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Eiteman 0321408926 IM ITC2 C16
Eiteman 0321408926 IM ITC2 C16
Chapter 16
Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy
End-of-Chapter Questions
1. Evolving into multinationalism. As a firm evolves from purely domestic into a true multinational
enterprise, it must consider (a) its competitive advantages, (b) where it wants to locate production,
(c) the type of control it wants to have over any foreign operations, and (d) how much monetary
capital to invest abroad. Explain how each of these four considerations is important to the success
of foreign operations.
Answer: If a firm lacks sufficient competitive advantage to compete effectively in its home market,
it is unlikely to have sufficient advantages of any type to be successful in a foreign market.
This is because the competitive advantages of the home market must be enduring,
transferable, and sufficiently powerful to enable the firm to overcome the assorted
difficulties of operating in a foreign environment. Foreign operations must be located
where market imperfections are such that the firm can take advantage of its competitive
advantages to the degree necessary to earn a riskadjusted rate of return above the firm’s
cost of capital.
The firm must decided upon the degree of control it will need over the foreign operation,
recognizing that greater control usually involves both greater risk and a greater investment.
Viewing a spectrum of degrees of control, licensing and management contracts provide a
low level of control (along with a low level of financial investment); joint ventures
necessitate a somewhat higher level of control; and Greenfield direct investments and/or
acquisition of an existing foreign firm require the highest degree of control (along with a
higher level of financial investment).
The spectrum of investment approaches (licensing, management contracts, joint ventures,
and direct investment) require in that order ever increasing investment of more monetary
capital. The firm must decide if the benefits of greater investment (presumably greater
profits, plus possibly acquiring market share or forestalling competitors from gaining a
greater market share) are worth the differing amounts of monetary capital needed.
2. Theory of comparative advantage. What is the essence of the theory of comparative advantage?
114 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
Answer: The essence of the theory of comparative advantage is that a country should specialize in
producing those goods and services for which it has a relative cost advantage compared to
other countries, export a portion of those goods and services, and use the proceeds from
those exports to import goods and services for which it has a relative cost disadvantage.
The theory focuses on the concept of “relative advantage” for each country. Relative
advantage means a comparison of the ratio of costs between items within one country to
the ratio of costs within another country. A country might have an absolute advantage in
everything, but it will still gain by specializing where its relative advantage is greatest.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 115
3. Market imperfections. MNEs strive to take advantage of market imperfections in national markets for
products, factors of production, and financial assets. Large international firms are better able to
exploit such imperfections. What are their main competitive advantages?
Answer: MNEs strive to take advantage of imperfections in national markets for products, factors of
production, and financial assets. Imperfections in the market for products translate into
market opportunities for MNEs. Large international firms are better able to exploit such
competitive factors as economies of scale, managerial and technological expertise, product
differentiation, and financial strength than are their local competitors. In fact, MNEs thrive
best in markets characterized by international oligopolistic competition, where these
factors are particularly critical. In addition, once MNEs have established a physical
presence abroad, they are in a better position than purely domestic firms to identify and
implement market opportunities through their own internal information network.
4. Strategic motives for foreign direct investment (FDI).
(a) Summarize the five main motives that drive the decision to initiate FDI. Strategic motives drive
the decision to invest abroad and become a MNE.
Answer: These motives can be summarized under the following five categories.
(1) Market seekers produce in foreign markets either to satisfy local demand or to export
to markets other than their home market. U.S. automobile firms manufacturing in
Europe for local consumption are an example of marketseeking motivation.
(2) Raw material seekers extract raw materials wherever they can be found, either for
export or for further processing and sale in the country in which they are found—the
host country. Firms in the oil, mining, plantation, and forest industries fall into
this category.
(3) Production efficiency seekers produce in countries where one or more of the factors
of production are underpriced relative to their productivity. Laborintensive
production of electronic components in Taiwan, Malaysia, and Mexico is an example
of this motivation.
(4) Knowledge seekers operate in foreign countries to gain access to technology or
managerial expertise. For example, German, Dutch, and Japanese firms have
purchased U.S.located electronics firms for their technology.
(5) Political safety seekers acquire or establish new operations in countries that are
considered unlikely to expropriate or interfere with private enterprise. For example,
Hong Kong firms invested heavily in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada,
and Australia in anticipation of the consequences of China’s 1997 takeover of the
British colony.
(b) Match these motives with the following MNEs.
(1) General Motors (USA).
Answer: Market seekers.
(2) Royal Dutch Shell (Netherlands/UK).
116 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
Answer: Raw material seekers.
(3) Kentucky Fried Chicken (USA).
Answer: Market seekers.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 117
(4) Jardine Matheson (Hong Kong).
Answer: Political safety seekers.
(5) Apple Computer (USA).
Answer: Production efficiency seekers.
(6) NEC (Japan).
Answer: Knowledge seekers.
5. Competitive advantage. In deciding whether to invest abroad, management must first determine
whether the firm has a sustainable competitive advantage that enables it to compete effectively in the
home market. What are the necessary characteristics of this competitive advantage?
Answer: In deciding whether to invest abroad, management must first determine whether the firm
has a sustainable competitive advantage that enables it to compete effectively in the home
market. The competitive advantage must be firmspecific, transferable, and powerful
enough to compensate the firm for the potential disadvantages of operating abroad (foreign
exchange risks, political risks, and increased agency costs).
Based on observations of firms that have successfully invested abroad, we can conclude
that some of the competitive advantages enjoyed by MNEs are (1) economies of scale and
scope arising from their large size; (2) managerial and marketing expertise; (3) superior
technology owing to their heavy emphasis on research; (4) financial strength; (5)
differentiated products; and sometimes (6) competitiveness of their home markets.
6. Economies of scale and scope. Explain briefly how economies of scale and scope can be developed in
production, marketing, finance, research and development, transportation, and purchasing.
Answer: Economies of scale and scope can be developed in production, marketing, finance,
research and development, transportation, and purchasing. In each of these areas there are
significant competitive advantages to being large, whether size is due to international or
domestic operations. Production economies can come from the use of largescale
automated plant and equipment or from an ability to rationalize production through
worldwide specialization. For example, some automobile manufacturers, such as Ford,
rationalize manufacturing by producing engines in one country, transmissions in another,
and bodies in another and assembling still elsewhere, with the location often being dictated
by comparative advantage.
Marketing economies occur when firms are large enough to use the most efficient
advertising media to create worldwide brand identification, as well as to establish
worldwide distribution, warehousing, and servicing systems. Financial economies derive
from access to the full range of financial instruments and sources of funds, such as the
Eurocurrency, Euroequity, and Eurobond markets. Inhouse research and development
programs are typically restricted to large firms because of the minimumsize threshold for
establishing a laboratory and scientific staff. Transportation economies accrue to firms that
can ship in carload or shipload lots. Purchasing economies come from quantity discounts
and market power.
118 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
7. Competitiveness of the home market. A strongly competitive home market can sharpen a firm’s
competitive advantage relative to firms located in less competitive markets. This phenomenon is
known as Porter’s “diamond of national advantage.” Explain what is meant by the “diamond of
national advantage.”
Answer: A strongly competitive home market can sharpen a firm’s competitive advantage relative
to firms located in less competitive home markets. This phenomenon is known as the
“diamond of national advantage” (Poerter). The diamond has four components. A firm’s
success in competing in a particular industry depends partly on the availability of factors of
production (land, labor, capital, and technology) appropriate for that industry. Countries
that are either naturally endowed with the appropriate factors or able to create them will
probably spawn firms that are both competitive at home and potentially so abroad. For
example, a welleducated work force in the home market creates a competitive advantage
for firms in certain hightech industries.
Firms facing sophisticated and demanding customers in the home market are able to hone
their marketing, production, and quality control skills. Japan is such a market.
Firms in industries that are surrounded by a critical mass of related industries and suppliers
will be more competitive because of this supporting cast. For example, electronic firms
located in centers of excellence, such as in the San Francisco Bay area, are surrounded by
efficient, creative suppliers and enjoy access to educational institutions at the forefront of
knowledge.
A competitive home market forces firms to finetune their operational and control
strategies for their specific industry and country environment. Japanese firms learned how
to organize to implement their famous “justintime” inventory control system. One key
was to use numerous subcontractors and suppliers that were encouraged to locate near the
final assembly plants.
In some cases home country markets have not been large or competitive, but MNEs
located there have nevertheless developed global niche markets served by foreign
subsidiaries. Global competition in oligopolistic industries substitutes for domestic
competition. For example, a number of MNEs resident in Scandinavia, Switzerland, and
the Netherlands fall in this category. Some of these are Novo Nordisk (Denmark), Norske
Hydro (Norway), Nokia (Finland), L.M. Ericsson (Sweden), Astra (Sweden), ABB
(Sweden/Switzerland), Roche Holding (Switzerland), Royal Dutch Shell (the Netherlands),
Unilever (the Netherlands), and Philips (the Netherlands).
8. OLI Paradigm. The OLI Paradigm is an attempt to create an overall framework to explain why MNEs
choose FDI rather than serve foreign markets through alternative modes.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 119
Answer: The OLI Paradigm states that a firm must first have some competitive advantage in its
home market—“O” or ownerspecific—that can be transferred abroad if the firm is to
be successful in foreign direct investment. Second, the firm must be attracted by specific
characteristics of the foreign market—“L” or locationspecific—that will allow it to
exploit its competitive advantages in that market. Third, the firm will maintain its
competitive position by attempting to control the entire value chain in its industry—“I”
or internalization. This leads it to foreign direct investment rather than licensing
or outsourcing.
120 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
9. Financial links to OLI. Financial strategies are directly related to the OLI Paradigm.
(a) Explain how proactive financial strategies are related to OLI.
Answer: Proactive financial strategies can be controlled in advance by the MNE’s financial
managers. These include strategies necessary to gain an advantage from lower global cost
and greater availability of capital. Other proactive financial strategies are negotiating
financial subsidies and/or reduced taxation to increase free cash flows, reducing financial
agency costs through FDI, and reducing operating and transaction exposure through FDI.
(b) Explain how reactive financial strategies are related to OLI.
Answer: Reactive financial strategies depend on discovering market imperfections. For example,
the MNE can exploit misaligned exchange rates and stock prices. It also needs to react to
capital controls that prevent the free movement of funds and react to opportunities to
minimize worldwide taxation.
10. Where to invest. The decision about where to invest abroad is influenced by behavioral factors
(a) Explain the behavioral approach to FDI.
Answer: The behavioral approach to analyzing the FDI decision is typified by the socalled Swedish
School of economists. The Swedish School has rather successfully explained not just the
initial decision to invest abroad but also later decisions to reinvest elsewhere and to change
the structure of a firm’s international involvement over time. Based on the
internationalization process of a sample of Swedish MNEs, the economists observed that
these firms tended to invest first in countries that were not too far distant in psychic terms.
Close psychic distance defined countries with a cultural, legal, and institutional
environment similar to Sweden’s, such as Norway, Denmark, Finland, Germany, and the
United Kingdom. The initial investments were modest in size to minimize the risk of an
uncertain foreign environment. As the Swedish firms learned from their initial investments,
they became willing to take greater risks with respect to both the psychic distance of the
countries and the size of the investments.
(b) Explain the international network theory explanation of FDI.
Answer: As the Swedish MNEs grew and matured, so did the nature of their international
involvement. Today each MNE is perceived as being a member of an international
network, with nodes based in each of the foreign subsidiaries, as well as the parent firm
itself. Centralized (hierarchical) control has given way to decentralized (heterarchical)
control. Foreign subsidiaries compete with each other and with the parent for expanded
resource commitments, thus influencing the strategy and reinvestment decisions. Many of
these MNEs have become political coalitions with competing internal and external
networks. Each subsidiary (and the parent) is embedded in its host country’s network of
suppliers and customers. It is also a member of a worldwide network based on its industry.
Finally, it is a member of an organizational network under the nominal control of the
parent firm. Complicating matters still further is the possibility that the parent itself may
have evolved into a transnational firm, one that is owned by a coalition of investors located
in different countries.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 121
11. Exporting versus producing abroad. What are the advantages and disadvantages of limiting a firm’s
activities to exporting compared to producing abroad?
Answer: There are several advantages to limiting a firm’s activities to exports. Exporting has none
of the unique risks facing FDI, joint ventures, strategic alliances, and licensing. Political
risks are minimal. Agency costs, such as monitoring and evaluating foreign units, are
avoided. The amount of frontend investment is typically lower than in other modes of
foreign involvement. Foreign exchange risks remain, however.
The fact that a significant share of exports (and imports) are executed between MNEs and
their foreign subsidiaries and affiliates further reduces the risk of exports compared to
other modes of involvement.
There are also disadvantages. A firm is not able to internalize and exploit the results of its
research and development as effectively as if it invested directly. The firm also risks losing
markets to imitators and global competitors that might be more cost efficient in production
abroad and distribution. As these firms capture foreign markets, they might become so
strong that they can export back into the domestic exporter’s own market. Remember that
defensive FDI is often motivated by the need to prevent this kind of predatory behavior as
well as to preempt foreign markets before competitors can get started.
12. Licensing and management contacts versus producing abroad. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of licensing and management contracts compared to producing abroad?
Answer: Licensing is a popular method for domestic firms to profit from foreign markets without
the need to commit sizable funds. Since the foreign producer is typically wholly owned
locally, political risk is minimized. In recent years a number of host countries have
demanded that MNEs sell their services in “unbundled form” rather than only through FDI.
Such countries would like their local firms to purchase managerial expertise and
knowledge of product and factor markets through management contracts, and purchase
technology through licensing agreements.
The main disadvantage of licensing is that license fees are likely to be lower than FDI
profits, although the return on the marginal investment might be higher. Other
disadvantages include:
Possible loss of quality control
Establishment of a potential competitor in thirdcountry markets
Possible improvement of the technology by the local licensee, which then enters the
original firm’s home market
Possible loss of opportunity to enter the licensee’s market with FDI later
Risk that technology will be stolen
High agency costs
122 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
MNEs have not typically used licensing of independent firms. On the contrary, most
licensing arrangements have been with their own foreign subsidiaries or joint ventures.
License fees are a way to spread the corporate research and development cost among all
operating units and a means of repatriating profits in a form more acceptable to some host
countries than dividends.
Management contracts are similar to licensing insofar as they provide for some cash flow
from a foreign source without significant foreign investment or exposure. Management
contracts probably lessen political risk because repatriation of managers is easy.
International consulting and engineering firms traditionally conduct their foreign business
on the basis of a management contract.
Whether licensing and management contracts are cost effective compared to FDI depends
on the price host countries will pay for the unbundled services. If the price were high
enough, many firms would prefer to take advantage of market imperfections in an
unbundled way, particularly in view of the lower political, foreign exchange, and business
risks. Because we observe MNEs continuing to prefer FDI, we must assume that the price
for selling unbundled services is still too low.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 123
13. Joint venture versus wholly owned production subsidiary. What are the advantages and disadvantages
of forming a joint venture to serve a foreign market compared to serving that market with a wholly
owned production subsidiary?
Answer: A joint venture is here defined as shared ownership in a foreign business. A foreign
business unit that is partially owned by the parent company is typically termed a foreign
affiliate. A foreign business unit that is 50% or more owned (and therefore controlled) by
the parent company is typically designated a foreign subsidiary. A joint venture would
therefore typically fall into the categorization of being a foreign affiliate but not a foreign
subsidiary.
A joint venture between an MNE and a host country partner is a viable strategy if, and only
if, the MNE finds the right local partner. Some of the obvious advantages of having a
compatible local partner are as follows:
(a) The local partner understands the customs, mores, and institutions of the local
environment. An MNE might need years to acquire such knowledge on its own with
a 100%owned greenfield subsidiary.
(b) The local partner can provide competent management, not just at the top but also at
the middle levels of management.
(c) If the host country requires that foreign firms share ownership with local firms or
investors, 100% foreign ownership is not a realistic alternative to a joint venture.
(d) The local partner’s contacts and reputation enhance access to the host country’s
capital markets.
(e) The local partner may possess technology that is appropriate for the local environment
or perhaps can be used worldwide.
(f) The public image of a firm that is partially locally owned may improve its sales
possibilities if the purpose of the investment is to serve the local market.
Despite this impressive list of advantages, joint ventures are not as common as 100%
owned foreign subsidiaries because MNEs fear interference by the local partner in certain
critical decision areas. Indeed, what is optimal from the viewpoint of the local venture may
be suboptimal for the multinational operation as a whole. The most important potential
conflicts or difficulties are these:
(a) Political risk is increased rather than reduced if the wrong partner is chosen. Imagine
the standing of joint ventures undertaken with the family or associates of Suharto in
Indonesia or Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia just before their overthrow. The local partner
must be credible and ethical or the venture is worse off for being a joint venture.
(b) Local and foreign partners may have divergent views about the need for cash
dividends, or about the desirability of growth financed from retained earnings versus
new financing.
(c) Transfer pricing on products or components bought from or sold to related companies
creates a potential for conflict of interest.
124 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
(d) Control of financing is another problem area. A MNE cannot justify its use of cheap
or available funds raised in one country to finance joint venture operations in
another country.
(e) Ability of a firm to rationalize production on a worldwide basis can be jeopardized if
such rationalization would act to the disadvantage of local joint venture partners.
(f) Financial disclosure of local results might be necessary with locally traded shares,
whereas if the firm is wholly owned from abroad such disclosure is not needed.
Disclosure gives nondisclosing competitors an advantage in setting strategy.
14. Greenfield investment versus acquisition. What are the advantages and disadvantages of serving a
foreign market through a Greenfield foreign direct investment compared to an acquisition of a local
firm in the target market?
Answer: A greenfield investment is defined as establishing a production or service facility starting
from the ground up, i.e., from a green field. Compared to greenfield investment, a cross
border acquisition has a number of significant advantages. First and foremost, it is quicker.
Greenfield investment frequently requires extended periods of physical construction and
organizational development. By acquiring an existing firm, the MNE can shorten the time
required to gain a presence and facilitate competitive entry into the market. Second,
acquisition may be a costeffective way of gaining competitive advantages such as
technology, brand names valued in the target market, and logistical and distribution
advantages, while simultaneously eliminating a local competitor. Third, international
economic, political, and foreign exchange conditions may result in market imperfections
allowing target firms to be undervalued. Many enterprises throughout Asia have been the
target of acquisition as a result of the Asian economic crisis’ impact on their financial
health. Many enterprises were in dire need of capital injections for competitive survival.
Crossborder acquisitions are not, however, without their pitfalls. As with all acquisitions
—domestic or international—there are the frequent problems of paying too high a price or
suffering a method of financing that is too costly. Meshing different corporate cultures can
be traumatic. Managing the post acquisition process is frequently characterized by
downsizing to gain economies of scale and scope in overhead functions. This results in
nonproductive impacts on the firm as individuals attempt to save their own jobs.
Internationally, additional difficulties arise from host governments intervening in pricing,
financing, employment guarantees, market segmentation, and general nationalism and
favoritism. In fact, the ability to complete international acquisitions successfully may itself
be a test of the MNE’s competence in the twentyfirst century.
15. Crossborder strategic alliance. The term “crossborder strategic alliance” conveys different meanings
to different observers. What are the different meanings?
Answer: The term strategic alliance conveys different meanings to different observers. In one form
of crossborder strategic alliance, two firms exchange a share of ownership with one
another. A strategic alliance can be a takeover defense if the prime purpose is for a firm to
place some of its stock in stable and friendly hands. If that is all that occurs, it is just
another form of portfolio investment.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 125
In a more comprehensive strategic alliance, in addition to exchanging stock, the partners
establish a separate joint venture to develop and manufacture a product or service.
Numerous examples of such strategic alliances can be found in the automotive, electronics,
telecommunications, and aircraft industries. Such alliances are particularly suited to high
tech industries where the cost of research and development is high and timely introduction
of improvements is important.
A third level of cooperation might include joint marketing and servicing agreements in
which each partner represents the other in certain markets. Some observers believe such
arrangements begin to resemble the cartels prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s. Because they
reduce competition, cartels have been banned by international agreements and many
national laws.
126 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffet • Multinational Business Finance, Eleventh Edition
2. How will the returns to Raisio accrue over the shorttomediumtolong term under the agreement,
assuming the product is met with relative success?
Answer: Under the agreement Raisio receives returns three ways.
(1) In the shortterm, the milestone payments represent a known and assured series of
cash inflows to Raisio for its intellectual property. Raisio incurs no direct expenses
related to these payments; they are simply returns on the intellectual property held by
Raisio, and in which it has invested years of capital and intellectual resources to
create.
(2) On a continuing basis, as Benecol gains wider and wider acceptance and distribution,
Raisio would continue to provide all of the stanol estor – Benecol’s key chemical
ingredient manufactured by Raisio alone – assuring a continuing sale at an acceptable
transfer price. Note that this is more consistent with Raisio’s traditional core
competencies, the manufacturing of industrial chemicals. (By the way, students may
be surprised to find that margarine is generally regarded as a chemical product.)
(3) Over the life of the agreement Raisio would receive a royalty payment calculated as a
percentage of the final retail product price of any product containing Benecol. This is
a very attractive element of the agreement to a company like Raisio, as it in no way
requires Raisio to be involved or concerned with the variety of different products or
ways in which it may finally be distributed. As such, it simply reaps an income stream
on the basis of sales, not profitability.
3. What are some of the possible motivations to Raisio and McNeil behind a milestone agreement?
Assume the milestone payments are agreed upon payments from McNeil to Raisio if:
(a) Raisio successfully completes the expansion of its manufacturing capabilities for stanol ester.
Answer: McNeil may be worried that it will invest and expend in developing and marketing
Benecolbased products only to find that Raisio is not prepared to provide sufficient stanol
estor for rapidly expanding sales.
Chapter 16 Foreign Direct Investment Theory and Strategy 127
(b) McNeil successfully introduces Benecol products in major industrial markets, overcoming
regulatory hurdles and reaching specific sales goals.
Answer: Given the risks associated with these new products, termed nutriceuticals, McNeil may
have wished for Raisio to share the risks of overcoming initial barriers to market
penetration. If Raisio were to only receive the payments with successful market
introduction (however that is measured in practice in this case), McNeil has reduced its
total financial risks associated with the Benecol product line.
Note: Raisio has never fully described the conditions which had to be met in order for the
“milestone payments” to be made. They are generally thought to be a required upfront
payment to Raisio, representing a minimum return to the global license and providing an
incentive for McNeil to diligently pursue distribution in order to generate some return on
this early payment to Raisio.