsequently be disinfected.
Note: Microbiological processes and chemical activity are very sensitive to changes in temperature. Both
slow down under conditions of low temperature. A reduction in filtration rate can compensate for this
effect.
Design of a Slow Sand Filter
i) Determine the daily demand for treated water, Q (m3/d, m3/h, peak flows)
ii) Choose the filtration rate v (m3/m².h = m/h).
iii) Determine of the number of daily operating hours, a. Aside from shutting down the filter
completely (overnight), it is possible to operate it for a few hours a day (factor b), while the
inlet valve is closed and the outlet valve is open (mode of decreasing filtration rate).
iv) Parameters a and b are related to the total filtration area as follows:
Q
A (m 2 )
a.v  b
b = 0 for continuous operation, b = 0.5 for 8 hours of daily uninterrupted operation,
b = 0.7 for 16 hours of daily uninterrupted operation.
v) The ratio of length to width should be in the range between 1 and 4.
vi) Determine the number of filters, n. There should be at least two filters, so as to have a reserve
during down time of one (due to cleaning or ripening period).
vii) The required area per filter is thus obtained by dividing the total area A by the number of
(equal size) filters, A/n. The filtration rate for each filter for parallel operation is given by:
Q/n Q
v 
A/ n A
Usually one more filter is allowed for maintenance reasons.
viii) The sizing of the subsequent storage capacity and at the treatment plant should be carried out
in accordance with the daily water demand.

Figure 9: Diagrammatic form of a slow sand filter. A. Raw water inlet, B. Float controlled
regulating valve, C. Outlet for supernatant (for cleaning), D. Outlet for water from filter
bed (for charging), E. Valve for draining filter, F. Valve for controlling the filtration rate,
G. Valve for completely draining the filter, including water in the outlet weir, H. Effluent
weir, J. Effluent valve, K. Drain (during start up).
Construction
The smaller the size of a filter unit, the simpler its construction. It must be noted, however, that both the
risk of leakage (along edges) and initial capital cost per square meter decreases with the size of the unit.
For filter lengths greater than 20 m, the design becomes more complicated. Because of the hydrostatic
pressure, the walls must be watertight. Table 13 shows design characteristics for different filter geometries.
Table 13: Construction characteristics of various tank geometries
Form Tank Location Size (m) Slope Walls Material Thickness (m)
Earth basin ø 1-10 Vertical Concrete or Masonry 0.2-0.3
Round ø 1-5 Vertical Ferro-cement 0.06-0.12
In/above ground All sizes Vertical Reinforced concrete 0.15-0.2
Masonry 0.1
L and B Sealed earth 0.05
Rectangular or square Earth basin Sloped
2-20 Concrete 0.08
Sand/cement mix 0.08
In/above ground AH sizes Vertical Reinforced concrete 0.25
Rectangular or square
Earth basins Small sizes Vertical Masonry, concrete 0.2-0.3
Note:
i) Earth tanks with sloped sidewalls have the advantage of lower initial costs. No particular skills are
required for the workers to do the excavation. At high groundwater levels, the walls must be
absolutely watertight (mainly to prevent the flow of potentially contaminated groundwater).
Access to pipe work and appurtenances is relatively more difficult.
ii) Tanks with vertical walls should extend at least 0.3 m into the ground and another 0.5 m above
ground. The deeper the tanks reach into the ground, the more favourable the pressure balance that
acts on the walls. Circular shapes are used for small units. Rectangular tanks lend themselves to
forming batteries of filters. They are therefore well suited for expandable larger systems.

iii) It is important for the tank to have a rigid base. The edges between base slab and walls must be
watertight. Artificial roughening of the inner wall faces greatly reduces the risk of raw water
leaking past the sand.
iv) Provisions should be made for the tank to receive a cover, if necessary, in order to control algal
growth and prevent pollutants from entering due to rain, wind, vermin, etc.
Inlet Zone
The inlet zone of the tank should be designed such that the entering raw water spreads out evenly over the
filter bed. Turbulence must be avoided in order not to stir up the biological layer. This can best be achieved
by admitting the water just above the filter bed at a velocity of 0.1 m/sec. To prevent scouring near the
inlet, a concrete plate may be placed on top of the filter bed (Fig. 11b).
Figure 10: Drainage system consisting of bricks. Under-drainage system consisting of

perforated pipes.
If no extra provisions are made, the inlet of the raw water can also serve as the drain for the supernatant for
the purpose of cleaning. Since for each cleaning of the filter, the top layer is scooped off, the surface of the
filter bed drops more each time. It is therefore more practical to have a vertically adjustable sill along the
inlet trough to control inflow and head over the filter (Fig. 11a). The width of the inlet should not be less
than Q/20. Sufficient aeration of the entering water can be obtained by means of uniformly spraying or
trickling of the water over cascades.
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone is generally arranged so that a weir controls the effluent. It is common that the crest of the
weir is placed some 0.1 m above the level of the filter bed (Fig. 12). The purpose of the weir is, among
other things, to prevent the filter from running dry. The filtration rate can be controlled by valve F (Fig. 9).
The effluent weir also serves the purpose of aerating the filtered water. In case of an enclosed weir
chamber, adequate ventilation must be provided for air to enter and for gases to escape.
Operation and Maintenance
A major advantage of slow sand filters is that operation and maintenance of a well-designed and
constructed filter is rather simple. Unskilled personnel can be easily trained.

Figure 11: Different design arrangements for the inlet zone of a slow sand filter
Initial commissioning of a filter (also refer to Figure 9)
i) First, with all outlet valves closed, the filter must be charged with filtered water, introduced from
the bottom (D) to drive out the air from the voids of the filter bed. This is continued until the whole
bed is covered sufficiently (0.1 m) to prevent its being scoured or disturbed by turbulence from the
admission of raw water through A.
ii) Backfilling valve D is closed, raw water is admitted through A, until the desired working level for
the supernatant is reached.
iii) Valve K is opened to release filtered water at a filtration rate of one-fourth of the design rate
(controlled by effluent regulating valve F).
iv) During the start-up period, while ripening of the biological layer proceeds and reaches its full
effect, the filtration rate is gradually increased by way of valve F until the desired rate v is attained.
The cleaner the raw water, the longer the ripening process will take.
v) From time to time, chemical and bacteriological analyses of raw water and effluent must be taken
to monitor the ripening process of the filter.
vi) When the filter is in full working condition (seen from analyses-from a few days to several weeks)
valve K may be closed and valve J opened to feed the clear well. Until then, the water is either run
to waste or returned to the raw water.

Figure 12: Diagram of outlet chamber of a slow sand filter; also suitable as a household filter
Normal operation
a) Normal throughflow: The filtration rate is controlled jointly by valves E and F. Initially, F is
closed. It is opened gradually as the filter head loss increases so as to maintain a constant rate of
filtration. The increase in bed resistance is due to a gradual accumulation of retained impurities in
the interstices of the filter bed.
b) Operation at decreasing throughflow: This mode of operation which is well suited for overnights,
reduces the required number of personnel and related costs. The raw water inlet is closed, and the
outlet remains open. Consequently, the head of the supernatant drops and the filtration rate
decreases. The effluent weir should be fixed at such a height as to prevent the supernatant from
dropping below a certain minimum depth (e.g., 0.2 m) above the filter skin (Schmutzdecke).
c) Temporary shutdown: Close both inlet and outlet valves (The necessary quick-closing valves must
be provided). It is preferable to continue filtration and divert the effluent to waste or other use
since a shutdown of the filter causes a deterioration of the quality of the biological agents (filter
skin, etc.).
Filter Cleaning
a) When the filtration rate starts to drop at fully opened regulating valve F, it is time to clean the filter
bed.
b) A, J, F valves are closed, C opened to allow the supernatant to drain off. Alternatively, the
aforementioned mode of operation for decreasing throughflow could be chosen.
c) By opening valves F and particularly G (waste valve) the water within the bed is lowered still
further until it is some 0.2 m below the surface.
d) The filter skin and the surface sand adhering to it (top 1.5 to 2 cm of filter) are stripped off quickly
and carefully so as not to pollute or disturb the filter to a greater depth.
e) Refilling the filter box follows the pattern described for initial commissioning. Only a day or two
will be necessary for re-ripening (identified through water analysis).
Resanding
Since for each cleaning, the top layer of the filter is removed, the depth of the filter material drops until the
minimum design level is reached. This is typically about 0.6 m above the supporting gravel. The filter must
then be resanded. The sand is to be washed thoroughly to remove all impurities (especially organic

coating). This can be rather difficult (use of washing machine). If readily available, new sand may be better
used instead. Usually 2-3 cm of sand are removed at each washing.
2.3.7.4 Rapid Filtration
Principle Mechanisms
Rapid filtration is mainly based on the principle of mechanical straining of suspended matter due to the
screening effect of the filter bed (sand, gravel, etc.). The particles in the water pass into the filter bed and
lodge in the voids between grains of the medium. It is because of this phenomenon that rapid filters are
sometimes called space filters. The cleaning of the rapid filter is facilitated by backwashing i.e., by
reversing the flow direction; a backwash may be conducted simply with water or by use of a water-air mix
(upward air scour). The impurities are thus dislodged and removed from the filter bed. Also operative to
some degree in rapid filters are boundary layer and biological mechanisms - their extent largely depends on
the filtration rate, filter medium, depth of the filter bed, and quality of the raw water.
The performance of a rapid filter regarding the removal of suspended matter is determined by the following
filtration process variables and parameters:
 filtration rate (v),
 influent characteristics, i.e., water quality in terms of particle sizes and their in the raw water,
 filter medium characteristics, which control the removal of the particles and their release upon
backwashing, respectively.
Generally, the treatment effect can be improved by:
- reduced filtration rates,
- smaller granulation size of the filter medium,
- increasing depth of the filter bed,
- increasing size of the flocs,
- decreasing concentration of particles to be retained.
Range of Application
The range of application of rapid filtration and its performance when combined with other treatment
processes is illustrated in Table 14.
Table 14: Treatment Effect of Rapid Filters and Possible Combinations with Other Unit Processes
Water Quality Parameters Purification Effect
Coarse particles of organic origin up to 250 Removal at high filtration rates, using coarse filter material
mg/l (backwashing is simple).
High turbidity due to gravel, sand or mud. Removal by rapid filtration, preceding sedimentation is recommended.
Low turbidity up to max. 100 NTU Direct rapid filtration.
Colloids Difficult to remove:
- low concentration - Addition of coagulant to inflowing water prior to sedimentation;
flocs are retained by the filter; backwashing is difficult.
- high concentration - Preceding coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation in separate
tank, rapid filtration
Bacteria of faecal origin, eggs of parasites Removal of some 50 % at low filtration rate and fine material,
subsequent disinfection is required.
Iron and manganese contents up to 25 mg/l Precipitated compounds are removed upon aeration.
Types of Rapid Filters

There is a large variety of possibilities with respect to set-up and operation of rapid filters. They are
generally divided into two categories. The majority of filters used for the treatment of drinking water are
open, usually concrete built, filters. They operate with atmospheric pressure and at filtration rates between
4 and 8 m/h. Pressure filters are enclosed and usually made of metal. They operate under higher than
atmospheric pressure at filtration rates between 8 and 15 m/h.
Both types can again be classified into subcategories, according to the flow of the water:
- vertical, downward filtration, downflow,
- vertical, upward filtration, upflow,

- horizontal, axial or radial.
Finally, the types of filter beds may be classified according to the structure of the filter media:
- single medium, fine grain (deff = 0.5-1.5 mm) or coarse grain (deff 6-10 mm),
- single medium, decreasing grain size in the direction of the flow,
- multiple media, bed stratification with decreasing grain size in the direction of the flow.
The range of common filter beds is between 1 and 2m. The operating head is between 1.5 and 2.5m. The
required filter surface area can be determine according to the following relationship:
Q
A 
 a.v 
A: surface area (m²), v: filtration rate (m³/ m². h) = (m/h); Q: throughput of water per hour (m³/h); a:
operating hours per day.
Conventional (Downflow) Filters
Rapid filtration is a quite complex process. It is demanding and expensive in design and operation. This is
due to the need for frequent filter washing which requires elaborate backwashing systems. Additional
complexities associated with the generation of pressure arise for pressure filters. Monitoring, operation and
maintenance of these filtration plants require well-trained personnel. Combined with coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation, rapid filtration is a very efficient treatment process for the removal of
impurities. However, it should only be used in larger plants and at well-equipped sites.
For smaller plants in rural areas, simple rapid filters, without backwashing capabilities, are recommended.
A number of filter types operating at filtration rates lower than those for conventional filers are discussed
hereinafter. Generally, they serve as pre-treatment units to reduce the turbidity of the water. The removal of
pathogens requires, in addition, either slow sand filtration and/or disinfection.
Upflow Filter
In upflow filters, the direction of flow of the raw water is upwards through the filter bed. Backwashing is
done by abrupt reversal of the flow direction. The effect of the filter depends on the type of the filter
medium, the filtration rate, and possible preceding aeration or addition of a coagulant. For coarse organic
and inorganic substances, the filter may act as a simple screen; else it may retain precipitated iron
compounds. At low filtration rates and sufficient oxygen content of the raw water, biological activity can
be observed.
The advantages of upflow filters compared to gravity rapid filters are:
 can be constructed from locally available materials,
 quality requirements (uniformity and gradation) and volume of the filter medium are lower. Instead
of sand, gravel, crushed bricks, coconut and other types of fibres can be used,
 longer filter runs,
 better turbidity removal.
Upflow filters can be constructed at a variety of degrees of complexity. A rather simple type can be built
from a 200 litre drum. It can be equipped with a raw water inlet pipe, a somewhat larger size drain at the
bottom, and an outlet pipe for the clarified water near the top of the drum (Fig.13).
Filtration effect
 Reduction of between 50 and 70% of organic and inorganic coarse and fine particles, slight
reduction of bacteria.
 Filter output: up to 230 l/h.
 Filtration rate: 5 to 15 m/hr
 Filter medium: Coarse sand, grain size between 3 and 4 mm diameter.
 Filter bed depth: 0.3 m.
Support layer and under-drain: gravel covered by perforated metal tray.
Cleaning: Shut off of the inlet. Quick removal of drain stopper so that supernatant as well as water in the
filter bed drain out together with retained particles.
Cost: for drain, sand, pipes, tap and stopper.
As a rule, cleaning of the filter which takes no more than ten minutes should be done every day. This is a
simple means of preventing the filter bed from clogging. The 200 l drum has a capacity to filter up to 230
l/h. As bacteria cannot be sufficiently removed, subsequent disinfection is indispensable in case of bacterial
water contamination. This filter can also be combined with the
slow sand filter.
Hence the performance and technical complexity of this simple
upflow filter can be increased as much as one likes. It must be
noted though that higher filtration rates result in higher buoyancy
forces on the filter medium. The top layer of the sand may be
spewn up. This can be avoided by covering the filter bed with a
metal grate or by raising the depth of the filter bed. In the latter
case though, backwashing by means of simply draining the water
in a reversed direction may become increasingly impossible.
Conventional backwashing capability may have to be added.
Better results may be obtained by using smaller grains and
Figure 13: Upflow filter made from a stratified filter beds with decreasing grain size from bottom to
200 litre drum top (e.g., 0.7 to 2 mm over a depth of 1 to 1.5 m).
Coarse Filters/Roughing Filters

Rapid filters preceding slow sand filters are frequently used to retain coarse particles and to sufficiently
reduce turbidity. Coarse sand, gravel or plant fibres are used as a filter medium. They can be replaced upon
cleaning. Such prefiltration can be done either horizontally or vertically. The filtration rates for a coarse
filter are lower than those for a conventional rapid filter. Figure 14 shows a typical figure of a horizontal
roughing filter. Note that the length of the media may be variable.
10 – 15 mm 7 - 10 mm 4 - 7 mm
Figure 14: Coarse filter with horizontal flow
Multiple layer filter (Figure 15)

Using metal drums, plastic containers or clay vessels and filling them with several layers of sand, gravel or
charcoal, simple household filters can be put together. They do not perform well at removing pathogens,
though. After filtration, the water therefore needs to be disinfected.
Charcoal adsorbs organic substances which cause disagreeable colour and taste. This effect can only be
sustained, however, if the charcoal is frequently renewed. If this is not possible, for whatever reason, or if
the filter (empty or filled with water) is left unused for some time, the charcoal can become a breeding
ground for bacteria. The result is that the filtered water exhibits a higher bacteria count than the raw water.
Monitoring of the filter condition is rendered more difficult by the fact that there is no visual indication
given for the point when the charcoal should be replaced. Charcoal cannot be regenerated. It is for these
reasons that the use of filters with charcoal media is not recommended.

Design of rapid gravity filters
The factors considered in the design of a rapid gravity filter
(RGF) are the head loss across the filter media (to minimize
head loss and avoid development of negative pressures) and
the quality of the effluent (for final filters, this is usually ≤
5 NTU).
For rapid sand filters, the head loss development across the
clean filter is given by the Carman-Kozeny equation as:
 (1  Po ) 2 V
H L  180 3 2
L
g Po do
Where  is the kinematic viscosity of the water
g is the gravitational acceleration
Po is the pore size of clean media (porosity) Figure 15: Multiple layer filter
V is the filtration rate
do is the effective size of media (diameter of clean media)
L is the depth of the filter bed
The equation is valid for quiescent conditions (Re ≤5).
However, once the filtration process starts and the pores start to clog while the media adsorbs particles and
changes in size, the above equation may not be used any more since the new sizes of the parameters will
not be known. Hence, laboratory filter models are used to determine the optimum design parameters and
operating conditions.
D  50d to ensure that there is no wall effects (water flowing through the media untreated long the side
walls). There is no need for scaling down the field conditions in the laboratory. The filtration unit has
sampling ports and connections to piezometric tubes (Fig. 16). The head loss at different times is read off
and then plotted on a graph (Fig. 17). However, using the Carman-Kozeny equation, the maximum
allowable head loss cannot be determined. Hmax is read off the graph using the principle of similar triangles.
At the same time when determining the head loss, samples are taken for the determination of turbidity at
different depths.
D D
D
y
H
o
Y
L
L
Figure 16: Experimental Filter

Y
Y
Media
level 1/3 L
L
t3 t2 t1 to
45o
Ho Head loss
H Available Head
max.
Y+L
Figure 17: Lindquist diagram

Optimization of Filter design
This aims at ensuring that the time required for maximum head loss is about the same as that for the worst
water quality. For the case where the maximum allowable concentration does not coincide with maximum
head loss allowable, then the filter run should be managed by controlling the occurrence of the maximum
head loss, which should be before the time allowable for the worst water quality to occur. Ideal design
considers approximately equal times. In the design of gravity filters, the maximum head loss is about 1.5m.
Optimization for media size, d Optimization for media depth, L
d = 0.6 d = 0.9 l = 1.3 l = 1.0

HL HL
d = 1.2 mm l = 0.7m
HL HL α L HL α L
1.5m HLmax
Tr0.6 Tr0.9 Tr1.2 t Tr1.3 Tr1 Tr0.7 t
d = 1.2 d = 0.9 l = 0.7 l = 1.0

C C
d = 0.6 l = 1.3m
Cmax Cmax
Tq1.2 Tq0.9 Tq0.6 t Tq.0.7 Tq1.0 Tq1.3 t

Thus d = 0.9m would be the Therefore optimum L = 1.0m
optimum diameter

EXERCISE V
1. A slow sand filter (SSF) has an initial filter bed thickness of 1.1m, and the depth of overlying water is
1.5m. The coefficient of permeability is 1.75 m/h and the filtration rate is 0.2 m/h. The water level
above the crest of the fixed weir in the effluent line is maintained at 0.1 m above the initial top of the
filter bed.
a) Give two (2) reasons why a weir is usually present in the effluent line of an SSF.
b) Explain why the coefficient of uniformity of the filter sand in an SSF is greater than that of the
sand in a rapid gravity (sand) filter (RGF).
c) Give three (3) criteria used to determine when a filter run should be terminated.
d) What is the maximum possible head loss for this SSF?
2. a) Outline 5 differences between slow sand filtration and rapid sand filtration.
b) The effluent of a sedimentation tank is treated by rapid filtration at a rate of 8 m/h. The total
capacity is 0.65m3/s. The filter bed has a thickness of 1.1 m and is composed of sand with
0.80 mm diameter. The depth of the supernatant water is 1.5 m. Initial porosity = 0.4. The
temperature is 20oC.
(i) Selecting a suitable filter area, determine the number of filters to be used. State any
assumptions.
(ii) What is the initial head loss?
(iii) What is the maximum filter resistance?
(iv) Why is the limitation in (iii) considered?
(v) Sketch the Lindquist diagram for this system, showing the head loss for the clean bed and
at the end of the filter runs. State any assumptions.
Additional information on filtration
Table 15 can be used as a guide for selection of a water treatment system for surface water in rural areas.
Table 15: Guidelines for the selection of a water treatment system for surface water in rural areas
Average raw water quality Treatment required
Turbidity:0-5 NTU - No treatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: 0
Guinea worm or schistosomiasis not endemic
Turbidity:0-5 NTU - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 0
Guinea worm or schistosomiasis endemic
Turbidity:0-20 NTU - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 1-500 - Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:20-30 NTU - Pretreatment advantageous
(30NTU for a few days) - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 1-500 - Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:30-150 NTU - Pretreatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: 500-5000 - Slow sand filtration
- Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:30-150 NTU - Pretreatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: >5000 - Slow sand filtration
- Chlorination
Turbidity:>150 NTU - Detailed investigation and possible pilot plant study
required
*Faecal coliform counts per 100ml

2.3.8 Disinfection
The single most important requirement of drinking water is that it should be free from any pathogenic
organisms. Processes such as storage, sedimentation, coagulation, flocculation and filtration of water both
individually and jointly reduce to varying degrees the bacterial content. However, these processes cannot
assure that the water they produce is bacteriologically safe. Final disinfection will frequently be needed.
Water with low turbidity may even be disinfected without any additional treatment for bacteria removal.
Groundwater abstracted from deep wells is usually free of bacteria. Surface water and water obtained from
shallow wells and open dug wells generally need to be disinfected.
Water disinfection processes are designed to destroy disease-producing organisms by means of
disinfectants. The degree or efficiency of disinfection depends on the method employed and on the
following factors influencing the process:
 kind and concentration of microorganisms in the water,
 other constituents of the water which may impede disinfection or render it impossible,
 contact time provided (important for chemical disinfectants, since their effect is not instantaneous,
a time of contact is necessary),
 temperature of the water (higher temperatures speed up chemical reactions).
Water disinfection can be accomplished by several means:
 physical treatment: removal of bacteria through slow sand filtration, straining of macroorganisms
by means of micro-screening , application of heat (boiling), storage, etc.
 irradiation, such as UV-light,
 metal ions, such as silver (and copper),
 chemical treatment, use of oxidants (halogens and halogen compounds: chlorine, iodine, and
bromine; ozone, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, silver, etc.).
A good chemical disinfectant should have the following abilities:
- destroy all organisms present in the water within reasonable contact time, the range of water
temperature encountered, and the fluctuation in composition, concentration and condition of the
water to be treated;
- accomplish disinfection without rendering the water toxic or carcinogenic;
- permit simple and quick measurement of strength and concentration in the water,
- persist in residual concentration as a safeguard against recontamination;
- allow safe and simple handling, application and monitoring;
- ready and dependable availability at reasonable cost.
Although there are potential hazards from prolonged ingestion of chemicals for the humans, the application
of chlorine and its compounds for the purpose of water disinfection is the best and most tested compromise
when evaluated according to the aforementioned criteria. The following section discusses the application of
chlorine as a disinfectant and briefly introduces the other disinfectants.
2.3.8.2 Chlorination
Chlorination is the most widely used method for drinking water disinfection. It is effective and economical.
Its use requires some knowledge about the complex processes that take place during chlorination. Those
processes will be briefly summarized in the following paragraphs.
The Action of Chlorine and its Range of Application
Chlorination is known as the addition of chlorine gas or some other oxidizing chlorine compound (sodium
or calcium hypochlorite, chlorinated lime, chlorine dioxide) to the water to be treated. The actual agent is
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which forms when chlorine is added to water:
Cl2 + H2O  HOCl + H+ + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid also forms subsequent to dissociation, when chlorinated lime or hypochlorites are
added:

NaOCl  2Na+ + 2OCl-
Ca(OCl)2  Ca2+ + 2OCl-
The chemical equilibrium HOCl  H+ + OCl- depends on pH and temperature. At pH levels between 3
and 6, hypochlorous acid dissociates poorly. Chlorination is most effective in that range of pH. At pH
levels greater than 8, hypochlorite ions predominate or exist almost exclusively. Hence the disinfecting
effect drops off rapidly as the pH level increases. The table below illustrates this.
pH 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
% HOCl 100 100 96 75 23 4 1 <1
Simultaneously with the dissociation, hypochlorous acid partly breaks up, forming monatomic oxygen,
which contributes to the oxidizing effect:
HOCl  HCl + O
The fraction that becomes effective as an oxidizing agent when chlorine or some of its compounds is added
to raw water is called “free available” or “active” chlorine. Due to its ability to penetrate cells of
microorganisms, small amounts of chlorine are sufficient to destroy many different strains of bacteria.
Similarly, many types of viruses and macro-organisms such as schistosoma larvae can be killed. A contact
time of at least 30 minutes is required, at the end of which the residual chlorine concentration in the water
must still be between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/l (= ppm), but can be as high as 2.0 mg/l. Amoebic cysts and spores
with resistant cell membranes require higher doses and longer contact times.
Table 16 shows the effect of the product of the concentration of disinfectant (c) and the contact time (t) on
the die-off of pathogens.
Table 16: Summary of c.t values for the 99% inactivation of organisms at 5oC
Organism Disinfectant
Free Cl2 ; pH = 6-7 Preformed Chlorine dioxide Ozone
chloroamine pH 8-9 pH 6-7 pH 6-7
E.Coli 0.034 - 0.05 95 - 180 0.4 – 0.75 0.02
Polio virus 1 1.1 – 2.5 768 – 3740 0.2 – 6.7 0.1 – 0.2
Rota virus 0.01 – 0.05 3806 – 6476 0.2 – 2.1 0.006 – 0.06
Bacteriophage 0.08- 0.18 - - -
Giardia lamblia cycts 47 - >150 2200 26 0.5 – 0.6
G. muris cysts 30 - 360 - - 1.8 – 2.0
Chlorine also reacts with many other oxidizable water constituents such as iron and manganese
compounds, ammonia, and compounds thereof (forming chloramines), as well as numerous types of
organic particles. The presence of these substances reduces the germicidal effect considerably. Sufficient
chlorine must be added to the water to make sure that there is a residual concentration to prevent
recontamination.
It is advisable to remove or reduce prior to chlorination, those substances which would impede disinfection
by means of sedimentation and/or filtration. Through such pretreatment, helminth eggs (parasitic worms)
can be removed which are insensitive to chlorination. In recent times, it was found that through
chlorination, certain undesirable side effects may occur. Particularly in industrialized areas, synthetic
organic compounds may enter the hydrologic cycle in high concentrations. The presence of chlorine
enhances the danger of the formation of carcinogenic compounds (e.g., chloroform and other
trihalomethanes).
Chlorine compounds
Chlorine gas and chlorine dioxide are widely used in water treatment on account of their high efficiency
and ease of application. Several chlorine compounds with different active chlorine contents (Table 17) are
more easily applicable. In some form or another they are available virtually anywhere. These chemicals
must be handled with great caution. They are caustic, corrosive and sensitive to light. They should be
stored in tightly closed containers and in darkened spaces, accessible only to authorized personnel.
Chlorine corrodes metal and to a less extent, wood and some synthetic materials. Metal parts, which come
in contact with the chemicals, should be resistant to chlorine attack.
Table 17: Strengths of Various Chlorine Preparations
Name % Active Amount for Preparation Remarks
Chlorine of 1 l of 1% Solution
Sodium Hypochlorite 14 (1-15) 71 g Loses strength on storage; store in cool
darkened areas.
Household Bleach 5 (3-5) 200 g Loses effectiveness upon exposure to air
(NaOCl)
Chlorinated Lime (CaOCl2 30 (25-37) 40 g Loses effectiveness upon exposure to air;
· 3 H2O) Readily available and inexpensive; stored in
corrosion resistant cans;
High Test Hypochlorite 70 (60-70) 15 g Available in tablet or granular form;
(HTH) Expensive; Stable under normal storage
conditions
Breakpoint chlorination
Chlorine compounds with ammonia like monochloroamine and dichloroamine are also good disinfectants
and when water with ammonia is chlorinated, these compounds form first, contributing to the available free
chlorine content. The reactions of chlorine with ammonia in water are as follows:
2NH4+ + 2Cl2  2NH2Cl + 4H+ + 2Cl- and 2NHCl + 2Cl2  2NHCl2 + 2H+ + 2Cl-
monochloroamines dichloroamine (produces disagreeable odour)
NHCl2 + Cl2  NCl3 + H+ + Cl-
Nitrogen trichloride (unstable, breaks to N2)
The complete reaction where the available ammonia has been transformed into N2 via the mono and
dichloroamines is referred to as “breakpoint chlorination”. From the equation, the required amount of
chlorine per mg of ammonia amounts to about 6 mg.
Between points A and B, reducing agents
consume all the Cl2. At B, some residual
Applied Cl2
30 minute chlorine is measured while some has reacted
Cl2 residual with reducing agents in the water. Between B
C and D, combined chlorine (NH2Cl + NHCl2)
Break point
NH2Cl & appears. At C, all the available ammonia in the
NHCl2 water has reacted and a free Cl2 residual begins
D
B to form (OCl- & HOCl). Between C and D,
A
more free Cl2 is formed while the formed
Combined Cl2 Cl2 Dosage combined Cl2 is oxidised to nitrogen, nitrous
oxide and nitrogen trichloride. At D, all
Figure 18: Reactions of chlorine in water chloroamines are oxidised and any added Cl2
remains as residual.
NOTE: It is necessary to apply breakpoint chlorination in order to completely remove ammonium. This is
because, ammonia, if not completely removed, would lead to growth of bacteria in the network. This may
also lead to growth of micro-organisms, taste and odour, not due to ammonia itself but bacteria or
actinomyceta; consumption of oxygen in the network; copper corrosion may also occur when NH +4 >
5mg/l.
Prechlorination is the application of chlorine prior to any other treatment, Frequently, this is for the
purpose of controlling algae, taste and odour. Post-chlorination refers to application of chlorine after other
treatment processes, particularly after filtration (here we refer to this as disinfection).
Determination of Chlorine Dose
Chlorine of any type must be added to water in closely controlled concentrations, which depend on the
characteristics of the water. As the use of dry chemicals doesn’t always permit sufficient accuracy of
dosing, solutions are preferred. Chlorine is usually added to the water for disinfection at the end of the
treatment process. This allows the most effective treatment at the lowest level of chlorine application.
Measurements of the chlorine demand and residual chlorine must be taken to ensure that sufficient free
chlorine is available to accomplish disinfection.

Water characteristics and, hence, the chlorine demand may vary due to external influences (e.g., rainy
season, etc.). It is therefore necessary to monitor the water quality from time to time, at the points of
consumption in cases where the chlorine dosage is fixed. The objective of disinfection via chlorination can
only be obtained if the chlorine dosage is adjusted to the changed water characteristics. In the field, the
chlorine demand of water of a given quality can be determined as follows:
One-liter samples of the water are taken. Chlorine solution of a known concentration is added and mixed
with the water. After 30 minutes of contact time, the residual chlorine content is measured. The difference
between this and the amount added then yields the chlorine consumption.
Chlorine demand = chlorine consumption + desired residual
Usually 1% chlorine solutions are applied. The chlorine flow is set such that a chlorine residual level of
between 0.1 and 0.3 mg/l is obtained. Higher levels are recommended if rapid recontamination is likely.
Colorimetric tests are employed to determine total chlorine residuals. Chemical agents (DPD method) are
used which are oxidized by chlorine to produce a coloured complex, the intensity of which is proportional
to the amount of chlorine present. Reading the colours and matching colour standards by means of a
comparator and disks, gives the amount of free, available, and residual chlorine.
Practical Application
Apart from using commercially available chlorine feeder instruments, it is quite possible to make a simple
dosing apparatus for a constant feed rate. The most difficult part is the setting of the proper rate of delivery.
Reliable operation and regular maintenance must be provided. Sufficient contact time for the chlorine must
be ensured.
Chlorination should never be performed prior to slow sand filtration (residual chlorine destroys biological
agents). Sedimentation and filtration preceding chlorination enhance the disinfection effect. The lower the
turbidity, the smaller the amount of chlorine necessary for effective disinfection.
The chlorine solution can either be added to a batch of water (non-continuous or diffusion chlorination) or
alternatively, it can be fed continuously to a constant flow of water. A variety of types of chlorine dosing
instruments are commercially available. They range from manually controlled types to fully automated
ones. Usually a unit consists of a storage tank and a diaphragm pump for feeding the hypochlorite solution.
The feed rate is proportional to the water flow rate and, thus depends on the consumption. The use of these
devices is limited to piped water supply systems.
For batch fed systems, a number of designs exist: e.g, the use of 12-15l clay pots filled with a mixture of
1.5 kg bleach powder and 3 kg coarse sand (1.4 –1.6 mm) with holes above the mixture. This may offer a
residual chlorine of 0.2 to 0.8 mg/l after 1 week , if the water abstraction rate is in the range of 0.9-1.3
m3/d.
2.3.8.3 Iodine
Iodine is an excellent disinfectant, effective against bacteria, amoeba cysts, cercerea and some viruses. It is
added to the water mostly in the form of an aqueous solution. WHO recommends the application of 2
droplets per litre of water of a 2% iodine tincture. Iodine preparations are also available in tablet form. But
operating costs are too high and the use of iodine is not expected to ever become an important widely
applied disinfectant.
2.3.8.4 Ozonation
Ozone (O3) is one of the most effective disinfectants. As a powerful oxidant, it reduces the contents of iron,
manganese, and lead, and eliminates most of the objectionable taste and odor present in water. Its
effectiveness does not depend on the pH value, temperature or ammonia content of the water. Since ozone
is relatively unstable, it is generated almost invariably at the point of use. Ozone is obtained by passing a
current of dried and filtered air (or oxygen) between two electrodes (plates or tubes) subjected to an
alternating current potential difference. A portion of the oxygen is then converted into ozone.
This principle of ozone production has been used in Europe for a long time, since it has the advantage of
being applicable under a wide range of conditions. It leaves no chemical residuals behind in the treated

water. On the other hand, no lasting protection against recontamination is provided either. Capital costs for
the instrumentation of ozone production and feeding, as well as operating costs due to the electrical energy
requirements are very high. Moreover, operation of ozonizers requires continuous and skilled monitoring.
The operational requirements therefore exceed the resources available in rural areas of most developing
countries.
2.3.8.5 Potassium Permanganate
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4), a powerful oxidant, is rarely applied in water treatment for the purpose
of disinfection. It is sufficiently effective against cholera bacteria, but not against other pathogenic germs.
A dose of 1 to 5 ppm KMnO4 is recommended for application. It must be noted, though, that it creates a
purple brown precipitate which coats the walls of the tank. It cannot be removed easily.
In recent years, potassium permanganate has gained steadily in the application in pretreatment since it has
proved effective at:
 removing objectionable odor and taste by means of oxidation of organic material, hydrogen sulfide;
 preventing algal growth;
 removing iron and manganese compounds by means of oxidation and subsequent separation by
filtration.
2.3.8.6 Boiling
Boiling water is a very effective though energy-consuming method to destroy pathogenic germs: bacteria,
viruses, spores, cercaerea and amoeba cysts, worm eggs, etc. The presence of turbidity or other impurities
has little effect on germicidal effectiveness. If boiling is the only type of treatment available, it is
recommended to let the water settle before, and decant it or filter it through a fine-meshed cloth so as to
remove coarse impurities and suspended particles. The water is then brought to a strong boil which is
maintained for at least five, preferably twenty minutes.
Boiling, together with the associated release of gases, especially CO2, alters the taste of water. But through
stirring while boiling and by letting the water sit in the partially filled vessel for a few hours afterward, the
water picks up air and loses its bland taste. To improve the taste of the water, flavoring plant materials may
be added during boiling. Since it requires a significant amount of energy, this method is only recommended
in exceptional cases.
2.3.8.7 Ultra-violet Radiation
The germicidal effect of UV rays had been known long before the first experiments were carried out to
harness it for water disinfection. In principle, the effect of sunlight on surface water is imitated in a more
intense and controllable way. The most commonly used source of UV-radiation is a low pressure quartz
mercury vapor lamp which emits invisible light at a wavelength in the range between 200 and 300 nm with
part of the energy in the spectral region of 2537 A. The germicidal effect depends on the electric power of
the lamp and on the time of exposure of the water to the radiation. It decreases with increasing distance
between water and lamp. Also, many substances present even in pre-treated water (e.g., small amounts of
dissolved iron) absorb UV light. Other constituents (turbidity, suspended matter) inhibit or prevent the
transmission of radiation. A disinfection unit is built such that the water is made to flow through a pipe in a
thin film around the lamp, which is located at the pipe’s center, emitting radiation. The flow rate is adjusted
as required. The water must be pre-filtered.
Disinfection by UV radiation is a “clean” process, since no chemical additives are used. Residual matter
doesn’t occur, and tastes and odors are neither produced in the water nor altered. Automatic devices are
available which indicate when the lamp’s output is not sufficient.
Due to some severe disadvantages of this type of treatment, it is not expected to find any consideration for
application in rural and urban water treatment systems:
 commercially available devices are relatively expensive,
 there is a dependence on steady power supply ?
 the lamp’s powers of penetration are limited; thin water films are necessary,
 turbidity, and impurities reduce the effectiveness notably,
 the lamps gradually lose their radiation power, accelerated by a coating of dirt. The lamp’s average
life is 1000 to 5000 hours,
 disinfection occurs rather quickly and effectively (up to 99.9%), though no protection for
recontamination is provided.

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CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANTS

2.1 OBJECTIVES FOR TREATING DRINKING WATER

2.2 RAW WATER ASPECTS

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 1

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 3

2.2.2 Raw water quality

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 4

2.2.3 Water source selection

Figure 3: Driven well

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 6

Figure 5: Lining for a dug well

Surface water intake structures may be from:

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 7

Max. water level Screens

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 8

Max water level

Its advantages are that:

Intake at the river bottom

Low water level

Pipe line above water and supported on a structure

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 9

To pump house /sump

High water level

Low water level

To pump house /sump

Min water level

2.2.5 Functions of a raw water reservoir

2.3 A REVIEW OF TREATMENT PROCESSES

Table 2.4: Common water treatment methods

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 11

Table 2.6: Treatment of Groundwater

Table 2.7: Treatment of Surface Water

2.3.2 Approach to Process Design for a Water Treatment Plant

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 12

2.3.3 Pre-treatment of Raw Water

A typical arrangement of the screen is as shown.

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 13

Wash water jets for cleaning

Waste tray channel

Micro strained water

2.3.4 Aeration and Gas Transfer

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 15

Stack of perforated trays. (e.g.,

30-50cm 4-8 trays trickle rate

Air Diffusers or Bubble Aerators

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 16

Throat (very high

ii) Turbine or Cone aerators-2 types:

b) Downdraft type: This makes use of the negative

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 17

Where: D is Coefficient of molecular diffusion

Gas Transfer Coefficient

C = Cs – (Cs – Co) e-K2t …………………………………..(i)

Where Cs = Saturation concentration of the gas in water at that temperature

Equation (i) can be re-arranged as

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 18

The Efficiency Coefficient

The Oxygenation Capacity

CIV4104 Public Health Engineering II Chapter 2- Page 19