CHAPTER I

LIMITS & CONTINUITY

I expect to pass through this world
For any goodness I can do
Or any kindness I can show
To any of my fellow creature
Let me do it now
Let me not differ nor neglect it
For I shall not pass this way again.
 Functions -
main building blocks of calculus.
A function f is a rule that assigns to each
element in a set A (the domain), one and
only one element in a set B (the range).
Set A is the domain (or set of inputs) of the
function f, and set B contains range (or set
of outputs).
Domain Range

1 -1

3 1

-4 -6
 Characteristics of a Function
1. Each element in A (domain) must be
matched with an element of B (range).
2. Each element in A is matched to not more
than one element in B.
3. Some elements in B may not be matched
with any element in A. Fig. 1.1.3, p. 12

4. Two or more elements of A may be

matched with the same element of B.
 Functional Notation
y = f(x)
Read f(x) = 3x - 4 as “f of x equals three times x
subtract 4.”
x inside parenthesis is the independent variable.
f outside parenthesis is the dependent variable.
For the function f(x) = 3x - 4,
f(5) = 3(5) - 4 = 15 - 4 = 11
f(x+1) = 3(x+1) - 4 = 3x + 3 -4 = 3x-1
FUNCTIONS IN THE REAL WORLD
The pressure P inside a pressure cooker
is dependent on the temperature T.
P = f (T )
P is the dependent variable
T is the independent variable
MACHINE
It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine.
◦If x is in the domain of the function f, then when
x enters the machine, it’s accepted as an input
and the machine produces an output f(x)
according to the rule of the function.
 PIECE-WISE FUNCTION
A “piecewise function” defines the function in
pieces (or parts).
In the function below,
if x is less than or equal to zero,
f(x) = 2x - 1; otherwise, f(x) = x - 1.
2

 2 x − 1 if x  0
f ( x) =  2
 x − 1 if x  0
 Domain of a Function
Some restrictions to domain:
1. Never divide by zero (0).
2. Never take the square root of a negative
number.
3. Practical problems may limit domain.
 REPRESENTATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
There are four possible ways to
represent a function:
1.Verbally (by a description in words)
2. Numerically (by a table of values)
3.Visually (by a graph)
4. Algebraically (by an explicit formula)
 EXAMPLE:
1. P (t ) is the human population of the world at time t.
2. 3.

4. P(t )  f (t ) = (0.008079266)  (1.013731) t

 Graphs of Common Functions
Constant Function Identity Function Absolute Value Function
f(x) = c

y=x y= x

Square Root Function Quadratic Function Cubic Function

y= x y = x2

y=x3
 Graph of a Function
Vertical Line Test: The graph of a function can
be crossed at most once by any vertical line.
Not a Function
Function

It is crossed
more than once.
What is a limit?
 Limits
The word “limit” is used in everyday
conversation to describe the ultimate
behavior of something, as in the “limit of
one’s endurance” or the “limit of one’s
patience.”
In mathematics, the word “limit” has a
similar but more precise meaning.
A Geometric Example

 Look at a polygon inscribed in a circle

As the number of sides of the polygon

increases, the polygon is getting closer to
becoming a circle.
If we refer to the polygon as an n-gon,
where n is the number of sides we can make
some mathematical statements:
 As n gets larger, the n-gon gets closer to being
a circle
 As n approaches infinity, the n-gon approaches
the circle
 The limit of the n-gon, as n goes to infinity is
the circle
 The symbolic statement is:

lim(n − gon) = circle

n →

The n-gon never really gets to be the circle, but

it gets close - really, really close, and for all
practical purposes, it may as well be the circle.
That is what limits are all about!
 FYI
Archimedes used this method way before
calculus to find the area of a circle.
Numerical Example 1
Let’s look at a sequence whose nth term
is given by: n
n +1
What will the sequence look like?
½ , 2/3, ¾, 5/6, ….99/100,
99999/100000…
 What is happening to the terms of the
sequence?
½ , 2/3, ¾, 5/6, ….99/100, 99999/100000…

Will they ever get to 1?

n
lim =1
n → n + 1
 Numerical Example 2
Let’s look at the sequence whose n term
th is
given by 1
n
1, ½, 1/3, ¼, …..1/10000,
1/10000000000000……
As n is getting bigger, what are these terms
approaching? 1
lim = 0
n → n
 Graphical Example 1

1
f ( x) =
x

As x gets really, really big, what is

happening to the height, f(x)?
As x gets really, really small, what is
happening to the height, f(x)?
Does the height, or f(x) ever
get to 0?

1
lim =0
x→ −  x
 Graphical Example 2

f ( x) = x 3

As x gets really, really close to 2, what is

happening to the height, f(x)?
lim x = 8
3
x→2
 Graphical Example 3

Find lim f ( x)
x → −7
 An Informal Description
If f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single
number L as x approaches c from either side,
the limit for f(x) as x approaches c, is L. This
limit is written as
lim f ( x) = L
x →c
This can be read as
“The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L”
 Sir Isaac Newton developed the concept
known as limits, that is used today in
developing the concept of calculus while
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz introduced the
method called infinitesimals.
Limits are the backbone of calculus, and
Calculus is called the Mathematics of
Change.
Difference between f(c) to lim 𝑥
𝑥→𝑐

 the height of the curve at

 limit of f(x) as x
x = c ; f(x) = f(c) approaches c
 Limits
Given a function f(x), if x approaching 3 causes the
function to take values approaching (or equalling) some
particular number, such as 10, then we will call 10 the
limit of the function and write

In practice, the two simplest ways we can approach

3 are from the left or from the right.
Example 1 – FINDING A LIMIT BY TABLES

Use tables to find

Solution :
We make two tables, as shown below, one
with x approaching 3 from the left, and the
other with x approaching 3 from the right.
For example, the numbers 2.9, 2.99, 2.999, ...
approach 3 from the left, which we denote by
x→3 –, and the numbers 3.1, 3.01, 3.001, ...
approach 3 from the right, denoted by x→3 +.
Such limits are called one-sided limits.
 10
lim 2 x + 4 = 10
x→3
3

x 2 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 4

H

10.002
f (x) 8 9.8 9.98 9.998 ? 10.02 10.2 12
40
 Limit Properties
For functions composed of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, root,
limits may be evaluated by direct substitution,
provided that the resulting expression is defined.

lim f (x) = f (c)

x→c

41
Examples – FINDING LIMITS BY DIRECT
SUBSTITUTION

1. lim x= 4 = 2 Substitute 4 for x.

x→4

2 2
x 6 36
2. lim = = = 4 Substitute 6 for x.
x→6
x + 3 6 + 3 9
Seatwork Assignment
Solve Solve
1. lim (𝑥 + 2) 1. lim (2𝑥 − 2)
𝑥⤏𝑜 𝑥⤏1
2. lim (2𝑥 − 1) 2. lim (−2𝑥 − 4)
𝑥⤏1 𝑥⤏−2
3. lim (𝑥 2 + 2) 3. lim (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)
𝑥⤏2 𝑥⤏2
4. lim (𝑥3 + 𝑥) 4. lim (𝑥3 − 2𝑥)
𝑥⤏−2 𝑥⤏−2
5. lim (√𝑥) 5. lim (√𝑥)
𝑥⤏9 𝑥⤏−1
 One-Sided Limit

We write
lim f ( x) = L
x→c +

and call L the limit from the right (or right-

hand limit) if f (x) is close to L whenever x is
close to c, but to the right of c on the real
number line.
44
 One-Sided Limit
We have introduced the idea of one-sided
limits. We write
lim f ( x) = K
x → c−

and call K the limit from the left (or left-hand

limit) if f (x) is close to K whenever x is close
to c, but to the left of c on the real number
line.
5 45
 The Limit

Thus we have a left-sided limit: lim f ( x) = K

x → c−

lim f ( x) = L
And a right-sided limit: x→c +

And in order for a limit to exist, the limit from

the left and the limit from the right must exist
and be equal.
46
 Limit Theorem
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim+ f ( x) = L and lim− f ( x) = L.
x →a x →a x →a
This theorem is used to show a limit does not exist.
 x + 1, if x  0
For the function f ( x) = 
 x − 1, if x  0.
lim f ( x) does not exist because lim+ f ( x) = 1 and lim− f ( x) = −1.
x →0 x →0 x →0
But
lim f ( x) = 2 because lim+ f ( x) = 2 and lim− f ( x) = 2.
x →1 x →1 x →1
 Limit Theorems/Rules
If c is any number, lim f ( x) = L and lim g ( x) = M , then
x →a x →a
Limit of a sum Limit of a Difference
a) lim ( f ( x) + g ( x) ) = L + M b) lim ( f ( x) − g ( x) ) = L − M
x →a x →a

Limit of a Product Limit of a Quotient

c) lim ( f ( x)  g ( x) ) = L  M d) lim
x→a x →a
f
(
( x )
)
g ( x)
= L , ( M  0)
M
Limit of Scalar Multiple Limit of Power
e) lim ( c  f ( x) ) = c  L lim ( f ( x) ) = L
n n
f)
x →a x →a
Limit of a Constant Limit of x
g) lim c = c h) lim x = a
x →a
x →a
Limit of x n Limit of Radical/Root
i) lim x = a
n n
where f(x)>0 and n is
x →a
even
j) lim f ( x) = L , ( L  0)
x→a
 Evaluate using limit rules
1. Suppose lim f ( x) = 4 and lim g ( x) = −2. Find
x →3 x →3
a) lim ( f ( x) + g ( x) ) = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)
x →3 x →3 x →3
= 4 + ( −2) = 2
b) lim ( f ( x) − g ( x) ) = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x)
x →3 x →3 x →3
= 4 − ( −2) = 6
lim 2 f ( x) − lim g ( x) 2  4 − (−2) −5
 2 f ( x) − g ( x)  = x →3 x →3
= =
c) lim   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x →3
 f ( x) g ( x)  x →3 x →3
4  ( −2) 4
Evaluate using limit rules
2.
x →3
(
lim x + 1 = lim
2
x →3)x + lim1
x →3
2

( lim x )
2
= + lim1
x →3 x →3

=3 2
+ 1 = 10
3. 2x −1 lim ( 2 x − 1) 2 lim x − lim1
x →1
lim = = x →1 x →1
x →1 3 x + 5 lim ( 3x + 5) 3lim x + lim 5
x →1
x →1 x →1
2 −1 1
= =
3+5 8
 Polynomial and Rational Functions
Polynomial Functions
P ( x ) = an x + an −1 x
n n −1
+ ... + a0 ( an  0)
n is a nonnegative integer, each ai is a constant.
1 4
Ex. f ( x ) = x − x 3
+ 12 x − 5
2
Rational Functions
f ( x)
F ( x) = polynomials
g ( x)
Ex. 3x − 4
F ( x) =
2x − 7 x 2
 Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number,
then
lim p(x) = p(c)
x c

If r is a rational function given by r(x) = p(x)/q(x)

and c is a real number such that q(c) ≠ 0,then
lim r(x) = r(c) = p(c)/q(c)
x c
Example
1. The limit (as x → 2 ) of the polynomial function
p(x) = 4x2 + 3 is simply the value of p at x = 2.

2. Find
3. lim (x2+3x+2)/ (x+1)
x→ -1

p(-1) = (-1)2 +3(-1)+2 / (-1+1)

= 0/0 = (meaningless)
but
(x2+3x+2)/ (x+1) = (x+1)(x+2)/(x+1) = x+2
then
p(-1) = -1+2 = 1
therefore
lim (x2+3x+2)/ (x+1) = 1
x→ -1
 Limit of a Function Involving a Radical

Let n be a positive integer. The limit below is

valid for all c when it is odd and is valid for
c > 0 when n is even.
𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑟(𝑐)
𝑥⤏𝑐
Find the limit.
a) lim 𝑥 + 4
2
𝑥⤏𝑜
r(0) = 02 + 4 = 2

b) lim 2𝑥 2 − 10
𝑥⤏1
r(1) = 2(1)2 −10 = −8
DNE
Circular/Trigonometric Functions
sin θ = o/h = y/r = y
cos θ = a/h = x/r = x
tan θ = o/a = y/x = sinθ/cosθ
SOH-CAH-TOA
csc θ = h/o = r/y = 1/y
sec θ = a/h = r/x = 1/x o = opposite
cot θ = a/o = x/y = cosθ/sinθ a = adjacent
CHO-SHA-CAO h = hypotenuse
r = radius
The Unit Circle:
Radian Measures
2
and Coordinates
Equivalent Angles in Degrees and Radians
 Graph of the Sine Function
y = sin x
. x 0  3
 2
2 2
sin x 0 1 0 -1 0

A single cycle is called a period.

y
y = sin x
3  1  3 5
− −
2 − 2 2  2 2 2 x

−1

61
 Graph of the Cosine Function
y = cos x
.
x 0  3
 2
2 2
cos x 1 0 -1 0 1

y y = cos x
3  1  3 5
− −
2 − 2 2  2 2 2 x

−1

62
 Graph of the Tangent Function
x 0

2  3
2
2
tan x 0 ∞ 0 ∞ y 0

 3
2 2 x

− 3 −
2 2

period: 
63
Deg 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150
rad 0 Π/6 Π/4 Π/3 Π/2 2Π/3 3Π/4 5Π/6
sin 0 1/2 √2/2 √3/2 1 √3/2 √2/2 1/2
cos 1 √3/2 √2/2 1/2 0 -1/2 -√2/2 -√3/2
tan 0 √3/3 1 √3 ∞ -√3 -1 -√3/3

Deg 180 210 225 240 270 300 315 330 360
rad Π 7Π/6 5Π/4 4Π/3 3Π/2 5Π/3 7Π/4 11Π/6 Π

sin 0 -1/2 -√2/2 -√3/2 1 -√3/2 -√2/2 -1/2 0

cos 1 -√3/2 -√2/2 -1/2 0 1/2 √2/2 √3/2 1
0 √3/3 1 √3 ∞ -√3 -1 -√3/3 0
 Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Let c be a real number in the domain of the given
trigonometric function.
1. lim sin x = sin c 4. lim csc x = csc c
x→c x→c

2. lim cos x = cos c 5. lim sec x = sec c

x→c x→c

3. lim tan x = tan c 6. lim cot x = cot c

x→c x→c
Find Answers:
1. lim sin x lim sin x = sin0 = 0
x→0 x→0

2. lim cos x lim cos x = cos Π/3 = 1/2

x→Π/3 x→ Π/3

3. lim tan x lim tan x = tan Π/4 = 1

x→ Π/4 x→ Π/4

4. lim cot x lim cot x = cot 5Π/3 = -√3/3

x→ 5Π/3 x→ 5Π/3

5. lim tan x = cos c lim tan x = tan 3Π/2 = ∞

x→ 3Π/2 x→ 3Π/2
 Exponential Function

 The function defined by

f ( x) = b x
(b  0, b  1)
is called an exponential function with
base b and exponent x.
 The domain of f is the set of all real
numbers.
bx = b∙b∙b… 24 = 2∙2∙2∙2
b = 1
0 3 =1
0

b1 = b 51 = 5
b-1 = 1/b 7-1 = 1/7
b - = 1/ b
x x 2 = 1/2 = 1/8
-3 3

b1/2 = √b 41/2 = √4 = 2
bx/y = y√bx 82/3 = 3√82 = 3√64 = 4
Laws of Exponents
 Let a and b be positive numbers and let x and y
be real numbers. Then,
x+ y
1. b b = b
x y

bx x− y
2. y
=b
b

(b )
y
3.
x
=b xy

( ab) =a b
x x x
4.
x
a ax
  = x
5. b b
Examples
2x – 1
 Let f(x) = 2 . Find the value of x for which
f(x) = 16.
2x – 1
2 = 16
2x – 1 4
2 =2
2x – 1= 4
2x = 5
x = 5/2
Graphs of Exponential Functions
 The Base e
 Exponential functions to the base e,
where e is an irrational number whose
value is 2.7182818…, play an important
role in both theoretical and applied
problems. m

 It can be shown that e = lim  1 + 
1 
m→
 m
 The graphs of the exponential function f(x) = ex & f(x) = ex

y
5
f(x) = ex

1 –x
f(x) = e
x
–3 –1 1 3
 Logarithms
Exponential equations of the form
y = bx (b > 0, b ≠ 1)

Logarithm of x to the base b

y = logbx if and only if x = by (x > 0)
EXPONENTIAL FORM LOGARITHMIC FORM
bx = N logb N = x
Express in logarithmic notation.
1. 23 = 8 log2 8 = 3
2. 91/2 = 3 log9 3 = ½
Express in exponential form.
1. log1/2 4 = -2 (1/2) -2 = 4
2. log27 9 = 2/3 272/3 = 9
 Laws of Logarithms
 If m and n are positive numbers, then
1. logb mn = logb m + logb n
2. m
log b = log b m − log b n
n
3. logb mn = n logb m

4. log b 1 = 0
5. log b b = 1

log x = log10 x Common logarithm

ln x = loge x Natural logarithm
Examples
 Solve for x:
1) log3x = 4 3. logx8 = 3
x = 34 = 81 x3 = 8
2) log164 = x x =2
4 = 16x
(42)x = 42x
41 = 42x
2x = 1
x = 1/2
 Logarithmic Function

 The function defined by

f ( x) = logb x (b  0, b  1)
is called the logarithmic function with
base b.
 The domain of f is the set of all
positive numbers.
 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
 Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x.

y
f(x) = ex

f(x)= ln x
1
x
1
 Limits of Exponential Functions
Let c be a real number
1. lim ex = ec 2. lim bx = bc
x→c x→c

Limits at Infinity of Exponential Functions

b>1
3. lim bx = +∞ ; lim bx = 0
x→∞ x→ - ∞

0<b<1
lim bx = 0 ; lim bx = +∞
x→∞ x→- ∞

4. lim (bx –1)/x =logeb=lnb

x→c
 Solve for the limits
1. lim e = e1 = 2.718.. 6. lim (1/3 ) x= +∞
x→1 x→ -∞

2. lim 2x = 24 = 16 7. lim (2x –1)/2 = loge2 = ln2

x→4 x→3

3. lim 3x = +∞
x→∞

4. lim 3x = 0
x→ -∞

5. lim (1/2 ) x= 0
x→∞
 Limits of Logarithmic Functions
1. lim lnx = 0
x→1

2. lim lnx = 1
x→e

3. lim log x = 1
x→10

4. lim ln x = ln c
x→c

5. lim ln x = -∞ ; lim log x = -∞

x→0+ x→0+
 Limits of Logarithmic Functions
1. lim ln x = 0
x→1

2. lim ln x = 1
x→e

3. lim log x = 1
x→10

4. lim ln x = ln 2 = 0.693…
x→2

5. lim ln x = -∞ ; lim log x = -∞

x→0+ x→0+
 Some Special Limits
1. lim (sin t / t ) = 1
t→0

2. lim (1- cos t ) / t = 0

t→0

3. lim ( et -1 ) / t = 1
t→0
Most of the techniques of calculus require that functions
be continuous. A function is continuous if you can draw
it in one motion without picking up your pencil.

2
This function has discontinuities
1
at x=1 and x=2.

1 2 3 4

→
Show g(x)=x2+1 is continuous at x = 1

1) g (1) = 2
2) lim g ( x) = 2
x →1

3) lim g ( x) = g (1) = 2
x →1

 g ( x) is continuousat x = 1
  x +1 x  2
Is the function f(x) =  continuous at x = 2?
2x - 1 x  2
1) f ( 2) = 3 2) lim− f ( x ) = 3
x→2

lim+ f ( x ) = 3
x→2

3) lim f ( x) = f (2) = 3  lim f ( x ) exists

x→2
x →2

 f ( x) is continuousat x = 2
  x +1 x  2
Is the function f(x) =  continuous at x = 2?
2x -1 x  2

1) f (2) = DNE
 Not continuous at x = 2
  x +1 x2

Is the function f(x) =  x 2 x = 2 continuous at x = 2?
2 x − 1 x2


1) f ( 2) = 4 2) lim− f ( x ) = 3
x→2

lim+ f ( x ) = 3
x→2

 lim f ( x ) exists
x→2
3) lim f ( x)  f (2)
x →2
 f ( x) is discontinuous at x = 2
 Types of Discontinuities
 There are 4 types of discontinuities
◦ Jump
◦ Point
◦ Essential
◦ Removable

 The first three are considered non removable

 Jump Discontinuity
 Occurs when the curve breaks at a particular point and
starts somewhere else
◦ Right hand limit does not equal left hand limit
 Point Discontinuity

 Occurs when the curve has a “hole” because

the function has a value that is off the curve
at that point.
◦Limit of f as x approaches x does not equal
f(x)
 Essential Discontinuity

 Occurs when curve has a vertical asymptote

◦Limit dne due to asymptote
 Removable Discontinuity
 Occurs when you have a rational expression
with common factors in the numerator and
denominator. Because these factors can be
cancelled, the discontinuity is removable.
 Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and L is any number between f (a) and f (b), then there is
at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.
y = f ( x)
f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)

a c b
Example

Ryan was 20 inches long when born and 30

inches long when 9 months old.
Since growth is continuous, there was a time
between birth and 9 months when he was 25 inches
long.
Examples
1. Given f ( x) = 3 x − 2 x − 5,
2

Show that f ( x) = 0 has a solution on 1, 2 .

f(1) = 3(1)2 – 2(1) – 5 = -4 < 0

f(2) = 3(2)2 – 2(2) – 5 = 3 > 0
f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0
and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists a c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.
2. Show that there is a root of the equation between 1 and 2.
4 x − 6 x + 3x − 2 = 0
3 2

We are looking for a solution/root of the given equation-

that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f(c) = 0.
f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1  0
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12  0
the equation 4 x 3
− 6 x 2
+ 3x − 2 = 0
has at least one root in the interval [1, 2].
Extreme Values of a function are created when the function changes
from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing
Extreme value
•

increasing decreasing
decreasing increasing

•
Extreme value

Extreme value

Extreme value Extreme value

inc
dec
inc dec inc dec dec

Extreme value
Extreme value
 Classifications of Extreme Values
Absolute Minimum – the smallest function value in the domain
Absolute Maximum – the largest function value in the domain
Local Minimum – the smallest function value in an open interval in the domain
Local Maximum – the largest function value in an open interval in the domain
Absolute Maximum

Local Maximum

Local Minimum

Absolute Minimum
Absolute Minimum

Local Maximum

Absolute Maximum
Local Maximum Local Maximum Local Maximum

Local Minimum
Local Minimum Local Minimum
Local Minimum
 The Extreme Value Theorem (Max-Min Existence Theorem)
If a function is continuous on a closed interval, [a, b], then the function
will contain both an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum
value. 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑓(𝑏)

𝑓(𝑐)

a c b

Absolute maximum value: f(a)

Absolute minimum value: f(c)
 𝑓 𝑐 •
F is not continuous at c.
𝑓(𝑏)
Theorem does not apply.
𝑓(𝑎)

𝑓(𝑑)

a c d b

Absolute maximum value: f(c)

Absolute minimum value: f(d)