In this chapter the concepts of differential calculus are

discussed. The chapter begins with limits and limits are

evaluated by different techniques. It is followed by continuity of
a function, then by full discussions of derivatives. The chapter is
ended by studying the process of finding the maximum and
CHAPTER FOUR: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

minimum values of a function. All the concepts that will be

gained in this chapter are very important because these will be
the tools that will guide the students in solving some problems
related to business and economics.

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson the student should be able:

1. to define limits of a function.

2. to apply the concept of limits in finding the derivatives of
functions.
3. to enumerate and explain the theorems on limits of a function.
4. to develop values such as objectivity, creativity, accuracy,
honestly, patience and perseverance which mathematical skills
and proficiency cultivate.
5. to gain proficiency in evaluating limits of a function this is of
primary importance in calculus.
6. to determine the importance of the continuity of a function.
7. to be familiarize with the formula of derivative of function.
8. to develop the habit of patience by getting the derivative of a
function implicitly.
9. to have a full grasp of the uses of first and second derivative test
in finding the maximum and minimum values of a function.

120
 Introduction

The concept of a limit of a function is basic in calculus. A major difference in between

calculus and the subjects which usually precede it in the mathematical curriculum is that calculus
use limiting process.

The concept of a limit is a mathematical refinement of an intuitive notion which is

important in rough everyday use, that the limit L is a number which f(x) approaches as closely as
may be desired, as x creeps up to a. The idea of a moving point x moving toward a, f(x), moving
toward L, is a relic of the Newtonian calculus. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), independently of each other, developed the calculus.

The discussion about limits is presented in three parts. The first part defines the limits of
a function and cites its properties. The second part is all about theorems that are useful in
evaluating the limits of a function. The last part discusses rules on finding the limits of a
function.

Enough number of examples was provided to enable the student to fully grasp the
concept. Exercises were also provided to give the student practice in evaluating limits of
function.

4.1 Limits of Function

Let f(x) be a function of x and let a be constant. The limit of

f(x) as x approaches a is L, the absolute value of the difference
between f(x) and L can be made as small as we please by taking
Definition 4.1.1 by x close enough to a, but different from a. Mathematically we
write,

lim 𝑓(𝑥)= L
𝑥→𝑎

We begin the discussion by examining the behavior of the function f(x) = x2 – x + 1

for x-values closer and closer to 2. It is evident from the Fig. 4.1.1 and the Table1 that the values
of f(x) get closer and closer to 3 as the values of x are selected closer and closer to 2 on either the
left or right side of 2. We describe this by saying that the “limit of f(x)= x2 – x + 1 is 3 as x
 
approaches 2 from either side,” we write lim x 2  x .1  3
x2

121
 Figure 4.1.1

x 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.05 2.1

f(x) 2.71 2.852 2.97 2.985 2.997 3.003 3.015 3.031 3.152 3.31

Left Hand Right

Table 1 Hand
Hand

Right-hand and Left-hand Limits

When the independent variable x approaches a from the right, it is called a right-hand
limit. Written,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥 ⟶𝑎+

122
Which means x→a+, that each x involved is greater than a. A left-hand limit, written,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,
𝑥⟶ 𝑎−

Have each x involved less than a.

The statement lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists implies that both the left hand limit lim − 𝑓(𝑥) and the right limit
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥⟶ 𝑎
lim + 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are equal; that is
𝑥⟶ 𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥⟶ 𝑎
𝑥 ⟶𝑎+

Example 4.1.1
If f(x) = 3 + |2x – 4|, determine if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and sketch the graph.
𝑥→2

Solution.
a. lim f ( x )  lim 3  2 x  4 b. lim f ( x )  lim 3  2 x  4
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

 3  22   4  3  22   4
 3  3

Since the lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), then the lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) exist and is equal to 3.
𝑥⟶ 2 𝑥⟶ 2 𝑥⟶ 2

123
 Example 4.1.2 Evaluate the limit of lim 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥→1

Solution.

Since the given function is defined at x=1, the ordinary limit is 4.

Likewise the right-hand limit is,

lim 2𝑥 + 2 = 4,
𝑥→1+

And the left-hand limit is,

lim 2𝑥 + 2 = 4
𝑥→1−

Below, is a tabular presentation of the right-hand approach and the left-hand approach to
the limit.

x 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3

f(x) 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.6

Left Hand Right

Hand

124
 Limit at Infinity

𝑐 𝑐
The limit of 𝑥 or in general , where n is a positive integer, as x approaches to infinity is
𝑥𝑛
zero. Written mathematically,

𝑐
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛

where n is positive integer.

10
Example 4.1.3 Evaluate the 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑛→∞ ( 𝑥 )

Solution.
10 10
lim ( ) =
𝑛→∞ 𝑥 ∞
=0

1
Example 4.1.4 As x approaches 1 the function y= (𝑥−1)2 increases without limit, i.e.,

1
lim =∞
𝑥 ⟶1 (𝑥−1)2

Theorems on Limit

Limit of a constant

Theorem 4.1.1 If c is any constant, then for any number a

lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥 ⟶𝑎

125
 Example 4.1.5 Evaluate the lim 5
𝑥⟶3

Solution.

lim 5 = 5
𝑥⟶3

Limit of a constant times a function

Theorem 4.1.2 lim 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) = c lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝐿, where c is a constant

𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎

Example 4.1.6 Evaluate lim 2𝑥

𝑥⟶2

Solution.
lim 2𝑥 = 2 lim 𝑥 = 2(2) = 4
𝑥⟶2 𝑥⟶2

Limit of the Sum or Difference

The limit of the Sum or Difference of two or more functions is

Theorem 4.1.3 equal to the sum or difference of their limits

lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]= lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) = L ± M

𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥⟶𝑎

Example 4.1.7 Evaluate lim(𝑥 + 7)

𝑥→3

Solution.

lim(𝑥 + 7) = lim 𝑥+lim 7

𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

= 3+7

= 10

126
 Limit of the Product

Theorem 4.1.4 The limit of the product of two or more functions is equal to the
product of their limits.

lim [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)]= [ lim 𝑓(𝑥)] [lim 𝑔(𝑥)]= LM

𝑥⟶𝑎 𝑥→ 𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example 4.1.8 Evaluate lim 3𝑥

𝑥→2

Solution.

lim 3𝑥 = lim 3•lim 𝑥

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

=3•2

=6

Limit of the Quotient

The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of

Theorem 4.1.5 their limits, provided the limit of the denominator is zero

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿

lim 𝑔(𝑥)=𝑥→𝑎 = , provided that M≠0
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎

3
Example 4.1.9 Evaluate the lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥

Solution:

3 lim 3 3 −3
lim = 𝑥→−2 = =
𝑥→−2 𝑥 lim 𝑥 −2 2
𝑥→−2

Limit a Power of a Function

Theorem 4.1.6 𝑚⁄ 𝑚⁄
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑛= 𝐿 𝑛, provided that L>0 if n is even, and L ≠0 if m<0
𝑥→𝑎 127
 Example 4.1.10 Evaluate the lim (2𝑥)4.
𝑥→−1

Solution.
4
lim (2𝑥)4 = [ lim 2 • lim 𝑥]
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= [(2) − (−1)]4

= 16

3 27
Example 4.1.11 Evaluate the lim √−4𝑥
𝑥→2

Solution:

3 27 3 lim 27
lim √−4𝑥 = √ lim𝑥→2
𝑥→2 −4•lim 𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

3 27
= √(−4)(2)

3
= −2

Rules in the Evaluation of Limits

Direct substitution may be applied for some functions of f(x) without directly following the
properties of limits.

Example 4.1.12 Evaluate the following limits

a. lim(3𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2
𝑥
b. lim 8
𝑥→1
𝑥+2
c. lim 𝑥−2
𝑥→3
𝑥2
d. lim 𝑥−1
𝑥→1
Solution.

128
 a. lim(3𝑥 − 1) = 3(2) − 1 = 5
𝑥→2

𝑥
b. lim 8 = 1⁄8
𝑥→1
𝑥+2 3+2
c. lim 𝑥−2 = 3−2 = 5
𝑥→3

𝑥 2 −1 1−1 0
d. lim = 1−1 = 0
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

It should be noted in the last example that the limit does not exist since 0/0 has infinite
number of answer. This shows that direct substitution is not always effective in finding the limit
of some functions. The following rules may help evaluate limits if 0/0 occurs in direct
substitution.

RULE 1: FACTORING. If the numerator of denominator is factorable, factor to eliminate 0/0.

𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+1)
Example 4.1.13 Evaluate the lim = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 (𝑥−1)

Solution.

𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)
lim = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1 (𝑥 − 1)

Note: The denominator and numerator has the common term x - 1 which cancels out.

= lim(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1

=1+1
=2

𝑥 2 +3x+2
Example 4.1.14 Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

Solution.

By direct substitution

𝑥 2 +3x+2 (−1)2 +3(−1)+2 0

lim = = 0 (indeterminate form)
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 −1+1

the limit does not exist in direct substitution. So we factor the numerator to obtain

𝑥 2 +3x+2 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)
lim = lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)

129
 = lim (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥→−1
= −1 + 2
=1
3
Example 4.1.15 √𝑥 −1
Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

Solution.

Since it is hard to factor the terms having radicals consider the following technique.
3 3
Let y= √𝑥 and 𝑦 2 = √𝑥 2
Also, 𝑦3 = 𝑥

Substituting the original equation,

𝑦−1 (𝑦−1)
lim = lim (𝑦−1)(𝑦 2 +𝑦+1)
𝑥→1 𝑦 3 −1 𝑥→1
1
= lim (𝑦 2 +𝑦+1)
𝑥→1

Substituting the original variable x, the limit can now be evaluated.

1
= lim 3 3
𝑥→1 √x2 + √𝑥+1
1
=3

RULE 2: CONJUGATING. If the limit does not exist in direct substitution, and the terms are
not factorable, the conjugate property may help to find the limit if possible.

√𝑥+16 − 4
Example 4.1.16 Evaluate the limit of lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution.

Direct substitution will fail to find the limit. We use the conjugate of √𝑥 + 16 – 4 which
is √𝑥 + 16 + 4. Since (x + y) times is conjugate (x – y) is 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 . The radical sign may
now be eliminated.

√𝑥 + 16 − 4 √𝑥 + 16 +4 𝑥 + 16 − 16
lim [ ] = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 √𝑥 + 16 +4 𝑥→0 𝑥 √𝑥 + 16 + 4

𝑥
Example 5.7.7 = lim 𝑥√𝑥+16+4
𝑥→0

1
= lim
𝑥→0 √𝑥+16+4

130
 1
=8

∞
RULE 3: LIMIT OF INFINITY. Another indeterminate form is of the type ∞. This occurs
∞
when the limit of the numerator and the denominator after direct substitution is evaluated . To
∞
determine the limit of this type divide each term of the function by the highest degree of the
rational expression. The following examples describe this rule.
4𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3
Example 4.1.17 Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→∞ 9𝑥 2 +4𝑥−2

Solution.

Dividing each term by 𝑥 2 (the highest degree of the variable in the function), we get

2 3
4+𝑥+ 2
= lim 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 4 2
9+𝑥− 2
𝑥
Using the limit property of infinity this reduces to
2 3
Example 5.7.7 4+ +
∞ ∞
= lim 4 2
𝑥→∞ 9+ −
∞ ∞

4+0+0
= 9+0+0

4
=9

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−2
Example 4.1.18 Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +9

Solution.

Direct substitution fails here. Using Rule 3 divide each term by 𝑥 3

1 3 2
+ −
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= lim 9
𝑥→∞ 1+ 3
𝑥

0+0−0
= 1+0

=0
Example 5.7.7

131
 3𝑥 3 −2𝑥+4
Example 4.1.19 Evaluate lim .
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −8

Solution.

Direct substitution again fails, divide each term by 𝑥 3 .

2 4
3− 2 + 3
𝑥 𝑥
= lim 5 8
𝑥→∞ −
𝑥 𝑥3

3−0+0
= 0−0

Example 5.7.7 =∞

Which implies that the limit does not exist.

132
 Exercise 4.1

Evaluate the limits of the given the following

(𝑥+1) 4𝑥 − 4𝑥
1.lim 3(𝑥 2 +4) 16. lim 4𝑥 + 4−𝑥
𝑥→1 𝑥→0

7𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4
2. lim(𝑥 3 − 4𝑥) 17. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥→∞ 7𝑥 2 −9𝑥+3

7𝑥 2 +𝑥+3
3. lim (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) 18. lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 −1

𝑥 2 −4 2𝑥
4. lim 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥+6 19. lim 𝑥 2 +6
𝑥→2 𝑥→∞

𝑥 3 −9𝑥+10 2𝑥 2 +1
5. lim 20. lim 4𝑥 2 −2𝑥+5
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4 𝑥→∞

𝑥+3 𝑥 2 +6𝑥−5
6. lim 𝑥 2 −𝑥−12 21. lim
𝑥→4 𝑥→∞ 3𝑥+6

𝑥2− 9 2𝑥 3
7. lim 𝑥 3 − 27 22. lim 𝑥 2 +2
𝑥→3 𝑥→∞

2(𝑥+ℎ)2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥)

8. lim 23. Given f(x) = 2x2 – 4x, find lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

√𝑥 2 +3− 2 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥)

9. lim 24. Given f(x) =√3𝑥 − 1, find lim ,
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 1
10. lim provided that x> 3
𝑥→1 (𝑥−1)2

(𝑥+1)3 1+𝑥 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥)

11. lim (3𝑥−1)4 25. Given f(x) = 1−𝑥 , find lim ,
𝑥→1 ℎ→0 ℎ

3(𝑥+ℎ)3 − 3𝑥 3
12. lim provided that x≠ 1
ℎ→0 ℎ

√𝑥 2 +3− 2
13. lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

14. lim (√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥)

𝑥→∞

3 𝑥 3 −1
15. lim √𝑥 2 −1
𝑥→1

133
 4.2 Continuity of a Function

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a if the following three conditions are

satisfied:

(i) f(a) must be defined

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) must exist
𝑥→𝑎
(iii) f(a)=lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

A function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at a if one or more of the conditions for

continuity fail.

Example 4.2.1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1

Test whether f(x)= is continuous at (a) x=1 (b) x=3.
𝑥 2 −9

Solution.

(a) At x=1
12 −3(1)+1 −1 1
(i) 𝑓(1) = = −8 = 8
1−9
𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1 12 −3(1)+1 1
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = =8
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −9 1−9
(iii) 𝑓(𝑎) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
1 1
=8
8
2
Example 5.7.7 𝑓(𝑥) = x −3x+1
Therefore 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
x2 −9
(b) At x=3
(−3)2 +3(−3)+1 9+9+1 19
(i) 𝑓(3) = = = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
9−9 0 0

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
Since f(3) is not defined, therefore 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 2 −9

𝑥 2 − 𝑥−6
Given the function f defined as f(x) = ,draw a sketch of the
Example 4.2.2 𝑥−3
graph of f, then by observing where there are breaks in the graph,
determine the values of the independent variable at which the function is
discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.

134
Solution. (See Fig. 4.1.2)

𝑥 2 − 𝑥−6 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
f(x)= = = x+2
𝑥−3 𝑥−3

Therefore, f(x) = x+2 where x≠3

Test for continuity: at x=3, f(3) is not defined;

since the first condition is not satisfied then f is discontinuous at x=3.

y






x

Figure 4.2.1

Exercise 4.2

I. Examine the following functions for points of discontinuity.

𝑥−3
1. f(x) = x2 – 2x 6. f(x)= 𝑥 2 − 9
𝑥−1
2. f(x) = x3+2x – 3x – 8 7. y = √𝑥 2
+3− 2
(2𝑥−3)2 𝑥−5
3. f(x)= 8. y = √𝑥 2
(𝑥+1)3 − 25
𝑥−1 √𝑥 2 +3− 2
4. f(x) = 𝑥 2 −1 9. y = 𝑥−1
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2 √𝑥 2 +3− 2
5. 𝑦 = 10. y =
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+3 𝑥−1

II. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, find any discontinuities, and state why
the function fails to be continuous at those points. Indicate which discontinuities are removable.

135
 |𝑥| 𝑥 2 +6𝑥−5
1. y = 6. y =
𝑥 3𝑥+6
2. y = x+|x| 7. y = 𝑥 2 − 4

𝑥2− 1 3𝑥 – 1
3. y = 8. y =
𝑥 4 −1 2𝑥 + 5
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10
4. y = 9. y = x – 3x2 – 10
𝑥+5
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 17𝑥+5 𝑥+1
5. y = 10. y = 𝑥−1
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥−15

III. Solve the following:

1. Show that f(x) = |x|is everywhere continous.

1
1+3 ⁄x
2. Show that f(x) = 1 has a jump discontinuity at x = 0.
1−3 ⁄x
3. Show that the constant function f(x) = 4 is continuous at every real number c. Show that
for every constant k, f(x) = k is continuous at every real number c.
1
4. Show that f(x)= x is continuous at every real number c>0.
1
5. Show that f(x) = 1 has a jump discontinuity at x = 0.
2x +1
6. If f and g are continuous functions with f(3) = 5 and lim[2f(x) − g(x)] − 4, find g(3).
x→3

7 -8. Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that the function is
continuous on the given interval
2x+3
7. f(x) = , (2,∞)
x−2

8. f(x) = 2√3 − x, (-∞, 3]

136
 4.3 Derivatives

The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation and the
branch of calculus that deals with this process is called differential calculus. Differentiation is
an important mathematical tool in physics, mechanics, economics and many other disciplines
that involve change and motion.

Consider a point Q(x2,f(x2)) on the curve y = f(x), that is distinct from P(x1,f(x1)) and
compute the slope mPO of the secant line through P and Q.

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ) Where: ∆𝑥= x2 – x1 and

mPQ 
x x2 = x1 + ∆x

f ( x1  x )  f ( x1 )
mPQ 
x

If we let x2 approach x1 then the point Q will move along the curve and approach point
P. As point Q approaches P, the value of ∆𝑥 approaches zero and the secant line through P and
Q approaches a limiting position, then we will consider that position to be the position of the
tangent line at P. See Fig. 4.3.1

137
Increment Method or “Four Step Rule” in Finding the Derivative of a Function

Suppose that x1 is in the domain of the function f, the tangent line to

the curve y = f(x) at the point P(x1,f(x1)) is the line with equation
y – f(x1) = m(x – x1)
Definition 4.3.1
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
where 𝑚 = lim provided the limit exists, and
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
P(x1,f(x1)) is the point of tangency.

The derivative of y = f(x) at point P on the curve is equal to the

slope of the tangent line at P, thus the derivative of the function f
given by y = f(x) with respect to x at any x in its domain is defined
as:
Definition 4.3.2
Δ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
provided that the limit exists.

Based on this definition the following procedures can be used in obtaining the derivative of a
function. This is also called the increment method or the four-step rule:
𝑓(𝑥)
Given: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

Steps in solving for this derivative are as follows:

Step 1. Change x and y to (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) and (𝑦 + ∆𝑦) respectively.
Step 2. Subtract y from the result of step 1 to obtain ∆𝑦 on terms of x and ∆𝑥.

138
 Step 3. Divide both sides of step 2 by ∆𝑥.
Δ𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Step 4. Take the lim Δ𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥→0

Example 4.3.1 Find the derivative of y if 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 10.

Solution.

(Step 1) 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 10

𝑦 + ∆y = x 2 + 2x∆𝑥 + 2x + 2∆𝑥 − 10
(Step 2) ∆𝑦 = x 2 + 2x∆𝑥 + x 2 + 2x + 2∆𝑥 − 10 − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 10)
∆𝑦 = 2𝑥∆𝑥 + ∆𝑥 2 + 2∆𝑥
Δ𝑦 2𝑥∆𝑥+∆𝑥 2 +2∆𝑥
(Step 3) =
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥

∆𝑦
= 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 2
∆𝑥
∆𝑦
(Step 4) lim = lim (2𝑥∆ + 𝑥 + 2)
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 0 + 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Therefore = 2x + 2
𝑑𝑥

2𝑥−1
Example 4.3.2 Find the derivative of y, 𝑖𝑓 = .
1+2𝑥

Solution.

2( x  x )  1
(Step 1) y  y 
1  2( x  x )
2( x  x )  1 2 x  1
(Step 2) y  
1  2( x  x ) 1  2 x


2 x  2x  11  2 x   2 x  11  2 x  2x 
1  2 x  2x 1  2 x )
2 x  2x  1  4 x 2  4 xx  2 x  2 x  4 x 2  4 xx  1  2 x  2x

1  2 x  2x 1  2 x )
y 4 x
(Step 3) 
x x( 1  2 x  2 x )( 1  2 x )

139
 y 4
(Step 4) lim  lim
x 0 x x 0 ( 1  2 x  2 x )( 1  2 x )

dy 4

dx ( 1  2 x )2

Example 4.3.3 Find the derivative of y, if y = x  2 .

Solution.

(Step 1) y  y  x  x  2
(Step 2) y  x  x  2  x  2
∆𝑦 √𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2− √𝑥−2
(Step 3) =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
√𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2− √𝑥−2 √𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2+ √𝑥−2
= ∗
∆𝑥 √𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2+ √𝑥−2

𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2−(𝑥−2)
= ∆𝑥√𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2+
√𝑥−2
∆𝑥
= ∆𝑥√𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2−
√𝑥−2
1
=
√𝑥+ ∆𝑥−2+ √𝑥−2
y 1
(Step 4) lim  lim
x 0 x x 0 x  x  1  x  1
dy 1

dx 2 x  1

Exercise 4.3

Using increment method, find the derivative given the following function.

1. y = 3x + 5 21. y = ½(3x2 + 1)2

2. y = 2x2 – 3x 22. x = 1/2t4 – 5t -3

3. y = (x+1)2 23. y = x3 - 2x2 +6

x+3
4. y = 24. y = x3 – 5x +2
x

3x2 − 4
5. y = 25. y = 3+ 4x – x2
x+4

6. y = (x3+3x2 – 2)2 26. y = ex

140
 1 x+1
7. y = x 27. y = 1−x

8. y = √x + 1 28. y = (6x2 + 3x)4

3
9. y = √x+√x 29. y = 3x − √2x

−3x2 1
10. y = √1−x2 30. y =
√2x+5

3
11. y = √a2 + x 2 31.y = √5x − 2
x
12. y = 3x − √x 32. y = (x+
√x)2

13. y = √2 − 3x 33. y = 4x + √2x

1
14. y = 4 / x3 34. y = 2 √x − x√ x

3x – 1
15. y = 35.y = √x 2 + x
2x + 5

16. y = 2 – 3x – (1/x)

17. x = t/3 – t

19. y = 1/4 – x

20. y = (x2- - 2)2

4.4 The Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

A function is said to be differentiable at x = x0 if it has a derivative there. A function is

said to be differentiable on an interval if it is differentiable at every point of the interval.

Differentiation Formulas. In these formulas u, v and w are differentiable function of x.

𝐷1 : Derivative of a Constant

The derivative of a constant with respect to any variable is 0.

𝑑
(𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥 141
 1
Example 4.4.1 Find the derivative of a) y = 8 , b) y = 2 c) y = √2

Solutions.

1
a) y = 8 b) y = 2 c) y = √2
y’ = 0 y’ = 0 y’ = 0

𝐷2 : Derivative of Constant Multiple

If is u differentiable function at x and c is any real number, then is also differentiable at x and

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
Example 4.4.2 Find the derivative of a) y = 8x and b) y = 2 𝑥

Solutions.

𝑑(8𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎) =8∙ = 8(1) = 8
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑 (2 𝑥) 1 𝑑(𝑥) 1 1
𝑏) = ∙ = (1) =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝐷3 : Derivatives of Sums or Differences

The derivative of the algebraic sum or difference of function equal to the sum or
difference of their derivatives, if these derivatives exist.

𝑑 𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑(𝑣) 𝑑(𝑤)

(𝑢 + 𝑣 − 𝑤) = + −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 142
 𝑑𝑦
Example 4.4.3 Find 𝑑𝑥 given the following functions:

a) y = 2x + 2 b) y = -8x – 2/3

Solutions.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑(2𝑥+2) 𝑑(2𝑥) 𝑑(2)

a) = = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2(1) + 0
𝑑𝑦
=2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑(−8𝑥−2/3) 𝑑(−8𝑥) 𝑑(2/3)

b) = = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −8(1) − 0
𝑑𝑦
= −8
𝑑𝑥

𝐷4 : The Derivative of a Power of x

To differentiate a power of x , decrease the constant exponent by one and multiply the
resulting power function by the original exponent .

𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 )
= 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

where n is any exponent of the variable x.

𝑑𝑦
Example 4.4.4 Find 𝑑𝑥 given the following functions:

3
a) y = x3 b) y =𝑥 4

Solutions.

143
 𝑑𝑦
a) = 𝑑(𝑥 3 ) = 3. 𝑥 3−1 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑(𝑥 3/4 )
b) = = 3/4. 𝑥 4−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
= 4 ∙ 𝑥 −1/4
𝑑𝑦 3
= 44
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥

𝐷5 : The Derivative of The Power of Any Function

To differentiate a power of any function, f(x) = un, where u is a differentiable function and n is
any real no, is equal to the exponent n times the function u raised to the (n – 1) power, multiplied
𝑑(𝑢)
in turn by the derivative of the function itself . That is,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑(𝑢)
= 𝑛. 𝑢𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example 4.4.5 Find 𝑑𝑥 given the following functions:

a) y = (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)3 b) y = (8𝑥 − 9)1/2

Solutions.
3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑(2𝑥 2 +4𝑥) 𝑑(2𝑥 2 +4𝑥)
a) = = 3(2𝑥 2 + 42)3−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3(2𝑥 2 + 42)2 (4𝑥 + 4)
= 3(4)(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)2
𝑑𝑦
= 12(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑(8𝑥−9)1/2 𝑑(8𝑥−9)
b) = = 1/2(8𝑥 − 9)2−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 1/2(8𝑥 − 9)−1/2 (8)
8
= 2√8𝑥−9
𝑑𝑦 4
=
𝑑𝑥 √8𝑥−9

𝐷6 : The Derivative of a Product

144
 The derivative of a product of two functions is the first function times the derivative of
the second plus the second function times the derivative of the first, if these derivatives exist.

𝑑 𝑑(𝑣) 𝑑(𝑢)
Example 4.4.6 𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢 •the
given 𝑣)following
=𝑢• +𝑣•
functions:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a) y = (2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 5) b) y = (𝑥 2 − 2)(3𝑥 − 1)

Solutions.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑[(2𝑥+1)(3𝑥−5)] 𝑑(3𝑥−5) 𝑑(2𝑥+1)

a) = = (2𝑥 + 1) + (3𝑥 − 5)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(2𝑥+1)
= (2𝑥 + 1)(3) + (3𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥
= 6𝑥 + 3 + 6𝑥 − 10
𝑑𝑦
= 12𝑥 − 7
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑[(𝑥 2 −2)(3𝑥−1)] 𝑑(3𝑥−1) 𝑑(𝑥 2 −2)

b) = = (𝑥 2 − 2) + (3𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= (𝑥 2 − 2)(3) + (3𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥)

= 3𝑥 2 − 6 + 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 6
𝑑𝑥

The derivative of a product maybe extended to three functions, that is,

𝑑 𝑑(𝑤) 𝑑(𝑣) 𝑑(𝑢)

(𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑚) = 𝑢. 𝑣 + 𝑢. 𝑤 + 𝑣. 𝑤
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example 4.4.7 Find 𝑑𝑥 given the following functions:

a) y = (𝑥 3 )(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 3 − 3)4 b) y = (𝑥 3 )(1 − 5𝑥)3 (3𝑥 2 )

Solutions.
4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑[(𝑥 3 )(𝑥 2 +2)(𝑥 3 −3) ]
a) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 12𝑥 5 (𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 3 − 3)3 + 2𝑥 4 (𝑥 3 − 3)4 + (3𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 3 − 3)4
= (𝑥 3 − 3)3 [12𝑥 5 (𝑥 2 + 2)2𝑥 4 (𝑥 3 − 3) + (3𝑥 2 )(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 3 − 3)]
145
 = (𝑥 3 − 3)3 (12𝑥 7 + 24𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 7 − 6𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 6 − 9𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑥 3 − 3)3 (14𝑥 7 3𝑥 6 + 24𝑥 5 − 9𝑥 4 − 18𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑[(𝑥 3 )(1−5𝑥)3 (3𝑥 2 )]

b) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑(1−𝑑𝑥)3 𝑑(𝑥 3 )
= (𝑥 3 )(1 − 5𝑥)3 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 3 )(3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + (1 − 𝑑𝑥)3 (3𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑥 3 )(1 − 5𝑥)3 (6𝑥) + (𝑥 3 )(3𝑥 2 )(3)(1 − 5𝑥)2 (−5) + (1 − 5𝑥)3 (3𝑥 2 )(3𝑥 2 )
= 6𝑥 4 (1 − 5𝑥)3 + 45𝑥 5 (1 − 5𝑥)2 + 9𝑥 4 (1 − 5𝑥)3
= 3𝑥 4 (1 − 5𝑥)2 [2(1 − 5𝑥) − 15𝑥 3(1 − 5𝑥)]
= 3𝑥 4 (1 − 5𝑥)2 (2 − 10𝑥 − 15𝑥 + 3 − 15𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 4 (1 − 5𝑥)2 (5 − 40𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝐷7 : The Derivative of a Quotient

The derivative of a quotient of two functions is the fraction whose numerator is equal to
the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative
of the denominator, all divided by the denominator squared.

𝑑(𝑢) 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣. −𝑢.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= provided that v ≠0
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2

𝑑𝑦
Example 4.4.8 Find 𝑑𝑥 given the following functions:

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 3−𝑥 2
a) 𝑦 = b) y =
𝑥 2 −4 1+𝑥

Solutions:

(𝑥2 −4)𝑑(𝑥2 −3𝑥+2) (𝑥2 −3𝑥+2)𝑑(𝑥2 −4)

𝑑𝑦 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
a) = (𝑥 −4)2
2
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 −4)(2𝑥−3)−(𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)(2𝑥)
= (𝑥 2 −4)2
2𝑥 −3𝑥 −8𝑥+12−2𝑥 3 +6𝑥 2 −4𝑥
3 2
= (𝑥 2 −4)2
3𝑥 2 −12𝑥+12𝑥
= (𝑥 2 −4)2
3(𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4)
= (𝑥 2 −4)2
3(𝑥−2)2
= (𝑥−2)2 (𝑥+2)2
3
= (𝑥+2)2

146
 (1+𝑥)𝑑(3−𝑥2 ) (3−𝑥2 )𝑑(1+𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
b) = (1+𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥

(1+𝑥)(−2𝑥)−(3−𝑥 2 )(1)
= (1+𝑥)2

−2𝑥−2𝑥 2 −3+𝑥 2
= (1+𝑥)2

−𝑥 2 −2x−3
= (1+𝑥)2

−(𝑥 2 +2x+3)
= (1+𝑥)2

Exercise 4.4

Find the derivative given the following function

x 6
1. y = x – 3x2 – 10 19. y = (x+1)

3x 3 2x 4
2. y = x3 - 2x2 +6 20. y = (x−2) (x+2)

3. y = ½(3x2 + 1)2 21. y = (3x3 + 3)(3x2 + 2)(3x + 1)

x
4. y = 2 – 3x – (1/x) 22. y = 4x2 – √x − 1+
2

3x – 1 3 x+1
5. y = 2x + 5
23. y = √x−1

4 2
6. y = +
x3 x+1
24. y = (x 3 + 6x 2 − 8x)−4

7. y = √x + 4 25. y = √2x − √x + 1

8. y = 3x - √2x 26. y = (2x 2 − 5)3 (√x 2 − x)

3
√5x−2
9. y = (2x – 3)2(4x+4)3 27. y =
√2x+5

2x−1 2
10. y = ( ) 28. y = (2x3 – 3x2)-2(4x-2 -7)-3
2x+1

11. y = (2x3 – 5x)2(4x2+1)3 29. y = (x+4)√x 2 − 2x + 2

147
 2 3 6 x−1 −6
12. y = + 3 − 4 30. y = ( )
√x √x √x5 x

4x3 −1
13. y = 31. y = (x3 + 4x)8
√2x+1
4
14. y = (x+1)√x 2 + 2x + 1 32. y = √4 + 4x + x 2

15. y = (16x – 3)(8x + 4) 33. y = (x3 – x + 1)3

2⁄
16. y = x4+ 3x3 – 2x2 – 6x – 21 34. y = (1 – x 4 ) 3

17. y = (6x2 – 2x)4 35. y = (2x 2 + 6)4 (√x 2 + x)

5 1
18. y = (3x2 + 2)5 36. f(x)= 3+ + 2 √x - x
√x √x

4.5 The Chain Rule and Higher Derivatives

If g is differentiable at x and if f is differentiable at g(x) , then the composition 𝑓 ∘○ 𝑔

is differentiable at x. Moreover, if y  f ( g ( x )) and u  g(x) then y  f ( u ) and

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑢
= ∙ 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 4.5.1 Find the derivative of y = (3+5x)3 using chain rule.

Solution.

Let u = 3 + 5x then y = u3 and hence

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
=5 and = 3𝑢2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
By chain rule: = ∙ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢

= 3𝑢2 . 5

= 3(3 + 5x)2 . 5

= 15(3 + 5x)2

148
 Example 4.5.2 Find the derivative of y = √3𝑥 − 5 using chain rule.

Solution.

Let u = 3x – 5 then y = u1/2, and hence

−1
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 1 1
=3 and = 𝑢2 = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 2
2𝑢2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
By chain rule: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
∙ 𝑑𝑥

1
= 1 ∙3
2𝑢2

1
= 1 ∙3
2(3𝑥−5)2

3
= 2√3𝑥−5

𝑑𝑦
Example 4.5.3 If y = u2 – 4u and u = √2𝑥 2 + 1, find 𝑑𝑥 .

Solution.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
We need to find 𝑑𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 2𝑥
= 2𝑢 − 4 and = 1
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 2 +1)2

Then,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ∙ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢

2𝑥
= (2𝑢 − 4) ∙ 1
(2𝑥 2 +1)2

2𝑥
= (2√2𝑥 2 + 1 − 4) ∙ 1
(2𝑥 2 +1)2

149
 4𝑥(√2𝑥 2 +1− 2)
= 1
(2𝑥 2 +1)2

Derivative of Inverse Function

If the function is express in terms of y, that is x = g(y), the process of finding dy/dx can
be obtained by getting the derivative of x with respect to y and then get its reciprocal. In symbol,
we have

𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

Example 4.5.4 𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 , given x = √𝑦 + 1 − 5

Solution.
−1⁄
𝑑𝑥 (𝑦+1) 2 1
= = 2√𝑦+1
𝑑𝑦 2

𝑑𝑦 1
Since = 𝑑𝑥 then
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
= 1
𝑑𝑥
2√𝑦+1

𝑑𝑦
= 2√𝑦 + 1
𝑑𝑥

Solving for y in the original equation,

𝑥 + 5 = √𝑦 + 1
2
(𝑥 + 5)2 = (√𝑦 + 1)

(𝑥 + 5)2 = 𝑦 + 1

𝑦 = (𝑥 + 5)2 − 1

Substituting this value to dy/dx, we have

150
 𝑑𝑦
= 2√(𝑥 + 5)2 + 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2√𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 26
𝑑𝑥

Note: If we cannot express y in terms of x, we will accept dy/x in terms of y.

Higher Derivatives

The first derivative of a function f(x) is also a function in x. Therefore, it may be

differentiated again with respect to x. Then we get the second derivative (or the derivative of the
second order) of x, which is also a function of x. In the same way, we can differentiate the
second derivative to get the third derivative then the fourth derivative and so on. Here are some
ways to symbolize higher derivatives.

First Second Third Fourth nth

derivative derivative derivative derivative derivative

f’(x) f’’(x) f’’’(x) f(4)(x) f(n)(x)

y’ y’’ y’’’ y(4) y(n)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑4 𝑦 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 𝑛

Example 4.5.5 Find all the derivatives of the function y = – 6x5 + 5x4 – 2x3 + 3x2 + 10x – 5.

Solution.

y'  30x4  20x3  6x2  6x  10

y"  120x3  60x2  12x  6
𝑦′′′ = −360𝑥 2 + 120𝑥 − 12
y4   720x  120
y5   720
y6   0

Example 4.5.6 Find the second derivative of y  x4  5  x2  4x4 when x = 1.

Solution.

y'  4x3  2x3  16x5

151
 y"  12x2  6x4  80x6 ,
when x = 1
y"  121  6 1  801
2 4 6

 12  6  80
y"  98

Exercise 4.5

𝑑𝑦
A. Use chain rule to find 𝑑𝑥 .

𝑢2 + 1 3
1. y = (x2 – x – 2)100 12. y = 𝑢2 − 1 and u = √𝑥 2 + 2

1 2 2
2. y = (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 ) 13. y = u3 + 2 and u = x2 – 2x

1 20
3. y = (𝑥 2 − 1) 14. y = √2 + 𝑢 and u = √𝑥

2
𝑥 3 +1 1−𝑢
4. y = (𝑥 2 −4) 15.y = 1+𝑢 and u = √𝑥 + 1

5. y = (x3 – 1)100 16. y = √𝑢, u = v(2 – 3v), v = x3

1
6. 𝑦 = 3 17. 𝑦 = √13𝑥 2 − 5 − 8
√𝑥2 +4𝑥+4

7. y = (2x – 1)5 (x3 – x + 1)5 18. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 8)50

2
8. y = (1 + 4x)3(2 – x + x2)5 19. 𝑦 = 7(7+𝑥)
4
9. y = (m4 - 1)3(m3 + 1)4 20. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥+1
10. y = (2x + 5)4 (6x2 + 5)-4 21. f(u) = u2 – 4u + 8 and u(x) = 1−𝑥

3
11. y = (t2 + 1)( √𝑥 2 + 2) 22. f(u) = u 3 – 5 u 2 + 11u and u(x) = e2x

12. y = u2+1 and u = x4+3

B. Find the indicated order of derivative in each of the following:

x−1
1. find y’’, given: y = 2x3 - 7x + 1 . 11. if f(x) = x2 −1, find yiv.

√x2 +3− 2
2. find y’’, given: y = x3+2x – 3x – 8. 12. if y = , find y’’.
x−1

152
3. if y = ½(3x2 + 1)3, find y’’’. 13.if y = 5x-2 + x-3, find y(vi).

4. if y = (4x+4)3, find y’’’. 14. if y = (-3x + 7)5, find y’’

5. if y = (x+1)√x 2 + 2x + 1, find y’’. 15. if y = (x2 - 2)2, find y(iv).

6. find y”’, given: y = x 3 − 4x. 16.if y = -7x (1 - 4x), find y’’.

x2 +3x−10
7. if y = , find y’’. 17. if y = x 1⁄2 − 4x −1⁄2 , find y’’’.
x+5

x x2
8. if y = x+2, find yv. 18. if y = x+1 ,find y(iv).

x−3 2x3
9. if f(x)= x2 − 9, find f’’’(x). 19. if y = , find y(v).
x2 +2

x−1 x+3
10. if y = √x2 find y’’. 20. if y = , find y(vii).
+3 x

4.6 Implicit Differentiation

There are two ways to define functions, implicitly and explicitly. Most of the equations
we have dealt with have been explicit equations, such as y = 2x – 3, so that we can write y = f(x)
where f(x) = 2x – 3. But the equation 2x – y = 3 describes the same function. This second
equation is an implicit definition of y as a function of x. As there is no real distinction between
the appearance of x or y in the second form, this equation is also an implicit definition of x as a
function of y.

An implicit function is a function in which the dependent variable has not been given
"explicitly" in terms of the independent variable. To give a function f explicitly is to provide a
prescription for determining the output value of the function y in terms of the input value x:
y = f(x). By contrast, the function is implicit if the value of y is obtained from x by solving an
equation of the form: f(x,y) = 0.

An equation of the form y = f(x) is said to define explicitly as a function of x because the
variable y appears alone on one side of the equation and does not appear at all on the other side.
However, sometimes functions are defined by equations in which is not alone on one side; for
example the equation yx +y +1 = x is not of the form y = f(x), but still defines y as a function

153
 𝑥−1
of x since it can be rewritten as 𝑦 = .Thus we say that yx +y +1 = x defines y implicitly as a
𝑥+1
𝑥−1
function of x , the function being 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥+1

Suppose we have an equation f(x, y) = 0 where neither variable could be expressed as a

function of the other. In other words, it wouldn’t be possible, by rearranging f(x, y) = 0, to
separate out one of the variables and express it as a function of the other. Often we can solve an
equation f(x, y) = 0 for one of the variables obtaining multiple solutions constituting multiple
branches. Consider the equation x2 + y2 – 1 = 0 which defines y as an implicit function of x. If we
solve for y in terms of x, we obtain two solutions 𝑦 = −√1 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 thus we
have found two functions that are defined implicitly by x2 + y2 – 1 = 0 .
In general, it is not necessary to solve an equation for y in terms of x in order to
differentiate the functions defined implicitly by the equation.
To find the derivative of functions defined implicitly we use implicit differentiation.

Steps in Implicit Differentiation:

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

𝑑𝑦
2. Collect all the terms with 𝑑𝑥 on one side of the equation.
𝑑𝑦
3. Factor out .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
4. Solve for .
𝑑𝑥

Example 4.6.1 Find y’ and y’’ of x2 – 4y2 = 4 by implicit differentiation.

Solution.

Given: x2 – 4y2 = 4, Take the derivative of each term implicitly,

𝑑𝑦
(x 2 − 4y 2 = 4) Find y’’
𝑑𝑥

1 𝑦−𝑥𝑦 ′ 𝑥
2x – 8yy’ = 0 y’’ = 4 ( ) then replace y’ = 4𝑦
𝑦2
8yy’ = 2x
 x  4y2  x2
y  x 
Solve for y’, 1
y"    4y   1  4y
2𝑥 2
y’ = 8𝑦 4 y 4 y2
𝑥
y’ = 4𝑦 y"   

1 4y2  x2  x2  4y2 
4 4y3 16 y 3
but x 2  4 y 2  4
4 1
y"  3
 3
16 y 4y

154
 Example 4.6.2 Find y’ if x2y3 – xy = 10

Solution.

Given: x2y3 – xy = 10 Take the derivative of each term implicitly,

𝑑𝑦
( x2y3 – xy = 10)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
x2𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 3 ) + 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) − {𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦) + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) = 10
𝑑𝑥

x2(3y2 y’)+y3(2x) – xy’ – y = 0

3x2y2 y’ – xy’= y – 2xy3

y’ (3x2y2 – x) = y – 2xy3
y – 2xy3 2𝑥𝑦 3 −𝑦
y’ = 3x2 y2 – x = 𝑥−3x2 y2

Exercise 4.6

I. Find y’ by implicit differentiation.

1. xy + 3x + 4x2 = 6 11. x2 – y2 = 16

2. 4x2 – 9y2 = 25 12. 4x2 – 9y2 = 1

2 2
3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 13. x3 + y3 = 5xy

4. √𝑥 + √𝑦 = 4 14. x2 + y2 = 5xy

5. x2+y2 = 1 15. √𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦
1⁄ 1⁄
6. x2 – y2 = 1 16. 𝑥 3+ 𝑦 3 = 2xy
1 1
7. 2x3 – x2y +4y2 = 5 17. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1

2 2
8. x2+x2y2 = 21 18. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3𝑥

9. x2 – 3xy +y3 = √45 19. √𝑥 − √𝑦 = 9

10. √𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 20. 3x3y + 2xy3 = -6

155
II. Do as indicated.

1. Suppose 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 = 1 and (x1, y1) = (0, – 1). Use each of the following methods to
find dy/dx when x = x1 for y defined implicitly as a function of x near (x1, y1).
a. Find y explicitly as a function of x and differentiate.
b. Perform implicit differentiation.

𝑑2 𝑦 𝐴𝐶
2. Prove that if 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 = 𝐶, then = − 𝐵2 𝑦 3 .
𝑑𝑥 2

dy 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦
3. Given the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 . Find , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 3
dx 𝑑𝑥 2

4. Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of (x2+y2)3 = 8x2y2 at the point (-1, 1).

5. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for x3 + y3 = 4 .

6. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for (x-y)2 = x + y - 1 .

7. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for y = x2 y3 + x3 y2 .

8. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for exy = e4x - e5y .

9. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for 𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

𝑥−𝑦 3
10. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for =𝑥+2.
𝑦+𝑥 2

𝑦 𝑥
11. Assume that y is a function of x . Find y' = dy/dx for + 𝑦3 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 .
𝑥3

12. Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of (x2+y2)3 = 8x2y2 at the point (-1, 1) .

13. Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of x2 + (y-x)3 = 9 at x=1 .
𝑑𝑦
14. 3𝑥 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑦 2 + 4, solve for .
𝑑𝑥

15. Differentiate the following implicit equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .

III. Given the following function, find y’’ by implicit differentiation.

1 1
1. √𝑥𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 6. 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1

3 3
2. x2 + xy + y2 = 3 7. 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5𝑥

3. x2+2xy – y2+x = 2 8. √𝑥 + √𝑦 = 16

156
4. x2+y2 = (2x2 + 2y2 – x)2 9. x2 – y2 = 5xy
2⁄ 2⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
5. 𝑥 3+ 𝑦 3 = -10 10. 𝑥 3+ 𝑦 3 = xy

4.7 Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Logarithmic Functions

If x is a positive number, then the logarithm of x to the base a (a > 0, b ≠ 1), denoted
loga x, is the number y such that by = x.

y = loga x if and only if ay = x for x > 0

Example 4.7.1 Evaluate the following:

1
a. log10 100 b. log3 81 c. log5 ( )
625

Solution.

a. log10 100 = 2 since 102 = 100

b. log3 81 = 4 since 34 = 81
1 1
c. log5 (625) = -4 since 5-4 = 625

Basic Properties of Logarithm. Let a be any logarithmic base (a > 0, a ≠ 1). Then

loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

and if u and v are any positive numbers, we have

Property of Equality: loga u = loga v if and only if u = v

Property of Product: loga (uv) = loga u + loga v

Property of Power: loga ur = r loga u for any real number r

𝑢
157
Property of Quotient: loga (𝑣 ) = loga u – loga v

Property of Inversion: loga au = u

 Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢
1. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑢) = = 𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑒 , a>0, a≠1
𝑢 𝑙𝑛𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
2. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑢 ) = 𝑎𝑢 ln 𝑎 , a>0, a≠1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
3. 𝑑𝑥 (ln 𝑢) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
4. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 𝑢 ) = 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Differentiate y = loga (4x2 – 10).

Example 4.7.2 Find the derivative of y = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (4𝑥 2 − 10).

Solution.

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= (4𝑥 2 − 10)
𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 2 − 10) ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 8𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 2 − 10) ln 𝑎

Example 4.7.3 Differentiate y = ln (x + 6)3.

Solution.

y = ln (x + 6)3 = 3 ln (x + 6) By property of logarithm 𝑙𝑛𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝑢

158
 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑
= 3 (𝑥+6) (𝑥 + 6)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3
= 𝑥+6

Example 4.7.4 Differentiate y = ln3 (x + 6).

Solution.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 3𝑙𝑛2 (𝑥 + 6) [𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 6)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑
= 3𝑙𝑛2 (𝑥 + 6) (𝑥 + 6)
(𝑥+6) 𝑑𝑥

3𝑙𝑛2 (𝑥+6)
= 𝑥+6

Example 4.7.5 Differentiate y = e2x .

Solution.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

= 2𝑒 2𝑥

3
Example 4.7.6 Differentiate y = 𝑎4𝑥 .

Solution.
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑
= 𝑎4𝑥 ln(𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 3 )
𝑑𝑥

3
= 12𝑥 2 𝑎4𝑥 ln(𝑎)

159
 Exercise 4.7

Differentiate given the following function:

1. f(x) = x log10 x 19. f(t) = √1 + 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 1⁄
2. f(x) = 20. f(c) = 𝑒 √𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
√𝑥

2𝑥
3. f(x) = loga (√2𝑥 3 − 5) 20. h(x) = 𝑥

4. f(x) =loga (3x3 – 4x)4 21. f(x) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥

3 −2
5. f(x) = log2 3(x +12) 22. f(x) = 4𝑥 ln(𝑥 3 − 2)
2
4𝑥
6. f(x) = ln (3x + 7) 23. h(x) = ln( 𝑥−3
)
2

𝑥−1
7. f(x) = ln√4 − 𝑥 3 24. g(x) = ln(𝑥+1)

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+4
8. f(x) = ln 4x6 25. y = ( )
√𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 −1
9. f(x) = ln (x2 – x +1)4 26. y = 𝑒 𝑥 +1

10. f(x) = 2x ln x – x 27. 𝑦 = √𝑥(𝑥 + 1)

3 −2
11. f(x) = 4e2x – 7 28. f(x) = 4𝑥 ln(𝑥 3 − 2)

(𝑥 2 − 4)
12. f(x) = xex 29. y = 𝑥2+ 𝑥

𝑥 3 1−𝑥
13. f(x) = 𝑒 𝑥 30. y = √1 + 𝑥

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥+3
14. f(x) = 15x + 5e-x – 3 31. y = 𝑙𝑛 [𝑥 2 + 2𝑥−1]

160
 −4⁄
−3 (2𝑥 3 + 7)−2 8𝑥− 𝑥 6 5
15. f(x) = 𝑥 𝑒 32. 𝑦 = ( )
𝑥3

2 +2𝑠+1
16. g(s) = 𝑒 𝑠 33. y = ex + ln x

17. g(j) = (j2 + 3j + 7)e6j 34. y = ln(x +√𝑥 2 + 2)

4.8 Maxima and Minima

Convexity or Concavity of Curves

By definition, the derivative dy/dx of a function f(x) gives the slope of the curve y=f(x).
This slope itself can be represented by a curve y=dy/dx , the derived curve of the given curve.
The slope of this last curve will be given by dy'/dx = d²y/dx² = y ", the second derivative of y and
so on. If the second derivative d²y/dx² is positive at a point x, so that owing to continuity (which
we here assume) it is positive in a certain neighbourhood of the point x, then the derivative dy/dx
must increase as it passes this point in the direction of increasing values of x. Hence, the curve y
= f (x) turns its convex side towards the direction of decreasing values of y. The opposite is true
if dy/dx is negative. Hence, in the first case, the curve in the neighbourhood of the point lies
above the tangent, in the second case below the tangent see Fig. 4.8.1a and Fig. 4.8.1b.

161
 Special consideration is required only in the case of points where d²y/dx². As a rule, on
passing through such a point, the second derivative d²y/dx² will change its sign. Such a point
will then be a point of transition between the two cases indicated above; that is, the tangent will
on one side be above the curve and on the other side below it, so that, besides touching the curve,
it will also cross it see(Figure 4.7.3). This is a point of inflection of the curve, and the
corresponding tangent is called an inflectional tangent.

Example 4.8.1 Find the slope and concavity of the graph of x2y + y4 = 4 + 2x at the point
(1,-1).

Solution.

Differentiating implicitly the given function x2y + y4 = 4 + 2x yields,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( x2 y + y4 ) = 𝑑𝑥 ( 4 + 2x )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( x2 y ) + 𝑑𝑥 (y4 ) = 𝑑𝑥 ( 4 ) + 𝑑𝑥 ( 2x )
𝑑𝑥

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 ( x2 y' + (2x) y ) + 4 y3 y' = 0 + 2

x2 y' + 4 y3 y' = 2 - 2x y

y' [ x2 + 4 y3 ] = 2 - 2x y
2−2𝑥𝑦
𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 2 +4𝑦 3

Thus, the slope of the graph (the slope of the line tangent to the graph) at (-1, 1) is

2 − 2(−1)(1) 4
𝑦′ = =
(−1)2 + 4(1)3 5

Since y'= 4/5 , the slope of the graph is 4/5 and the graph is increasing at the point (-1, 1).
Now determine the concavity of the graph at (-1, 1). Getting the second derivative, we
have
(𝑥 2 +4𝑦3 )𝐷(2−2𝑥𝑦)−(2−2𝑥𝑦)𝐷(𝑥 2 +4𝑦 3 )
𝑦 ′′ = (𝑥 2 +4𝑦 3 )2
(𝑥 2 +4𝑦 3 )((−2𝑥)𝑦 ′ +(−2)𝑦)−(2−2𝑥𝑦)(2𝑥+12𝑦 2 𝑦)
= (𝑥 2 +4𝑦 3 )2

Now let x = –1 , y=1 , and y'=4/5 so that the second derivative is

4 4
[(−1)2 +4(1)3 ][(−2(−1))( )+(−2)(1)]−[2−2(−1)(1)][2(−1)+12(1)2 ( )]
𝑦 ′′ = 5
((−1)2 +4(1)3 )2
5

8 48
(5)( −2)−(4)(−2+ )
5 5
= 25
152
−2−( )
5
= 25
−162
= 125

Since y'' < 0 , the graph is concave down at the point (-1, 1) .

Relative Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function

A function f(x) has a relative maximum value at x = a, if f(a) is greater than any value in
its immediate neighborhood. We call it a "relative" maximum because other values of the
function may in fact be greater. A function f(x) has a relative minimum value at x = b, if f(b) is
less than any value in its immediate neighborhood. Again, other values of the function may in
fact be less. With that understanding, then, we will drop the term relative. The value of the
function, the value of y, at either a maximum or a minimum is called an extreme value.

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 Now, what characterizes the graph at an extreme value? The tangent to the curve is
horizontal. We see in a Fig. 4.8.3 that these occurred at points A and B. The slope of each
tangent line, the derivative when evaluated at a or b is 0.

Moreover, at points immediately to the left of a maximum at a point C the slope of the
tangent is positive: f '(x) > 0. While at points immediately to the right at a point D the slope is
negative: f '(x) < 0.

In other words, at a maximum, f '(x) changes sign from + to − .At a minimum, f '(x)
changes sign from − to + . We can see that at the points E and F.

We can also observe that at a maximum, at A, the graph is concave downward. While at a
minimum, at B, it is concave upward.

A value of x at which the function has either a maximum or a minimum is called a critical
value. In figure 4.8.1, the critical values are x = a and x = b.

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 The critical values determine turning points, at which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
The critical values -- if any -- will be the solutions to the equation f '(x) = 0.

A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at a, if f(a) ≥ f(x) where x is
near c.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at a if f(a) ≤ f(x) when x is near c.

Theorem on First Derivative Test

Let f (x) be a real valued differentiable function. Let a be a point on an interval

I such that f '(a) = 0.
(a) a is a local maxima of the function f (x) if
i) f (a) = 0
ii) f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through
a. That is, f (x) > 0 for x < a and f (x) < 0 for x > a
(b) a is a point of local minima of the function f (x) if
i) f (a) = 0
ii) f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through
a. That is, f (x) < 0 for x < a and f (x) > 0 for x > a

Working Rule for Finding Extremum Values Using First Derivative Test

Let f (x) be the real valued differentiable function.

Step 1: Find f '(x)
Step 2: Solve f '(x) = 0 to get the critical values for f (x). Let these values be a, b, c. These are
the points of maxima or minima. Arrange these values in ascending order.
Step 3: Check the sign of f'(x) in the immediate neighborhood of each critical value.
Step 4: Let us take the critical value x= a. Find the sign of f '(x) for values of x slightly less than
a and for values slightly greater than a.

(i) If the sign of f '(x) changes from positive to negative as x increases through a, then

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 f(a) is a local maximum value.
(ii) If the sign of f '(x) changes from negative to positive as x increases through a, then
f(a) is local minimum value.
(iii) If the sign of f(x) does not change as x increases through a, then f (a) is neither a
local maximum value not a minimum value. In this case x = a is called a point of
inflection.

Example 4.8.2 Given the function f (x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x + 15, find the local maxima or
local minima using first derivative test.

Solution. See Fig. 4.8.4

f (x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 15

f '(x) = 3x2 – 12x + 9

= 3(x2 – 4x + 3)

f'(x) = 3 (x – 1) (x – 3)

Setting f'(x) = 0 gives the critical values x = 1, 3. Thus x = 1 and x = 3 are the only
points which could be the points of local maxima or local minima.

Let us examine for x = 1,

When x<1 (slightly less than 1)

f '(x) = 3 (x - 1) (x - 3) = (+) (–) (–)= + , and f’(x)>0

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 When x >1 (slightly greater than 1)

f '(x) = 3 (x -1) (x - 3)= (+) (+) (–) = – , and f’(x)<0

Therefore the sign of f '(x) changes from + to – as x increases through 1.

Thus, x = 1 is a point of local maxima and

f (1) = 13 - 6 (1)2 + 9 (1) +15

= 1- 6 + 9 + 15 =19 is local maximum value.

Similarly, it can be examined that f '(x) changes its sign from negative to positive as x
increases through the point x = 3.

x = 3 is a point of minima and the minimum value is

f (3) = (3)3- 6 (3)2+ 9(3) + 15

= 15

Example 4.8.3 Find the global extrema of the function f(x) =x e-x on the interval
[0.1, 3.5].

Solution. See Fig. 4.8.5

The function f(x) is differentiable everywhere, its derivative f '(x) = e-x – xe-x = (1 – x) e-x is zero
only at x=1. Thus x=1 is the only critical point. Throw in the endpoints of the interval x = 0.1
and x = 3.5, and evaluate f(x):

x f(x)
-0.1
0.1 (0.1)e ≈ 0.090448
1.0 (1.0) e -1 ≈ 0.36788
3.5 (3.5) e -3.5 ≈ 0.10569

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 Thus the global minimum occurs at x = 0.1, the global maximum occurs at x=1.

Theorem on Second Derivative Test

Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I and let a I. Let f "(a) be continuous at a. Then

i) 'a' is a point of local maxima if f '(a) = 0 and f "(a) < 0

ii) 'a' is a point of local minima if f '(a) = 0 and f "(a) > 0

iii) The test fails if f '(a) = 0 and f "(a) = 0. In this case we have to go back to the first derivative
test to find whether 'a' is a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.

Working Rule to Determine the Local Extremum Using Second Derivative Test

Step 1.

For a differentiable function f (x), find f '(x). Equate it to zero. Solve the equation f '(x) = 0 to get
the Critical values of f (x).

Step 2.

For a particular Critical value x = a, find f "'(a)

(i) If f ''(a) < 0 then f (x) has a local maxima at x = a and f (a) is the maximum value.

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(ii) If f ''(a) > 0 then f (x) has a local minima at x = a and f (a) is the minimum value.

(iii) If f ''(a) = 0 or , the test fails and the first derivative test has to be applied to study the
nature of f(a).

Find the local maxima and local minima of the function

Example 4.8.4 f (x) = 2x3 - 21x2 +36x - 20. Find also the local maximum and local
minimum values.

Solution. See Fig. 4.8.6

f '(x) = 6x2 - 42x + 36

= 6(x2 – 7x + 6)

= 6(x – 1)(x – 6)

f '(x) = 0

Setting f’(x) = 0 gives the critical values x = 1,6.

f ''(x) =12x - 42

If x =1, f ''(1) =12 – 42 = - 30 < 0

It implies that x =1 is a point of local maxima of f (x).

Maximum value = 2(1)3 - 21(1)2 + 36(1) - 20 = -3

If x = 6, f ''(6) = 72 - 42 = 30 > 0

Thus x = 6 is a point of local minima of f (x),

Minimum value = 2(6)3 - 21 (6)2 + 36 (6)- 20 = = -128

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 Exercise 4.8

I. Determine where the graph of the given function is concave upward and concave downward.
Find the coordinates of all inflection points.
1. y = x4 – 4x3 – 10x – 9 6. g(t) = 3t5 – 25t4 + 11t – 17
2. y = x3 + 3x2 + x + 1 7. f(x) = x4 – 6x3 + 7x – 5
1
3. f(s) = s(2s + 1)2 8. g(s) = s2 – 𝑠

4. g(x) = x(x + 2)2 9. y = (x – 1)3

8
5. y = (𝑥 + 4)3 10. f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 1

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II. Determine where the given function is increasing and decreasing, and where its graph is
concave up and concave down. Find the relative extrema and inflection points and sketch the
graph of the function.
1. y = (x – 3)2 8. y = (x3 – 3)2
𝑥2
2. y = (x2 – 4)3 9. y = 𝑥 2 − 3
1
3. y = x4 – 4x 10. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1
𝑥−1
4. y = (x – 2)3 11. 𝑦 = 𝑥+1

5. g(t) = t4 – 4t + 10 12. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 1
1 3
6. g(x) = 3x3 –8 x + 4 13. y = √𝑥 + 1

7. f(x) = 2x(x + 4)2 14. y = 3x(x – 1)2

III. Use the second derivative test to find the relative maxima and minima of the given function.
𝑥2
1. f(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 2 6. y = 𝑥+2

2. y = x4 – 2x2 + 4 7. f(x) = x2(x – 6)2

𝑡 2
3. g(s) = (s2 – 16)2 8. g(t) = (𝑡+1)
1 𝑥−1
4. y = 𝑥 − 𝑥 9. f(x) = (𝑥−1)2

9 𝑥−2
5. y = 2x + 𝑥 + 1 10. y = 𝑥2

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