ABSTRAC

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the forces on cofferdam and stability criteria of various types of cofferdams.
Various researchers has studied the stability of cofferdam by using finite elements software and the results are
quite comprehensive. These papers give the conventional method of stability of cofferdams, According to Indian
code.
Keywords: cofferdams, stability, cell shear, sliding, bursting.

Coffer dams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and construction of
the permanent facility in the dry environment. The word "cofferdam" comes from "coffer" meaning box, in
other words a dam in the shape of a box. Generally a cofferdam involves the interaction of structure, soil and
water. In the construction of cofferdams maintaining close tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are usually
constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather conditions. Under these circumstances, significant
deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during the course of construction and therefore it may be
necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in order to complete the project according to plan.
This paper is focusing on the construction process, equipment used for construction and the various types of
coffer dams. And also we will be discussing a case study which describes the construction of a cofferdam that
was built to facilitate the construction of sub weir and rehabilitation of Taunsa Barrage, which is situated on the
huge river of the Indus valley known as the Indus River, in the province of Punjab, India. In this case study, the
equipments used in the cofferdam construction are dump trucks, loaders, scrapers, vibratory pile driver, backhoe
and dewatering pumps. The means and methods utilized to construct the coffer dam and their productivity
analysis are clearly shown. To facilitate productivity calculations the project was divided into four phrases.
Taunsa barrage was constructed in the year 1958 and currently supplying water for four main canals - two on the
right of the bank and two on the left of the bank.

INTRO
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a review of relevant literature to bring out the background of the study undertaken in this
special topic. The research contributions which have a direct relevance are treated in greater detail. Some of the
historical works which have contributed greatly to the understanding of the stability of the structures are also
described. First, a brief review of the historical background is presented. The concepts of structural stability,
strengthening the structure, live loads acting, and failure of structures, related to work carried out in this thesis,
are then discussed. The amount of the literature on the subject has increased rapidly in recent years; particularly
on deformation/stability of Structures.

A cofferdam is a temporary construction method used in order to do construction in wet

excavations. It is installed in the work area and water is pumped out to expose the bed of the
body of water so that workers can construct structural supports, perform repairs and any other
types of work using construction equipment. A coffer dam is also called as caisson in some parts
of world.
Working inside a coffer dam can be dangerous if it is not installed properly or not safely
pressurized. Various materials are used for its construction and its design must be compatible
with weather conditions, waves, currents, construction equipment, construction methods, internal
permanent structures and ground conditions. There are various types of cofferdams such as
braced, earth type, timber crib, double walled sheet pile and cellular which are discussed below.
Generally, major loads imposed on cofferdams are hydrostatic forces of water and dynamic
forces due to current and waves and heavy equipment is used for its construction such as pile
drivers, cranes with clamshell buckets, concrete pumps trucks as well as pumps for dewatering
are used in the construction process. The effective management of equipment on site as well as
workers is an important step in cost control and maintaining efficient productivity.
“A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the excavation
in which a bridge pier or other structure is built.”
- Standard Handbook of Heavy Construction
 FORCE
Forces on cofferdams and their load combination.

Hydrostatic pressure:

The maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and the water height inside the
cofferdam during various stages of construction need to be considered. These result in the net design pressure.

Forces due to Soil Loads:

The soils impose forces, both locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon the structure as a whole.
These forces are additive to the hydrostatic forces. Local forces are a major component of the lateral force on
sheet-pile walls, causing bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts
 Current Forces on Structure:

With a typical cofferdam, the current force consists not only the force acting on the normal projection of the
cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides. With flat sheet piles, the latter may be relatively
small, whereas with z-piles it may be substantial, since the current will be forming eddies behind each
indentation of profile.

Wave forces:

Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually the result of local winds acting over a restricted fetch and hence are of
short wavelength and limited to height. However, in some cases the cofferdam should have at least three feet of
freeboard or higher above the design high water elevation than the maximum expected wave height. Wave
forces will be significant factor in large bays and lakes where the fetch is several miles. Passing boats and ships,
especially in a restricted waterway, can also produce waves. The force generated by waves is asymmetrical and
must be carried to the ground through the sheet piling in shear and bending. The waler system must be designed
to transmit the wave forces to the sheet piles.

Seismic Loads:

These have not been normally considered in design of temporary structures in the past. For very large,
important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically active areas, seismic evaluation should be performed.

Accidental loads:

These are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside the cofferdam and impacting
on it under the action of waves.
Scour:

Scour of the river bottom or seafloor along the cofferdam may take place owing to river currents, tidal currents,
or wave-induced currents. Some of the most serious and disastrous cases have occurred when these currents
have acted concurrently. A very practical method of preventing scour is to deposit a blanket of crushed rock or
heavy gravel around the cofferdam, either before or immediately after the cofferdam sheet piles are set. A more
sophisticated method is to lay a mattress of filter fabric, covering it with rock to hold it in place.

Load Combination:

Design of coffer dam shall be based on the most adverse combination of the probable load conditions which are
most likely to occur .Combination of transient load which have little or no probability of occurrence are not
generally considered in the design of cofferdams.
The combination of load for high flood level(HFL) is
-WP+EP
The combination of load for low flood level(LFL) is
-WP+EP
-WP+EP+WL
The cofferdams design shall be based on loading condition by using the factor of safety should not be less than
3.0
combination of the probable load conditions which are most likely to occur .Combination of transient load
which have little or no probability of occurrence are not generally considered in the design of cofferdams.
The combination of load for high flood level(HFL) is
-WP+EP
The combination of load for low flood level(LFL) is
-WP+EP
-WP+EP+WL
The cofferdams design shall be based on loading condition by using the factor of safety should not be less than
3.0

Overview

A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the excavation in which a bridge
pier or other structure is built. When construction must take place below the water level, a cofferdam is built to
give workers a dry work environment. Sheet piling is driven around the work site, seal concrete is placed into
the bottom to prevent water from seeping in from underneath the sheet piling, and the water is pumped out. The
word "cofferdam" comes from "coffer" meaning box, in other words a dam in the shape of a box.

This lesson covers structural cofferdams as temporary installation, explaining in step-by-step detail proper and
safe methods and materials to be used. There are different types of cofferdam, some are used to support
excavation operation and some are enclosed type box placed in the water. The focus of this lesson is on the latter
type.

Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

• describe cofferdams and when they are used on construction projects;
• describe the forces on cofferdams
• explain design considerations;
• recognize the importance of sealing the bottom of cofferdams2. TYPES OF IMPOSED LOADS
A typical cofferdam will experience several loading conditions as it is being build and during the various
construction stages. The significant forces are hydrostatic pressure, forces due to soil loads, water current forces,
wave forces, ice forces, seismic loads and accidental loads. In order to over come the displaced water buoyancy,
the tremie seal thickness is about equal to the dewatered depth. Figure below shows a typical cofferdam
schematic

Hydrostatic pressure
The maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and the
water height inside the cofferdam during various stages of construction need to be
considered. These result in the net design pressure shown in Fig. 1 below:
Figure 1 - Hydrostatic forces on partially dewatered cofferdam

Forces due to Soil Loads

The soils impose forces, both locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon
the structure as a whole. These forces are additive to the hydrostatic forces.
Local forces are a major component of the lateral force on sheet-pile walls, causing
bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts (see
Fig. 2).

Figure 2 - Soil force in typical weak muds or clays

Current Forces on Structure

With a typical cofferdam, the current force consists not only the force acting on the
normal projection of the cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides.
With flat sheet piles, the latter may be relatively small, whereas with z-piles it may be
substantial, since the current will be forming eddies behind each indentation of profile,
as shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3 – Current flow along sheet piles

Wave forces
Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually the result of local winds acting over a
restricted fetch and hence are of short wavelength and limited to height. However, in
some cases the cofferdam should have at least three feet of freeboard or higher above
the design high water elevation than the maximum expected wave height. Wave
forces will be significant factor in large bays and lakes where the fetch is several
miles. Passing boats and ships, especially in a restricted waterway, can also produce
waves. The force generated by waves is asymmetrical and must be carried to the
ground through the sheet piling in shear and bending. The waler system must be
designed to transmit the wave forces to the sheet piles.

Hydrostatic pressure
Two factors must be considered they are the maximum probable height outside the cofferdam
during construction and the water height inside the cofferdam during various stages of
construction. The hydrostatic pressure for partially dewatered cofferdam is shown in figure 3.
CONSTRUCTION OF A COFFER DAM
10
F1 = wh1
2/2 F2 = wh2
2/2
Where ,
w = unit weight of water
h1 = outside water height
F1 = outside hydrostatic force
F2 = inside hydrostatic force
Figure 3
Forces due to Soil Loads
The soils impose forces acts locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon the
structure
as a whole. Local forces are main component of the lateral force on sheet-pile walls, causing
bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts. These forces
are
added to the hydrostatic forces. Active pressure and passive pressure due to soil load is
shown in
the figure 4.
If h1= 2h2 then F1 =4F2
and F3 =3/4 F1
Figure 2
CONSTRUCTION OF A COFFER DAM
11
Figure 4
Current Forces on Structure
In a cofferdam, the current force consist not only the force acting on the normal projection of
the
cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides. With flat sheet piles, the latter
may
be relatively small, whereas with z-piles it may be substantial, since the current will be
forming
eddies behind each indentation of profile, as shown in figure 5.
Figure 5
Wave forces
Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually due to local winds acting over a restricted fetch and
hence are of short wavelength and limited to height. Waves can also be produced by passing
boats and ships, especially in a restricted waterway.
CONSTRUCTION OF A COFFER DAM
12
Ice forces
These are of two types, that is the force exerted by the expansion of a closed-in solidly
frozenover
area of water surface which is called as static ice force and the forces exerted by the moving
ice on breakup which is called as dynamic ice force. (Nemati, 2007)
Seismic Loads
In most of the projects, they are not considered in design of temporary structures. But for
very
large, important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically active areas, seismic evaluation
should be performed.
Accidental loads
Accidental loads are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside
the
cofferdam and impacting on it under the action of waves.
Mooring forces
They are derived from two separate actions. The first is the impact of the barge and tugboats
as
they moor to the cofferdam or the waves are produced as they move the barges while moored.
The other force is the wind pressure on the total sail area of the barge. Gale force wind is a
common occurrence along most coasts and on large lakes. The combination of high wind and
waves will cause major damage to the cofferdam and equipment if no preparation is made to
accommodate those events. (Washington, 2013)
Scour
Scour of the river bottom or seafloor along the cofferdam may take place due to river
currents,
tidal currents, or wave-induced currents. Some of the most serious and disastrous cases have
occurred when these currents have acted concurrently.A very practical method of preventing
scour is to deposit a blanket of crushed rock or heavy gravel around the cofferdam, either
before
or immediately after the cofferdam sheet piles are set. A more sophisticated method is to lay
a
mattress of filter fabric, covering it with rock to hold it in place. (Nemati, 2007)
 DESIGN
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR DIFFERENT OF COFFERDAMS
ROCK FILL COFFERDAMS

STABILITY REQUIREMENT: the stability requirement shall be check for sliding.

SLIDING: - Rock fill coffer dam with an impervious central core/upstream face would have a relatively high
factor of safety against sliding because of the large mass involved. Adequacy of the foundation
shall also be checked. However, the factor of safety against sliding between the rockfill material and the
impervious core/membrane shall invariably be checked, as this is very important.

MASSONARY COFFERDAM

STABILITY REQUIREMENT: the stability requirement shall be check for sliding, overturning.
SLIDING:
Many of the loads on the coffer dam are horizontal or have horizontal components which are resisted by
frictional or shearing resistance along the horizontal or nearly horizontal planes in the body of the cofferdam and
on the foundation. The stability of a coffer dam against sliding is evaluated by comparing the minimum total
available resistance along the critical plane of sliding to the total magnitude of the forces tending to induce
sliding.
The factor of safety against sliding may be computed by the following equation :
F = ( W-U) tan ∅+CA/P
where
F =factor of safety;
W= total weight of the dam;
U = total uplift force;
Tan ∅=coefficient of internal friction of the material;
C = cohesion of the material at the plane considered, if existing
A =area under compression; and
P = total horizontal force, including earthquake forces, considered, if any.
The values of cohesion and internal friction of the materials along the plane considered for analysis may be
assumed, based on the available data on similar or comparable materials. The factor of safety shall not be less
than 3.0
OVERTURNING:
Before the coffer dam overturns bodily, other types of failures may occur, such as cracking of the upstream
material due to tension, crushing of toe material and sliding. A gravity coffer dam is, therefore, considered safe
against overturning if the following criteria are satisfied.
a) The resultant of all forces shall normally fall within the middle third of the base.
b) The maximum compressive stresses at any point within the cofferdam and in the foundation below for the
worst combination of loading shall be within the permissible values for the dam and foundation materials
respectively.

DOUBLE WALL STEEL SHEET PILE COFFERDAM

STABILITY REQUIREMENT: The stability requirement such type of cofferdam shall satisfy following
condition of equilibrium.
a) Σ horizontal forces =0
b) Σ moments 0
c) (F4+F1-F2) < Gtan∅ (F3)
Further, the resultant of all forces shall lie within the middle third of the base, since earth cannot take any tensile
force. The compressive stresses developed at the foot of the sheet pile shall be within the bearing capacity of the
foundation soil.

CELLULAR STEEL SHEET PILE COFFERDAM

STABILITY REQUIREMENT: The stability of the cellular steel sheet pile cofferdam shall be checked for
cell shear, sliding, tilting, and bursting of cell.
Cell Shear - The safety against vertical shear failure at midsection of cell shall be examined as follows:
Vertical shear force (V) = 1.5 M/B-
Soil shear strength (S) = 0.5* γ KH^2 ( tan ∅ + f)
Factor of safety against cell shear failure (S/V)should not be less than l-25.
NOTE - Contribution of interlock friction should not be taken more than that
due to fill (f< tan+).
SLIDING- The safety against failure due to sliding of cell shall be examined as for a gravity structure shall not
be less than 1.25.The factor of safety against sliding.
TILTING- The safety against failure due to overturning of the cell shall be examined according to Gumming’s
method outlined in Appendix The factor of safety against tilting shall not be less than 1.2.
BURSTING of CELL - The safety against failure of interlocking joints due to hoop tension developed due to
active pressure of fill shall be examined at a critical height equal to 0.75 I-I. The hoop tension developed shall
not be greater than the allowable interlock tension, which can be considered as 150 t/m.

Geotechnical Design Considerations

As lessons learnt from the several design and construction experiences in Mainland China, it is attention that the
ground investigation report normally provides total stress parameters and deformation modulus parameters those
are directly related to the laboratory results. For this project, it is recommended to the site investigation institute
to undertake the sufficient drained and un-drained tri-axial tests, field tests and to provide a set of the total and
effective stress parameters in the investigation report. The design analysis should be undertaken using total and
effective stress parameters to demonstrate the deep excavation works achieving the certain accepted risk levels.
The diaphragm wall was terminated into bedrock to achieve stability and groundwater cut-off control issues.
Reinforced concrete circular beam was used for the shoring elements to maximize the working space and the
size of reinforced concrete circular beam was ranged from 850mm x 850mm to 1600mm x 2000mm. With the
use of the circular shaped strutting, a large open working space is fully utilized to enhance the subsequent hand
dug cassion foundation construction upon the completion of excavation works. The layout and a typical section
of the excavation and lateral support works are shown on Figures 3 and 4 respectively.

3 DESIGN ASPECTS

3.1 Site Constraints

It was identified at the early stage of the project that the works area was restricted by the Short Term Tenancy
(STT) land boundaries in respect of the nearby concurrent CEDD’s road and drainage works. Open cut
excavation is therefore infeasible and excavation with lateral supports (ELS) was adopted as the conforming
scheme.

As the site is classified as littoral zone which is surrounded by the sea, its groundwater level is subjected to tidal
change. The design groundwater level was assumed at +3.6mPD in accordance with the Port Works Design
Manual (CED, 2002). The high groundwater table and the effects of recharge from the sea becomes a major
challenge for the design of both the permanent and temporary works.
Relatively low stiffness (mean SPT ‘N’ value below 10) of the existing fill within the excavation depth is also
considered as another constraint. With such low SPT value, relatively large deformation of the ground and a
heavy duty ELS structure were thus expected. The existing fill is predominately sand fill with a thickness of
about 20m underlying by a layer of Alluvium.

3.2 Key Design Features of Temporary Works

In the selection of retaining structure as part of the required ELS, the use of sheet piles or pipe piles were
considered as feasible options. From rough estimation, the use of pipepile wall would have doubled the cost
when compared with the use of sheet piles. It was mainly due to the cost associated with installation of grout
curtain for groundwater control and “left in place” pipepile wall. On the other hand, the site was located at open
area of former Kai Tak runway where there is no other existing buildings or features nearby the works area that
is likely to be affected by vibration and settlement problems due to deep excavation. As such, sheet piles were
selected as the conforming scheme in view of lower construction cost and satisfactory performance on
groundwater control. To effectively control ground movement, the proposed ELS system consists of FSP-III and
FSP-IV Sheet piles with 3 layers of supporting steel struts and waling for the required 8m deep excavation. The
sheet pile was designed to penetrate 13.5m deep and the required toe-in depth was 5.5m. Provisional measures
such as the installation of grout curtains behind the embedded sheet piles were also allowed in dealing with
problems such as high groundwater level and recharge effect from the sea. A layout plan of the site and the
cable tunnel is given in Figure 4 and a typical cut section of the ELS system is shown in Figure 5.

4. COFFERDAM COMPONENTS:

• Sheet piling
Sheet piling is a manufactured construction product with a mechanical connection
“interlock” at both ends of the section. These mechanical connections interlock with
one another to form a continuous wall of sheeting. Sheet pile applications are typically
designed to create a rigid barrier for earth and water, while resisting the lateral pressures
of those bending forces. The shape or geometry of a section lends to the structural
strength. In addition, the soil in which the section is driven has numerous mechanical
properties that can affect the performance.
• Bracing frame
• Concrete seal
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a bracing
frame and driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral support and to
cut off the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water (Fig. 4).

Figure 4 – Typical cofferdam without seal or pile

The structure inside may be founded directly on rock or firm soil or may require pile
foundations. In the latter case, these generally extend well below the cofferdam.
Inside excavation is usually done using clam shell buckets. In order to dewater the
cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist hydrostatic uplift. Placement of an
underwater concrete seal course is the fastest and most common method.
An underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior to dewatering in order to
seal off the water, resist its pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the inward
movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift under the
hydrostatic pressure (Fig. 5)

Figure 5 – Typical cofferdam (with seal)

3. COFFERDAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following are some of the design considerations which should be checked before the
construction and during the design of cofferdam.
Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water
Stability against overturning or tilting
Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting
Stability against vertical shear
Effects of forces resulting from:
Ice, Wave, Water, Active Earth and Passive Earth Pressures
An important consideration in the design of cofferdams is the hydraulic analysis of seepage
conditions and erosion of the bottom when in streams or rivers.
Significant deformations of elements may occur at different stages of construction because of the
typical construction of coffer dam under adverse conditions in a marine environment, thus it is
difficult to maintain close tolerances. Provisions must be made for deviations in dimensions so
that the finished structure may be constructed according to plan.
Deconstruction of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as
its installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect on permanent structure due to the removal
of coffer dam must be considered. Due to this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent
structure are often cut off and left in place, because their removal may affect the foundation soils
adjacent to the structure. (Nemati, 2007)
Where the cofferdam structure can be built on a layer of impervious soil, the area within the
cofferdam can be completely sealed off. Where the soils are pervious, the flow of water into the
cofferdam cannot be completely stopped economically, and the water must be pumped out
periodically and sometimes continuously.
CONSTRUCTION OF A COFFER DAM
9
A dewatered area can be completely surrounded by a cofferdam structure or by a combination of
natural earth slopes and cofferdam structure. The type of construction is dependent upon the
depth, soil conditions, fluctuations in the water level, availability of materials, working
conditions desired inside the cofferdam, and whether the structure is located on land or in water.
(Washington, 2013)

CONCLUS
Design and dimensioning of the retaining walls embedded in soil and their anchorages needs to adopt adequate
calculation model and proper estimation of data used in calculations. The values of earth pressures on a
retaining structure depend especially on the physical and strength properties of soil, such as: internal friction
angle, cohesion, soil bulk density or possible over consolidation ratio (OCR). When the wall crosses the natural
flow of the ground water, the possible rise of water level should also be considered. The presented case study
shows that the decisive factor which conditions the retaining structure safety can be also the change of static
scheme, unpredicted in calculations and caused, for example, by excavation below the formation level or by
washing away the bottom. The earth pressures are also dependent on the value and way of loading applied to
ground level (considered, e.g. as the increased height of excavation). Taking into account the geometry of the
excavation, wall deformation and terrain sinking are always highest in the middle of each wall section, between
the retention corners. This is caused by the reduced soil pressure against the retaining wall around the retention
corners and often referred to as 'the corner effect'. This effect is dealt with in the works of Ou & Shiau [18] and
Wu & Ou & Tung [19] where the result of FEM modeling is referred to the real-life (on-site) observations made
during the cutting of deep trenches.

Every cofferdam is unique and requires thorough analysis. The designer must take into
account a large number of parameters. The design must be compatible with the weather
conditions, waves, currents, construction equipment, construction methods, internal
permanent structures, and ground conditions. Comparable cost studies should be analyzed to
determine if the cofferdam method is favored over other techniques, such as precast or
caisson construction. Often the cofferdam designer must work closely with the project design
engineer to arrive at a mutually satisfactory procedure.