Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer sits in the lower region of the stratosphere from about 20-30 kilometers
above the surface of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5 mm, but it
pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography. The concentration of
ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while the average
concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million. The thickness of
the ozone layer differs as per season and geography. The highest concentrations of ozone
occur at altitudes from 26 to 28 km in the tropics and from 12 to 20 km towards the poles.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson.
Ozone molecules have a low relative abundance in the atmosphere. In the stratosphere
near the peak concentration of the ozone layer, there are typically a few thousand ozone
molecules for every billion air molecules (1 billion = 1,000 million). Most air molecules are
either oxygen (O2) or nitrogen (N2). In the troposphere near Earth’s surface, ozone is even
less abundant, with a typical range of 20 to 100 ozone molecules for each billion air
molecules. The highest surface values result when ozone is formed in air polluted by
human activities.

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Stratospheric ozone is considered good for humans and other life forms because it
absorbs ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation from the Sun. If not absorbed, UV-B radiation would
reach Earth’s surface in amounts that are harmful to a variety of life forms. In humans,
increased exposure to UV-B radiation increases the risks of skin cancer, cataracts, and a
suppressed immune system. UV-B radiation exposure before adulthood and cumulative
exposure are both important health risk factors. Excessive UV-B exposure also can
damage terrestrial plant life, single-cell organisms, and aquatic ecosystems. Other UV
radiation, UV-A, which is not absorbed significantly by ozone, causes premature aging of
the skin.

Ozone near Earth’s surface in excess of natural amounts is considered bad ozone. It is
formed by reactions involving human-made pollutant gases. Increasing surface ozone
above natural levels is harmful to humans, plants, and other living systems because ozone
reacts strongly to destroy or alter many biological molecules. High ozone exposure caused
by air pollution reduces crop yields and forest growth. In humans, exposure to high levels
of ozone can reduce lung capacity; cause chest pains, throat irritation, and coughing; and
worsen pre-existing health conditions related to the heart and lungs. In addition, increases
in tropospheric ozone lead to a warming of Earth’s surface because ozone is a
greenhouse gas. The negative effects of excess tropospheric ozone contrast sharply with
the protection from harmful UV-B radiation afforded by an abundance of stratospheric
ozone.
In the absence of human activities, ozone would still be present near Earth’s surface and
throughout the troposphere and stratosphere because ozone is a natural component of the
clean atmosphere. Ozone plays important roles in the atmosphere beyond absorbing UV
radiation. For example, ozone initiates the chemical removal of many pollutants, such as
carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), as well as some greenhouse gases,
such as methane (CH4).
Scientists have established records spanning several decades that detail normal ozone
levels during natural cycles. Ozone concentrations in the atmosphere vary naturally with
sunspots, seasons, and latitude. These processes are well understood and predictable.
Each natural reduction in ozone levels has been followed by a recovery. Beginning in the
1970s, however, scientific evidence showed that the ozone shield was being depleted well
beyond natural processes.

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When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the stratosphere, they
destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules
before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more quickly than it is
naturally created.
Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV light
in the stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are called
ozone-depleting substances. The chief ozone-depleting substances include
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and
methyl chloroform. Halons, sometimes known as brominated fluorocarbons, also contribute
mightily to ozone depletion. Although ODS are emitted at the Earth’s surface, they are
eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process that can take as long as two to five
years.
Such deterioration of ozone allows large amounts of ultraviolet B rays to reach Earth,
which can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans and harm animals as well.
Extra ultraviolet B radiation reaching Earth also inhibits the reproductive cycle of
phytoplankton, single-celled organisms such as algae that make up the bottom rung of the
food chain. Biologists fear that reductions in phytoplankton populations will in turn lower
the populations of other animals. Researchers also have documented changes in the
reproductive rates of young fish, shrimp, and crabs as well as frogs and salamanders
exposed to excess ultraviolet B.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray aerosols heavily used by
industrialized nations for much of the past 50 years, are the primary culprits in ozone layer
breakdown. When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet rays,
which cause them to break down into substances that include chlorine. The chlorine reacts
with the oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule. One atom of chlorine
can destroy more than a hundred thousand ozone molecules, according to the the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
The ozone layer above the Antarctic has been particularly impacted by pollution since the
mid-1980s. This region’s low temperatures speed up the conversion of CFCs to chlorine.
In the southern spring and summer, when the sun shines for long periods of the day,
chlorine reacts with ultraviolet rays, destroying ozone on a massive scale, up to 65
percent. This is what some people erroneously refer to as the "ozone hole." In other
regions, the ozone layer has deteriorated by about 20 percent. Significant depletion of
ozone has been observed in the Arctic stratosphere in recent decades but still it is less
severe than over Antarctic.

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(Also know that- natural causes of depletion of ozone layer also exist. Ozone layer has
been found to be affected by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and
stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the
ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only temporary. It is also believed that
the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and and Mt. Pinatubo in 1991)
has also contributed towards ozone depletion.)

Protection of Ozone Layer

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in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was adopted and
signed by 28 countries, on 22 March 1985. In September 1987, this led to the drafting of
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Montreal Protocol- In response to growing concern, the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed in 1987 and, following sufficient country
ratification, entered into force in 1989. The Protocol has been successful in establishing
legally binding controls for developed and developing nations on the production and
consumption of halogen source gases known to cause ozone depletion. Halogen source
gases containing chlorine and bromine controlled under the Montreal Protocol are referred
to as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). National consumption of an ODS is defined as
the amount that production and imports of the substance exceed its export to other
nations. The Protocol provisions are structured for developed countries to act first and for
developing countries to follow with some financial assistance. In 2009, the Montreal
Protocol became the first international treaty to achieve universal ratification by all 196
United Nations members.
The principal aim of the Montreal Protocol is to protect the ozone layer by taking measures
to control total global production and consumption of substances that deplete it, with the
ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge
and technological information.
The Montreal Protocol is structured around several groups of ozone-depleting substances.
The Montreal Protocol requires the control of nearly 100 chemicals, in several categories.
There are a few exceptions for essential uses where no acceptable substitutes have been
found, for example, in metered dose inhalers (MDI) commonly used to treat asthma and
other respiratory problems or halon fire-suppression systems used in submarines and
aircraft.
In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed 16 September the International
Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, commemorating the date of the signing, in
1987, of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (resolution
49/114).
Implemenation of the Montreal Protocol- Implementation of the Montreal
Protocol progressed well in developed and developing countries. All phase-out schedules
were adhered to in most cases, some even ahead of schedule. In view of the steady
progress made under the Protocol, already in 2003, former United Nations Secretary-
General Kofi Annan stated “Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to
date has been the Montreal Protocol”. His views are shared widely in the international
community.
Attention focused initially on chemicals with higher ozone-depletion potentials including
CFCs and halons. The phase-out schedule for HCFCs was more relaxed due to their lower
ozone-depletion potentials and because they have also been used as transitional
substitutes for CFCs.
The HCFC phase-out schedule was introduced in 1992 for developed and developing
countries, the latter with a freeze in 2015, and final phase-out by 2030 in developed
countries and 2040 in developing countries.
In 2007, Parties to the Montreal Protocol decided to accelerate the HCFC phase-out
schedule for both developed and developing countries.

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Universal ratification:
On 16th September 2009, the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol became the
first treaties in the history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification.
Kigali Amendment
The Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer reached
agreement at their 28th Meeting of the Parties on 15 October 2016 in Kigali, Rwanda to
phase-down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). The notable thing about the Kigali Amendment is
that 197 countries came together and signed the first legally binding climate treaty of the
21st century.
HFCs are refrigerants used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. They are potent
Green House Gases (GHGs) with a thousand times more global warming potential (GWP)
than carbon-di-oxide. The Montreal Protocol was signed in early 1990s to eliminate the
use of chemicals that caused the Ozone hole. However, the replacement for the ozone-
depleting chemicals was HFCs, which caused global warming. At the Kigali Meeting, the
world agreed to reduce the use of HFCs and move to refrigerants that neither cause global
warming nor create an ozone hole.
Under the agreement, developed countries will start reducing the use of HFCs first. They
will be followed by China, along with many other developing countries. Finally, India,
Pakistan and 8 other countries of West Asia will follow the suit.
Currently, 65% of all HFCs are consumed by developed countries with the USA alone
accounting for 37% of global consumption. China accounts for 60% of global HFC
production & 25% of global consumption. India accounts for less than 3% of the global
production & consumption. This agreement, therefore, a most differentiated climate
agreement and is a reflection of the responsibility and capability of countries to solve
climate change issues.
Overall, the agreement is expected to reduce HFC use by 85% by 2045. This will result in
a reduction of HFC emissions equivalent to about 70 billion tonnes of carbon-di-oxide
globally.
It is important to note that unlike the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, the
historic Paris Agreement is neither legally binding nor are there mandatory emission
reduction targets in it for countries.

Sources:

 http://www.un.org/en/events/ozoneday/background.shtml
 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/ozone-depletion/
 https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/basic-ozone-layer-science
 State of India’s Environment 2017 by Centre for Science & Environment

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