Observing – receiving knowledge of the outside world using the 1.

Null Hypothesis – there is no statistical significance; never

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
senses; any data recorded during an experiment is called an accepted, either reject or fail to reject
 system of procedure observation
 logical and systematic way to answer questions and 2. Alternative Hypothesis – there is a significant relationship

REMOVES SUBJECTIVITY Measuring – using standard measurements or estimation to between two variables
 each answer to be authenticated with objective evidence describe specific dimensions of an object or event; quantitative
Experimenting – carefully following directions of the procedure,
that cen be REPRODUCED data
the results can be verified by repeating
Problem/Question - statement about an area of concern TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
 VALIDATED AND RELIABLE
Background Research – review of the area being research; current 1. Nominal Scientific Measurements – subjectively assigned
Identifying Variables – stating the changeable factors that can
info surrounding the problem or topic; previous studies / relevant
history 2. Ordinal Scientific Measurements – scale of numbering affect an experiment

Hypothesis – proposed explanation made on the basis of limited 3. Interval Scientific Measurements – using a scale; divisibility Gathering Data / Acquiring Data – collecting qualitative and

evidences; starting point for further investigation quantitative data

4. Ratio Scientific Measurements – a relationship of scale
Experiment – “heart” ; an ordered investigation that attempts to Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs
prove or disprove a hypothesis Classifying – doing an ordered set of related categories according
to similarities; consists of codes and descriptors and allows to be Analysing Investigations and Data – interpreting data, identifying
a) Control Group – standard (comparisons are made) put into meaningful categories errors, evaluating the hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and
b) Experimental Group – receives a change further testing if necessary
Inferring – an inference, drawing conclusion based on
Variables – any factor that can be controlled, changed or
observation; reaching conclusion about something from known Communicating – communicating market research results
measured in an experiment
facts or evidence
a) Independent V. – manipulated,tested RESEARCH
 Inference – assumed fact based on available info
b) Dependent V. – observed, respond to changes in IV
 repetitive search; discover the truth; continuous pursuit of
c) Controlled V. – constant, same throughout
 Conclusion – assumption develops a next logical step knowledge; answers to questions; what works and what does not;
Data – measured, collected, analyzed and reported, whereupon it purposive; organized and planned program; better
Predicting – guessing the most likely outcome of future event
can be visualized understanding of yourself and environment
based on pattern of evidences.
Conclusion – summarize your project results in a few sentences
and use this summary to support your conclusion; include facts Interpreting – attempt to figure out what has been observed; RESEARCH PROBLEM
from your bg research. making sense of numerical data  main organizing principle guiding the analysis of paper
 serves as the focus that governs what we want to say
Formulating Hypotheses – stating the proposed solutions or
SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS expected outcomes for experiments; testable
 leads to discovery of new knowledge and understanding
 core subject matter of intellectual communication
CHARACTERISTICS
 1. The problem can be stated clearly and briefly  give insights into a research question 3. Explore the nature of the problem (depends on the number of
External Links - academic research (lack of…)  testable and measurable by the proposed experiment variables and the nature of relationships)
Internal Links - school funds  matched with a specific aim and has rationale
4. Define the variable relationships (which variable solves the
2. The problem must be interesting 7. It has potential importance (potentialities)
prob, degree to which each variable can be controlled, functional
3. It is grounded in theory 8. Doable within time frame and budget
relationship)
 Big Bang Theory 9. Sufficient data are available and can be obtained
Theoretical framework – dwells on time tested theories  modify the methodology to avoid plagiarism 5. The consequences of alternative courses of action
 Stimulus elicits response  Google Scholar, Scopus Index, Masters’ Journal list
Conceptual framework – researcher’s idea on how the research 10. Ethical Review of related literature
problem will have to be explored; found on the theoretical  should not harm participants
framework  IACUC - Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee  to learn what others have written about a topic.

 New teaching method improves students’ academic FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM  to see what have been the results of others.

performance  an integral part of the entire rs process; makes a valuable

Research Problem contribution to almost every operational step.
4. It relates to one or more academic fields of study
 good problems typically have journals to which it can be  brings clarity and focus to the research problem
1. Relate to the states of nature (natural phenomenon)
related  improves your methodology; tells you what was used by
2. Relate to relationship between variables (change in
 no clear links to one or more fields or study are in other researchers
variables)
trouble  broadens your knowledge about your research area

 without such field becomes impossible to determine THE RESEARCH QUESTION  if others have used procedures and methods similar to

where in the universe of knowledge the problem lies yours, which procedures and methods worked well for
 Research Gap – related literature
 Early Pregnancy can connect to them and what pitfalls they have faced with them.
 Doable - attainable
Medicine, Internal Medicine, Physiology and Health  to know what other researchers have found in regard to
 Feasibility – locale
5. It has a base in the research literature the same questions and what theories have been put

 a well-stated problem will relate to a research STEPS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM forward

literature
TYPES OF SOURCES FOR LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Single out the problem that he/she wants to study
 at first difficult to establish the connections and
2. Formulate the general topic into a specific problem Primary Source - is a document or physical object
literature
3. Select what is of most interest to you
- the result of original scientific research or observation
6. Well-thought out and focused research question directly Understand The Prob – Rephrasing – Formulate Objectives
leads to your hypotheses a. Scholarly Journal Articles - An article reporting new
 Experimental Research STEPS IN WRITING A PROBLEM and original research or findings written by the original
Hypotheses are... researcher.
1. Identify the research objectives
 more specific predictions about the nature and direction of  
the relationship between 2 variables 2. Review the environment or context of the problem
 b. Original Documents - Diaries, speeches, manuscripts,  what themes and ideas to connect your sources  Isn’t focused on important features of the study
letters, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, together
 Review doesn’t relate literature to the study
official records
4. Assess your sources.
 Too few references or outdated references cited
Secondary Source - interprets and analyzes primary sources
 Is the author's perspective unbiased and objective?
 Review isn’t written in author’s own words
- one or more steps removed from the event
CONSTRUCTING YOUR PAPER
 Review reads like a series of disjointed summaries
- may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in
1. Start with a solid introduction.
them  Recent references are omitted

 intro should give a quick idea of the topic of your review,

1. TEXTBOOKS 2. JOURNAL ARTICLES 3. ENCYCLOPEDIAS
be it thematically or by organizational pattern.
Chicago Manual of Style
 covers a variety of topics from manuscript preparation
 All sources cited in the literature review should be listed 2. Organize the body. and publication of grammar, usage and documentation
in the references.
 editors’ bible
 Arrange it chronologically, by publication, by trend or
TWO WAYS TO DO A LITERATURE SEARCH regulates
thematically
 stylistics and document format
a. manually- using the traditional paper approach 3. Come to a clear conclusion.  in-text citations (notes)

b. electronically - by means of a computer.  end-of-text citations (bibliography)

 closing paragraph (wraps up your paper), reiterate what
format
FOCUS IN DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW was said in the intro, and discuss what you've drawn so
 author (surname first, by contribution)
far from your studies.
 date (month, date, year)
problem, hypothesis, procedures, findings, conclusion
4. Use evidence.  school
HOW TO WORK ON LIT. REVIEW  font size and size (12 and Times New Roman)
 combine multiple sources into your own words to make
 indention (1/2)
BEFORE WRITING an argument; use your own words backed up by the
 margin (8.5”x11” or no < 1 and > 1.5)
works of professionals.
1. Clarify your requirements.  footnotes (11 and Times New Roman)
REVISING YOUR WORK  spacing (2)
 How many sources should you include?
guidelines
1. Review the guidelines.
2. Narrow your topic.  texts should be consistently double spaced except:

2. Check for coherent flow and transitions.  block quotations, table title, figure captions
 as narrow as you possibly can while still having the
(single spaced)
amount of sources necessary 3. Proofread your work.  notes, bibliography (single spaced) however,

3. Find a focus. leave an extra line or space between

COMMON ERRORS IN LITERATURE REVIEW
 prose quotation or 5/more lines should be blocked
 Review isn’t logically organized  block quotations should not get enclosed (no “---“)
  an extra line space should immediately precede and  all major words in the title are capitalized (subtitle is separated
follow a blocked quotation by a colon)
 blocked quotations should have .5 indention  title of book chapter or article put quotation marks
 page number begin in the header of the first page of  title of book is italicized
text with Arabic number 1  half inch indention is on the first line
TITLE PAGE Reference Basis Additional
1. all caps except Scientific epithet or Chemical formula 1. Invert author’s name (SFM)
2. name + section + date (centered) 2. Use headline style capitalization for titles
MAIN BODY 3. Italicize titles of longer works
1. first page (no. 1) 4. Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works in
2. all double-spaced edited collections like essays
3. identify the sources in footnotes and bibliography 5. Publishers’ names are generally written out in full but
4. title, notes, bibliography may be abbreviated
 capitalized & headline style References: Multiple Authors
 use quotation marks or italics (book and periodical tiles 1. use “and” not “&”
italicized; article and chapter tiles double quotation marks) 2. for 2 to 3: write as is
Ibid - in the same source; used to save space in textual references 3. for 4 to 10: write all in bibliography but the first author’s
to a quoted work that has been mentioned in a previous and “et al.”
reference
REFERENCE (NOTES/BIBLIOGRAPHY STYLE)
1. used in humanities and social science
2. footnotes or endnotes to cite sources or provide relevant
commentary within the text
3. source cited within the text as an entry in the reference page at
the end of the paper
BIBLIOGRAPHY – half inch indention is on the second line

FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES

 elements of citations are separated by commas
 first name (written out); middle name (initials); last name (written
out)
 for 4 and more authors: list the first author followed by a
comma and then “et al.” (and others)
 book editors and translators are noted by abbreviations (ed. and
trs.)