Norman and Wolczuk Introduction To Linear Algebra For Science and Engineering

Norman and Wolczuk
Introduction to Linear Algebra

for Science and Engineering
Chapter 5: Determinants
Copyright 2012
c Pearson Canada Inc. 5-1
Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix (§5.1)
Definition (Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix)

a11 a12
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix A = is
a21 a22

a11 a12 a11 a12
= a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
det A = det =

a21 a22 a21 a22
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The 3 × 3 Case (§5.1)
Definition (Cofactors of a 3 × 3 Matrix)

Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix. Let A(i, j) denote the 2 × 2 submatrix obtained
from A by deleting the i-th row and j-th column.
The cofactor of aij is
Cij = (−1)(i+j) det A(i, j).
Definition (Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix)

The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix A is
det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 .
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Determinant of an n × n Matrix (§5.1)
Definition (Cofactors of an n × n Matrix)

Let A be a n × n matrix. Let A(i, j) denote the (n − 1) × (n − 1)
submatrix obtained from A by deleting the i-th row and j-th column.
The cofactor of aij is
Cij = (−1)(i+j) det A(i, j).
Definition (Determinant of an n × n Matrix)

The determinant of an n × n matrix A is
det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + · · · + a1n C1n .
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Theorem
The determinant of an n × n matrix A may be obtained by a cofactor
expansion along any row or any column.
In particular, the expansion of the determinant along the i-th row of A is
det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin .
The expansion of the determinant along the j-th column of A is
det A = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj .
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The signs in the cofactor expansion can be remembered by the matrix of

signs  
+ − + ···
− + − · · ·
.
 
+ − + · · ·
 
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
We have a + in the top-left corner and then alternate − and + both

across and down.
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Suppose A is an n × n matrix.
Theorem
If one row (or column) of A contains only zeros, then det A = 0.
Theorem
If A is an upper- or lower-triangular matrix, then the determinant of A is
the product of the diagonal entries of A. That is,
det A = a11 a22 · · · ann .
Theorem
det A = det AT
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Elementary Row Operations and
the Determinant (§5.2)
Let A and B be two n × n matrices.
Theorem
Suppose B is obtained from A by multiplying the i-th row of A by the real
number r . Then det B = r det A.
Theorem
Suppose that B is obtained from A by swapping two rows. Then
det B = − det A.
Corollary
If two rows of A are equal, then det A = 0.
Theorem
Suppose that B is obtained from A by adding r times the i-th row of A to
the k-th row. Then det B = det A.
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The Determinant (§5.2)
Theorem
If that A is an n × n matrix, then the following are equivalent:
1 det A 6= 0
2 rank(A) = n
3 A is invertible
Theorem
If A and B are n × n matrices, then det(AB) = (det A)(det B).
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Matrix Inverse by Cofactors and
Cramer’s Rule (§5.3)
False Expansion Theorem

If A is an n × n matrix and i 6= k, then
ai1 Ck1 + · · · + ain Ckn = 0.
Definition (Cofactor Matrix)

Let A be an n × n matrix. We define the cofactor matrix of A, denoted
cof A, by
(cof A)ij = Cij .
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Cramer’s Rule (§5.3)
Consider the system of n linear equations in n variables, A~x = ~b.
If det A 6= 0, so that A is invertible, then the solution may be written in

the form:
1
~x = A−1~b = (cof A)T ~b
det A
    
x1 C11 C21 · · · Cn1 b1
 ..   .. .. .. ..   .. 
.  . . . .  . 
 
 xi  = 1  C1i C2i · · ·
  
  det A  Cni   bi 
 
 ..   .. .. .. ..   .. 
.  . . . .  . 
xn C1n C2n · · · Cnn bn
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Area and the Determinant (§5.4)

u1 v
Let ~u = and ~v = 1 .
u2 v2
The area of the parallelogram induced by ~u and ~v is

det u1 v1 .

u2 v2
x2
u2 + v2
v2
v
u
O u1 u1 + v1 x1
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Area and the Determinant (§5.4)
Under a linear transformation with matrix A, the area of a figure is
changed by a factor | det A|.
x2
x2
Ae2
Ae1
x1
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The Determinant and Volume (§5.4)
~ ∈ R3 is
The volume of the parallelepiped induced by three vectors ~u , ~v , w

~ ) = det ~u ~v w
Volume(~u , ~v , w ~ .
u × v

altitude projn w

w
v
O
u base area u × v
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The Determinant and Volume (§5.4)
n vectors ~v1 , . . . , ~vn in Rn induce an n-dimensional parallelotope

(the n-dimensional version of a parallelogram or parallelepiped).
The n-volume of the parallelotope is

n-Volume(~v1 , . . . , ~vn ) = det ~v1 · · · ~vn .
If A is the standard matrix of a linear mapping L : Rn → Rn , then
n-Volume (A~v1 , . . . , A~vn ) = | det A|n-Volume (~v1 , . . . , ~vn ).
Copyright 2012

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Norman and Wolczuk

Introduction to Linear Algebra

Definition (Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix)

Definition (Cofactors of a 3 × 3 Matrix)

Cij = (−1)(i+j) det A(i, j).

Definition (Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix)

det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 .

Definition (Cofactors of an n × n Matrix)

Cij = (−1)(i+j) det A(i, j).

Definition (Determinant of an n × n Matrix)

det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + · · · + a1n C1n .

det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin .

The expansion of the determinant along the j-th column of A is

det A = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj .

The signs in the cofactor expansion can be remembered by the matrix of

We have a + in the top-left corner and then alternate − and + both

det A = a11 a22 · · · ann .

False Expansion Theorem

ai1 Ck1 + · · · + ain Ckn = 0.

Definition (Cofactor Matrix)

Consider the system of n linear equations in n variables, A~x = ~b.

If det A 6= 0, so that A is invertible, then the solution may be written in

The area of the parallelogram induced by ~u and ~v is

n vectors ~v1 , . . . , ~vn in Rn induce an n-dimensional parallelotope

The n-volume of the parallelotope is

If A is the standard matrix of a linear mapping L : Rn → Rn , then

n-Volume (A~v1 , . . . , A~vn ) = | det A|n-Volume (~v1 , . . . , ~vn ).

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